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THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNIC A
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition, published in three volumes,
1768—1771.
SECOND
» » ten „
1777— 1784.
THIRD
„ „ eighteen
n
1788— 1797.
FOURTH
„ „ twenty ,
9
1801 — 1810.
FIFTH
„ „ twenty
9
1815— 1817.
SIXTH
„ „ twenty
9
1823— 1824.
SEVENTH
,, ,, twenty-one ,
9
1830— 1842.
EIGHTH
„ „ twenty-two
tl
1853— 1860.
NINTH
„ „ twenty-five ,
»
1875— 1889.
TENTH
„ ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes,
1902— 1903.
ELEVENTH
„ published in twenty-nine volume
w,
1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLAR!
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
• 'f
VOLUME V , ,
CALHOUN to CHATELAINE /^,^~
; "^«
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910
AE
5
.E36
)910b
099895
Copyright, in the United States, of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME V. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. BO.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. f Cmmmi Law fi~u~*l-
Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of i JTJJI . i/CTI€ro *>
Paris. Editor of the Canonist* Contemporain. I CanUliaL
A. C. S. Algernon Cham.es Swinburne. -f r*««m«» a+*~~ c- *„.j\
See the biographical article, Swinburne, Algernon Charles. \ uiapman George {tn pari).
A. E. H. A. £. Houghton. fcamaeho; Ganovas del Castillo;
Formerly Correspondent of The Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the i i % mm A mMmm _, DtlM n
Bourbons tn Spain. [ Caslelai y RIpoD.
A. E. S. Arthur Everett Shipley, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S.
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader
in Zoology. Formerly University Lecturer on the Advanced Morphology of the
Jnvertebrata. Author of Zoology of the Invertebrata. Editor of the Pitt Press
Natural Science Manuals, &c.
A. Go.*
A. H. J. 0.
A. H. S.
A. J. 0.
A.L.
A. Lo.
A.M.C.
A.M. CL
A.M.
A. P. C.
A. P. H.
Chaetognatha;
Chaetosomatita.
Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. -T «•«*««»
Lecturer in Church History at the University of Manchester. \ uamnx*.
Abel Hendy Tones Greenidge, D.Litt. (Oxon.), (d. 1905).
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Constitutional -\ Censor: Ancient.
History; Roman Public Life, History of Rome. Joint-author of Sources of Roman
History, 133-70 B.c.
Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, D.Litt., LL.D. /«.«••
See the biographical article, Sayce, A. H. \ uana.
Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., 6.D. f
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J Catechism;
Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore] QAjvin (in tart)
Educational Service. I v *^ '"
Andrew Lang. -T Casket Letters,
See the biographical article, Lang, Andrew. I V * MM " *•»»■»■.
AUGUSTE LONGNON.
Professor at the College de France. Director of the Ecole des hautes etudes.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Livre *{ Champagne*
des vassaux du Comtede Champagne et de Brie; Geographic de la Gaule au VI Steele;
Atlas historique de la France depuis Cisar jusqu'd nos jours; &c.
Agnes Mary Clerke. S cm^**
See the biographical article, Clerks, A. M. \ t "™ 1,
Agnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Wilde). f
. Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources of< CentumvirL
Roman History, 133-70 B.C. t
Alfred Newton, F.R.S. f Canary;
See the biographical article, Newton, Alfred. \ 4
. Capercally.
Arthur Philemon Coleman, F.R.S. r
Professor of Geology, University of Toronto. "\ Canada: Geography,
Alfred Peter Htllier, M.D., M.P. r
Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War,
1 878-1 870. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -
1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at
Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 191 o.
A. SI. Xrthur Shadwell, M.A., M.D. 2 LL.D., F.R.C.P. f
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- "{ (
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. I
Cape Colony: § History (in
part).
Caneer.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
VI
a. s. a
A. V. De P.
A. Wa.
A. W. H. *
A.Z.
B.BL
B. Ra.
C. P. A.
C. P. C.
C. J. J.
C.L.
C.H.
C« R. B.
C.S.L.
D. E. J.
D. P. T.
D. O.H.
D. H.
D. U. T.
D. Hn.
E. At.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Alan Summerly Cole, C.B.
Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, i 900-1908. Took part in organiza -
tion of the Textile Manufacturers' Section, St Louis Exhibition, 1904. Author of -
Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace; Embroidery and Lace; Ornament in European
Silks; &c.
A. van de Put.
Assistant, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Author of Hispano-
Moresque Ware of the XV. Century; The Aragonese Double-Crown and the Borja or "
Borgia Device.
Arthur Waugh, M.A.
Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary adviser ^
to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson ; Legends of the Wheel; Robert "
Browning in " Westminster Biographies/' Editor of Johnson's Lives of the Poets.
Carpet
Ceramics: \Hispano-Moresque.
Arthur William Holland.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.
1900.
Alice Zimmern.
Author of Methods of Education in the United States; The Renaissance of Girls'
Education in England; Women's Suffrage in Many Lands; &c.
Calverley, C. S.
Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, \ Charlemagne.
Carpenter, nary.
Bertram Blount, F.C.S., F.I.C.
Consulting Chemist to the Crown Agents for the Colonies. Hon. President, Cement
Section of International Association for Testing Materials, Buda-Pesth. Author of '
Practical Electro- Chemistry.
Bernard Rackham, M.A.
Assistant, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.
Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal -
Fusiliers). Author 67 The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
C. F. Cross.. B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S., F.I.C.
Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Inventor of Cellulose.
Cbajuxs Jasper Joly, F.R.S.. F.R.A.S. (1864-1906)-
Royal Astronomer of Ireland and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the University
of Dublin, 1 897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Secretary of the Royal '
Irish Academy.
H. Caldwell Lipsett.
Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India.
Curzon %n India; &c.
Cement.
f Ceramics: § German, Dutch
\ and Scandinavian.
Castle {in part).
Cellulose.
Camera Lucida;
Camera Obseura {in part).
Author of Lord J Ceylon (in part).
Christian Pkster, D-es-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of
Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford. University Lecturer in the Histpry of Geography. Author
of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
Charles Stewart Loch, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (St Andrews).
Secretary to the Council of the London Charity Organization Society since 1875.
Member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws. Dunkin Trust Lecturer,
Manchester College, Oxford, 1896 and 1902. Vice-President, Royal Statistical
Society, 1 894-1 895-1 897-1901. Author of Charity Organization; Old Age Pensions
n; Mt "
Capitulary; Carollngians;
Charlbart; Charles MarteL
(Cam, DIogo;
Carpini (in part);
Chang Chun.
Charity and Charities.
and Pauperism; Methods of Social Advance; &c.
Author of Life of Lewis Charles
Rev. D. E. Jenkins.
Calvinistic Methodist Minister, Denbigh.
Edwards of Bala.
Donald Francis Tovey.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works.
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Keeper of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Excavated at Paphos, 1888 ; Naucratis, 1 899 and 1903 ;
Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens,
1 897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
David Hannay.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c.
Daniel Lleufer Thomas.
Barrister at law, Lincoln's I nn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and Rhondda.
Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive
Congregational Ideals; &c.
Edward Armstrong, M.A.
Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow, Bursar and Lecturer in Modern History,
Queen's College, Oxford. Warden of Bradficld College. Lecturer to the University
' in Foreign History, 1 902-1 904. Author of The Emperor Charles V. ; Elisabeth
Farnese; Lorenzo de Medici; The French Wars of Religion; &c.
J Calvinistic Methodists;
1 Charles, Thomas.
{
Cantata.
Cappadoeia (in pari).
Author of Short History of the Royal
Camjal, Lutoa de;
Chtteau-Renault.
Cardiff.
Campbell, John MeLeod;
Chalmers, Thomas (in part).
Charles V., Emperor.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vu
E.A.J.
E.B.*
E.C.
E. C. B.
E. C. Q.
E.G.
E. Gr.
E* H* B*
E. H. G.
E. H; M«
E« L« W»
Ed. M.
E.O.*
E. Pr.
E.V.
P. C. C.
F. J. H.
F. LI. 0.
Jr« N« ffl*
Alfred Jones.
Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Siher
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England; Illustrated Catalogue! Cellini, Benvenuto (in fiart).
of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of The Royal ^^ »«"*wiuiu \m y^h
Plate at Windsor Castle; &c.
Carthage: Ancient.
{
Ernest Charles Francois Babelon.
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and
Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academic des Inscrip-
tions de Belles Lettces, Pans. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of
pescriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la RSpublique Romaine ; Traitts des Monnaies
Grecques et Romaines; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale.
Edward Caird, D.C.L., D.Litt.
See the biographical article, Caird, Edward.
Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., M.A., D.Litt. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of M The Lausiac History of Palladius," -*
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi.
Edmund. Crosby Quiggin, M.A.
Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History and Monro Lecturer in Celtic at Gon-
ville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Edmund GoSse, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Gosse, E. W.
Ernest Arthur Gardner.
See the biographical article, Gardner, Percy.
Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A.. F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f
M.P. for Bury-St-Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of a History of Ancient Geography, < Cappadocia (in part).
&c. I
Cartesianism.
Camaldulians;
Canon: Church Dignitary;
Capuchins; Carmelites;
Carthusians; Celestines.
Celt: Languages and Literature.
Canzone; Carew, Thomae;
Cavendish, George; Chansons
de Geste; Chant Royal.
'Calydon; Ceos.
. Cephalonia.
H. Godfrey.
Editor, Census and Statistics Office, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.
I Canada: § Agriculture.
Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. f
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian i Carpi: Ancient Tribes.
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. I
Sir Edward Leader Williams
Vice-President, Institute of Civil
(d. 1909). r
_ F „ Jivil Engineers. Consulting Engineer, Manchester J /^-.i
.Ship CanaL Chief Engineer of the Manchester Ship Canal during its construction. | l ^ nw *
Author of papers printed in Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers. I
Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.) ? LL.D. (Chicago). f
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des \ Cambyses.
Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die IsraeHten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. . I
Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Ex- -\ Carbuncle.
aminer in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author
of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Edgar Prestage.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex-
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commendador
Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy
of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Author of Letters of a Portuguese
Nun; Aturara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c.
Rev. Ethelred Leonard Taunton (d. ii
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England;
&c.
I907)-
\ Bened
Rev. Edmund Venables, M.A., D.D. (1810-1895).
Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.
Camoens;
Castello Braneo;
Castilho.
Campeggio;
Campion, Edmund;
Cano, Melchior;
Cassander, George;
. Castellesi.
Catacomb {in part).
Cathars.
Celtiberia;
Cassiterides.
Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen). r
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. J
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals \
(1909); &c, L
Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D. (Aberdeen), F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford University. Fellow of Brasenose
College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the German Imperial
Archaeological Institute. Formerly Senior Censor, Student, Tutor and Librari?n -
of Christ. Church, Oxford. Ford s Lecturer, 1906. Author of Monographs on
Roman History, &c.
Francis Llewelyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. r
. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Canonus.
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 *'* I1U * UB#
German Archaeological Institute. [
Col. Freoerxc Natusch Maude, C.B.
Lecturer in Military History at Manchester University. Author of War and the
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign.
{
Cavalry.
Vlll
F.
Px.
f. b. a
Jr. W« JK.
0.
A. B.
0.
0. Co.
0.
H.C.
0.
M.W.
0.
R. P.
0.
W.T.
H.
H.
A. B. 5.
B. Wa.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H.
Ch.
H.
De.
H.
F.6.
H* L. C*
H.
M.V.
H.
P.B.
H.
R. H.
H. Sy.
H. T. A.
H. mf« K.
H. W. S.
H.Y.
J. A. B.
Frank Puaux.
President of the Societe" de l'Histoire du Protestantisme francais. Author of Les
pHcurseurs francais de la Tolerance; Histoire de ritablissement des Protestants francais
en Suede ; L'&gHse riformie de France; &c.
Frank R. Cana.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1870- 1902.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1 887-1 889.
George A. Boulenger, F.R.S., D.Sc., Ph.D. (Giessen).
Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensing-
ton. Vice-President of the Zoological Society.
George Gordon Coulton, M.A.
Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author
of Medieval Studies; Chaucer and his England; From St Francis to Dante; &c.
G. H. Carpenter, B.Sc.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
their Structure and Life.
{
Author of Insects: S Chafer.
{
{
Camisards;
Cavalier, Jean.
Cameroon;
Cape Colony.
Carbonado; Canlterlte;
Cat's Eye; Gekstfne;
Chalcedony.
Carp;
Cat-Fish.
Celibacy.
George McKinnon Wrong, M.A., F.R.S. (Canada).
Professor of History at Toronto University. Author of A Canadian Manor and its *
Seigneurs; The British Nation; a History; &e.
George Robert Parkin, LL.D., C.M.G. m
See the biographical article, Parkin, G. R.
Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
Henry A. M. Smith.
Henry Beauchamp Walters, M.A., F.S.A.
Assistant to Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Author of
The Art of the Greeks; History of Ancient Pottery; Catalogue of the Greek and
Etruscan Vases in the British Museum, vol. ii. ; Catalogue of Brontes, Greek, Roman
and Etruscan; &c.
Hugh Chisholm, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 1 ith edition
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; co-editor of the 1 oth edition.
Hippolyte Delehaye, S J.
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications lAnalecta Bollandiana
and Acta Sanctorum.
Hans Friedrich Gadow. F.R.S., Ph.D.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles.
Hugh Longbourne Callendar, F.R.S., LL.D. (McGill Univ.).
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London.
Herbert M. Vaughan, F.S.A.
Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts ; The Medici Popes ;
The Last Stuart Queen.
H. P. BlGGAR.
Author of The Voyages of the Cabotsto Greenland.
Henry R. H. Hall, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum.
Henry Symons. .
Assistant in the British Museum. Formerly Lecturer in Greek and Roman History
at Bedford College, London.
Rev. Herbert Thomas Andrews.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of The Com-
mentary on Acts in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the Apocryphal
Books in the Century Bible.
Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, M.A.
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar,
Oxford, 1901. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology
(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c.
H. Wickham Steed. '
Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome,
1897-1902.
Colonel Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I.
See the biographical article, Yule, Sir H.
Sir Jervoise Athelstane Baines, C.S.I.
President, Royal Statistical Society, 1909-1910. Census Commissioner under the
Government of India, 1889-1893. Employed at India Office as Secretary to Royal
Commission on Opium, 1894-1895. Author of Official Reports on Provincial
Administration on Indian Census Operations; &c.
Canada: History to Federation.
Canada:
tion.
History from Federa-
Carmathians.
Calhoun, John C.
Ceramics: Greek f Etruscan and
Roman.
Campbell Bannennan, Sir H.;
Canon: Music;
Chamberlain, J.
Canonization.
Chameleon.
Calibration;
Calorimetry.
Charles Edward.
Cartter, Jacques.
Ceramics: Egypt and Western
Asia.
Chambord, Comte de.
Catechumen.
Canticles (in part).
CavaUotti.
Carpinl (in part).
Census.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
J. A. H.
J* A. M N.
J. Bt
J. C. M.
J. D. Pr.
J. F. D.
J. F.-K.
J. H. F.
J. H. R.
J. HI. R.
J. MIX
J. P.-B.
J. P. E.
J. R. C.
J.8.F.
J. T. Be.
J. T. C.
J.Wa.
J. W. D.
J. W. He.
John Allen Howe, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
J. A. M'Naught.
Member of the Jury for Carriage Building, Paris Exposition, 1900.
J. Bartlett.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's M
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of
Junior Engineers.
James Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
See biographical article: Maxwell, James Clerk.
John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D. f
Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York. Took part in J fflmUUfn
the Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-1889. Authorof A Critical Commentary | v "*~** #
on the Book of Daniel. I
Sir J. Frederick Dickson, K.C.M.G.
Reorganized the North- West Province of Ceylon.
Upasampada-Kammavaca and the Patimokha.
James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S.
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman MacColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy.
Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Author of A History
of Spanish Literature ; &c.
John Henry Freese, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and
Pedigree.
John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D. r
Lecturer on Modern Historyto the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J Cambaetos.
OaUovlan; Cambrian System;
Caradoe Series;
.Carboniferous System; €haUu
Crrtog..
Carpentry.
Capillary Aetton (in pari).
Editor and translator of the "f Ceylon (in part).
{<
Campoamor y Campoosorlo;
Castillo Solorsane;
Celestina, La;
Cervantes*
Calpurnius, Titos.
Castle (in part).
Castle Guard.
Author of Life of Nat
Nations; The Life of <
oleonl.; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of the European
Htt; chapters in the Cambridge Modern History.
James Macdonald, M.A., LL.D. r
Vice-President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1 895-1 897. RhindJ
Lecturer on Archaeology, 1897. Author of Tituli Hunteriani: an Account of the \
Roman Stones in the Hunterian Museum. [
James George Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst.
Editor of the Guardian (London).
Jean Paul Htpfolyte Emmanuel Adh£mar Esmein.
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
{
Member of the Institute of France.
francads; &c.
Author of Cours Utonentaire d'kistoire du droit \
Chalmers, George.
Chair.
Chatelet
Joseph Rogerson Cotter, M.A. C
Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, \
Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. [
John Smith Flett, D.Sc„ F.G.S. r
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in
Edinburgh University. NeillMedallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby *
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
Caloieseenee.
CharnoeUte.
John T. Bealby.
Joint authorof Stanford's Europe, . - „ _
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and
Formerly editor of the Scottish Geographical
Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer on Zoology at the South- Western Polvtechnic, London. Formerly
Assistant Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist -
to the Marine Biological Association, and Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Author of numerous papers in scientific journals.
Major-General James Waterhouse.
Indian Staff Corps. Vice-President of the Royal Photographic Society. Assistant
Surveyor-General in charge of Photographic Operations in the Surveyor-General's
Office, Calcutta, 1 866-1 897. Took part in the observation of total eclipses, -
1 87 1 and 1875, and of transit of Venus, 1874. President of the Astatic Society of
Bengal, 1 888-1 890. Author of The Preparation of Drawings for Photographic
Reproduction; &c.
Captain J. Whitly Dixon^R.N.
Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal.
James Wyclipfe Headlam, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History "
at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and thei Foundation of the German
Empire ; &c.
r Caspian Sea (in part);
**"»* c ' I Caucasus (in part).
Cephalopoda.
Camera Obeenra: History.
I Capstan.
Caprivi.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
L* D.* Monseignetjr Louis Marie Olivier Duchesne. f ^ H . „ ¥ „ . *, «
See the biographical article: Duchesne, L. M. O. \ W**™* *•» Celestino L
L. J. B. Lawrence J. Burpee. f canadA* Tu**nu t *. j?~*u*l
Author of The Search for the Western Sea. Joint author (with Henry J. Morgan) of \ ^TJ ^ uer<uu ^ e f Mgltsttr
Canadian Life in Town and Country. I ^anadum.
L. J. S. Leonard James Spencer, M.A,
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar ,
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera-
logical Magazine.
L. S. Sir Leslie Stephen,
O.Br.
Cenrgyrite;
Cerussite;
Chabazite;
Chalybite.
l Leslie Stephen, K.C.B., Litt.D. -TcuriwiA
See the biographical article: Stephen, Sir Leslie. \ utfiyie.
L. V.* Luigi Villaei.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in .
east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907
and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-19 10. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c.
Cantu; Cappello;
Capponi, G. and P.;
Caraeeiolo; Carbonari;
Carmagnola;
Carrara; Oavons.
M. Br. Margaret Bryant. / Chapman, George (part);
I Charlemagne: Legends.
M. G. Moses G aster, Ph.D. (Leipzig). r
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1890, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine - Cantacuzino;
Literature, 1 886 and 1 89 1 . President, Folklore Society of England. Vice-President Cantemir.
Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. k
M. H. S. Marion H. Spielmann, F.S.A. r
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter-
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco- J Caricature;
British Exhibition , London. Author of History of * l Punch 9 ' ; British Portrait Painting 1 Cartoon
to the Opening of the 19th Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture
and Sculptors of To-day ; Henriette Ronner; &c.
M. J. de G. Michael Jan de Goeje. J
See the biographical article: Goeje, Michael Jan de. \ Caliphate.
M. P. Rev. Mark Pattison. C
See the biographical article: Pattison, Mark. ^ Casaubon, Isaac.
H. E. D. Narcisse Eutrope Dionne, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada).
Librarian of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. Chief Editor of Le Courtier
du Canada, 1880- 1884. Chief Inspector of Federal Licences, 1 884-1 886. Chief
Editor of Le Journal de Quebec, 1 886. Author of Life of Samuel Champlain, Founder "
of Quebec; Life of Jacques Cartier, discoverer of Canada; La Nouvetie France, 1540-
1603; Quebec et Nouvetie France; &c.
H. W. T. Northcote Whitbridge Thomas, M.A. r
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J
Societe" d 1 Anthropologic de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and] Cannibalism.
Marriage in Australia; &c. [
0. Ba. Oswald Barron, F.S.A.
Champlain, Samuel de.
ffALD Barron, F.S.A. f r n
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905, \ % *™ L
Oscar Briliant. j Carpathian Mountains (**;<**).
0. M. D. Ormonde Maddock Dalton, M.A., F.S.A. r
Assistant Keeper, Department of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum, j
Corresponding Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. Author of 1 Catacomb (in part).
Guide to the Early Christian and Byzantine Antiquities; &c. [
P. A. Paul Daniel Alphandery. r
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J _
Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les hiterodoxes latines au dtbut du XI IP 1 CapiStrano.
siede. [
P. A. K. Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkjn. f Caanlan Sea (in torts*
See the biographical article: Kropotkin, P. A. { S^% ( J^'
P. C. Y. Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A. r c^erine of Aragon;
Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Char|es , . chj|pleg „
hlep Lake, M.A., F.G.S. r
lecturer on f Physical and Rcponal Geoem^ Formerly J Carpathian Mountains Unpart);
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 n«„V..„.. r± ;™.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. { Caucasus. Geology.
P. Vn. Percival Sylvanus Vivian. f r<1MllfclAti «*,_«.
Author of Poems of Marriage. Editor of the Poetical Works of Thomas Campion. \ Campion, Tflomas.
P. A. M. Percy Alexander Macmahon, F.R.S., D.Sc. r
Late Major R.A. Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint- J Cavlev
General Secretary of the British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, 1 * y '
Ordnance College, and President of London Mathematical Society t
P. La* Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S.
1
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
R.A.*
R. Ad.
H. A. 0. U«
R. G.
R. I. P/
R.K.P.
R.L.*
R.L.H.
R. H. B.
R. Po.
R.P.S.
R. S. C*
R.W.
R. We.
STC.
S.D.
T. As.
T.A.H.
T. Ba.
T. F. C.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh.
See the biographical article: Rayleigh, 3rd Baron.
Robert Anchel.
Archivist to the Department de l'Eure.
Robert Adamson.
See the biographical article: Adamson, R.
Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.
Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund.
Richard Garnett.
See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard.
R. I. Pocock, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
Capillary Action (in part).
Cambon, Pierre Joseph;
Cathelineau.
\ Category {in part).
S Capernaum;
I CarmeL
I Cardan.
\ Centipede.
Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas. f
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum, and J Canton.
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and LUera- J
ture of China; &c. L
Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Camel; Capuchin Monkey;
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Carnivora; Cat; Cavy;
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of ru* 0A<k0 . r»h«t««i«
aU Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. I Cetaeea, CnamolS.
Robert Lockhart Hobson.
Assistant in the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum.
Author of Porcelain: Oriental, Continental and British; Marks on Pottery and*
Porcelain (with W. Burton); and Catalogue and Guide of English Pottery and
Porcelain in British Museum.
Robert Nisbet Bain (d. ioco).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1000; The First Romanovs, «
1613-1725; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from
1469 to 1796; &c.
Ren£ Potjpardin, D. is L.
Secretary of the fecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque H
Nationale, Paris, Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c.
R. Phen* Spiers. F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Master of tne Architectural School and Surveyor, Royal Academy, London.
Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's -
College, London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Edited
Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture East and West ; &c.
Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin m
in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. "
Author of The Italic Dialects.
Robert Wallace, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S.
Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton
Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., a
Cirencester, 1 882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; Indian Agri- '
culture; The Agriculture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming
Industries of Cape Colony; 8cc.
Richard Webster, A.M.
Editor of Elegies of Maximianus.
Viscount St Cyres.
See the biographical article: Iddesleigh, ist Earl op.
Samuel Davidson, D.D.
See the biographical article: Davidson, Samuel.
Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt., F.S.A.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ •
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna ; 8cc
Captain Thomas A. Hull, R.N.
Formerly Superintendent of Admiralty Charts.
Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems '
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 19 10.
Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A.
Ceramics: Medieval and Later
Italian; Persian, Syrian,
Egyptian and Turkish.
Canute; Canute VI.;
Caslmir III.; Casimir IV.;
Catherine I.;
Charles L (Hungary);
Charles DC., X., XL, XII.
(Sweden).
Charles XIII., XIV., XV.
(Sweden and Norway).
Charles the Bold.
Campanile; Capital; Arch;
Cathedral: Arch;
Celling.
Campania (in part).
Cattle (in part).
Channing, William E.
Casuistry.
Canon: Scriptures.
Campania (in part);
Canosa; Canusium; Capena;
Capri; Capua; Carales;
Carsioli; Casiiinum; Casinum;
Cassia* Via; Catania;
Caudine Forks; Cefalu;
Centuripe; Cesena.
Chart.
Capture.
/Carthage, Synods of;
\ Chalcedon, Council of
Xll
T.K.C.
T.M.F.
T. W. P.
W. A* B. Ci
W.A.P.
W.B.*
W. B. D.
W. B.D11.
W. F. C.
W. F. W.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne. D.Litt., D.D. f „
See the biographical article: Cheyne, T. K. \ Canaan, Canaanites.
Thomas Macall Fallow, M.A., F.S.A. f
Formerly editor of The Antiquary, 1 895-1 899. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire ; < Cathedral.
The Cathedral Churches of Ireland. [
Thomas William Fox. f
Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of 1 Carding.
Weaving. [
Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Cannes'
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I rii««%A«iir.
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature i vnamonix,
and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. [ Chartreuse, La Grande.
Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. f Canon: Church Dignitary;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, -\ Capo d'lfttria;
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. L Carlsbad Decrees; Chasuble.
William Burton, Hon. M.A. (Vict.), F.G.S. f
Chairman, Joint-Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Examiner J
for Board of Education in Pottery Design and for Technological Examinations in ] Ceramics (in part).
Pottery Manufacture. Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; Porcelain ; &c. I
William Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., D.Sc. f _
See the biographical article: Dawkins, William Boyd. ^ cave -
William Bartlett Dufeield, M.A. f
Barrister at Law, Inner Temple. Secretary to the Royal Commission on Canals, < Chartered Companies. '
1906-1910.
>en Crates, M.A. f
Capital Punishment
William Feilden Crates, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College,
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition).
Walter Francis Willcox, LL.B., Ph.D.
Dean of, and Professor of Political Economy and Statistics at. Cornell University.
Formerly Chief Statistician and now Special Agent of the U.S. Census Bureau. „
Author of The Divorce Problem — a Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United
States; &c.
Census: U.S.A.
W. Pr. William Fream
liam Fream (d. 1907), LL.D., F.G.S., F.L.S.. F.S.S. r
Author of Handbook of Agriculture. Formerly Agricultural Correspondent of The -I Cattle (in part).
Times. [
W. 0. * Walcot Gibson, D.Sc, F.G.S. r
Geologist on H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-bearing Rocks of the i Cape Colony: Geology.
S. Transvaal ; Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coal Mining ; &c. [
W. G. F. P. Sir Walter George Frank Phillimore, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D. r
Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association, J fl* nAn 1 - w . j •.»/,>/,«.
1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd ed. of Phillimore 1 s Ecclesi- 1 ** non ** W " *"&***-
astical Law; 3rd ed. of vol. iv. of Phillimore' s International Law; &c. I
W. G. M. Walter G. M'Millan, F.C.S., M.I.M.M. (d. 1004). f
Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. Lecturer on Metallurgy, \ Carborundum.
Mason College, Birmingham. Author of A Treatise on Electro* Metallurgy. {
W. Ha. Rev. William Hanna, LL.D., D.D. (1802-1882). r
Minister of St John's Free Church, Edinburgh, 1 850-1866. Author of Life of Dr i Chalmers, Thomas (in p0ft)»
Chalmers ; Wyctiffe and the Huguenots ; Martyrs of the Scottish Reformation. [
W. J. G. William John Gruefydd, M.A. r
Lecturer in Celtic, University College, Cardiff. Examiner in Welsh to the Central I
Welsh Board for Intermediate Education. Author of Caneuon a Cherddi: An 1 Celt: Literature, Welsh.
Anthology of Medieval Welsh Poetry. {
W. L.* Walter Lehmann, M.D.
Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Conducted
Exploring Expedition in Mexico and Central America, 1 907-1909. Author of many
publications on Mexican and Central American Archaeology.
W. L. A. Rev. William Lindsay Alexander, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (1808-1884).'
Classical Tutor, Lancashire Independent College. Pastor of Independent Chapel,
N. College Street, Edinburgh. One of the Old Testament Revisers. Author of
A Moral Philosophy.
W. L. G. William Lawson Grant, M.A. r
Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in I Canada: Statistics;
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 Cartier, Sir Georges Etienne.
series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). [
W. M. R. William Michael Rossetti. fCanova; Caraeei; Cartoon;
See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. i Cellini, Benevenuto (in pdrt);
W. RL William Ridgeway, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D. (Aberdeen), D.Litt. .
Fellow of the British Academy. Disney Professor of Archaeology at Cambridge
University. Professor of Greek, Queen's College, Cork, 1 8811. Ex- President of
Cambridge Philological, Antiquarian and Classical Societies. Author of The Oldest < Celt.
Irish Epic; Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards; The Early Age of
Greece; &c.
Central America: Archaeology.
Calvin (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
W.H.B.
W.R.S.
W. Wo.
W. W. R.*
W.T.S.
Rt. Rev. William Robert Brownlow. M.A., D.D. (d. 1901).
Roman Catholic Bishop of Clifton. Provost and Domestic Prelate to Pope Leo
XIII. Co-editor of English Rama SoUerranea. Author of Early Christian SymboUA
ism; Lectures an Sacerdotalism, on the Catacombs and other Archaeological Subjects.
Translator of Cur Deus Homo and Vitis mystica.
William Robertson Smith.
See the biographical article : Smith, William Robertson.
William Wood, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Canada). f
Lieut.-Col., Canadian Militia. Formerly President of the English Section of the J Canada: Literature, French-
Catacomb (in part).
^Canticles (in part).
Royal Society of Canada and of the Historic Landmarks Association.
The Fight Jar Canada; The Logs of the Conquest of Canada, &c.
William Walker Rockwell, D.Ph.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
William Young Sellar.
See the biographical article: Sellar, William Young.
Author of ] Canadian.
{celestine III. and V.
jcatullus (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
California.
Cambodia.
Cambridge, Barb and Dukes
of.
Cambridge, England.
Cambridgeshire.
Campbell, Thomas.
Canary Islands.
Canning, George.
Canterbury.
Cape Town.
Cape Verde Islands.
Capital (Economics).
Capitulations.
Carbolie Acid.
Carbon.
Cardiganshire.
Cards, Playing.
Carducci, Glosue.
Carinthia.
Carlisle, Bark of .
Carlisle.
Carlos.
Carlsbad.
Garlstadt.
Carmarthenshire.
Carnarvonshire.
Carnegie, Andrew.
Carnot.
Carol.
Caroline Islands.
Carrier.
Cartagena.
Cassel.
Cassiodorus.
Caste.
Catherine, Saint
Catherine II.
Catherine de' Medici.
Catiline.
Cato.
Causation.
Cavalgnae, Louis Eugtae.
Cavan.
Cavendish, Henry.
Caxton, William.
Cedar.
Celebes.
Cetous.
Cemetery.
Chambers, Robert.
Chancellor.
Chancery.
Channel Islands.
Chantrey, Sir Francis.
Charles V„ VI., VII. of
France.
Charles, Archduke of Austria.
Charles Albert, king of Sar-
Charles Augustus.
Chartism.
Chateaubriand.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME V
CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-1850), American states-
man and parliamentarian, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent,
in Abbeville District, South Carolina, on the 18th of March 1782.
His father, Patrick Calhoun, is said to have been born in Donegal,
in North Ireland, but to have left Ireland when a mere child.
The family seems to have emigrated first to Pennsylvania,
whence they removed, after Braddock's defeat, to Western
Virginia. From Virginia they removed in 1756 to South Caro-
lina and settled on Long Cane Creek, in Granville (now Abbeville)
county. Patrick Calhoun attained some prominence in the
colony, serving in the colonial legislature, and afterwards in the
state legislature, and taking part in the War of Independence.
In 1770 he had married Martha Caldwell, the daughter of
another Scottish-Irish settler.
The opportunities for obtaining a liberal education in the
remote districts of South Carolina at that time were scanty.
Fortunately, young Calhoun had the opportunity, although late,
of studying under his brother-in-law, the Rev* Moses Waddell
(1770-1840), a Presbyterian minister, who afterwards, from
181 9 to 1829, was president of the University of Georgia. In
1802 Calhoun entered the junior class in Yale College, and
graduated with distinction in 1804. He then studied first at
the famous law school in Litchfield, Conn., and afterwards in a
law office in Charleston, S.C., and in 1807 was admitted to the
bar. He began practice in his native Abbeville district, and
soon took a leading place in his profession. In 1808 and 1809
he was a member of the South Carolina legislature, and from
181 1 to 181 7 was a member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives.
When he entered the latter body the strained relations
between Great Britain and the United States formed the most
important question for the deliberation of Congress. Henry
Clay, the speaker of the house, being eager for war and knowing
Calhoun's hostility to Great Britain, gave him the second place
on the committee of foreign affairs, of which he soon became
the actual head. In less than three weeks the committee
reported resolutions, evidently written by Calhoun, recommend-
ing preparations for a struggle with Great Britain; and in the
following June Calhoun submitted a second report urging a
formal declaration of war. Both sets of resolutions the House
adopted. Clay and Calhoun did more, probably, than any other
two men in Congress to force the reluctant president into
beginning hostilities.
In 1 8 16 Calhoun delivered in favour of a protective tariff a
speech that was ever held up by his opponents as evidence
of his inconsistency in the tariff controversy. The embargo and
the war had crippled American commerce, but had stimulated
manufactures. With the end of the Napoleonic wars in Europe
the industries of the old world revived, and Americans began to
feel their competition. In the consequent distress in the new
industrial centres there arose a cry for protection. Calhoun,
believing that there was a natural tendency in the United States
towards the development of manufactures, supported the Tariff
Bill of 18 16, which laid on certain foreign commodities duties
higher than were necessary for the purposes of revenue. He
believed that the South would share in the general industrial
development, not having perceived as yet that slavery was An
insuperable obstacle. His opposition to protection in later years
resulted from an honest change of convictions. He always
denied that in supporting this bill he had been inconsistent,
and insisted that it was one for revenue.
From 1817 to 1825 Calhoun was secretary of war under
President Monroe. To him is due the fostering and the reforma-
tion of the National Military Academy at West Point, which he
found in disorder, but left in a most efficient state. Calhoun was
vice-president of the United States from 1825 to 1832, during
the administration of John Quincy Adams, and during most of
the first administration of Andrew Jackson. This period was
for Calhoun a time of reflection. His faith in a strong national-
istic policy was gradually undermined, and he finally became
the foremost champion of particularism and the recognized
leader of what is generally known as the " States Rights " or
" Strict Construction " party.
In 1824 there was a very large increase in protective duties.
In 1828 a still higher tariff act, the so-called " Bill of Abomina-
tions," was passed, avowedly for the purpose of protection.
The passage of these acts caused great discontent, especially
among the Southern states, which were strictly agricultural.
They felt that the great burden of this increased tariff fell on
them, as they consumed, but did not produce, manufactured
articles. Under such conditions the Southern states questioned
the constitutionality of the imposition. Calhoun himself now
perceived that the North and the South represented diverse
tendencies. The North was outstripping the South in population
and wealth, and already by the tariff acts was, as he believed,
selfishly levying taxes for its sole benefit. The minority must,
he insisted, be protected from " the tyranny of the majority."
In his first important political essay, " The South Carolina
Exposition," prepared by him in the summer of 1828, he showed
how this should be done. To him it was clear that the Federal
Constitution was a limited instrument, by which the sovereign
states had delegated to the Federal government certain general
powers. The states could not, without violating the constitu-
tional compact, interfere with the activities of the Federal
government so long as the government confined itself to its
proper sphere; but the attempt of Congress, or any other
v. 1
CALHOUN
department of the Federal government, to exercise any power
which might alter the nature of the instrument would be an act
of usurpation. The right of judging such an infraction belonged
to the state, being an attribute of sovereignty of which the state
could not be deprived without being reduced to a wholly sub-
ordinate condition. As a remedy for such a breach of compact
the state might resort to nullification (q.v.), or, as a last resort,
to secession from the Union. Such doctrines were not original
with Calhoun, but had been held in various parts of the Union
from time to time. It remained for him, however, to submit
them to a rigid analysis and reduce them to a logical form.
Meantime the friendship between Calhoun and Jackson had
come to an end. While a member of President Monroe's cabinet,
Calhoun had favoured the reprimanding of General Jackson (q.v.)
for his high-handed course in Florida in 1818, during the first
Seminole War. In 1 83 1 W. H. Crawford, who had been a member
of this cabinet, desiring to ruin Calhoun politically by turning
Jackson's hostility against him, revealed to Jackson what had
taken place thirteen years before. Jackson could brook no
criticism from one whom he had considered a friend; Calhoun,
moreover, angered the president still further by his evident
sanction of the soqal proscription of Mrs Eaton (q.v.) ; the political
views of the two men, furthermore, were becoming more and more
divergent, and the rupture ljetween the two became complete.
The failure of the Jackson administration to reduce the Tariff
of 1828 drew from Calhoun his " Address to the People of South
Carolina " in 183 1, in which he elaborated his views of the nature
of the Union as given in the " Exposition." In 1832 a new tariff
act was passed, which removed the " abominations " of 1828 but
left the principle of protection intact. The people of South
Carolina were not satisfied, and Calhoun in a third political tract,
in the form of a letter to Governor James Hamilton (1786-185 7)
of South Carolina, gave bis doctrines their final form, but without
altering the fundamental principles that have already been stated.
In 1832 South Carolina, acting in substantial accordance with
Calhoun's theories, " nullified " the tariff acts passed by Congress
in 1828 and 1832 (see Nullification; South Carolina; and
United States). On the 28th of December 1832 Calhoun
resigned as vice-president, and on the 3rd of January 1833 took
his seat in the Senate. President Jackson had, in a special
message, taken strong ground against the action of South
Carolina, and a bill was introduced to extend the jurisdiction of
the courts of the United States and clothe the president with
additional powers, with the avowed object of meeting the situ-
ation in South Carolina. Calhoun, in turn, introduced resolu-
tions upholding the doctrine held by South Carolina, and it was
in the debate on the first-named measure, termed the " Force
Bill," and on these resolutions, that the first intellectual duel
took place between Daniel Webster and Calhoun. Webster
declared that the Federal government through the Supreme
Court was the ultimate expounder and interpreter of its own
powers, while Calhoun championed the rights of the individual
state under a written contract which reserved to each state its
sovereignty.
The practical result of the conflict over the tariff was a com-
promise. Congress passed an act gradually reducing the duties
to a revenue basis, and South Carolina repealed her nullification
measures. As the result of the conflict, Calnoun was greatly
strengthened in his position as the leader of his party in the South.
Southern leaders generally were now beginning to perceive, as
Calhoun had already seen, that there was a permanent conflict
between the North and the South, not only a divergence of
interests between manufacturing and agricultural sections, but an
inevitable struggle between free and slave labour. Should enough
free states be admitted into the Union to destroy the balance of
power, the North would naturally gain a preponderance in the
Senate, as it had in the House, and might, within constitutional
limits, legislate as it pleased. The Southern minority recognized,
therefore, that they must henceforth direct the policy of the
government in all questions affecting their peculiar interests, or
their section would undergo a social and economic revolution.
The Constitution, if strictly interpreted according to Calhoun's
views, would secure this control to the minority, and prevent an
industrial upheaval.
An element of bitterness was now injected into the struggle.
The Northern Abolitionists, to whom no contract or agreement
was sacred that involved the continuance of slavery, regarded the
clauses in the Federal Constitution which maintained the property
rights of the slave-owners as treaties with evil, binding on no one,
and bitterly attacked the slave-holders and the South generally.
Their attacks may be said to have destroyed the moderate party
in that section. Any criticism of their peculiar institution now
came to be highly offensive to Southern leaders, and Calhoun, who
always took the most advanced stand in behalf of Southern rights
urged (but in vain) that the Senate refuse to receive abolitionist
petitions. He also advocated the exclusion of abolitionist
literature from the mails.
Indeed from 1832 until his death Calhoun may be said to have
devoted his life to the protection of Southern interests. He
became the exponent, the very embodiment, of an idea. It is a
mistake, however, to characterize him as an enemy to the Union.
His contention was that its preservation depended on the recog-
nition of the rights guaranteed to the states by the Constitution,
and that aggression by one section could only end in disruption.
Secession, he contended, was the only final remedy left to the"
weaker. Calhoun was re-elected to the Senatein i834and in 1840,
serving until 1843. From 1832 to 1837 he was a man without
a party. He attacked the " spoils system " inaugurated by
President Jackson, opposed the removal of the government
deposits from the Bank of the United States, and in general was
a severe critic of Jackson's administration. In this period he
usually voted with the Whigs, but in 1837 he went over to the
Democrats and supported the " independent treasury " scheme
of President Van Buren. He was spoken of for the presidency in
1844, but declined to become a candidate, and was appointed as
secretary of state in the cabinet of President Tyler, serving from
the 1st of April 1844, throughout the remainder of the term, until
the 10th of March 1845 . While holding this office he devoted his
energies chiefly to the acquisitions of Texas, in order to preserve
the equilibrium between the South and the constantly growing
North. One of his last acts as secretary of state was to send a
despatch, on the 3rd of March 1845, inviting Texas to accept the
terms proposed by Congress. Calhoun was once more elected to
the Senate in 1845. The period of his subsequent service covered
the settlement of the Oregon dispute with Great Britain and the
Mexican War. On the 19th of February 1847 he introduced in
the Senate a series of resolutions concerning the territory about to
be acquired from Mexico, which marked the most advanced stand
as yet taken by the pro-slavery party. The purport of these
resolutions was to deny to Congress the power to prohibit slavery
in the territories and to declare all previous enactments to this
effect unconstitutional.
In 1850 the Union seemed in imminent danger of dissolution.
California was applying for admission to the Union as a state
under a constitution which did not permit slavery. Her ad-
mission with two Senators would have placed the slave-holding
states in the minority. In the midst of the debate on this applica-
tion Calhoun died, on the 31st of March 1850, in Washington.
Calhoun is most often compared with Webster and Clay. The
three constitute the trio upon whom the attention of students at
this period naturally rests. Calhoun possessed neither Webster's
brilliant rhetoric nor his easy versatility, but he surpassed him in
the ordered method and logical sequence of his mind. He never
equalled Clay in the latter 's magnetism of impulse and inspiration
of affection, but he far surpassed him in clearness and directness
and in tenacity of will* He surpassed them both in the distinct-
ness with which he saw results, and in the boldness with which he
formulated and followed his conclusions.
Calhoun in person was tall and slender, and in his later years
was emaciated. His features were angular and somewhat harsh,
but with a striking face and very fine eyes of a brilliant dark blue.
To his slaves he was just and kind. He lived the modest,
unassuming life of a country planter when at his home, and at
Washington lived as unostentatiously as possible, consistent with
CALI— CALIBRATION
his public duties and position. His character in other respects
was always of stainless integrity.
Bibliography.— A collected edition of Calhoun's Works (6 vols.,
New York, 1853-1855) has been edited by Richard K. Crallc. The
most important speeches and papers are: — The South Carolina
Exposition (1828) ; Speech on the Force BUI (1833); Reply to Webster
(1833); Speech on the Reception of Abolitionist Petitions (1836), and
on the Veto Power (1842); a Disquisition on Government, and a
Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States
( 1 849-1850) — the last two, written a short time before his death,
defend with great ability the rights of a minority under a govern-
ment such as that of the United States. Calhoun's Correspondence,
edited by J. Franklin Jameson, has been published by the American
Historical Association (see Report for 1899, v °l- "■)• The biography
of Calhoun by Dr Hermann von Hoist in the American States-
men Series '* (Boston, 1882) is a condensed study of the political
questions of Calhoun's time. Gustavus M. Pinckney's Life of John
t. Calhoun (Charleston, I90J) gives a sympathetic Southern view.
Gaillard Hunt's John C. Calhoun (Philadelphia, 1908) is a valuable
work. (H. A. M. S.)
CALI, an inland town of the department of Cauca, Colombia,
South America, about 180 m. S.W. of Bogota and 50 m. S.E. of
the port of Buenaventura, on the Rio Cali, a small branch of the
Cauca. Pop. (1006 estimate) 16,000. Cali stands 3327 ft.
above sea-level on the western side of the Cauca valley, one of
the healthiest regions of Colombia. The land-locked character
of this region greatly restricts the city's trade and development;
but it is considered the most important town in the department.
It has a bridge across the Cali, and a number of religious and
public edifices. A railway from Buenaventura will give Cali and
the valley behind it, with which it is connected by over 200 m.
of river navigation, a good outlet on the Pacific coast. Coal
deposits exist in the immediate vicinity of the town.
CALIBRATION, a term primarily signifying the determination
of the " calibre " or bore of a gun. The word calibre was intro-
duced through the French from the Italian calibro, together with
other terms of gunnery and warfare, about the 1 6th century. The
origin of the Italian equivalent appears to be uncertain. It will
readily be understood that the calibre of a gun requires accurate
adjustment to the standard size, and further, that the bore must
be straight and of uniform diameter throughout. The term was
subsequently applied to the accurate measurement and testing of
the bore of any kind of tube, especially those of thermometers.
In modern scientific language, by a natural process of transi-
tion, the term " calibration " has come to denote the accurate
comparison of any measuring instrument with a standard, and
. more particularly the determination of the errors of its scale.
It is seldom possible in the process of manufacture to make an
instrument so perfect that no error can be discovered by the
most delicate tests, and it would rarely be worth while to attempt
to do so even if it were possible. The cost of manufacture would
in many cases be greatly increased without adding materially
to the utility of the apparatus. The scientific method, in all
cases which admit of the subsequent determination and correc-
tion of errors, is to economize time and labour in production by
taking pains in the subsequent verification or calibration.
This process of calibration is particularly important in laboratory
research, where the observer has frequently to make his own
apparatus, and cannot afford the time or outlay required to make
special tools for fine work, but is already provided with apparatus
and methods of accurate testing. For non-scientific purposes
it is generally possible to construct instruments to measure with
sufficient precision without further correction. The present
article will therefore be restricted to the scientific use and
application of methods of accurate testing.
General Methods and Principles. — The process of calibration
of any measuring instrument is frequently divisible into two
parts, which differ greatly in importance in different cases, and
of which one or the other may often be omitted. (1) The deter-
mination of the value of the unit to which the measurements are
referred by comparison with a standard unit of the same kind.
This is often described as the Standardization of the instrument,
or the determination of the Reduction factor. (2) The verification
of the accuracy of the subdivision of the scale of the instrument.
This may be termed calibration of the scale, and does not
necessarily involve the comparison of the instrument with any
independent standard, but merely the verification of the accuracy
of the relative values of its indications. In many cases the
process of calibration adopted consists in the comparison of the
instrument to be tested with a standard over the whole range of
its indications, the relative values of the subdivisions of the
standard itself having been previously tested. In this case the
distinction of two parts in the process is unnecessary, and the
term calibration is for this reason frequently employed to include
both. In some cases it is employed to denote the first part only,
but for greater clearness and convenience of description we shall
restrict the term as far as possible to the second meaning.
The methods of standardization or calibration employed have
much in common even in the cases that appear most diverse. They
are all founded on the axiom that " things which are equal to the
same thing are equal to one another." Whether it is a question of
comparing a scale with a standard, or of testing the equality of two
parts of the same scale, the process is essentially one of interchanging
or substituting one for the other, the two things to be compared. In
addition to the things to be tested there is usually required some
form of balance, or comparator, or gauge, by which the equality
may be tested. The simplest of such comparators is the instrument
known as the callipers, from the same root as calibre, which is in
constant use in the workshop for testing equality of linear dimensions,
or uniformity of diameter of tubes or rods. The more complicated
forms of optical comparators or measuring machines with scales and
screw adjustments are essentially similar in principle, being finely
adjustable gauges to which the things to be compared can be suc-
cessively fitted. A still simpler and more accurate comparison is
that of volume or capacity, using a given mass of liquid as the gauge
or test of equality, which is the basis of many of the most accurate
and most important methods of calibration. The common
balance for testing equality of mass or weight is so delicate and so
easily tested that the process of calibration may frequently with
advantage be reduced to a series of weighings, as for instance in the
calibration of a burette or measure-glass by weighing the quantities
of mercury required to fill it to different marks. The balance may,
however, be regarded more broadly as the type of a general method
capable of the widest application in accurate testing. It is possible,
for instance, to balance two electromotive forces or two electrical
resistances against each other, or to measure the refractivity of a
gas by balancing it against a column of air adjusted to produce the
same retardation in a beam of light. These " equilibrium," or
" null," or " balance " methods of comparison afford the most
accurate measurements, and are generally selected if possible as
the basis of any process of calibration. I n spite of the great diversity
in the nature of things to be compared, the fundamental principles
of the methods employed are so essentially similar that it is possible,
for instance, to describe the testing of a set of weights, or the cali-
bration of an electrical resistance-box, in almost the same terms, and
to represent the calibration correction of a mercury thermometer
or of an ammeter by precisely similar curves.
Method of Substitution. — In comparing two units of the same
kind and of nearly equal magnitude, some variety of the general
method of substitution is invariably adopted. The same method
in a more elaborate form is employed in the calibration of a series
of multiples or submultiples of any unit. The details of the method
depend on the system of subdivision adopted, which is to some
extent a matter of taste. The simplest method of subdivision is
that on the binary scale, proceeding by multiples of 2. With a
pair of submultiples of the smallest denomination and one of each
of the rest, thus 1, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c, each weight or multiple is equal
to the sum of all the smaller weights, which may be substituted for
it, and the small difference, if any, observed. Ii we call the weights
A, B, C % &c, where each is approximately double the following
weight, and if we write a for observed excess of A over the, rest of
the weights, b for that of B over C+D+&C, and so on, the observa-
tions by the method of substitution give the series of equations,
A— rest=a, 5— rest = 6 t C— rest^c, &c. . . (1)
Subtracting the second from the first, the third from the second,
and so on, we obtain at once the value of each weight in terms of
the preceding, so that all may be expressed in terms of the largest,
which is most conveniently taken as the standard
B=A/2 + (b-a)/2, C=3/2 + (c-&)2,&c. . . (2)
The advantages of this method of subdivision and comparison, in
addition to its extreme simplicity, are (1) that there is only one
possible combination to represent any given weight within the
range of the series; (2) that the least possible number of weights
is required to cover any given ranee ; (3) that the smallest number
of substitutions is required for the complete calibration. These
advantages are important in cases where tne accuracy of cali oration
is limited by the constancy of the conditions of observation, as in
the case of an electrical resistance-box, but the reverse may be the
case when it is a q uestion of accuracy of estimation by an observer.
In the majority of cases the ease of numeration afforded
by familiarity with the decimal system is the most important
CALIBRATION
consideration. The most convenient arrangement on the decimal
system for purposes of calibration is to have the units, tens,
hundreds, &c, arranged in groups of four adjusted in the proportion
of the numbers i, 2, 3, a. The relative values of the weights in
each group of four can tnen be determined by substitution inde-
pendently of the others, and the total of each group of four, making
ten times the unit of the group, can be compared with the smallest
weight in the group above. This gives a sufficient number of
equations to determine che errors of all the weights by the method
of substitution in a very simple manner. A number of other equa-
tions can be obtained by combining the different groups in other
ways, and the whole system of equations may then be solved by the
method of least squares; but the equations so obtained are not all
of ecjual value, and it may be doubted whether any real advantage
is gamed in many cases by the multiplication of comparisons, since
it is not possible in this manner to eliminate constant errors or
personal equation, which are generally aggravated by prolonging
the observations. A common arrangement of the weights in each
group on the decimal system is 5, 2, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1. These do not
admit of the independent calibration of each group by substitution.
The arrangement 5, 2, 1, I, i, or 5, 2, 2, 1, 1, permits independent
calibration, but involves alarger number of weights and observations
than the 1, 2, 3, 4, grouping. The arrangement of ten equal weights
in each group, wnich is adopted in " dial " resistance-boxes, and in
some forms of chemical balances where the weights are mechanically
applied by turning a handle, presents great advantages in point of
quickness of manipulation and ease of numeration, but the complete
calibration of such an arrangement is tedious, and in the case of a
resistance-box it is difficult to make the necessary connexions. In
all cases where the same total can be made up in a variety of ways,
it is necessary in accurate work to make sure that the same weights
are always used for a given combination, or else to record the actual
weights used on each occasion. In many investigations where time
enters as one of the factors, this is a serious drawback, and it is better
to avoid the more complicated arrangements. The accurate adjust-
ment of a set of weights is so simple a matter that it is often possible
to neglect the errors of a well-made set, and no calibration is of
any value without the most
scrupulous attention to de- Table
tails of manipulation, and
particularly to the correction
lor the air displaced in com-
paring weights of different
materials. Electrical resist-
ances are much more difficult
to adjust owing to the change
of resistance with tempera-
ture, and the calibration of a
resistance-box can seldom be
neglected on account of the
changes of resistance which
are liable to occur after
adjustment from imperfect annealing. It is also necessary to
remember that the order of accuracy required, and the actual
values of the smaller resistances, depend to some extent on the
method of connexion, and that the box must be calibrated with
due regard to the conditions under which it is to be used. Otherwise
the method of procedure is much the same as in the case of a box
of weights, but it is necessary to pay more attention to the constancy
and uniformity of the temperature conditions of the observing-room.
Method of Equal Steps. — In calibrating a continuous scale divided
into a number of divisions of equal length, such as a metre scale
divided in millimetres, or a thermometer tube divided in degrees
of temperature, or an electrical slide-wire, it is usual to proceed by
a method of equal steps. The simplest method is that known as the
method of Gay Lussac in the calibration of mercurial thermometers
or tubes of small bore. It is essentially a method of substitution
employing a column of mercury of constant volume as the gauge
for comparing the capacities of different parts of the tube. A pre-
cisely similar method, employing a pair of microscopes at a fixed
distance apart as a standard of length, is applicable to the calibration
of a divided scale. The interval to be calibrated is divided into a
whole number of equal steps or sections, the points of division at
which the corrections are to be determined are called points of
calibration.
Calibration of a Mercury Thermometer. — To facilitate description,
we will take the case of a fine-bore tube, such as that of a ther-
mometer, to be calibrated with a thread of mercury. The bore of
such a tube will generally vary considerably even in the best stan-
dard instruments, the tubes of which have been specially drawn
and selected. The correction for inequality of bore may amount
to a quarter or half a degree, and is seldom less than a tenth. In
ordinary chemical thermometers it is usual to make allowance for
variations of bore in graduating the scale, but such instruments
present discontinuities of division, and cannot be used for accurate
work, in which a finely-divided scale of equal parts is essential.
The calibration of a mercury thermometer intended for work of
precision is best effected after it has been sealed. A-thread of mer-
cury of the desired length is separated from the column. The exact
adjustment of the length of the thread requires a little manipulation.
The thermometer is inverted and tapped to make the mercury run
down to the top of the tube, thus collecting a trace of residual gas
at the end of the bulb. By quickly reversing the thermometer the
bubble passes to the neck of the bulb. If the instrument is again
inverted and tapped, the thread will probably break off at the neck
of the bulb, which should be previously cooled or warmed so as to
obtain in this manner, if possible, a thread of the desired length.
If the thread so obtained is too long or not accurate enough, it is
removed to the other end of the tube, and the bulb further warmed
till the mercury reaches some easily recognized division. At this
point the broken thread is rejoined to the mercury column from the
bulb, and a microscopic bubble of gas is condensed which generally
suffices to determine the subsequent breaking of the mercury column
at the same point of the tube. The bulb is then allowed to cool till
the length of the thread above the point of separation is equal to the
desired length, when a slight tap suffices to separate the thread. This
method is difficult to work with short threads owing to deficient
inertia, especially if the tube is very perfectly evacuated. A thread
can always be separated by local heating with a small flame, but
this is dangerous to the thermometer, it is difficult to adjust the
thread exactly to the required length, and the mercury does not run
easily past a point of the tube which has been locally heated in this
manner.
Having separated a thread of the required length, the thermo-
meter is mounted in a horizontal position on a suitable support,
preferably with a screw adjustment in the direction of its length.
By tilting or tapping the instrument the thread is brought into
position corresponding to the steps of the calibration successively,
and its length in each position is carefully observed with a pair of
reading microscopes fixed at a suitable distance apart. Assuming
that the temperature remains constant, the variations of length
of the thread are inversely as the variations of cross-section of the
tube. If the length of the thread is very nearly equal to one step,
and if the tube is nearly uniform, the average of the observed lengths
of the thread, taking all the steps throughout the interval, is equal
to the length which the thread should have occupied in each position
had the bore been uniform throughout and all the divisions equal.
I. — Calibration by Method of Gay Lussac.
No. of
Step.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ends of /
thread. )
Excess-
length.
Error of
step.
^Correc-
tion.
j H-oio
} 4-038
* --028
— -016
+•017
-•033
— •020
-•003
— 017
-•031
— •022
— •009
+.016
-f'OIO
+•006
+•008
+•005
— 003
+ ■013
+•033
— •020
+•017
+•018
— 001
+•004
+•013
— •004
-•088
—003
+•005
— 17-6
— 22-6
- 6-6
+ 1-4
+16.4
+ 7*4
- 9.6
+ 94
+ 6-4
+ 15-4
+ 17*6
+40-2
+46-8
+45-4
+29-0
+21-6
+31-2
+21-8
+ 15-4
The error of each step is therefore found by subtracting the average
length from the observed length in each position. Assuming that
the ends of the interval itself are correct, the correction to be applied
at any point of calibration to reduce the readings to a uniform tube
and scale, is found by taking the sum of the errors of the steps up
to the point considered with the sign reversed.
In the preceding example of the method an interval of ten degrees
is taken, divided into ten steps of 1 ° each. The distances of the ends
of the thread from the nearest degree divisions are estimated by the
aid of micrometers to the thousandth of a degree. The error of any
one of these readings probably does not exceed half a thousandth,
but they are given to the nearest thousandth only. The excess
length of the thread in each position over the corresponding degree
is obtained by subtracting the second reading from the first. Taking
the average of the numbers in this line, the mean excess-length is
— 10-4 thousandths. The error of each step is found by subtracting
this mean from each of the numbers in the previous line. Finally,
the corrections at each degree are obtained by adding up the errors
of the steps and changing the sign. The errors and corrections
are given in thousandths of 1°.
Complete Calibration. — The simple method of Gay Lussac does
very well for short intervals when the number of steps is not ex-
cessive, but it would not be satisfactory for a large range owing to
the accumulation of small errors of estimation, and the variation
of the personal equation. The observer might, for instance, con-
sistently over-estimate the length of the thread in one half of the
tube, and under-estimate it in the other. The errors near the middle
of the range would probably be large. It is evident that the correc-
tion at the middle point of the interval could be much more accu-
rately determined by using a thread equal to half the length of the
interval. To minimize the effect of these errors of estimation, it
is usual to employ threads of different lengths in calibrating the
same interval, and to divide up the fundamental interval of the
thermometer into a number of subsidiary sections for the purpose
of calibration, each of these sections being treated as a step in the
calibration of the fundamental interval. The most symmetrical
method of calibrating a section, called by C. E. Guillaume a " Com-
plete Calibration," is to use threads of all possible lengths which are
CALIBRATION
integral multiples of the calibration step. In the example already
given nine different threads were used, and the length of each was
observed in as many positions as possible. Proceeding in this
manner the following numbers were obtained for the excess-length
of each thread in thousandths of a degree in different positions,
starting in each case with the beginning of the thread at o°, and
moving it on by steps of I °. The observations in the first column
are the excess-lengths of the thread of i° already given in
illustration of the method of Gay Lussac. The other columns
give the corresponding observations with the longer threads.
The simplest and most symmetrical method of solving these
observations, so as to find the errors of each step in
terms of the whole interval, is to obtain the differences of
the steps in pairs by subtracting each observation from the one
Table II. — Complete Calibration of Interval of io° in 10 Steps.
Lengths of Threads.
i°
2°
3°
4°
5°
6°
7°
8°
9°
Observed excess- o°
-28
-32
-67
-62
— 11
-15
-48
— 2
- 8
lengths of threads, I °
-33
—21
-47
-28
«
- 8
—22
+21
+24
in various posi- 2°
-17
+ 2
- 8
+ 1
+23
+ 6
+58
tions, the begin- 3
ning of the thread 4
- 9
+26
+ 5
~ 3
+41
+36
+28
+ 6
+31
- 7
+ 4
+45
+49
being set near the 5
~ 3
+ 5
-15
- 6
+43
points. 6°
—20
+ 7
-16
+ 2
7°
— 1
+23
+10
8°
- 4
+29
9°
+ 5
above it. This method eliminates the unknown lengths of the
threads, and gives each observation approximately its due weight.
Subtracting the observations in the second line from those in the
first, we obtain a series of numbers, entered in column I of the next
table, representing the excess of step (1) over each of the other steps.
The sum of these differences is ten times the error of the first step,
since by hypothesis the sum of the errors of all the steps is zero in
terms of the whole interval. The numbers in the second column
of Table III. are similarly obtained by subtracting the third line
from the second in Table II., each difference being inserted in its
appropriate place in the table. Proceeding in this way we find the
excess of each interval over those which Follow it. The table is
completed by a diagonal row of zeros representing the difference of
each step from itself, and by repeating the numbers already found in
symmetrical positions with their signs changed, since the excess of
any step, say 6 over 3, is evidently equal to that of 3 over 6 with the
sign changed. The errors of each step having been found by adding
the columns, arid dividing by 10, the corrections at each point of
the calibration are deduced as before.
Table III. — Solution of Complete Calibration.
ampoules, were calibrated by Chappuis in five sections of 20 each,
to determine the corrections at the points 20°, 40 , 6o°, 8o°, which
may be called the " principal points " of the calibration, in terms of
the fundamental interval. Each section of 20 was subsequently
calibrated in steps of 2 , the corrections being at first referred, as in
the example already given, to the mean degree of the section itself,
and being afterwards expressed, by a simple transformation, in terms
of the fundamental interval, by means of the corrections already
found for the ends of the section. Supposing, for instance, that the
corrections at the points o° and io° of Table III. are not zero, but
C° and C respectively, the correction C n at any intermediate point
n will evidently be given by the formula,
G.«C*+ft.+(C-C°)f*/io . . . (3)
where Cn is the correction already given in the table.
If the corrections are required to the thou-
sandth of a degree, it is necessary to tabulate
the results of the calibration at much more
frequent intervals than 2 , since the correction,
even of a good thermometer, may change by
as much as 20 or 30 thousandths in 2°. To
save the labour and difficulty of calibrating
with shorter threads, the corrections at inter-
mediate points are usually calculated by a
formula of interpolation. This leaves much to
be desired, as the section of a tube often changes
very suddenly and capriciously. It is probable
that the graphic method gives equally good
results with less labour.
Slide-Wire. — The calibration of an electrical
slide- wire into parts of equal resistance is precisely analogous to that
of a capillary tube into parts of equal volume. The Carey Foster
method, employing short steps of equal resistance, effected by trans-
ferring a suitable small resistance from one side of the slide-wire to
the other, is exactly analogous to the Gay Lussac method, and suffers
from the same defect of the accumulation of small errors unless steps
of several different lengths are used. The calibration of a slide-wire,
however, is much less troublesome than that of a thermometer tube
for several reasons. It is easy to obtain a wire uniform to one part in
500 or even less, and the section is not liable to capricious variations.
In all work of precision the slide-wire is supplemented by auxiliary
resistances by which the scale may be indefinitely extended. In
accurate electrical thenhometry, for example, the slide- wire itself
would correspond to only i°, or less, of the whole scale, which is less
than a single step in the calibration of a mercury thermometer,
so that an accuracy of a thousandth of a decree can generally be
obtained without any calibration of the slide-wire, in the rare
cases in which it is necessary to employ a long slide-wire, such as
the cylinder potentiometer of Latimer Clark, the calibration is best
effected by comparison with a standard,
Step
No.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
- 5
+11
+20
+34
+25
+ 7
+26
+23
+32
2
+ 5
+ 16
+23
+39
+29
+12
+3i
+28
+37
3
— 11
-16
+ 8
+24
+13
- 4
+15
+ 13
-f-22
4
—20
-23
- 8
+ 15 •
+ 5
— 12
+ 7
+ 4
+ 13
5
-34
-39
-24
-15
- 9
-26
- 8
— 10
— 2
6
-25
-29
-13
- 5
+ 9
-17
+ 2
— 1
+ 8
7
- 7
-12
+ 4
+ 12
+26
+17
+ 19
+ 16
+26
8
-26
-31
-15
- 7
+ 8
— 2
-19
- 3
+ 6
9
-23
-28
-13
- 4
+ 10
+ 1
-16
+ 3
+ 9
10
-32
-37
—22
-13
+ 2
- 8
-26
- 6
- 9
Error of
step.
-17-3
— 22-0
- 6.4
+ 1-9
+ 167
+ 7'i
— 10- 1
+ 8-9
+ 6-1
+ I5-I
Correc-
tions.
+17-3
+39*3
+45-7
+43-8
+27-1
+20-0
+30-1
+21-2
+15-1
such as a Thomson-Varley slide-box.
The advantages of this method are the simplicity and symmetry
of the work of reduction, and the accuracy of the result, which
exceeds that of the Gay Lussac method in consequence of the much
larger number of independent observations. It may be noticed,
for instance, that the correction at point 5 is 27*1 thousandths by
the complete calibration, which is 2 thousandths less than the value
29 obtained by the Gay Lussac method, but agrees well with the
value 27 thousandths obtained by taking only the first and last
observations with the thread of 5 °. The disadvantage of the method
lies in the great number of observations required, and in the labour
of adjusting so many different threads to suitable lengths. It is
probable that sufficiently good results may be obtained with much
less trouble by using fewer threads, especially if more care is taken
in the micrometric determination of their errors.
The method adopted for dividing up the fundamental interval
of any thermometer into sections and steps for calibration may be
widely varied, and is necessarily modified in cases where auxiliary
bulbs or " ampoules " are employed. The Paris mercury-standards,
which read continuously from o° to loo° C, without intermediate
Graphic Representation of Results. —
The results of a calibration are often
best represented by means of a correc-
tion curve, such as that illustrated in
the diagram, which is plotted to repre-
sent the corrections found in Table III.
The abscissa of such a curve is the read-
ing of the instrument to be corrected.
The ordinate is the correction to be
added to the observed reading to reduce
to a uniform scale. The corrections
are plotted in the figure in terms of the
whole section, taking the correction to
be zero at the beginning and end. As
a matter of fact the corrections at these
points in terms of the fundamental in-
terval were found to be -29 and -9 thousandths respectively.
The correction curve is transformed to give corrections in terms
of the fundamental interval by ruling a straight line joining the
points +29 and 4-9 respectively, and reckoning the ordinates
from this line instead of from the base-line. Or the curve may
be replotted with the new ordinates thus obtained. In draw-
ing the curve from the corrections obtained at the points of
calibration, the exact form of the curve is to some extent a
matter of taste, but the curve should generally be drawn as
smoothly as possible on the assumption that the changes are
gradual and continuous.
The ruling of the straight line across the curve to express the
corrections in terms of the fundamental interval, corresponds to
the first part of the process of calibration mentioned above under
the term " Standardization." It effects the reduction of the
CALICO— CALICUT
readings to a common standard, and may be neglected if relative
values only are required . A precisely analogous correction occurs
in the case of electrical instruments. A potentiometer, for
instance, if correctly graduated or calibrated in parts of equal
resistance, will give correct relative values of any differences of
so
40
30.
ZO
10
t
\
""" '"*■
/
■-*- -
._
"""""**
---.
..
) i
r k
j
1 -i
r
> i
;
t
\ 6
10
Calibration Curve.
potential within its range if connected to a constant cell to supply
the steady current through the slide-wire. But to determine at
any time the actual value of its readings in volts, it is necessary
to standardize it, or determine its scale-value or reduction-factor,
by comparison with a standard cell.
A very neat use of the calibration curve has been made by
Professor W. A. Rogers in the automatic correction of screws of divid-
ing machines or lathes. It is possible by the process of grinding, as
applied by Rowland, to make a screw which is practically perfect
in point of uniformity, but even in this case errors may be introduced
by the method of mounting. In the production of divided scales,
and more particularly in the case of optical gratines, it is most im-
portant that the errors should be as small as possible, and should be
automatically corrected during the process of ruling. With this
object a scale is ruled on the machine, and the errors of the un-
corrected screw are determined by calibrating the scale. A metal
template may then be cut out in the form of the calibration-correc-
tion curve on a suitable scale. A lever projecting from the nut
which feeds the carriage or the slide-rest is made to follow the contour
of the template, and to apply the appropriate correction at each
point of the travel, by turning the nut through a small angle on the
screw. A small periodic error of the screw, recurring regularly at each
revolution, may be similarly corrected by means of a suitable cam
or eccentric revolving with the screw and actuating the template.
This kind of error is important in optical gratings, but is difficult to
determine and correct.
Calibration by Comparison with a Standard. — The commonest
and most generally useful process of calibration is the direct
comparison of the instrument with a standard over the whole
range of its scale. It is necessary that the standard itself should
have been already calibrated, or else that the law of its indications
should be known. A continuous current ammeter, for instance,
can be calibrated, so far as the relative values of its readings are
concerned, by comparison with a tangent galvanometer, since
it is known that the current in this instrument is proportional
to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Similarly an alternating
current ammeter can be calibrated by comparison with an electro-
dynamometer, the reading of which varies as the square of the
current. But in either case it is neccessary, in order to obtain
the readings in amperes, to standardize the instrument for some
particular value of the current by comparison with a voltameter,
or in some equivalent manner. Whenever possible, ammeters
and voltmeters are calibrated by comparison of their readings
with those of a potentiometer, the calibration of which can be
reduced to the comparison and adjustment of resistances, which
is the most accurate of electrical measurements. The commoner
kinds of mercury thermometers are generally calibrated and
graduated by comparison with a standard. In many cases this
is the most convenient or even the only possible method. A
mercury thermometer of limited scale reading between 250 and
400 ° C, with gas under high pressure to prevent the separation
of the mercury column, cannot be calibrated on itself, or by
comparison with a mercury standard possessing a fundamental
interval, on account of difficulties of stem exposure and scale.
The only practical method is to compare its readings every few
degrees with those of a platinum thermometer under the condi-
tions for which it is to be used. This method has the advantage
of combining all the corrections for fundamental interval, &c,
with the calibration correction in a single curve, except the
correction for variation of zero which must be tested occasionally
at some point of the scale.
Authorities. — Mercurial Thermometers: Guillaume, Thermo-
metry de Precision (Paris, 1880), gives several examples and refer-
ences to original memoirs. The best examples of comparison and
testing of standards are generally to be found in publications of
Standards Offices, such as those of the Bureau International des
Poids et Mesures at Paris. Dial Resistance- Box: Griffiths, Phil.
Trans. A, 1893; Platinum Thermometry-Box : J. A. Harker and
P. Chappuis, Phil. Trans. A, 1900; Thomson- Varley Potentiometer
and Binary Scale Box: Callendar and Barnes, Phil. Trans. A,
1901. (H. L. C.)
CALICO, a general name given to plain cotton cloth. The
word was spelt in various forms, including " calicut," which
shows its derivation from the Indian city of Calicut or Kolikod,
a seaport in the presidency of Madras, and one of the chief ports
of intercourse with Europe in the 16th century, where cotton
cloths were made. The name seems to have been applied to
all kinds of cotton cloths imported from the East. In England
it is now applied particularly to grey or bleached cotton cloth
used for domestic purposes, and, generally, to any fairly heavy
cotton cloth without a pattern. In the United States there is a
special application to printed cloth " of a coarser quality than
muslin." In England " printed calico " is a comprehensive
term.
CALICUT, a city of British India, in the Malabar district of
Madras; on the coast, 6 m. N. of Beypur. In 1901 the popula-
tion was 76,981, showing an increase of 14% in the decade.
The weaving of cotton, for which the place was at one time so
famous that its name became identified with its calico, is no
longer of any importance. Calicut is of considerable antiquity;
and about the 7th century it had its population largely increased
by the immigration of the Moplahs, a fanatical race of Mahom-
medans from Arabia, who entered enthusiastically into com-
mercial life. The Portuguese traveller Pero de Covilham
(q.v.) visited Calicut in 1487 and described its possibilities for
European trade; and in May 1498 Vasco da Gama, the first
European navigator to reach India, arrived at Calicut. At
that time it was a very flourishing city, and contained several
stately buildings, among which was especially mentioned a
Brahminical temple, not inferior to the largest monastery in
Portugal. Vasco da Gama tried to establish a factory, but he
met with persistent hostility from the local chief (zamorin), and a
similar attempt made by Cabral two years later ended in the
destruction of the factory by the Moplahs. In revenge the
Portuguese bombarded the town, but no further attempt was
made for some years to establish a trading settlement there.
In 1509 the marshal Don Fernando Coutinho made an un-
successful attack on the city; and in the following year it was
again assailed by Albuquerque with 3000 troops. On this
occasion the palace was plundered and the town burnt; but
the Portuguese were finally repulsed, and fled to their ships after
heavy loss. In the following year they concluded a peace with
the zamorin and were allowed to build a fortified factory on the
north bank of the Kallayi river, which was however again, and
finally, abandoned in 1525. In 161 5 the town was visited by
an English expedition under Captain Keeling, who concluded
a treaty with the zamorin; but it was not until 1664 that an
English trading settlement was established by the East India
Company. The French settlement, which still exists, was
founded in 1698. The town was taken in 1765 by Hyder Ali,
who expelled all the merchants and factors, and destroyed the
cocoa-nut trees, sandal-wood and pepper vines, that the country
reduced to ruin might present no temptation to the cupidity of
Europeans. In 1782 the troops of Hyder were driven from
Calicut by the British; but in 1788 it was taken and destroyed
by his son Tippoo, who carried off the inhabitants to Beypur
and treated them with great cruelty. In the latter part of 1700
the country was occupied by the British; and under the treaty
concluded in 1792, whereby Tippoo was deprived of half his
dominions, Calicut fell to the British. After this event the
CALIFORNIA
inhabitants returned and rebuilt the town, which in 1800 con-
sisted of 5000 houses.
As the administrative headquarters of the district, Calicut
maintains its historical importance. It is served by the Madras
railway, and is the chief seaport on the Malabar coast, and the
principal exports are coffee, timber and coco-nut products.
There are factories for coffee-cleaning, employing several hundred
hands; for coir-pressing and timber-cutting. The town has a
cotton-mill, a saw-mill, and tile, coffee and oil works. A detach-
ment of European troops is generally stationed here to overawe
the fanatical Moplahs.
CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific Coast states of the United
States of America, physically one of the most remarkable,
economically one of the more independent, and in history and
social life one of the most interesting of the Union. It is bounded
N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and Arizona, from which last it
is separated by the Colorado river, and S. by the Mexican
province of Lower California. The length of its medial line
N. and S. is about 780 m., its breadth varies from 150 to 350 m.,
and its total area is 158,297 sq. m., of which 2205 are water
surface. In size it ranks second among the states of the
Union. The coast is bold and rugged and with very few good
harbours; San Diego and San Francisco bays being exceptions.
The coast line is more than 1000 m. long. There are eight coast
islands, all of inconsiderable size, and none of them as yet in
any way important.
Physiography. — The physiography of the state is simple;
its main features are few and bold: a mountain fringe along
the ocean, another mountain system along the east border,
between them — closed in at both ends by their junction — a
splendid valley of imperial extent, and outside all this a great
area of barren, arid lands, belonging partly to the Great Basin
and partly to the Open Basin region.
Along the Pacific, and some 20-40 m. in width, runs the mass
of the Coast Range, made up of numerous indistinct chains —
most of which have localized individual names — that are broken
down into innumerable ridges and spurs, and small valleys
drained by short streams of rapid fall. The range is cut by
numerous fault lines, some of which betray evidence of recent
activity; it is probable that movements along these faults cause
the earthquake tremors to which the region is subject, all of
which seem to be tectonic. The altitudes of the Coast Range
vary from about 2000 to 8000 ft.; in the neighbourhood of San
Francisco Bay the culminating peaks are about 4000 ft. in height
(Mount Diablo, 3856 ft.; Mount St Helena, 4343 ft.), and to
the north and south the elevation of the ranges increases. In
the east part of the state is the magnificent Sierra Nevada,
a great block of the earth's crust, faulted along its eastern side
and tilted up so as to have a gentle back slope to the west and
a steep fault escarpment facing east, the finest mountain system
of the United States. The Sierra proper, from Lassen's Peak to
Tehachapi Pass in Kern county, is about 430 m. long (from
Mt. Shasta in Siskiyou county to Mt. San Jacinto in Riverside
county ,tmore than 600 m.). It narrows to the north and the
altitude declines in the same direction. Far higher and grander
than the Coast Range, the Sierra is much less complicated,
being indeed essentially one chain of great simplicity of structure.
It is only here and there that a double line of principal summits
exists. The slope is everywhere long and gradual on the west,
averaging about 200 ft. to the mile. Precipitous gorges or
canyons often from 2000 to 5000 ft. in depth become a more
and more marked feature of the range as one proceeds north-
ward; over great portions of it they average probably not more
than 20 m. apart. Where the volcanic formations were spread
uniformly over the flanks of the mountains, the contrast between
the canyons and the plain-like region of gentle slope in which
they have been excavated is especially marked and characteristic.
The eastern slope is very precipitous, due to a great fault which
drops the rocks of the Great Basin region abruptly downward
several thousand feet. Rare passes cross the chain, opening
at the foot of the mountains on east and on the west high on their
flanks, 7000-10,000 ft. above the sea. Between 36 20' and 38
the lowest gap of any kind is above 0000 ft., and the average
height of those actually used is probably not less than 11,000 ft.
The Kearsarge, most used of all, is still higher. Very few in
the entire Sierra are passable by vehicles. Some forty peaks
are catalogued between 5000 and 8000 ft., and there are eleven
above 14,000. The highest portion of the system is between
the parallels of 36 30' and 37 30'; here the passes are about
12,000 ft. in elevation, and the peaks range from 13,000 ft.
upward, Mount Whitney, 14,502 ft., being the highest summit
of the United States, excluding Alaska. From this peak north-
ward there is a gradual decline, until at the point where the
Central Pacific crosses in lat. 30° 20' the elevation is only 7000 ft.
Of the mountain scenery the granite pinnacles and domes of
the highest Sierra opposite Owen's Lake — where there is a drop
eastward into the valley of about 10,000 ft. in 10 m. the snowy
volcanic cone of Mt Shasta, rising 10,000 ft. above the adjacent
plains; and the lovely valleys of the Coast Range, and the
south fork of the King river — all these have their charms;
but most beautiful of all is the unique scenery of the Yosemite
Valley (q.v.). Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the
mountains is due to the erosive action of many alpine glaciers
that once existed on the higher summits, and which have left
behind their evidences in valleys and amphitheatres with
towering walls, polished rock-expanses, glacial lakes and meadows
and tumbling waterfalls. Remnants of these glaciers are still
to be seen, — as notably on Mt. Shasta,— though shrunk to small
dimensions. Glacial action may be studied well as far south as
36 . The canyons are largely the work of rivers, modified by
glaciers that ran through them after the rivers had formed them.
All of the Sierra lakes and ponds are of glacial origin and there
are some thousands of them. The lower lake line is about 8000
ft. ; it is lower to the north than to the south; owing to the different
climate, and the different period of glacial retrogression. Of
these lakes some are fresh, and some — as those of the north-east
counties' — alkali. The finest of all is Tahoe, 6225 ft. above the
sea, lying between the true Sierras and the Basin Ranges, with
peaks on several sides rising 4000-5000 ft. above it. It is 1500
ft. deep and its waters are of extraordinary purity (containing
only three grains of solid matter to the gallon). Clear Lake,
in the Coast Range, is another beautiful sheet of water. It is
estimated by John Muir that on an average " perhaps more than
a mile " of degradation took place in the last glacial period;
but with regard to the whole subject of glacial action in California
as in other fields, there is considerable difference of opinion.
The same authority counted 65 small residual glaciers between
36 30' and 39 ; two-thirds of them lie between 37 and 38 ,
on some of the highest peaks in the district of the San Joaquin,
Merced, Tuolumne and Owen's rivers. They do not descend,
on an average, below 11,000 ft.; the largest of all, on Mt. Shasta,
descends to 0500 ft. above the sea.
Volcanic action has likewise left abundant traces, especially
in the northern half of the range, whereas the evidences of
glacial action are most perfect (though not most abundant)
in the south. Lava covers most of the northern half of the
range, and there are many craters and ash-cones, some recent and
of perfect form. Of these the most remarkable is Mt. Shasta.
In Owen's Valley is a fine group of extinct or dormant volcanoes.
Among the other indications of great geological disturbances
on the Pacific Coast may also be mentioned the earthquakes
to which California like the rest of the coast is liable. From 1850
to 1887 almost 800 were catalogued by Professor E. H. Holden
for California, Oregon and Washington. They occur in aH
seasons, scores of slight tremors being recorded every year by
the Weather Bureau; but they are of no importance; and even
of these the number affecting any particular locality is small.
From 1769 to 1887 there were 10 " destructive " and 24 other
" extremely severe " shocks according to the Rossi Forel nomen-
clatural scale of intensity. In 1812 great destruction was
wrought by an earthquake that affected all the southern part
of the state; in 1865 the region about San Francisco was violently
disturbed; in 1872 the whole Sierra and the state of Nevada
were violently shaken; and in 1006 San Francisco (q.v.) was in
8
CALIFORNIA
large part destroyed by a shock that caused great damage else-
where in the state.
North of 40 N. lat. the Coast Range and Sierra systems unite,
forming a country extremely rough. The eastern half of this
area is covered chiefly with volcanic plains, very dry and barren,
lying between precipitous, although not very lofty, ranges;
the western half is magnificently timbered, and toward the coast
excessively wet. Between 35° and 3 6° N. lat. the Sierra at its
southern end turns westward toward the coast as the Tehachapi
Range. The valley is thus closed to the north and south, and
is surrounded by a mountain wall, which is broken down in but
a single place, the gap behind the Golden Gate at San Francisco.
Through this passes the entire drainage of the interior. The
length of the valley is about 450 m., its breadth averages about
40 m. if the lower foothills be included, so that the entire area
is. about 18,000 sq. m. The drainage basin measured from
the water-partings of the enclosing mountains is some three
times as great. From the mouth of the Sacramento to Redding,
at the northern head of the valley, the rise is 552 ft. in 192 m.,
and from the mouth of the San Joaquin southward to Kern
lake it is 282 ft. in 260 m.
Two great rivers drain this central basin, — the San Joaquin,
whose valley comprises more than three-fifths of the entire
basin, and the Sacramento, whose valley comprises the remainder.
The San Joaquin is a very crooked stream flowing through a low
mud-plain, with tule banks; the Sacramento is much less
meandering, and its immediate basin, which is of sandy loam,
is higher and more attractive than that of the San Joaquin.
The eastward flanks of the Coast Range are very scantily forested,
and they furnish not a single stream permanent enough to reach
either the Sacramento or San Joaquin throughout the dry season.
On the eastern -side of both rivers are various important tribu-
taries, fed by the more abundant rains and melting snows of the
western flank of the Sierra; but these streams also shrink
greatly in the dry season. The Feather, emptying into the
Sacramento river about 20 m. N. of the city of Sacramento,
is the most important tributary of the Sacramento river. A
striking feature of the Sacramento system is that for 200 m.
north of the Feather it does not receive a single tributary of
any importance, though walled in by high mountains. Another
peculiar and. very general feature of the drainage system of the
state is the presence of numerous so-called river " sinks," where
the waters disappear, either directly by evaporation o* (as in
Death Valley) after flowing for a time beneath the surface.
These "sinks" are therefore not the true sinks of limestone
regions. The popular name is applied to Owen's lake, at the
end of Owen's river; to Mono lake, into which flow various
streams rising in the Sierra between Mount Dana and Castle
Peak; and to Death Valley, which contains the " sink " of the
Amargosa river, and evidently was once an extensive lake,
although now only a mud-flat in ordinary winters, and a dry,
alkaline, desert plain in summer. All these lakes, and the other
mountain lakes before referred to, show by the terraces about
them that the water stood during the glacial period much higher
than it does now. Tulare lake, which with Buena Vista lake
and Kern lake receives the drainage of the southern Sierra,
shows extreme local variations of shore-line, and is generally
believed to have shrunk extremely since 1850, though of this
no adequate proof yet exists. In 1900 it was about 200 sq. m.
in area. In wet seasons it overflows its banks and becomes
greatly extended in area, discharging its surplus waters into the
San Joaquin; but in dry seasons the evaporation is so great
that there is no such discharge. The drainage of Lassen, Siskiyou
and Modoc counties has no outlet to the sea and is collected
in a number of great alkaline lakes.
Finally along the sea below Pt. Conception are fertile coastal
plains of considerable extent, separated from the interior deserts
by various mountain ranges from 5000 to 7000 ft. high, and
with peaks much higher (San Bernardino, 11,600; San Jacinto,
10,800; San Antonio, 10,140). Unlike the northern Sierra,
the ranges of Southern California are broken down in a number
of places. It is over these passes— Soledad, 2822 ft., Cajon,
San Gorgonio, 2560 ft. — that the railways cross to the coast.
That part of California which lies to the south and east of the
southern inosculation of the Coast Range and the Sierra com-
prises an area of fully 50,000 sq. m., and belongs to the Basin
Range region. For the most part it is excessively dry and
barren. The Mohave desert — embracing Kern, Los Angeles
and San Bernardino — as also a large part of San Diego, Imperial
and Riverside counties, belong to the " Great Basin," while a
narrow strip along the Colorado river is in the " Open Basin
Region." They have no drainage to the sea, save fitfully for
slight areas through the Colorado river. The Mohave desert is
about 2000 ft. above the sea in general altitude. The southern
part of the Great Basin region is vaguely designated the Colorado
desert. In San Diego, Imperial and Riverside counties a number
of creeks or so-called rivers, with beds that are normally dry,
flow centrally toward the desert of Salton Sink or " Sea ";
this is the lowest part of a large area that is depressed below the
level of the sea, — at Salton 263 ft., and 275 ft. at the lowest point.
In 1000 the Colorado river (q.v.) was tapped south of the Mexican
boundary for water wherewith to irrigate land in the Imperial
Valley along the Southern Pacific railway, adjoining Salton Sea.
The river enlarged the canal, and finding a steeper gradient than
that to its mouth, was diverted into the Colorado desert, flooding
Salton Sea; 1 and when the break in this river was closed for
the second time in February 1007, though much of its water
still escaped through minor channels and by seepage, a lake
more than 400 sq. m. in area was left. A permanent 60 ft.
masonry dam was completed in July 1907. The region to the
east of the Sierra, likewise in the Great Basin province, between
the crest of that range and the Nevada boundary, is very moun-
tainous. Owen's river runs through it from north to south for
some 180 m. Near Owen's lake the scenery is extremely grand.
The valley here is very narrow, and on either side the mountains
rise from 7000 to 10,000 ft. above the lake and river. The Inye
range, on the east, is quite bare of timber, and its summits are
only occasionally whitened with snow for a few days during the
winter, as almost all precipitation is cut off by the higher ranges
to the westward. Still further to the east some 40 m. from the
lake is Death Valley (including Lost or Mesquite Valley) — the
name a reminder of the fate of a party of " forty-niners " who
perished here, by thirst or by starvation and exposure. Death
Valley, some 50 m. long and on an average 20-25 m - broad from
the crests of the inclosing mountain ranges (or 5-10 m. at their
base), constitutes an independent drainage basin. It is below
sea level, — in one place supposedly (1902) 480 ft. — and altogether
is one of the most remarkable physical features of California.
The mountains about it are high and bare and brilliant with
varied colours. The Amargosa river, entering the valley from
Nevada, disappears in the salty basin. Enormous quantities
of borax, already exploited, and of nitrate of soda, are known
to be present in the surrounding country, the former as almost
pure borate of lime in Tertiary lake sediments*
The physiography of the state is the evident determinant of
its climate, fauna and flora. California has the highest land
and the lowest land of the United States, the greatest variety
of temperature and rainfall, and of products of the soil.
Climate. — The climate is very different from that of the
Atlantic coast; and indeed very different from that of any part
of the country save that bordering California. Amid great
variations of local weather there are some peculiar features that
obtain all over the state. In the first place, the climate of the
entire Pacific Coast is milder and more uniform in temperature
than that of the states in corresponding latitude east of the
mountains. Thus we have to go north as far as Sitka in 57 N.
lat. to find the same mean yearly temperature as that of Halifax,
Nova Scotia, in latitude 44 39'. And going south along the
coast, we find the mean temperature of San Diego 6° or 7 less
than that of Vicksburg, Miss., or Charleston, S.C. The quantity
of total annual heat supply at Puget Sound exceeds that at
Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cleveland or Omaha, all more than
1 In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry ; in February 1906 it was
occupied by a lake 60 m. long.
%^<^^"Cg?y'*"*
CALIFORNIA
500 m.' farther south; Cape Flattery, exposed the year round
to cold ocean fogs, receives more heat than Eastport, Maine,
which is 3 farther south and has a warmer summer. In the
second place, the means of winter and summer are much nearer
the mean of the year in California than in the east. This condi-
tion of things is not so marked as one goes inward from the
coast; yet everywhere save in the high mountains the winters
are comparatively mild. In the third place, the division of the
year into two seasons — a wet one and a dry (and extremely
dusty) one — marks this portion of the Pacific Coast in the most
decided manner, and this natural climatic area coincides almost
exactly in its extension with that of California; being truly
characteristic neither of Lower California nor of the greater part
of Oregon, though more so of Nevada and Arizona. And finally,
in the fourth place, except on the coast the disagreeableness of
the heat of summer is greatly lessened by the dryness of the air
and the consequent rapidity of evaporation. Among the
peculiarities of Californian climate it is not one of the least
striking that as one leaves the Sacramento or San Joaquin plains
and travels into the mountains it becomes wanner, at least for
the first 2000 or 3000 ft. of ascent.
Along both the Coast Range and the Sierra considerable
rainfall is certain, although, owing to the slight snow accumula-
tions of the former, its streams are decidedly variable. A heavy
rain-belt, with a normal fall of more than 40 in., covers all the
northern half of the Sierra and the north-west counties; shading
off from this is the region of 10-20 in. fall, which covers all the
rest of the state save Inyo, Kern and San Bernardino counties,
Imperial county and the eastern portion of Riverside county;
the precipitation of this belt is from o to 10 in. In excessively
dry years the limits of this last division may include all of the
state below Fresno and the entire Central Valley as well. In
the mountains the precipitation increases with the altitude;
above 6000 or 7000 ft. it is almost wholly in the form of snow;
and this snow, melting in summer, is of immense importance to
the state, supplying water once for placer mining and now for
irrigation. The north-west counties are extremely wet; many
localities here have normal rainfalls of 60-70 in. and even higher
annually, while in extreme seasons as much as 125 in. falls.
Along the entire Pacific Coast, but particularly N. of San Fran-
cisco, there is a night fog from May to September. It extends
but a few miles inland, but within this belt is virtually a pro-
longation of the rainy season and has a marked effect on
vegetation. Below San Francisco the precipitation decreases
along the coast, until at San Diego it is only about 10 in. The
south-east counties are the driest portions of the United States.
At Ogilby, Volcano, Indio and other stations on the Southern
Pacific line the normal annual precipitation is from 1-5 to 2'- 5 in. ;
and there are localities near Owen's lake, even on its very edge,
that are almost dry. For days in succession when it storms
along the Southern California coasts and dense rain clouds blow
landwards to the mountains, leaving snow or rain on their
summits, it has been observed that within a few miles beyond
the ridge the contact of the desert air dissipates the remaining
moisture of the clouds into light misty masses, like a steam
escape in cold air. The extreme heat of the south-east is tempered
by the extremely low humidity characteristic of the Great Basin,
which in the interior of the two southernmost counties is very
low. The humidity of places such as Fresno, Sacramento and
Red Bluff in the valley varies from 48 to 58. Many places in
northern, southern, central, mountain and southern coastal
California normally have more than 200 perfectly clear days in a
year; and many in the mountains and in the south, even on the
coast, have more than 250. The extreme variability in the
amount of rainfall is remarkable. 1 The effects of a season of
drought on the dry portions of the state need not be adverted
to; and as there is no rain or snow of any consequence
on the mountains during summer, a succession of dry
seasons may almost bare the ranges of the accumulated stock
1 During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at
San Francisco ranged from 11-37 to 49*27 in. ; from 1850 to 1904 the
average was 22*74, and the probable annual variation 4 in.
of previous winter snows, thus making worse what is already
bad.
The Colorado desert (together with the lower Gila Valley
of Arizona) is the hottest part of the United States. Along the
line of the Southern Pacific the yearly extreme is frequently
from 124° to 129 F. (i.e. in the shade, which is almost if not
quite the greatest heat ever actually recorded in any part of the
world). At the other extreme, temperatures of — 20 to — 36
are recorded yearly on the Central (Southern) Pacific line near
Lake Tahoe. The normal annual means of the coldest localities
of the state are from 37 to 44 F.; the monthly means from
20 to 65° F. The normal annual means on Indio, Mammoth
Tanks, Salton and Volcano Springs are from 73*9° to 78-4 F.; the
monthly means from 52*8° to iox«3° (frequently 95 to 98*).
The normal trend of the annual isotherms of the state is very
simple: a low line of about 40 circles the angle in the Nevada
boundary line; 50° normally follows the northern Sierra across
the Oregon border; lines of higher temperature enclose the
Great Valley; and lines of still higher temperature — usually
6o° to 70 , in hotter years 6o° to 75 — run transversely across
the southern quarter of the state. »
Another weather factor is the winds, which are extremely
regular in their movements. There are brisk diurnal sea-breezes,
and seasonal trades and counter-trades. Along the coast an
on-shore breeze blows every summer day; in the evening it is
replaced by a night-fog, and the cooler air draws down the
mountain sides in opposition to its movement during the day.
In the upper air a dry off-shore wind from the Rocky Mountain
plateau prevails throughout the summer; and in winter an on--
shore rain wind. The last is the counter-trade, the all-year
wind of Alaska and Oregon; it prevails in winter even off
Southern California.
There is the widest and most startling variety of local climates.
At Truckee, for example, lying about 5800 ft. above the sea near
Lake Tahoe, the lowest temperature of the year may be ^25° F.
or colder, when 70 m. westward at Rocklin, which lies in the
foothills about 250 ft. above the sea, the mercury does not
fall below 28°. Snow never falls at Rocklin, but falls in large
quantity at Truckee; ice is the crop of the one, oranges of the
other, at the same time. There are points in Southern California
where one may actually look from sea to desert and from snow
to orange groves. Distance from the ocean, situation with
reference to the mountain ranges, and altitude are all important
determinants of these climatic differences; but of these the
last seems to be most important. At any rate it may be said
that generally speaking the maximum, minimum and mean
temperatures of points of approximately equal altitude are
respectively but slightly different in northern or southern
California.*
Death Valley surpasses for combined heat and aridity any
meteorological stations on earth where regular observations
are taken, although for extremes of heat it is exceeded by places
in the Colorado desert. The minimum daily temperature in
summer is rarely below 70 F. and often above 90 F. (in the
shade), while the maximum may for days in succession be
as high as 120° F. A record of 6 months (1891) showed an
average daily relative humidity of 30-6 in the morning and 15*6
in the evening, and the humidity sometimes falls to 5. Yet
the surrounding country is not devoid of vegetation. The hills
are very fertile when irrigated, and the wet season develops
a variety of perennial herbs, shrubs and annuals. m-ww
Fauna. — California embraces areas of every life-zone of
North America: of the boreal, the Hudsonian and Canadian
subzones; of the transition, the humid Pacific subzone; of
the upper austral, the arid or upper Sonoran subzone; of the
lower austral, the arid or lower Sonoran; of the tropical, the
" dilute arid " subzone. As will be inferred from the above
* The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and
Fresno, of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey
and Independence, are respectively about the same ; and all of them
lie between 56° and 63 ° F. The places mentioned are scattered over
3i° of longitude and 6i° of latitude.
V. Ifl
IO
CALIFORNIA
account of temperature, summer is longer in the north, and
localities in the Valley have more hours of heat than do those
of south California. Hence that climatic characteristic of
the entire Pacific Coast— already referred to and which is of
extreme importance in determining the life-zones of California —
the great amount of total annual heat supply at comparatively
high latitudes. A low summer temperature enables northern
species to push far southward, while the high heat total of the
year enables southern species to push far north. The resultant
intermingling of forms is very marked and characteristic of
the Pacific Coast states. The distribution of life-zones is
primarily a matter of altitude and corresponds to that of the
isotherms. The mountain goat and mountain sheep live in
the Sierran upper-land, though long ago well-nigh exterminated.
The Douglas red squirrel is ubiquitous in the Sierran forests
and their most conspicuous inhabitant. White-tailed deer
and especially black-tails are found on the high Sierra; the
mule deer, too, although its habitat is now mainly east of the
range, on the plateau, is also met with. Grizzly, black, cinnamon
and brown bears are all Californian species once common and
to-day rare. When Americans began to rule in California elk
and antelope herded in great numbers in the Great Valley;
the former may to-day sometimes be seen, possibly, in the
northern forests, and the latter occasionally cross into the state
from Nevada. The sage-hen is abundant on the eastern flank
of the Sierra. Grouse, quail, crows and woodpeckers (Melanerpes
formicivorus) furnish species characteristic of the state. There
are various species of ground-squirrels and gophers, which are
very abundant. Noteworthy in the animal life of the lower
Sonoran and tropic region are a variety of snakes and lizards,
desert rats and mice; and, among birds, the cactus wren, desert
thrasher, desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk, mocking-bird
and ground cuckoo or road runner (Geococcyx Calif ornianus).
The California vulture, the largest flying bird in North America
and fully as large as the Andean condor, is not limited to Cali-
fornia but is fairly common there. In the zoology and botany
of California as of the rest of the Pacific Coast, the distinctions
between the upper austral and humid transition zones are largely
obliterated; and as one passes southward into the arid lands,
life forms of both these zones intermingle with those of the
arid transition.
Fish are abundant. The United States fish commission, and an
active state commission established in 1869, have done much to
preserve and increase this source of food. In 1890 it was esti-
mated that the yield of the 7000 m. of coast of the three Pacific
states was about two-thirds that of New England's 500 m.,— about
$10,000,000 annually, or 23,000,000 tt> in 1890. Since then the
output has greatly increased in all three Pacific states. Of the
total, California in 1904 yielded between a quarter and a third.
A third of her fish comes from the Sacramento river. Some 230 —
more or less — marine food fishes are to be found in the market at
San Francisco. The exports of fish from that port from 1892-
1899 were valued at from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000 annually.
Native oysters are small and of peculiar flavour; eastern
varieties also are fattened, but not bred in California waters.
Shrimp are abundant; the shrimp fishers are Chinese and four-
fifths of the catch is exported to China. Sturgeon were once the
cheapest fish after salmon; to-day, despite all efforts to increase
the supply, they are the dearest. Salmon, once threatened with
extinction, have been saved, maintained in good supply, and
indeed have probably regained their pristine abundance. Shad
and striped bass are both very abundant and cheap. Black bass,
flounders, terrapin, sea-turtles, perch, turbot, sole and catfish are
also common. Great herds of seals once lay like toll-gatherers off
the Golden Gate and other bays of the coast, taking a large share
of the salmon and other fish; but they are no longer common.
The sea-lions sometimes raid the rivers for 100 m. inland. They
have greatly increased since hunting them for their hides and oil
ceased to be profitable, and thousands sometimes gather on the
Farallones, off the Golden Gate.
Flora. — Inclusiveness of range in the distribution of vegetable
Mfe is perhaps more suggestive than the distribution of animal
species. The variation is from dwarf mountain pine to giant
cactus and dates. The humid transition belt is the habitat of
California's magnificent forests. Nut pine, juniper and true
sage-brush (Artemisia tridentata) characterize the upper Sonoran,
— although the latter grows equally in the transition zone.
Cereals, orchard fruits and alfalfa are of primary importance in
the upper and of secondary importance in the lower Sonoran. In
the arid portions of this and the tropic areas the indigenous plants
are creosote, mesquite and alfileria bushes, desert acacias,
paloverdes, alkali-heath, salt grass, agaves, yuccas (especially the
Spanish-bayonet and Joshua tree) and cactuses. Among exotics
the Australian saltbush spreads successfully over the worst alkali
land. The introduction of other exotics into these zones, — made
humid by irrigation, which converts them, the one into true
austro-riparian the other into true humid tropical, — has revolu-
tionized the agricultural, and indeed the whole, economy of
California. At the two ends of Cajon Pass, only four or five
kilometres apart, are the two utterly distinct floras of the Mohave
desert and the San Bernardino valley. Despite the presence of
the pass, plants do not spread, so great is the difference of climatic
conditions. On the desert the same plant will vary in different
years from 4 in. to 10 ft. in height when equally mature, according
to the rainfall and other conditions of growth. Many mature
plants are not taller than 0-4 to o-8 in. The tree yucca often
attains a height of 20 to 25 ft., and a diameter of 1*5 ft. About
600 species of plants were catalogued in desert California in 189 1
by a government botanical party. The flora of the coast islands
of California is very interesting. On Santa Cruz Professor Joseph
Le Conte found 248 species, nearly all of which are distinctively
Californian, 48 being peculiar to the surrounding islands and 28
peculiar to Southern California. Various other things indicate a
separation of the islands from the mainland in quaternary times;
since which, owing to the later southward movement on the
continent of northern forms in glacial times, there has been a
struggle for existence on the mainland from which the islands
have largely escaped.
Forests. — The forests and agricultural crops of the state de-
mand particular notice. In 1900 the woodland was estimated
by the United States census at 22% of the state's area, and the
total stand at 200,000 million ft. of timber. The variety of forest
trees is not great, but some of the California trees are unique, and
the forests of the state are, with those of Oregon and Washington,
perhaps the most magnificent of the world. At least the coni-
ferous forests which make up nine-tenths of California's woodland
surpass all others known in number of species and in the size and
beauty of the trees. Forty-six species occur, namely, 32 species
of pitch trees (18 pines), 12 species of the cypresses and their
allies (2 sequoia), and 2 species of yews or their allies. Peculiar
to California are the two species of sequoia (q.v.) 9 — the redwood
(S. sempervirens), and the big-tree (5. gigantea), remnants of an
earlier age when they were common in other parts of the world.
The redwood grows only in a narrow strip on the Coast Range
from Southern Oregon (where there are not more than 1000 acres)
down nearly to the Golden Gate, in a habitat of heavy rains and
heavy fogs. They cover an area of about 2000 sq. m. almost
unmixed with other species. One fine grove stands S. of San
Francisco near Santa Cruz. These noble trees attain very often
a height of more than 300 ft., frequently of 350 and even more,
and a butt diameter of more than 15 to 20 ft., with clean, straight
fluted trunks rising 200 ft. below the lowest branches. They grow
in a very dense timber stand; single acres have yielded
1,500,000 ft. B.M. of lumber, and single trees have cut as high as
100,000 ft. The total stand in 1900 was estimated by the United
States census as 75,000,000,000 ft., and the ordinary stand per
acre varies from 25,000 to 150,000 ft., averaging probably 60,000
ft. The redwood is being rapidly used for lumber. There is
nowhere any considerable young growth from seed, although this
mode of reproduction is not (as often stated) unknown; the tree
will reproduce itself more than once from the stump (hence its
name) . In thirty years a tree has been known to grow to a height
of 80 ft. and a diameter of 16 in. The wood contains no pitch and
much water, and in a green condition will not burn. To this fact
CALIFORNIA
ii
it owes its immunity from the forest fires which wreak frightful
havoc among the surrounding forests. As the redwood is limited
to the Coast Range, so the big tree is limited wholly to the Sierra
Nevada. Unlike the redwood the big tree occurs in scattered
groves (ten in all) among other species. Its habitat extends
some 200 m., from latitude 36 to 39 , nowhere descending much
below an altitude of 5000 ft., nor rising above 8000 ft. The most
northerly grove and the nearest to San Francisco is the Calaveras
Grove near Stockton; the Mariposa Grove just south of the Yose-
mite National Park, is a state reservation and easily accessible
to tourists. The noblest groves are near Visalia, and are held as
a national park. The average height is about 275 ft., and the
diameter near the ground 20 ft.; various individuals stand over
300 ft, and a diameter of 25 ft. is not rare. One tree measures
3 5- 7 ft. inside the bark 4 ft. above the ground, 10 ft. at 200 ft.
above the ground, and is 325 ft. tall. Specimens have been cut
down that were estimated to be 1300 and even 2200 years old;
many trees standing are presumably 2500 years old. It is the
opinion of John Muir that the big tree would normally live 5000
years or more; that the California groves are still in their prime;
that, contrary to general ideas, the big tree was never more widely
distributed than now, at least not within the past 8000 or 10,000
years; that it is not a decaying species, but that on the contrary
" no tree of all the forest is more enduringly established in con-
cord with climate and soil," growing like the mountain pine even
on granite, and in little danger save from the greed of the lumber-
man; but other excellent authorities consider it as hardly hold-
ing its own, especially in the north. Three main wood belts cover
the flanks of the Sierra: the lower or main pine belt, the silver fir
belt, and the upper pine belt. The sugar pine, the yellow or silver
pine and the Douglas spruce (considerably smaller than in Oregon
and Washington), are rivals in stature and nobility, all attaining
200 ft. or more when full grown; and the incense cedar reaches a
height of 1 50 ft. In this belt and the following one of firs the big
tree also grows. The white silver fir {obits cauccla) and the silver
or red fir (ab. magnified), standing 200 to 250 ft., make up almost
wholly the main forest belt from 5000 to 0000 ft. for some 450 m.
Above the firs come the tamarack, constituting the bulk of the
lower Alpine forest; the hardy long-lived mountain pine; the
red cedar or juniper, growing even on the baldest rocks; the
beautiful hemlock spruce; the still higher white pine, nut pine,
needle pine; and finally, at 10,000 to 12,000 ft., the dwarf pine,
which grows in a tangle on the earth over which one walks, and
may not show for a century's growth more than a foot of height
or an inch of girth. The Nevada slope of the mountains below 7 500
ft. is covered with the nut pine down to the sage plains. Its nuts
are gathered in enormous amounts by the Indians for food; and
it is estimated that the yearly harvest of these nuts exceeds in
bulk that of all the cereals of California (John Muir). On the
Sierra the underbrush is characterized by the pungent manzanita,
the California buckeye and the chamiso; the last two growing
equally abundantly on the Coast Range. The chamiso and the
manzanita, with a variety of shrubby oaks and thorny plants,
often grow together in a dense and sometimes quite impenetrable
undergrowth, forming what is known as " chaparral "; if the
chamiso occurs alone the thicket is a " chamisal." The elm, the
hickory, the beech, the chestnut, and many others of the most
characteristic and useful trees of the eastern states were originally
entirely wanting in California. Oaks are abundant; they are
especially characteristic of the Great Valley, where they grow in
magnificent groves. Up to 19x0 national forest reserves amounted
to 27,968,510 acres. In 1009 Congress created a national forest
to include the big tree groves in Calaveras and Tuolumne counties.
One of the noblest redwood areas (that of Santa Cruz county) is
a state reservation (created in 1901). Even within reservations
almost all the merchantable timber is owned by private in-
dividuals. In addition to native trees many others-— especially
ornamental species— have been successfully introduced from
various parts of the world.
Soil. — Sand and loams in great variety, grading from mere
sand to adobe, make up the soils of the state. The plains of
the north-east counties are volcanic, and those of the south-east
sandy. It is impossible to say with accuracy what part of the
state may properly be classed as tillable. The total farm acreage
in 1900 was 28,828,951 acres, of which 41*5% were improved;
since 1880 the absolute amount of improved land has remained
practically constant, despite the extraordinary progress of the
state in these years. Much land is too rough, too elevated
or too arid ever to be made agriculturally available; but irriga-
tion, and the work of the state and national agricultural bureaus
in introducing new plants and promoting scientific farming,
have accomplished much that once seemed impossible. The
peculiarities of the climate, especially its division into two
seasons, make Californian (and Southern Arizona) agriculture
very different from that of the rest of the country. During the
winter no shelter is necessary for live-stock, nor, during summer,
for the grains that are harvested in June and July, and may lie
for weeks or months in the field. The mild, wet winter is the
season of planting and growth, and so throughout the year there
is a succession of crops. The dangers of drought in the long dry
seasons particularly increase the uncertainties of agriculture in
regions naturally arid. Irrigation was introduced in Southern
California before 1780, but its use was desultory and its spread
slow till after 1850. In 1900 almost 1 ,500,000 acres were irrigated
— an increase of 46% since 1800. About half of this total was
in San Joaquin Valley. California has the greatest area of
irrigated land of any state in the Union, and offers the most
complete utilization of resources. In the south artesian wells,
and in the Great Valley the rivers of the Sierra slope, are the
main source of water-supply. On nearly all lands irrigated
some crops will grow in ordinary seasons without irrigation, but
it is this that makes possible selection of crops; practically
indispensable for all field and orchard culture in the south,
save for a few moist coastal areas, it everywhere increases the
yield of all crops and is practised generally all over the state.
Of the acreage devoted to alfalfa in 1899, 76-2 % was irrigated;
of that devoted to subtropical fruits, 71*7%. Small fruits,
orchard fruits, hay, garden products and grains are decreasingly
dependent on irrigation; wheat, which was once California's
great staple, is (for good, but not for best results) comparatively
independent of it,— hence its early predominance in Californian
agriculture, due to this success on arid lands since taken over
for more remunerative irrigated crops.
Agriculture. — The spread of irrigation and of intensive cultiva-
tion, and the increase of small farms during the last quarter of
the 19th century, have made California what it is to-day. Agri-
culture had its beginning in wheat-raising on great ranches,
from 50,000 even to several hundred thousand acres in extent.
A few of these, particularly in the Great Valley, are still worked,
but only a few. The average size of farms in 1850 (when the
large Mexican grants were almost the only farms, and these
unbroken) was 4466 acres; in i860 it was 466-4, and in 1900
only 397*4 acres. Stock ranches, tobacco plantations, and hay
and grain farms, average from 800 to 530 acres, and counteract
the tendency of dairy farms, beet plantations, orchards, vegetable
gardens and nurseries to lower the size of the farm unit still
further. The renting of large holdings prevails to a greater
extent than in any other state except Texas. From 1880 to
1900 the number of farms above 500 and below 1000 acres
doubled; half of the total in 1900 were smaller than 100 acres.
The most remunerative and most characteristic farming to-day
is diversified and intensive and on small holdings. The essential
character of California's economic life has been determined
by the successive predominance of grass, gold, grain and fruits.
Omitting the second it may be truly said that the order of
agricultural development has been mainly one of blind experi-
ment or fortuitous circumstances. Staple products have changed
with increasing knowledge of climatic conditions, of life-zones
and of the fitness of crops; first hides and tallow, then wool,
wheat, grapes (which in the early eighteen-nineties were the
leading fruit), deciduous orchard fruits, and semi-tropical citrus
fruits successively. Prunes were introduced in 1854, but their
possibilities were only slightly appreciated for some thirty years.
Of various other crops much the same is true. Of late years
12
CALIFORNIA
progress has been very intelligent; in earlier years it was gained
through a multitude of experiments and failures, and great
pecuniary loss, and progress was a testimonial chiefly to courage
and perseverance. The possibilities of the lower Sonoran and
tropical areas are still imperfectly known. Nature has been
niggard of rain but lavish in soil and sun. Irrigation has shown
that with water, arid and barren plains, veritable deserts may
be made to bloom with immense wealth of semi-tropical fruits;
and irrigation in the tropical area along the Colorado river,
which is so arid that it naturally bears only desert vegetation,
has made it a true humid-tropical region like Southern Florida,
growing true tropical fruits.
In 1900 California ranked eleventh among the states in total
value of farm property ($796,527,955) and in 1899 fourteenth
in the value of farm products ($131,690,606). The growth of
the former from 1890 to 1900 was only 2-5%, one of the
smallest increases among all the states.
.,, The pastoral period extended from 1769 to 1848. The live-
stock industry was introduced by the Franciscans and flourished
exceedingly. In 1834, when the missions had already passed
their best days, there were some 486,000 cattle, horses, mules
and asses on the ranges, and 325,000 small animals, principally
sheep. Throughout the pre-American period stock-raising
was the leading industry; it built up the prosperity of the
missions, largely supported the government and almost ex-
clusively sustained foreign commerce. Hides and tallow were
the sum and substance of Californian economy. Horses were
slaughtered wholesale at times to make way for cattle on the
ranges. There was almost no dairying; olive oil took the place
of butter, and wine of milk, at the missions; and in general
indeed the Mexicans were content with water. In the develop-
ment of the state under the American regime the live-stock
industry has been subordinate. A fearful drought in 1862-1864
greatly depressed it, and especially discouraged cattle ranching.
Sheep then became of primary importance, until the increase
of the flocks threatened ranges and forests with destruction.
As late as 1876 there were some 7,000,000 sheep, in 1900 only
2,581,000, and in 1906 only 1,750,000. In the total value of
all live stock (5,402,297 head) in 1900 ($65,000,000) the rank of
the state was 15th in the Union, and in value of dairy products
in 1899 (12*84 million dollars) 12th. The live-stock industry
showed a tendency to decline after 1890, and the dairy industry
also, despite various things — notably irrigation and alfalfa
culture — that have favoured them.
Cereals replaced hides and tallow in importance after 1848.
Wheat was long California's greatest crop. Its production
steadily increased till about 1884, the production in 1880, the
banner year, being more than 54 million bushels (32,537,360
centals). Since 1884 its production has markedly fallen off;
in 1905 the wheat crop was 17,542,013 bushels, and in 1906,
26,883,662 bushels (valued at $20,162,746). There has been a
general parallelism between the amount of rain and the amount
of wheat produced; but as yet irrigation is little used for this
crop. In the eighth decade of the 19th century, the value of the
wheat product had come to exceed that of the annual output
of gold. Barley has always been very important. The acreage
given to it in 1899 was one-fourth the total cereal acreage, and
San Francisco in 1 902-1 904 was the shipping point of the larger
part of American exported barley, of (roughly) three-quarters
in 1902, seven-eighths in 1903 and four-fifths in 1904. In 1906
California produced 38,760,000 bushels of barley, valued at
$20,930,400. The great increase in the acreage of barley, which
was 22*5% of the country's barley acreage in 1906, and 24-2%
in 1905, is one reason for the decreased production of wheat.
The level nature of the great grain farms of the valley led to the
utilization of machinery of remarkable character. Combined
harvesters (which enter a field of standing grain and leave this
grain piled in sacks ready for shipment), steam gang-ploughs,
and other farm machinery are of truly extraordinary size and
efficiency. In 1899 cereals represented more than a third of the
total crop acreage and crop product ($93,<*4*>334) of the state.
Wheat and other cereals are in part cut for hay, and the hay crop
of 1906 was 1,133)465 tons, valued at $12,751,481. California
is one of the leading hop-producing states of the Union, the
average annual production since 1901 being more than 10,000,000
lb. The product of sugar beets increased between 1888 and
1902 from 1910 to 73,761 tons (according to the state board of
trade), and in 1909 (according to the department of agriculture)
it was 882,084 tons, from which 254,544,000 lb of sugar was
manufactured. In this industry California in 1909 ranked
second to Colorado. Truck gardening for export is an
assured industry, especially in the north. Great quantities of
vegetables, fresh and canned, are shipped yearly, and the same
is true on a far larger scale of fruit. Vegetable exports more
than doubled between 1894 and 1903. In 1899 hay and grain
represented slightly more than a third of the farm acreage
and capital and also of the value of all farm products;
live-stock and dairy farms represented slightly more than
half the acreage, and slightly under 30 % of the capital and
produce; fruit farms absorbed 6-2 % of the acreage and 27 %
of the capital, and returned 22*5% of the value of farm
produce.
FruU-growing. — Horticulture is now the principal industry,
and in this field California has no rival in the United States,
although ranking after Florida in the growth of some tropical
or semi-tropical fruits, — pineapples, guava, limes, pomeloes or
grape-fruit and Japanese persimmons. In 1899 California's
output of fruit was more than a fifth of that of the whole Union.
The supremacy of the state is established in the growth of oranges,
lemons, citrons, olives, figs, almonds, Persian (or English)
walnuts, plums and prunes, grapes and raisins, nectarines,
apricots and pomegranates; it also leads in pears and peaches*
but here its primacy is not so assured. Southern California
by no means monopolizes the warm-zone fruits. Oranges*
lemons and walnuts come chiefly from that section, but citrus
fruits grow splendidly in the Sierra foothills of the Sacramento
Valley, and indeed ripen earlier there than in the southern
district. Almonds, as well as peaches, pears, plums, cherries
and apricots, come mainly from the north. Over half of &&.
prune crop comes from Santa Clara county, and the bulk of the
raisin output from Fresno county. Olives thrive as far north
as the head of the Great Valley, growing in all the valleys and
foothills up to 1500 or 2000 ft. They were introduced by the
Franciscans (as were various other subtropical fruits, pears and
grapes), but their scientific betterment and commercial import-
ance date from about 1885. They grow very abundantly and of
the finest quality; for many years poor methods of preparation
prejudiced the market against the Californian product, but this
has ceased to be the case. The modern orange industry practic-
ally began with the introduction into Southern California in 1873
of two seedless orange trees from Brazil; from their stock have
been developed by budding millions of trees bearing a seedless
fruit known as the " Washington navel," which now holds first
rank in American markets; other varieties, mainly seedlings,
are of great but secondary importance. Shipments continue
the year round. There has been more than one horticultural
excitement in California, but especially in orange culture, which
was for a time almost as epidemic a fever as gold seeking once
was. By reason of the co-operative effort demanded for the
large problems of irrigation, packing and marketing, the citrus
industry has done much for the permanent development of the
state, and its extraordinary growth made it, towards the close
of the 19th century, the most striking and most potent single
influence in the growth of agriculture. State legislation has
advanced the fruit interest in all possible ways. Between 1872
and 1903 exports of canned fruits increased from 91 to 94,205
short tons; between 1880 and 1903 the increase of dried fruit ex-
ports was from 295 to 149,531 tons; of fresh deciduous fruits, from
2590 to 101,199; of raisins, from 400 to 39,963; of citrus fruits,
from 458 to 299,623; of wines and brandies between 1891 and
1903, from 47,651 to 97,332 tons. Of the shipments in 1903
some 44 % were from Southern California, — i.e. from the seven
southernmost counties.
Grape culture has a great future in California. Vines were
CALIFORNIA
*3
first introduced by the Franciscans in 177 1 from Spain, and
until after i860 " Mission " grapes were practically the only stock
in California. Afterwards many hundred^ of European varieties
were introduced with great success. " The state has such a
variety of soil, slope, elevation, temperature and climatic
conditions as to reproduce, somewhere within its borders, any
wine now manufactured" (United States Census, 1900); but
experience has not as yet divided the state into districts of
specialized produce, nor determined just how far indigenous
American vines may profitably be used, either as base or graftings,
with European varieties. Grapes are grown very largely over
the state. Raisins do well as far north as Yolo county, but do
best in Madera, Fresno, Kings, Tulare and San Diego counties.
The product is more than sufficient for the markets of the
United States. Dry wine grapes do best in the counties around
San Francisco Bay, on unirrigated lands; while sweet wine
stocks do best in Yolo, San Joaquin and the counties of the
raisin grape, and on irrigated lands. In 1 900 California produced
about three-fifths in value ($3,937,871) and in 1905 the same
proportion ($6,688,620) of the wine output of the United
States. The value of product more than sextupled from 1880
to 1900. In quantity the product was more than four times the
combined product of all other states. The better California
wines ^re largely sold under French labels. Brandies are an
important product. They are made chiefly from grapes, and
are used to fortify wines. It was officially estimated that in the
spring of 1004 there were some 227,000 acres of vineyards in
die state, of which exactly five-tenths were in wine grapes and
four-tenths in raisin grapes.
Gold. — Between the pastoral period and the era of wheat was
the golden epoch of Californian history. The existence of gold
had long been suspected, and possibly known, in California before
1848, and there had been desultory washings in parts where
there was very little to reward prospectors. The first perfectly
authenticated discovery was made near Los Angeles in 1842.
The discovery of real historical importance was made in January
1848 (the 24th is the correct date) at John A. Sutter's mill, on
the south fork of the American river near Coloma, by a workman,
James W. Marshall (1810-1885). His monument now marks
the spot. From 1848 to the 1st of January 1903, according to
the state mining bureau, California produced $i,379> 2 75»4°8
in gold. There were two periods of intense excitement. The
first ended in 1854, at which time there was a decided reaction
throughout the United States in regard to mining matters.
The Californian discoveries had given rise to a general search
for metalliferous deposits in the Atlantic states, and this had
been followed by wild speculations. At the time of their greatest
productiveness, from 1850 to 1853, the highest yield of the
washings was probably not less than $65,000,000 a year; accord-
ing to the state mining bureau the average production from
1851-1854 was $73>57o,°87 ($81,294,270 in 1852, the banner
year), and from 1850-1861 $55,882,861, never falling below
$50,000,000. The estimates of other competent authorities
differ considerably, and generally are somewhat less generous
than these figures.
At first the diggings were chiefly along the rivers. These
were "flumed," — that is, the water was diverted by wooden
flumes from the natural channel and the sand and gravel
in the bed were washed. All the " gulches " or ravines lead-
ing down into the canyons were also worked over, with or
without water. These were the richest " placers," but in them
the gold was very unequally distributed. Those who first got
possession of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, Feather,
Stanislaus and the other smaller streams in the heart of the
gold region, made sometimes from $1000 to $5000 a day; but
after one rich spot was worked out it might be days or weeks
before another was found. In 1848 $5oo-$70o a day was not
unusual luck; but, on the other hand, the income of the great
majority of miners was certainly far less than that of men who
seriously devoted themselves to trade or even to common
labour. Many extraordinary nuggets were found, varying
from $ 1 000 to $ 20,000 in value. The economic stimulus given by
such times may be imagined. For several years gold-dust was
a regular circulating medium in the cities as well as in the mining
districts of the state. An ounce of dust in 1848 frequently went
for $4 instead of $17; for a number of years traders in dust
were sure of a margin of several dollars, as for example in private
coinage, mints for which were common by 1851. From the
record of actual exports and a comparison of the most authori-
tative estimates of total production, it may be said that from
1848 to 1856 the yield was almost certainly not less than
$450,000,000, and that about 1870 the billion dollar mark had
been passed. Just at this time came the highest point and the
sudden fall of the second great mining fever of the state. This
was a stock speculation based on the remarkable output
($300,000,000 in 20 years) of the silver " bonanzas " of the
Comstock lode at Virginia City, Nevada, which were opened
and financed by San Francisco capitalists. The craze pervaded
all classes. Shares that at first represented so many dollars
per foot in a tangible mine were multiplied and remultiplied
until they came to represent paper thicknesses or almost nothing,
yet still their prices mounted upward. In April 1872 came the
revulsion; there was a shrinkage of $60,000,000 in ten days;
then in 1873 a tremendous advance, and in 1875 a final and
disastrous collapse; in ten years thereafter the stock of the
Comstock lode shrank from $3,000,000 to $2,000,000. This
Comstock fever belongs to Californian rather than to Nevadan
history, and is one of the most extraordinary in mining
annals.
First the " rocker," then the " torn," the " flume," and the
hydraulic stream were the tools of the miner. Into the " rocker "
and the " torn " the miner shovelled dirt, rocking it as he poured
in water, catching the gold on riffles set across the bottom of his
box; thus imitating in a wooden box the work of nature in the
rivers. The " flume " enabled him to dry the bed of a stream
while he worked over its gravels. The hydraulic stream came
into use as early as 1852 (or 1853) when prospecting of the
higher ground made it certain that the " deep " or " high "
gravels — i.e. the detrital deposits of tertiary age — contained
gold, though in too small quantities to be profitably worked in
the ordinary way. The hydraulic process received an immense
development through successive improvements of method and
machinery. In this method tremendous blasts of powder,
sometimes twenty-five or even fifty tons, were used to loosen the
gravel, which was then acted on by the jet of water thrown from
the " pipes." To give an idea of the force of the agent thus
employed it may be stated that when an eight-inch nozzle is
used under a heavy head, more than 3000 ft. may be discharged
in a minute with a velocity of 150 ft. per second. The water as
it thus issues from the nozzle feels to the touch like metal, and
the strongest man cannot sensibly affect it with a crowbar.
A gravel bank acted on by such tremendous force crumbled
rapidly, and the disintegrated material could be run readily
through sluices to the " dumps." Hydraulic mining is no longer
practised on the scale of early days. The results were wonderful
but disastrous, for the " dumps " were usually river-beds.
From 1 870-1879 the bed of Bear river was raised in places in its
lower course 97 ft. by the detritus wash of the hydraulic mines,
and that of Sleepy Hollow Creek 136 ft. The total filling up to
that time on the streams in this vicinity had been from 100 to
250 ft., and many thousand acres of fine farming land were
buried under gravel, — some 16,000 on the lower Yuba alone.
For many years the mining interests were supreme, and agri-
culture, even after it had become of great importance, was
invariably worsted when the two clashed; but in 1884 the long
and bitter " anti-debris " or " anti-slickins " fight ended in favour
of the farmers. In 1893 the United States government created
a California D6bris Commission, which has acted in unison with
the state authorities. Permits for hydraulic mining are granted
by the commission only when all gravel is satisfactorily
impounded and no harm is done to the streams; and the
improvement of these, which was impossible so long as limits
were not set to hydraulic mining, can now be effectively advanced.
Quartz mining began as early as 1851 . In 1908 about five-eighth*
i6
CALIFORNIA
are mentioned, not as of particular importance in themselves,
but as exceptions of some moment to the usual type of state
Constitutions (see United States). The Australian ballot was
introduced in 1891 . In local government there are no deviations
from the usual types that demand notice. In the matter of
liquor-laws there is local option, and a considerable proportion
of the towns and smaller cities, particularly in the south, adopt
prohibition. In most of the rest high licence is more or less
strictly enforced.
The total assessed valuation of property grew from
$666,300,985 in 1880 to $1,217,648,683 in 1000 and
$1,879,728,763 in 1907. In 1904, when the U.S. Census Report
showed California to be the twenty-first state of the Union in
population but the sixth in wealth, the total estimated true
value of all property was $4,115,491,106, of which $2,664,472,025
was the value of real property and improvements thereon.
The per capita wealth of the state was then reported as $2582.32,
being exceeded only by the three sparsely settled states of
Montana, Wyoming and Nevada. In 1898 California had the
largest savings-bank deposit per depositor ($637.75) of anv
state in the Union; the per caput deposit was $110 in 1902, and
about one person in seven was a depositor. The state bonded debt
in 1907 amounted to three and a half million dollars, of which all
but $767,529.03 was represented by bonds purchased by the state
and held for the school and university funds; for the common
school fund on the 1st of July 1907 there were held bonds for
$4,890,950, and $800,000 in cash available for investment; for
the university fund there were held $751,000 in state bonds,
and a large amount in other securities. The total bonded county
indebtedness was $4,879,600 in 1906 (not including that of San
Francisco, a consolidated city and county, which was $4,568,600).
A homestead, entered upon record and limited to a value of
$5000 if held by the head of a family and to a value of $1000
if held by one not the head of a family, is exempt from liability for
debts,except for a mortgage, a lien before it was claimed as a home-
stead or a lien afterward for improvements. A homestead held by
a married man cannot be mortgaged without consent of his wife.
Under an act approved on the 25th of March 1903 a state
board of charities and corrections, — consisting of six members,
not more than three being of the same political party, appointed
by the governor, with the advice and consent of the senate,
and holding office for twelve years, two retiring at the end of each
quadrennium, — investigates, examines, and makes " reports
upon the charitable, correctional and penal institutions of the
state," excepting the Veterans' Home at Yountville, Napa
county, and the Woman's Relief Corps Home at Evergreen,
Santa Clara county. There are state prisons with convicts
working under the public account system, at San Quentin,
Marin county, and Folsom, Sacramento county. The Preston
(Sonoma county) School of Industry, for older boys, and the
Whittier (Los Angeles county) State School, for girls and for
boys under sixteen, are the state reformatories, each having
good industrial and manual training departments. There are
state hospitals for the insane at Agnew, Santa Clara county;
at Stockton, San Joaquin county; at Napa, Napa county; at
Patton, San Bernardino county; and, with a colony of tuber-
cular patients, at Ukiah, Mendocino county. In 1906 the ratio of
insane confined to institutions, to the total population, was
1 to every 270. Also under state control are the home for care
and training of feeble-minded children, at Eldridge, Sonoma
county; the institution for the deaf and the blind at Berkeley,
and the home of mechanical trades for the adult blind at Oakland.
A Juvenile Court Law was enacted in 1903 and modified in 1905.
The educational system of California is one of the best in the
country. The state board of education is composed of the
governor of the state, who is its president; the superintendent of
public instruction, who is its secretary; the presidents of the
five normal schools and of the University of California, and the
professor of pedagogy in the university. Sessions are long in
primary schools, and attendance was made compulsory in 1874
(and must not be less than two- thirds of all school days). The
♦ate controlled the actual preparation and sale of text-books
for the common schools from 1885 to 1903, when the Perry
amendment to the constitution (ratified by popular vote in 1884)
was declared to mean that such text-books must be manufactured
within the state, but that the texts need not be prepared in
California. The experiment of state-prepared text-books was
expensive, and its effect was bad on the public school system,
as such text-books were almost without exception poorly written
and poorly printed. After 1003 copyrights were leased by the
state. Secondary schools are closely affiliated with, and closely
inspected by, the state university. All schools are generously
supported, salaries are unusually good, and pension funds in all
cities are authorized by state laws. The value of school
property in 1900 was $19,135,722, and the expenditure for
the public schools $6,195,000; in 1906 the value of school
property was $29,013,150, and the expenditure for public
schools $10,815,857. The average school attendance for all
minors of school age (5-20 years) was 59*9%; of those native-born
61 • 5, of those foreign-born 34-6; of coloured children, including
Asiatics and Indians, 35*8, and of white, 6o*8 %. In 1900, 6*2 %
of the males of voting age, and 2*4% of the native-born males of
voting age, were illiterate (could not write). Some 3% of the
total population could not speak English; Chinese and Japanese
constituting almost half of the number, foreign-born whites
somewhat less, and Indians and native-born whites of foreign
parentage together less than a tenth of the total. Of the higher
educational institutions of the state the most important are the
state university at Berkeley and Leland Stanford Jr. University
at Palo Alto. The former is supported with very great liberality
by the state; and the latter, the endowment of which is private
(the state, however, exempting it from taxation), is one of the
richest educational institutions of America. In 1006 there were
also five state normal schools (at Chico, Los Angeles, San Diego,
San Francisco, and San Jos6), and a considerable number of
denominational colleges. There is also a state polytechnic
school at San Luis Obispo (1903).
History. — The name " California " was taken from Ordofiez de
Montalvo's romance of chivalry Las Sergas de Esplandian
(Madrid, 1 510) , in which is told of black Amazons ruling an island
of this name " to the right of the Indies, very near the quarter
of the terrestrial paradise." The name was given to the unknown
north-west before 1540. It does not show that the namers were
prophets or wise judges, for the Spaniards really knew California
not at all for more than two centuries, and then only as a genial
but rather barren land; but it shows that the conquistadores
mixed poetry with business and illustrates the glamour thrown
about the " Northern Mystery." Necessarily the name had for
a long time no definite geographical meaning. The lower
Colorado river was discovered in 1540, but the explorers did not
penetrate California; in 1 542-1 543 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
explored at least the southern coast; in 1579 Sir Francis Drake
repaired his ships in some Californian port (almost certainly not
San Francisco Bay), and named the land New Albion; two
Philippine ships visited the coast in 1584 and 1595, and in 1602
and 1603 Sebastian Vizcaino discovered the sites of San Diego
and Monterey. There was apparently no increase of knowledge
thereafter for 150 years. Most of this time California was
generally supposed to be an island or a group of islands. Jesuit
missionaries entered Lower California as early as 1697, maintain-
ing themselves there until Charles III.'s expulsion in 1767 of all
Jesuits from his dominions; but not until Russian explorations
in Alaska from 1 745-1 765 did the Spanish government show
interest in Upper California. Because of these explorations, and
also the long-felt need of a refitting point on the'; California coast
for the galleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769
and Monterey in 1770 as a result of urgent orders from Charles
III. San Francisco Bay was discovered in the former year. Mean-
while the Jesuit property in the Peninsula had been turned over
to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the Dominicans took over the
missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly withdrew to Upper
California, where they were to thrive remarkably for some fifty
years.
This is the mission period — or from an economic standpoint,
CALIFORNIA
x 7
the pastoral period — of Californian history. In all, twenty-one
missions were established between 1 769 and 1823. The
2^** leader in this movement was a really remarkable man,
missioaM. Miguel Jos6 Serra (known as Jumper© Serra, 17 13-
1784), a friar of very great ability, purest piety, and
tireless zeal. He possessed great influence in Mexico and Madrid.
" The theory of the mission system," says H. H. Bancroft, " was
to make the savages work out their own salvation and that of
the priests also." The last phrase scarcely does justice to the
truly humane and devout intentions of the missionaries; but in
truth the mission system was a complete failure save in the
accumulation of material wealth. Economically the missions
were the blood and life of the province. At them the neophytes
worked up wool, tanned hides, prepared tallow, cultivated hemp
and wheat, raised a few oranges, made soap, some iron and
leather articles, mission furniture, and a very little wine and olive
oil. Such as it was, this was about the only manufacturing or
handicraft in California. Besides, the hides and tallow yielded
by the great herds of cattle at the missions were the support of
foreign trade and did much toward paying the expenses of the
government. The Franciscans had no sympathy for profane
knowledge, even among the Mexicans, — sometimes publicly
burning quantities of books of a scientific or miscellaneous
nature; and the reading of F&ielon's T&tmaque brought ex-
communication on a layman. As for the intellectual develop-
ment of the neophytes the mission system accomplished nothing;
save the care of their souls they received no instruction, they
were virtually slaves, and were trained into a fatal dependence,
so that once coercion was removed they relapsed at once into
barbarism. It cannot be said, however, that Anglo-Americans
have done much better for them.
The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico following 1808
made little stir in this far-off province. Joseph was never
recognized, and allegiance was sworn to Ferdinand (1809).
When revolution broke out in Mexico (181 1), California remained
loyal, suffering much by the cessation of supplies from Mexico,
the resulting deficits falling as an added burden upon the missions.
The occupation of Monterey for a few hours by a Buenos Aires
privateer (18 18) was the only incident of actual war that Cali-
fornia saw in all these years; and it, in truth, was a ridiculous
episode, fit introduction to the bloodless play-wars, soon to be
inaugurated in Californian politics. In 1820 the Spanish con-
stitution was duly sworn to in California, and in 1822 allegiance
was given to Mexico. Under the Mexican Federal constitution
of 1824 Upper California, first alone (it was made a distinct
province in 1804) and then with Lower California, received
representation in the Mexican congress.
The following years before American occupation may be divided
into two periods of quite distinct interest. From about 1840 to
1848 foreign relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to
1840 there is a complicated and not uninteresting movement of
local politics and a preparation for the future, — the missions fall,
republicanism grows, the sentiment of local patriotism becomes a
political force, there is a succession of sectional controversies and
personal struggles among provincial chiefs, an increase of foreign
commerce, of foreign immigration and of foreign influence.
The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in
sympathies. They viewed with displeasure and foreboding the
fall of Iturbide's empire and the creation of the republic. They
were not treasonable, but talked much, refusing allegiance to
the new government; and as they controlled the resources of
the colony and the good will of the Indians, they felt their
strength against the local authority; besides, they were its
constant benefactors. But secularization was in harmony with
the growth of republican ideas. There was talk in California of
the rights of man and neophytes, and of the sins of friars. The
missions were never intended to be permanent. The mission-
aries were only the field workers sent out to convert and civilize
the Indians, who were to be turned over then to the regular
clergy, the monks pushing further onward into new fields. This
was the well-established policy of Spain. In 1813 the Spanish
Cortes ordered the secularization of all missions in America that
were ten years old, but this decree was not published in California
until 182 1. After that secularization was the burning question
in Californian politics. In 1826 a beginning toward it was made
in partially emancipating the neophytes, but active and thorough
secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835
it was consummated at sixteen missions out of twenty-one, and
by 1840 at all. At some of the missions the monks acted later
as temporary curates for the civil authorities, until in 184 5-1 846
all the missions were sold by the government. Unfortunately
the manner of carrying it out discredited a policy neither unjust
nor bad in itself, increasing its importance in the political
struggles of the time. The friars were in no way mistreated:
Calif ornians did not share Mexican resentments against Spaniards,
and the national laws directed against these were in the main
quietly ignored in the province. In 1831 the mission question
led to a rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor
Manuel Victoria. He was driven out of the province.
This was the first of the oplra bouffe wars. The causes
underlying them were serious enough. In the first place, there
was a growing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accom-
plished nothing tangible for good in California, — although its
plans were as excellent as could be asked had there only been
peace and means to realize them; however, it made the mistake
of sending convicts as soldiers. Californians were enthusiastic
republicans, but found the benefits of republicanism slow in
coming. The resentment of the Franciscans, the presence of
these and other reactionaries and of Spaniards, the attitude of
foreign residents, and the ambitions of leading Californian
families united to foment and propagate discontent. The
feeling against Mexicans — those "de la otra banda" as they
were significantly termed — invaded political and even social
life. In the second place, there was growing jealousy between
northern towns and southern towns, northern families and
southern families. These entered into disputes over the location
of the capital and the custom-house, in the Franciscan question
also (because the friars came some from a northern and some
from a southern college), and in the question of the distribution
of commands in the army and offices in the civil government.
Then there was the mission question; this became acuter about
1833 when the friars began to destroy, or sell and realize on, the
mission property. The next decade was one of plunder and ruin
in mission history. Finally there was a real growth of republic-
anism, and some rulers — notably Victoria — were wholly out of
sympathy with anything but personal, military rule. From all
these causes sprang much unrest and considerable agitation.
In 1 8 28- 1 8 29 there was a revolution of unpaid soldiers aided
by natives, against alleged but not serious abuses, that really
aimed at the establishment of an independent native government.
In 1 83 1 Governor Victoria was deposed; in 1836 Governor
Mariano Chico was frightened out of the province; in 1836
Governor Nicolas Gutierrez and in 1 844-1 845 Governor Manuel
Micheltoreria were driven out of office. The leading natives
headed this last rising. There was talk of independence,
but sectional and personal jealousies could not be over-
come. In all these wars there was not enough blood shed to
discolour a sword. The rising of 1836 against Gutierrez seems
to-day most interesting, for it was in part a protest against the
growth of federalism in Mexico. California was even deferred
to as (declared to be seems much too strong a statement) an
Estado Libre y Soberano; and from 1836 to 1838, when the
revolutionary governor, Juan B. Alvarado, was recognized by
the Mexican government, which had again inclined to federalism
and, besides, did not take the matter very seriously, the local
government rested simply on local sentiment. The satisfaction
of this ended all difficulties.
By this time foreign influence was showing itself of importance.
Foreign commerce, which of course was contraband, being
contrary to all Spanish laws, was active by the begin- ^^ ^
ning of the 19th century. It was greatly stimulated immign^,
during the Spanish-American revolutions (the Lima ih>a.
and Panama trade dating from about 1813), for, as the
Californian authorities practically ignored the law. smuggling
20
CALIFORNIA
the struggle for the exclusion of the Chinese, for the control of
hydraulic mining, irrigation, and the advancement by state-aid
of the fruit interests; the last three of which have already been
referred to above. Labour conditions were peculiar in the
decade following 1870. Mining, war times and the building of
the Central Pacific had up to then inflated prices and prosperity.
Then there came a slump; probably the truth was rather that
money was becoming less unnaturally abundant than that there
was any over-supply of labour. The turning off of some 15,000
Chinese (principally in 1 860-1870) from the Central Pacific lines
who flocked to San Francisco, augmented the discontent of
incompetents, of disappointed late immigrants, and the reaction
from flush times. Labour unions became strong and demon-
strative. In 1877-1878 Denis Kearney (1847-1007), an Irish
drayman and demagogue of considerable force and daring,
- Jieaded the discontented. This is called the " sand-lots agita-
tion " from the favourite meeting-place (in San Francisco) of
the agitators.
The outcome of these years was the Constitution of 1879,
already described, and the exclusion of Chinese by national law.
In 1879 California voted against further immigration of Chinese
by 154,638 to 883. Congress re-enacted exclusion legislation in
1002. All authorities agree that the Chinese in early years were
often abused in the mining country and their rights most un-
justly neglected by the law and its officers. Men among the
most respected in California (Joaquin Miller, H. H. Bancroft
and others) have said most in praise and defence of the Chinaman.
From railroad making to cooking he has proved his abilities
and trustworthiness. He is found to-day in the mines and
fisheries, in various lines of manufacture, in small farming, and
in all branches of domestic service. The question of the economic
development of the state, and of trade to the Orient, the views
of the mercenary labour-contractor and of the philanthropist,
the factor of " upper-race " repugnance, the " economic-leech"
argument, the " rat-rice-filth-and-opium " argument, have all
entered into the problem. Certain it is that though the unpre-
judiced must admit that exclusion has not been at all an unmixed
blessing, yet the consensus of opinion is that a large population,
non-citizen and non-assimilable, sending — it is said — most of
their earnings to China, living in the main meanly at best, and
practically without wives, children or homes, is socially and
economically a menace outweighing the undoubted convenience
of cheaper (and frequently more trustworthy) menial labour
than the other population affords. The exclusion had much to
do with making the huge single crop ranches unprofitable and in
leading to their replacement by small farms and varied crops.
Many of the Chinese now in the state are wealthy. Race feeling
against them has become much less marked.
One outcome of early mission history, the " Pious Fund of
the Calif ornias," claimed in 1902 the attention of the Hague
Tribunal. (See Arbitration, International, Hague cases
section.) In 1906-1007 there was throughout the state a re-
markable anti-Japanese agitation, centring in San Francisco
(q.v.) and affecting international relations and national politics.
Governors of California (State) l
I. Spanish
Gasper de Portola served 1 767-1 770
Filipe de Banri „ 1 771-1774
Felipe de Neve „ 1 774-1 782
Pedro Fages „ 1 782-1 791
Jos6 Antonio Romeu ...... 1 791-1792
os£ Joaquin de Arillaga „ 1 792-1 794
)ieeo de Borica „ 1794-1800
*Jose Joaquin de Arillaga „ 1800- 1804
Jos6 Joaquin de Arillaga „ 1804-18 14
*Tose Diario Arguello „ 18 14-18 15
Pablo Vicente de Sola „ 1815-1822
1 As months and even years often elapsed between the date when
early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual
service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of
service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at
Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto
in Lower California, All the Spanish and Mexican governors were
appointed by the national government, except in the case of the
« ,_, ,„ . „ . II. Mexican
Pablo Vicente de Sola served 1822
*Luis Antonio Arguello ....,, 1822-1825
Tos6 Maria Echeandfa . . . . „ 1 825-1831
Manuel Victoria ,,1831
Jos6 Maria Echeandfa * . , . . „ 1 831-1832
Pio Pico* „ 1832
JosSFigueroa „ 1832-1835
*Tose Castro . 1835-1836
*Nicolas Gutierrez „ 1836
Mariano Chico ..... „ 1836
Nicolas Gutierrez „ 1836
Juan Bautista Alvarado 4 1836-1842
Carlos Antonio Carrillo *....„ 1837-1838
Manuel Michel torena ...... 1 842-1 845
Pio Pico , 1845-1846
III. American
(a) Military.
John D. Sloat appointed 1846
Richard F. Stockton .... „ 1846-1847
Stephen W. Kearny .... „ 1847
R. B. Mason If 1847-1849
Bennett Riley „ 1849
(b) State.
Peter H. Burnett . . 1849-1851 Democrat
♦John H. McDougall . 1851-1852
John Bigler . 1852-1856
John M. Johnson . . 1 856-1 858 Know Nothing
John B. Weller . 1858-1860 Lecompton Democrat
Milton S. Latham . i860 (6 days) „ „
♦John G. Downey . . 1 860-1 862 „ „
Leland Stanford . 1 862-1 863 Republican
Frederick G. Law . 1863-1867 „
Henry H. Haight . . 1867-1871 Democrat
Newton Booth . 1 871-1875 Republican
♦Romualdo Pacheco . 1875 „
William Irwin . 1 875-1 880 Democrat
George G. Perkins . 1880-1883 Republican
George C. Stoneman . 1 883-1 887 Democrat
Washington Bartlett . 1887 „
♦Robert W. Waterman . 1887-1891 Republican
Henry H. Markham . 1 891-1895 „
Tames H. Budd . 1895-1899 Democrat
Henry T. Gage . . 1 899-1 903 Republican
George C. Pardee . 1903-1907 „
{ames N. Gillett . . 1907-1911 „
liram W. Johnson . 191 1- „
The mark * before the name of one of the Spanish governors
indicates that he acted only ad interim, and, in the case of governors
since 1849, that the officer named was elected as lieutenant-governor
and succeeded to the office of governor.
Bibliography. — For list of works on California, see University
of California Library Bulletin, No. 9, 1887, " List of Printed Maps
of California " ; catalogue of state official publications by State
Library (Sacramento, 1894). The following may be cited here on
different aspects: —
Topography. — J. Muir, Mountains of California (New York,
1894) » H - Gannett, " Dictionary of Elevations " (1898), and " River
Profiles," publications of United States Geological Survey; G. W.
James, The Wonders of the Colorado Desert (2 vols., Boston, 1906).
Climate, &c. — U.S. Department of Agriculture, California
Climate and Crop Service, monthly reports; £. S. Holden, Recorded
Earthquakes in California, Lower California, Oregon, and Washington
Territory (California State University, 1887) ; United States Depart-
ment Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletins, Alexander G. McAdie,
"Climatology of California " (Washington, 1903). There is a
great mass of general descriptive literature, especially on South-
ern California, such as Charles Dudley Warner, Our Italy (New York,
1 891); Kate Sanborn, A Truthful Woman in Southern California
(New York, 1893); W. Lindley and J. P. Widney, California of the
South (New York, 1896); J. W. Hanson, American Italy (Chicago,
1896) ; T. S. Van Dyke, Southern California (New York, 1886), &c.
Fauna, Flora. — Muir, op. cit. ; United States Geological Survey,
ipth Annual Report, pt. v., H. Gannett, " Forests of the United
States"; idem, 20th Annual Report, pt. v., " United States Forest
Reserves"; United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 28,
" A Short Account of the Big Trees of California " (1900), No. 38,
44 The Redwood " (a volume, 1903), also Professional Papers, e.g.
No. 8, J. B. Leiberg, " Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra
Nevada " (1902) ; California Board of Forestry, Reports (1885 — ) ;
semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose
title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national statute
regarding gubernatorial vacancies.
* Acting political chief, revolutionary title.
* Briefly recognised in South.
1 Revolutionary title, 1836-1838.
* Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North.
CALIFORNIA, LOWER
21
United States Censuses, reports on forests; United States Biological
Survey, North American Fauna, No. 16, 1890, C. H. Merriam,
44 Biological Survey of Mt. Shasta " ; United States Department
Agriculture, Contributions from United States National Herbarium,
iv., 1893, F. V. Coville, r ' Botany of Death Valley Expedition";
State Board of Fish Commissioners, Reports, from 1877; United
States Fish Commissioners, Annual Reports, from 1871, and Bulletins
from 1882; J. le Conte, " Flora of the Coast Islands " (1887), being
Bulletin No. 8 of California Academy of Sciences; consult also its
Proceedings, Memoirs, and Occasional Papers ; G. J. Peirce, Studies
on the Coast Redwood (publication of Leland Stanford jr. University,
1901).
Agriculture. — California Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bulletins from 1884; Reports of the State Dairy Bureau, from 1898;
State Board of Horticulture, Reports, 1889-1894; United States
Censuses, 1890 and 1900, reports on irrigation.
Industries. — J. 5. Hittell, Resources of California (7th ed.,
San Francisco, 1879); J. S. Hittell, Commerce ana Industries of the
Pacific Coast (San Francisco, 1882); T. F. Cronise, Natural Wealth
of California (San Francisco, 1868); E. W. Maslin, Resources of
California, prepared by order of Governor H. H. Marlcham (Sacra-
mento, 1893) ; United States Treasury, Bureau of Statistics, report
by T. J. Vivian on 4I Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Trans-
portation and Other Industries of California " (Washington 1890,
valuable for whole period before 1890); United States Censuses,
1800 and 1900, reports on agriculture, manufactures, mines and
fisheries; California State Board of Trade (San Francisco), Annual
Report from 1890. On Mineral Industries:— -J. R. Browne, Report
on " Mineral Resources of the States and Territories west of the
Rocky Mountains" (United States Treasury, 2 vols., Washington,
1867-1868); United States Geological Survey, Annual Reports,
Mineral Resources; consult also the bibliographies of publications
of the Survey, issued as Bulletins; California State Mining Bureau,
Bulletins from 1888, note especially No. 30, 1904, by A. W. Vodges,
44 Bibliography relating to the Geology, Palaeontology and Mineral
Resources of California " (2nd ed., the 1st being Bulletin No. 10,
1896); California DSbris Commission, Reports (in Annual Reports
Chief of Engineers, United States Army, from 1893).
Government.— E. F. Treadwell, The Constitution of the State of
California . . . Annotated (San Francisco, 1902); Johns Hopkins
University, Studies in History and Political Science, xiii., R. D. Hunt,
44 Genesis of California's First Constitution"; Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science, xii., R. D. Hunt,
44 Legal Status of California, 1 846-1849 "; Reports of the various
officers, departments and administrative boards of the state govern-
ment (Sacramento), and also the Appendix to the Journals of the
Senate and Assembly, which contains, especially in the earlier decades
of the state's history, many of these state official reports along
with valuable legislative reports of varied character.
History. — Accounts of the valuable archives in Bancroft, and by
Z. E. Eldridge in California Genealogical Society (ipx>i); elaborate
bibliographies in Bancroft with analyses and appreciations of many
works. Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work
of two men, Hubert H. Bancroft and Theodore H. Hittell. The
former has published a History of California, 1 $42-1890 (7 vols.,
San Francisco, 1884-1890), also California Pastoral, 17OQ-1848
(San Francisco, 1888), California Inter-Pocula, 1848-1856 (San
Francisco, 1888), and Popular Tribunals (2 vols., San Francisco,
1887). These volumes were largely written under Mr. Bancroft's
direction and control by an office staff, and are of very unequal
value; they are a vast storehouse of detailed material which is of
great usefulness, although their judgments of men are often in-
adequate and prejudiced. As regards events the histories are of
substantial accuracy and adequacy. Written by one hand and
more uniform in treatment and good judgment, is T. H. Hindi's
History of California (4 vols., San Francisco, 1 885-1 897). The older
historian of the state was Francisco Palou, a Franciscan, the friend
and biographer of Serra; his l4 Noticias de la Nueva California "
(Mexico, 1857, in the Doc. Hist. Mex., ser. iv., torn, vi.-viii.; also
San Francisco, 1874, 4 vols.) is no longer of importance save for its
historical interest. Of the contemporary material on the period
of Mexican domination the best is afforded by R. H. Dana's Two
Years Before the Mast (New York, 1840, many later and foreign
editions) ; also A. Robinson, Life in California (New York, 1846) ;
and Alexander Forbes, California: A History of Upper and Lower
California from their First Discovery to the Present Time (London,
1839); see also F. W. Blackmar, " Spanish Institutions of the
Southwest " (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 180 1). A beautiful,
vivid and reputedly very accurate picture of the old society is
given in Helen Hunt Jackson's novel, Ramona (New York, 1884).
There is no really scientific separate account of mission history;
there are books by Father Z. Engelhart, The Franciscans in California
(Harbor Springs, Michigan, 1899), written entirely from a Franciscan
standpoint ; C. F. Carter, Missions of Nueva California (San Fran-
cisco, 1900); Bryan J. Clinch, California and its Missions: Their
History to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (2 vols., San Francisco,
1904) ; Francisco Palou, Relacion Historica de Id Vida . . . del Fray
Junipero Serra (Mexico, 1787)1 the standard contemporary source;
the Craftsman (Syracuse, N. Y., vol. v.), a series of articles on
44 Mission Buildings," by G. W. James. On the case of the Pious
Fund of the missions see J. F. Doyle, History of the Pious Fund
(San Francisco, 1887) ; United States Department of State" United
States v. Mexico. Report of J. H. Ralston, agent of the United
States and of counsel in the matter of the Pious Fund of the Cali-
fornias " (Washington, 1902). On the " flush " mining years the
best books of the time are J. Q. Thornton's Oreeon and California
(2 vols., New York, 1849); Edward Bryant's What I Saw in Cali-
fornia (New York, 1848) ; W. Shaw's Golden Dreams (London, 1851) ;
Bayard Taylor's Eldorado (2 vols., New York, 1850) ; W. Colton's
Three Years in California (New York, 1850) ; E. G. Buffum's Six
Months in the Gold Mines; from a Journal of Three Years' Residence
in Upper and Lower California (London, 1850); J. T. Brooks'
Four Months among the Gold Finders (London, 1849) ; G. G. Foster,
Gold Regions of California (New York, 1884). On this same period
consult Bancroft's Popular Tribunals; D. Y. Thomas, " A History
of Military Government in Newly Acquired Territory of the United
States," in vol. xx. No. 2 (New York, 1904) of Columbia University
Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law; C. H. Shinn s
Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government (New
York, i88«>); J. Royce, California . . . A Study of American Char-
acter, 1840-18S6 (Boston, 1886) ; and, for varied pictures of mining
and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret Harte.
See also P. H. Burnet, Recollections and Opinions of an Old Pioneer
(New York, 1880); S. J. Field, Personal Reminiscences of Early
Days in California (privately published, copyright 1893).
CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California), a long narrow
peninsula between the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean,
forming a territory of the republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895),
42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California is a southward ex-
tension of the State of California, United States, and is touched
by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the £. The
peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and
has an area of 58,328 sq m. It is traversed throughout its entire
length by an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes
toward the Pacific in a succession of low hills, but breaks down
abruptly toward the Gulf. The coast has two or three good
sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the Gulf side and of Magda-
lena on the Pacific side being best known. The coast is bordered
by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side. The general
appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly because of
the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty rainfall,
which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of the
desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern
part is hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern
part receives more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild
and pleasant climate. The principal natural product in this
region is orchil, or Spanish moss, but by means of irrigation the
soil produces a considerable variety of products, including sugar
cane, cotton, cassava, cereals, tobacco and grapes. Horses,
sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile valleys, but only to a
limited extent. The territory is rich in minerals, among which
are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and salt. The silver
mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early as 1700.
There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz being
the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W.
coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of
mining and other industries in the territory has led to an exten-
sion of the California railwayjsystem southwardintothepeninsula,
with the Mexican government's permission, the first section of
37 m. from the northern frontier being completed and opened to
traffic in 1907. The territory is divided into two districts, the
northern having its capital at the insignificant little village of La
Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and the southern having its
capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay opening into the Gulf.
La Paz is a port of call for steamships running between Mazatlan
and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in 1900. La
Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San
Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory,
and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m.
inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures
and exports flour and leather.
By orders of Cortes the coast of Lower California was explored
in 1539 by Francisco de UUoa, but no settlement resulted. It
was called California, the name (according to E. E. Hale) being
derived from a popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled
Sergas de Esplandian, in which an island named California was
mentioned and situated " on the right hand of the Indies, very
22
CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF
near the terrestrial paradise." The name must have been given
derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower California could not
have suggested the proximity of a " terrestrial paradise." The
exploration of the coast did not extend above the peninsula
until 1842. The name California was at first applied exclusively
to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait con-
nected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the
name Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous
theory was held as late as 1721. The first settlement was made
in 1 597, but was abandoned. From 1 633 to 1 683 five unsuccessful
attempts were made to establish a settlement at La Paz. Finally
the Jesuits succeeded in founding a mission at Loreto on the
Gulf coast, in about 26 N. lat., in 1697, and at La Paz in 1720.
At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had sixteen missions
which were either self-supporting or were maintained by funds
invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper
California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were
distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta,
the seat of government remaining in the former for a short time.
The two provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one
governor residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then re-
united in a single department through the political changes of
1836, which lasted no later than 1847. Lower California was
only slightly disturbed by the struggle for independence among
the Spanish- American colonies, but in 1822 Admiral Lord
Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean revolutionists,
appeared on the coast and plundered San Jos6 del Cabo, Todos
Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United
States La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small
detachments from California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition
against Sonora under William Walker took possession of La Paz
and proclaimed a republic consisting of Sonora and the peninsula.
Fearing an attack from the mainland, the filibusters first with-
drew to La Ensenada, near the American frontier, and then in
the following year broke up altogether during an attempt to
invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the leadership of
Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success, but
died for want of material support in 1880. The development
of mining and other industries since that time, together with
vigorous efforts to found colonies in the more favoured localities,
have greatly improved the situation in the territory.
See the two volumes of H. H. Bancroft's North Mexican Slates and
Texas, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his Works; also Arthur Walbridge
North, The Mother of California (San Francisco, 1908).
CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the largest and most
important of state universities in America, situated at Berkeley,
California, on the E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place
of the College of California (founded in 1855), received Cali-
fornia's portion of the Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered
as a state institution by the legislature in 1868, and opened its
doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it was removed to its present
site. In the revised state constitution of 1879 provision is
made for it as the head of the state's educational system. The
grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes (299-900
ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above the
university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the
Golden Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings
have gradually been provided. In 1896 an international archi-
tectural competition was opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R.
Hearst (made a regent of the university in 1898) for plans for a
group of buildings harmonizing with the university's beautiful
site, and ignoring all buildings already existing. The first
prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Benard, of Paris. The
first building begun under the new plans was that for the
college of mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907,
providing worthily for the important school of mining, from
1885 directed by Prof. S. B. Christy (b. 1853); California Hall,
built by state appropriation, had been completed in 1906. The
Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium seating 7500
spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering eucalypts, was
the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used
regularly for concerts by the university's symphony orchestra,
under the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863),
who originated the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free
public concerts are given on Sunday afternoons; and there
have been some remarkable dramatic performances here, notably
Sudraka's Mricchakattika in English, and Aeschylus's Eumenides
in Greek, in April 1907. There are no dormitories. Student
self-government works through the " Undergraduate Students'
Affairs Committee " of the Associated Students. The faculty of
the university has its own social club, with a handsome building
on the grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the
colleges of letters, social sciences, natural sciences, commerce,
agriculture, mechanical, mining and civil engineering, and
chemistry, and the first two years' course of the college of
medicine — the Toland Medical College having been absorbed by
the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of the
Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of
dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post
graduate or clinical) years of the medical course — the San
Francisco Polyclinic having become a part of the university in
1892. Three of the San Francisco departments occupy a group
of three handsome buildings in the western part of the city,
overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick astronomical depart-
ment (Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San Jos6,
occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by
James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with
$700,000, $610,000 of this being used for the original buildings
and equipments, which were formally transferred to the uni-
versity in 1888. The art department (San Francisco Institute
of art) was until 1 906 housed in the former home of Mark Hopkins,
a San Francisco " railroad king "; it dated from 1893, under
the name " Mark Hopkins Institute of Art." The building was
destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under
its present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the
old site. At the university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davis-
ville, Yolo county, instruction is given in practical agriculture,
horticulture, dairying, &c; courses in irrigation are given at
Berkeley; a laboratory of plant pathology, established in 1907
at Whittier, Riverside county, and an experiment station on
20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study of plant and
tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine biologi-
cal laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and
another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey;
the Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley.
The university has excellent anthropological and archaeological
collections, mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by
Mrs Hearst, to Peru and to Egypt. In 1907 the university
library contained 160,000 volumes, ranking, after the destruction
of most of the San Francisco libraries in 1906, as the largest
collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe library
(given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of
the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has
also the valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and
countless pamphlets and manuscripts, dealing principally with
the history of the Pacific Coast from Alaska through Central
America, and of the Rocky Mountain region, including Montana,
Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Western
Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe
Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr
Bancroft contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the
newly organized Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library
of Karl Weinhold (1 823-1 901) of Berlin, which is especially rich
in Germanic linguistics and " culture history," was presented to
the university in 1903 by John D. Spreckels. The university
publishes The University of California Chronicle, an official
record; and there are important departmental publications,
especially those in American archaeology and ethnology, edited
by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of
various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physi-
ology, edited by Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited
by William Albert Setchell (b. 1864); in zoology, edited by
William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in astronomy, the
■ publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William Wallace
CALIPASH— CALIPHATE
23
Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry
Morse Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of
history, a department of university extension was organized;
lecture courses, especially on history and literature, were de-
livered in 1906-1007 at fifteen extension " centres," at most of
which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the university,
but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley
Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological
Seminary (Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary
and a Unitarian school.
The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From
1800 to 1900 the number of students increased fourfold. In
the latter year the university of California was second to Harvard
only in the number of academic graduate and undergraduate
students, and fifth among the educational institutions of the
country in total enrolment. In July 1907 there were 519
officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226 were in
the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there
were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for
1 906-1 907 thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women.
The university conferred 482 degrees in 1007, 546 in 1906, 470 in
1905. The affairs of the university are administered by a board
of twenty-three regents, seven state officials and heads of
educational institutions, being members ex officio, and sixteen
other members being appointed by the governor and senate of
the state; its instruction is governed by the faculties of the
different colleges, and an academic senate in which these are
joined. The gross income from all sources for 1905-1906 was
$1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from invest-
ments, state and government grants, fees, &c, and the remainder
was gifts and endowments. There is a permanent endowment of
more than $3,000,000, partly from munificent private gifts,
especially from Mrs Hearst and from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The
financial support of the state has always been generous. No
tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to students
resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students from
without the state. The university maintains about 00 under-
graduate scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellow-
ships. All able-bodied male students are required to take the
courses in military science, under instruction by an officer of the
United States army detailed for the purpose. Physical culture
and hygiene are prescribed for all men and women. A state law
forbids the sale of liquor within one mile of the university
grounds. To realize the ideal of the university as the head of the
educational system of the state, a system of inspection of high
schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching the pre-
scribed standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for
admission to the university without examination. It was
anticipated at one time that the foundation of the Leland
Stanford Junior University at Palo Alto would injure the state
institution at Berkeley; but in practice this was not found to
be the case; on the contrary, the competition resulted in giving
new vigour and enterprise to the older university. Joseph Le
Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C. Gilman
(president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly
connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler
(b. 1854) became president. He had been a graduate (1875)
of Brown University, and was professor first of comparative
philology and then of Greek at Cornell University; his chief
publications are Der griechische N ominalaccent (1885) ; Analogy,
and the Scope of Us Application in Language (1887) ; Principles of
Language Growth (1891); The Organization of Higher Education
in the United States (1897); Dionysos and Immortality (1899);
and Life of Alexander the Great (1900).
CALIPASH and CALIPEE (possibly connected with carapace,
the upper shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper
and lower shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being
of a dull greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour.
CALIPH, Calif, or Khalif (Arab, kh&lifa; the lengthening
of the a is strictly incorrect), literally " successor," " repre-
sentative," a title borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the
death of Mahomet, became the civil and religious head of the
Mahommedan state. In the same sense the term is used in the
Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of God.
Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known
as the " perfect " caliphs; after them the title was borne by the
thirteen Omayyad caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by
the thirty-seven Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell
before the Turks in 1258. By some rigid Moslems these rulers
were regarded as only amirs, not caliphs. There were titular
caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from that date till 151 7
when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the fall of the
Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the
Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova
(755—1031), and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended
to descent from Ali, and Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, also
assumed the name (see Fatimites).
According to the Shi'ite Moslems, who call the office the
" imamate " or leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is
a lineal descendant of the Prophet. The Sunnites insist that the
office belongs to the tribe of Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet
himself belonged, but this condition would vitiate the claim of
the Turkish sultans, who have held the office since its trans-
ference by the last caliph to Selim I. According to a tradition
falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a
time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he "is
a rebel." (See Mahommedan Institutions.)
CALIPHATE. 1 The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the
East who bore the title of caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three
main divisions: — (a) The first four caliphs, the immediate
successors of Mahomet; (b) The Omayyad caliphs; (c) The
Abbasid caliphs. To these three groups the present article is con-
fined; for the Western caliphs, see Spain: History (and minor
articles such as Almohades, Almora vides) ; for the Egyptian
caliphs see Egypt: History (§ Mahommedan) and Fatimites.
The history of Arabia proper will be found under Arabia : History.
A. — The First Four Caliphs
After the death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be
his " representative." The choice lay with the community of
Medina; so much was understood; but whom were they to
choose? The natives of Medina believed themselves to be now
once more masters in their own house, and wished to promote
one of themselves. But the Emigrants (see Mahomet) asserted
their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into
the town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to
terrorize the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into
two parties. The Emigrants' leading spirit was Omar; he did
not, however, cause homage to be paid to himself, but to Abu
Bekr, the friend and father-in-law of the Prophet.
The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the
opportune defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward
schism which threatened. Islam suddenly found itself once
more limited to the community of Medina; only Mecca and
faif (fayef ) remained true. The Bedouins were willing enough
to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay taxes; their defection,
as might have been expected, was a political movement. 2 None
the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the political society
and the religious are identical. A peculiar compliment to
Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the rebellion
in the various districts did not pose as princes and kings, but as
prophets; in this appeared to lie the secret of Islam's success.
1. Reign of Abu Bekr. — Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal
to the perilous situation. In the first place, he allowed the
expedition against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet,
quietly to set out, limiting himself for the time to the defence
of Medina. On the return of the army he proceeded to attack
1 Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and
places appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents
or other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles
on these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in
such cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration
adopted, are there given in addition.
8 See Ndldeke, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alien Araber
(1864), pp. 89 seq.
24
CALIPHATE
the rebels. The holy spirit of Islam kept the men of Medina
together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing zeal for the
faith; the Arabs as a whole had no other bond of union and no
better source of inspiration than individual interest. As was
to be expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns
of the Moslems, sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell
the revolt. Those who submitted were forthwith received back
into favour; those who persevered in rebellion were punished
with death. The majority accordingly converted, the obstinate
were extirpated. In Yamama (Yemama) only was there a
severe struggle; the BanQ IJanlfa under their prophet Mosailima
fought bravely, but here also Islam triumphed.
The internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, strange to
say, brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war
against the border countries which Mahomet had already
inaugurated, was the best means for making the new religion
popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at the same
time afforded for gaining rich booty. The movement was
organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by
quite other than religious motives. Nor was this by any means
the first occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed;
once and again in former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins
had settled on the borders of the wilderness. This had last
happened in consequence of the events which destroyed the
prosperity of the old Sabaean kingdom. At that time the small
Arabian kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira had arisen in the western
and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented
to Moslem conquest its nearest and natural goal. But inasmuch
as Hira was subject to the Persians, and Eastern Palestine to
the Greeks, the annexation of the Arabians involved the exten-
sion of the war beyond the limits of Arabia to a struggle with
the two great powers (see further Arabia: History).
After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia,
Rh&lid b. al-Walld proceeded by order of the caliph to the
conquest of the districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he
was summoned to Syria, where hostilities had also broken out.
Damascus fell late in the summer of 635, and on the 20th of
August 636 was fought the great decisive battle on the Hieromax
(Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (q.v.) finally to
abandon Syria. 1 Left to themselves, the Christians hence-
forward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified
cities; for the most part they witnessed the disappearance of
the Byzantine power without regret. Meanwhile the war was
also carried on against the Persians in Irak, unsuccessfully at
first, until the tide turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia,
Qadislya) (end of 637). In consequence of the defeat which
they here sustained, the Persians were forced to abandon the
western portion of their empire and limit themselves to Iran
proper. |The Moslems made themselves masters of Ctesiphon
(Madam), the residence of the Sassanids on the Tigris, and
conquered in the immediately following years the country of
the two rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were face
to face in Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from
the Aryans all the principal old Semitic lands — Palestine, Syria,
Mesopotamia, Assyria and Babylonia. To these was soon added
Egypt, which was overrun with little difficulty by 'Amr ibn-el-
Ass (q.v.) in 640. (See Egypt: History, § Mahommedan.)
This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the wilderness
of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and
natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously oc-
curred. The kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts
hitherto, now became the headquarters of the Arabs; the new
empire had its centres on the one hand at Damascus, on the
other hand at Kufa and Ba§ra, the two newly-founded cities in
the region of old Babylonia. The capital of Islam continued
indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the Hejaz (Hijaz) and
the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of affairs.
The ease with which. the native populations of the con-
quered districts, exclusively or prevailingly Christian, adapted
themselves to the new rule is very striking. Their nationality had
1 De Goeje, MSmoires d'hist. et de giog. orient. No. 2 (2nd ed.,
Leiden, 1864); Nftldeke, DMJL. % 1875, P- 7$ sqq.; Baladhuri 137.
been broken long ago, but intrinsically it was more closely allied
to the Arabian than to the Greek or Persian. Their religious
sympathy with the West was seriously impaired by dogmatic
controversies; from Islam they might at any rate hope for
toleration, even though their views were not in accordance
with the theology of the emperor of the day. The lapse of the
masses from Christianity to Islam, however, which took place
during the first century after the conquest, is to be accounted
for only by the fact that in reality they had no inward relation
to the gospel at all. They changed their creed merely to acquire
the rights and privileges of Moslem citizens. In no case were
they compelled to do so; indeed the Omayyad caliphs saw
with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the poll-tax derived
from their Christian subjects (see Mahommedan Institutions).
It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the
Arabian empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those
old Semitic lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the
Persians were not so ready as the Greeks to give up the contest;
they did not rest until the Moslems had subjugated the whole
of the Sassanid empire. The most important event in the
protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, was the battle
of Neh&wend in 641 ; 2 the most obstinate resistance was offered
by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr (Perse-
polis). In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous
provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into
the hands of the Moslems, and the young king, Yazdegerd III.
(q.v.), was compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm,
where he came to a miserable end.* But it was long before the
Iranians learned to accept the situation. Unlike the Christians
of western Asia, they had a vigorous feeling of national pride,
based upon glorious memories and especially upon a church
having a connexion of the closest kind with the state. Internal
disturbances of a religious and political character and external
disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids
indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism. They
were fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs,
in defence of their holiest possessions, their nationality and
their faith. Their subjection was only external, nor did Islam
ever succeed in assimilating them as the Syrian Christians were
assimilated. Even when in process of time they did accept the
religion of the prophet, they leavened it thoroughly with their
own peculiar leaven, and, especially, deprived it of the practical
political and national character which it had assumed after the
flight to Medina. To the Arabian state they were always a
thorn in the flesh; It was they who helped most to break up its
internal order, and it was from them also that it at last received
its outward death-blow. The fall of the Omayyads was their
work, and with the Omayyads fell the Arabian empire.
2. Reign of Omar. — Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the
22nd of August 634, and as a matter of course was succeeded by
Omar. To Omar's ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part
the great conquests. He himself did not take the field, but
remained in Medina with the exception of his visit to Syria in
638; he never, however, suffered the reins to slip from his
grasp, so powerful was the influence of his personality and the
Moslem community of feeling. His political insight is shown
by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite extension
of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national
Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam, 4 and especially
to promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying
with which he began his reign will never grow antiquated:
" by Allah, he that is weakest among you shall be in my sight
the strongest, until I have vindicated for him his rights; but
him that is strongest will I treat as the weakest, until he complies
1 The accounts differ ; see Baladhuri 305. The chronology of the
conquests is in many points uncertain.
• Baladhuri 315 sq.; Tabari i. 1068.
4 He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God ; the
Arabs were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden
to acquire landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was
either made state property or was restored to the old owners subject
to a perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for
the army.
CALIPHATE
with the laws." After the administration of justice he directed
his organizing activity, as the circumstances demanded, chiefly
towards financial questions — the incidence of taxation in the
conquered territories, 1 and the application of the vast resources
which poured into the treasury at Medina. It must not be
brought against him as a personal reproach, that in dealing with
these he acted on the principle that the Moslems were the char-
tered plunderers of all the rest of the world. But he had to atone
by his death for the fault of his system. In the mosque at Medina
he was stabbed by a Kufan workman and died in November 644.
3. Reign of Othman. — Before his death Omar had nominated
six Of the leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the
caliph from among themselves — Othman, Ali, Zobair, fall^a,
Sa'd b. Abi Waqqa§, and Abdarrahman b. Auf . The last-named
declined to be a candidate, and decided the election in favour
of Othman. Under this weak sovereign the government of
Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish nobility. We
have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for
this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the
Emigrants were unanimous among themselves in thinking that
the precedence and leadership belonged to them as of right.
Thanks to the energy of Omar, they were successful in appro-
priating to themselves the succession to the Prophet. They
indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority of their
services to the faith, but they also appealed to their blood
relationship with the Prophet as a corroboration of their right
to the inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with
the Koreish in general. In point Of fact they felt a closer con-
nexion with these than, for example, with the natives of Medina;
nature had not been expelled by faith. 8 The supremacy of the
Emigrants naturally furnished the means of transition to the
supremacy of the Meccan aristocracy. Othman did all in his
power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged
to the foremost family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he
should favour his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every
possible way, seemed to him a matter of course. Every position
of influence and emolument was assigned to them; they them-
selves boastingly called the important province of Irak the garden
of Koreish. In truth, the entire empire had become that garden.
Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization of Islam
the chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew
the world. Such were beyond all doubt the patricians of Mecca,
and after them those of Taif, people like Khfilid b. al-Walid,
Amr-ibn-el-Ass, 'Abdallah b. abi Sarh, Moghira b. Sho'ba, and,
above all, old Abu Sofian with his son Moawiya.
Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however,
now began to appear. It was led by what may be called the
spiritual noblesse of Islam, which, as distinguished from the
hereditary nobility of Mecca, might also be designated as the
nobility of merit, consisting of the " Defenders " (Ansar), and
especially of the Emigrants who had lent themselves to the
elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the intention
of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced. The opposition
was headed by Ah', Zobair, TfalhRj both as leading men among
the Emigrants and as disappointed candidates for the Caliphate.
Their motives were purely selfish; not God's cause but their
own, not religion but power and preferment, were what they
sought. 8 Their party was a mixed one. To it belonged the men
of real piety, who saw with displeasure the promotion to the
first places in the commonwealth of the great lords who had
actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined themselves to
it only at the last moment. But the majority were merely a band
1 Ndldeke, Tabari, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment
of the Era of the Flight (Hegira).
2 Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the Emi-
grants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, and
distinguished from the men of Medina.
1 It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular nobility
that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred cities against
the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the elevation of the
Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual nobility was fighting
not for principle but for personal advantage was as apparent in Ali*s
hostilities against Zobair and Talba as in that of the Abbasids against
the followers of Ali.
of men without views, whose aim was a change not of system,
but of persons in their own interest. Everywhere in the pro-
vinces there was agitation against the caliph and his governors,
except in Syria, where Othman's cousin, Moawiya, son of Abu
Sofian (see below), carried on a wise and strong administration.
The movement was most energetic in Irak and in Egypt. Its
ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of Ali,
whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet
seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. Even then
there were enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of Messiah.
The malcontents sought to gain their end by force. In bands
they came from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions
from Othman, who, though his armies were spreading terror
from the Indus and Oxus to the Atlantic, had no troops at hand
in Medina. He propitiated the mutineers by concessions, but as
soon as they had gone, he let matters resume their old course.
Thus things went on from tad to worse. In the following year
(656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt and
Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph
again tried the plan of making promises which he did not intend
to keep. But the rebels caught him in a flagrant breach of his
word, 4 and now demanded his abdication, besieging him in his own
house, where he was defended by a few faithful subjects. As he
would not yield, they at last took the building by storm and put
him to death, an old man of eighty. His death in the act of
maintaining his rights was of the greatest service to his house and
of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy.
4. Reign of Ali. — Controversy as to the inheritance at once
arose among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the
mutineers summoned Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even
falba and Zobair to do him homage. But soon these two,
along with Ayesha, the mother of the faithful, who had an old
grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their escape to Irak,
where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. Ali in
point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover
was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the
desire of. power, so that men of penetration, even although they
condemned Othman's method of government, yet refused to
recognize his successor. The new caliph, however, found means
of disposing of their opposition, and at the battle of the Camel,
fought at Basra in November 656, Jalba and Zobair were slain,
and Ayesha was taken prisoner.
But even so Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of
Othman the dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a
legitimate cry — that of vengeance for the blood of the grey-haired
caliph and a distinguished champion, the governor Moawiya,
whose position in Syria was impregnable. The kernel of his
subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, not only recent immigrants
along with Islam, but also old settlers who,' through contact
with the Roman empire and the Christian church, had become to
some extent civilized. Through the Ghassanids these latter
had become habituated to monarchical government and loyal
obedience, and for a long time much better order had prevailed
amongst them than elsewhere in Arabia. Syria was the proper
soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, and Moawiya was just
the man to make use of the situation. He exhibited Othman's
blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited
his Syrians to vengeance.
Ali's position in Kuia was much less advantageous. The
population of Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it
fluctuated greatly, and was largely composed of fresh immigrants.
Islam had its headquarters here; Kufa and Basra were the home
of the pious and of the adventurer, the centres of religious and
political movement. This movement it was that had raised Ali
to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any personal
interest in him.. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and
more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular
feeling of Syria for the Omayyads. Moawiya could either
act or refrain from acting as he chose, secure in either case
4 Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to
'Abdallah b. abi Sarh seems to have been a trick played on the
caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it.
26
CALIPHATE
of the obedience of his subjects. AH, on the other hand, was
unable to convert enthusiasm for the principle inscribed on his
banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was necessary that
he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his supporters,
which, however, were inconsistent. They compelled him
suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently
on the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians
fastened copies of the Koran to their lances to denote that not
the sword, but the word of God should decide the contest (see
further below, B. i ; also Ali). But in yielding to the will of the
majority he excited the displeasure of the minority, the genuine
zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the enemy of Islam,
and regarded Ali's entering into negotiations with him as a
denial of the faith. When the negotiations failed and war was
resumed, the Eharijites refused to follow Ali's army, and he had
to turn his armies in the first instance against them. He
succeeded in disposing of them without difficulty at the battle of
Nahraw&n, but in his success he lost the soul of his following.
For they were the true champions of the theocratic principle;
through their elimination it became clear that the struggle had in
no sense anything to do with the cause of God. Ali's defeat was
a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed him;
the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far
superior. Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of January
661), thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes
of a large part of the Mahommedan world (Shf a) which he had
never possessed during his life.
B. — The Omayyad Dynasty
Summary of Preceding Movements. — The conquest of Mecca had
been of the greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because
Islam thus obtained possession of this important city with its
famous sanctuary, but above all because his late adversaries
were at last compelled to acknowledge him as the Envoy of God.
Among these there were many men of great ability and influence,
and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the Arabic ex-
pression has it, " to mellow their hearts " by concessions and
gifts, that his loyal helpers (Ansar) at Medina became dissatisfied
and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it.
Mahomet was a practical man; he realized that the growing
state needed skilful administrators, and that such were found in
much greater number among the antagonists of yesterday than
among the honest citizens of Medina. The most important
positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and Yemen, were
entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the Makhzum
and other Koreishite families. Abu Bekr followed the Prophet's
example. In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the
death of Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the
Moslems, the principal generals belonged to them. Omar did
not deviate from that line of conduct. It was he who appointed
Yazid, the son of Abu SofiSn, and after his death, his brother
Moawiya as governor of Syria, and assigned the province of Egypt
to Amr-ibn-el-Ass ('Amr b. As). It is even surprising to find
among the leading men so few of the house of Hashim, the nearest
family of the Prophet. The puzzled Moslem doctors explain
this fact on the ground that the Hashimites were regarded as too
noble to hold ordinary administrative offices, and that they
could not be spared at Medina, where their counsel was required
in all important affairs. There is, however, a tradition in which
Ali himself calls the Omayyads born rulers. As long as Omar
lived opposition was silent. But Othman had not the strong
personality of his predecessor, and, although he practically
adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of favouring the
members of his own family — the caliph belonged himself to the
house of Omayya — at the expense of the Hashimites and the Ansar.
The jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the
governorship and military commands had become not only much
more important, but also much more lucrative, while power and
money again procured many adherents. The truly devout
Moslems on the other hand were scandalized by the growing
luxury which relaxed the austere morals of the first Moslems,
and this also was imputed to Othman.
We thus see how the power of the house of Omayya developed
itself, and how there arose against it an opposition, which led in
the first place to the murder of Othman and the Caliphate of Ali,
and furthermore, during the whole period of the Omayyad
caliphs, repeatedly to dangerous outbreaks, culminating in the
great catastrophe which placed the Abbasids on the throne.
The elements of this opposition were of very various kinds: —
(i) The old-fashioned Moslems, sons of the Ansar and Moh&jir,
who had been Mahomet's first companions and supporters, and
could not bear the thought that the sons of the old enemies of the
Prophet in Mecca, whom they nicknamed tolaqa (freedmen),
should be in control of the imamate, which carried with it the
management of affairs both civil and religious. This party was
in the foreground, chiefly in the first period. (2) The partisans
of Ali, the Shi'a (ShTites), who in proportion as their influence
with the Arabs declined, contrived to strengthen it by obtaining
the support of the non- Arabic Moslems, aided thereto, especially
in the latter period, by the Abbasids, who at the decisive
moment succeeded in seizing the supreme power for themselves.
(3) The Eharijites, who, in spite of the heavy losses they sus-
tained at the hands of Ali, maintained their power by gaining
new adherents from among those austere Moslems, who held both
Omayyads and Alids as usurpers, and have often been called, not
unjustly, the Puritans of Islam. (4) The non-Arabic Moslems,
who on their conversion to Islam, had put themselves under the
patronage of Arabic families, and were therefore called maula's
(clients). These were not only the most numerous, but also, in
virtue of the persistency of their hostility, the most dangerous.
The largest and strongest group of these were the Persians, who,
before the conquest of Irak by the Moslems, were the ruling class
of that country, so that Persian was the dominant language.
With them all malcontents, in particular the Shi'ites, found
support; by them the dynasty of the Omayyads and the
supremacy of the Arabs was finally overthrown. To these
elements of discord we must add: — (1) That the Arabs, notwith-
standing the bond of Islam that united them, maintained their
old tribal institutions, and therewith their old feuds and factions;
(2) that the old antagonism between Ma'adites 1 (original
northern tribes) and Yemenites (original southern tribes),
accentuated by the jealousy between the Meccans, who belonged
to the former, and the Medinians, who belonged to the latter
division, gave rise to perpetual conflicts; (3) that more than one
dangerous pretender — some of them of the reigning family
itself — contended with the caliph for the sovereignty, and must
be crushed code que coute. It is only by the detailed enumera-
tion of these opposing forces that we can form an idea of the
heavy task that lay before the Prince of the Believers, and of the
amount of tact and ability which his position demanded.
The description of the reign of the Omayyads is extremely
difficult. Never perhaps has the system of undermining
authority by continual slandering been applied on such a scale as
by the Alids and the Abbasids. The Omayyads were accused by
their numerous missionaries of every imaginable vice; in their
hands Islam was not safe; it would be a godly work to extirpate
them from the earth. When the Abbasids had occupied the
throne, they pursued this policy to its logical conclusion. But
not content with having exterminated the hated rulers themselves,
they carried their hostility to a further point. The official
history of the Omayyads, as it has been handed down to us, is
coloured by Abbasid feeling to such an extent that we can
scarcely distinguish the true from the false. An .example of this
occurs at the outset in the assertion that Moawiya deliberately
refrained from marching to the help of Othman, and indeed that
it was with secret joy that he heard of the fatal result of the plot.
The facts seem to contradict this view. When, ten weeks before
the murder, some hundreds of men came to Medina from Egypt
and Irak, pretending that they were on their pilgrimage to Mecca,
but wanted to bring before the caliph their complaints against
his vicegerents, nobody could have the slightest suspicion that
the life of the caliph was in danger; indeed it was only during
1 Ma'ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Mocjar and
the Rab'ia tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Mo<jar.
CALIPHATE
27
the few days that Othman was besieged in his house that the
danger became obvious. If the caliph then, as the chroniclers
tell, sent a message to Moawiya for help, his messenger could not
have accomplished half the journey to Damascus when the
catastrophe took place. There is no real reason to doubt that
the painful news fell on Moawiya unexpectedly, and that he, as
mightiest representative of the Omayyad house, regarded as his
own the duty of avenging the crime. He could not but view Ali
in the light of an accomplice, because if, as he protested, he did
not abet the murderers, yet he took them under his protection. An
acknowledgment of Ali as caliph by Moawiya before he had
cleared himself from suspicion was therefore quite impossible.
1. The Reign of Moawiya. — Moawiya, son of the well-known
Meccan chief Abu Sofian, embraced Islam together with his father
and his brother Yazid, when the Prophet conquered Mecca, and
was, like them, treated with the greatest distinction. He was even
chosen to be one of the secretaries of Mahomet. When Abu Bekr
sent his troops for the conquest of Syria, Yazid, the eldest son of
Abu Sonan, held one of the chief commands, with Moawiya as
his lieutenant. In the year 639 Omar named him governor of
Damascus and Palestine; Othman added to this province the
north of Syria and Mesopotamia. To him was committed the
conduct of the war against the Byzantine emperor, which he
continued with energy, at first only on land, but later, when the
caliph had at last given in to his urgent representations, at sea
also. In the year 34 (a.d. 655) was fought off the coast of Lycia
the great naval battle, which because of the great number of
masts has been called "the mast fight," in which the Greek 1
fleet, commanded by the emperor Constans II. in person, was
utterly defeated. Moawiya himself was not present, as he was
conducting an attack (the result of which we do not know) on
Caesarea in Cappadocia. The Arabic historians are so entirely
preoccupied with the internal events that they have no eye for
the war at the frontier. The contention which Moawiya had
with Ali checked his progress in the north.
Moawiya was a born ruler, and Syria was, as we have seen, the
best administered province of the whole empire. He was so
loved and honoured by his Syrians that, when he invited them
to avenge the blood of Othman, they replied unanimously, " It is
your part to command, ours to obey." Ali was a valiant man,
but had no great talent as a ruler. His army numbered a great
many enthusiastic partisans, but among them not a few wise-
acres; there were also others of doubtful loyalty. The battle at
Siffin (657), near the Euphrates, which lasted two months and
consisted principally in, sometimes bloody, skirmishes, with
alternate success, ended by the well-known appeal to the decision
of the Koran on the part of Moawiya. This appeal has been called
by a European scholar "one of the unworthiest comedies of the
whole world's history, ,, accepting the report of very partial
Arabic writers that it happened when the Syrians were on the
point of losing the battle. He forgot that Ali himself, before the
Battle of the Camel, appealed likewise to the decision of the
Koran, and began the fight only when this had been rejected.
There is in reality no room for suspecting Moawiya of not having
been in earnest when making this appeal; he might well regret
that internecine strife should drain the forces which were so
much wanted for the spread of Islam. That the Book of God
could give a solution, even of this arduous case, was doubtless the
firm belief of both parties. But even if the appeal to the Koran
had been a stratagem, as Ali himself thought, it would have been
perfectly legitimate, according to the general views of that time,
which had been also those of the Prophet. It is not unlikely
that the chief leader of the Yemenites in Ali's army, Ash'ath b.
Qais, knew beforehand that this appeal would be made. Cer-
t tainty is not to be obtained in the whole matter.
On each side an umpire was appointed, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari,
the candidate of Ash'ath, on that of Ali, Amr-ibn-el-Ass (g.v.) on
that of Moawiya. The arbitrators met in the year 37 (a.d. 658)
at Adhrob, in the south-east of Syria, where are the ruins of
the Roman Castra described by Brunnow and Domaszewsky
{Die Provincia Arabia, i. 433-463). Instead of this place, the
1 The Arabs always call them Rum, i.e. Romans.
historians generally put Dumat-al-Jandal, the biblical Duma,
now called Jauf , but this rests on feeble authority. The various
accounts about what happened in this interview are without
exception untrustworthy. J. Wellhausen, in his excellent book
Das arabische Reich und sein Stiirz, has made it very probable that
the decision of the umpires was that the choice of Ali as caliph
should be cancelled, and that the task of nominating a successor
to Othman should be referred to the council of notable men
(shura), as representing the whole community. Ali refusing to
submit to this decision, Moawiya became the champion of the
law, and thereby gained at once considerable support for the
conquest of Egypt, to which above all he directed his efforts. As
soon as Amr returned from Adhrob, Moawiya sent him with an
army of four or rive thousand men against Egypt. About the
same time the constitutional party rose against Ali's vicegerent
Mahommed, son of Abu Bekr, who had been the leader of the
murderous attack on Othman, Mahommed was beaten, taken
in his flight, and, according to some reports, sewn in the skin of an
ass and burned.
Moawiya, realizing that Ali would take all possible means to
crush him, took his measures accordingly. He concluded with
the Greeks a treaty, by which he pledged himself to pay a large
sum of money annually on condition that the emperor should give
him hostages as a pledge for the maintenance of peace. Ali,
however, had first to deal with the insurrection of the Kharijites,
who condemned the arbitration which followed the battle of Siffin
as a deed of infidelity, and demanded that Ali should break the
compact (see above, A. 4) . Freed from this difficulty, Ali prepared
to direct his march against Moawiya, but his soldiers declined to
move. One of his men, KhirrZt b. Rashid, renounced him
altogether, because he had not submitted to the decision of the
umpires, and persuaded many others to refuse the payment of the
poor-rate. Ali was obliged to subdue him, a task which he
effected not without difficulty. Not a few of his former partisans
went over to Moawiya, as already had happened before the days
of Siffin, amongst others Ali's own brother 'Aqil. Lastly, there
were in Kufa, and still more in Basra, many Othmaniya or
legitimists, on whose co-operation he could not rely. Moawiya
from his side made incessant raids into Ali's dominion, and by his
agents caused a very serious revolt in Basra. The statement that
a treaty was concluded between Moawiya and Ali to maintain the
status quo, in the beginning of the year 40 (a.d. 660), is not very
probable, for it is pretty certain that just then Ali had raised an
army of 40,000 men against the Syrians, and also that in the second
or third month of that year Moawiya was proclaimed caliph at
Jerusalem. At the same time Bosr b. Abi Artat made his
expedition against Medina and Mecca, whose inhabitants were
compelled to acknowledge the caliphate of Moawiya. On the
murder of Ali in 661, his son Hasan was chosen caliph, but he
recoiled before the prospect of a war with Moawiya, having
neither the ambition nor the energy of Ali. Moawiya stood then
with a large army in Maskin, a rich district lying to the north of
the later West Bagdad, watered by the Dojail, or Little Tigris, a
channel from the Euphrates to the Tigris. The army of Trak was
near Madam, the ancient Ctesiphon. The reports about what
occurred are confused and contradictory; but it seems probable
that Abdallah b. Abbas, the vicegerent of Ali at Basra and
ancestor of the future Abbasid dynasty, was in command. No
battle was fought. Hasan and Ibn Abbas opened, each for
himself, negotiations with Moawiya. The latter made it a
condition of surrender that he should have the free disposal of the
funds in the treasury of Basra. Some say that he had already
before the death of Ali rendered himself master of it. Notwith-
standing the protest of the Basrians, he transported this booty
safely to Mecca. When his descendants had ascended the throne
and he had become a demi-saint, the historians did their best to
excuse his conduct. Hasan demanded, in exchange for the power
which he resigned, the contents of the treasury at Kufa, which
amounted to five millions of dirhems, together with the revenues
of the Persian province of DarSbjird (Darab). When these nego-
tiations became known, a mutiny broke out in Hasan's camp.
Hasan himself was wounded and retired to Medina, where he
28
CALIPHATE
died eight or nine years afterwards. The legend that he was
poisoned by order of Moawiya is without the least foundation.
It seems that he never received the revenues of Dar&bjird, the
Basrians to whom they belonged refusing to cede them.
Moawiya now made his entry into Kufa in the summer of a.h.
41 (a.d. 661) and received the oath of allegiance as Prince of the
Believers. This year is called the year of union (jama 1 a).
Moghira b. Sho'ba was appointed governor of Kufa. TJomran b.
Ab&n had previously assumed the government of Basra. This
is represented commonly as a revolt, but as 9omran was a client
of Othman, and remained in favour with the Omayyads, it is
almost certain that he took the management of affairs only to
maintain order.
One strong antagonist to Moawiya remained, in the person of
Ziyad. This remarkable man was said to be a bastard of Abu
Sofian, the father of Moawiya, and was, by his mother, the
brother of Abu Bakra, a man of great wealth and position at
Basra. He thus belonged to the tribe of Thaqif at Taif , which
produced many very prominent men. At the age of fourteen
years Ziyad was charged with the financial administration of the
Basrian army. He had won the affection of Omar, by his know-
ledge of the Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet, and by the fact
that he had employed the first money he earned to purchase the
freedom of his mother Somayya. He was a faithful servant of Ali
and put down for him the revolt excited by Moawiya's partisans
in Basra. Thence he marched into Fars and Kirman, where he
maintained peace and kept the inhabitants in their allegiance to
Ali. After Ali's death he fortified himself in his castle near
Istakhr and refused to submit. Moawiya, therefore, sent Bosr
b. Abi Artat to Basra, with orders to capture Ziyad's three sons,
and to force Ziyad into submission by threatening to kill them.
Ziyad was obdurate, and it was due to his brother Abu Bakra,
who persuaded Moawiya to cancel the order, that the threat was
not executed. On his return to Damascus, Moawiya charged
Moghira b. Sho'ba to bring his countryman to reason. Abdallah
b. 'Amir was made governor of Basra.
As soon as Moawiya had his hands free, he directed all his
forces against the Greeks. Immediately after the submission of
Irak, he had denounced the existing treaty, and as early as 662
had sent his troops against the Alans and the Greeks. Since then,
no year passed without a campaign. Twice he made a serious
effort to conquer Constantinople, in 669 when he besieged it for
three months, and in 674. On the second occasion his fleet
occupied Cyzicus, which it held till shortly after his death in 680,
when a treaty was signed. In Africa also the extension of
Mahommedan power was pursued energetically. In 670 took
place the famous march of 'Okba COqba) b. Nafi' and the founda-
tion of Kairawan, where the great mosque still bears his name.
Our information about these events, though very full, is untrust-
worthy, while of the events in Asia Minor the accounts are scarce
and short. The Arabic historians are still absorbed by the events
in Irak and Khorasan.
The talented prefect of Kufa, Moghira b. Sho'ba, eventually
broke down the resistance of Ziyad, who came to Damascus to
render an account of his administration, which the caliph
ratified. Moawiya seems also to have acknowledged him as the
son of Abu Sofian, and thus as his brother; in 664 this recogni-
tion was openly declared. 1 In the next year Ziyad was appointed
governor of Basra and the eastern provinces belonging to it. As
the austere champion of the precepts of Islam, he soon restored
order in the whole district. Outwardly, this was the case in
Kufa also. A rising of KharijitCs in the year 663 had ended in
the death of their chief. But the Shi'ites were dissatisfied and
1 A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazan, says that he was a legiti-
mate son of Abu Sofian, and that his mother was Asma, daughter
of A'war. But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to
have been a slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofian, and who
became later also the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out
whether Abu Sofian acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later
period, the Abbasid caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyad and his
descendants struck off the rolls of the Koreish ; but, after his death,
the persons concerned gained over the chief of the rolls office, and
had their names replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479).
even dared to give public utterance to their hostility. Moghira
contented himself with a warning. He was already aged and had
no mind to enter on a conflict. He died about the year 670, and
his province also was entrusted to Ziyad, who appointed *Amr b.
Horaith as his vicegerent. At a Friday service in tie great mosque
"Amr was insulted and pelted with pebbles. Ziyad then came
himself, arrested the leader of the Shf ites, and sent fourteen rebels
to Damascus, among them several men of consideration. Seven of
them who refused to pledge themselves to obedience were put to
death; the ShTites considered them as martyrs and accused
Moawiya of committing a great crime. But in Kufa peace was
restored, and this not by military force, but by the headmen of
the tribes. We must not forget that Kufa and Basra were
military colonies, and that each tribe had its own quarter of the
city. A wholesome diversion was provided by the serious re-
sumption of the policy of eastern expansion, which had been
interrupted by the civil war. For this purpose Irak had to
furnish the largest contingent. The first army sent by Ziyad
into Khorasan recaptured Merv, Herat and Balkh, conquered
Tokharistan and advanced as far as the Oxus. In 673 *Obai-
dallah, the son of Ziyad, crossed the river, occupied Bokhara, and
returned laden with booty taken from the wandering Turkish
tribes of Transoxiana. He brought 2000 Turkish archers with
him to Basra, the first Turkish slaves to enter the Moslem empire.
Sa'Id, son of the caliph Othman, whom Moawiya made governor
of Khorasan, in 674 marched against Samarkand. Other
generals penetrated as far as the Indus and conquered Kabul,
Sijistan, Makran and Kandahar.
Ziyad governed Irak with the greatest vigour, but as long as
discontent did not issue in action, he let men alone. At his death
(672-673), order was so generally restored that " nobody had any
more to fear for life or estate, and even the unprotected woman
was safe in her house without having her door bolted."
Moawiya was a typical Arab sayyid (gentleman) . |He governed,
not by force, but by his superior intelligence, his self-control,
his mildness and magnanimity. The following anecdote may
illustrate this. One of Moawiya's estates bordered on that of
Abdallah b. Zobair, who complained in a somewhat truculent
letter that Moawiya's slaves had been guilty of trespassing.
Moawiya, disregarding his son Yazid's advice that he should
exact condign punishment for Zobair's disrespect, replied in
flattering terms, regretting the trespass and resigning both slaves
and estate to Zobair. In reply Zobair protested his loyalty to
Moawiya, who thereupon pointed a moral for the instruction of
Yazid.
Moawiya has been accused of having poisoned more than one of
his adversaries, among them Malik Ashtar, Abdarrahman the
son of the great captain Khalid b. Walid, and Hasan b. Ali. As
for the latter, European scholars have long been agreed that the
imputation is groundless. As to Abdarrahman the story is in the
highest degree improbable. Madaini says that Moawiya was
prompted to it, because when he consulted Jthe Syrians about the
choice of his son Yazid as his successor, they had proposed
Abdarrahman. The absurdity of this is obvious, for Abdarrah-
man died in the year 666. 1 Others say 1 that Moawiya was afraid
lest Abdarrahman should become too popular. Now, Abdarrah-
man had not only been a faithful ally of Moawiya in the wars with
Ali, but after the peace devoted all his energy to the Greek war.
It is almost incredible that Moawiya out of petty jealousy would
have deprived himself of one of his best men. The probability is
that Abdarrahman was ill when returning from the frontier, that
Moawiya sent him his own medical man, the Christian doctor Ibn
Othal, and that the rumour arose that the doctor had poisoned
him. It is remarkable withal that this rumour circulated, not in
Horns (Emesa) , where Abdarrahman died, but in Medina. There
a young relation of Abdarrahman was so roused by the taunt
that the death of his kinsman was unavenged, that he killed Ibn
Othal near the mosque of Damascus. Moawiya imprisoned him
and let him pay a high ransom, the law not permitting the talio
against a Moslem for having killed a Christian. The story that
1 Aghani xx. p, 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118.
a Tabari ii. p. 82.
CALIPHATE
29
this relative was Kh£lid, the son of Abdarrahman, is absurd in-
asmuch as Moawiya made this Khalid commander against the
Greeks in succession to his father. In the third case — that of
Malik Ashtar — the evidence is equally inadequate. In fact, since
Moawiya did not turn the weapon of assassination against such
men as Abdallah b. Zobair and Hosain b. Ali, it is unlikely that
he used it against less dangerous persons. These two men were
the chief obstacles to Moawiya's plan for securing the Caliphate
for his son Yazid. The leadership with the Arabic tribes was as a
rule hereditary, the son succeeding his father, but only if he was
personally fit for the position, and was acknowledged as such by
the principal men of the tribe. The hereditary principle had not
been recognized by Islam in the cases of Abu Bekr, Omar and
Othman; it had had some influence upon the choice of Ali, the
husband of Fatima and the cousin of the Prophet. But it had
been adopted entirely for the election of Hasan. The example of
Abu Bekr proved that the caliph had the right to appoint his
successor. But this appointment must be sanctioned by the
principal men, as representing the community. Moawiya seems
to have done his best to gain that approbation, but the details
given by the historians are altogether unconvincing. This only
seems to be certain, that the succession of Yazid was generally
acknowledged before the death of his father, except in Medina.
(See Mahommedan Institutions.)
Moawiya died in the month of Rajab 60 (a.d. 680). His last
words are said to have been: " Fear ye God, the Elevated and
Mighty, for God, Praise be to Him, protects the man that fears
Him; he who does not fear God, has no protection." Moawiya
was, in fact, a religious man and a strict disciple of the precepts of
Islam. We can scarcely, therefore, credit the charges made by
the adversaries of his chosen successor Yazid, that he was a
drinker of wine, fond of pleasure, careless about religion. All the
evidence shows that, during the reign Of the Omayyads, life in
Damascus and the rest of Syria was austere and in striking
contrast to the dissolute manners which prevailed in Medina.
2. Rule of Yazid. — When Moawiya died, the opposition had
already been organized. On his accession Yazid sent a circular
to all his prefects, officially announcing his father's death, and
ordering them to administer the oath of allegiance to their
subjects. In that sent to Walid b. 'Otba, the governor of
Medina, he enclosed a private note charging him in particular to
administer the oath to Hosain, Abdallah b. Omar and Abdallah
b. Zobair, if necessary, by force. Walid sent a messenger
inviting them to a conference, thus giving them time to assemble
their followers and to escape to Mecca, where the prefect Omar
b. Sa'id could do nothing against them. In the month Ramadan
this Omar was made governor of Medina and sent an army against
Ibn Zobair- This army was defeated, and from that time Ibn
Zobair was supreme at Mecca.
On the news of Yazid's accession, the numerous partisans of
the family of Ali in Kufa sent addresses to Hosain, inviting him
to take refuge with them, and promising to have him proclaimed
caliph in Irak. Hosain, having learned that the majority of the
inhabitants were apparently ready to support him strenuously,
prepared to take action. Meanwhile Yazid, having been in-
formed of the riotous behaviour of the Shi'ites in Kufa, sent
Obaidallah, son of the famous Ziyad and governor of Basra, to
restore order. Using the same tactics as his father had used
before, Obaidallah summoned the chiefs of the tribes and made
them responsible for the conduct of their men. On the 8th of
Dhu'l-Hijja Hosain set out from Mecca with all his family,
expecting to be received with enthusiasm by the citizens of Kufa,
but on his arrival at Kerbela west of the Euphrates, he was
confronted by an army sent by Obaidallah under the command of
Omar, son of the famous Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, the founder of
Kufa. Hosain gave battle, vainly relying on the promised aid
from Kufa, and fell with almost all his followers on the 10th of
Muharram 61 (10th of October 680).
No other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected.
But, as it involved the grandson of the Prophet, the son of Ali,
and so many members of his family, Hosain's devout partisans
at Kufa, who by their overtures had been the principal cause of
the disaster, regarded it as a tragedy, and the facts gradually
acquired a wholly romantic colouring. Omar b. Sa'd and his
officers, Obaidallah and even Yazid came to be regarded as
murderers, and their names have ever since been held accursed
by all ShTites. They observe the 10th of Muharram, the day of
' Ashura, as a day of public mourning. Among the Persians, stages
are erected on that day in public places, and plays are acted,
representing the misfortunes of the family of Ali. 1 " Revenge
for Hosain " became the watchword of all Shi'ites, and the
Meshed Hosain (Tomb of the martyr Hosain) at Kerbela is to
them the holiest place in the world (see Kerbela). Obaidallah
sent the head of Hosain to Damascus, together with the women
and children and Ali b. Hosain, who, being ill, had not taken part
in the fight. Yazid was very sorry for the issue, and sent the
prisoners under safe-conduct to Medina. Ali remained faithful
to the caliph, taking no share in the revolt of the Medinians, antf
openly condemning the risings of the ShTites.
Ibn Zobair profited greatly by the distress caused by HosainV
death. Though he named himself publicly a refugee of the House
of God, he had himself secretly addressed as caliph, and many of
the citizens of Medina acknowledged him as such. Yazid, whe»
informed of this, swore in his anger to have him imprisoned. But
remembering the wisdom of his father, he sent messengers with a
chain made of silver coins, and bearing honourable proposals.
At the same time he received a number of the chief men 0/
Medina, sent by the prefect, with great honour and loaded them
with gifts and presents. But Ibn Zobair refused, and the
Medinians, of whom the majority probably had never before
seen a prince's court, however simple, were only confirmed in
their rancour against Yazid, and told many horrible tales about
his profligacy, that he hunted and held wild orgies with Bedouin
sheikhs, and had no religion. A characteristically Arabic cere-
mony took place in the mosque of Medina. " I cast off the oath
of allegiance to Yazid, as I cast off my turban," exclaimed the
first, and all others followed, casting off one of their garments,
till a heap of turbans and sandals lay on the floor. Ibn IJan?ala
was made commander. The Omayyads, though they with their
clients counted more than 1000 men, were not able to maintain
themselves, and were allowed to depart only on condition of strict
neutrality;
At last the patience of Yazid was exhausted. An army — the
accounts about the number vary from 4000 to 20,000 — was
equipped in all haste and put under the command of Moslim b.
*Oqba, with orders first to exact submission from the Medinians,
if necessary by force, and then to march against Ibn Zobair.
Moslim, having met the expelled Omayyads at Wftdi 'l-Qorft,
encamped near the city (August 683) and gave the inhabitants
three days in which to return to obedience, wishing to spare the
ci ty of the Prophet and to prevent the shedding of blood. When,
however, after the lapse of three days, a final earnest appeal had
been answered insultingly, he began the battle. The Medinians
fought valiantly, but could not hold out against the well-dis-
ciplined Syrians. Moreover, they were betra yed by the Medinian
family of the Band Ijaritha, who introduced Syrian soldiers into
the town. Medina lies between two volcanic hills, called hart a.
After one of these the battle has been named " The Day of
Harra." For three days the city was given up to plunder. It is
said that a thousand bastards (the "children of the Harra")
were born in consequence of these days. The remaining citizens
were compelled to take the oath of allegiance to Yazid in a
humiliating form; the few who refused were killed. Ali b.
Hosain, who had refused to have anything to do with the revolt,
was treated with all honour. Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, the
son of Ali, and Abdallah b. Omar had likewise abstained, but
they had left Medina for Mecca.
Moslim then proceeded towards Mecca. He was already ill, and
died about midway between the two cities, after having given the
command, according to the orders of the caliph, to Hosain b.
Nomair. It is quite natural that the man who delivered up the
city of the Prophet to plunder, and at whose hands so many
prominent Moslems fell, should have been an object of detestation
1 See Chodzko, Tht&tre persan (Paris, 1878).
3°
CALIPHATE
to the devout. Even some European scholars have drawn a
false picture of his personality, as has been clearly shown by
WeUhausen. About Medina also false statements have been
made. The city recovered very soon from the disaster, and
remained the seat not only of holy tradition and jurisdiction,
but also of the Arabic aristocracy. In no city of the empire,
during the reign of the Omayyads, lived more singers and
musicians than in Medina.
Hosain b. Nomair arrived before Mecca in September 683 and
found Ibn Zobair ready to defend it. A number of the citizens
of Medina had come to the aid of the Holy City, as well as many
Kharijites from Yam&ma under Najda b. 'Amir. The siege had
lasted 65 — others say 40 — days, when the news came of the
death of Yazid, which took place presumably on the 14th of
Rabia I, 64 (12th November 683). Eleven days before a fire,
caused by imprudence, had consumed all the woodwork of the
Ka'ba and burst the black stone in three places. The evidence
is quite conclusive; yet the fire has been imputed to the Syrians,
and a tale was invented about ballistas which hurled against the
House of God enormous stones and vessels full of bitumen. In
fact, the siege had been confined to enclosure and skirmishes. It
is said that on the news of the death of Yazid a conference took
place between Hosain and Ibn Zobair, and that the former offered
to proclaim the latter as caliph provided he would accompany
him to Syria and proclaim a general amnesty. Ibn Zobair
refused haughtily, and Hosain, with a contemptuous criticism of
his folly, ordered his army to break up for Syria.
Hitherto Ibn Zobair had confined himself to an appeal to the
Moslems to renounce Yazid and to have a caliph elected by the
council (sh&ra) of the principal leading men. He now openly
assumed the title of caliph and invited men to take the oath of
allegiance. He was soon acknowledged throughout Arabia, in
Egypt and in Irak. The Omayyads, who had returned to Medina,
were again expelled.
Yazid is described in theContinuatio Isidori 2?yz.§27, as " iucun-
dissimus et cunctis nationibus regni eius subditis vir gratissime
habitus, qui nullam unquam, ut omnibus inoris est, sibi regalis
fastigii causa gloriam appetivit, sed communis 1 cum omnibus
civiliter vixit." This is confirmed by the fact that Moawiya II.
is said to have been a mild ruler, like his father, and goes far to
outweigh the prejudiced account given by his opponents and
coloured still further by tradition. Against the accusation of
being a drinker of wine he himself protested in verses which he
recited when he sent the army against Ibn Zobair. Decisive is
also the testimony of Ibn al-Hanafiya, who declared that all the
accusations brought by the Medinians were false. It may be
true that he was fond of hunting, but he was a peace-loving,
generous prince. It is uncertain at what age he died. Accounts
vary between 33 and 39. The latter finds confirmation in the
statement that he was born in a.h. 25, though another account
places his birth in 22. As his son Moawiya who succeeded him
was certainly adult (the accounts vary between 17 and 23), the
latter date seems to be preferable.
3. Moawiya II. had reigned a very short time — how long is
again wholly uncertain — when he fell sick and died. Then
commenced a period of the greatest confusion. The mother of
Yazid, Maisun, belonged to the most powerful tribe in Syria, the
Kalb, and it seems that this and the cognate tribes of Qoda'a
(Yemenites) had enjoyed certain prerogatives, which had aroused
the jealousy of the Qais and the cognate tribes of Modar. Im-
mediately after the death of Yazid, Zofar b. IJarith, who had
already fought with Ibn Zobair against Yazid, had induced
northern Syria and Mesopotamia to declare for Ibn Zobair. In
Horns (Emesa) the governor No'man b. Bashlr had pledged
himself to the same cause. The prefect of D amascus, Pajihak b.
Qais, seemed to be wavering in his loyalty. Khalid, the brother
of Moawiya II., was still a youth and appears to have had no
strength of character. There was, however, a much more
dangerous candidate, viz. Merwan b. Qakam, of another branch
of the Omayyads, who had been Othman's right-hand man. He
had pledged himself after some hesitation to Yazid, but now his
1 Dozy took communis for a gloss to civiliter.
turn had come. The amir of the Kalb, Ibn Bafedal, persuaded
probably by Obaidallah b. Ziyad, conceived that only a man of
distinction could win the contest, and proclaimed Merwan
caliph, on condition that his successor should be Khalid b.
Yazid, and after him 'Amr b. Sa'id al-Ashdaq, who belonged to
the third branch of the Omayyads. Meanwhile Pafefe&k had
declared himself openly for Ibn Zobair. A furious battle (a.d.
684) ensued at Merj Rahit, near Damascus, in which f)abfe£k
and Zofar, though they had the majority of troops, were utterly
defeated. This battle became the subject of a great many
poems and had pernicious consequences, especially as regards
the antagonism between the Qais-Mocjar and Kalb- Yemenite
tribes.
, 4. Reign of Merwan /. — Merwan strengthened his position
according to the old oriental fashion by marrying the widow of
Yazid, and soon felt himself strong enough to substitute his own
son Abdalmalik for . Khalid b. Yazid as successor-designate.
Khalid contented himself with protesting; he was neither a
politician nor a soldier, but a student of alchemy and astronomy;
translations of Greek books have been ascribed to him (Jatiz,
Bay an y i. p. 126). In the year a.h. 435 there was still in Egypt
a brazen globe attributed to Ptolemy which had belonged to
Khalid (Ibn QiftI, p. 440, 1.15). He was also consulted about
future events. There were, however, not a few who deplored
the fact that the throne had passed from the descendants of
Abu Sofian. This feeling gave rise to the prophecy that there
should appear later a Sofiani on the throne, who would reign
with might and wisdom. 'Amr Ashdaq made no opposition till
the death of Merwan. After the victory at Merj R&hit, Merwan
conquered Egypt, and installed as governor his second son
Abdalazlz. An army sent to the rescue by Ibn Zobair under the
command of his brother Mus'ab was beaten in Palestine by
* Amr Ashdaq. But a division sent by Merwan to the Hejaz was
cut to pieces. Obaidallah b. Ziyad set out with the purpose of
subduing Mesopotamia and marching thence against Irak. But
he was detained a whole year in the former country, by a rising
of the Shi'ites in Kufa, who were still in mourning for Hosain
and had formed an army which called itself " the army of the
penitent." They were routed at Ras 'Ain, but Obaidallah had
still to fight Zofar.
Meanwhile Mokhtar (son of that Abu 'Obaid the Thaqifite who
had commanded the Arabs against the Persians in the un-
fortunate battle of the Bridge), a man of great talents and still
greater ambition, after having supported Ibn Zobair in the siege
of Mecca, had gone to Kufa, where he joined the Shi'ites, mostly
Persians, and acquired great power. He claimed that he was
commissioned by Ali's son, Mahommed ibn al-Hanafiya, who
after the death of Hosain was recognized by the Shi'ites as their
Mahdi. A vague message from Mahommed, that it was the duty
of every good Moslem to take part with the family of the Prophet,
was interpreted in favour of Mokhtar, and thenceforward all the
Shi'ites, among them the powerful Ibrahim, son of Ali's right
hand Malik Ashtar, followed him blindly as their chief. After-
wards Ibn al-Hanafiya seems to have acknowledged him dis-
tinctly as his vicegerent. Ibn Zobair's representative in Kufa
was compelled to flee, and all those who had participated in the
battle of Kerbela were put to death. An army despatched
against Obaidallah under Ibrahim routed the Syrians near
Mosul (battle of Khazir); Obaidallah and Hosain b. Nomair
were slain. Mokhtar was now at the zenith of power, but Ibn
Zobair, determined to get rid at all costs of so dangerous an
enemy, named his brother Mu§'ab governor of Basra and ordered
him to march against Kufa. Basra was at that time full of
fugitives from Kufa, Arabian chiefs who resented the arrogance of
Mokhtar's adherents, and desired eagerly to regain their former
position in Kufa. The troops of Basra had been, since the death
of Yazid, at war with the Kharijites, who had supported Ibn
Zobair during the siege of Mecca, but had deserted him later.
Their caliph, Nafi* b. Azraq, after whom they were called also
Azraqites, threatened even the city itself, when Mohallab b. Abi
§ofra, a very able general, compelled them to retire. Mohallab
then marched with Mus'ab against Kufa. Mokhtar fell, and with
CALIPHATE
3i
him the ephemeral dominion of the Persian Shi'ites. This had
been their first attempt to dispute the authority of their Arabian
conquerors, but it was not to be the last. Ibrahim b. Ashtar,
Mokhtar's governor of Mesopotamia, submitted and acknow-
ledged the Caliphate of Ibn Zobair.
5. Reign of Abdalmalik. — Merwan died on the 27th of Ramadan
65 (7th May 685); according to tradition, he was suffocated by
his wife, because he had insulted her son Khalid and herself.
The accession of Abdalmalik was attended with no difficulty,
but the first years of his reign were occupied by troubles in
northern Syria, where, instigated by the Greeks, the Mardaites
of the Amanus, called Jarajima by the Arabs, penetrated into
the Lebanon. He was obliged to conclude an unfavourable
treaty first with them, later with the emperor of Constantinople.
Moreover, in the year 68 (a.d. 687-688) Syria was afflicted by a
serious famine. Ibn Zobair, however, was occupied at Mecca
with the rebuilding of the Ka'ba, and Mu§'ab was harassed not
only by the Kharijites, but also by a noble freebooter, Obaidallah
b. IjLorr, who had created for himself a principality in the vicinity
of Madain (Ctesiphon).
The period of the pilgrimage caused a momentary truce to all
these struggles, and in Dhu '1-hijja, a.h. 68 (January 688), was
seen the curious spectacle of four different standards planted
near Mecca, belonging respectively to four chiefs, each of whom
was a pretender to the empire; the standard of Abdallah b.
Zobair, caliph of Mecca; that of the caliph of Damascus,
Abdalmalik; that of Ali's son Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, Mahdi
of the Shi'ites; and that of the Kharijites, who were at that time
under the command of Najda b. 'Amir. Such, however, was the
respect inspired by the holy places, that no disorders resulted.
When, in the year (69 a.h.) 689 Abdalmalik had at last en-
camped at Bo{nan ]$abib in the vicinity of Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin), 1
with the purpose of marching against Mus'ab, his cousin 'Amr
Ashdaq, to whom by the treaty of Jabia, before the battle of
Merj Rfihit, the succession to Merwan had been promised, took
advantage of his absence to lay claim to the supreme power, and
to have himself proclaimed caliph by his partisans. Abdalmalik
was obliged to retrace his steps and to lay siege to Ids own capital.
The garrison of Damascus took fright, and deserted their posts,
so that 'Amr Ashdaq was compelled to surrender. The caliph
Abdalmalik summoned him to his palace and slew him with his
own hand. Abdalmalik has every claim to our esteem as one of
the ablest monarchs that ever reigned, but this murder remains
a lasting blot on his career.
Abdalmalik could now give his whole attention to the pro-
jected expedition against Irak. Mus'ab was encamped at
Bajomaira in the neighbourhood of Takrit But Abdalmalik's
first task was to subdue Zofar and his Qaisites at Kerkesia
(Qarqisia), and the rest of the partisans of Mokhtar at Nisibis.
Meanwhile, Mus'ab had to curb a violent revolt in Basra, brought
about by agents of Abdalmalik, and called after a place in the
city the revolt of the Jof rites. About the middle of a.d. 691
Abdalmalik at last encamped at Dair al-Jathaliq (the monastery
of the Catholicus) between Maskin, not far from the site of
Bagdad, and Bajomaira. Mug'ab's best troops were fighting
under Mohallab against the Kharijites; many Basrians were
secretly favourable to the Omayyads, nor were the Kufian
soldiers to be trusted. The people of Irak had never been
accustomed to discipline, and no improvement had taken place
during the troubles of the last years. Abdalmalik, therefore,
wrote secretly to the chiefs of Mus'ab's army, and persuaded them
to desert to him, with the exception of Ibrahim b. Ashtar, the
brave son of a brave father, who, after the fall of Mokhtar, had
become a faithful supporter of Ibn Zobair. His death, in the
beginning of the battle, decided the fate of Mu§'ab, who was
slain sword in hand by a Shi'ite of Kufa.
This victory opened the gates of Kufa to Abdalmalik, and all
Irak received him with acclamation. Thence, a few days later,
he sent Hajjaj b. Yusuf at the head of 2000 Syrians against Ibn
Zobair in Mecca, and despatched a messenger toTariq b.'Amr, who
'Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria;
it lies a day's march west from Haleb (Aleppo).
was encamped at Wadi '1-Qora with 5000 men, to make himself
master of Medina and thence to rejoin Hajjaj. Before the
arrival of this reinforcement, Hajjaj confined himself to skir-
mishes, in which his soldiers always had the advantage. Then,
in Dhu '1 Qa'da 72 (March 25th, 692) Mecca was invested. The
blockade lasted more than six months, during which the city was
a prey to all the horrors of siege and famine. Hajjaj had set up a
balista on the hill of Abu Qobais, whence he»poured on the city a
hail of stones, which was suspended only in the days of the
pilgrimage. Ibn Zobair employed against him Abyssinians
armed with Greek-fire-tubes, who, however, quitted him soon
under the pressure of famine. This at length triumphed over his
last adherents. Ten thousand fighting men, and even two of the
sons of the pretender (it is said, on his own advice), left the city
and surrendered. Mecca being thus left without defenders, Ibn
Zobair saw that ruin was inevitable. Hajjaj having promised
him amnesty if he would surrender, he went to his mother Asma,
the daughter of Abu Bekr, who had reached the age of a hundred
years, and asked her counsel. She answered that, if he was
confident in the justice of his cause, he must die sword in hand.
In embracing him for the last time, she felt the cuirass he wore
and exclaimed that such a precaution was unworthy of a man
resolved to die. He, therefore, took off the cuirass, and, when
the Omayyad troops made their way into the city, attacked them
furiously, notwithstanding his advanced age, and was slain. His
head was cut off, and sent by Hajjaj to Damascus.
With Ibn Zobair perished the influence which the early
companions of Mahomet had exercised over Islam. Medina and
Mecca, though they continued to be the holy cities, had no longer
their old political importance, which had already been shaken to
its foundations by the murder of Othman and the subsequent
troubles. Henceforward we shall find temporal interests,
represented by Damascus, predominating over those of religion,
and the centre of Islam, now permanently removed beyond the
limits of Arabia, more susceptible to foreign influence, and
assimilating more readily their civilizing elements. Damascus,
Kufa and Basra will attract the flower of all the Moslem pro-
vinces, and thus that great intellectual, literary and scientific
movement, which reached its apogee under the first Abbasid
Caliphs at Bagdad, steadily becomes more marked.
After the burning of the Ka'ba during the siege of Mecca by
Hosain b. Nomair, Ibn Zobair had rebuilt and enlarged the house
of God. It is said that he thus carried out a design of the
Prophet, which he had not ventured to undertake for fear of
offending the newly converted Koreishites. Hajjaj pulled down
the enlargements and restored the Ka'ba to its old state. Mean-
while, the caliph committed to him the government of the Hejaz.
The Medinians, whose loyalty was suspected, were treated by
him with severity; not a few manias (clients) were obliged to
wear a leaden badge on their neck (Tabari, ii. p. 854 seq.).
Thus the protracted war against Ibn Zobair was brought to an
end; hence this year (71) also is called the " year of union "
(jama* a) . But the storms in Irak and Mesopotamia had not yet
altogether subsided. The Qais could not leave unavenged the
blood shed at Merj Rahit. For about ten years the Syrian and
Mesopotamian deserts were the scene of a series of raids, often
marked by great cruelty, and which have been the subject of a
great many poems. Abdalmalik had need of all his tact and
energy to pacify ultimately the zealous sectaries, but the
antagonism between Yemenites (Kalb and Azd) and Moclarites
(Qais and Tamim) had been increased by these struggles, and
even in the far east and the far west had fatal consequences.
When Abdalmalik, after a stay of forty days, returned from Irak
to Syria, he left two Omayyad princes as his vicegerents in Kufa
and Basra. Mohallab, who at the time of the battle of Bajomaira
was in the field against the Azraqites (Kharijites), and had put
himself at the disposal of the caliph, had orders to carry on the
war. But the two princes proved unequal to their task and did
not support Mohallab sufficiently, so that the Kharijites gained
more than one victory. Abdalmalik in alarm made Hajjaj
governor of Irak with the most extensive powers. The troops of
Kufa, who accompanied Mohallab in an expedition against the
32
CALIPHATE
Kharijites, had abandoned their general and dispersed to their
homes, and nothing could induce them to return to their duty.
Then, in the year 75 (a.d. 694), at the moment when the people
were assembled in the mosque for morning prayers, an unknown
young man of insignificant appearance, with a veil over his face,
ascended the pulpit. It seemed at first that he could not find his
words. One of the audience, with a contemptuous remark, took
a handful of pebbles to pelt him with. But he let them fall when
Hajjaj lifted his veil and began to speak.
" Men of Kufa," he said, " I see before me heads ripe for the
sickle, and the reaper — I am he. It seems to me, as if I saw
already the blood between your turbans and your shoulders. I
am not one of those who can be frightened by inflated bags of skin,
nor need any one think to squeeze me like a fig. The Prince of
the Believers has spread before him the arrows of his quiver, and
has tried every one of them by biting its wood. It is my wood
that he has found the hardest and strongest, and I am the arrow
which he shoots against you."
At the end of this address he ordered his clerk to read the
letter of the caliph. He began: " From the servant of God,
Abdalmalik, Prince of the Believers, to the Moslems that are in
Kufa, peace be with you." As nobody uttered a word in reply,
Hajjaj said : " Stop, boy," and exclaimed : " The Prince of the
Believers salutes you, and you do not answer his greeting I You
have been but poorly taught. I will teach you afresh, unless
you behave better. Read again the letter of the Prince of the
Believers." Then, as soon as he had read: " peace upon ye,"
there remained not a single man in the mosque who did not
respond, " and upon the Prince of the Believers be peace."
Thereupon Hajjaj ordered that every man capable of bearing
arms should immediately join Mohallab in KhGzistan (Susiana),
and swore that all who should be found in the town after the third
day should be beheaded. This threat had its effect, and Hajjaj
proceeded to Basra, where his presence was followed by the same
results. Mohallab, reinforced by the army of Irak, at last
succeeded, after a struggle of eighteen months, in subjugating
the Kharijites and their caliph Qatara b. Foja'a, and was able at
the beginning of the year 78 (a.d. 697) to return to Hajjaj at
Basra. The latter loaded him with honours and made him
governor of Khorasan, whence he directed several expeditions
into Transoxiana. In the meantime Hajjaj himself had, in 695
and 696, with great difficulty suppressed Shablb b. Yazid at the
head of the powerful tribe of Shaiban, who, himself a Kharijite,
had assumed the title of Prince of the Believers, and had even
succeeded in occupying Kufa. In the east the realm of Islam
had been very much extended under the reign of Moawiya,
when Ziyad was governor of Irak and Khorasan. Balkh and
Tokharistan, Bokhara, Samarkand and Khwarizm (modern
Khiva), even Kabul and Kandahar had been subdued; but in
the time of the civil war a great deal had been lost again. Now
at last the task of recovering the lost districts could be resumed.
When, in 697, Hajj&j gave the government of Khorasan to
Mohallab, he committed that of Si j is tan (Seistan) to Obaidallah
b. Abi Bakra, a cousin of Ziyfid. ITiis prefect allowed himself to
be enticed by Zanbil, prince of Zabulistan, to penetrate into the
country far from his base, and escaped narrowly, not without
severe losses. The command over Sijistan was now given to
Abdarrahman b. Ash'ath, a descendant of the old royal family of
Kinda, and a numerous army was entrusted to him, so magnifi-
cently equipped that it was called " the peacock army." Not
long after his arrival in Sijistan, Ibn Ash'ath, exasperated by the
masterful tone of Hajjaj, the plebeian, towards himself, the
high-born, decided to revolt. The soldiers of Irak, who did not
love the governor, and disliked the prospect of a long and
difficult war far from home, eagerly accepted the proposition of
returning to Irak, and even proclaimed the dethronement of
Abdalmalik, in favour of Ibn Ash'ath. The new pretender
entered Fars and Ahwaz (Susiana) , and it was in this last province
near Tostar (Shuster) that Hajjaj came up with him, after
receiving from Syria the reinforcements which he had demanded
in all haste from the caliph. Ibn Ash'ath drove him back to
Basra, entered the city, and then turned his arms against Kufa,
of which be took possession with aid from within. Hajjaj,
afraid lest his communications with Syria should be cut off,
pitched his camp at Dair Qorra, eighteen miles west from Kufa
towards the desert, where Mahommed, the brother of the caliph,
and Abdaliah, his son, brought him fresh troops. Ibn Ash'ath
encamped not far from him at Dair al-Jamajim with a far more
numerous army. In great alarm Abdalmalik endeavoured to
stifle the revolt by offering to dismiss Hajjaj from his post.
The insurgents rejected this offer, and hostilities recommenced.
At the end of three months and a half, in July 702, a decisive
action took place. Victory declared for Hajjaj. Ibn Ash'ath
fled to Basra, where he managed to collect fresh troops; but
having been again beaten in a furious battle that took place at
Maskin near the Dojail, he took refuge at Ahwaz, from which he
was soon driven by the troops of Hajjaj under 'Omara b. Tamlm.
The rebel then retired to Sijistan, and afterwards sought an
asylum with the king of Kabul. His partisans fled before
'Omara's army and penetrated into Khorasan, where they were
disarmed by the governor Yazid, son of the celebrated Mohallab,
who had died in the year 701. The pretender was betrayed by
the king of Kabul and killed himself. His head was sent to
Hajjaj and then to Damascus. This happened in the year 703
or 704. Yazid b. Mohallab was soon after deprived of the
government of Khorasan, Majjaj accusing him of partiality
towards the rebels of Yemenite extraction. He appointed in his
stead first his brother Mofaclclal b. Mohallab, and nine months
after Qotaiba b. Moslim, who was destined in a later period to
extend the sway of Islam in the east as far as China.
The struggle of Ibn Ash'ath was primarily a contest for
hegemony between Irak and Syria. The proud Arabic lords
could not acquiesce in paying to a plebeian like Hajjaj, invested
with absolute power by the caliph, the strict obedience he re-
quired. They considered it further as an injustice that the
Syrian soldiers received higher pay than those of Irak. This is
apparent from the fact that one of the conditions of peace
proposed by Abdalmalik before the battle of Dair al-Jamajim
had been that henceforth the Irakian troops should be paid
equally with the Syrian. Moreover, Hajjaj , in order to maintian
the regular revenue from taxation, had been obliged to introduce
stringent regulations, and had compelled a great many villagers
who had migrated to the cities to return to their villages.
Several of these vrerefaqiks, students of Koranic science and law,
and all these seconded Ibn Ash'ath with all their might. But, as
Wellhausen has shown, it is not correct to consider the contest as
a reaction of the mania's (Persian Moslems) against the Arabic
supremacy.
Immediately after the victories of Dair al-Jamajim and
Maskin, in 702, Hajjaj, built a new residence on the Tigris,
between Basra and Kufa, which he called Wasit (" Middle ").
There his Syrian soldiers were not in contact with the turbulent
citizens of the two capitals, and were at any moment ready to
suppress any fresh outburst.
At the beginning of his reign Abdalmalik had replaced the
humble mosque built by Omar on the site of the temple at
Jerusalem by a magnificent dome, which was completed in the
year 691. Eutychius and others pfetend that he desired to
substitute Jerusalem for Mecca, because Ibn Zobair had occupied
the latter place, and thus the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba had become
difficult for the Syrians. This is quite improbable. Abdalmalik
was born and educated in Islam, and distinguished himself in his
youth by piety and continence. He regarded himself as the
champion of Islam and of the communion of the believers, and
had among his intimates men of acknowledged devoutness such
as Raja b. IJaywa. The idea of interfering with the pilgrimage
to the House of God at Mecca, which would have alienated from
him all religious men, and thus from a political point of view
would have been suicidal, cannot have entered his mind for a
moment. But the glorification of Jerusalem, holy alike for
Moslems, Christians and Jews, could not but exalt the glory of
Islam and its rulers within and without.
As soon as the expedition to Irak against Mus'ab had termin-
ated, the holy war against the Greeks was renewed. The
CALIPHATE
33
operations in Asia Minor and Armenia were entrusted to
Mahommed b. Merwan, the caliph's brother, who was appointed
governor of Mesopotamia and Armenia, and in 692 beat the
army of Justinian II. near Sebaste in Cilicia. From this time
forth the Moslems made yearly raids, the chief advantage of
which was that they kept the Syrian and Mesopotamian Arabs
in continual military exercise. After the victorious march of
Okba (Oqba) b. Nan* through north Africa and the foundation of
Kairawan, his successor Qais b. Zohair had been obliged to
retreat to Barca (Cyrenaica). In the year 696 Abdalmalik sent
Hassan b. No* man into Africa at the head of a numerous army.
He retook Kairawan, swept the coast as far as Carthage, which he
sacked, expelling the Greek garrisons from all the fortified places;
he then turned his arms against the Berbers, who, commanded by
the Kahina (Diviner), as the Arabs called their queen, beat him
so completely that he was compelled to retreat to Barca. Five
years later he renewed the war, defeated and killed the Kahina,
and subdued the Berbers, who henceforward remained faithful to
the Arabs. Hassan continued to be governor of Kairawan till
after the death of Abdalmalik.
In the meantime Abdalmalik reconstituted the administration
of the empire on Arabic principles. Up to the year 693 the
Moslems had no special coinage of their own, and chiefly used
Byzantine and Persian money, either imported or struck by
themselves. Moawiya, indeed, had struck dinars and dirhems
with a Moslem inscription, but his subjects would not accept
them as there was no cross upon them. Abdalmalik instituted
a purely Islamitic coinage. If we may believe Theophanes, who
says that Justinian II. refused to receive these coins in payment
of the tribute and therefore declared the treaty at an end, we
must put the beginning of the coinage at least two years earlier.
Hajjaj coined silver dirhems at Kufa in 694. A still greater
innovation was that Arabic became the official language of the
state. In the conquered countries till then, not only had the
Greek and Persian administration been preserved, but Greek
remained the official language in the western, Persian in the
eastern provinces. All officials were now compelled to know
Arabic and to conduct their administration in that language.
To this change was due in great measure the predominance of
Arabic throughout the empire. Lastly, a regular post service
was instituted from Damascus to the provincial capitals, especi-
ally destined for governmental despatches. The postmasters
were charged with the task of informing the caliph of all important
news in their respective countries.
All the great rivals of Abdalmalik having now disappeared,
he was no longer like his predecessors primus inter pares, but
dominus. Under his rule the members of the Omayyad house
enjoyed a greater amount of administrative control than had
formerly been the case, but high office was given only to com-
petent men. He succeeded in reconciling the sons of 'Amr
Ashdaq, and also Kh&lid b. Yazid, to whom be gave his own
daughter in marriage. He himself had married * Atika, a daughter
of Yazid, a union which was in all respects a happy one. He
took great care in the education of his sons, whom he destined
as his successors. His brother Abdalazlz, governor of Egypt,
whom Merwan had marked out as his successor, died in the year
703 or 704, and Abdalmalik chose as heirs to the empire first
his son Walld, and after him his second son Suleiman. He
himself died on the 14th Shawwal 86 (9th October 705) at the age
of about sixty. His reign was one of the most stormy in the
annals of Islam, but also one of the most glorious. Abdalmalik
not only brought triumph to the cause of the Omayyads, but
also extended and strengthened the Moslem power as a whole.
He was well versed in old Arabic tradition and in the doctrine
of Islam, and was passionately fond of poetry. His court was
crowded with poets, whom he loaded with favours, even if they
were Christians like Akhtal. In his reign flourished also the two
celebrated rivals of Akhtal, Jarlr and Farazdaq.
6. Reign of Walid I. — This is the most glorious epoch in the
history of Islam. In Asia Minor and Armenia, Maslama, brother
of the caliph, and his generals obtained numerous successes
against the Greeks. Tyana was conquered after a long siege,
and a great expedition against Constantinople was in preparation.
In Armenia Maslama. advanced even as far as the Caucasus. In
Africa, Musa b. Nosair, who succeeded Hassan b. No'man as
governor, in a short time carried his conquests as far as Fez,
Tangier and Ceuta, and one of his captains even made a descent
on Sicily and plundered Syracuse. When he returned from the
west to Kairawan, he made his client TariQ (or Tarik) governor
of Tangier and of the whole western part of Africa. Under him
the chiefs who had submitted to the Moslem arms retained
their authority. One of them was the Greek exarch of Tangier,
Julian, who, supported by the powerful Berber tribe of Ghomera,
had long resisted and even asked for aid from Spain, but had
been compelled to surrender and was left governor of Ceuta.
Meanwhile in Spain, after the death of the Gothic king Witiza
in the year 90 (708-709), anarchy arose, which was terminated
by the council of noblemen at Toledo electing Roderic, the power-
ful duke of Baetica, to be his successor in the fifth year, of Walid.
The eldest son of Witiza then applied to Julian, and asked the aid
of the Arabs for the recovery of his father's throne. T^riQ
forwarded the embassy to Kairawan, and Musa asked the
caliph's permission to send an expedition into Spain. Authorized
by Musa, fariq now sent, in Ramadan 91 (July 710), 500 Berbers
under the command of 'Jaxii to reconnoitre the country. This
expedition, seconded by partisans of Witiza, was successful. In
the beginning of a,d. 711 Roderic had been summoned to the
north on account of an invasion of Navarra by the Franks,
caused, it is said, by the conspirators. Tajiq, thus certain of
meeting no serious opposition to his landing, passed into Spain
himself with an army composed mainly of Berbers of the Ghomera
tribe under the guidance of Julian. The spot where he landed
thence acquired the name of Jebel ^Sjciq, " Mountain of fariq,"
afterwards corrupted into Gibraltar. Having made himself
master of Algebras and thereby secured his communication with
Africa, T&n<l set out at once in the direction of Cordova. At the
news of the invasion Roderic hastened back and led a numerous
army against the combined forces of Tariq and the partisans of
Witiza. A fierce battle took place in the plain of Barbata on the
little river of Guadaleta (north of Medina Sidonia), in which
Roderic was completely routed. The spoils of the victors were
immense, especially in horses, but the king himself had dis-
appeared. Fearing. lest he should have escaped to Toledo and
should there fit out another army, the partisans of Witiza
insisted that Tariq should march immediately against the capital,
fariq complied with their wishes, notwithstanding the express
command of Musa b. Nosair that he should not venture too far
into the country, and the protests of Julian. Having made
himself master of Ecija and having despatched a detachment
under Moghlth against Cordova, Tariq took Mentesa (Villanueva
de la Fuente) and marched upon Toledo, which he soon con-
quered. At the same time Moghlth took Cordova. But,
notwithstanding these successes, T&riq knew that his situation
was most critical. King Roderic, who had escaped to Lusitania,
and the noble Goths, who had fled from Toledo, would certainly
not be slow in making efforts to regain what they had lost. He
therefore sent a message in all haste to Musa, entreating him to
come speedily. Musa, though angered by the disobedience of
T&riq, hastened to the rescue and embarked in April 712 with
18,000 men, among them many noble Arabs, and began, advised
by Julian, a methodical campaign, with the purpose of estab-
lishing and securing a line of communication between the sea
and Toledo. After having taken Seville, Carmona and Merida,
he marched from the latter place by the Via Romana to Sala-
manca, after having ordered fariq to rejoin him in order to
encounter king Roderic. Not far from Tamames the king was
defeated and killed. King Alphonso the Great found his tomb-
stone at Viseo with the inscription, " Hie requiescit Rodericus rex
Gothorum. ' ' After this battle Musa reconquered Toledo, which,
after the departure of Tariq, had recovered its independence,
and entered the capital in triumph. Already, before the expedi-
tion to Salamanca, he had perceived that the sons of Witiza had
neither military nor political ability. He therefore proclaimed
the caliph of Damascus as sole ruler of the whole peninsula*
v. 2
34
CALIPHATE
The Gothic princes must content themselves with honours and
apanages, in which they readily acquiesced. In the same year
93 (a.d. 712) MOsS struck Moslem coins with Latin inscriptions.
Musi then continued the subjugation of Spain, till Walid recalled
him to Damascus. He obeyed after having appointed his son
Abdalazlz governor of Andalos (Andalusia), as the Arabs named
the peninsula, and assigned Seville as his residence. Abdalazlz
consolidated his power by marrying the widow of the late king
Roderic. Musa left Spain about August 714, and reached
Damascus shortly before the death of Walid. Notwithstanding
the immense booty he brought, he did not receive his due reward.
Accused of peculation, he was threatened with imprisonment
unless he paid a fine of 100,000 pieces of gold. The old man —
he was born in the year 640 — was released by Yazid b. Mohallab,
the then mighty favourite of the caliph Suleiman, but died in
the same year 716 on his way to Mecca. His son Abdalazlz was
an excellent ruler, who did much for the consolidation of the
new conquests, but he reigned only one year and eleven months,
when he was murdered. His death has been falsely imputed by
some historians to the caliph Suleiman. 1
In the East the Moslem armies gained the most astonishing
successes. In the course of a few years Qotaiba b. Moslim
conquered Paikend, Bokhara, Samarkand, Khwarizm (mod.
Khiva), Ferghana and Shfish (Tashkent), and even Kashgar on
the frontiers of China. Meanwhile Mahommed b. Qasim invaded
Makran, took Daibol, passed the Indus, and marched, after
having beaten the Indian king Daher, through Sind upon Multan,
which he conquered and whence he carried off an immense booty.
Walid was the first caliph, born and trained as prince, who
felt the majesty of the imamate and wished it to be felt by his
subjects. He desired to augment the splendours of Islam and
its sovereign, as Abdalmalik had already done by building the
dome of Jerusalem. In the time of the conquest of Damascus,
one half of the great church had been made a mosque, while the
remaining half had been left to the Christians. Walid annexed
this part, indemnifying the Christians elsewhere, and restored
the whole building sumptuously and magnificently. In his time
many fine palaces and beautiful villas were built in Syria, and
Becker's conjecture seems not altogether improbable, that from
this period dates the palace of Mashetta, the facade of which is
now in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin, as perhaps also
the country houses discovered by Musil in the land of Moab.
Walid also caused the mosque of Medina to be enlarged. For
this purpose, the apartments of the Prophet and his wives were
demolished, which at first caused much discontent in Medina,
some crying out that thereby a verse of the Book of God (S. 49,
v. 4) was cancelled. With this exception, the citizens of Medina
had nothing to complain of. The vicegerent of Abdalmalik
had treated them harshly. Walid immediately on his accession
appointed as governor of Hejaz his cousin Omar b. Abdalazlz,
who was received there with joy, his devoutness and gentle
character being well known. But the reputation of Omar
attracted to the two holy cities a great number of the inhabitants
of Irak, who had been deeply involved in the rebellion of Ibn
Ash'ath. Hajjaj, however, was not the man to allow the forma-
tion of a fresh nucleus of sedition, and persuaded the caliph to
dismiss Omar in the year 712, and appoint Othman b. IJayyan
at Medina and Khalid al-Qasri at Mecca. These two prefects
compelled the refugees to return to Irak, where many of them
were severely treated and even put to death by Hajjaj.
Few people have been so slandered as this great viceroy of the
Orient. In reality he was a man of extraordinary ability, and
accomplished the task committed to him with vigour and energy.
To his unflagging constancy was due the suppression of the
dangerous rebellion of Ibn Ash'ath. After the restoration of
peace his capacity for organization was displayed in all directions.
1 This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches
of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in his Estudio sobre la
Invasion de los Arabes en Espana (Madrid, 1892). Some of the
details, however, e.g. the battle near Tamames and the part played
by the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but
on probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa
and Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir, Caliphate (London, 1891), pp.368-9.
The draining and tilling of submerged or uncultivated land on a
large scale, the promotion of agriculture in every way, in par-
ticular by the digging of channels, and the regulation of the
system of taxation, were carried out on his initiative. He
showed the utmost wisdom in the selection of his lieutenants.
The fear of his name was so great that even in the desert there
was security for life and property, and his brilliant military
successes were unquestionably due in a great measure to the
care which he bestowed on equipment and commissariat. The
heavy expenses entailed thereby were largely met by the booty
which he won. Hajjaj was a sincere Moslem; this, however,
did not prevent him from attacking Ibn Zobair in the Holy
City, nor again from punishing rebels, though they bore the
name of holy men. He enjoyed the entire confidence of Abdal-
malik with Walid, but Suleiman, the appointed successor,
regarded him with disfavour. Yazid b. Mohallab, whom he had
recalled from Khorasan, and imprisoned, had escaped and put
himself under the protection of Suleiman, who made himself
surety for the fine to which Yazid had been condemned. Hajjaj
foreboded evil, and prayed eagerly that he might die before
Walid. His death took place about the end of Ramadan 95
(June or July 714).
7. Reign of Suleiman (Solaiman). — Suleiman had early missed
the throne. Walid wished to have his son Abdalaziz chosen as
his successor, and had offered Suleiman a large sum of money to
induce him to surrender his rights. Walid went still further
and sent letters to the governors of all the provinces, calling on
them to take the oath of allegiance to his son. None, except
Hajjaj and his two generals Qotaiba b. Moslim and Mahommed b.
Qasim, consented thus to set at naught the order of succession
established by Abdalmalik; and Suleiman succeeded without
difficulty on the death of his brother Jornada II. 96 (February
715). We can easily conceive the hatred felt by Suleiman for
Hajjaj and for all that belonged to him. Hajjaj himself was
dead; but Suleiman poured out bis wrath on his family and his
officers. The governors of Medina and Mecca were dismissed;
Mahommed b. Qasim, the conqueror of India, cousin of Hajjaj,
was dismissed from his post and outlawed. Qotaiba b. Moslim,
the powerful governor of Khorasan, tried: to anticipate the caliph
by a revolt, but a conspiracy was formed against him, which
ended in his murder. Some historians say that he was falsely
accused of rebellion.
Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of Majjaj, was made governor
of Irak. His arrival was hailed with joy, especially by the
Azd, to whom his family belonged, and the other Yemenite
tribes. Yazid discovered soon that the system of taxation as
regulated by Hajjaj could not be altered without serious danger
to the finances of the empire, and that he could not afford the
expenses which his prodigal manner of life involved. He there-
fore asked the caliph to give him the governorship of Khorasan
also, and took his residence in Merv, where he was free from
control. On his return to Khorasan he set on foot a series of
new expeditions against Jorjfin and Tabaristan, with only partial
success. He sent, however, to the caliph an exaggerated account
of his victories and the booty he had made. He had cause to
repent this later.
Walid had, in the last years of his reign, made preparations
for a great expedition against Constantinople. Suleiman carried
them on with energy, and as early as the autumn of a.d. 715
Maslama invaded Asia Minor at the head of a numerous army,
whilst a well-equipped fleet under Omar b. Hobaira sailed out
to second him. It is said that Suleiman was firmly persuaded
that Constantinople would be conquered during his reign, in
accordance with a Sibylline prophecy which said that the city
would be subdued by a caliph bearing the name of a prophet,
he himself being the first to fulfil this condition. 2 Moreover, the
Byzantine empire was in these years disturbed by internal
troubles. The first year of the expedition was not unsuccessful.
The siege of Amorium in Phrygia was broken up, but Pergamum
and Sardis were taken. On the 25th of August 716 the blockade
* Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to
be found in the Kitdb al-Oyun, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138.
CALIPHATE
35
of Constantinople began from the land side, and two weeks later
from the sea side. A few months before, Leo the Isaurian had
ascended the throne and prepared the city for the siege. This
lasted about a year. The besieged were hard pressed, but the
besiegers suffered by the severe winter, and were at last obliged
to raise the siege. Maskma brought back the rest of his army
in a pitiful state, while the fleet, on its return, was partly de-
stroyed by a violent tempest. The Moslems regard this failure
as one of the great evils that have befallen the human race, and
one which retarded the progress of the world for ages, 1 the other
calamity being the defeat in the battle of Tours by Charles Martel.
Maskma was still on his way back when Suleiman died at
Dabiq in northern Syria, which was the base of the expeditions
into Asia Minor. He seems not to have had the firmness of
character nor the frugality of Walid; but he was very severe
against the looseness of manners that reigned at Medina, and was
highly religious. Raja. b. Haywa, renowned for his piety, whose
influence began under AbdalmaHk and increased under Walid,
was his constant adviser and even determined him to designate
as his successor his devout cousin Omar b. Abdalazfz. Suleiman
was kind towards the Alids and was visited by several of them,
amongst others by Abu H&shim, the son of Mahommed b. al
IJanafiya, who after his father's death had become the secret
Imam (head) of the ShTites. On his way back to Hejaz this man
visited the family of Abdallah b. 'Abbas, which resided at
5omaima, a place situated in the vicinity of *Amman, and died
there, after having imparted to Mahommed b. Ali b. Abdallah b.
Abbas the names of the chiefs of the Shi'a in Irak and Khorasan,
and disclosed bis way of corresponding with them. From that
time the Abbasids began their machinations against the
Omayyads in the name of the family of the Prophet, avoiding all
that could cause suspicion to the Shfites, but holding the strings
firmly in their own hands.
8. Reign of Omar II. — Omar b. Abdalaziz did his best to
imitate his grandfather Omar in all things, and especially in
maintaining the simple manner of life of the early Moslems. He
was, however, born in the midst of wealth; thus frugality
became asceticism, and in so far as he demanded the same rigour
from his relatives, he grew unjust and caused uneasiness and
discontent. By paying the highest regard to integrity in the
choice of£his officers, and not to ability, he did not advance the
interests of his subjects, as he earnestly wished to do. In the
matter of taxes, though actuated by the most noble designs, he
did harm to the public revenues. The principle of Islam was,
that no Moslem, whatever might be his nationality, should pay
any tax other than the zakQt or poor-rate (see Mahommedan
Institutions). In practice, this privilege was confined to the
Arabic Moslems. Omar wished to maintain the principle. The
original inhabitants had been left on the conquered lands as
agriculturists, on condition of paying a fixed sum yearly for
each district. If one of these adopted Islam, Omar permitted
him to leave his place, which had been strictly forbidden by
tJajjaj in Irak and the eastern provinces, bedause by it many
hands were withdrawn from the tilling of the ground, and those
who remained were unable to pay the allotted amount. Omar's
system not only diminished the actual revenue, but largely
increased in the cities the numbers of the maula's (clients),
mainly Persians, who were weary of their dependency on their
Arabic lords, and demanded equal rights for themselves. Their
short dominion in Kufa under Mokhtir had been suppressed, but
the discontent continued. In North Africa particularly, and in
Khorasan the effect of Omar's proclamation was that a great
multitude embraced Islam. When it became necessary to impose
a tribute upon the new converts, great discontent arose, which
largely increased the number of those who followed the Shi'ite
preachers of revolt. Conversion to Islam was promoted by the
severe regulations which Omar introduced for the non-believers,
such as Christians and Jews. 1 1 was he who issued those humiliat-
ing rescripts, which are commonly but unjustly attributed to
Omar I. But he forbade extortion and suppressed more than
1 Seyid Ameer Ali, A Critical Examination of the Life and Teach-
ings of Mahomet, pp. 34 I "343-
one illegal impost. He endeavoured above all to procure justice
for all his subjects. Complaints against oppression found in him
a ready listener, and many unlawfully acquired possessions were
restored to the legal owners, for instance, to the descendants of
Ali and Talha. Even totthe Kharijites he contrived to give
satisfaction, as far as possible. In all these matters he followed
the guidance of divines and devotees, in whose congenial company
he delighted. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that these
men saw in Omar the ideal of a prince, and that in Moslem
history he has acquired the reputation of a saint.
After the failure of the siege of Constantinople, the advanced
posts in Asia Minor were withdrawn, but the raids were continued
regularly. It has been said that it was Omar's intention to give
up his Spanish conquests, but the facts argue the contrary. The
governor, named by Omar, Sam^ b. Abdallah, even crossed the
Pyrenees and took possession of Narbonne; but he was beaten
and killed at Toulouse in July 7 20. But Omar did all he could to
prevent the degradation of the Holy War, which, instead of being
the ultimate expedient for the propagation of Islam, if all other
means had failed, had often degenerated into mere pillaging
expeditions against peaceful nations.
9. Reign of Yazid II. — Omar's reign was as short as that of
his predecessor. He died on the 24th of Rajab 101 (a.d. 9th
February 7 20) . Yazid II., son of AbdalmaHk and, by his mother
'Atika, grandson of Yazid I., ascended the throne without opposi-
tion. He had at once, however, to put down a dangerous
rebellion. Yazid b. MohaHab had returned to Irak, after the
conquest of Jorjan, when Suleiman was still alive. Shortly after,
AdI b. Artat, whom Omar II. had appointed governor, arrived,
arrested Yazid, and sent him to Omar, who called him to account
for the money he had mentioned in bis letter to Suleiman, and
imprisoned him when he pretended not to be able to pay the
amount. Yazid II. had personal grounds for ill-will to Yazid b.
Mohallab. One of the wives of the new caliph, the same who
gave birth to that son of Yazid II. who afterwards reigned as
Walid II., was niece to the celebrated JJajjfij, whose family had
been ill-treated by the son of Mohallab, when he was governor of
Irak under Suleiman. Aware that Yazid b. AbdalmaHk, on
ascending the throne, would spare neither him nor his family,
Yazid b. Mohallab had succeeded in escaping to Basra, the home
of his family, where his own tribe the Azd was predominant.
Meanwhile *Adi b. Artat had all the brothers of Yazid and other
members of the family of Mohallab arrested, and tried to prevent
Yazid from entering the city. But 'Adi was too scrupulous to
employ the public money for raising the pay of his soldiers,
whilst Yazid promised mountains of gold. Yazid stormed the
castle and took *Adi prisoner, the public treasury fell into his
hands, and he employed the money to pay his troops largely and
to raise fresh ones. A pardon obtained for him from the caliph
came too late; he had already gone too far. He now proclaimed
a Holy War against the Syrians, whom he declared to be worse
enemies of Islam than even the Turks and the Dailam. Notwith-
standing the warnings of the aged Hasan al-Basri, the friend of
Omar II., the religious people, took the part of Yazid, and were
followed by the maidas. Though the number of his adherents
thus increased enormously, their military value was small.
Ahwaz (Khuzistan), Fars and Kirman were easily subdued, but
in Khorasan the Azd could not prevail over the Tamlm, who were
loyal to the caliph. As the rebellion threatened to spread far and
wide, Yazid II. was obliged to appeal to his brother, the celebrated
Maslama. With the approach of the Syrians, Yazid b. Mohallab
tried to forestall them at Kufa. He took his way over Wasit,
which he mastered — the Syrian garrison seems to have been
withdrawn in the days of Omar II. — but, before he could get hold
of Kufa, the Syrian troops arrived. The meeting took place at
*Aqr in the vicinity of Babel, and Yazid was completely defeated
and fell in the battle. His brothers and sons fled to Basra;
thence they went by sea to Kirman and then to Kandabil in
India; but they were pursued relentlessly and slain with only
two exceptions by the officers of Maslama. The possessions of
the Mohallabites were confiscated.
Maslama was rewarded with the governorship of Irak and
36
CALIPHATE
Khorasan, but was soon replaced by Omar b. Hobaira, who under
Omar II. had been governor of Mesopotamia. He belonged to
the tribe of Qais, and was very severe against the Azd and other
Yemenite tribes, who had more or less favoured the part of Yazid
b. Mohallab. In these years the antagonism between Qais
(Mo4ar) and Yemenites became more and more acute, especially
in Khorasan. The real cause of the dismissal of Maslama was,
that he did not send the revenue-quota to Damascus. Omar b.
Hobaira, to supply the deficiency, ordered the prefect of
Khorasan, Sa'id-al-ljarashl, to take tribute from the Sogdians in
Transoxiana, who had embraced Islam on the promise of Omar II.
The Sogdians raised a revolt in Ferghana, but were subdued by
Sa'id and obliged to pay* A still more questionable measure of
Ibn Hobaira was his ordering the successor of Sa'id Harashi to
extort large sums of money from several of the most respectable
Khorasanians. The discontent roused thereby became one of the
principal causes of the fall of the Omayyads.
In Africa serious troubles arose from the same cause. Yazid b.
Abi Moslim, who had been at the head of the financial department
in Irak under Qajjaj, and had been made governor of Africa by
Yazid II., issued orders that the villagers who, having adopted
Islam, were freed from tribute according to the promise of Omar
IL, and had left their villages for the towns, should, return to
tjieir domiciles and pay the same tribute as before their conver-
sion, The Berbers rose in revolt, slaughtered the unfortunate
governor., and put in his place the former governor Mahommed b.
Yazid. The caliph at first ratified this choice, but soon after
dismissed Mahommed from his post, and replaced him by Bishr b.
§afwan, who under Hisham made an expedition against Sicily.
. Yazid II. was by natural disposition the opposite of his prede-
cessor. He did not feel that anxiety for the spiritual welfare of
his subjects which had animated Omar II. Poetry and music,
not beloved by Suleiman and condemned by Omar, were held
by him in great honour. Two court-singers, Sallama and tJababa,
exercised great influence, tempered only by the austerity of
manners that prevailed in Syria. He was so deeply affected by
the death of IJababa, that Maslama entreated him not to exhibit
his sorrow to the eyes of the public. He died a few days later, on
the 26th of January 724, according to the chroniclers from grief
for her loss. As his successor he had appointed in the first place
his brother Hisham, and after him his own son Walid.
. 10. Reign of Hisham. — Hisham was a wise and able prince
and an enemy of luxury, not an idealist like Omar H., nor a
worldling like Yazid II., but more like his father Abdalmalik,
devoting all his energy to the pacification of the interior, and to
extending and consolidating the empire of Islam. But the dis-
content, which had been sown under his predecessors, had now
developed to such an extent that he could not suppress it in
detail. His first care was to put an end to the tyrannical rule
of the Qaisites (Moclarites) in Irak and Khorasan by dismissing
Omar b. Hobaira and appointing in his place Khalid al-Qasrl.
This very able man, who under Hajjaj had been prefect of
Mecca, belonged properly neither to the Qaisites nor to the
Yemenites, but as he took the place of Ibn Hobaira and dis-
missed his partisans from their posts, the former considered him
as their adversary, the latter as their benefactor. After his
death, in particular, the Yemenites celebrated him as their chief,
and assigned as the reason for their revolt the injuries which he
suffered. Khalid himself assuredly did not intend it. He was a
loyal servant of the dynasty, and remained such even after
receiving very harsh treatment from them. For fifteen years
Khalid governed the eastern half of the empire, and continued
to maintain peace with only few exceptions throughout. He
did much for the reclaiming and improving of lands in Irak, in
which the caliph himself and several princes took an active part.
The great revenues obtained thereby naturally caused much
jealousy. Khalid lived on a very rich scale and was extra-
ordinarily liberal, and he was charged with having carried out all
his improvements for his own interests, and upbraided for
selling the corn of his estates only when the prices were high.
To these charges were added the accusation that he was too
tolerant to Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians. As his mother
professed the Christian religion, he was accused of infidelity.
At last a conspiracy, into which the principal engineer of Khalid,
Hassan the Nabataean, had been drawn, succeeded in inciting
Hisham against Khalid. They told him that Khalid had used
disrespectful terms in speaking of the caliph, and that he had
appropriated revenues belonging to the state. The latter
imputation especially influenced Hisham, who was very parsi-
monious. When the dismissal of Khalid had been resolved upon,
Yusuf b. Omar, his appointed successor, was sent secretly to
Kuf a, where he seized on Khalid unawares. For eighteen months
Khalid remained in prison. But when he declined even under
torture to confess that he had been guilty of extensive peculation,
he was finally released. He settled at Damascus and made a
noble return for his injuries by taking an active part in the war
against the Greeks. In the summer of a.d. 740, while he was in
Asia Minor, a great fire broke out in Damascus, the guilt of which
was attributed to Khalid. Though it soon appeared that the
imputation was false, Khalid, on his return, was furious, and
uttered very offensive words against the caliph. Hisham, how-
ever, would not again punish his old servant; on the contrary,
he seems to have regarded his indignation as a proof of innocence, r
The successor of Khalid in Irak had not long been in office
when Zaid b. Ali, grandson of Hosain b. Ali, who had come to
Kufa for a lawsuit, was persuaded by the chiefs of the Shi'a to
organize a revolt. He succeeded in so far that 15,000 Kufians
swore to fight with him for the maintenance of the command-
ments of the Book of God and the Sunna (orthodox tradition) of
his Prophet, the discomfiture of the tyrants, the redress of
injury, and last, not least, the vindication of the family of the
Prophet as the rightful caliphs. The revolt broke out on the
6th of January 740. Unfortunately for Zaid he had to do with
the same Kufians whose fickleness had already been fatal to his
family. He was deserted by his troops and slain. His body was
crucified in Kufa, his head sent to Damascus and thence to
Medina. His son Yahya, still a youth, fled to Balkh in Khorasan,
but was discovered at last and hunted down, till he fell sword in
hand under Walid II. Abu Moslim, the founder of the Abbasid
dynasty, proclaimed himself his avenger, and on that occasion
adopted the black garments, which remained the distinctive
colour of the dynasty.
In Khorasan also there were very serious disturbances. The
Sogdians, though subdued by Sa'id al IJarashI, were not
appeased, but implored the assistance of the Turks, who had
long been contending earnestly against the Arabs for the
dominion of Transoxiana. They found besides a most valuable
ally in Qarith b. Soraij, a distinguished captain of the Arabic
tribe of Tamim, who, with many pious Moslems, was scandalized
by the government's perfidy in regard to the new converts.
IJarith put himself at the head of all the malcontents, and raised
the black flag, in compliance with a Sibylline prophecy, holding
that the man with the black flag (the Prophet's flag) would put
an end to the tyranny, and be the precursor of the Mahdi. 1 The
government troops suffered more than one defeat, but in the
last month of the year 118 (a.d. 736) the governor Asad al-
Qasri, the brother of Khalid, after having defeated tJarith,
gained a brilliant victory over the Turks, which finally caused
them to retreat. Asad died almost simultaneously with the
dismissal of Khalid. Hisham then separated Khorasan from
Irak and chose as governor of the former Nasr b. Sayyar, a
valiant soldier who had grown grey in war, and who, besides all
his other capacities, was an excellent poet. Nasr instituted a
system of taxation, which, if it had been introduced earlier,,
would perhaps have saved the Arabic domination. It was that
which later on was generally adopted, viz. that all possessors
of conquered lands (i.e. nearly the whole empire except Arabia),
whether Moslems or not, should pay a fixed tax, the latter in
addition to pay a poll-tax, from which they were relieved on
conversion to Islam. During the reign of Hisham, Nasr made
a successful expedition against IJarith and the Turks. The
1 Cf. Van Vloten, Recherckes sur la domination arabe, It Chiitisme
et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des Omayades (Amster-
dam, 1894), P- 6 3 seq.
CALIPHATE
37
propaganda of the Shi'a by the Abbasids was continued in these
years with great zeal.
In India several provinces which had been converted to Islam
under the Caliphate of Omar II. declared themselves independent,
because the promise of equal rights for all Moslems was not kept
under the reign of his successors. This led to the evacuation of
the eastern part of India (called Hind by the Arabs, Sind being the
name of the western part) , and to the founding of the strong cities
of Main* uza and Mansura for the purpose of controlling the land.
In the north and north-west of the empire there were no
internal disorders, but the Moslems had hard work to maintain
themselves against the Alans and the Khazars. In the year 112
(a.d. 730) they suffered a severe defeat, in which the general
Jarrah perished. But the illustrious Maslama b. Abdalmalik,
and Merwan b. Mahommed (afterwards caliph), governor of
Armenia and Azerbaijan (Adherbaijan), succeeded in repelling
the Khazars, imposing peace on the petty princes of the eastern
Caucasus, and consolidating the Arab power in that quarter.
The war against the Byzantines was continued with energy
during the whole of Hisham's reign* Moawiya, the son of
Hisham, whose descendants reigned later in Spain, was in com-
mand till 118 (a.d. 736), when he met his death accidentally in
Asia Minor by a fall from his horse. After his death, Suleiman,
another son of the caliph, had the supreme command.. Both
were eager and valiant warriors. But the hero of all the battles
was Abdallah b. Hosain, surnamed al-Battal (the brave). He
has, been the subject of many romantic tales. Tabari tells how
he took the emperor Constantine prisoner in the year 114 (a.d.
732; but Constantine V. Copronymus only began to reign in
740 or 741 a.d.); another Arabic author places this event in
the year 122, adding that al-Battal, having defeated the Greeks,
was attacked and slain in returning with his captives. The
Greek historians say nothing about Constantine having been
made prisoner. It is probable that the Arabs took another
Greek soldier for the prince. 1 The victories of the Moslems had
no lasting results. During the troubles that began in the reign
of Walid II., the Greeks reconquered Marash (Germanicia),
Malatia (Malatiyeh) and Erzerum (Theodosiopolis).
In Spain the attention of the Moslems was principally turned
to avenge the defeat of Samfe beyond the Pyrenees. As early as
the second year of the reign of Hisham, ' Anbasa, the governor of
Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, and pushed on military operations
vigorously. Carcassonne and Nimes were taken, Autun sacked.
The death of ' Anbasa in a.d. 725 and internal troubles put a stop
to further hostilities. The Berbers were the chief contingent of
the Moslem troops, but were treated by their Arab masters as
inferior people. They began -to resent this, and one of their
chiefs, Munisa (Munuza), made himself independent in the north
and allied himself with Odo, king of Aquitaine, who gave him his
daughter in marriage. In the year 113 Abdarrahman b. Abdallah
subdued Munisa, crossed the. mountains and penetrated into
Gascony by the valley of Roncesvalles. The Moslems beat Odo,
gained possession of Bordeaux, and overran the whole of southern
Gaul nearly as far as the Loire. But in October 732 their march
was checked between Tours and Poitiers by Charles Martel and
after some days of skirmishing a fierce but indecisive battle was
fought. Abdarrahman was among the slain and the Moslems
retreated hastily in the night, leaving their camp to the Franks.
They were, however, not yet discouraged. In 739 the new governor
of Spain, Oqba (Aucupa) b. Hajjaj, a man of high qualities,
re-entered Gaul and pushed forward his raids as far as Lyons,
but the Franks again drove back the Arabs as far as Narbonne.
Thenceforth the continual revolts of the Berbers in Africa, and
the internal troubles which disturbed Spain until the reign of
Abdarrahman I., effectually checked the ambition of the Moslems.
In Africa the hand of government pressed heavily. The
Berbers, though they had pledged themselves to Islam and had
furnished the latest contingents for the Holy War, were treated
as tributary serfs, notwithstanding the promises given by
Omar II. The Kharijites, of whom a great many had emigrated
1 Cf. Wellhausen, Die Kampfe der Araber mil den Rom. in der
Zeit der Umaijiden (Gottingen, 1901), p. 31.
to Africa, found them eager listeners. Still, they could not
believe that it was according to the will of the caliph that they
here thus treated, until a certain number of their chiefs went as a
deputation to Hisham, but failed to obtain an audience. There-
upon a fierce insurrection broke out, against which the governor
of Africa was powerless. Hisham at once sent an army of more
than 30,000 men, under the command of Kolthum al-Qoshairi,
and Balj b. Bishr. Not far from the river Sabu in Algeria, 2 the
meeting with the army of the insurgents took place (a.d. 740).
Kolthum was beaten and killed; Balj b. Bishr led the rest of the
Syrian army to Ceuta, and thence, near the end of 741, to Spain,
where they aided in the suppression of the dangerous revolt of the
peninsular Berbers. Balj died in 742. A year later the governor,
Abul-Khattar, assigned to his troops for settlement divers
countries belonging to the public domain. s An effort of the
African Berbers to make themselves masters of Kairawan failed,
their army being utterly defeated by the governor Qanzala.
Hisham died in February 743, after a reign of twenty years.
He had not been wanting in energy and ability, and kept the reins
of the government in his own hands. He was a correct Moslem
and tolerant towards Christians and Jews. His financial ad-
ministration was sound and he guarded against any misuse of the
revenues of the state. But he was not popular. His residence
was at Rosaf a on the border of the desert, and he rarely admitted
visitors into his presence; as a rule they were received by his
chamberlain Abrash. Hisham tried to keep himself free from
and above the rival parties, but as his vicegerents were inexorable
in the exaction of tribute, the Qaisites against the Yemenites,
the Yemenites against the Qaisites, both parties alternately had
reason to complain, whilst the non-Arabic Moslems suffered
under the pressure and were dissatisfied. He caused a large
extent of land to be brought into cultivation, and many public
works to be executed, and he was accused of overburdening his
subjects for these purposes. Therefore, Yazid III. (as also the
Abbasids) on taking office undertook to abstain from spending
money on building and digging. The principle that a well-filled
treasury is the basis of a prosperous government was pushed by
him too far. Notwithstanding his activity and his devotion to
the management of affairs, the Moslem power declined rather
than advanced, and signs of the decay of the Omayyad dynasty
began to show themselves. The history of his four successors,
Walid II., Yazid III., Ibrahim and Merwan II., is but the history
of the fall of the Omayyads.
n. Reign of Walid II. — Walid II. was a handsome man,
possessed of extraordinary physical strength, and a distinguished
poet. But Hisham, to whom he was successor-designate,
foolishly kept him in the background, and even made earnest
efforts to get his own son Maslama acknowledged as his successor.
Walid therefore retired to the country, and passed his time there
in hunting, cultivating poetry, music and the like, waiting with
impatience for the death of Hisham and planning vengeance on
all those whom he suspected of having opposed him. His first
public action was to increase the pay of all soldiers by 10
dirhems, that of the Syrians by 20. The Omayyads who came to
pay their respects to him received large donations. Many
philanthropic institutions were founded. As to the family of his
predecessor, he contented himself with confiscating their posses-
sions, with the single exception of Suleiman b. Hisham, whom he
had whipped and put in prison. But the Makhzumites, who were
related to Hisham by his mother, he deprived of all their power
and had them tortured to death. The vicegerents of Hisham
were replaced by Qaisites; Yusuf b. Omar, the governor of Irak,
being a Qaisite, was not only confirmed in his office, but received
with it the supreme command of Khorasan. He made use of it
immediately by ordering Nasr b. Sayyar to collect a rich present
of horses, falcons, musical instruments, golden and silver vessels
and to offer it to the caliph in person, but before the present was
ready the news came that Walid had been murdered.
* Bayan i. p. 42 ; Dozy, Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne, i.
p. 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist
Nauam.
* Dozy i. p. 268.
3»
CALIPHATE
It is not certain that Walid also suspected Khalid al-Qasri of
having intrigued against him. But Yusuf b. Omar did not rest
until he had his old enemy in his power. It is said that he
guaranteed Walid a large sum of money, which he hoped to
extort from Khalid. This unfortunate man died under torture,
which he bore with fortitude, in Muharram 126 (November
743).
Walid designated his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate.
These were still under age and were not the children of a free-
born, noble mother. Both circumstances, according to the then
prevailing notions, made them unfit for the imamate. Moreover,
it was an affront, in particular, for the sons of Walid I., who
already had considered the nomination of Yazid II. as a slight to
themselves. A conspiracy arose, headed by Yazid b. Walid I.,
and joined by the majority of the Merwanid princes and many
Kalbites and other Yemenites who regarded the ill-treatment of
Khalid al-Qasri as an insult to themselves. Various stories were
circulated about the looseness of Walid's manner of life; Yazid
accused him of irreligion, and, by representing himself as a
devout and God-fearing man, won over the pious Moslems. The
conspirators met with slight opposition. A great many troops
had been detached by Hisham to Africa and other provinces, the
caliph himself was in one of his country places; the prefect of
Damascus also was absent. Without difficulty, Yazid made
himself master of Damascus, and immediately sent his cousin
Abdalazlz with 2000 men against Walid, who had not more than
200 fighting men about him. A few men hastened to the rescue,
among others * Abbas b. Walid with his sons and followers.
Abdalazlz interrupted his march, took him prisoner and compelled
him to take the oath of allegiance to his brother Yazid. Walid's
small body of soldiers was soon overpowered. After a valiant
combat, the caliph retired to one of his apartments and sat
with the Koran on his knee, in order to die just as Othman
had died. He was killed on the 17th of April 744. His head
was taken to Damascus and carried about the city at the end of
a spear.
On the news of the murder of the caliph, the citizens of IJoms
(Emesa) put at their head Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani, a grandson
of Yazid I., and marched against Damascus. They were beaten
by Suleiman b. Hisham at a place called Solaimama, 12 m. from
the capital. Abu Mahommed was taken prisoner and shut up
with several of his brethren and cousins in the Khadra, the old
palace of Moawiya, together with the two sons of Walid II. One
or two risings in Palestine were easily suppressed. But the
reigning family had committed suicide. Their unity was broken.
The holiness of their Caliphate, their legitimate authority, had
been trifled with; the hatred of the days of Merj Rahit had been
revived. The orthodox faith also, whose strong representative
and defender had hitherto been the caliph, was shaken by the
fact that Yazid III. belonged to the sect of the Qadaris who
rejected the doctrine of predestination. The disorganization of
the empire was at hand.
12. Reign of Yazid III. — Yazid III., on his accession, made a
fine speech, in which he promised to do all that could be expected
from a good and wise ruler, even offering to make place im-
mediately for the man whom his subjects should find better
qualified for the Caliphate than himself. He cancelled, however,
the increase of the pay granted by Walid and thus earned the
nickname of the N&qif (diminisher). As he owed his position to
the aid of the Kalbites, he chose his officers from among them.
The governorship of Irak was confided to a Kalbite, Manstir b.
Jomhur, a hot-headed and unscrupulous man. Yusuf b. Omar
was unable to offer resistance, and was ultimately taken and
confined in the Khadra. Mansur had hardly been three months
in office when Yazid replaced him by Abdallah, son of Omar II.
The distant provinces, with the exception of Sind and Sijistan,
renounced the authority of the new caliph. In Africa Abdarrah-
man b. Habib, a descendant of the famous *Oqba b. Naff, was
almost independent. In Spain every amir tried to free himself
from a suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. Nasr b.
Sayyar, the governor of Khorasan, had not yet decided whether
he ought to take the oath of allegiance when Yazid died, after a
reign of only five months and a half, on the 12th of Dhu'l-Qijja
a.h. 126 (25th September a.d. 744).
13. Yazid III. left his brother Ibrahim as his successor. He
was acknowledged as caliph only in a part of Syria, and reigned
no longer than two months, when he was obliged to abdicate and
to submit to the authority of Merwan II.
14. Merwan II., the son of Mahommed b. Merwan and cousin
of Maslama, was a man of energy, and might have revived the
strength of the Omayyad dynasty, but for the general disorder
which pervaded the whole empire. In 73 2 Hisham had entrusted
to him the government of Armenia and Azerbaijan, which he
held with great success till the death of Walid II. He had great
military capacity and introduced important reforms. On the
murder of Walid he prepared to dispute the supreme power with
the new caliph, and invaded Mesopotamia. Yazid III., in
alarm, offered him as the price of peace the government of this
province together with Armenia and Azerbaijan. Merwan
resolved to accept those conditions, and sent a deputation to
Damascus, which, however, had just reached Manbij (Hiera-
polis) when Yazid died. Leaving his son Abdalmalik with 40,000
men in Rakka, Merwan entered Syria with 80,000 men. Sulei-
man b. Hisham, at the head of 120,000 men, was defeated at v Ain
al-Jarr, between Baalbek and Damascus. Merwan made many
prisoners, whom he treated with the greatest mildness, granting
them freedom on condition that they should take the oath of
allegiance to the sons of Walid II. He then marched upon
Damascus. But Suleiman b. Hisham, Yazid, the son of Khalid
al-Qasri, and other chiefs, hastened to the Khadra and killed the
two princes, together with Yusuf b. Omar. Suleiman then made
himself master of the treasury and fled with the caliph Ibrahim
to Tadmor (Palmyra) . Only Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani escaped
the murderers. When Merwan entered Damascus this man
testified that the sons of Walid II., who had just become adult,
had named Merwan successor to the Caliphate, and was the first
to greet him as Prince of the Believers. All the generals and
officers followed his example and took the oath of allegiance
(7th December a.d. 744). Merwan did all he could to pacify
Syria, permitting the Arabs of the four provinces to choose
their own prefects, and even acquiescing in the selection as
prefect of Palestine of Thfibit b. No*aim, who had behaved very
treacherously towards him before, but whom he had forgiven.
He did not, however, wish to reside in Damascus, but trans-
planted the seat of government to his own town, Harran in
Mesopotamia. Suleiman b. Hisham and Ibrahim tendered
their submission and were pardoned.
But the pacification was only on the surface. Many Omayyad
princes considered Merwan as an upstart, his mother being a
slave-girl; the Damascenes were angry because he had chosen
Harran for his residence; the Kalbites felt themselves slighted,
as the Qaisites predominate^. Thftbit b. No'aim revolted in
Palestine, Emesa (Horns) and Tadmor were turbulent, Damascus
was besieged by Yazid b. Khalid al Qasri. Merwan, who wanted
to march against Irak, was obliged to return to Syria, where he
put an end to the troubles. This time Thabit b. No'aim had to
pay for his perfidy with his life. After this new pacification,
Merwan caused the Syrians to acknowledge his two sons as heirs
to the Caliphate, and married them to two daughters of Hisham.
All the Omayyad princes were invited to the wedding, Merwan
hoping still to conciliate them. He then equipped 10,000
Syrians, and ordered them to rejoin the army of 20,000 men
from Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin) and Mesopotamia, who, under Yazid
b. Omar b. Hobaira, were already on the march towards Irak.
When these Syrians came to Rosafa (Rusafa), Suleiman b.
Hish£m persuaded them to proclaim himself caliph, and made
himself master of Kinnesrin. From all sides Syrians flocked to
his aid till he had 70,000 men under his orders. Merwan im-
mediately ordered Ibn Hobaira to stop his march and to wait for
him at Dflrin, and marched with the main force against Suleiman,
whom he utterly defeated at Khosaf in the district of Kinnesrin.
Suleiman fled to Horns and thence to Tadmor and on to Kufa,
leaving his brother Sa'id in Horns. The siege of this place by
Merwan lasted nearly five months. After the victory the walls
CALIPHATE
39
were demolished, and likewise those of Baalbek, Damascus,
Jerusalem and other towns. Syria was utterly crushed, and
therewith the bulwark of the dynasty was destroyed. Not until
the summer of 128 (a.d. 746) could Merwan resume his campaign
Against Irak.
The governor of this province, Abdallah, the son of Omar XI.,
was a man of small energy, whose principal care was his personal
ease and comfort. An ambitious man, Abdallah b. Moawiya, a
great-grandson of Air's brother Ja'f ar, put himself at the head of
a band of Shi'ites and manias, made himself master of Kufa and
marched upon Hira, where, since Yusuf b. Omar, the governor
and the Syrian troops had resided. The rebels were defeated,
and Kufa surrendered (October 744) under condition of amnesty
for the insurgents and freedom for Abdallah b. Moawiya. This
adventurer now went into Media (Jabal), where a great number
of maulas and Shi'ites, even members of the reigning dynasty
and of the Abbasid family, such as the future caliph Mansur,
rejoined him. With their help he became master of a vast
empire, which, however, lasted scarcely three years.
Ibn Omar did not acknowledge Merwan as caliph. For the
moment Merwan could do no more than send a new governor,
Ibn Sa'id al IJarashl. This officer was supported only by the
Qaisite troops, the Kalbites, who were numerically superior,
maintaining Ibn Omar in his residence at Hira. There were
many skirmishes between them, but a common danger soon
forced them to suspend their hostilities. The general disorder
after the death of Hisham had given to the Khawarij an oppor-
tunity of asserting their claims such as they had never had
before. They belonged for the greater part to the Rabf a, who
always stood more or less aloof from the other Arabs, and had a
particular grudge against the Modar. Their leading tribe, the
Shaiban, possessed the lands on the Tigris in the province of
Mosul, and here, after the murder of Walid II., their chief
proclaimed himself caliph. Reinforced by many Kharijites out
of the northern provinces, he marched against Kufa. Ibn Omar
and Ibn Sa'id al ljarashl tried to defend their province, but
were completely defeated. rjarashl fled to Merwan, Ibn Omar
to Hira, which, after a siege of two months, he was obliged to
surrender in Shawwal 127 (August ajx 745). Mansur b. Jomhur
was the first to pass over to the Khawarij; then Ibn Omar
himself took the oath of allegiance. That a noble Koreishite,
a prince of the reigning house, should pledge himself to follow
Pafefeak the Shaibanite as his Imam, was an event of which
the Khawarij were very proud. Ibn Omar was rewarded with
the government of eastern Irak, Khuzistan and Fars.
Whilst Merwan besieged Horns, Pabbak returned to Meso-
potamia and took Mosul, whence he threatened Nisibis, where
Abdallah, the son of Merwan, maintained himself with difficulty.
Suleiman b. Hisham also had gone over to the Khawarij, who
now numbered 1 20,000 men. Mesopotamia itself was in danger,
when Merwan at last was able to march against the enemy. In a
furious battle at Kafartutha (September a.d. 746) the Khawarij
were defeated; Pahfrak and his successor Khaibari perished;
the survivors were obliged to retire to Mosul, where they crossed
the Tigris. Merwan followed them and encamped on the
western bank. Immediately after the battle of Kafartutha,
Yazid b. Omar b. Hobaira directed his troops towards Irak. He
beat the Kharijites repeatedly and entered Kufa in May or June
747. Ibn Omar was taken prisoner; Mansur b. Jomhur fled to
Ibn Moawiya. Ibn Hobaira was at last free to send Ibn Pobara
with an army to Mesopotamia. At his approach the Kharijites
left their camp and fled to Abdallah b. Moawiya, who was now at
the height of his power. But it was not destined to last. The
two generals of Ibn Hobaira, Ibn £>obara and Nobata b. JJanzala
defeated his army; Ibn Moawiya fled to Khorasan, where he met
his death; the chief of the Kharijites, Shaiban Yashkori went to
eastern Arabia; Suleiman b. Hisham and Mansur b. Johmur
escaped to India. Thus, at last, the western and south-eastern
parts of the empire lay at the feet of Merwan. But in the north-
east, in Khorasan, meanwhile a storm had arisen, against which
his resources and his wisdom were alike of no avail.
When the news of the murder of Walid II. reached Khorasan,
Nasr b. Sayyar did not at once acknowledge the Caliphate of
Yazid III., but induced the Arab chiefs to accept himself as amir
of Khorasan, until a caliph should be universally acknowledged.
Not many months later (Shawwal 126) he was confirmed in his
post by Yusuf b. Omar, the governor of Irak. But Nasr had a
personal enemy, the chief of the Azd (Yemenites) JodaT al-
Kirmani, a very ambitious man. A quarrel arose, and in a short
time the Azd under Kirmani, supported by the Rabf a, who
always were ready to join the opposition, were in insurrection,
which Nasr tried in vain to put down by concessions.
So stood matters when IJarith b. Soraij, seconded by Yazid III.,
reappeared on the scene, crossed the Oxus and came to Merv.
Nasr received him with the greatest honour, hoping to get his aid
against Kirmani, but tJarith, to whom 3000 men of his tribe, the
Tamim, had gone over, demanded Nasr's abdication and tried to
make himself master of Merv. Having failed in this, he allied
himself with Kirmani. Nasr could hold Merv no longer, and
retired to Nishapur. But the Tamim of IJarith could not endure
the supremacy of the Azd. In a moment the allies were divided
into two camps; a battle ensued, in which IJarith was defeated
and killed. Originally, rjEarith seems to have had the highest
aims, but in reality he did more than any one else to weaken the
Arabic dominion. He brought the Turks into the field against
them; he incited the native population of Transoxiana against
their Arab lords, and stirred up discord between the Arabs
themselves. Being a Tamlmite, he belonged to the Motfar, on
whom the government in Khorasan depended; but he aided the
Yemenites to gain the upper hand of them. Thus he paved the
way for Abu Moslim.
Since the days of Ali there had been two tendencies among the
Shi'ites. The moderate party distinguished itself from the other
Moslems only by their doctrine that the imamate belonged
legally to a man of the house of the Prophet. The other party,
that of the ultra-ShTites, named Hashimiya after Abu Hashim
the son of Mahommed b. al-IJanafiya, preached the equality of all
Moslems, Arabs or non-Arabs, and taught that the same divine
spirit that had animated the Prophet, incorporated itself again
in his heirs (see Shi'ites) . After the death of Hosain, they chose
for their Imam Mahommed b. al-^Janafiya, and at his decease his
son Abu Hashim, from whom Mahommed b. Ali, the grandson of
Abdallah b. Abbas, who resided at IJomaima in the south-east of
Syria, obtained the secrets of the party and took the lead (a.h.
98, see above). This Mahommed, the father of the two first
Abbasid caliphs, was a man of unusual ability and great ambition.
He directed his energies primarily to Khorasan. The missionaries
were charged with the task of undermining the authority of the
Omayyads, by drawing attention to all the injustices that took
place under their reign, and to all the luxury and wantonness of
the court, as contrasted with the misery of many of their subjects.
God would not suffer it any longer. As soon as the time was ripe
— and that time could not be far off — He would send a saviour
out of the house of the Prophet, the Mahdi, who would restore
Islam to its original purity. All who desired to co-operate in
this holy purpose must pledge themselves to unlimited obedience
to the Imam, and place their lives and property at his disposal. As
a proof of their sincerity they were required at once to pay a fixed
sum for the Imam. The missionaries had great success, especially
among the non- Arabic inhabitants of Khorasan and Transoxiana.
Mahommed b. Ali died A.H. 126 (a.d. 743-744), and his son
Ibrahim, the Imam, took his place. Ibrahim had a confidant
about whose antecedents one fact alone seems certain, that he
was a mania (client) of Persian origin. This man, Abu Moslim by
name, was a man of real ability and devoted to his master's
cause. To him,in 745-746, the management of affairs in Khorasan
was entrusted, with instructions to consult in all weighty matters
the head of the mission, the Arab Suleiman b. Kathir. At first
the chiefs of the mission were by no means prepared to recognize
Abu Moslim as the plenipotentiary of the heir of the Prophet.
In the year 129 he judged that the time for open manifestation
had arrived. His partisans were ordered to assemble from all sides
on a fixed day at Siqadenj in the province of Merv. Then, on the
1st Shawwal (15th June 747), the first solemn meeting took
4<D
CALIPHATE
place and the black flags were unfolded. On that occasion
Suleiman b. Kathir was still leader, but by the end of the year
Abu Moslim, whom the majority believed to belong himself to
the family of the Prophet, was the acknowledged head of a strong
army. Meantime, Nasr had moved from Nishapur to Merv, and
here the two Arabic armies confronted each other. Then, at last,
the true significance of Abu Moslim's work was recognized. Nasr
warned the Arabs against their common enemy, " who preaches
a religion that does not come from the Envoy of God, and whose
chief aim is' the extirpation of the Arabs." In vain he had
entreated Merwan and Ibn Hobaira to send him troops before it
should be too late. When at last it was possible to them to fulfil
his wish, it was in fact too late. For a moment it seemed as
though the rival Arab factions, realizing their common peril,
would turn their combined forces against the Shi'ites. But Abu
Moslim contrived to re-awaken their mutual distrust and jealousy,
and, taking advantage of the opportunity, made himself master
of Merv, in Rabia II. a.h. 130 (December 747) . Nasr escaped only
by a headlong flight to Nishapur. This was the end of the Arabic
dominion in the East. Many Arab chiefs were killed, partly by
order of Abu Moslim, partly by their clients. The latter, however,
was strictly forbidden by Abu Moslim. So severe indeed was the
discipline he exercised, that one of the chief missionaries, who by
a secret warning had rendered possible the escape of Nasr from
Merv, paid for it with his life.
As soon as Abu Moslim had consolidated his authority, he sent
his chief general Qafctaba against Nishapur. Nasr's son Tamim
was vanquished and killed, and Nasr retreated to Kumis (Qumis)
on the boundary of Jor jan, whither also advanced from the other
side Nobita at the head of an army sent by Merwan. Qafrtaba
detached his son IJasan against Nasr and went himself to meet
Nobata, whom he beat on the 1st of Dhu'l-lu'jja 130 (6th August
748). Nasr could not further resist. He reached Saw& in the
vicinity of Hamadan, where he died quite exhausted, at the age of
eighty-five years. Rei and Hamadan were taken without serious
difficulty. Near Nehawend, Ibn Pobara, at the head of a large
army, encountered Qahtaba, DU t was defeated and killed. In
the month of Dhu'l-qa'da 131 (June 749) Nehawend (Nehavend)
surrendered, and thereby the way to Irak lay open to Qahtaba.
Ibn Hobaira was overtaken and compelled to retire to Wasit.
Qabtaba himself perished in the combat, but his son Hasan
entered Kufa without any resistance on the 2nd of September 749.
Merwan had at last discovered who was the real chief of the
movement in Khorasan, and had seized upon Ibrahim the Imam
and imprisoned him at Harran. There he died, probably from
the plague, though Merwan was accused of having killed him.
When the other Abbasids left IJomaima is not certain. But they
arrived at Kufa in the latter half of September 749, where in the
meantime the head of the propaganda, Abu Salama, called the
wazir of the family of Mahomet, had previously undertaken the
government. This Abu Salama seems to have had scruples
against recognizing Abu'l-Abbas as the successor of his brother
Ibrahim, and to have expected that the Mahdi, whom he looked
for from Medina, would not be slow in making his appearance,
little thinking that an Abbasid would present himself as such.
But Abu Jahm, on the instructions of Abu Moslim, declared to
the chief officers of the Khorasanian army that the Mahdi was in
their midst, and brought them to Abu'l-Abbas, to whom they
swore allegiance. Abu Salama also was constrained to take the
oath. On Friday, the 12th Rabia II. a.h. 132 (28th November
749) Abu'l-Abbas was solemnly proclaimed caliph in the principal
mosque of Kufa. The trick had been carried out admirably. On
the point of gathering the ripe fruit, the Alids were suddenly
pushed aside, and the fruit was snatched away by the Abbasids.
The latter gained the throne and they took good care never to be
deprived of it.
After the conquest of Nehawend, Qabtaba had detached one
of his captains, Abu 'Aun, to Shahrazur, where he defeated the
Syrian army which was stationed there. Thereupon Abu 'Aun
occupied the land of Mosul, where he obtained reinforcements
from Kufa, headed by Abdallah b. Ali, an uncle of Abu'l-Abbas,
who was to have the supreme command. Merwan advanced
to meet him, and was completely defeated near the Greater Zab,
an affluent of the Tigris, in a battle which lasted eleven days.
Merwan retreated to Harran, thence to Damascus, and finally to
Egypt, where he fell in a last struggle towards the end of 132
(August 750). His head was cut off and sent to Kufa. 1 Abu
Aun, who had been the real leader of the campaign against
Merwan, remained in Egypt as its governor. Ibn Hobaira,
who had been besieged in Wasit for eleven months, then con-
sented to a capitulation, which was sanctioned by Abu'l-Abbas.
Immediately after the surrender, Ibn Hobaira and his principal
officers were treacherously murdered. In Syria, the Omayyads
were persecuted with the utmost rigour. Even their graves were
violated, and the bodies crucified and destroyed. In order that
no members of the family should escape, Abdallah b. Ali pre-
tended to grant an amnesty to all Omayyads who should come
in to him at Abu Fotros (Antipatris) and acknowledge the new
caliph,and even promised them the restitution of all theirproperty.
Ninety men allowed themselves to be entrapped, and Abdallah
invited them to a banquet. When they were all collected, a
body of executioners rushed into the hall and slew them with
clubs. He then ordered leathern covers to be thrown upon the
dying men, and had the banquet served upon them. In Medina
and Mecca Da'ud b. Ali, another uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, con-
ducted the persecution; in Basra, Suleiman b. Ali. Abu'l-Abbas
himself killed those he could lay his hands on in Hira and Kufa,
amongst them Suleiman b. Hisham, who had been the bitterest
enemy of Merwan. Only a few Omayyads escaped the massacre,
several of whom were murdered later. A grandson of Hisham,
Abdarrahman, son of his most beloved son Moawiya, reached
Africa and founded in Spain the Omayyad dynasty of Cordova.
With the dynasty of the Omayyads the hegemony passes
finally from Syria to Irak. At the same time the supremacy of
the Arabs came to an end. Thenceforth it is not the contingents
of the Arabic tribes which compose the army, and on whom the
government depends; the new dynasty relies on a standing
army, consisting for the greater part of non-Arabic soldiers.
The barrier that separated the Arabs from the conquered nations
begins to crumble away. Only the Arabic religion, the Arabic
language and the Arabic civilization maintain themselves, and
spread more and more over the whole empire. .
C. — The Abbasids
We now enter upon the history of the new dynasty, under
which the power of Islam reached its highest point.
1. Abu'l-Abbas inaugurated his Caliphate by a harangue
in which he announced the era of concord and happiness which
was to begin now that the House of the Prophet had been
restored to its right. He asserted that the Abbasids were the
real heirs of the Prophet, as the descendants of his oldest uncle
Abbas. Addressing the Kufians, he said, " Inhabitants of Kufa,
ye are those whose affection towards us has ever been constant
and true; ye have never changed your mind, nor swerved from
it, notwithstanding all the pressure of the unjust upon you. At
last our time has come, and God has brought you the new era.
Ye are the happiest of men through us, and the dearest to us.
I increase your pensions with 100 dirhems; make now your
preparations, for I am the lavish shedder of blood 2 and the
avenger of blood."
Notwithstanding these fine words, Abu'l-Abbas did not trust
1 Merwan has been nicknamed al-Ja*di and al-Himar (the Ass).
As more than one false interpretation of these names has been
given, it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarani (ed. de Jong, p.
xt) , who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja'd b. Durham,
killed under the reign of Hisham for heretical opinions, had followers
in Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khora-
sanians called him a Ja'd, pretending that all'Ja'd had been
his teacher. As to al-£limar this was substituted also by the
Khorasanians for his usual title, al-Faras, " the race-horse."
* The Arabic word for " shedder of blood," asSaff&h, which by
that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host
who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have
taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it
an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others.
At the same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abu'l-
Abbas finally established his power.
CALIPHATE
4i
the Kufians. He resided outside the town with the Khorasanian
troops, and with them went first to Hira, then to Hashimlya,
which he caused to be built in the neighbourhood of Anbar.
For their real sympathies, he knew, were with the house of Ali,
and Abu Salama their leader, who had reluctantly taken the oath
of allegiance, did not conceal his disappointment. Abu Jahm,
the vizier (q.v.; also Mahommedan Institutions), or " helper,"
of Abu Moslim, advised that Abu Ja*far, the caliph's brother,
should be sent to Khorasan to consult Abu Moslim. The result
was that Abu Salama was assassinated, and at the same time
Suleiman b. Kathlr, who had been the head of the propaganda
in Khorasan, and had also expected that the Mahdi would belong
to the house of Ali. It is said that Abu Ja'f ar, whilst in Khorasan,
was so impressed by the unlimited power of Abu Moslim, and
saw so clearly that, though he called his brother and himself
his masters, he considered them as his creatures, that he vowed
his death at the first opportunity.
The ruin of the Omayyad empire and the rise of the new
dynasty did not take place without mighty convulsions. In
Bathaniya and the IJauran, in the north cf Syria, in Mesopo-
tamia and Irak Khorasan insurrections had to be put down
with fire and sword. The new caliph then distributed the
provinces among the principal members of his family and his
generals. To his brother Abu Ja'far he gave Mesopotamia,
Azerbaijan and Armenia; to his uncle Abdallah b. Ali, Syria;
to his uncle Da'ud, Hejaz, Yemen and Yamama (Yemama);
to his cousin 'Isa b. Musa, the province of Kufa. Another uncle,
Suleiman b. AH, received the government of Basra with Bahrein
and Oman; Isma *il b. Ali that of Ahwaz; Abu Moslim, Khora-
san and Transoxiana; Mahommed b. Ash'ath, Fars; Abu 'Aun,
Egypt. In Sind the Omayyad governor, Mansur b. Jomhur,
had succeeded in maintaining himself, but was defeated by an
army sent against him under Musa b. Ka'b, and the black
standard of the Abbasids was raised over the city of Mansura.
Africa and Spain are omitted from this catalogue, because the
Abbasids never gmed any real footing in Spain, while Africa
remained, at least in the first years, in only nominal subjection
to the new dynasty. In 754 Abu Moslim came to Irak to visit
Abu'l- Abbas and to ask his permission to make the pilgrimage
to Mecca. He wasr received with great honour, but the caliph
said that he was sorry not to be able to give him the leadership
of the pilgrimage, which he had already purposely entrusted to
his brother, Abu Ja'far.
Abu'l- Abbas died on the 13th of Dhu*l-bijja 136 (5th June
754). He seems to have been a man of limited capacity, and
had very little share in the achievements accomplished in his
name. He initiated practically nothing without the consent of
Abu Jahm, who was thus the real ruler. In the few cases where
he had to decide, he acted under the influence of his brother
Abu Ja'far.
2. Reign of Mansur.— Abu'l-Abbas had designated as his
successors first Abu Ja'far, surnamed al-Mansur (the victorious),
and after him his cousin *Isa b. Musa. Abu Ja'f ar was, according
to the historians, older than Abu'l- Abbas, but while the mother
of the latter belonged to the powerful Yemenite tribe of al-
Qarith b. Ka'b, the mother of Abu Ja'f ar was a Berber slave-girl.
But he was a son of Mahommed b. Ali, and was therefore pre-
ferred by Abu Moslim to his uncles and cousins. Abu 1-Abbas,
however, had promised the succession to his uncle Abdallah b.
Ali, when he marched against Merwan. When the news of the
death of Abu'l-Abbas reached Abdallah, who at the head of a
numerous army was on the point of renewing the Byzantine war,
he came to Harran, furious at his exclusion, and proclaimed
himself caliph. Abu Moslim marched against him, and the two
armies met at Nisibis, where, after a number of skirmishes, a
decisive engagement took place (28th November 7 54) . Abdallah
was defeated and escaped to Basra, where he found a refuge with
his brother Suleiman. A year later he asked for pardon, and
took the oath of allegiance to Mansur. The caliph spared his
life for a time, but he did not forget. In 764 Abdallah met his
death by the collapse of his house, which had been deliberately
undermined.
The first care of Mansur was now to get rid of the powerful Abu
Moslim, who had thus by another brilliant service strengthened
his great reputation. On pretence of conferring with him on
important business of state, Mansur induced him, in spite of
the warnings of his best general, Abu Nasr, to come to Madain
(Ctesiphon), and in the most perfidious manner caused him to be
murdered by his guards. Thus miserably perished the real
founder of the Abbasid dynasty, the $dhib addaula, as he is
commonly called, the Amin (trustee) of the House of the Prophet.
A witty man, being asked his opinion about Abu Ja'far (Mansur)
and Abu Moslim, said, alluding to the Koran 21, verse 22, " if
there were two Gods, the universe would be ruined." The
Khorasanian chiefs were bribed into submission, and order was at
last re-established by Mansur's general Khazim b. Khozaima in
Mesopotamia, and by Abu D&'ud, the governor of Khorasan in
the east.
About the same time Africa 1 and Spain escaped from the
dominion of the eastern Caliphate; the former for a season,
the latter permanently. The cause of the revolt of Africa was
as follows. Mansur had written to Abdarrahman, announcing
the death of Abu'l- Abbas, and requiring him to take the oath of
allegiance. Abdarrahman sent in his adhesion, together with a
few presents of little value. The caliph replied by a threatening
letter which angered Abdarrahman. He called the people to-
gether at the hour of prayer, publicly cursed Mansur from the
pulpit and declared him deposed. He next caused a circular
letter, commanding all Maghribins to refuse obedience to the
caliph, to be read from the pulpit throughout the whole extent
of the Maghrib (western North Africa). A brother of Abdarrah-
man, Ilyas, saw in this revolt an opportunity of obtaining the
government of Africa for himself. Seconded by many of the
inhabitants of Kairawan, who had remained faithful to the cause
of the Abbasids, he attacked his brother, slew him, and pro-
claimed himself governor in his stead. This revolution in favour
of the Abbasids was, however, not of long duration. IJabib,
the eldest son of Abdarrahman, who had fled in the night of his
father's murder, was captured, but the vessel which was to convey
him to Spain having been detained by stress of weather, his
partisans took arms and rescued him. Ilyas was marching
against them, when the idea occurred to Hablb of challenging
him to single combat. Ilyas hesitated, but his own soldiers
compelled him to accept the challenge. He measured arms
with Qablb, and was slain. The party of independence thus
triumphed, but in the year 144 (761) Mahommed b. Ash'ath,
the Abbasid general, entered Kairawan and regained posses-
sion of Africa in the name of the eastern caliph. From the
year 800, it must be added, Africa only nominally belonged
to the Abbasids; for, under the reign of Harun al-Rashid,
Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, who was invested with the government
of Africa, founded in that province a distinct dynasty, that of
the Aghlabites.
At the same time as the revolt in Africa, the independent
Caliphate of the western Omayyads was founded in Spain. The
long dissensions which had preceded the fall of that dynasty
in the East had already prepared the way for the independence
of a province so distant from the centre of the empire. Every
petty amir then tried to seize sovereign power for himself, and the
people groaned under the consequent anarchy. Weary of these
commotions, the Arabs of Spain at last came to an understanding
among themselves for the election of a caliph, and their choice
fell upon one of the last survivors of the Omayyads, Abdarrah-
man b. Moawiya, grandson of the caliph Hisham. This prince
was wandering in the deserts of Africa, pursued by his implacable
enemies, but everywhere protected and concealed by the desert
tribes, who pitied his misfortunes and respected his illustrious
origin. A deputation from Spain sought him out in Africa and
offered him the Caliphate, which he accepted with joy. On the
1st Rabia I. 138 (14th August 755) Abdarrahman landed in the
Iberian peninsula, where he was universally welcomed, and
1 The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly
established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent
princes (see Morocco, History).
V. 2 a
42
CALIPHATE
speedily founded at Cordova the Western Omayyad Caliphate
(see Spain: History).
While Mansur was thus losing Africa and Spain, he was trying
to redeem the losses the empire had sustained on the northern
frontier by the Byzantines. In 750-751 the emperor Constantine
V. (Copronymus) had unsuccessfully blockaded Malatia; but
five years later he took it by force and razed its wall to the ground.
Mansur now sent in 757 an army of 70,000 men under the com-
mand of his cousin Abdalwahhab, the son of Ibrahim the Imam,
whom he had made governor of Mesopotamia, the real chief
being Hasan b. Qaltfaba. They rebuilt all that the emperor
had destroyed, and made this key of Asia Minor stronger than
ever before. The Moslems then made a raid by the pass of
Qadath (Adata) and invaded the land of the Byzantines. Two
aunts of the caliph took part in this expedition, having made a
vow that if the dominion of the Omayyads were ended they
would wage war in the path of God. Constantine advanced
with a numerous army, but was afraid of attacking the invaders.
The Moslems also rebuilt Mopsuestia. But from 758 till 763
Mansur was so occupied with his own affairs that he could not
think of further raids.
In 758 (others say in 753 or 754) a body of 600 sectaries, called
Rawendis {q.v.), went to Hashimlya, the residence of the caliph,
not far from Kufa. They believed that the caliph was their
lord, to whom they owed their daily bread, and came to pay him
divine honours. They began by marching in solemn procession
round the palace, as if it had been the Ka'ba. Mansur being told
of it said: " I would rather they went to hell in obedience to
us, than to heaven in disobedience." But as they grew tumul-
tuous, and he saw that this impious homage gave offence to his
men, he caused the principal leaders to be seized and thrown
into prison. The Rawendis immediately rose in revolt, broke
the prison doors, rescued their chiefs, and returned to the palace.
The unfortunate fanatics were hunted down and massacred to
the last man, and thereby the ties that bound the Abbasids to
the ultra-Shi'ites were severed. From that time forward the
Abbasid caliphs became the maintainers of orthodox Islam,
just as the Omayyads had been. The name of Hashimlya, which
the reigning family still retained, was henceforward derived
not from Abu Hashim, but from Hashim, the grandfather of
Abbas, the great-grandfather of the Prophet.
A much greater danger now threatened Mansur. In the last
days of the Omayyads, the Shi'ites had chosen as caliph,
Mahommed b. Abdallah b. Hasan, whom they called the Mahdi
and the " pure soul," and Mansur had been among those who
pledged themselves to him by oath. Not unnaturally, the Alids
in Medina were indignant at being supplanted by the Abbasids,
and Mansur's chief concern was to get Mahommed into his
power. Immediately after his occupying the throne, he named
Ziyad b. Obaidallah governor of Medina, with orders to lay
hands on Mahommed and his brother Ibrahim, who, warned
betimes, took refuge in flight. In 758 Mansur, informed that a
revolt was in preparation, came himself to Medina and ordered
Abdallah to tell him where his sons were. As he could not or
would not tell, he together with all his brothers and some other
relatives were seized and transported to Irak, where Abdallah
and bis brother Ali were beheaded and the others imprisoned.
Notwithstanding all these precautions, a vast conspiracy was
formed. On the same day Mahommed was to raise the standard
of revolt in Medina, Ibrahim in Basra. But the Alids, chough
not devoid of personal courage, never excelled in politics or in
tactics. In a.d. 762 Mahommed took Medina and had himself
proclaimed caliph. The governor of Kufa, 'Isa b. Musa, received
orders to march against him, entered Arabia, and captured
Medina, which, fortified by Mahommed by the same means as the
Prophet had employed against the besieging Meccans, could not
hold out against the well-trained Khorasanians. Mahommed
was defeated and slain. His head was cut off and sent to Mansur.
When on the point of death, Mahommed gave the famous sword
of the Prophet called Dhu'l-Fiqar to a merchant to whom he
owed 400 dinars. It came later into the possession of Harun
al-Rashid. In the meanwhile Ibrahim had not only gained
possession of Basra, Ahwaz and Fars, but had even occupied
Wasit. The empire of the Abbasids was in great jeopardy. For
fifty days Mansur stayed in his room, neither changing his
clothes nor allowing himself a moment's repose. The greater
part of his troops were in Rei with his son al-Mahdi, who had
conquered Tabaristan, in Africa, with Mahommed b. Ash'ath,
and in Arabia with 'Isa b. Musa. Had Ibrahim marched at once
against Kufa he might have crushed Mansur, but he let slip the
opportunity. A terrible conflict took place at Ba-Khamra,
48 m. from Kufa. tJomaid b. Qabtaba, the commander
of Mansur's army, was defeated, only a small division under
'Isa b. Musa holding its ground. At that moment Salm,
the son of the famous Qotaiba b. Moslim, came to the rescue by
attacking the rear of Ibrahim. tJomaid rallied his troops, and
Ibrahim was overpowered. At last he fell, pierced by an arrow,
and, in spite of the desperate efforts of his followers, his body
remained in the hands of the enemy. His head was cut off and
brought to Mansur.
Mansur could now give his mind to the founding of the new
capital. When the tumult of the Rawendis took place he saw
clearly that his personal safety was not assured in Hashimlya/
where a riot of the populace could be very dangerous, and his
troops were continually exposed to the perverting influence of the
fickle and disloyal citizens of Kufa. He had just made choice of
the admirable site of the old market-town of Bagdad when the
tidings came of the rising of Mahommed in Medina. In those
days he saw that he had been very imprudent to denude himself
of troops, and decided to keep henceforth always with him a body
of 30,000 soldiers. So Bagdad, or properly " the round city " of
Mansur, on the western bank of the Tigris, was built as the
capital. Strictly it was a huge citadel, in the centre of which
was the palace of the caliph and the great mosque. But around
this nucleus there soon grew up the great metropolis which was
to be the centre of the civilized world as long as the Caliphate
lasted. 2 The building lasted three years and was completed in
the year 149 (a.d. 766). That year is really the beginning of the
new era. " The Omayyads," says the Spanish writer Ibn tJazm,
" were an Arabic dynasty; they had no fortified residence, nor
citadel; each of them dwelt in his villa, where he lived before
becoming caliph; they did not desire that the Moslems should
speak to them as slaves to their master, nor kiss the ground
before them or their feet; they only gave their care to the
appointment of able governors in the provinces of the empire.
The Abbasids, on the contrary, were a Persian dynasty, under
which the Arab tribal system, as regulated by Omar, fell to
pieces; the Persians of Khorasan were the real rulers, and the
government became despotic as in the days of Chrosroes." The
reign of Abu'l- Abbas and the first part of that of Mansur had been
almost a continuation of the former period. But now his equals
in birth and rank, the Omayyads and the Alids, had beep crushed;
the principal actors in the great struggle, the leaders of the
propaganda and Abu Moslim were out of the way; the caliph
stood far above all his subjects; and his only possible an-
tagonists were the members of his own family.
'Isa b. Musa had been designated, as we have seen, by Abu'l-
Abbas as successor to Mansur. The latter having vainly tried
to compel 'Isa to renounce his right of succession, in favour of
Mansur's son Mahommed al-Mahdi, produced false witnesses who
swore that he had done so. However unwillingly, 'Isa was
obliged at last to yield, but it was understood that, in case of
Mahommed's death, the succession should return to 'Isa. One of
the false witnesses was, it is asserted, Khalid b. Barmak, the
head of that celebrated family the Barmecides (q.v.), which
played so important a part in the reign of Harun alrRashid.
This Khalid, who was descended from an old sacerdotal family
in Balkh, and had been one of the trusty supporters of Abu
Moslim, Mansur appointed as minister of finance.
A son of Mahommed the Alid had escaped to India, where,
1 This Hashimlya near Kufa is not to be confused with that
founded by Abu'l-Abbas near Anbar.
* Cf. G. le Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate (Oxford,
1900).
CALIPHATE
43
with the connivance of the governor Omar b. Baf s Haz&rmerd,
he had found refuge with an Indian king. Mansur discovered
his abode, and caused him to be killed. His infant son was sent
to Medina and delivered to his family. Omar Hazarmerd lost
his government and received a command in Africa, where he
died in 770.
In a.h. 158 (a.d. 775) Mansur undertook a pilgrimage to
Mecca, but succumbed to dysentery at the last station on the
route. He was about sixty-five years of age, and bad reigned
for twenty-two years. He was buried at Mecca. He was a man
of rare energy and strength of mind. His ambition was boundless
and no means, however perfidious, were despised by him. But
he was a great statesman and knew how to choose able officers
for all places. He was thrifty and anxious to leave to his son a
full treasury. He seems to have cherished the ideal that this son,
called Mahommed b. Abdallah, after the Prophet, should fulfil
the promises of peace and happiness that had been tendered to
the believers, and therefore to have called him al-Mahdi. For
that purpose it was necessary that he should have the means not
only to meet all state expenses, but also to be bounteous. But
from the report of the historian Haitham b. 'Adi * about the last
discourse which father and son had together, we gather that the
former had misgivings in regard to the fulfilment of his wishes.
Kh&lid b. Barmak took the greatest care of the revenues, but
contrived at the same time to consult his own interests. Mansur
discovered this in the same year in which he died, and threatened
him with death unless he should pay to the treasury three millions
of dirhems within three days. Kh&lid already had so many
friends that the sum was brought together with the exception of
30,000 dirhems. At that moment tidings came about a rising in
the province of Mosul, and a friend of Kh&lid said to the caliph
that Kh&lid was the only man capable of putting it down.
Thereupon Mansur overlooked the deficiency and gave Kh&lid
the government of Mosul. " And," said a citizen of that town,
" we had such an awe and reverence for Kh&lid, that he appeased
the disorders, almost without punishing anybody."
3. Reign of Mahdi. — As soon as Mansur was dead, Rabf , his
client and chamberlain, induced all the princes and generals who
accompanied the caliph, to take the oath of allegiance to his son
Mahommed al-Mahdi, who was then at Bagdad. Is& b. Mus&
hesitated, but was compelled to give in. In 776 Mahdi constrained
him for a large bribe to renounce his right of succession in favour
of his sons, Mus& and H&run. Mansur wrote in his testament to
his son that he had brought together so much money that, even
if no revenue should come in for ten years, it would suffice for all
the wants of the state. Mahdi, therefore, could afford to be
munificent, and in order to make his accession doubly welcome to
his subjects, he began by granting a general amnesty to political
prisoners. Among these was a certain Ya'qtib b. D&'tid, who,
having insinuated himself into the confidence of the caliph,
especially by discovering the hiding places of certain Alids, was
afterwards (in 778) made prime minister. The provincial
governors in whom his father had placed confidence, Mahdi
superseded by creatures of his own.
In Khorasan many people were discontented. The promises
made to them during the war against the Omayyads had not been
fulfilled, and the new Mahdi did not answer at all to their ideal.
A revolt in 160 under the leadership of a certain Yusuf b. Ibrahim,
surnamed al-Barm, was suppressed by Yazid b. Mazyad, who,
after a desperate struggle, defeated Yusuf, took him prisoner and
brought him in triumph to Bagdad, where he with several of his
officers was killed and crucified. In the following year, Mahdi was
menaced by a far more dangerous revolt, led by a sectary, known
generally as Mokanna (q.v.), or " the veiled one," because he
always appeared in public wearing a mask. He took up his abode
in the Transoxianian province of Kish and Nakhshab, where he
gathered around him a great number of adherents. After some
successes, the pretender was ultimately cornered at the castle of
Sanam near Kish, and took poison together with all the members
of his family. His head was cut off and sent to Mahdi in the year
163.
1 Tabari iii. p. 443 seq.
Mahdi had been scarcely a year on the throne when he resolved
to accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca. The chroniclers relate
that on this occasion for the first time camels loaded with ice for
the use of the caliph came to Mecca. Immediately on his arrival
in the Holy City he applied himself, at the request of the inhabi-
tants, to the renewal of the curtains which covered the exterior
walls of the Ka'ba. For a very long time no care had been taken
to remove the old covering when a new one was put on; and the
accumulated weight caused uneasiness respecting the stability of
the walls. Mahdi caused the house to be entirely stripped and
anointed with perfumes, and covered the walls again with a single
cloth of great richness. The temple itself was enlarged and
restored. On this occasion he distributed considerable largesses
among the Meccans. From Mecca Mahdi went to Medina, where
he caused the mosque to be enlarged, and where a similar distribu-
tion of gifts took place. During his stay in that city he formed for
himself a guard of honour, composed of 500 descendants of the
Ansar, 2 to whom he assigned a quarter in Bagdad, named after
them the Qatfa (Fief) of the Ansar. Struck by the difficulties
of every kind which had to be encountered by poor pilgrims to
Mecca from Bagdad and its neighbourhood, he ordered Yaqtln,
his freedman, to renew the milestones, to repair the old reservoirs,
and to dig wells and construct cisterns at every station of the
road where they were missing. He also had new inns built and
decayed ones repaired. Yaqtln remained inspector of the road
till 767.
During the reign of Mansur the annual raids against the
Byzantines had taken place almost without intermission, but
the only feat of importance had been the conquest of Laodicea,
called "the burnt" (^ KaTOKacavpkinj), by Ma'yuf b. Yahy& in
the year 770. At first the armies of Mahdi were not successful.
The Greeks even conquered Marash (Germanicia) and annihilated
the Moslem army sent from D&biq. In 778, however, Hasan b.
Qattaba made a victorious raid as far as Adhruliya (Dorylaeum) ;
it was on his proposition that Mahdi resolved on building the
frontier town called Qadath (Adata), which became an outpost.
In 779 the caliph decided on leading his army in person. He
assembled his army in the plains of Barad&n north of Bagdad
and began his march in the early spring of 780, taking with bim
his second son Harun, and leaving his elder son Musa as his
lieutenant in Bagdad. Traversing Mesopotamia and Syria, he
entered Cilicia, and established himself on the banks of the Jihan
(Pyramus). Thence he despatched an expeditionary force, nomi-
nally under the command of Harun, but in reality under that
of his tutor, the Barmecide Yahy& b. Kh&lid. Harun captured
the fortress Sam&lu after a siege of thirty-eight days, the inhabi-
tants surrendering on condition that they should not be killed or
separated from one another. The caliph kept faith with them,
and settled them in Bagdad, where they built a monastery called
after their native place. In consequence of this feat, Mahdi made
Harun governor of the whole western part of the empire, including
Azerbaijan and Armenia. Two years later war broke out afresh
between the Moslems and the Greeks. Leo IV., the East
Roman emperor, had recently died, leaving the crown to Constan-
tine VI. This prince being only ten years old, his mother Irene
acted as regent and assumed the title Augusta. By her orders
an army of 90,000 men, under the command of Michael Lachano-
drakon, entered Asia Minor. The Moslems, on their side, invaded
Cilicia under the orders of Abdalkablr, who, being afraid of
encountering the enenrfy retired with his troops. Irritated by
this failure, the caliph in 781 sent Harun, accompanied by his
chamberlain Rabf, with an army of nearly 100,000 men, with
orders to carry the war to the very gates of Constantinople. The
patrician Nicetas, count of Opsikion, who sought to oppose his
march, was defeated by Harun's general, Yazid b. Mazyad, and
put to flight. Harun then marched against Nicomedia, where he
vanquished the domesticus, the chief commander of the Greek
forces, and pitched his camp on the shores of the Bosporus.
Irene took alarm, sued for peace, and obtained a truce for three
years, but only on the humiliating terms of paying an annual
*The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called
AnsSr ("helpers ").
44
CALIPHATE
tribute of 90,000 denarii, and supplying the Moslems with guides
and markets on their way home. This brilliant success so
increased Mahdi's affection for Harun that he appointed him
successor-designate after Musa and named him al-Rash&d (" the
follower of the right cause ")- Three years later, he resolved
even to give to him the precedence in the succession instead of
Musa, yielding to the importunity of Khaizoran, the mother of
the two princes, and to his own predilection. It was necessary
first to obtain from Musa a renunciation of his rights; and for
that purpose he was recalled from Jorjan, where he was engaged
on an expedition against the rebels of Tabaristan. Musa,
informed of his father's intentions, refused to obey this order,
and Mahdi determined to march in person against him. But,
after his arrival at Masabadhan, a place in Jabal (Media, the later
Persian Irak), he died suddenly, at the age of only forty-three.
Some attribute his death to an accident met with in hunting;
others believe him to have been poisoned. Some European
scholars have suspected Musa of having been concerned in it, but
of this we have no proof whatever.
The reign of Mahdi was a time of great prosperity. Much was
done for the organization of the huge empire; agriculture and
commerce flourished; the revenues were increasing, whilst the
people fared well. The power of the state was acknowledged even
in the far east: the emperor of China, the king of Tibet, and
many Indian princes concluded treaties with the caliph. He was
an ardent champion of the orthodox faith, repudiating all the
extravagant doctrine preached by the Abbasid missionaries and
formerly professed by his father. In particular he persecuted
mercilessly the Manichaeans and all kinds of freethinkers.
4. Reign of Hadi.— On the death of Mahdi, Harun, following
the advice of Yahya b. Kh&lid, sent the insignia of the Caliphate,
with letters of condolence and congratulation, to Musa in Jorjan,
and brought the army which had accompanied Mahdi peacefully
back from Media to Bagdad. Musa returned in all haste to the
capital, and assumed the title of al-Hadx (" he who directs").
The accession of a new caliph doubtless appeared to the partisans
of the house of Ali a favourable opportunity fox a rising. Hosain
b. Ali b. Hasan III. raised an insurrection at Medina with the
support of numerous adherents, and proclaimed himself caliph.
Thence he went to Mecca, where on the promise of freedom many
slaves flocked to him, and many pilgrims also acknowledged him.
Suleiman b. Mansur, the caliph's representative in the pilgrimage
of that year, was entrusted with the command against him.
Hosain was attacked at Fakh, 3 m. from Mecca, and perished in
the combat with many other Alids. His maternal uncle, Idrfs b.
Abdallah, a brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, the rivals of
Mansur, succeeded in escaping, and fled to Egypt, whence by the
help of the postmaster, himself a secret partisan of the Shi'ites,
he passed into West Africa, where at a later period his son founded
the Idrisite dynasty in Fez (see Morocco).
Hadi, who had never been able to forget that he had narrowly
escaped being supplanted by his brother, formed a plan for
excluding hi™ from the Caliphate and transmitting the succes-
sion to his own son Ja'far. To this he obtained the assent
of his ministers and the principal chiefs of his army, with the
exception of Yahya b. Khalid, Harun's former tutor, who showed
such firmness and boldness that Had! cast him into prison and
resolved on his death. Some historians say that he had already
given orders for his execution, when he himself was killed
(September 14th, 786) by his mother Khaizoran, who had
systematically and successfully intrigued against him with the
object of gaining the real power for herself. Hadi, indignant at
the fact that she was generally regarded as the real source of
authority, had attempted to poison her, and Khaizoran, hoping
to find a more submissive instrument of her will in her second
and favourite son, caused Hadi to be smothered witb cushions by
two young slaves whom she had presented to him. She herself
died three years later.
5. Reign of Hdriin al-Rashid. — We have now reached the most
celebrated name among the Arabian caliphs, celebrated not only
in tbe East, but in the West as well, where the stories of the
Thousand and One Nights have made us familiar with that world
which the narrators represent in such brilliant colours. Harun
ascended the throne without opposition. His first act was to
choose as prime minister his former tutor, the faithful Yahya b.
Khalid, and to confide important posts to the two sons of Yahya,
Facjl and Ja'far, of whom the former was bis own foster-brother,
the latter his intimate friend. The Barmecide family were
endowed in the highest degree with those qualities of generosity
and liberality which the Arabs prized so highly, and the chronicles
never weary in their praises. Loaded with all the burdens of
government, Yahya brought the most distinguished abilities to
the exercise of his office. He put the frontiers in a good state of
defence; he filled the public treasury, and carried the splendour
of the throne to the highest point. His sons, especially FacU,
were worthy of their father.
Although the administration of HSrOn's states was committed
to skilful hands, yet the first years of his long reign were not free
from troubles. Towards the year 176 (a.d. 792-793) a man of the
house of Ali, named Yahya b. Abdallah, another brother of
Mahommed and Ibrahim, who had taken refuge in the land of
Dailam on the south-western shores of the Caspian Sea, succeeded
in forming a powerful party, and publicly claimed the Caliphate.
Harun immediately sent against him an army of 50,000 men,
under the command of FacU, whom he made governor of all the
Caspian provinces. Reluctant, however, to fight against a
descendant of the Prophet, Fa<Jl first attempted to induce him
to submit by promising him safety and a brilliant position at the
court of Bagdad. Yahya accepted the proposal, but required
that the caliph should send him letters of pardon countersigned
by the highest legal authorities and the principal personages of
the empire. Harun consented and Yahya went to Bagdad,
where he met with a splendid reception. At the end of some
months, however, he was calumniously accused of conspiracy,
and the caliph, seizing the opportunity of ridding himself of a
possible rival, threw him into prison, where he died, according to
the majority of the historians, of starvation. Others say that
Ja'far b. Yahya b. Khalid, to whose care he had been entrusted,
suffered him to escape, and that this was the real cause of Harun' s
anger against the Barmecides (q.v.). Dreading fresh insurrections
of the Alids, Harun secured the person of another descendant of
Ali, Musa b. Ja'far, surnamed al-Kazim, who enjoyed great
consideration at Medina, and had already been arrested and
released again by Mahdi. The unfortunate man was brought by
the caliph himself to Bagdad, and there died, apparently by
poison.
Meanwhile Harun did not forget the hereditary enemy of
Islam. In the first year of his reign all the strong places of
Kinnesrin and Mesopotamia were formed into a special pro-
vince, which received the name of al-' Awasun (" the defending for-
tresses "), ^th Manbij (Hierapob's) as its capital. The building
of the fortress of JJadath having been completed, Harun com-
mitted to Faraj the Turk the task of rebuilding and fortifying the
city of Tarsus. Thanks to these and similar measures, the Mos-
lem armies were able to advance boldly into Asia Minor. Almost
every year successful raids were made, in the year 797 under the
command of the caliph himself, so that Irene was compelled to
sue for peace. An attack by the Khazars called the caliph's
attention from his successes in Asia Minor. This people had
made an irruption into Armenia, and their attack had been so
sudden that the Moslems and Christians were unable to defend
themselves, and 100,000 had been reduced to captivity. Two
valiant generals, Khozaima b. Khazfm and Yazid b. Mazy ad,
marched against the Khazars and drove them out of Armenia.
In the midst of the cares of war, Harun was assiduous in his
religious duties, and few years passed without his making the
pilgrimage. Having determined to fix the order of succession in
so formal a manner as to take away all pretext for future con-
tentions, he executed a deed by which he appointed his eldest son
Mahommed his immediate heir, and after him the second,
Abdallah, and after Abdallah the third, Qasim. Mahommed
received the surname of aX-Arttin (" the Sure "), Abdallah that
of al-Ma % mun (" he in whom men trust "), and Qasim that of
oX-Motamin billah (" he who trusts in God "). Harun further
CALIPHATE
45
stipulated that Mamun shotild have as his share during the life-
time of his brother the government of the eastern part of the
empire. Each of the parties concerned swore to observe faithfully
every part of this deed, which the caliph caused to be hung up in
the Ka'ba, imagining that it would be thus guaranteed against all
violation on the part of men, a precaution which was to be rendered
vain by the perfidy of Amin.
It was in the beginning of the following year, at the very
moment when the Barmecides thought their position most secure,
that Harun brought sudden ruin upon them. The causes of
their disgrace have been differently stated by the annalists (see
Barmecides). The principal cause appears to have been that
they abused the sovereign power which they exercised. Not a
few were jealous of their greatness and sought for opportunities
of instilling distrust against them into the mind of Harun, and of
making him feel that he was caliph only in name. The secret
dissatisfaction thus aroused was increased, according to some
apparently well-informed authorities, by the releasing of the
Alid Yahya b. Abdallah, already mentioned. Finally Harun
resolved on their destruction, and Ja'far b. Yahya, who had just
taken leave of him after a day's hunting, was arrested, taken to
the castle of Harun, and beheaded. The following day, his father
Yahya, his brother FacU, and all the other Barmecides were
arrested and imprisoned; all their property was confiscated.
The only Barmecide who remained unmolested with his family
was Mahommed the brother of Yahya, who had been the cham-
berlain of the caliph till 795, when FacU b. Rabf got his place.
This latter had henceforward the greatest influence at court.
In the same year a revolution at Constantinople overthrew the
empress Irene. The new emperor Nicephorus, thinking himself
strong enough to refuse the payment of tribute, wrote an insulting
letter to Harun, who contented himself with replying: " Thou
shall not hear, but see, my answer. " He entered Asia Minor and
took Heraclea, plundering and burning along his whole line of
march, till Nicephorus, in alarm, sued for peace. Scarcely had
the caliph returned into winter quarters when Nicephorus broke
the treaty. When the news came to Rakka, where Harun was
residing, not one of the ministers ventured to tell him, until at
last a poet introduced it in a poem which pleased the monarch.
Notwithstanding the rigour of the season, Harta retraced his
steps, and Nicephorus was compelled to observe his engagements.
In 805 the first great ransoming of Moslem prisoners took place
on the banks of the little river Lamus in Cilicia. But Nicephorus,
profiting by serious disturbances in Khorasan, broke the treaty
again, and overran the country as far as Anazarba and Kanlsat
as*sauda (" the black church ") on the frontier, where he took
many prisoners, who were, however, recovered by the garrison of
Mopsuestia. Thus Harun was obliged to take the field again.
He entered Asia Minor with an army of 135,000 regulars, beside
volunteers and camp followers. Heraclea was taken, together
with many other places, and Tyana was made a military station.
At the same time his admiral, gomaid b. Ma'yttf, conquered
Cyprus, which had broken the treaty, and took 16,000 of its
people captive. Nicephorus was now so completely beaten that
he was compelled to submit to very harsh conditions. In the
year 808 the second ransomiiig between the Moslems and the
Greeks took place near the river Lamus.
The disturbances in Khorasan were caused by the malversa-
tions of the governor of that province, AH b. 'Isa b. Mahan.
The caliph went in person to Merv, in tfrder to judge of "die
reality of the complaints which had reached him. Ali b. *Isa
hastened to meet the caliph on his arrival at Rai (Rhagae),
near the modern Teheran, with a great quantity of costly
presents, which he distributed with such profusion among the
princes and courtiers that no one was anxious to accuse him.
Harun confirmed him in his post, and, after having received the
chiefs of Tabaristan who came to tender their submission,
returned through Bagdad to Rakka on the Euphrates, which
city was his habitual residence. In the following year Rafi* b.
Laith, a grandson of Nasr b. Sayyar, raised the standard of revolt
in Samarkand, and, at the head of a numerous army, defeated
the son of Ali b. 'Isa. Thereupon Ali fled from Balkh, leaving
the treasury, which was plundered by the populace after his
departure. The caliph on learning that the revolt was due to
Ali's tyranny, sent Harthama b. A'yan with stringent orders
to seize Ali and confiscate his possessions. This order was carried
out, and it is recorded that 1 500 camels were required to transport
the confiscated treasures. The caliph's hope that Ran' would
submit on condition of receiving a free pardon was not fulfilled,
and he resolved to set out himself to Khorasan, taking with him
his second son Mamun. On the journey he was attacked by an
internal malady, which carried him off, ten months after his
departure from Bagdad, a.h. 193 (March 809), just on his arrival
at the city of Tus. Harun was only forty-five years of age. He
was far from having the high qualifications of his grandfather
Mansur; indeed he did not even possess the qualities of his
father and his brother. When the latter asked him to renounce
his right of succession, he was willing to consent, saying that
a quiet life with his beloved wife, the princess Zobaida, was
his highest wish, but he obeyed his mother and Yahya b. Khalid.
As long as the Barmecides were in office, he acted only on
their direction. After their disgrace he was led into many
impolitic actions by his violent and often cruel propensities.
But the empire was, especially in the earlier part of his reign,
in a very prosperous state, and was respected widely by foreign
powers. Embassies passed between Charlemagne and Harun
in the years 180 (a.d. 797) and 184 (a.d. 801), by which the
former obtained facilities for the pilgrims to the Holy Land, the
latter probably concessions for the trade on the Mediterranean
ports. The ambassadors brought presents with them; on one
of these occasions the first elephant reached the land of the
Franks.
Under the reign of Harun, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, the governor
of Africa, succeeded in making himself independent of the central
government, on condition of paying a fixed annual tribute to his
suzerain the caliph. This was, if we do not take Spain into the
account, the first instance of dismemberment, later to be followed
by many others.
In the days of this caliph the first paper factories were founded
in Bagdad.
6. Reign of AmUn. — On the death of Harun his minister,
FaoU b. Rabf , with the view of gaining the new caliph's con-
fidence, hastened to call together all the troops of the late caliph
and to lead them back to Bagdad, in order to place them in the
hands of the new sovereign, Amin. He even, in direct violation
of HarQn's will, led back the corps which was intended to occupy
Khorasan under the authority of Mamun. Aware, however,
that in thus acting he was making Mamun his irreconcilable
enemy, he persuaded Amin to exclude Mamun from the succes-
sion. Mamun, on receiving his brother's invitation to go to
Bagdad, was greatly perplexed; but his tutor and later vizier,
FacU b. Sahl, a Zoroastrian of great influence, who in 806 had
adopted Islam, reanimated his courage, and pointed out to him
that certain death awaited him at Bagdad. Mamun resolved
to hold out, and found pretexts for remaining in Khorasan.
Amin, in anger, caused the will of his father, which, as we have
seen, was preserved in the Ka'ba, to be destroyed, declared on
his own authority that Mamun's rights of succession were
forfeited, and caused the army to swear allegiance to his own son
Musa, a child of five, on whom he bestowed the title of an-Naiiq
bil-Haqq (" he who speaks according to truth "), a.h. 194 (a.d.
800-810). On hearing the news, Mamun, strong in the rightful-
ness of his claim, retaliated by suppressing the caliph's name in
all public acts. Amin immediately despatched to Khorasan an
army of 40,000 under the command of Ali b. 'Isa, who had re-
gained his former influence, and told the caliph that, at his
coming to Khorasan, all the leading men would come over to his
side. Zobaida, the mother of the caliph, entreated Ali to treat
Mamun kindly when he should have made him captive. It is
said that FacU b. Sahl had, through a secret agent, induced
FacU b. Rabf to select Ali, knowing that the dislike felt towards
him by the Khorasanians would double their strength in fighting
against him. Mamun, on his side, sent in all haste an army of
less than 4000 men of his faithful Khorasanians, and entrusted
+ 6
CALIPHATE
their command to T&hir b. Hosain, who displayed remarkable
abilities in the war that ensued. The two armies met under the
walls of Rai (Shaaban 195, May 811). By a bold attack, in the
manner of the Kharijites of yore, T&hir penetrated into the centre
of the hostile army and killed Ali. The frightened army fled,
leaving the camp with all its treasures to T&hir, who from that
day was named " the man with the two right hands." A
courier was despatched immediately to Merv, who performed the
journey, a distance of about 750 miles, in three days. On
the very day of his arrival, Harthama b. A'yan had left Merv
with reinforcements. Mamun now no longer hesitated to take
the title of caliph.
When the news of Ali's defeat came to Bagdad, Amln sent
Abdarrahm&n b. Jabala to Hamad&n with 20,000 men. T&hir
defeated him, forced Hamad&n to surrender, and occupied all
the strong places in Jabal (Media). The year after, Amln placed
in the field two new armies commanded respectively by Ahmad
b. Mazyad and Abdallah b. Qomaid b. Qafet&ba. The skilful
T&hir succeeded in creating divisions among the troops of his
adversaries, and obtained possession, without striking a blow,
of the city of Holw£n, an advantage which opened the way to
the very gates of Bagdad. He was here reinforced by troops
sent from Khorasan under the command of Harthama b. A'yan,
who was appointed leader of the war against Amln, with orders
to send Tahir to Ahw£z. T&hir continued his victorious march,
conquered AhwSz, took Wfisit and Madam, and pitched his camp
near one of the gates of the capital, where he was rejoined by
Harthama. One after the other the provinces fell away from
Amln, and he soon found himself in possession of Bagdad alone.
The city, though blockaded on every side, made a desperate
defence for nearly two years. Ultimately the eastern part of
the city fell into the hands of T&hir, and Amln, deserted by his
followers, was compelled to surrender. He resolved to treat with
Harthama, as he was averse to T&hir; but this step caused his
ruin. T&hir succeeded in intercepting him on his way to Har-
thama, and immediately ordered him to be put to death. His
head was sent to Mamun (September 813). It was presented to
him by his vizier, FacU b. Sahl, sumamed Dhu'l-Riyasatain, or
" the man with two governments," because his master had
committed to him both the ministry of war and the general
administration. Mamun hid his joy beneath a feigned display of
sorrow.
Amln was only twenty-eight years old. As a ruler he was
wholly incompetent. He hardly comprehended the importance
of the affairs with which he was called upon to deal. He acted
invariably on the advice of those who for the time had his
confidence, and occupied himself mainly with the affairs of his
harem, with polo, fishing, wine and music. The five years of his
reign were disastrous to the empire, and in particular to Bagdad
which never entirely recovered its old splendour.
7. Reign of Mamun. — On the day following the death of
Amln T&hir caused Mamun to be proclaimed at Bagdad, and
promised in his name a general amnesty. The accession of this
prince appeared likely to restore to the empire the order necessary
for its prosperity. It was not so, however. The reign of Mamun —
that reign in which art, science and letters, under the patronage
of the caliph, threw so brilliant a lustre — had a very stormy
beginning. Mamun was in no haste to remove to Bagdad, but
continued to reside at Merv. In his gratitude to Fa<Jl b. Sahl,
to whose service he owed his success, he not only chose him as
prime minister of the empire, but also named his brother, Hasan
b. Sahl, governor of Media, F&rs, Ahwaz, Arabia and Irak. The
two generals to whom he owed still more were not treated as
they deserved. Harthama was ordered to return to Khorasan;
T&hir was made governor of Mesopotamia and Syria, with the
task of subduing Nasr b. Shabath, who with numerous adherents
refused submission to the caliph. The Alids seized on the eleva-
tion of Mamun as a pretext for fresh revolts. At Kufa a certain
Ibn Tab&tab& placed an army in the field under Abu'l-Sar&yfi,
who had been a captain in the army of Harthama. An army
sent by Hasan b. Sahl was defeated, and Abu'l-Sar5y&, no longer
content to play a second part, poisoned his chief, Ibn Tab&tabfi,
and put in his place another of the family of Ali, Mahommed
b. Mahommed, whom, on account of his extreme youth, he
hoped to govern at his will. Abu'l-Sar£y&'s success continued,
and several cities of Irak — Basra, W&sit and Mad&in — fell into
his hands. Mecca, Medina and Yemen also were mastered by
the Alids, who committed all kinds of atrocities and sacrilege.
Abu'l-Sarayfi, who even struck money in Kufa, began to menace
the capital, when Hasan b. Sahl hastily sent a messenger to
Harthama b. A'yan, who was already at Holw&n on his way back
to Merv, entreating him to come to his aid. Harthama, who
was deeply offended by his dismissal, refused at first, but at last
consented, and at once checked the tide of disaster. The troops
of the Alids were everywhere driven back, and the whole of Irak
fell again into the hands of the Abbasids. Kufa opened its
gates; Basra was taken by assault. Abu'l-Sar&y& and
Mahommed b. Mahommed fled to Mesopotamia, but were made
prisoners. The former was decapitated, the latter was sent to
Khorasan, the revolt in Arabia was quickly suppressed, and
peace seemed within reach. This, however, was by no means
the case. The disorder of civil war had caused a multitude of
robbers and vagabonds to emerge from the purlieus of Bagdad.
These ruffians proceeded to treat the capital as a conquered city,
and it became necessary for all good citizens to organize them-
selves into a regular militia. Harthama, having vanquished
Abu*l-Sar&y&, did not go to Hasan b. Sahl, but proceeded
towards Merv with the purpose of telling Mamun that the state
of affairs was not as FacU b. Sahl represented it to him, and
urging him to come to Bagdad, where his presence was necessary.
FacU, informed of his intentions, filled the caliph's mind with
distrust against the old general, so that when Harthama arrived
Mamun had him cast into prison, where he died shortly after-
wards. When the tidings of his disgrace came to Bagdad, the
people expelled the lieutenant of Hasan b. Sahl, called by them
the Majuzl (" the Zoroastrian ")> who had chosen Mad&in for his
residence, and put at their head Mansur, a son of Mahdi, who
refused to assume the title of caliph, but consented to be Mamun's
vicegerent instead of Hasan b. Sahl.
Meanwhile, at Merv, Mamun was adopting a decision which
fell like a thunderbolt on the Abbasids. In a.h. 201 (a.d. 817),
under pretence of putting an end to the continual revolts of the
partisans of Ali, and acting on the advice of his prime minister
FacU, he publicly designated as his successor in the Caliphate Ali
ar-Rida, a son of that Musi al-K&zim who perished in the prison
of Mahdi, a direct descendant of Hosain, the son of Ali, and
proscribed black, the colour of the Abbasids, in favour of that of
the house of Ali, green. This step was well calculated to delight
the followers of Ali, but it could not fail to exasperate the
Abbasids and their partisans. The people of Bagdad refused to
take the oath to Ali b. Musa, declared Mamun deposed, and
elected his uncle^brahim, son of Mahdi, to the Caliphate. 1 It
was only indirectly that the news reached the caliph, who then
saw that FacU had been treating him as a puppet. His anger
was great, but he kept it carefully to himself. FacU was one day
found murdered, and Ali b. Musa died suddenly. The historians
bring no open accusation against Mamun, but it seems clear
that the opportune removal of these men was not due to chance.
Mamun affected the profoundest grief, and, in order to disarm
suspicion, appointed as his prime minister the brother of FacU,
Hasan b. Sahl, whose daughter Bur&n he afterwards married.
Soon after the news came to him that Hasan b. Sahl had become
insane. Mamun appointed an officer to act as his lieutenant,
and wrote that he was coming to Bagdad in a short time. From
that moment the pseudo-caliph Ibrahim found himself deserted,
and was obliged to seek safety in concealment. His precarious
reign had, however, lasted nearly two years. Mamun had found
out also that the general uneasiness was largely due to his treat-
ment of Harthama and T&hir, the latter having been put in a
rebellious country without the men and the money to maintain
his authority. The caliph therefore wrote to T&hir to meet him
at Nahraw&n, where he was received with the greatest honour.
1 On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard
in the Journal Asiatique for March-April, 1869.
CALIPHATE
47
Having taken all precautions, Mamun now made his solemn
entry into Bagdad, but, to show that he came as a master, he
still displayed for several days the green colours, though at last,
at the request of Tahir, he consented to resume the black. From
this time, a.h. 204 (August 819), the real reign of Mamun began,
freed as he now was from the tutelage of Fa<JL
When welcoming Tahir, Mamun bade him ask for any reward
he might desire. Tahir, fearing lest the caliph, not being able to
endure the sight of the murderer of his brother, should change
his mind towards him, contrived to get himself appointed
governor of Khorasan. like most of the great Moslem generals,
Tahir, it is said, had conceived the project of creating an inde-
pendent kingdom for himself. His death, a.h. 207 (a.d. 822),
prevented its realization; but as his descendants succeeded him
one after the other in the post of governor, he may be said in
reality to have founded a dynasty in Khorasan. His son Abdallah
b. Tahir was a special favourite of Mamun. He brought Nasr b.
Shabath to subjection in Mesopotamia, and overcame by great
ability a very dangerous rebellion in Egypt. When he returned
thence, the caliph gave him the choice between the government
of Khorasan and that of the northern provinces, where he would
have to combat Babak the Khorramite. Abdallah chose the
former (see below, § 8).
The pseudo-caliph, Ibrahim, who, since Mamun's entry into
Bagdad, had led a wandering life, was eventually arrested. But
Mamun generously pardoned him, as well as Fatfl b. Rabi*, the
chief promoter of the terrible civil war which had so lately
shaken the empire. After that time, Ibrahim lived peacefully
at the court, cultivating the arts of singing and music.
Tranquillity being now everywhere re-established, Mamun
gave himself up to science and literature. He caused works on
mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy to be trans-
lated from the Greek, and founded in Bagdad a kind of academy,
called the "House of Science," with a library and an observatory.
It was also by his orders that two learned mathematicians
undertook the measurement of a degree of the earth's circum-
ference. Mamun interested himself too in questions of religious
dogma. He had embraced the Motazilite doctrine about free will
and predestination, and was in particular shocked at the opinion
which had spread among the Moslem doctors that the Koran
was the uncreated word of God. In the year 212 (a.d. 827) he
published an edict by which the Motazilite (Motazilite) doctrine
was declared to be the religion of the state, the orthodox faith
condemned as heretical. At the same time he ordered all his
subjects to honour Ali as the best creature of God after the
Prophet, and forbade the praise of Moawiya. In a.h. 218 (a.d.
833) a new edict appeared by which all judges and doctors
were summoned to renounce the error of the uncreated word of
God. Several distinguished doctors, and, among others, the
celebrated Ahmad b. tJanbal (q.v.), founder of one of the four
orthodox Moslem schools, were obliged to appear before an
inquisitorial tribunal; and as they persisted in their belief
respecting the Koran, they were thrown into prison. Mamun,
being at Tarsus, received from the governor of Bagdad the report
of the tribunal, and ordered that the culprits should be sent off
to him. Happily for these unfortunate doctors, they had
scarcely reached Adana, when news of the caliph's death
arrived and they were brought back to Bagdad. The two
successors of Mamun maintained the edicts — Ahmad b. tJanbal,
who obstinately refused to yield, was flogged in the year 834 —
but it seems that Motasim did not himself take much interest in
the question, which perhaps he hardly understood, and that the
prosecution of the inquisition by him was due in great part to
the charge which was left him in Mamun's will. In the reign of
Motawakkil the orthodox faith was restored, never to be assailed
again. 1
In spite of these manifold activities Mamun did not forget the
hereditary enemy of Islam. In the years 830, 831 and 832 he
made expeditions into Asia Minor with such success that Theo-
philus, the Greek emperor, sued for peace, which Mamun
1 Cf. W. M. Patton, Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna (Leiden,
1897) ; and article Mahommedan Religion.
haughtily refused to grant. Accordingly, he decided on marching
in the following year against Amorium, and thence to Constanti-
nople itself. Having sent before him his son Abbas to make
Tyana a strong fortress, he set out for Asia Minor to put himself
at the head of the army, but died of a fever brought on by
bathing in the chill river, Pedendon, 40 m. from Tarsus, in Rajab
218 (a.d. August 833), at the age of forty-eight.
Mamun was a man of rare qualities, and one of the best rulers
of the whole dynasty after Mansur. By him the ascendancy of
the Persian element over the Arabian was completed. Moreover,
he began to attract young Turkish noblemen to his court, an
example which was followed on a much larger scale by his
successor and led to the supremacy of the Turks at a later period.
8. Reign of Motasim. — Abu Isfeak al-Mo'tasim had for a long
time been preparing himself for the succession. Every year he
had bought Turkish slaves, and had with him in the last expedi-
tion of Mamun a bodyguard of 3000. Backed by this force he
seems to have persuaded the ailing caliph to designate him as his
successor. The chroniclers content themselves with recording
that he himself wrote in the name of the caliph to the chief
authorities in Bagdad and elsewhere that he was to be the
successor. His accession, however, met at first with active
opposition in the army, where a powerful party demanded
that Abbas should take the place of his father. Abbas, however,
publicly renounced all pretension to the Caliphate, and the whole
army accepted Motasim, who immediately had the fortifications
of Tyana demolished and hastened back to Bagdad, where he
made his public entry on the 20th of September 833.
Motasim wanted officers for his bodyguard. Immediately
after his coming to Bagdad, he bought all the Turkish slaves
living there who had distinguished themselves. Among them
were Ashnas, Itakh, Wasif , Sima, all of whom later became men
of great influence. The guard was composed of an undisciplined
body of soldiers, who, moreover, held in open contempt the
religious precepts of Islam. Tired of the excesses committed
by these Turks, the people of Bagdad beat or killed as many of
them as they could lay hands on, and Motasim, not daring to
act with severity against either his guard or the citizens, took the
course of quitting the city. Having bought in 834 territories at
Samarra, a small place situated a few leagues above Bagdad,
he caused a new residence to be built there, whose name, which
could be interpreted " Unhappy is he who sees it," was changed
by him into Sorra-man-ra'a, " Rejoiced is he who sees it."
Leaving the government of the capital in the hands of his son
Harun al-W&thiq, he established himself at Samarra in 836.
This resolution of Motasim was destined to prove fatal to his
dynasty; for it placed the caliphs at the mercy of their prae-
torians. In fact, from the time of Wathiq, the Caliphate became
the plaything of the Turkish guard, and its decline was continuous.
In the time of the civil war the marshlands in Irak between
Basra and Wasit had been occupied by a large population of
Indians, called yat, or, according to the Arabic pronunciation,
Zotf 9 who infested the roads and levied a heavy tribute from the
ships ascending and descending the Tigris. From the year 821
onwards Mamun had tried in vain to bring them to submission.
When Motasim came back to Bagdad, after the death of his
brother, he found the people in great distress, their supply of
dates from Basra having been cut off by the Zott> and resolved
to put them down with all means. After seven months of
vigorous resistance, they at last yielded on condition of safety
of life and property. In January 835 the Zott in their national
costume and with their own music were conducted on a great
number of boats through Bagdad. Thence they were transported
to Ainzarba (Anazarba) on the frontier of the Greek empire.
Twenty years later they entered Asia Minor, whence in a later
period they came into Europe, under the name of Athinganoi
(Ziganes) and Egyptians (gipsies). 2
A far more difficult task lay before Motasim, the subjection of
Babak al-Khorrami in Azerbaijan. Though the name Khorraml
is often employed by the Moslem writers to designate such
* See M. J. de Goeje, Mhnoire sur Us migrations des Ziganes d
trovers VAsie (Leiden, 1903) ; also Gipsies.
4«
CALIPHATE
extravagant Moslem sectaries as the Hashiinlya,the real KhorramI
weze not Moslems, but Persian Mazdaqites, or communists.
The name Khorrami, or Khorramdini, " adherent of the pleasant
religion/ 9 seems to be a nickname. As they bore red colours,
they were also called Mohammira, or Redmakers. Their object
was to abolish Islam and to restore " the white religion." We
find the first mention of them in the year 808, when Harun
al-Rashid sent an army against them. During the civil war
their power was steadily increasing, and spread not only over
Azerbaijan, but also over Media (Jabal) and Khorasan. The
numerous efforts of Mamun to put them down had been all in
vain, and they were now in alliance with the Byzantine emperor.
Therefore, in the year 835, Motasim made Afshin, a Turkish
prince who had distinguished himself already in the days of
Mamun, governor of Media, with orders to take the lead of the
war against Babak. After three years' fighting, Babak was
taken prisoner. He was carried to Samarra, led through the city
on the back of an elephant, and then delivered to the execu-
tioners, who cut off his arms and legs. His head was sent to
Khorasan, his body was crucified. For long afterwards the place
where this happened bore the name of " Babak's Cross."
In the hope of creating a diversion in Babak's favour, Theo-
philus in 837 fell upon and laid waste the frontier town of
Zibatra. There and in several other places he took a great
number of prisoners, whom he mutilated. The news arrived just
after that of the capture of Babak, and Motasim swore to take
exemplary vengeance. He assembled a formidable army,
penetrated into Asia Minor, and took the city of Amorium,
where he gained rich plunder. During his return the caliph
was informed of a conspiracy in the army in favour of * Abbas
the son of Mamun, of which 'Ojaif b. 'Anbasa was the ringleader.
The unfortunate prince was arrested and died soon after in prison.
The conspirators were killed, many of them with great cruelty.
(For the campaign see Bury in J.H.S., 1009, xxix. pt. i.)
Motasim had just returned to Samarra when a serious revolt
broke out in Tabaristan, Maziy&r, one of the hereditary chiefs
of that country, refusing to acknowledge the authority of Abdallah
Ibn Jahir, the governor of Khorasan, of which Tabaristan was
a province. The revolt was suppressed with great difficulty,
and it came out that it was due to the secret instigation of
Afshin, who hoped thereby to cause the fall of the T&hirids,
and to take their place, with the ulterior object of founding an
independent kingdom in the East. Afshin, who stood at that
moment in the highest favour of the caliph, was condemned
and died in prison. Motasim died a year later, January 842.
9. Reign of W&thiq. — His son Wathiq, who succeeded, though
not in the least to be compared with Mamun, had yet in common
with him a thirst for knowledge — perhaps curiosity would be a
more appropriate term — which prompted him, as soon as he
became caliph, to send the famous astronomer Mahommed b.
MQsa into Asia Minor to find out all about the Seven Sleepers
which he discovered in the neighbourhood of Arabissus, 1 and
Sallam the Interpreter to explore the situation of the famous
wall of Gog and Magog, which he reached at the north-west
frontier of China.* For these and other personal pursuits he
raised money by forcing a number of high functionaries to dis-
gorge their gains. In so vast an empire the governors and
administrators had necessarily enjoyed an almost unrestricted
power, and this had enabled them to accumulate wealth. Omar
had already compelled them to furnish an account of their riches,
and, when he found that they had abused their trust, to relin-
quish half to the state. As time went on, nomination to an office
was more and more generally considered a step to wealth.
During the reign of the Omayyads a few large fortunes were
made thus. But with the increasing luxury after Mansur, the
thirst for money became universal, and the number of honest
officials lessened fast. Confiscation of property had been
1 See M. J. de Goeje, " De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze,"
Versl. en Meded. der A. Akad. v.Wetensch. Afd. UtUrk* 4* Reeks, hi.,
1900.
*See M. J. de Goeje, " De muur van Gog en Magog," Versl. en
Meded. 3* Reeks, v., 1888.
employed with success by Harun al-Rashid after the disgrace of
the Barmecides, and occasionally by his successors, but Wathiq
was the first to imprison high officials and fine them heavily on
the specific charge of peculation.
The caliph also shared Mamun's intolerance on the doctrinal
question of the uncreated Koran. He carried his zeal to such a
point that, on the occasion of an exchange of Greek against
Moslem prisoners in 845, he refused to receive those Moslem
captives who would not declare their belief that the Koran was
created. The orthodox in Bagdad prepared to revolt, but were
discovered in time by the governor of the city. The ringleader
Ahmad b. Nasr al-Khozaf was seized and brought to {Samarra,
where Wathiq beheaded him in person. The only other event
of importance in the reign of Wathiq was a rising of the Arabian
tribes in the environs of Medina, which the Turkish general
Bogba with difficulty repressed. When he reached Samarra with
his prisoners, Wathiq had just died (August 846). That the
predominance of the praetorians was already established is dear
from the fact that Wathiq gave to two Turkish generals, Ashnas
and Itakh respectively, the titular but lucrative supreme govern-
ment of all the western and all the eastern provinces. In his days
the soldiery at Samarra was increased by a large division of
Africans (Maghribls).
10. Reign of Motawakkil. — As Wathiq had appointed no
successor the vizier Mahommed Zayyat had cast his eye on
his son Mahommed, who was still a child, but the generals Waslf
and Itakh, seconded by the upper cadi Ibn abl Da*ud, refused
their consent, and offered the supreme power to Wathiq's
brother Ja'far, who at his installation adopted the name of
al-Motowakkil x ala 'llah (" he who trusts in God "). The new
caliph hated the vizier Zayyat, who had opposed his election, and
had him seized and killed with the same atrocious cruelty which
the vizier himself had inflicted on others. His possessions, and
those of others who had opposed the caliph's election, were
confiscated. But the arrogance of Itakh, to whom he owed his
Caliphate, became insufferable. So, with the perfidy of his race,
the caliph took him off his guard, and had him imprisoned and
killed at Bagdad. He was succeeded by Waslf .
About this time an impostor named Mahmud b. Faraj had set
himself up as a prophet, claiming to be Dhu'l-Qarnain (Alexander
the Great) risen from the dead. Asserting that Gabriel brought
him revelations, he had contrived to attract twenty-seven
followers. The caliph had him flogged, and compelled each of
the twenty-seven to give him ten blows on the head with his
fist. The " prophet " expired under the blows (850).
One of the first acts of Motawakkil was the release of all those
who had been imprisoned for refusing to admit the dogma of the
created Koran, and the strict order to abstain from any litigation
about the Book of God. The upper cadi Ibn abl Da'ud, the
leader of the movement against orthodoxy, who had stood in
great esteem with Mamun and had fulfilled, his high office under
the reigns of Motasim and Wathiq, had a stroke of paralysis in
the year 848. His son Mahommed was put in his place till 851,
when all the members of the family were arrested. They released
themselves by paying the enormous sum of 240,000 dinars and
16,000,000 dirhems, which constituted nearly their whole
fortune, and were then sent to Bagdad, where father and son
died three years later. An orthodox upper cadi was named
instead, and the dogma of the created Koran was declared
heresy; therewith began a persecution of all the adherents of
that doctrine and other Motazilite tenets. Orthodoxy triumphed,
never again to lose its place as the state religion. Hand in hand
with these reactionary measures came two others, one against
Jews and Christians, one against the Shi'ites. The first caliph
who imposed humiliating conditions on the Dhimmis, or Cove-
nanters, who, on condition of paying a certain not over-heavy
tribute, enjoyed the protection of the state and the free exercise
of their cult, was Omar II., but this policy was not continued.
A proposition by the cadi Aba Yusuf to Harun al-Rashid to
renew it had not been adopted. Motawakkil, in 850, formulated
an edict by which these sectaries were compelled to wear a
distinctive dress and to distinguish their houses by a figure of
CALIPHATE
49
the devil nailed to the door, excluding them at the same time
from all public employments, and forbidding them to send their
children to Moslem schools. Nevertheless, he kept his Christian
medical men, some of whom were high in favour. He showed
his hatred for the Shi'ites by causing the mausoleum erected over
the tomb of Hosain at Kerbela, together with all the buildings
surrounding it, to be levelled to the ground and the site to be
ploughed up, and by forbidding any one to visit the spot. A year
before, a descendant of Hosain, Yahya b. Omar, had been arrested
and flogged on his orders. He escaped afterwards, rose in
rebellion at Kufa in 864, and was killed in battle. It is reported
that the caliph even permitted one of his buffoons to turn the
person of Ali into mockery.
In the year 848-849 Ibn Ba'ith, who had rendered good service
in the war against Babak, but had for some cause been arrested,
fled from Samarra to Maraud in Azerbaijan and revolted. Not
without great difficulty Bogha, the Turkish general, succeeded
in taking the town and making Ibn Ba'Ith prisoner. He was
brought before Motawakkil and died in prison. In the year 237
(a.d. 851-852) a revolt broke out in Armenia. Notwithstanding
a vigorous resistance, Bogha subdued and pacified the province
in the following year. In that same year, 852-853, the Byzan-
tines made a descent on Egypt with 300 vessels. 'Anbasa the
governor had ordered the garrison of Damietta to parade at the
capital Fostat. The denuded town was taken, plundered and
burned. The Greeks then destroyed all the fortifications at the
mouth 6f the Nile near Tinnis, and returned with prisoners and
booty. The annual raids of Moslems and Greeks in the border
districts of Asia Minor were attended with alternate successes,
though on the whole the Greeks had the upper hand. In 856
they penetrated as far as Amid (Di&rbekr), and returned with
10,000 prisoners. But in the year 859 the Greeks suffered a
heavy defeat with losses of men and cattle, the emperor Michael
himself was in danger, whilst the fleet of the Moslems captured
and sacked Antalia. This was followed by a truce and an
exchange of prisoners in the following year.
In 855 a revolt broke out in Horns (Emesa), where the harsh
conditions imposed by the caliph on the Christians and Jews
had caused great discontent. It was repressed after a vigorous
resistance. A great many leading men were flogged to death,
all churches and synagogues were destroyed and all the Christians
banished.
In the year 851 the Boja (or Beja), a wild people living between
the Red Sea and the Nile of Upper Egypt, the Blemmyes of the
ancients, refused to pay the annual tribute, and invaded the
land of the gold and emerald mines, so that the working of the
mines was stopped. The caliph sent against them Mahommed
al-Qommi, who subdued them in 856 and brought their king
Ah' Baba to Samarra before Motawakkil, on condition that he
should be restored to his kingdom.
About this time Sijistan liberated itself from the supremacy
of the Tahirids. Ya'qttb b. Laith al-Saffar proclaimed himself
amir of that province in the year 860, and was soon after con-
firmed in this dignity by the caliph.
In 858 Motawakkil, hoping to escape from the arrogant
patronage of Wasif, who had taken the place of Itakh as head
of the Turkish guard, transferred his residence to Damascus.
But the place did not agree with him, and he returned to Samarra,
where he caused a magnificent quarter to be built 3 m. from the
city, which he called after his own name Ja'fariya, and on which
he spent more than two millions of dinars (about £000,000).
He found the means by following the example of his predecessor
in depriving many officials of their ill-gotten gains. He contrived
to enrol in his service nearly 12,000 men, for the greater part
Arabs, in order to crush the Turks. In the year of his elevation
to the Caliphate, he had regulated the succession to the empire
in his own family by designating as future caliphs his three sons,
al-MotOasir billdh (" he who seeks help in God "), al-Mo'tazz
billdh (" he whose strength is of God "), and al-Mowayyad billdh
<" he who is assisted by God ")• By and by he conceived an
aversion to his eldest son, and wished to supplant him by Motazz,
the son of his favourite wife Qabiha. The day had been fixed on
which Montasir, Wasif and several other Turkish generals were
to be assassinated. But Wastf and Montasir had been informed,
and resolved to anticipate him. In the night before, Shaww&l
a.h. 247 (December 861), Motawakkil, after one of his wonted
orgies, was murdered, together with his confidant, Fatfc b. Khaqan.
The official report, promulgated by his successor, was that Fatfr
b. Khaqan had murdered his master and had been punished for
it by death. For the administrative system in this reign see
Mahommedan Institutions.
11. Reign of Montasir. — On the very night of his father's
assassination Montasir had himself proclaimed caliph. He was
a man of very feeble character, and a mere puppet in the hands
of his vizier Ahmad b. Khasfo and the Turkish generals. He
was compelled to send Wasif, the personal enemy of Ibn Kha§Ib,
to the frontier for a term of four years, and then to deprive his
two brothers Motazz and Mowayyad, who were not agreeable to
them, of their right of succession. He died six months after, by
poison, it is said.
12. Reign of Mostain. — The Turkish soldiery, now the chief
power in the state, chose, by the advice of Ibn Kha§Ib, in suc-
cession to Montasir, his cousin Ahmad, who took the title of
aUM ostein billdh (" he who looks for help to God "). In the
reign of this feeble prince the Greeks inflicted serious losses on
the Moslems in Asia Minor. A great many volunteers from all
parts, who offered their services, were hunted down as rioters
by the Turkish generals, who were wholly absorbed by their
own interests. The party which had placed Mosta'm on the
throne, led by Ibn Khaslb and Otamish, were soon overpowered
by Wastf and Bogha. Ibn Khasib was banished to Crete,
Otamish murdered. The superior party, however, maintained
Mosta'in on the throne, because they feared lest Motazz should
take vengeance upon them for the murder of his father Mota-
wakkil. But in the year 865 Wasif and Bogha fled with Mosta'in
to Bagdad, and Motazz was proclaimed caliph at Samarra. A
terrible war ensued; Mosta'in was obliged to abdicate, and was
killed in the following year.
In 864 a descendant of Ali, named Hasan b. Zaid, gained
possession of Tabaristan and occupied the great city of Rai
(Rey) near Teheran. A year later the province was reconquered
by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan, so that Hasan was obliged
to retreat for refuge to the land of the Dailam. But he returned
soon, and after many reverses ruled over Tabaristan and Jorjan
for many years.
13. Reign of Motazz. — Motazz, proclaimed caliph at Bagdad
in the first month of 252 (January 866), devoted himself to the
object of freeing himself from the omnipotent Turkish generals,
especially Wasif and Bogha, who had opposed his election. But
such a task demanded an ability and energy which he did not
possess. He was obliged to grant them amnesty and to recall
them to Samarra. He mistrusted also his brothers Mowayyad
and Mowaffaq, who had interceded for them. He put the former
to death and drove the latter into exile to Bagdad. Some time
after he had the satisfaction of seeing Wasif killed by his own
troops, and succeeded, a year later, in having Bogha assassinated.
But a more difficult problem was the payment of the Turkish,
Persian and African guards, which was said to have amounted
in a.h. 252 to 200,000,000 dirhems l (about £6,500,000), 01
apparently twice the revenue derived from the land tax. As the
provincial revenues annually decreased, it became impossible
to pay this sum, and §aliti the son of Wasif, in spite of the
remonstrances of the caliph, confiscated the property of state
officials. Upon a further demand, Motazz, having failed to
procure money from his mother Qabiha, who was enormously
rich, was seized upon and tortured, and died of starvation in
prison (Shaaban 255, July 868).
The dismemberment of the empire continued fast in these
years, and the caliph was compelled to recognize the virtual
independence of the governors Ya'qub the Saffarid (see Saf-
farids and Persia, History, § B) in Seistan, and Ahmad
b. Tulun in Egypt.
1 " Dinars M in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error
for " dirhems."
5°
CALIPHATE
14. Reign of Moktadl. — Immediately after the seizure of
Motazz, the Turks, led by §alih b. Wa§if, proclaimed as caliph
one of the sons of Wathiq with the title of al-Mohtadi billah
(" the guided by God "), who, however, refused to occupy the
throne until his predecessor had solemnly abdicated. Mohtadi,
who was a man of noble and generous spirit and had no lack of
energy, began by applying the precarious measure of power
which was left him to the reform of the court. He banished the
musicians and singers, and forbade all kinds of games; he
devoted himself to the administration of justice, and gave
public audiences to the people for the redress of their grievances.
At the same time he contrived to elevate the power of the Abna,
the descendants of those Persian soldiers who had established
the dynasty of the Abbasids, in order to break the supremacy
of the Turks and other mercenaries. But Mohtadi came too
late, and the Turks did not leave him time to finish his work.
On the news of the conspiracy against Motazz, Musa, the son
of the famous general Bogha, 1 then governor of Media (Jabal),
ordered his deputy-general Moflib to return at once from a pro-
posed invasion of Dailam, and moved with his army towards
Samarra, notwithstanding the peremptory orders of the caliph.
At his approach $alife, who was afraid of Musa, hid himself,
but was soon discovered and killed. At that moment a Kharijite,
named Mos&wir, who in 867 had risen in Mesopotamia and
beaten more than one general of the government, took Balad
and menaced Mosul. Musa could not refuse to comply with the
formal command of the caliph to march against him. During
the absence of these troops, Mohtadi seems to have tried to get
rid of the principal Turkish leaders. A brother of Musa and one
of his best generals, Bayikbeg (Baiekbak), were killed, but the
soldiery he had gained over for himself were not strong enough.
Mohtadi was overwhelmed and killed, Rajab 256 (June 870).
15. Reign of Motamid. — Whether from weariness or from
repentance, the Turkish soldiery discontinued for a time their
hateful excesses, and their new leader, Musa b. Bogha, was
without the greed and ambition of his predecessors. A son of
Motawakkil was brought out of prison to succeed his cousin, and
reigned for twenty-three years under the name of aUMo % tamid
% ald'Udh (" he whose support is God ") . He was a feeble, pleasure-
loving monarch, but Mohtadi had regained for the Caliphate
some authority, which was exercised by Obaidallah b. Khftqan,
the able vizier of Mohtadi, and by Motamid's talented brother
Aba Ahmad al-Mowaffaq; Musa b. Bogha himself remained till
his death a staunch servant of the government. During the
reign of Motamid great events took place. The great power long
wielded by the Tahirids, not only in the eastern provinces, but
also at Bagdad itself, had been gradually diminishing, and came
to an end in the year 873, when Ya'qtib the Saffarid occupied
Nishapur and imprisoned Mahommed b. fahir with his whole
family. The power of Ya'qub then increased to such an extent
that he was not content with the caliph's offer to recognize him
as supreme in the provinces he had conquered, and military
governor of Bagdad, but marched against Irak. The caliph
himself, wearing the mantle and the staff of the Prophet, then
went out against him, and after a vigorous resistance he was
beaten by Mowaffaq, who had the command of the troops, and
fled to Jondisapur in Khuzistan, where he died three years later,
leaving his empire to his brother \Amr. This prince maintained
himself in power till the year 900, when he was beaten and taken
prisoner by Isma'Il b. Ahmed the Saminid. The Samanids had
been governors of Transoxiana from the time of Mamun, and
after the fall of the T*hirids, had been confirmed in this office
by the caliph. After 287 (900) they were independent princes,
and under their dominion these districts attained to high
prosperity.
Motamid had also to deal with a rising of the negro slaves in
the province of Basra, led by one Ali b. Mahommed, who called
himself a descendant of Ali. It lasted from 869 to 883, and tasked
the government to its utmost. 2
1 This Bogha was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Wa$if,
a man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor.
* See NOldeke, OrienkUische Skizzen, pp. 155 seq.
In the west, Ahmad b. Tallin became a mighty prince, whose
sway extended over Syria and a part of Mesopotamia. Motamid,
who wished to free himself from the guardianship of his brother
Mowaffaq, concerted with him a plan to emigrate to Egypt,
Ahmad being himself angered against Mowaffaq on personal
grounds. Motamid's flight was stopped by his vizier Ibn
Makhlad, and the caliph himself was reconducted to Samarra
as a prisoner in the year 882. From that time there was war
between the Abbasids and the Tulunids. Ahmad died in 270
(884). His son Khomaruya succeeded him, and maintained
himself in power till his death in 896, in which year his daughter
was married to the caliph Motadid. Ten years later Egypt was
conquered by a general of the caliph Moktafi.
During the reign of Motamid the emperor Basil I. conducted
the war against the Moslems with great success, till in the year
270 (a.d. 884) his army suffered a terrible defeat near Tarsus,
in which the greater part of the army, the commander Andreas,
and many other patricians perished.
Motamid had appointed his son al-Mofawwid as successor to
the Caliphate, and after him his brother Mowaffaq. When the
latter died in the year 891, his son Aba V Abbas, aUMo % tadid
(" he who seeks his support in God "), was put in his place.
Next year Mofawwid was compelled to abdicate in favour of his
cousin. Shortly after Motamid died, Rajab 279 (October 892).
Not long before these events, the seat of the Caliphate had been
restored to Bagdad.
16. Reign of Motadid. — Motadid may be called, after Mansttr,
the most able and energetic of all the Abbasid rulers. He took
good care of the finances, reformed the administration, was an
excellent commander in war, and maintained order as far as
possible. The Kharijites in Mesopotamia, who for many years
had molested the government, were finally crushed with the aid
of their former ally tJamd&n, who became the founder of the
well-known dynasty of the IJamdanites. The mighty house
of Abu Dolaf in the south-west of Media, which had never
ceased to encroach on the Caliphate, was put down. The
governor of Azerbaijan and Armenia, belonging to the powerful
Turkish house of the Sajids or Sajites, whose loyalty was always
doubtful, planned an invasion of Syria and Egypt. Motadid
frustrated it by a quick movement. The citizens of Tarsus who
were involved in the plot were severely punished. The chief
punishment, however, the burning of the fleet, was a very
impolitic measure, as it strengthened the hands of the Byzantines.
Almost simultaneously with the rising of the negro slaves
in Basra there arose in the province of Kufa the celebrated
sect of the Carmathians (?.v.), Fatimites 1 or Isma'ilites. This
powerful sect, which save for a difference of opinion would have
joined the negro rising, remained outwardly quiet during
Motamid's reign, but under Motadid the government began to
have misgivings about them. Abu Sa'Id al-Jannabi, who had
founded a Carmathian state in Bahrein, the north-eastern
province of Arabia (actually called Lafcs&), which could become
dangerous for the pilgrim road as well as for the commerce of
Basra, in the year 000 routed an army sent against him by
Motadid, and warned the caliph that it would be safer to let the
Carmathians alone. In the same year the real chief of the sect,
whose abode had been discovered by the caliph, fled from
Salamia in Syria, where he lived, to Africa, and hid himself at
Sijilmasa (in Tafilalt) in the far west, whence he reappeared
ten years later at Kairawan as the Mahdi, the first caliph of the
Fatimites. 4
Motadid died in Rabia H. a.h. 289 (March 002), leaving the
Caliphate to his son aUMoktdfi btildh (" he who sufiiceth himself
in God ").
17. Reign of Moktafi.— Moktafi inherited his father's intre-
pidity, and seems to have had high personal qualities, but his
reign of six years was a constant struggle against the Carmathians
in Syria, who defeated the Syrian and Egyptian troops, and
* For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under
Fatimites.
4 M. J. de Goeje, MSmoire sur Us Carmathes du Bahrain et Us
Fatimides (Leiden, 1886).
CALIPHATE
Si
conquered Damascus and other cities. Moktafi led his troops
in person, and his general, Mahommed b> Suleiman, gained a
signal victory. Three of their chiefs were taken and put to death.
But, to avenge their defeat, they lay in wait for the great pilgrim
caravan on its return from Mecca in the first days of 294 (006),
and massacred 20,000 pilgrims, making an immense booty.
This horrible crime raised the whole Moslem world against
them. Zikruya their chief was defeated at last and perished.
After the defeat of the Syrian Carmathians, Mahommed b.
Suleiman was sent by the caliph to Egypt, where he overthrew
the dominion of the Tulunids. 'Is& b. Mahommed al-Naushari
was made governor in their stead (905).
The war with the Byzantines was conducted with great energy
during the reign of Moktafi. In the year 005 the Greek general
Andronicus took Marash, and penetrated as far as Haleb
(Aleppo), but the Moslems were successful at sea, and in 007
captured Iconium, whilst Andronicus went over to the caliph's
side, so that the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy to Bagdad
to ask for a truce and an exchange of prisoners.
18. Reign of Moqtadir. — The sudden death of Moktafi, Dhu'l-
qa'da 295 (August 908), was a fatal blow to the prestige of the
Caliphate, which had revived under the successive governments of
Mowaffaq, Motadid and himself. The new caliph, al-Moqtadir
bUlah (" the powerful through God "), a brother of Moktafi, was
only thirteen years of age when he ascended the throne. Owing
to his extreme youth many of the leading men at Bagdad rebelled
and swore allegiance to Abdallah, son of the former caliph
Motazz, a man of excellent character and of great poetical gifts;
but the party of the house of Motadid prevailed, and the rival
caliph was put to death. Moqtadir, though not devoid of noble
qualities, allowed himself to be governed by his mother and her
ladies and eunuchs. He began by squandering, the 15,000,000
dinars which were in the treasury when his brother died in
largesses to his courtiers, who, however, merely increased their
demands. His very able vizier, the noble and disinterested
Ali b. 'Isa, tried to check this foolish expenditure, but his efforts
were more than counterbalanced by the vizier Ibn abi'l-Forat
and the court. The most shameless bribery and the robbery
of the well-to-do went together with the most extravagant
luxury. The twenty-four years of Moqtadir's reign are a period
of rapid decay. The most important event in the reign was the
foundation of the Fatimite dynasty, which reigned first in the
Maghrib and then in Egypt for nearly three centuries (see
Fatimites and Egypt: History, " Mahommedan").
Far more dangerous, however, for the Caliphate of Bagdad
at the time were the Carmathians of Bahrein, then guided by
Abu Tahir, the son of Abu Sa'id Jannabl. In 311 (a.d. 923)
they took and ransacked Basra; in the first month of the
following year the great pilgrim caravan on its return from
Mecca was overpowered; 2500 men perished, while an even larger
number were made prisoners and brought to Lahsa, the residence
of the Carmathian princes, together with an immense booty.
The caravan which left Bagdad towards the end of this year
returned in all haste before it had covered a third of the way.
Then Kufa underwent the fate that had befallen Basra. In 313
(a.d. 926) the caravan was allowed to pass on payment of a large
sum of money. The government of Bagdad resolved to crush
the Carmathians, but a large army was utterly defeated by Abu
Tahir in 3 1 5 (92 7) , and Bagdad was seriously threatened. Next
year Mecca was taken and plundered; even the sacrecl Black
Stone was transported to Lahsa, where it remained till 339 (950),
when by the express order of the Imam, the Fatimite caliph, it
was restored to the Ka'ba.
In 317 (929) a conspiracy was formed to dethrone Moqtadir,
to which Munis, the chief commander of the army, at first
assented, irritated by false reports. Very soon he withdrew,
and though he could not prevent the plundering of the palace,
and the proclamation as caliph of another son of Motadid with
the title al-Qdhir billah (" the victorious through God "), he
rescued Moqtadir and his mother, and at the same time his
imprisoned friend Ali b. 'Isa, and brought them to his own house.
A few days later, a counter-revolution took place; the leaders
of the revolt were killed, and Moqtadir, against his wish, was
replaced on the throne. In 320 (a.d. 932) Munis, discovering
a court intrigue against him, set out for Mosul, expecting that
the Hamd&nids, who owed to him their power, would join him.
Instead of doing this, they opposed him with a numerous army,
but were defeated. Munis took Mosul, and having received
reinforcements from all parts, marched against Bagdad. The
caliph, who wished nothing more than to be reconciled to his old
faithful servant, was forced to take arms against him, and fell in
battle Shawwal 320 (October 932), at the age of 38 years. His
reign, which lasted almost twenty-five years, was in all respects
injurious to the empire.
19. Reign of Qakir. — After the victory Munis acted with
great moderation and proclaimed a general amnesty. His own
wish was to call Abu Ahmad, a son of Moktafi, or a son of Moq-
tadir, to the Caliphate, but the majority of generals preferring
Qahir because he was an adult man and had no mother at his
side, he acquiesced, although he had a personal dislike for him,
knowing his selfish and cruel character. Qahir was a drunkard,
and derived the money for his excesses from promiscuous con-
fiscation. He ill-treated the sons of Moqtadir and Abu Ahmad,
and ultimately assassinated his patrons Munis and Yalbak,
whose guardianship he resented. In Jornada I. 322 (April
934) he was dethroned and blinded, and died in poverty seven
years later.
During the last years of Moqtadir and the reign of Qahir a
new dynasty rose. Buya, the chief of a clan of the Dailam, a
warlike people who inhabit the mountainous country south-west
of the Caspian Sea, had served under the Samamds, and found a
footing in the south of Media (Jabal), whence his three sons —
well known under the titles they assumed at a later period:
'Imfid addaula (" prop of the dynasty "), Rokn addaula (" pillar
of the dynasty "), and Mo'izz addaula (" strengthener of the
dynasty ") — succeeded in subduing the province of Fars, at the
time of Qahir's dethronement (see Persia: History).
20. Reign of Radi. — Moqtadir's son, who was then proclaimed
caliph under the name of ar-Rddi billah (" the content through
God"), was pious and well-meaning, but inherited only the
shadow of power. The vizier Ibn Moqla tried to maintain his
authority at least in Irak and Mesopotamia, but without success.
The treasury was exhausted, the troops asked for pay, the people
in Bagdad were riotous. In this extremity the caliph bade
Ibn Raiq, who had made himself master of Basra and Wasit,
and had command of money and men, to come to his help. He
created for him the office of Amir al-Omara, "Amir of the
Amirs," which nearly corresponds to that of Mayor of the Palace
among the Franks. 1 Thenceforth the worldly power of the
Caliphate was a mere shadow. The empire was by this time
practically reduced to the province of Bagdad; Khorasan and
Transoxiana were in the hands of the Samanids, Fars in those
of the Buyids; Rinnan and Media were under independent
sovereigns; the Hamd&nids possessed Mesopotamia; the Sajids
Armenia and Azerbaijan; the Ikshldites Egypt; as we have
seen, the Fatimites Africa, the Carmathians Arabia. The Amir
al-Omara was obliged to purchase from the latter the freedom
of the pilgrimage to Mecca, at the price of a disgraceful treaty.
During the troubles of the Caliphate the Byzantines had made
great advances; they had even taken Malaria and Samosata
(Samsat). But the great valour of the Hamdanid prince Saif-
addaula checked their march. The Greek army suffered two
severe defeats and sued for peace.
21. Reign of MoUaqi. — Radi died in Rabia I. A.H.329 (December
940). Another son of Moqtadir was then proclaimed caliph
under the name of al-MoUaqi billdh (" he who guards himself by
God ") . At the time of his accession the Amir al-Omara was the
Turkish general Bajkam, in whose favour Ibn Raiq had been
obliged to retire. Unfortunately Bajkam died soon after, and
his death was followed by general anarchy. A certain Baridi,
who had carved out for himself a principality in the province of
Basra, marched against Bagdad and made himself master of
the capital, but was soon driven out by the Dailamite general
1 See Defremery, MSmoire sur Us Emirs al-Omara (Paris, 1848).
52
CALIPHATE
Kurtakin. Ibn Rftiq came back and reinstated himself as Amir
al-Omara. But Barldi again laid siege to Bagdad, and Mottaqi
fled to Nasir addaula the Hamdanid prince of Mosul, who then
marched against Bagdad, and succeeded in repelling Barldi.
In return he obtained the office of Amir al-Omara. But the
Dailamite and Turkish soldiery did not suffer him to keep this
office longer than several months. Tuzun, a former captain of
Bajkam, compelled him to return to Mosul and took his place.
Mottaqi fled again to Mosul and thence to Rakka. The Ikshld,
sovereign of Egypt and Syria, offered him a refuge, but Tuzun,
fearing to see the caliph obtain such powerful support, found
means to entice him to his tent, and had his eyes put out, Saphar
333 (October 944).
22. Reign of Mostakfi. — As successor Tuzun chose al-Mostakfi
billdh (" he who finds full sufficiency with God "), a son of
Moktafi. This prince, still more than his predecessors, was
a mere puppet in the hands of Tuzun, who died a few months
later, and his successor Ibn Shlrzad. Such was the weakness
of the caliph that a notorious robber, named Hamdl, obtained
immunity for his depredations by a monthly payment of 25,000
dinars. One of the Btiyid princes, whose power had been
steadily increasing, marched about this time against Bagdad,
which he entered in Jornada I. a.r. 334 (December 945), and was
acknowledged by the caliph as legal sovereign, under the title
of Sultan. He assumed at this time the name of Mo'izz addaula.
Mostakfi was soon weary of this new master, and plotted against
him. At least Mo'izz addaula suspected him and deprived him
of his eyesight, Jornada II. a.h. 334 (January 946). There were
thus in Bagdad three caliphs who had been dethroned and
blinded, Qahhr, Mottaqi and Mostakfi.
23. Reign of Moti. — Mo'izz addaula soon abandoned his
original idea of restoring the title of caliph to one of the descend-
ants of Ali, fearing a strong opposition of the people, and also
dreading lest this should lead to the recovery by the caliphs of
their former supremacy. His choice fell on a son of Moqtadir,
who took the title of al-Mot? billdh (" he who obeys God ").
The sultan, reserving to himself all the powers and revenues of
the Caliphate, allowed the caliph merely a secretary and a pension
of 5000 dirhems a day. Though in public prayers and on the
coins the name of the caliph remained as that of the supreme
authority, he had in reality no authority out of the palace, so
that the saying became proverbial, " he contents himself with
sermon and coin."
The Hamdanid prince of Mosul, who began to think his
possessions threatened by Mo'izz addaula, tried without success
to wrest Bagdad from him, and was obliged to submit to the
payment of tribute. He died in 358 (a.d. 969), and ten years
later the power of this branch of the Hamdanids came to an end.
The representative of the other branch, Saif addaula, the prince
of Haleb (Aleppo), conducted the war against the Byzantines
with great valour till his death in 356 (a.d. 967), but could not
stop the progress of the enemy. His descendants maintained
themselves, but with very limited power, till a.h. 413 (a.d. 1022).
Mo'izz addaula died in the same year as Saif addaula, leaving
his power to his son Bakhtiyar Tzz addaula, who lacked his
father's energy and loved pleasure more than business.
While the Abbasid dynasty was thus dying out in shame and
degradation, the Fatimites, in the person of Mo'izz li-din-allah
(or Mo'izz Abu Tamin Ma'add) (" he who makes God's religion
victorious "), were reaching the highest degree of power and
glory in spite of the opposition of the Carmathians, who left
their old allegiance and entered into negotiations with the court
of Bagdad, offering to drive back the Fatimites, on condition of
being assisted with money and troops, and of being rewarded
with the government of Syria and Egypt. The former condition
was granted, but the caliph emphatically refused the latter
demand, saying: " Both parties are Carmathians, they profess
the same religion and are enemies of Islam." The Carmathians
drove the Fatimites out of Syria, and threatened Egypt, but,
notwithstanding their intrepidity, they were not able to cope
with their powerful rival, who, however, in his turn could not
bring them to submission. In 978-979 peace was made on
condition that the Carmathians should evacuate Syria for an
annual payment of 70,000 dinars. But the losses sustained by
the Carmathians during that struggle had been enormous.
Their power henceforward declined, and came to an end in a.r.
474 (a.d. 1081).
Mo'izz addaula, as we have seen, professed a great veneration
for the house of Ali. He not only caused the mourning for the
death of Hosain and other Shi'ite festivals to be celebrated at
Bagdad, but also allowed imprecations against Moawiya and
even against Mahomet's wife Ayesha and the caliphs Abu
Bekr, Omar and Othman, to be posted up at the doors of the
mosques. These steps annoyed the people and the Turkish
soldiery, who were Sunnites, and led at last to an insurrection.
Moti was compelled to abdicate, and Bakhtiyar was driven out
of Bagdad Dhu'l-qa'da 363 (August 974).
24. Reign of Tai. — Moti left the empty title of caliph to his son
al-TdH li-amri'U&h (" the obedient to the command of God ").
The Turks who had placed him on the throne could not maintain
themselves, but so insignificant was the person of the caliph
that 'Adod addaula, who succeeded his cousin Bakhtiyar in
Bagdad, did not think of replacing him by another. Under this
prince, or king, as he was called, the power of the Buyids reached
its zenith. His empire stretched from the Caspian to the Persian
Sea, and in the west to the eastern frontier of Syria. He did
his best to remedy the misery caused by the intestine wars,
repaired the ruined mosques and other public edifices, founded
hospitals and libraries — his library in Shiraz was one of the
wonders of the world — and improved irrigation. It was also he
who built the mausoleum of Hosain at Kerbela, and that of Ali
at Kufa. But after his death in the year 372 (a.d. 983), his
sons, instead of following the example of their predecessors,
the three sons of Buya, fought one against the other. In 380
(a.d. 900) the youngest of them, Bahfi addaula, had the upper
hand. This prince, who was as avaricious as he was ambitious,
wishing to deprive the caliph Ta'i of his possessions, compeUed
him to abdicate a.h. 381 (a.d. 991).
25. Reign of Qadir. — A grandson of Moqtadir was then made
caliph under the name of al-Qddir billdh (" the powerful through
God "). The only deed of power, however, that is recorded of
him, is that he opposed himself to the substitution of a Shi'ite
head cadi for the Sunnite, so that Baha addaula had to content
himself with giving to the Shi'ites a special judge, to whom he
gave the title of naqib (superintendent). During this caliphate
the Btiyid princes were in continual war with one another.
Meanwhile events were preparing the fall of their dynasty. In
350 (a.d. 961) a Turkish general of the Samanids had founded for
himself a principality in Ghazni, and at his death in 366 (a.d.
976) his successor Sabuktagin had conquered Bost in Sijistan
and Qo§dar in Baluchistan, beaten the Indian prince Diaya
Pala, and been acknowledged as master of the lands west of the
Indus. At his death in 387 his son Mahmud conquered the
whole of Khorasan and Sijistan, with a great part of India. He
then attacked the Buyids, and would have destroyed their
dynasty but for his death in the year 421 (a.d. 1030).
In 389 (a.d. 999) Ilek-khan, the prince of Turkistan, took
Bokhara and made an end to the glorious state of the Samanids,
the last prince of which was murdered in 395 (a.d. 1005). The
Samanids had long been a rampart of the Caliphate against the
Turks, whom they held under firm control. From their fall
dates the invasion of the empire by that people. The greatest
gainer for the moment was Mahmud of Ghazni. In Mesopotamia
and Irak several petty states arose on the ruins of the dominions
of the Hamdanids and of the Abbasids.
Qadir died in the last month of a.h. 422 (November 103 1).
He is the author of some theological treatises.
26. Reign of Q&im. — He was succeeded by his son, who at his
accession took the title of al-Qaim bi-amrVllah (" he who main-
tains the cause of God "). During the first half of his long reign
took place the development of the power of the Ghuzz, a great
Turkish tribe, who took the name Seljuk from Sel juk their chief in
Transoxiana. Already during the reign of Mahmud large bodies
had passed the Oxus and spread over Khorasan and the adjacent
CALIPHATE
53
countries. In the time of his successor the bulk oi the tribe
followed, and in the year 429 (a.d. 1038) Toghrul Beg, their
chief, beat the army of the Ghaznevids and made his entry into
Nishapur. Thenceforth this progress was rapid (see Seljuks).
The situation in Bagdad had become so desperate that the caliph
called Toghrul to his aid. This prince entered Bagdad in the
month of Ramadan a.h. 447 (December 1055), and overthrew
finally the dynasty of the Btiyids. 1 In 449 (a.d. 1058) the caliph
gave him the title of " King of the East and West." But in the
following year, 450, during his absence, the Shi'ites made them-
selves masters of the metropolis, and proclaimed the Caliphate
of the Fatimite prince Mostansir. They were soon overthrown
by Toghrul, who was now supreme, and compelled the caliph
to give him his daughter in marriage. Before the marriage,
however, he died, and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan,
who died in 465 (25th December) (a.d. 1072). Qaim died two
years later, Shaaban a.h. 467 (April 1075).
In the year 440 Mo'izz b. Badls, the Zeirid ruler of the Maghrib,
made himself independent, and substituted in prayer the name
of the Abbasid caliph for that of Mostansir. In order to punish
him, the latter gave permission to the Arab tribes in Egypt to
cross the Nile, and granted them possession of all the lands they
should conquer. This happened in 442 (a.d. 1050) and was of
the greatest significance for the subsequent fate of Africa.
27. Reign of Moqtadi. — In the first year of the Caliphate of
ol-Moqtadi bi-amrVUdh (" he who follows the orders of God "), a
grandson of Qaim, the power of the Seljuk empire reached its
zenith. All the eastern provinces, a great part of Asia Minor,
Syria with the exception of a few towns on the shore, the main
part of West Africa acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad as the
Imam. Yemen had been subjected, and at Mecca and Medina
his name was substituted in the public prayers for that of the
Fatimite caliph. But after the death of Malik-Shah a contest
for the sultanate took place. The caliph, who had in 1087
married the daughter of Malik-Shah, had been compelled two
years after to send her back to her father, as she complained of
being neglected by her husband. Just before his death, the
Sultan had ordered him to transfer his residence from Bagdad to
Basra. After his death he stayed and supported the princess
Turkan Kh&tun. This lost him his life. The day after Barki-
y&roq's triumphant entry into Bagdad, Muharram 487 (February
1094), he died suddenly, apparently by poison.
28. Reign of MostaMr. — Al-Mostazhir billdh (" he who seeks
to triumph through God "), son of Moqtadi, was only sixteen
years old when he was proclaimed caliph. His reign is memorable
chiefly for the growing power of the Assassins (q.v.) and for the
first Crusade (see Crusades) . The Seljuk princes were too much
absorbed by internal strife to concentrate against the new
assailants. After the death of Barkiyaroq in November 1104,
his brother Mahommed reigned till April 11 18. His death was
followed about four months later by that of Mostazhir.
29. Reign of Mostarshid. — Al-Mostarshid billdh (" he who asks
guidance from God "), who succeeded his father in Rabia II. 512
(August 11 18), distinguished himself by a vain attempt to re-
establish the power of the caliph. Towards the end of the year
529 (October 1134) he was compelled to promise that ne would
confine himself to his palace and never again take the field. Not
long after he was assassinated. About the same time Dobais
was killed, a prince of the family of the Banu Mazyad, who had
founded the Arabian state of Hillah in the vicinity of the ruins
of Babel in 1102.
30. Reign of Rashid— Al- Rashid billdh (" the just through
God ") tried to follow the steps of his father, with the aid of
Zengi, the prince of Mosul. But the sultan Mas'ud beat the army
of the allies, took Bagdad and had Rashid deposed (August 1 1 36) .
Rashid escaped, but was murdered two years later.
31. Reign of Moqtafi. — His successor Al-Moqtafi li-amri'Uah
(" he who follows the orders of God "), son of Mostazhir, had
better success. He was real ruler not only of the district of
Bagdad, but also of the rest of Irak, which he subdued by force.
1 Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the
Seljuk princes (see Seljuks).
He died in the month of Rabia II. 555 (March 1 160) . Under his
reign the central power of the Seljuks was rapidly sinking. In
the west of Atabeg (prince's guardian) Zengi, the prince of
Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the
north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam
against the Franks. At his death in the year 541 (a.d. 1146),
his noble son, the well-known Nureddin, who was called " the
just king," continued his father's glorious career. Transoxiana
was conquered by the heathen hordes of Khata, who towards the
end of 535 (a.d. 1141) under the king Ghurkhan defeated the
great army of the Seljuk prince and compelled the Turkish
tribes of the Ghuzz to cross the Oxus and to occupy Khorasan.
32. Reign of Mostanjid. — Al-Mostanjid billdh ("he who
invokes help from God "), the son of Moqtafi, enlarged the
dominion of the Caliphate by making an end to the state of the
Mazyadites in Hillah. His allies were the Arabic tribe of the
Montafiq, who thenceforth were powerful in southern Irak. The
greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was the conquest
of Egypt by the army of Nureddin, the overthrow of the Fatimite
dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his major-
domo in Rabia II. 566 (December 11 70).
33. Reign of Mostadi. — His son and successor al-Mostadl' bi-
amri'Udh (" he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God "),
though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers
for that of the Ffitimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real
authority. BythedeathofNureddinin569(A.D. 1174) Saladin's
power became firmly rooted. The dynasty founded by him is
called that of the Ayyubites, after the name of his father Ayyub.
Mostadi died in the month of Dhu'l-qa'da 575 (March 1180).
$4.Reignof Nasir. — Quite a different man from his father was his
successor al-Nasir li-dini'Udh ("he who helps the religion of God ' ') .
During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin, 27 Rajab
583 (October 2nd, 11 87). Not long before that event the well-
known Spanish traveller Ibn Jubair visited the empire of Saladin,
and came to Bagdad in 580, where he saw the caliph himself.
Nasir was very ambitious; he had added KhOzistan to his
dominions, and desired to become also master of Media (Jabal, or
Persian Irak, as it was called in the time of the Seljuks) . Here,
however, he came into conflict with the then mighty prince of
Khwarizm (Khiva), who, already exasperated because the
caliph refused to grant him the honours he asked for, resolved
to overthrow the Caliphate of the Abbasids, and to place a
descendant of Ali on the throne of Bagdad. In his anxiety,
Nasir took a step which brought the greatest misery upon
western Asia, or at least accelerated its arrival.
In the depths of Asia a great conglomeration of east Turkish
tribes (Tatars or Mongols), formed by a terrible warrior, known
under his honorific title Jenghiz Khan, had conquered the
northern provinces of China, and extended its power to the
frontiers of the Transoxianian regions. To this heathen chief the
Imam of the Moslems sent a messenger, inducing him to attack
the prince of Khwarizm, who already had provoked the Mon-
golian by a disrespectful treatmentof his envoys. Neither he nor
the caliph had the slightest notion of the imminent danger they
conjured up. When Nasir died, Ramadan 622 (October 1225),
the eastern provinces of the empire had been trampled down by
the wild hordes, the towns burned, and the inhabitants killed
without mercy.
35. Reign of Zdkir. — Al-Zdkir bi-amri'lldh (" the victorious
through the orders of God ") died within a year after his father's
death, in Rajab 623 (July 1226). He and his son and successor
are praised as beneficent and just princes.
36. Reign of Mostansir. — Al-Mostansir billdh (" he who asks
help from God ") was caliph till his death in Jornada II. 640
(December 1242). In the year 624 (1227) Jenghiz Khan died,
but the Mongol invasion continued to advance with immense
strides. The only man who dared, and sometimes with success,
to combat them was Jelaleddin, the ex-king of Khwarizm, but
after his death in 628 (a.d. 1231) all resistance was paralysed.
37. Reign of Mostasim. — Al-Mo$ta % sim billdh ("he who clings
to God for protection "), son of Mostansir, the last caHph of
Bagdad, was a narrow-minded, irresolute man, guided moreover
54
CALIVER— CALIXTUS
by bad counsellors. la the last month of the year 653 (January
1256) Hulaku or Hulagu, the brother of the great khan of the
Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by destroying all the
strongholds of the Isma'ills. Then the turn of Bagdad came.
On the nth of Muharram 656 (January 1258) Hulaku arrived
under the walls of the capital. In vain did Mostasim sue for
peace. Totally devoid of dignity and heroism, he ended by
surrendering and imploring mercy from the barbarian victor.
On the 4th of Saphar (February 10th) he came with his retinue into
the camp. The city was then given up to plunder and slaughter;
many public buildings were burnt; the caliph, after having
been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of the
family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations.
With him expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids,
which had lasted 524 years, from the entry of Abu'l- Abbas into
Kufa.
In vain, three years later, did Abu'l-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of
the race of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with
Bibars the Mameluke sultan, and who had been proclaimed
caliph under the title al-Mostansir billdh (" he who seeks help
from God "), make an effort to restore a dynasty which was now
for ever extinct. At the head of an army he marched against
Bagdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached that city.
Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found an
asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under the name
of al-Hakim bi-amri'llah (" he who decides according to the
orders of God ")• His sons inherited his title, but, like their
father, remained in Egypt without power or influence (see Egypt:
History, " Mahommedan period "). This shadow of sovereignty
continued to exist till the conquest of Egypt by the Turkish
sultan Selim I., who compelled the last of them, Motawakkil, to
abdicate in his favour (see Turkey: History). He died at
Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538.
Another scion of the Abbasid family, Mahommed, a great-
grandson of the caliph Mostansir, found at a later period a
refuge in India, where the sultan of Delhi received him with
the greatest respect, named him Makhdumzadeh, " the Master's
son," and treated him as a prince. Ibn Batata saw him when
he visited India, and says that he was very avaricious. On his
return to Bagdad the traveller found there a young man, son of
this prince, who gained a single dirhem daily for serving as imam
in a mosque, and did not get the least relief from his rich father.
It seems that this Mahommed, or his son, emigrated later to
Sumatra, where in the old Samutra the graves of their descendants
have been lately discovered. (M.J. deG.)
CALIVER, a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is
an English corruption of " calibre," and arises from the " arque-
bus of calibre," that is, of standard bore, which replaced the
older arquebus. " Caliver/ ' therefore, is practically synonymous
with " arquebus." The heavier musket, fired from a rest, re-
placed the caliver or arquebus towards the close of the century.
CALIXTUS, or Caixistus, the name of three popes.
Cauxtus I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before
the discovery of the book of the Philosophumena. From this
work, which is in part a pamphlet directed against him, we
learn that Calixtus was originally a slave and engaged in banking.
Falling on evil times, he was brought into collision with the
Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured his exile
to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope
Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the
government of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus
(217) he was elected in his place and occupied the papal chair
for five years. His theological adversary Hippolytus, the author
of the Philosophumena, accused him of having favoured the
modalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and after his
election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most
prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him
also of certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus
reduced the penitential severities applied until his time to
those guilty of adultery and other analogous sins. Under
Calixtus and his two immediate successors, Hippolytus was
the leader of a schismatic group, organized by way of protest
against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in 222, in cir-
cumstances obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine
the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr
popes. (L. D.*)
Calixtus II. (d. n 24), pope from n 19 to n 24, was Guido,
a member of a noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop
of Vienne about 1088, and belonged to the party which favoured
reform in the Church. In September 1 1 1 2, after Pope Paschal II.
had made a surrender to the emperor Henry V., Guido called a
council at Vienne, which declared against lay investiture, and
excommunicated Henry. In February 1 1 19 he was chosen pope
at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the
anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his
consecration he opened negotiations with the emperor with a
view to settling the dispute over investiture. Terms of peace
were arranged, but at the last moment difficulties arose and the
treaty was abandoned; and in October n 19 both emperor and
anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims.
The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in n 20 was a triumphal
march. He was received with great enthusiasm in the city,
while Gregory, having fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands
and treated with great ignominy. Through the efforts of some
German princes negotiations between pope and emperor were
renewed, and the important Concordat of Worms made in
September n 22 was the result. This treaty, made possible by
concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy,
and was confirmed by the Lateran council of March n 23.
During his short reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of
the papacy in southern Italy by military expeditions, and restored
several buildings within the city of Rome. During preparations
for a crusade he died in Rome on the 13th or 14th of December
1 1 24.
See M. Maurer, Pabst Calixt II. (Munich, 1889); U. Robert,
Histoire du pope Calixte II. (Paris, 1891) ; and A. Hauck's ReaL
encyklopddie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).
Calixtus III. (c. 137&-1458), pope from 1455 t0 *458, was a
Spaniard named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of
Xativa, he gained a great reputation as a jurist, becoming pro-
fessor at Lerida; in 1429 he was made bishop of Valencia, and
in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion mainly to his close
friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily. Chosen
pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a crusade
against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions,
succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the
people of Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause,
and very little result came from the pope's exertions. During
his papacy Calixtus became involved in a quarrel with his former
friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now also king of Naples, and after
the king's death in June 1458 he refused to recognize his ille-
gitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, asserting that this
kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was notorious for
nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew,
Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He
died on the 6th of August 1458.
See A. Hauck's Realencyklopddie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).
CALIXTUS, GEORG (1 586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born
at Medelby, a village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying
philology, philosophy and theology at Helmstadt, Jena, Giessen,
Tubingen and Heidelberg, he travelled through Holland, France
and England, where he became acquainted with the leading
Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was appointed professor
of theology at Helmstadt by the duke of Brunswick, who had
admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute
with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a
book, Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus,
which provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in
1619 he published his Epitome theologiae, and some years later
his Theologia M oralis (1634) and De Arte Nova Nihusii. Roman
Catholics felt them to be aimed at their own system, but they
gave so great offence to Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher
to charge the author with a secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely
had he refuted the accusation of Buscher, when, on account of
CALL— CALLAO
55
his intimacy with the Reformed divines at the conference of
Thorn (1645), an( * his desire to effect a reconciliation between
them and the Lutherans, a new charge was preferred against him,
principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius (161 2-1686), of
a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim of his
life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant
differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise,
known in the Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted
during the whole lifetime of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran
church, till a new controversy arose with P. J. Spener and the
Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656.
There is a monograph on Calixtus by E. L. T. Henke (2 vols.,
1 853-1 8*6) ; see also Isaak Dorner, Gesch. d. (potest. Theol. pp. 606-
624; and especially Herzog-Hauck, RealencyJuopadie.
CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word,
cf . Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and
particularly to attract some one's attention by a loud utterance.
Hence its use for a visit at a house, where the name of the
occupier, to whom the visit was made, was called aloud, in early
times, to indicate the presence of the visitor. It is thus trans-
ferred to a short stay at a place, but usually with the idea of a
specific purpose, as in " port of call," where ships stop in passing.
Connected with the idea of summoning by name are such uses as
" roll-call " or " call-over," where names are called over and
answered by those present; similar uses are the " call to the
bar," the summoning at an Inn of Court of those students
qualified to practise as barristers, and the " call within the bar "
to the appointment of king's counsel. In the first case the " bar "
is that which separates the benchers from the rest of the body
of members of the Inn, in the other the place in a court of law
within which only king's counsel, and formerly serjeants-at-law,
are allowed to plead. " Call " is also used with a particular
reference to a divine summons, as of the calling of the apostles.
It is thus used in nonconformist churches of the invitation to
serve as minister a particular congregation or chapel. It is from
this sense of a vocaiio or summons that the word " calling " is
used, not only of the divine vocation, but of a man's ordinary
profession, occupation or business. In card games " call " is
used, in poker, of the demand that the hand of the highest
bettor be exposed or seen, exercised by that player who equals
his bet; in whist or bridge, of a certain method of play, the
" call " for a suit or for trumps on the part of one partner, to
which the other is expected to respond; and in many card
games for the naming of a card, irregularly exposed, which is
laid face up on the table, and may be thus " called " for, at
any point the opponent may choose.
" Call " is also a term on the English and American stock
exchanges for a contract by which, in consideration of a certain
sum, an " option " is given by the person making or signing the
agreement to another named therein or his order or to bearer,
to " call " for a specified amount of stock at a certain day for a
certain price. A " put," which is the reverse of a " call," is the
option of selling (putting) stock at a certain day for a certain
price. A combined option of either calling or putting is termed
a " straddle," and sometimes on the American stock exchange a
"spread-eagle." (See further Stock Exchange.) The word is also
used, in connexion with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand
for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company
has not been demanded or " called " up at once. (See Company.)
CALLANDER, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 16 m.
north-west of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1001)
1458. Situated on the north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a
three-arched bridge, and sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is
in growing repute as a health resort. A mile and a half north-
east are the Falls of Bracklinn (Gaelic, "white-foaming pool"),
formed by the Keltie, which takes a leap of 50 ft. down the red
sandstone gorge on its way to the Teith. Two miles north-west
of Callander is the Pass of Leny, " the gate of the Highlands,"
and farther in the same direction is Loch Lubnaig, on the shores
of which stand the ruins of St Bride's chapel. Callander owes
much of its prosperity to the fact that it is the centre from
which the Trossachs is usually visited, the route being that
described in Scott's Lady of the Lake. The ascent of Ben Ledi is
commonly made from the town.
CALLAO, a city, port and coast department of Peru, 8} m.
west of Lima, in 12 04' S., 77 13' W. Pop. (1005) 31,128, of
whom 3349 were foreigners. The department includes the city
and its environs, Bellavista and La Punta, and the neighbouring
islands, San Lorenzo, Fronton, the Palominos, &c, and covers
an area of 14$ sq. m. Callao is the principal port of the republic,
its harbour being a large bay sheltered by a tongue of land on the
south called La Punta, and by the islands of San Lorenzo and
Fronton. The anchorage is good and safe, and the harbour is
one of the best on the Pacific coast of South America. The city
stands on the south side of the bay, and is built on a fiat point of
land only 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are for the most
part low and cheaply built, and the streets are narrow, badly
paved, irregular and dirty. The climate is good and the coast
is swept by cool ocean breezes, the average temperatures
ranging from 65 to 77 F., but notwithstanding this, Callao
has a bad reputation for fevers and contagious diseases, chiefly
because of its insanitary condition. Its noteworthy public
buildings are the custom-house and its storehouses which occupy
the old quadrangular fortress built by the Spanish government
between 1770 and 1775, and cover 15 acres, the prefecture, the
military and naval offices and barracks, the post-office, three
Catholic churches, a hospital, market, three clubs and some
modern commercial houses. The present city is half a mile north
of the site of the old town, which was destroyed by an earthquake
and tidal wave in 1746. For a short time the commercial
interests of the stricken city centred at Bellavista, 1 J m. east,
where wheat granaries were built and still remain, but later the
greater convenience of a waterside site drew the merchants and
population back to the vicinity of the submerged town. The
importance of Callao in colonial times, when it was the only open
port south of Panama, did not continue under the new political
order, because of the unsettled state of public affairs and the loss
of its monopoly. This decline in its prosperity was checked,
and the modern development of the port began, when a railway
was built from Callao into the heart of the Andes, and Callao is
now an important factor in the development of copper-mining.
The port is connected with Lima by two railways and an electric
tramway, with Oroya by railway 138 m. long, and with Cerro
de Pasco by railway 221m. A short railway also runs from the
port to the Bellavista storehouses. The port is provided with
modern harbour improvements, consisting of sea-walls of concrete
blocks, two fine docks with berthing spaces for 30 large vessels,
and a large floating-dock (300 ft. long on the blocks and capable
of receiving vessels up to 21 ft. draught and 5000 tons weight),
which was built in Glasgow and was sent out to Callao in 1863.
The docks are provided with gas and electric lights, 18 steam
cranes for loading and discharging vessels, a triple line of railway
and a supply of fresh water. Callao was formerly the head-
quarters in South America of the Pacific Steam Navigation
Co., Ltd. (incorporated 1840), but Valparaiso now occupies
that position. There are, owing perhaps to the proximity of
Lima, few industrial establishments in the city; among them are
a large sugar refinery, some flour-mills, a brewery, a factory
for making effervescent drinks, and a number of foundries and
repair shops. Being a port of the first class, Callao is an im-
portant distributing centre for the coasting trade, in which a
large number of small vessels are engaged. The foreign steam-
ship companies making it a regular port of call are the Pacific
Steam Navigation Co. (British), the Compania Sud- America
(Chilean), the Kosmos and Roland lines (German), the Merchants
line (New York), and a Japanese line from the ports of Japan
and China. A subsidized Peruvian line is also contemplated to
ply between the Pacific ports of South America with an eventual
extension of the service to Europe. The arrivals from and
clearances for foreign ports in 1007 were as follows: —
Arrivals
Clearances
Steamers. BailingVessels.
No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage.
518 937.302 924 174.165
517 937.706 931 163,365
56
CALLCOTT— CALLIAS AND HIPPONICUS
The exports from Callao are guano, sugar, cotton, wool, hides,
silver, copper, gold and forest products, and the imports include
timber and other building materials, cotton and other textiles,
general merchandise for personal, household and industrial
uses, railway material, coal, kerosene, wheat, flour and other
food stuffs. The maintenance of peace and order, and the mining
development. of the interior, have added to the trade and pros-
perity of the port.
The history of Callao has been exceptionally eventful. It was
founded in 1537, two years after Pizarro had founded Lima.
As the port of that capital and the only open port below Panama
it grew rapidly in importance and wealth. It was raised to the
dignity of a city in 167 1. The appearance of Sir Francis Drake
in the bay in 1578 led to the fortification of the port, which
proved strong enough to repel an attack by the Dutch in 1624.
The city was completely destroyed and partly submerged by the
great earthquake of the 28th of October 1746, in which about
6000 persons perished. The new city was strongly fortified and
figured prominently in the struggle for independence, and also
in the various revolutions which have convulsed the republic.
Its political autonomy dates from 1836, when it was made a
coast department. The Callao fortifications were bombarded by
a Spanish fleet under Admiral Mendez Nunez on the 2nd of May
1866, when there were heavy losses both in lives and material.
Again, in 1880, the city was bombarded by the Chileans, though
it was almost defenceless, and fell into the possession of the
invaders after the capture of Lima in the following year. Before
the surrender all the Peruvian naval vessels in the harbour were
sunk, to prevent their falling into the possession of the enemy.
CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL (17 79-1844), English
landscape painter, was born at Kensington in 1779 and died
there in 1844. His first study was music; and he sang for
several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. But at the age
of twenty he had determined to give up music, and had exhibited
his first painting at the Royal Academy. He gradually rose to
distinction, and was elected an associate in 1807 and an aca-
demician in 1810. In 1827 he received the honour of knighthood ;
and, seven years later, was appointed surveyor of the royal
pictures. His two principal subject pictures — " Raphael and
the Fornarina," and " Milton dictating to his Daughters," are
much inferior to his landscapes, which are placed in the highest
class by their refined taste and quiet beauty.
His wife, Maria, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married
in 1827, was a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of
Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. (d. 182 2) . With her first husband
she travelled in India, South Africa and South America, where
she acted for some time as teacher of Donna Maria, who became
queen of Portugal in 1826; and in the company of her second
husband she spent much time in the south of Europe. She
published accounts of her visits to India (181 2), and to the
environs of Rome (1820); Memoirs of Poussin (1820); a
History of France-, a History of Spain (1828); Essays toward a
History of Painting (1836); Little Arthur's History of England
(1836); and the Scripture Herbal (1842).
CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL (1766-1821), English musician,
brother of Sir Augustus Callcott, was born at Kensington on the
20th of November 1766. At the age of seven he was sent to a
neighbouring day-school, where he continued for five years,
studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this time he frequently
went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which his father was
employed, and the impression he received on hearing the organ
of that church seems to have roused his love for music. The
organist at that time was Henry Whitney, from whom Callcott
received his first musical instruction. He did not, however,
choose music as a profession, as he wished to become a surgeon.
But on witnessing a surgical operation he found his nervous
system so seriously affected by the sight, that he determined to
devote himself to music. His intimacy with Dr Arnold and
other leading musicians of the day procured him access to artistic
circles; he was deputy organist at St George the Martyr, Queen
Square, Bloomsbury, from 1 783 to 1 785, in which year his success-
ful competition for three out of the four prize medals offered by
the " Catch Club " soon spread his reputation as composer of
glees, catches, canons and other pieces of concerted vocal music.
The compositions with which he won these medals were — the
catch " O beauteous fair," the canon " Blessed is he," and the
glee " Dull repining sons of care." In these and other similar
compositions he displays considerable skill and talent, and some
of his glees retain their popularity at the present day. In 1787
Callcott helped Dr Arnold and others to form the " Glee Club."
In 1789 he became one of the two organists at St Paul's, Covent
Garden, and from 1793 to 1802 he was organist to the Asylum for
Female Orphans. As an instrumental composer Callcott never
succeeded, not even after he had taken lessons from Haydn. But
of far greater importance than his compositions are his theoretical
writings. His Musical Grammar, published in 1806 (3rd ed.,
18 1 7), was long considered the standard English work of musical
instruction, and in spite of its being antiquated when compared
with modern standards, it remains a scholarly and lucid treatment
of the rudiments of the art. Callcott was a much-esteemed
teacher of music for many years. In 1800 he took his degree of
Mus.D. at Oxford, where fifteen years earlier he had received his
degree of bachelor of music, and in 1805 he succeeded Dr Crotch
as musical lecturer at the Royal Institution. Towards the end of
his life his artistic career was twice interrupted by the failure of
his mental powers. He died at Bristol after much suffering on
the 15th of May 182 1. A posthumous collection of his most
favourite vocal pieces was published in 1824 with a memoir of
his life by his son-in-law, William Horsley, himself a composer
of note.
Callcott's son, William Hutchins Callcott (1807-1882), in-
herited to a large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song,
" The last man," and his anthem, " Give peace in our time, O
Lord," were his best-known compositions.
CALLIAS, tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea. With the assistance
of Philip II. of Macedon, which he hoped to obtain, he contem-
plated the subjugation of the whole island. But finding that
Philip was unwilling to help him, Callias had recourse to the
Athenians, although he had previously (350 B.C.) been engaged
in hostilities with them. With the support of Demosthenes, he
was enabled to conclude an alliance with Athens, and the tribute
formerly paid by Eretria and Oreus to Athens was handed over
to him. But his plan of uniting the whole of Euboea under his
rule, with Chalcis as capital, was frustrated by Philip, who set up
tyrants chosen by himself at Eretria and Oreus. Subsequently,
when Philip's attention was engaged upon Thrace, the Athenians
in conjunction with Callias drove out these tyrants, and Callias
thus became master of the island (Demosthenes, De Pace, p. 58;
Epistola PhUippi, p. 159; Diod. Sic. xvi. 74). At the end of his
life he appears to have lived at Athens, and Demosthenes pro-
posed to confer the citizenship upon him (Aeschines, Contra
Ctesiphontem, 85, 87).
CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS, two names borne alternately by
the heads of a wealthy and distinguished Athenian family.
During the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. the office of daduchus or
torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary
privilege of the family till its extinction. The following members
deserve mention.
1. Callias, the second of the name, fought at the battle of
Marathon (490) in priestly attire. Some time after the death of
Cimon, probably about 445 B.C., he was sent to Susa to conclude
with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, a treaty of peace afterwards
misnamed the " peace of Cimon." Cimon had nothing to do
with it, and he was totally opposed to the idea of peace with
Persia (see Cimon). At all events Callias 's mission does not
seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason
on his return to Athens and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents.
See Herodotus vii. 151; Diod. Sic. xii. 4; Demosthenes, De
Falsa Legations, p. 428 ; Grote recognizes the treaty as # a historical
fact, History of Greece, ch. xlv., while Curtius, bk. iii.ch. ii., denies the
conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer, Forsckungen,
ii.; J. B. Bury in Hermathena, xxiv. (1898).
2. Hippoiucus, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon
he commanded the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian
territory (426 B.C.) and was slain at the battle of Delium (424)*
C ALLIM ACHUS— CALLISTO
57
His wife, whom he divorced, subsequently became the wife of
Pericles; one of his daughters, Hipparete, married Alcibiades;
another, the wife of Theodoms, was the mother of the orator
Isocrates.
See Thucydides Hi. 91; Diod. Sic. xii. 65; Andocides, Contra
Alcibiadem, 13.
3. Caluas, son of the above, the black sheep of the family, was
.notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed
by the comic poets as an example of a degenerate Athenian
(Aristophanes, Frogs, 429, Birds, 283, and schol. Andocides, De
Mysteriis, 1 10-13 1). The scene of Xenophon's Symposium and
Plato's Protagoras was laid at his house. He was reduced to a
.state of absolute poverty and, according to Aelian ( Var. Hist. iv.
23), committed suicide, but there is no confirmation of this. In
spite of his dissipated life he played a certain part in public
affairs. In 392 he was in command of the Athenian hoplites at
Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by Iphicrates. In 3 7 1
he was at the head of the embassy sent to make terms with Sparta.
The peace which was the result was called after him the " peace
of Callias."
See Xenophon, Hellenica, iv. 5, vi. 3 ; and Delian League.
CALUHACHUS, an Athenian sculptor of the second half of the
5th century B.C. Ancient critics associate him with Calamis,
whose relative he may have been. He is given credit for two
inventions, the Corinthian column and the running borer for
drilling marble. The most certain facts in regard to him are that
he sculptured some dancing Laconian maidens, and made a
golden lamp for the Erechtheum (about 408 B.C.); and that he
used to spoil his works by over-refinement and excessive labour.
CALLIHACHUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of
Cyrene and a descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadae,
flourished about 250 B.C. He opened a school in the suburbs of
Alexandria, and some of the most distinguished grammarians
and poets were his pupils. He was subsequently appointed
by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the Alexandrian
library, which office he held till his death (about 240). His
Pinakes (tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically
arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history
of Greek literature. According to Suidas, he wrote about 800
works, in verse and prose; of these only six hymns, sixty-four
epigrams and some fragments are extant; a considerable
fragment of the Hecale, an idyllic epic, has also been discovered
in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon in Classical Review, November
1893). His Coma Berenices is only known from the celebrated
imitation of Catullus. His Aitia (causes) was a collection of
elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the foundation of
cities, religious ceremonies and other customs. According to
Quintilian (Instit. x. 1. 58) he was the chief of the elegiac poets;
his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by
Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns
are extremely learned, and written in a laboured and artificial (
style. The epigrams, some of the best specimens of their kind,
have been incorporated in the Greek Anthology. Art and learn-
ing are his chief characteristics, unrelieved by any real poetic
genius; in the words of Ovid (Amores, i. 15) —
" Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet."
Editions. — Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected
by Bentley) by J. A. Ernesti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873)
(with elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by
A. Meineke (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Mdllendorff (1897). See Neue
Bruchstucke aus der Hekale des Kallimachus, by T. Gomperz (189*) ;
also G. Knaack, CaUimachea (1896) ; A. Beltrami, GV Inni di Calli-
macho e UN onto di Terpandro (1896) ; K. Kuiper, Stadia CaUimachea
(i8q6}; A. Hamette, Les Epigrammes de CaUimaque: itude critique
et htteraire (Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by
W. Dodd (1755) and H. W. Tytler (1793) ' (P rose ) by J. Banks (1856).
See also Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. 1. (ed. 1906), p. 122.
CALLINUS of Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac poets
and the creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is supposed
to have flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the
Cimmerii and their expulsion by Alyattes (630-560 B.C.) . During
his lifetime his own countrymen were also engaged in a life-and-
death struggle with the Magnesians. These two events give the
key to his poetry, in which he endeavours to rouse the indolent
Ionians to a sense of patriotism. Only scanty fragments of his
poems remain; the longest of these (preserved in Stobaeus,
Florilegium, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtaeus.
Edition of the fragments by N. Bach (1831), and in Bergk, Poetae
Lyrici Graeci (1882). On the date of Calhnus, see the histories of
Greek literature by Mure and Mtiller; G. H. Bode, Geschichte der
heUenischen Dichtkunst, ii. pt. i. (1838) ; and G. Geiger, De Callini
Aetate (1877), who places him earlier, about 642.
CALLIOPE* the muse of epic poetry, so named from the sweet-
ness of her vioce (Gr. icdXXos, beauty; 6\p, voice). In Hesiod she
was the last of the nine sisters, but yet enjoyed a supremacy over
the others. (See also Muses, The.)
CALLIRRHOE, in Greek legend, second daughter of the river-
god Achelous and wife of Alcmaeon (q.v.). At her earnest
request her husband induced Phegeus, king of Psophis in Arcadia,
and the father of his first wife Arsinoe" (or Alphesiboea), to hand
over to him the necklace and peplus (robe) of Harmonia (q.v.),
that he might dedicate them at Delphi to complete the cure of
his madness. When Phegeus discovered that they were really
meant for Callirrhoe, he gave orders for Alcmaeon to be waylaid
and killed (Apollodorus iii. 7, 2. 5-7; Thucydides ii. 102).
Callirrhoe now implored the gods that her two young sons might
grow to manhood at once and avenge their father's death.
This was granted, and her sons Amphoterus and Acarnan slew
Phegeus with his two sons, and returning with the necklace and
peplus dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid, Metam. ix. 413).
CALLISTHENES (c. 360-328 B.C.), of Olynthus, Greek historian,
a relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation
he was appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic
expedition. He censured Alexander's adoption of oriental
customs, inveighing especially against the servile ceremony of
adoration. Having thereby greatly offended the king, he was
accused of being privy to a treasonable conspiracy and thrown
into prison, where he died from torture or disease. His melan-
choly end was commemorated in a special treatise (KaXXwflfotp
4) Ttfil rkvdovs) by his friend Theophrastus, whose acquaint-
ance he made during a visit to Athens. Callisthenes wrote
an account of Alexander's expedition, a history of Greece from
the peace of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian war (357), a
history of the Phocian war and other works, all of which have
perished. The romantic life of Alexander, the basis of all the
Alexander legends of the middle ages, originated during the
time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form belongs to the
3rd century a.d. Its author is usually known as pseudo-Callis-
thenes, although in the Latin translation by Julius Valerius
Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is ascribed
to a certain Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and
Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are
also Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to
four Greek versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle
ages (see Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur,
1897, p. 849). Valerius's translation was completely superseded
by that of Leo, arch-priest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-
called Historia de Preliis.
See Serif tores rerum Alexandri Magni (by C. W. Mtiller, in the
Didot edition of Arrian, 1846), containing the genuine fragments
and the text of the pseudo-Callisthenes, with notes and introduc-
tion; A. Westermann, De Callisthene Olynthio et Pseudo-Callisthene
Commentatio (1 838-1 842); J. Zacher, Pseudo-Callisthenes (1867);
W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898), pp. 363, 819;
article by Edward Meyer in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Ency-
klopddie; A. Ausfeld, Zur Kritik des griechischen Alexanderromans
(Bruchsal, 1894); Plutarch, Alexander, 52-55; Arrian, Anab. iv. 10-
14; Diog. Laertius v. 1; Quintus Curtius viii. 5-8; Suidas s.v.
See also Alexander the Great (ad fin.). For the Latin trans-
lations see Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.),
§ 399 i an d M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, iv. 1 ., p. 43.
CALLISTO, in Greek mythology, an Arcadian nymph, daughter
of Lycaon and companion of Artemis. She was transformed into
a bear as a penalty for having borne to Zeus a son, Areas, the
ancestor of the Arcadians. Hera, Zeus and Artemis are all
mentioned as the authors of the transformation. Areas, when
hunting, encountered the bear Callisto, and would have shot her,
had not Zeus with swift wind carried up both to the skies, where
he placed them as a constellation. In another version, she was
5«
CALLISTRATUS— CALLOVIAN
slain by Artemis. Callisto was originally only an epithet of the
Arcadian Artemis herself.
See Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, Metam. ii. 381-550; R. Franz, , De
Colli stus fabula (1890), which deals exhaustively with the various
forms of the legend.
CALLISTRATUS, Alexandrian grammarian, flourished at the
beginning of the 2nd century B.C. He was one of the pupils of
Aristophanes of Byzantium, who were distinctively called
Aristophanei. Callistratus chiefly devoted himself to the
elucidation of the Greek poets; a few fragments of his com-
mentaries have been preserved in the various collections of
scholia and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscel-
laneous work called Sv/ijuiCTa, used by the later lexicographers,
and of a treatise on courtesans (Athenaeus iii. 125 B, xiii. 591 D).
He is not to be confused with Callistratus, the pupil and successor
of Isocrates and author of a history of Heraclea in Pontus.
See R. Schmidt, De Callistrato Aristophaneo, appended to
A. Nauck's Aristopkanis Byzantii Fragment? (1848); alsoC. W.
Miiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iv. p. 353 note.
CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian poet, only known as the author
of a hymn in honour of Harmodius (q.v.) and Aristogeiton. This
ode, which is to be found in Athenaeus (p. 695), has been beauti-
fully translated by Thomas Moore.
CALLISTRATUS, Greek sophist and rhetorician, probably
flourished in the 3rd century. He wrote 'Ek^p&tos, descriptions
of fourteen works of art in stone or brass by distinguished
artists. This little work, which is written in a dry and affected
style, without any real artistic feeling, is usually edited with the
EU6v€S of Philostratus.
Edition by Schenkl-Reisch (Teubner series, 1902); see also C. G.
Heyne, Opuscida Academica, v. pp. 196-22 1 , with commentary on the
Descriptions ; F. Jacobs, Anwtadversumes criticae in Callistrati
statuas (1797)-
CALLISTRATUS of Aphidnae, Athenian orator and general in
the 4th century B.C. For many years, as prostates, he supported
Spartan interests at Athens. On account of the refusal of the
Thebans to surrender Oropus, which on his advice they had been
allowed to occupy temporarily, Callistratus, despite his mag-
nificent defence (which so impressed Demosthenes that he
resolved to study oratory), was condemned to death, 361 B.C.
He fled to Methone in Macedonia, and on his return to Athens
in 355 he was executed.
See Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. 3, vi. 2; Lycurgus, In Leocr. 93.
CALLOT, JACQUES (1592-1635), French engraver, was born
at Nancy in Lorraine, where his father, Jean Callot, was a herald-
at-arms. He early discovered a very strong predilection for art,
and at the age of twelve quitted home without his father's
consent, and set out for Rome where he intended to prosecute
his studies. Being utterly destitute of funds he joined a troop of
Bohemians, and arrived in their company at Florence. In this
city he had the good fortune to attract the notice of a gentleman
of the court, who supplied him with the means of study; but he
removed in a short time to Rome, where, however, he was
recognized by some relatives, who immediately compelled him
to return home. Two years after this, and when only fourteen
years old, he again left France contrary to the wishes of his
friends, and reached Turin before he was overtaken by his elder
brother, who had been despatched in quest of him. As his
enthusiasm for art remained undiminished after these disappoint-
ments, he was at last allowed to accompany the duke of Lorraine's
envoy to the papal court. His first care was to study the art of
design, of which in a short time he became a perfect master.
Philip Thomasin instructed him in the use of the graver, which,
however, he ultimately abandoned, substituting the point as
better adapted for his purposes. From Rome he went to Florence ,
where he remained till the death of Cosimo II. , the Maecenas of
these times. On returning to his native country he was warmly
received by the then duke of Lorraine, who admired and encour-
aged him. As his fame was now spread abroad in various
countries of Europe, many distinguished persons gave him
commissions to execute. By the Infanta Isabella, sovereign of
the Low Countries, he was commissioned to engrave a design of
the siege of Breda; and at the request of Louis XIII. he designed
the siege of Rochelle and the attack on the Isle of R6. When,
however, in 1631 he was desired by that monarch to execute an
engraving of the siege of Nancy, which he had just taken, Callot
refused, saying, " I would rather cut off my thumb than do
anything against the honour of my prince and of my country ";
to which Louis replied that the duke of Lorraine was happy in
possessing such subjects as Callot. Shortly after this he returned
to his native place, from which the king failed to allure him with
the offer of a handsome pension. He engraved in all about 1600
pieces, the best of which are those executed in aquafortis. No
one ever possessed in a higher degree the talent for grouping a
large number of figures in a small space, and of representing with
two or three bold strokes the expression, action and peculiar
features of each individual. Freedom, variety and naivete*
characterize all his pieces. His Fairs, his Miseries of War, his
Sieges, his Temptation of St Anthony and his Conversion of St
Paul are the best-known of his plates.
See also Edouard Meaume, Recherches sur laviede Jacques Callot
(i860).
CALLOVIAN (from Callovium, the Latinized form of Kellaways,
a village not far from Chippenham in Wiltshire), in geology, the
name introduced by d'Orbigny for the strata which constitute
the base of the Oxfordian or lowermost stage of the Middle
Oolites. The term used by d'Orbigny in 1844 was " Kellovien, ,>
subsequently altered to " Callovien " in 1849; William Smith
wrote "Kellaways" or "Kelloways Stone" towards the close
of the 18th century. In England it is now usual to speak of the
Kellaways Beds; these comprise (1) the Kellaways Rock,
alternating clays and sands with frequent but irregular con-
cretionary calcareous sandstones, with abundant fossils; and
(2) a lower division, the Kellaways Clay, which often contains
much selenite but is poor in fossils. The lithological characters
are impersistent, and the sandy phase encroaches sometimes
more, sometimes less, upon the true Oxford Clay. The rocks
may be traced from Wiltshire into Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire
and Yorkshire, where they are well exposed in the cliffs at
Scarborough and Gristhorpe, at Hackness (90 ft.), Newtondale
(80 ft.) and Kepwick (100 ft.). In Yorkshire, however, the
Callovian rocks lie upon a somewhat higher palaeontological
horizon than in Wiltshire. In England, Kepplerites caUoviensis
is taken as the zone fossil; other common forms are Cosmoceras
modiolare, C. gowerianum, Belemnites oweni, Ancyloceras callo-
viense, Nautilus calloviensis, Avicula ovalis, Gryphaea bilobata, &c.
On the European continent the " Callovien " stage is used in a
sense that is not exactly synonymous with the English Callovian;
it is employed to embrace beds that lie both higher and lower in
the time-scale. Thus, the continental Callovien includes the
following zones: —
Upper Callovien /Zone of Peltoceras athlela, Cosmoceras Duncani,
(Divesien) \ Quenstedtoceras Lamberti and Q. mariae.
(Zone of Reineckia anceps, Stephanoceras coro-
nalum and Cosmoceras jason and a lower
zone of C. gowerianum and Macrocephalites
macrocephalus.
Rocks of Callovian age (according to the continental classifica-
tion) are widely spread in Europe, which, with the exception of
numerous insular masses, was covered by the Callovian Sea. The
largest of these land areas lay over Scandinavia and Finland,
and extended eastward as far as the 40th meridian. In arctic
regions these rocks have been discovered in Spitzbergen, Franz
Josef Land, the east coast of Greenland, and Siberia. They
occur in the Hebrides and Skye and in England as indicated
above. In France they are well exposed on the coast of Calvados
between Trouville and Dives, where the marls and clays are
200 ft. thick. In the Ardennes clays bearing pyrites and oolitic
limonite are about 30 ft. thick. Around Poitiers the Callovian
is 100 ft. thick, but the formation thins in the direction of the
Jura.
Clays and shales with ferruginous oolites represent theCallovian
of Germany; while in Russia the deposits of this age are mainly
argillaceous. In North America Callovian fossils are found in
California; in South America in Bolivia. In Africa they have
been found in Algeria and Morocco, in Somaliland and Zanzibar,
and on the west coast of Madagascar. In India they are
CALM— CALOMEL
59
represented by the shales and limestones of the Chari series of
Cutch. Callovian rocks are also recorded from New Guinea
and the Moluccas.
See Jurassic ; also A. de Lapparent, TraitS de gSologie, vol. ii.
(5th ed. f 1906), and H. B. Woodward, " The Jurassic Rocks of
Britain," Mem. GeoL Survey, vol. v. (J. A. H.)
CALM, an adjective meaning peaceful, quiet; particularly
used of the weather, free from wind or storm, or of the sea,
opposed to rough. The word appears in French calme, through
which it came into English, in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian
calma. Most authorities follow Diez (Etym. Wbyterbuch.der
rotnaniscken Spraehen) in tracing the origin to the Low Latin
cautna, an adaptation of Greek xaQ/jo, burning heat, gaiet?, to burn.
The Portuguese calma has this meaning as well as that of quiet.
The connexion would be heat of the day, rest during that period,
so quiet, rest, peacefulness. The insertion of the /, which in
English pronunciation disappears, is probably due to the Latin
color, heat, with which the word was associated.
CALMET, AKTOINE AUQUSTIN (1672-1757), French Bene-
dictine, was born at Mesnil-la-Horgne on the 26th of February
1672. At the age of seventeen he joined the Benedictine order,
and in 1698 was appointed to teach theology and philosophy at
the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. He was successively prior at Lay,
abbot at Nancy and of S6nones in Lorraine. He died in Paris
on the 25th of October 1757. The erudition of Calmet's exegeti-
cal writings won him a reputation that was not confined to the
Roman Catholic Church, but they have failed to stand the test
of modern scholarship. The most noteworthy are: — Commentoire
dela Bible (Paris, 23 vols., 1707-17 16), and EicHonnairehistorique,
geogropkique, critique, chronologique el littered de la Bible (Paris,
2 vols., 1720). These and numerous other works and editions of
the Bible are known only to students, but as a pioneer in a branch
of Biblical study which received a wide development in the
19th century, Calmet is worthy of remembrance. As a histori-
cal writer he is best known by his Histoire ecclisiastique et
civile de la Lorraine (Nancy, 1728), founded on original research
and various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full list is given
in Vigouroux's Dictiannaire de la Bible.
See A. Digot, Notice biographique et lUUraire sur Dom Augustin
CMme*. (Nancy, i860).
CALNE, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippen-
ham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 99 m. west
of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3457.
Area, 356 acres. It lies in the valley of the Calne, and is sur-
rounded by the high table-land of Salisbury Plain and the
Marlborough Downs. The church of St Mark has a nave with
double aisles, and massive late Norman pillars and arches. The
tower, which fell in 1628, was perhaps rebuilt by Inigo Jones.
Other noteworthy buildings are a grammar school, founded by
John Bentley in 1660, and the town-hall. Bacon-curing is the
staple industry, and there are flour, flax and paper mills. The
manufacture of broadcloth, once of great importance, is almost
extinct. Calne is governed by a mayor, four aldermen and
twelve councillors.
In the 10th century Calne (Canna, Koine) was the site of a
palace of the West-Saxon kings. Calne was the scene of the
synod of 978 when, during the discussion of the question of
celibacy, the floor suddenly gave way beneath the councillors,
leaving Archbishop Dunstan alone standing upon a beam.
Here also a witenagemot was summoned in 997. In the Domes-
day Survey Calne appears as a royal borough; it comprised
forty-seven burgesses and was not assessed in hides. In 1565
the borough possessed a gild merchant, at the head of which
were two gild stewards. Calne claimed to have received a charter
from Stephen and a confirmation of the same from Henry III.,
but no record of these is extant, and the charter actually issued
to the borough by James II. in 1687 apparently never came into
force. The borough returned two members to parliament more
or less irregularly from the first parliament of Edward I. until the
Reform Bill of 1832. From this date the borough returned one
member only until, by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the
privilege was annulled. In 1303 Lodovicus de Bello Monte,
prebendary of Salisbury, obtained a grant of a Saturday market
at the manor of Calne, and a three days' fair at the feast of
St Mary Magdalene; the latter was only abandoned in the 19th
century. Calne was formerly one of the chief centres of cloth
manufacture in the west of England, but the industry is extinct.
CALOMEL, a drug consisting of mercurous chloride, mercury
subchloride, Hg 2 Cl 2 , which occurs in nature as the mineral
horn-quicksilver, found as translucent crystals belonging to the
tetragonal system, with an adamantine lustre, and a dirty white
grey or brownish colour. The chief localities are Idria, Ober-
moschel, Horowitz in Bavaria and Almaden in Spain. It was
used in medicine as early as the 16th century under the names
Draco tnitigalus, Manna metaUorum, A quilo alba f Mercurius dulcis ;
later it became known as calomel, a name probably derived
from the Greek xaX&, beautiful, and /tttXas, black, in allusion
to its blackening by ammonia, or from *ctX6s and juiXt, honey,
from its sweet taste. It may be obtained by heating mercury in
chlorine, or by reducing mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate)
with mercury or sulphurous acid. It is manufactured by heating
a mixture of mercurous sulphate and common salt in iron
retorts, and condensing the sublimed calomel in brick chambers;
In the wet way it is obtained by precipitating a mercurous salt
with hydrochloric acid. Calomel is a white powder which
sublimes at a low red heat; it is insoluble in water, alcohol and
ether. Boiling with stannous chloride solution reduces it to
the metal; digestion with potassium iodide gives mercurous
iodide. Nitric acid oxidizes it to mercuric nitrate, while
potash or soda decomposes it into mercury and oxygen. Long
continued boiling with water gives mercury and mercuric
chloride; dilute hydrochloric acid or solutions of alkaline
chlorides convert it into mercuric chloride on long boiling.
The molecular weight of mercurous chloride has given occasion
for much discussion. E. Mitscherlich determined the vapour
density to be 8-3 (air =* 1) , corresponding to HgCl. The supporters
of the formula Hg 2 Cl 8 pointed out that dissociation into mercury
and mercuric chloride would give this value, since mercury is a
monatomic element. After contradictory evidence as to whether
dissociation did or did not occur, it was finally shown by Victor
Meyer and W. Harris (1894) that a rod moistened with potash
and inserted in the vapour was coloured yellow, and so con-
clusively proved dissociation. A. Werner determined the mole-
cular weights of mercurous, cuprous and silver bromides, iodides
and chlorides in pyridine solution, and obtained results point-
ing to the formula HgCl, etc. However, the double formula,
HgsCU, has been completely established by H. B. Baker (Journ.
Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, p. 646) by vapour density determinations
of the absolutely dry substance.
Calomel possesses certain special properties and uses in
medicine which are dealt with here as a supplement to the
general discussion of the pharmacology and therapeutics of
mercury (q.v.). Calomel exerts remote actions in the form of
mercuric chloride. The specific value of mercurous chloride is
that it exerts the valuable properties of mercuric chloride in the
safest and least irritant manner, as the active salt is continuously
and freshly generated in small quantities. Its pharmacopeial
preparations are the " Black wash," in which calomel and lime
react to form mercurous oxide, a pill still known as " Plummer's
pill " and an ointment. Externally the salt has not any par-
ticular advantage over other mercurial compounds, despite the
existence of the official ointment. Internally the salt is given in
doses — for an adult of from one-half to five grains. It is an
admirable aperient, acting especially on the upper part of the
intestinal canal, and causing a slight increase of intestinal
secretion. The stimulant action occurring high up in the canal
(duodenum and jejunum), it is well to follow a dose of calomel
with a saline purgative a few hours afterwards. The special
value of the drug as an aperient depends on its antiseptic power
and its stimulation of the liver. The stools are dark green,
containing calomel, mercuric sulphide and bile which, owing to
the antiseptic action, has not been decomposed. The salt is often
used in the treatment of syphilis, but is probably less useful than
certain other mercurial compounds. It is also employed for
6o
CALONNE— CALORIMETRY
fumigation; the patient sits naked with a blanket over him, on a
cane-bottomed chair, under which twenty grains of calomel are
volatilized by a spirit-lamp; in about twenty minutes the
calomel is effectually absorbed by the skin.
CAL0NNE 9 CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE (1734-1802), French
statesman, was born at Douai of a good family. He entered the
profession of the law, and became in succession advocate to the
general council of Artois, procureur to the parlement of Douai,
master of requests, then intendant of Metz (1768) and of Lille
(1774). He seems to have been a man of great business capacity,
gay and careless in temperament, and thoroughly unscrupulous
in political action. In the terrible crisis of affairs preceding the
French Revolution, when minister after minister tried in vain
to replenish the exhausted royal treasury and was dismissed for
want of success, Calonne was summoned to take the general
control of affairs. He assumed office on the 3rd of November
1783. He owed the position to Vergennes, who for three years
and a half continued to support him; but the king was not well
disposed towards him, and, according to the testimony of the
Austrian ambassador, his reputation with the public was ex-
tremely poor. In taking office he found " 600 millions to pay
and neither money nor credit." At first he attempted to
develop the latter, and to carry on the government by means of
loans in such a way as to maintain public confidence in its
solvency. In October 1785 he recoined the gold coinage, and he
developed the caisse d 9 escompte. But these measures failing, he
proposed to the king the suppression of internal customs, duties
and the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy. Turgot
and Neckerhad attempted these reforms, and Calonne attributed
their failure to the malevolent criticism of the parlements.
Therefore he had an assembly of " notables " called together in
January 1787. Before it he exposed the deficit in the treasury,
and proposed the establishment of a subvention territorial,
which should be levied on all property without distinction. This
suppression of privileges was badly received by the privileged
notables. Calonne, angered , printed his reports and so alienated
the court. Louis XVI. dismissed him on the 8th of April 1787
and exiled him to Lorraine. The joy was general in Paris, where
Calonne, accused of wishing to augment the imposts, was known
as " Monsieur Deficit. " In reality his audacious plan of reforms,
which Necker took up later, might have saved the monarchy had
it been firmly seconded by the king. Calonne soon afterwards
passed over to England, and during his residence there kept up a
polemical correspondence with Necker on the finances. In 1 789,
when the states-general were about to assemble, he crossed over
to Flanders in the hope of being allowed to offer himself for
election, but he was sternly forbidden to enter France. In
revenge he joined the emigre* party at Coblenz, wrote in their
favour, and expended nearly all the fortune brought him by his
wife, a wealthy widow. In 1 802 , having again taken up his abode
in London, he received permission from Napoleon to return to
France. He died on the 30th of October 1802, about a month
after his arrival in his native country.
See Ch. Gomel, Les Causes financieres de la Revolution (Paris, 1893) ;
R. Stourm, Les Finances de Vancien rigime etdela Revolution (2 vols.,
Paris, 1885) ; Susane, La Tactique financ&re de Calonne, with biblio-
graphy (Paris, 1902).
CALORESCENCE (from the Lat. calor, heat), a term invented
by John Tyndall to describe an optical phenomenon, the essential
feature of which is the conversion of rays belonging to the dark
infra-red portion of the spectrum into the more refrangible visible
rays, i.e. heat rays into rays of light. Such a transformation
had not previously been observed, although the converse pheno-
menon, i.e. the conversion of short waves of light into longer or
less refrangible waves, had been shown by Sir G. G. Stokes to
occur in fluorescent bodies. Tyndall's experiments, however,
were carried out on quite different lines, and have nothing to do
with fluorescence (q.v.). His method was to sift out the long
dark waves which are associated with the short visible waves
constituting the light of the sun or of the electric arc and to
concentrate the former to a focus. If the eye was placed at the
focus, no sensation of light was observed, although small pieces
of charcoal or blackened platinum foil were immediately raised
to incandescence, thus giving rise to visible rays.
The experiment is more easily carried out with the electric
light than with sunlight, as the former contains a smaller pro-
portion of visible rays. According to Tyndall, 90% of the
radiation from the electric arc is non-luminous. The arc being
struck in the usual way between two carbons, a concave mirror,
placed close behind it, caused a large part of the radiation to be
directed through an aperture in the camera and concentrated to
a focus outside. In front of the aperture were placed a plate of
transparent rock-salt, and a flat cell of thin glass containing a
solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide. Both rock-salt and
carbon bisulphide are extremely transparent to the luminous
and also to the infra-red rays The iodine in the solution,,
however, has the property of absorbing the luminous rays, while
transmitting the infra-red rays copiously, so that in sufficient
thicknesses the solution appears nearly black. Owing to the
inflammable nature of carbon bisulphide, the plate of rock-salt
was found to be hardly a sufficient protection, and Tyndall
surrounded the iodine cell with an annular vessel through which
cold water was made to flow. Any small body which was a good
absorber of dark rays was rapidly heated to redness when placed
at the focus. Platinized platinum (platinum foil upon which a
thin film of platinum had been deposited electrolytically) and
charcoal were rendered incandescent, black paper and matches
immediately inflamed, ordinary brown paper pierced and
burned, while thin white blotting-paper, owing to its transparency
to the invisible rays, was scarcely tinged. A simpler arrange-
ment, also employed by Tyndall, is to cause the rays to be re-
flected outwards parallel to one another, and to concentrate them
by means of a small flask, containing the iodine solution and used'
as a lens, placed some distance from the camera. The rock-salt
and cold water circulation can then be dispensed with.
Since the rays used by Tyndall in these experiments are similar
to those emitted by a heated body which is not hot enough to be
luminous, it might be thought that the radiation, say from a hot
kettle, could be concentrated to a focus and employed to render
a small body luminous. It would, however, be impossible by such
means to raise the receiving body to a higher temperature than
the source of radiation. For it is easy to see that if, by means of
lenses of rock-salt or mirrors, we focused all or nearly all the rays
from a small surface on to another surface of equal area, this
would not raise the temperature of the second surface above that
of the first; and we could not obtain a greater concentration of
rays from a large heated surface, since we could not have all parts
of the surface simultaneously in focus. The desired result could
be obtained if it were possible, by reflection or otherwise, to cause
two different rays to unite without loss and pursue a common
path. Such a result must be regarded as impossible of attain-
ment, as it would imply the possibility of heat passing from one
body to another at a higher temperature, contrary to the second
law of thermodynamics (q.v.). Tyndall used the dark rays from
a luminous source, which are emitted in a highly concentrated
form, so that it was possible to obtain a high temperature, which
was, however, much lower than that of the source.
A full account of Tyndall 's experiments will be found in his Heat r
a Mode of Motion. (J . R. C.)
CALORIMETRY, the scientific name for the measurement of
quantities of heat (Lat. calor), to be distinguished from ther-
mometry, which signifies the measurement of temperature. A
calorimeter is any piece of apparatus in which heat is measured.
This distinction of meaning is purely a matter of convention, but
it is very rigidly observed. Quantities of heat may be measured
indirectly in a variety of ways in terms of the different effects of
heat on material substances. The most important of these
effects are (a) rise of temperature, (b) change of state, (c) trans-
formation of energy.
§ 1. The rise of temperature of a body, when heat is imparted
to it, is found to be in general nearly proportional to the quantity
of heat added. The thermal capacity of a body is measured by
the quantity of heat required to raise its temperature one degree,
and is necessarily proportional to the mass of the body for bodies
CALORIMETRY
61
of the same substance under similar conditions. The specific
heat of a substance is sometimes defined as the thermal capacity
of unit mass, but more often as the ratio of the thermal capacity
of unit mass of the substance to that of unit mass of water at
some standard temperature. The two definitions are identical,
provided that the thermal capacity of unit mass of water, at a
standard temperature, is taken as the unit of heat. But the
specific heat of water is often stated in terms of other units. In
any case it is necessary to specify the temperature, and sometimes
also the pressure, since the specific heat of a substance generally
depends to some extent on the external conditions. The methods
of measurement, founded on rise of temperature, may be classed
as thermometric methods, since they depend on the observation of
change of temperature with a thermometer. The most familiar
of these are the method of mixture and the method of cooling.
§ 2. The Method of Mixture consists in imparting the quantity
of heat to be measured to a known mass of water, or some other
standard substance, contained in a vessel or calorimeter of known
thermal capacity, and in observing the rise of temperature pro-
duced, from which data the quantity of heat may be found as
explained in all elementary text-books. This method is the most
generally convenient and most readily applicable of calorimetric
methods, but it is not always the most accurate, for various reasons.
Some heat is generally lost in transferring the heated body to the
calorimeter ; this loss may be minimized by performing the trans-
ference rapidly, but it cannot be accurately calculated or eliminated.
Some heat is lost when the calorimeter is raised above the tempera-
ture of its enclosure, and before the final temperature is reached.
This can be roughly estimated by observing the rate of change of
temperature before and after the experiment, and assuming that the
loss of heat is directly proportional to the duration of the experiment
and to the average excess of temperature. It can be minimized by
making the mixing as rapid as possible, and by using a large calori-
meter, so that the excess of temperature is always small. The latter
method was generally adopted by J. P. Joule; but the rise of tem-
perature is then difficult to measure with accuracy, since it is neces-
sarily reduced in nearly the same proportion as the correction.
There is, however, the advantage that the correction is rendered
much less uncertain by this procedure, since the assumption that
the loss of heat is proportional to the temperature-excess is only
true for small differences of temperature. Rumford proposed to
eliminate this correction by starting with the initial temperature
of the calorimeter as much below that of its enclosure as the final
temperature was expected to be above the same limit. This method
has been very generally recommended, but it is really bad, because,
although it diminishes the absolute magnitude of the correction,
it greatly increases the uncertainty of it and therefore the probable
error of the result. The coefficient of heating of a calorimeter when
it is below the temperature of its surroundings is seldom, if ever, the
same as the coefficient of cooling at the higher temperature, since
the convection currents, which do most of the heating or cooling, are
rarely symmetrical in the two cases, and moreover, the duration
of the two stages is seldom the same. In any case, it is desirable to
diminish the loss of heat as much as possible by polishing the exterior
of the calorimeter to diminish radiation, and by suspending it by
non-conducting supports, inside a polished case, to protect it from
draughts. It is also very important to keep the surrounding condi-
tions as constant as possible throughout the experiment. This may
be secured by using a large water-bath to surround the apparatus,
but in experiments of long duration it is necessary to use an accurate
temperature regulator. The method of lagging the calorimeter with
cotton-wool or other non-conductors, which is often recommended,
diminishes the loss of heat considerably, but renders it very uncertain
and variable, and should never be used in work of precision. The bad
conductors take so long to reach a steady state that the rate of loss
of heat at any moment depends on the past history more than on
the temperature of the calorimeter at the moment. A more serious
objection to the use of lagging of this kind is the danger of its absorb-
ing moisture. The least trace of damp in the lagging, or of moisture
condensed on the surface of the calorimeter, may produce serious
loss of heat by evaporation. This is another objection to Rumford's
method of cooling the calorimeter below the surrounding temperature
before starting. Among minor difficulties of the method may be
mentioned the uncertainty of the thermal capacity of the calorimeter
and stirrer, and of the immersed portion of the thermometer. . This
is generally calculated by assuming values for the specific heats of
the materials obtained by experiment between ioo° C. and 20 C.
Since the specific heats of most metals increase rapidly with rise of
temperature, the values so obtained are generally too high. It is
best to make this correction as small as possible by using a large
calorimeter, so that the mass of water is large in proportion to that
of metal. Analogous difficulties arise in the application of other
calorimetric methods. The accuracy of the work in each case
depends principally on the skill and ingenuity of the experimentalist
in devising methods of eliminating the various sources of error.
The form of apparatus usually adopted for the method of mixtures
is that of Regnault with slight modifications, and figures and des-
criptions are given in all the text-books. Among special methods
which have been subsequently developed there are two which deserve
mention as differing in principle from the common type. These
are (i) the constant temperature method, (2) the continuous flow
method.
The constant temperature method of mixtures was proposed by
N. Hesehus (Jour. Phys., 1888, vii. p. 489). Cold water at a known
Fig. 1.
temperature is added to the calorimeter, immediately after dropping
in the heated substance, at such a rate as to keep the temperature
of the calorimeter constant, thus eliminating the corrections for
the water equivalent of the calorimeter and the external loss of heat.
The calorimeter is surrounded by an air-jacket connected to a
petroleum gauge which indicates any small change of temperature
in the calorimeter, and enables the manipulator to adjust the supply
of cold water to compensate it. The apparatus as arranged by
F. A. Waterman is shown in fig. 1 (Physical Review, 1896, iv. p. 161 j.
A is the calorimetric tube,
B the air-jacket and L
the gauge. H is an electric
heater tor raising the body
to a suitable temperature,
which can swing into place
directly over the calori-
meter. W is a conical can
containing water cooled
by ice I nearly to o°, which
is swung over the calori-
meter as soon as the hot
body has been introduced
and the heater removed.
The cold water flow is
regulated by a tap S with
a long handle O, and its
temperature is taken bya^
delicate thermometer with ^^ r^S
its bulb at G. The method
is interesting, but the
manipulations and obser-
vations involved are more
troublesome than with the
ordinary type of calori-
meter, and it may be
doubted whether any ad-
vantage is gained in
accuracy.
The continuous flow
method is specially applic-
able to the important case
of calorific value of gaseous
fuel, where a large quan-
tity of heat is continu-
ously generated at a
nearly uniform rate by combustion.
Fig. 2,
Fig. 2 illustrates a recent
type of gas calorimeter devised by C. V. Boys (Proc. R.S., 1906,
A. 77, p. 122). The heated products of combustion from the burner
B impinge on a metal box H, through which water is circulating, and
then pass downwards and outwards through a spiral cooler which re-
duces them practically to the atmospheric temperature. A steady
stream of water enters the apparatus by the inflow thermometer O,
62
CALORItyTETRY
flows through the spiral coolers N and M, and finally through the box
H, where it is well mixed before passing the outflow thermometer P.
As soon as a steady state is reached, the difference of temperature
between the outflow and inflow thermometers, multiplied by the
current of water in grammes per minute gives the heat per minute
supplied by combustion. The gas current is simultaneously ob-
served by a suitable meter, which, with subsidiary corrections for
pressure, temperature, &c., gives the necessary data for deducing
calorific value.
A continuous flow calorimeter has been used by the writer for
measuring quantities of heat conveyed by conduction (see Con-
duction of Heat), and also for determining the variation of the
specific heat of water. I n the lat ter case two steady currents of water
at different temperatures, say o° and ioo° are passed through an
equalizer, and the resulting temperature measured without mixing
the currents, which are then separately determined by weighing.
This is a very good method of comparing the mean specific heats
over two ranges of temperature such as 0-50, and 50-100, or 0-20
and 20-40, but it is not so suitable as the electric method described
below for obtaining the actual specific heat at any point of the
range.
§ 3. Method of Cooling. — A common example of this method
is the determination of the specific heat of a liquid by filling a
small calorimeter with the liquid, raising it to a convenient
temperature, and then setting it to cool in an enclosure at a
steady temperature, and observing the time taken to fall through
a given range when the conditions have become fairly steady.
The same calorimeter is afterwards filled with a known liquid,
such as water, and the time of cooling is observed through the
same range of temperature, in the same enclosure, under the
same conditions. The ratio of the times of cooling is equal to the
ratio of the thermal capacities of the calorimeter and its contents
in the two cases. The advantage of the method is that there is
no transference or mixture; the defect is that the whole measure-
ment depends on the assumption that the rate of loss of heat is
the same in the two cases, and that any variation in the con-
ditions, or uncertainty in the rate of loss, produces its full effect
in the result, whereas in the previous case it would only affect a
small correction. Other sources of uncertainty are, that the rate
of loss of heat generally depends to some extent on the rate of
fall of temperature, and that it is difficult to take accurate
observations on a rapidly falling thermometer. As the method
is usually practised, the calorimeter is made very small, and the
surface is highly polished to diminish radiation. It is better to
use a fairly large calorimeter to diminish the rate of cooling and
the uncertainty of the correction for the water equivalent. The
surface of the calorimeter and the enclosure should be perma-
nently blackened so as to increase the loss of heat by radiation as
much as possible, as compared with the losses by convection and
conduction, which are less regular. For accurate work it is
essential that the liquid in the calorimeter should be continuously
stirred, and also in the enclosure, the lid of which must be water-
jacketed, and kept at the same steady temperature as the sides.
When all these precautions are taken, the method loses most of
the simplicity which is its chief advantage. It cannot be satis-
factorily applied to the case of solids or powders, and is much
less generally useful than the method of mixture.
§ 4. Method of Fusion. — The methods depending on change of
state are theoretically the simplest, since they do not necessarily
involve any reference to thermometry, and the corrections for
external loss of heat and for the thermal capacity of the con-
taining vessels can be completely eliminated. They nevertheless
present peculiar difficulties and limitations, which render their
practical application more troublesome and more uncertain than
is usually supposed. They depend on the experimental fact that
the quantity of heat required to produce a given change of state
{e.g. to convert one gramme of ice at o° C. into water at o° C, or
one gramme of water at ioo° C. into steam at ioo° C.) is always
the same, and that there need be no change of temperature during
the process. The difficulties arise in connexion with the deter-
mination of the quantities of ice melted or steam condensed, and
in measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization in terms of
other units for the comparison of observations. The earlier forms
of ice-calorimeter, those of Black, and of Laplace and Lavoisier,
were useless for work of precision, on account of the impossibility
of accurately estimating the quantity of water left adhering to
the ice in each case. This difficulty was overcome by the inven-
tion of the Bunsen calorimeter, in which the quantity of ice
melted is measured by observing the diminution of volume, but
the successful employment of this instrument requires consider-
able skill in manipulation. The sheath of ice surrounding the
bulb must be sufficiently continuous to prevent escape of heat,
but it must not be so solid as to produce risk of strain. The
ideal condition is difficult to secure. In the practical use of the
instrument it is not necessary to know both the latent heat of
fusion of ice and the change of volume which occurs on melting;
it is sufficient to determine the change of volume per calorie, or
the quantity of mercury which is drawn into the bulb of the
apparatus per unit of heat added. This can be determined by a
direct calibration, by inserting a known quantity of water at a
known temperature and observing the contraction, or weighing
the mercury drawn into the apparatus. In order to be inde-
pendent of the accuracy of the thermometer employed for
observing the initial temperature of the water introduced, it
has been usual to employ water at ioo° C, adopting as unit of
heat the " mean calorie/ ' which is one-hundredth part of the heat
given up by one gramme of water in cooling from ioo° to o° C.
The weight of mercury corresponding to the mean calorie has
been determined with considerable care by a number of observers
well skilled in the use of the instrument. The following are some
of their results: — Bunsen, 15-41 mgm.; Velten, 1547 mgm.;
Zakrevski, 15-57 mgm. ; Staub, 1 5 • 26 mgm. The explanation of
these discrepancies in the fundamental constant is not at all
clear, but they may be taken as an illustration of the difficulties
of manipulation attending the use of this instrument, to which
reference has already been made. It is not possible to deduce a
more satisfactory value from the latent heat and the change of
density, because these constants are very difficult to determine.
The following are some of the values deduced by well-known
experimentalists for the latent heat of fusion: — Regnault, 79*06
to 79-24 calories, corrected by Person to 79-43; Person, 79-09
calories; Hess, 80-34 calories; Bunsen, 80-025 calories. Regnault,
Person and Hess employed the method of mixture which is
probably the most accurate for the purpose. Person and Hess
avoided the error of water sticking to the ice by using dry ice at
various temperatures below o° C, and determining the specific
heat of ice as well as the latent heat of fusion. These discrep-
ancies might, no doubt, be partly explained by differences in the
units employed, which are somewhat uncertain, as the specific
heat of water changes rapidly in the neighbourhood of o°C; but
making all due allowance for this, it remains evident that the
method of ice-calorimetry, in spite of its theoretical simplicity,
presents grave difficulties in its practical application.
One of the chief difficulties in the practical use of the Bunsen
calorimeter is the continued and often irregular movement of the
mercury column due to slight differences of temperature, or pressure
between the ice in the calorimeter and the ice
bath in which it is immersed. C. V. Boys
{Phil. Mag., 1887, vol. 24, p. 214) showed that
these effects could be very greatly reduced by
surrounding the calorimeter with an outer tube,
so that the ice inside was separated from the
ice outside by an air space which greatly
reduces the free passage of heat. The present
writer has found that very good results may be
obtained by enclosing the calorimeter in a
vacuum jacket (as illustrated in fig. O, which
practically eliminates conduction and convec-
tion. If the vacuum jacket is silvered inside,
radiation also is reduced to such an extent
that, if the vacuum is really good, the external
ice bath may be dispensed with for the majority
of purposes. If the inner bulb is filled with
mercury instead of water and ice, the same
arrangement answers admirably as a Favre
and Silbermann calorimeter, for measuring
small quantities of heat by the expansion of
the mercury.
The question has been raised by E. L. Nichols {Phys. Rev. vol. 8,
January 1899) whether there may not be different modifications of
ice with different densities, and different values of the latent heat
of fusion. He found for natural pond-ice a density 0*9179 and for
artificial ice 0-9161. T. Vincent {Phil. Trans. A. 198, p. 463) also
found a density -9160 for artificial ice, which is probably very nearly
Fig. 3.
CALGRIMETRY
63
correct. If such variations of density exist, they may introduce
some uncertainty in the absolute values of results obtained with the
ice calorimeter, and may account for some of the discrepancies above
enumerated.
§ 5. The Method of Condensation was first successfully applied
by J. Joly in the construction of his steam calorimeter, a full
description of which will be found in text-books. The body to be
tested is placed in a special scale-pan, suspended by a hne wire
from the arm of a balance inside an enclosure which can be filled
with steam at atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the
enclosure is carefully observed before admitting steam. The
weight of steam condensed on the body gives a means of calculat-
ing the quantity of heat required to raise it from the atmospheric
temperature up to ioo° C. in terms of the latent heat of vaporiza-
tion of steam at ioo° C. There can be no appreciable gain or
loss of heat by radiation, if the admission of the steam is
sufficiently rapid, since the walls of the enclosure are maintained
at ioo° C, very nearly. The thermal capacity of the scale-pan,
&c, can be determined by a separate experiment, or, still better,
eliminated by the differential method of counterpoising with an
exactly similar arrangement on the other arm of the balance.
The method requires very delicate weighing, as one calorie
corresponds. to less than two milligrammes of steam condensed;
but the successful application of the method to the very difficult
problem of measuring the specific heat of a gas at constant
volume, shows that these and other difficulties have been very
skilfully overcome. The application of the method appears to be
practically limited to the measurements of specific heat between
the atmospheric temperature and ioo° C. The results depend on
the value assumed for the latent heat of steam, which Joly takes
as 536.7 calories, following Regnault. Joly has himself deter-
mined the mean specific heat of water between 12 and ioo° C.
by this method, in terms of the latent heat of steam as above
given, and finds the result '9952. Assuming that the mean
specific heat of water between 12 and ioo° is really 10011 in
terms of the calorie at 20° C. (see table, p. 638), the value of the
latent heat of steam at ioo° C, as determined by Joly, would be
540-2 in terms of the same unit. The calorie employed by
Regnault is to some extent uncertain, but the difference is hardly
beyond the probable errors of experiment, since it appears from
the results of recent experiments that Regnault made an error
of the same order in his determination of the specific heat of
water at ioo° C.
§ 6. Energy Methods. — The third general method of calorimetry ,
that based on the transformation of some other kind of energy
into the form of heat, rests on the general principle of the con-
servation of energy, and on the experimental fact that all other
forms of energy are readily and completely convertible into the
form of heat. It is therefore often possible to measure quantities
of heat indirectly, by measuring the energy in some other form
and then converting it into heat. In addition to its great
theoretical interest, this method possesses the advantage of
being frequently the most accurate in practical application, since
energy can be more accurately measured in other forms than in
that of heat. The two most important varieties of the method are
(a) mechanical, and (b) electrical. These methods have reached
their highest development in connexion with the determination of
the mechanical equivalent of heat, but they may be applied with
great advantage in connexion with other problems, such as the
measurement of the variation of specific heat, or of latent heats
of fusion or vaporization.
§ 7. Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. — The phrase " mechanical
equivalent of heat " is somewhat vague, but has been sanctioned
by long usage. It is generally employed to denote the number
of units of mechanical work or energy which, when completely
converted into heat without loss, would be required to produce
one heat unit. The numerical value of the mechanical equivalent
necessarily depends on the particular units of heat and work
employed in the comparison. The British engineer prefers to
state results in terms of foot-pounds of work in any convenient
latitude per pound-degree-Fahrenheit of heat. The continental
engineer prefers kilogrammetres per kilogramme-degree-centi-
. IJ
f
1
grade. For scientific use the C.G.S. system of expression in ergs
per gramme-degree-centigrade, or " calorie," is the most appro-
priate, as being independent of the value of gravity. A more
convenient unit of work or energy, in practice, on account of the
smallness of the erg, is the joule, which is equal to 10-7 ergs, or one
watt-second of electrical energy. On account of its practical
convenience, and its close relation to the international electrical
units, the joule has been recommended by the British Association
for adoption as the absolute unit of heat. Other convenient
practical units of the same kind would be the watt-hour, 3600
joules, which is of the same order of magnitude as the kilo-
calorie, and the kilowatt-hour, which is the ordinary commercial
unit of electrical energy.
§ 8. Joule. — The earlier work of Joule is now chiefly of historical
interest, but his later measurements in 1878, which were undertaken
on a larger scale, adopting G.
A. Hirn's method of measuring
the work expended in terms of
the torque and the number of
revolutions, still possess
value as experimental evidence.
In these experiments(see fie. 4)
the paddles were revolved by
hana at such a speed as to
produce a constant torque on
the calorimeter A, which was
supported on a float w in a
vessel of water v, but was kept
at rest by the couple due to a
pair of equal weights k sus-
pended from fine strings pass-
ing round the circumference of
a horizontal wheel attached to
the calorimeter. Each experi-
ment lasted about forty
minutes, and the rise of tem-
perature produced was nearly
3 C. The calorimeter con-
tained about 5 kilogrammes
of water, so that the rate
of heat-supply was about 6
calories per second. Joule's
final result was 772*55 foot-pounds at Manchester per pound-degree-
Fahrenbeit at a temperature of 62 ° F., but individual experiments
differed by as much as 1 %. This result in C.G.S. measure is equi-
valent to 4*177 joules per calorie at 16*5° C, on the scale of Joule's
mercury thermometer. His thermometers were subsequently cor-
rected to the Paris scale by A. Schuster in 1895, which had the effect
of reducing the above figure to 4*173..
§ 9. Rowland. — About the same time H. A. Rowland (Proc. Amer.
Acad. xv. p. 75, 1880) repeated the experiment, employing the same
method, but using a larger calorimeter (about 8400 grammes) and
a petroleum motor, so as to obtain a greater rate of heating (about
84 calories per second), and to reduce the importance of the un-
certain correction for external loss of heat. Rowland's apparatus
is shown in fig. j>. The calorimeter was suspended by a steel wire,
the torsion of which made the equilibrium stable. Tne torque was
measured by weights O and P suspended by silk ribbons passing
over the pulleys n and round the disk kl. The power was transmitted
to thepaddles by bevel wheels/, 2, rotating a spindle passing through
a stuffing box m the bottom of the calorimeter. The number of
revolutions and the rise of temperature were recorded on a chrono-
graph drum. He paid greater attention to the important question
of thermometry, and extended his researches over a much wider
range of temperature, namely 5 to 35 ° C. His experiments revealed
for the first time a diminution in the specific heat of water with rise
of temperature between o° and 30 C, amounting to four parts in
io-ooo per i°C. His thermometers were compared with a mercury
thermometer standardized in Paris, and with a platinum thermo-
meter standardized by Griffiths. The result was to reduce the co-
efficient of diminution of specific heat at 15 C. by nearly one half,
but the absolute value at 20 C. is practically unchanged. Thus
corrected his values are as follows : —
Temperature . io° 15 20 25 30* 35
Joules per cal. . 4-197 4-188 4-181 4-176 4-175 4-177
These are expressed in terms ot the hydrogen scale, but the difference
from the nitrogen scale is so small as to be within the limits of ex-
perimental error in this particular case. Rowla nd himself considered
his results to be probably correct to one part in 500, and supposed
that the greatest uncertainty lay in the comparison of the scale of
his mercury thermometer with the air thermometer. The subsequent
correction, though not carried out strictly under the conditions of
the experiment, showed that the order of accuracy of his work about
the middle of the ranee from 15 to 25 ° was at least 1 in 1000, and
probably 1 in 2000. At 30 he considered that, owing to the increas-
ing magnitude and uncertainty of the radiation correction, there
Fig. 4.
64
CALORIMETRY
11 might be a small error in the direction of making the equivalent
too great, and that the specific heat might go on decreasing to even
40 C." The results considered with reference to the variation of
*=o
Fig. 5.
the specific heat of water are shown in the curve marked Rowland
in Fig. 6.
§ io. Osborne Reynolds and W.H.Moorby (Phil. 7><w$.,i897, P- 381)
determined' the mechanical equivalent of the mean thermal unit
between o° and ioo° C, on a very large scale, with a Froude- Reynolds
hydraulic brake and a steam-engine of 100 h.p. This brake is practi-
cally a Joule calorimeter, ingeniously designed to churn the water
in such a manner as to develop the greatest possible resistance.
The admission of water at o° C. to the brake was controlled by hand
in such a manner as to keep the outflow nearly at the boiling-point,
the quantity of water in tne 'brake required to produce a constant
torque being regulated automatically, as the speed varied, by a valve
worked by the lifting of the weighted lever attached to the brake.
Fig. 6.
The accompanying illustration (fig. 7) shows the brake lagged with
cotton- wool, and the J.-ft. lever to which the weights are suspended.
The power of the brake may be estimated by comparison with the
size of the rope pulley seen behind it on the same shaft. With
300 pounds on a 4-ft. lever at 300 revolutions per minute, the rate of
generation of heat was about 12 kilo-calories per second. In spite
of the large range of temperature, the correction for external loss
of heat amounted to only 5 %, with the brake uncovered, and was
reduced to less than 2 % by lagging. This is the special advantage
of working on so large a scale with so rapid a generation of heat.
But, for the same reason, the method necessarily presents peculiar
difficulties, which were not overcome without great pains and in-
genuity. The principal troubles arose from damp in the lagging
which necessitated the rejection of several trials, and from dissolved
air in the water, causing loss of heat by the formation of steam.
Next to the radiation loss, the most uncertain correction was that
for conduction of heat along the 4-in. shaft. These losses were as
far as possible eliminated by combining the trials in pairs, with differ-
ent loads on the brake, assuming that the heat-loss would be the same
in the heavy and light trials, provided that the external temperature
and the gradient in the shaft, as estimated from the temperature
of the bearings, were the same. The values deduced in this manner
for the equivalent agreed as closely as could be expected considering
the impossibility of regulating the external condition of temperature
and moisture with any certainty in an engine-room. The extreme
variation of results in any one series was only from 776.63 to 779.46
ft.-pounds, or less than J%. This variation may have been due
to the state of the lagging, which Moorby distrusted in spite of the
great reduction of the heat-loss, or it may have been partly due to
the difficulty of regulating the speed of the engine and the water-
supply to the brake in such a manner as to maintain a constant
temperature in the outflow, and avoid variations in the heat capacity
of the brake. Since hand regulation is necessarily discontinuous,
the speed and the temperature were constantly varying, so that it
was useless to take readings nearer than the tenth of a degree. The
largest variation recorded in the two trials of which full details are
?jiven, was 4-9 F. in two minutes in the outflow temperature, and
our or five revolutions per minute on the speed. These variations, so
far as they were of a purely accidental nature, would be approxi-
mately eliminated on the mean of a large number of trials, so that
the accuracy of the final result would be of a higher order than might
be inferred from a comparison of separate pairs of trials. Great pains
Fig. 7.
were taken to discuss and eliminate all the sources of constant error
which could be foreseen. The results of the light trials with 400 ft.-
pounds on the brake differ slightly from those with 600 ft.-pounds.
This might be merely accidental, or it might indicate some constant
difference in the conditions requiring further investigation. It would
have been desirable, if possible, to have tried the effect of a larger
ranee of variation in the experimental conditions of load and speed,
with a view to detect the existence of constant errors; but owing to
the limitations imposed by the use of a steam-engine, and the
difficulty of securing steady conditions of running, this proved to be
impossible. There can be no doubt, however, that the final result is
the most accurate direct determination of the value of the mean
calorie between o° and ioo° C. in mechanical units. Expressed in
joules per calorie the result is 4-1832, which agrees very closely with
the value found by Rowland as the mean over the range i«j° to 20 C.
The value 4-183 is independently confirmed in a remarkable manner
by the results of the electrical method described below, which give
4*185 joules for the mean calorie, if Rowland's value is assumed as
the starting-point, and taken to be 4*180 joules at 20 C.
§ 11. Electrical Methods. — The value of the international
electrical units has by this time been so accurately determined in
absolute measure that they afford a very good, though indirect,
method of determining the mechanical equivalent of heat. But,
quite apart from this, electrical methods possess the greatest
value for calorimetry, on account of the facility and accuracy of
regulating and measuring the quantity of heat supplied by an
electric current. The frictional generation of heat in a metallic
wire conveying a current can be measured in various ways, which
correspond to slightly different methods. By Ohm's law, and by
the definition of difference of electric pressure or potential, we
obtain the following alternative expressions for the quantity of
heat H in joules generated in a time T seconds by a current of
C amperes flowing in a wire of resistance R ohms, the difference
of potential between the ends of the wire being E = CR volts: —
H = ECT=ORT=E?TIR . . . (1.)
The method corresponding to the expression ORT was adopted
CALDR'IMETRV
65
by Joule and by most of the early experimentalists. The defects
of the earlier work from an electrical point of view lay chiefly in
the difficulty of measuring the current with sufficient accuracy
owing to the imperfect development of the science of electrical
measurement. These difficulties have been removed by the great
advances since 1880, and in particular by the introduction of
accurate standard cells for measurements of electrical pressure.
§ 12. Griffiths.— The method adopted by E. H. Griffiths (Phil.
Trans., 1893, p. 361), whose work threw a great deal of light on the
failure of previous observers to secure consistent results, corre-
sponded to the last expression E*T/R, and consisted in regulating
tne current by a special rheostat, so as to keep the potential difference
E on the terminals of the resistance R balanced against a given
number of standard Clark cells of the Board of Trade pattern. The
resistance R could be deduced from a knowledge of the temperature
of the calorimeter and the coefficient of the wire. But in order to
obtain trustworthy results by this method he found it necessary
to employ very rapid stirring (2000 revolutions per minute), and to
insulate the wire very carefully from the liquid to prevent leakage
of the current. He also made a special experiment to find how much
the temperature of the wire exceeded that of the liquid under the
conditions of the experiment. This correction had been neglected
by previous observers employing similar methods. The resistance
R was about 9 ohms, and the potential difference E was varied from
three to six Clark cells, giving a rate of heat-supply about 2 to 6
watts. The water equivalent of the calorimeter was about 85
grammes, and was determined by varying the quantity of water from
140 to 260 or 280 grammes, so that the final results depended on a
difference in the weight of water of 120 to 140 grammes. The range
of temperature in each experiment was 14 to 26 C. The rate of rise
was observed with a mercury thermometer standardized by com-
parison with a platinum thermometer under the conditions of the
experiment. Trie time of passing each division was recorded on an
electric chronograph. The duration of an experiment varied from
about jo to 70 minutes. Special observations were made to deter-
mine the corrections for the heat supplied by stirring, and that lost
by radiation, each of which amounted to about 10% of the heat-
supply. The calorimeter C, fig. 8, was gilded, and completely
Fig. 8.
surrounded by a nickel-plated steel enclosure B, forming the bulb
of a mercury thermo-regulator, immersed in a large water-bath
maintained at a constant temperature. In spite of the large cor-
rections the results were extremely consistent, and the value of the
temperature-coefficient of the diminution of the specific heat of
water, deduced from the observed variation in the rate of rise at
different points of the range 15 to 25 , agreed with the value subse-
quently deduced from Rowland's experiments over the same range,
when his thermometers were reduced to the same scale. Griffiths 1
final result for the average value of the calorie over this range was
4-192 joules, taking the E.M.F. of the Clark cell at 15 C. to be
1*4342 volts. The difference from Rowland's value, 4*181, could
be explained by supposing the E.M.F. of the Clark cells to have in
reality been 1 -4323 volts, or about 2 millivolts less than the value
assumed. Griffiths subsequently applied the same method to the
measurement of the specific heat of aniline, and the latent heat of
vaporization of benzene and water.
J 15. Schuster and Gannon.- — The method employed by A. Schuster
and W. Gannon for the determination of the specinc heat of water in
terms of the international electric units (Phil. Trans. A, 1895, p. 415)
corresponded to the expression ECT, and differed in many essential
details from that of Griffiths. The current through a platinoid
resistance of about 31 ohms in a calorimeter containing 1500 grammes
of water was regulated so that the potential difference on its ter-
minals was equal to that of twenty Board of Trade Clark Cells in
series. The duration of an experiment was about ten minutes, and
the product of the mean current and the time, ' namely CT, was
measured by the weight of silver deposited in a voltameter, which
amounted to about 0*56 gramme. The uncertainty due to the cor-
rection for the water equivalent was minimized by making it small
(about 27 grammes) in comparison with the water weight. The
correction for external loss was reduced by employing a small rise
of temperature (only 2-22°), and making the rate of heat -supply
relatively rapid, nearly 24 watts. The platinoid coil was insulated
from the water by shellac varnish. The wire had a length of 760 cms. ,
and the potential difference on its terminals was nearly 30 volts. The
rate of stirring adopted was so slow that the heat generated by it
could be neglected. The result found was 4. 191 joules per calorie
at 19 C. This agrees very well with Griffiths considering the
difficulty of measuring so small a rise of temperature at 2 with a
mercury thermometer. Admitting that the electro-chemical equiva-
lent of silver increases with the age of the solution, a fact subse-
quently discovered, and that the E.M.F. of the Clark cell is probably
less than 1*4340 volts (the value assumed by Schuster and uannon),
" ere is no difficulty in reconciling the result with that of Rowland.
§ 14. H. L. Catlendar and H. T. Barnes (Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1897
ill
and 1890) adopted an entirely different method of calorimetry, as well
as a different method of electrical measurement. A steady current
of liquid, Q grammes per second, of specific heat, Js joules per degree,
flowing through a fine tube, A B, fig. 9, is heated by a steady electric
current during its passage through the tube, ancf the difference of
temperature dB between the inflowing and the outflowing liquid is
measured by a single reading with a delicate pair of differential
platinum thermometers at A and B. The difference of potential
E between the ends of the tube, and the electric current C through
it, are measured on an accurately calibrated potentiometer, in terms
of a Clark cell and a standard resistance. If hd$ is the radiation
loss in watts we have the equation,
EC=JsQd$+hde .... (2).
The advantage of this method is that all the conditions are steady,
so that the observations can be pushed to the limit of accuracy and
Fig. 9.
sensitiveness of the apparatus. The water equivalent of the calori-
meter is immaterial, since there is no appreciable change of tem-
perature. The heat-loss can be reduced to a minimum by enclosing
the flow-tube in a hermetically sealed glass vacuum jacket. Stirring
is effected by causing the water to circulate spirally round the bulbs
of the thermometers and the heating conductor as indicated in the
figure. The conditions can be very easily varied through a wide
range. The heat-loss hdd is determined and eliminated by varying
the flow of liquid and the electric current simultaneously, in such
a manner as to secure approximately the same rise of temperature
for two or more widely cliff erent values of the flow of liquid. An
example taken from the Electrician, September 1897, of one of the
earliest experiments by this method on the specific heat of mercury
will make the method clearer. The flow-tube was about 1 metre
long and 1 mil Urn. in diameter, coiled in a short spiral inside tie
vacuum jacket. The outside of the vacuum jacket was immersed
in a water jacket at a steady temperature equal to that of the in*
flowing mercury.
Specific Heat of Mercury by continuous Electric Method
Flow of Hg.
Rise of Temp.
Watts.
Heat-loss.
Specific Heat.
gm./sec.
S'753
4*594
do
1 1 764
12-301
EC
14*862
7.912
hde
0-655
0-685
Per gm. deg.
} -13780 joules
V 03297 cals.
It is assumed as a first approximation that the heat-loss is propor-
tional to the rise of temperature dd t provided that dB is nearly the
same in both cases, and that the distribution of temperature in the
apparatus is the same for the same rise of temperature whatever the
flow of liquid. The result calculated on these assumptions is given
in the last column in joules, and also in calories of 20 C. The heat-
loss in this example is large, nearly 4-5% of the total supply, owing
to the small flow and the large rise of temperature, but this correction
was greatly reduced in subsequent observations on the specinc heat
of water by the same method. In the case of mercury the liquid
itself can be utilized to conduct the electric current. In the case of
water or other Hauids it is necessary to employ a platinum wire
stretched along the tube as heating conductor. This introduces
additional difficulties of construction, but does not otherwise affect
v. 3
66
CALORIMETRY
the method. The absolute value of the specific heat deduced neces-
sarily depends on the absolute values of the electrical standards
employed in the investigation. But for the determination of relative
values of specific heats in terms of a standard liquid, or of the varia-
tions of specific heat of a liquid, the method depends only on the
constancy of the standards, which can be readily and accurately
tested. The absolute value of the E. M .F. of the Clark cells employed
was determined with a special form of electrodynamometer
(Callendar, Phil. Trans. A. 313, p. 81), and found to be 1-4334 volts,
assuming the ohm to be correct. Assuming this value, the result
found by this method for the specific heat of water at 20 C. agrees
with that of Rowland within the probable limits of error.
§ 15. Variation of Specific Heat of Water. — The question of the
variation of the specific heat of water has a peculiar interest and
importance in connexion with the choice of a thermal unit. Many
of the uncertainties in the reduction of older experiments, such as
those of Regnault, arise from uncertainty in regard to the unit in
terms of which they are expressed, which again depends on the scale
of the particular thermometer employed in the investigation. The
first experiments of any value were those of Regnault in 1847 on the
specific heat of water between no° C. and 192 C. They were con*
ducted on a very large scale by the method of mixture, but showed
discrepancies of the order of 0*5 %, and the calculated results in many
cases do not agree with the data. This may be due merely to de-
ficient explanation of details of tabulation. We may probably take
the tabulated values as showing correctly the rate of variation
between uo° and 190 C., but the values in terms of any particular
thermal unit must remain uncertain to at least 0*5% owing to the
uncertainties of the thermometry. Regnault himself adopted the
formula,
js- 1 +0-00004/ +0-OOO0OO9/ 2 (Regnault), (3)
for the specific heat s at any temperature / C. in terms of the specific
heat at o° C. taken as the standard. This formula has since been
very generally applied over the whole range o° to 200 ° C, but the
experiments could not in reality give any information with regard
to the specific heat at temperatures below ioo° C. The linear formula
proposed by J. Bosscha from an independent reduction of Regnault's
experiments is probably within the limits of accuracy between ioo°
and 200 ° C., so far as the mean rate of variation is concerned, but
the absolute values require reduction. It may be written —
*= Jioo + -00023 (/- 100) (Bosscha-Regnault) (4).
The work of L. Pfaundler and H. Platter, of G. A. Hirn, of J. C.
Jamin and Amaury, and of many other experimentalists who suc-
ceeded Regnault, appeared to indicate much larger rates of increase
than he had found, but there can be little doubt that the
discrepancies of their results, which often exceeded 5%, were due
to lack of appreciation of the difficulties of calorimetric measure-
ments. The work of Rowland by the mechanical method was the
first in which due attention was paid to the thermometry and to
the reduction of the results to the absolute scale of temperature.
The agreement of his corrected results with those of Griffiths by
a very different method, left very little doubt with regard to the
rate of diminution of the specific heat of water at 20 C. The work
of A. Bartoli and E. Stracciati by the method of mixture between
o° and 30 C, though their curve is otherwise similar to Rowland's,
had appeared to indicate a minimum at 20° C, followed by a rapid
rise. This lowering of the minimum was probably due to some
constant errors inherent in their method of experiment. The more
recent work of Ludin, 1895, under the direction of Prof. J. Pernet,
extended from o° to ioo° C, and appears to have attained as high
a degree of excellence as it is possible to reach by the employment of
mercury thermometers in conjunction with the method of mixture.
His results, exhibited in fig. 6, show a minimum at 25° C, and a
maximum at 87° C, the values being «9935 and 1-007* respectively
in terms of the mean specific heat between o° and 100* C. He paid
great attention to the thermometry, and the discrepancies ot in-
dividual measurements at any one point nowhere exceed 0-3 %, but
he did not vary the conditions of the experiments materially, and it
does not appear that the well-known constant errors of the method
could have been completely eliminated by the devices which he
adopted. The rapid rise from 25 ° to 75 may be due to radiation
error from the hot water supply, and the subsequent fall of the
curve to the inevitable loss of heat by evaporation of the boiling
water on its way to the calorimeter. It must be observed, however,
that there is another grave difficulty in the accurate determination
of the specific heat of water near 100 C. by this method, namely, that
the quantity actually observed is not the specific heat at the higher
temperature t, but the mean specific heat over the range 18 to /.
The specific heat itself can be deduced only by differentiating the
curve of observation, which greatly increases the uncertainty. The
peculiar advantage of the electric method of Callendar and Barnes,
already referred to, is that the specific heat itself is determined over
a range of 8° to io° at each point, by adding accurately measured
quantities of heat to the water at the desired temperature in an
isothermal enclosure, under perfectly steady conditions, without
any possibility of evaporation or loss of heat in transference. These
experiments, which have been extended by Barnes over the whole
range o° to loo°, agree very well with Rowland and Griffiths in the
rate of variation at 20 C, but show a rather flat minimum of specific
heat in the neighbourhood of 38 ° to 40 ° C. At higher points the rate
of variation is very similar to that of Regnault's curve, t>ut taking the
specific heat at 20 ° as the standard of reference, the actual values
are nearly 0-56% less than Regnault's. It appears probable that
his values for higher temperatures may be adopted with this reduc-
tion, which is further confirmed by the results of Reynolds and
Moorby, and by those of LUdin. According to the electric method,
the whole range of variation of the specific heat between io° and
8o° is only 0-5 %. Comparatively simple formulae, therefore, suffice
for its expression to 1 in 10,000, which is beyond the limits of accuracy
of the observations. It is more convenient in practice to use a few
simple formulae, than to attempt to represent the whole range by a
single complicated expression : —
Below 20 C. 5=0-9982+0-000,0045 (/— 40) 1 — 0*000,0005 (*— 20)*.
From 20 to 6o°, s * 0-9982 +0-000,0045 (t —40)* (5 ) .
( 5 =* 0-9944+ 000-04/ +0-000,0009 ? (Regnault
Above 6o° to 200 i corrd.)
( j* 1-000+0-000,22 (/-60), (Bosscha corrd.)
The addition of the cubic term below 20 is intended to represent
the somewhat more rapid change near the freezing-point. This
effect is probably due, as suggested by Rowland, to the presence of
a certain proportion of ice molecules in the liquid, which is also
no doubt the cause of the anomalous expansion. Above 6o° C.
Regnault's formula is adopted, the absolute values being simply
diminished by a constant quantity 0-0056 to allow for the probable
errors of his thermometry. Above ioo° C, and for approximate
work generally, the simpler formula of Bosscha, similarly corrected,
is probably adequate.
The following table of values, calculated from these formulae,
is taken from the Brit. Assoc. Report, 1899, with a slight modification
Specific Hbat of Water in terms of Unit at 20°C.4-i8o Joules
t°C.
Joules.
s.
//.
Rowland.
0°
4-208
1-0094
K
4-202
1 -0054
5-037
5037
10°
4-191
1-0027
10056
10-058
^l
4.184
I-OOII
15065
15068
20°
4-180
I-OOOO
20068
20-071
2 K
4*177
0-9992
25-065
25067
*>.
4*175
09987
30-060
30057
**.
4-173
0.9983
35-052
35*053
<
4-173
09982
40*044
5°o
4-175
0.9987
50-028
6o°
4-180
I-OOOO
60-020
7°:
4.187
I-0OI6
70-028
8o°
4-194
1-0033
80-052
9°!
4-202
10053
90095
Shaw
100°
4-2II
10074
100-158
Regnault
120°
4231
I -012 1
120-35
120-73
l 4 0*
4-254
I.OI76
140-65
140-88
160
4-280
I -0238
161-07
161-20
180
4309
I O3O8
181-62
182-14
200°
4-341
1-0384
202-33
220°
4376
1-0467
223-20
to allow for the increase in the specific heat below 20 C. This was
estimated in 1899 as being equivalent to the addition of the constant
quantity 0*020 to the values of the total heat h of the liquid as
reckoned by the parabolic formula (j>). This quantity is now, as the
result of further experiments, added to the values of h, and also re-
presented in the formula for the specific heat itself by the cubic term.
The unit of comparison in the following table is taken as the
specific heat of water at 20 C. for the reasons given below* This
unit is taken as being 4-180 joules per gramme-degree-centigrade
on the scale of the platinum thermometer, corrected to the absolute
scale as explained in the article Thermometry, which has been shown
to be practically equivalent to the hydrogen scale. The value 4-180
joules at 20° C. is the mean between Rowland's corrected result
4-181 and the value 4-179, deduced from the experiments of Reynolds
and Moorby on the assumption that the ratio of the mean specific
heat o° to ioo° to that at 20* is 1 *ooi6, as given by the formulae repre-
senting the results of Callendar and Barnes. This would indicate
that Rowland's corrected values should, if anything, be lowered. In
any case the value of the mechanical equivalent is uncertain to at
least 1 in 2000.
The mean specific heat, over any range of temperature, may be
obtained by integrating the formulae between the limits required,
or by taking the difference of the corresponding values of the total
heat h, and dividing by the range of temperature. The quantity
actually observed by Rowland was the total heat. It may be re-
marked that starting from the same value at 5 , for the sake of
comparison, Rowland's values of the total heat agree to 1 in 5000
with those calculated from the formulae. The values of the total
heat observed by Regnault, as reduced by Shaw, also show a very
fair agreement, considering the uncertainty of the units. It must
be admitted that it is desirable to redetermine the variation of the
specific heat above loo° C. This is very difficult on account of the
steam-pressure, and could not easily be accomplished by the electrical
CALORIMETRY
67
method. Callendar has, however, devised a continuous method of
mixture, which appears to be peculiarly adapted to the purpose,
and promises to give more certain results. In any case it may be
remarked that formulae such as those of Jamin, Henrichsen, Baum-
gartner, Winkelmann or Dieterici, which give far more rapid rates
of increase than that of Regnault, cannot possibly be reconciled
with his observations, or with those of Reynolds and Moorby, or
Callendar and Barnes, and are certainly inapplicable above 100 ° C.
§ 16. On the Choice of the Thermal Unit. — So much uncertainty
still prevails on this fundamental point that it cannot be passed
over without reference. There are three possible kinds of unit,
depending on the three fundamental methods already given:
(1) the thermometric unit, or the thermal capacity of unit mass
of a standard substance under given conditions of temperature
and pressure on the scale of a standard thermometer. (2) The
latent-heat unit, or the quantity of heat required to melt or
vaporize unit mass of a standard substance under given conditions.
This unit has the advantage of being independent of thermometry,
but the applicability of these methods is limited to special cases,
and the relation of the units to other units is difficult to determine.
(3) The absolute or mechanical unit, the quantity of heat
equivalent to a given quantity of mechanical or electrical energy.
This can be very accurately realized, but is not so convenient as
( 1) for ordinary purposes.
In any case it is necessary to define a thermometric unit of class
(1). The standard substance must be a liquid. Water is always
selected, although some lees volatile liquid, such as aniline or mercury,
would possess many advantages. With regard to the scale of tern*
perature, there is very general agreement that the absolute scale
as realized by the hydrogen or helium thermometer should be
adopted as the ultimate standard of reference. But as the hydrogen
thermometer is not directly available for the majority of experiments,
it is necessary to use a secondary standard for the practical definition
of the unit. The electrical resistance thermometer of platinum
presents very great advantages for this purpose over the mercury
thermometer in point of reproducibility, accuracy and adaptability
to the practical conditions of experiment. The conditions of use
of a mercury thermometer in a calorimetric experiment are neces-
sarily different from those under which its corrections are determined,
and this difference must inevitably give rise to constant errors in
practical work. The primary consideration in the definition of a
unit is to select that method which permits the highest order of
accuracy in comparison and verification. For this reason the de-
finition of the thermal unit will in the end, probably be referred to
a scale of temperature defined in terms of a standard platinum
thermometer.
There is more diversity of opinion with regard to the question'
of the standard temperature. Many authors, adopting Regnault's
formula, have selected o d C. as the standard temperature, but this
cannot be practically realized in the case of water, and his formula
is certainly erroneous at low temperatures. A favourite tempera-
ture to select is 4° C, the temperature of maximum density, since
at this point the specific heat at constant volume is the same as that
at constant pressure. But this is really of no consequence, since
the specific heat at constant volume cannot be practically realized.
The specific heat at 4 could be accurately determined at the mean
over tne range 0° to 8° keeping the jacket at o° C. But the change
appears to be rather rapid near o°, the temperature is inconveniently
low for ordinary calorimetric work, and the unit at 4 would be so
much larger than the specific heat at ordinary temperatures that
nearly allexperiments would require reduction. The natural point
to select would be that of minimum specific heat, but if this occurs
at 40 C. it would be inconveniently high for practical realization
except by the continuous electrical method. It was proposed by a
committee of the British Association to select the temperature at
which the specific heat was 4-200 joules, leaving the exact tempera-
ture to be subsequently determined. It was supposed at the time,
from the original reduction of Rowland's experiments, that this
would be nearly at io° C, but it now appears that it may be as low
as 5 C., which would be inconvenient. This is really only an
absolute unit in disguise, and evades the essential point., which is
the selection of a standard temperature for the water thermometric
unit. A similar objection applies to selecting the temperature at
which the specific heat is equal to its mean value between o d and
ioo°. The mean calorie cannot be accurately realized in practice
in any simple manner, and is therefore unsuitable, as a standard of
comparison. Its relation to the calorie at any given temperature,
such as 15 or 20°,^ cannot be determined with the same degree of
accuracy as the ratio of the specific heat at 15* to that at 20 , if the
scale of temperature is given. The most practical unit is the
calorie at 15 or 20 or some temperature in the range of ordinary
practice. The temperature most generally favoured is 15 , but 20
would be more suitable for accurate work. These units differ only
by II parts fn 10,000 according to Callendar and Barnes, or by 13
in 10,000 according to Rowland and Griffiths, so that the difference
between them is of no great importance for ordinary purposes.
But for purposes of definition it would be necessary to take the
mean value of the specific heat over a given range of temperature,
preferably at least io 6 , rather than the specific heat at a point which
necessitates reference to some formula of reduction for the rate of
variation. The specific heat at 15 ° would be determined with
reference to the mean over the range io° to 20 , and that at 20
from the range 15 to 25 °. There can be no doubt that the range
io° to 20 is too low for the accurate thermal regulation of the
conditions of the experiment. The range 15 to 25 ° would be much
more convenient from this point of view, and a mean temperature
of 20 is probably nearest the average of accurate calorimetric work.
For instance 20 is the mean of tne range of the experiments of
Griffiths and of Rowland, and is close to that of Schuster and
Gannon. 1 1 is readily attainable at any time in a modern laboratory
with adequate heating arrangements, and is probably on the whole
the most suitable temperature to select.
§ 17. Specific Heat of Gases. — In the case of solids and liquids
under ordinary conditions of pressure, the external work of
expansion is so small that it may generally be neglected; but
with gases or vapours, or with liquids near the critical point, the
external work becomes so large that it is essential to specify the
conditions under which the specific heat is measured. The most
important cases are, the specific heats (1) at constant volume;
(2) at constant pressure; (3) at saturation pressure in the case of
a liquid or vapour. In consequence of the small thermal capacity
of gases and vapours per unit volume at ordinary pressures, the
difficulties of direct measurement are almost insuperable except '
in case (2). Thus the direct experimental evidence is somewhat
meagre and conflicting, but the question of the relation of the
specific heats of gases is one of great interest in connexion with
the kinetic theory and the constitution of the molecule. The
well-known experiments of Regnault and Wiedemann on the
specific heat of gases at constant pressure agree in showing that
the molecular specific heat, or the thermal capacity of the mole-
cular weight in grammes, is approximately independent of the
temperature and pressure in case of the more stable diatomic
gases, such as H^O*, N 2 , CO, &c, and has nearly the same value
for each gasi They also indicate that it is much larger, and
increases considerably with rise of temperature, in the case of
more cbndensible vapours, such as Cl s , Bra, or more complicated
molecules, such as COijNaO, NH*, C2H4. The direct determina-
tion of the specific heat at constant volume is extremely difficult,
but has been successfully attempted by Joly with his steam
calorimeter, in the case of air and C0 2 . Employing pressures
between 7 and 27 atmospheres, he found that the specific heat of
air between io° and roo° C. increased very slightly with increase
of density, but that of C0 2 increased nearly 3 % between 7 and 2 1
atmospheres. The following formulae represent his results for
the specific heat s at constant volume in terms of the density d in
gms. per c. c. . —
Air, 5=01715+0028^,
C0 2 , $ = oi65+o-2i$<f+o-34<P.
5 18. Ratio of Specific Heats. — According to the elementary kinetic
theory of an ideal gas, the molecules of which are so small and so
far apart that their mutual actions may be neglected, the kinetic
energy of translation of the molecules is proportional to the absolute
temperature, and is equal to 3/2 of po % the product of the pressure
and the volume, per unit mass. The expansion per degree at
constant pressure is v/0=*R/p. The external work of expansion
per degree is equal to R, being the product of the pressure and the
expansion, and represents the difference of the specific heats S — s,
at constant pressure and volume, assuming as above that the in-
ternal work of expansion is negligible. If the molecules are supposed
to be like smooth, hard, elastic spheres, incapable of receiving any
other kind of energy except that of translation, the specific heat at
constant volume would be the increase per degree of the kinetic
energy namely 3^/2^ = 3^/2, that at constant pressure would be
5.R/2, and the ratio of the specific heats would be 5/3 or 1 -666. This
appears to be actually the case for monatomic gases such as mercury
vapour (Kundt and Warburg, 1876), argon and helium (Ramsay,
1896). For diatomic or compound gases Clerk Maxwell supposed
that the molecule would also possess energy of rotation, and en-
deavoured to prove that in this case the energy would be etfttaHy
divided between the six degrees of freedom, three of translation
and three of rotation, if the molecule were regarded as a rigid body
incapable of vibration-enerey. In this case we should have s*=$K,
5«4 R, 5/***4/3 * 1-333. * n I &79 Maxwell considered it one of the
greatest difficulties which the kinetic theory had vet encountered,
that in spite of the many, other degrees of freedom of vibration
revealed ny the spectroscope, the experimental value of the ratio
68
CALOVIUS— CALPURNIUS
S/s was I -40 for so many gases, instead of being less than 4/3. Some-
what later L. Boltzmann suggested that a diatomic molecule regarded
as a rigid dumb-bell or ngure of rotation, might have only five
effective degrees of freedom, since the energy of rotation about the
axis of symmetry could not be altered by collisions between the
molecules. The theoretical value of the ratio S/s in this case would
be the required 7/5. For a rigid molecule on this theory the smallest
value possible would be 4/3. Since much smaller values are found
for more complex molecules, we may suppose that, in these cases,
the energy 0/ rotation of a polyatomic molecule may be greater
than its energy of translation, or else that heat is expended in
splitting up molecular aggregates, and increasing energy of vibration.
A hypothesis doubtfully attributed to Maxwell is that each addi-
tional atom in the molecule is equivalent to two extra degrees of
freedom. From an m-atomic molecule we should then have
5/5 = 1 +2/(2m+i). This gives a series of ratios 5/3, 7/5, 9/7, 11/9,
&c M for 1, 2, 3, 4, &c, atoms in the molecule, values which fall
within the limits of experimental error in many cases. It is not at
all clear, however, that energy of vibration should bear a constant
ratio to that of translation, although this would probably be the
case for rotation. For the simpler gases, which are highly dia-
thermanous and radiate badly even at high temperature, the energy
of vibration is probably very small, except under the special con-
ditions which produce luminosity in flames and electric discharges.
For such gases, assuming a constant ratio of rotation to translation,
the specific heat at low pressures would be very nearly constant.
For more complex molecules the radiative and absorptive powers
are known to be much greater. The energy of vibration may be
appreciable at ordinary temperatures, and would probably increase
more rapidly than that of translation with rise of temperature,
especially near a point of dissociation. This would account for
an increase of S, and a diminution of the ratio S/s, with rise of
temperature which apparently occurs in many vapours. The ex-
perimental evidence, however, is somewhat conflicting, and further
investigations are very desirable on the variation of specific heat
with temperature. Given the specific heat as a function of the
temperature, its variation with pressure may be determined from
the characteristic equation of the gas. The direct methods of
measuring the ratio 0/5, by the velocity of sound and by adiabatic
expansion, are sufficiently described in many text-books.
§ 19. Atomic and Molecular Heats. — The ideal atomic heat is the
thermal capacity of a gramme-atom in the ideal state of monatomic
gas at constant volume. This would be nearly three calories. For
a diatomic gas, the molecular heat would be nearly five calories,
or the atomic heat of a gas in the diatomic state would be 2-5. Esti-
mated at constant pressure the atomic heat would be 3-5. Some
authors adopt 2*5 and some 3*5 for the ideal atomic neat. The
atomic heat of a metal in the solid state is in most cases larger than
six calories at ordinary temperatures. Considering the wide varia-
tions in the physical condition and melting points, the comparatively
close agreement of the atomic heats of the metals at ordinary tem-
peratures, known as Dulong and Petit's Law, is very remarkable.
The specific heats as a rule increase with rise of temperature, in some
cases, e.g. iron and nickel, very rapidly. According to W. A. Tilden
(Phil. Trans. , 1900), the atomic heats of pure nickel and cobalt, as
they would reach the value 2-42
value of the minimum of atomic heat calculated by Perry from
diatomic hydrogen, but the observations themselves might be
equally well represented by taking the imaginary limit 3, since the
quantity actually observed is the mean specific heat between o° and
— i82'5°C. Subsequent experiments on other metals at low tem-
peratures did not indicate a similar diminution of specific heat, so
that it may be doubted whether the atomic heats really approach
the ideal value at the absolute zero. No doubt there must be
approximate relations between the atomic and molecular heats of
similar elements and compounds, but considering the great variations
of specific heat with temperature and physical state, in alloys,
mixtures or solutions, and in allotropic or other modifications, it
would be idle to expect that the specific heat of a compound could
be accurately deduced by any simple additive process from that of
its constituents.
Authorities. — Joule's Scientific Papers (London, 1890); Ames
and Griffiths, Reports to the International Congress (Paris, 1900),
41 On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat," and " On the Specific
Heat of Water M ; Griffiths, Thermal Measurement of Energy (Cam-
bridge, 1901); Callendar and Barnes, Phil. Trans. A, 1901, " On
the variation of the Specific Heat of Water " ; for combustion
methods, see article Thermochemistry, and treatises by Thomsen,
Pattison-Muir and Berthclot; see also articles Thermodynamics
and Vaporization. (H. L. C.)
CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM (16 12-1686), German Lutheran
divine, was bom at Mohrungen in east Prussia, on the 16th of
April 161 2. After studying at Konigsberg, in 1650 he was
appointed professor of theology at Wittenberg, where he after*
wards became general superintendent and primarius. He died
on the 2 5th of February 1686. Calovius was the most noteworthy
of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17 th century.
He strongly opposed the Catholics, Calvinists and Socinians,
attacked in particular the reconciliation policy or " syncretism "
of Georg Calixtus (cf. the Consensus repetitus fidei vert lutheranae,
1665), and as a writer of polemics he had few equals. His chief
dogmatic work, Sy sterna locorum theologicorum (12 vols. 1655-
1677), represents the climax of Lutheran scholasticism. In his
Biblia Illuslrata (4 vols.), written from the point of view of a
very strict belief in inspiration, his object is to refute the state-
ments made by Hugo Grotius in his Commentaries. His His tor ia
Syncretislica (1682) was suppressed.
CALPURNIUS, TITUS, Roman bucolic poet, surnamed Siculus
from his birthplace or from his imitation of the style of the
Sicilian Theocritus, most probably flourished during the reign of
Nero. Eleven eclogues have been handed down to us under his
name, of which the last four, from metrical considerations and
express MS. testimony, are now generally attributed to Nemesi-
anus (q.v.)> who lived in the time of the emperor Cams and his
sons (latter half of the 3rd century A.D.). Hardly anything is
known of the life of Calpurnius; we gather from the poems
themselves (in which he is obviously represented by " Corydon ")
that he was in poor circumstances and was on the point of
emigrating to Spain, when " Meliboeus " came to his aid.
Through his influence Calpurnius apparently secured a post at
Rome. The time at which Calpurnius lived has been much
discussed, but all the indications seem to point to the time of Nero.
The emperor is described as a handsome youth, like Mars and
Apollo, whose accession marks the beginning of a new golden age,
prognosticated by the appearance of a comet, doubtless the same
that appeared some time before the death of Claudius; he
exhibits splendid games in the amphitheatre (probably the
wooden amphitheatre erected by Nero in 57) ; and in the words
maternis causam qui vicit Iulis 1 (i. 45),
there is a reference to the speech delivered in Greek by Nero on
behalf of the Ilienses (Suetonius, Nero, 7; Tacitus, Annals, xii.
58), from whom the Julii derived their family.* Meliboeus, the
poet's patron, has been variously identified with Columella,
Seneca the philosopher, and C. Calpurnius Piso. Although the
sphere of Meliboeus's literary activity (as indicated in iv. 53)
suits none of these, what is known of Calpurnius Piso fits in well
with what is said of Meliboeus by the poet, who speaks of his
generosity, his intimacy with the emperor, and his interest in
tragic poetry. His claim is further supported by the poem De
Laude Pisonis (ed. C. F. Weber, 1859) which has come down to us
without the name of the author, but which there is considerable
reason for attributing to Calpurnius. 8 The poem exhibits a
striking similarity with the eclogues in metre, language and
subject-matter. The author of the Laus is young, of respectable
family and desirous of gaining the favour of Piso as his Maecenas.
Further, the similarity between the two names can hardly be
accidental; it is suggested that the poet may have been adopted
by the courtier, or that he was the son of a freedman of Piso.
The attitude of the author of the Laus towards the subject of the
panegyric seems to show less intimacy than the relations between
Corydon and Meliboeus in the eclogues, and there is internal
evidence that the Laus was written during the reign of Claudius
(Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Rom. Lit. § 306, 6).
Mention may here be made of the fragments of two short
hexameter poems in an Einsiedeln MS., obviously belonging to
the time of Nero, which if not written by Calpurnius, were
imitated from him.
1 Iulis for in ulnis according to the best MS. tradition.
* According to Dr R. Garnett (and Mr Greswell, as stated in
Conington's Virgil, i. p. 123, note) the emperor referred to is the
younger Gordian (a.d. 238). His arguments in favour of this will
be found in the article on Calpurnius by him in the 9th edition of
the Encyclopaedia Sritannica and in the Journal of Philology, xvi.,
1888; see in answer J. P. Postgate, "The Comet of Calpurnius
Siculus " in Classical Review, June 1902. Dean Merivale (Hist, of the
Romans under the Empire, ch. 60) and Pompei, " Intorno ai Tempo
del Poeta Calpurnio " in Atti del Istituto Veneto, v. 6 (1880), identify
the amphitheatre with the Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) and
assign Calpurnius to the reign of Domitian.
•It has been variously ascribed to Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Statius
and Saleius Bassus.
CALTAGIRONE— CALVART
69
Although there is nothing original in Calpurnius, he is " a
skilful literary craftsman." Of his models the chief is Virgil, of
whom (under the name of Tityrus) he speaks with great en-
thusiasm; he is also indebted to Ovid and Theocritus. Cal-
purnius is " a fair scholar, and an apt courtier, and not devoid of
real poetical feeling. The bastard style of pastoral cultivated by
him, in which the description of nature is made the writer's
pretext, while ingenious flattery is his real purpose, nevertheless
excludes genuine pleasure, and consequently genuine poetical
achievement. He may be fairly compared to the minor poets of
the reign of Anne " (Garnett).
Calpurnius was first printed in 1471, together with Silius Italic us
and has been frequently republished, generally with Gratius
Faliscus and Nemesianus. The separate authorship of the eclogues
of Calpurnius and Nemesianus was established by M. Haujpt's De
Carminibus bucolicis Calpurnii et Nemesiani (1854). Editions by
H. Schenkl (1885), with full introduction and index verborum, and by
C. H. Keene (1&87), with introduction, commentary and appendix.
English verse translation by E. J» L. Scott (1891) ; see H. E. Butler,
Post-Augustan Poetry (Oxford, 1909), pp. 150 foil., and F. Skutsch
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, lii. 1 (1897). (J. H. F.)
CALTAGIRONE, a city and episcopal see of the province of
Catania, Sicily, situated 1999 ft. above sea-level, 36 m. S.W.
of Catania direct (55 m. by rail). Pop. (1881) 25,978; (1901)
town 35,116; commune 45,956. It is well built, and is said to be
the most civilized provincial town in Sicily. Extensive Sicel
cemeteries have been explored to the north of the town (Not.
Scavi, 1904, 65), and a Greek necropolis of the 6th and 5th
centuries B.C. has been found to the south-east (ibid. 132).
Remains of buildings of Roman date have also been discovered;
but the name of the ancient city which stood here is unknown.
The present name is a corruption of the Saracen Kalat-al-Girche
(the castle of Girche, the chieftain who fortified it).
CALTANISETTA, a town and episcopal see of Sicily, the
capital of a province of the same name, 60 m. S.E. of Palermo
direct and 83 m. by rail, situated 1930 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 43,303. The town is of Saracenic origin, as its name
Kalat-al-Nisa, the " Ladies' Castle," indicates, and some ruins
of the old castle (called Pietrarossa) still exist. Otherwise the
town contains no buildings of artistic or historical interest, but it
commands striking views. It is the centre of the Sicilian sulphur
industry and the seat of a royal school of mines. Two miles east
is the interesting Norman abbey of S. Spirito.
CALTROP (from the Mid. Eng.calketrappe, probably derived
from the Lat. calx, a heel, and trappa. Late Lat. for a snare), an
iron ball, used as an obstacle against cavalry, with four spikes so
arranged, that however placed in or on the ground, one spike
always points upwards. It is also the botanical name for several
species of thistles.
CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE, a town of eastern France, in the
department of Rhone, i\ m. N. by E. of Lyons by rail. Pop.
(1006) 9255. It has manufactures of coarse earthenware and
hard- ware, copper arid bronze foundries and nursery-gardens.
CALUMET (Norm. Fr. form of chalutnet, from Lat. calamus, a
reed), the name given by the French in Canada to the " peace-
pipe " of the American Indians. This pipe occupied among the
tribes a position of peculiar symbolic significance, and was the
object of profound veneration. It was smoked on all ceremonial
occasions, even on declarations of war, but its special use was at
the making of treaties of peace. It was usually about i\ ft. long,
and in the west the bowl was made of red pipestone (catlinite), a
fine-grained, easily-worked stone of a rich red colour found
chiefly in the C6teau des Prairies west of Big Stone Lake, Dakota.
The quarries were formerly neutral ground among the warring
Indian tribes, many sacred traditions being associated with the
locality and its product (Longfellow, Hiawatha, L). The pipe
stem was of reed decorated with eagles' quills or women's hair.
Native tobacco mixed with willow-bark or sumac leaves was
smoked. The pipe was offered as a supreme proof of hospitality
to distinguished strangers, and its refusal was regarded as a
grievous affront. In the east and south-east, the bowl was of
white stone, sometimes pierced with several stem holes so that
many persons might smoke at once.
See Joseph D. Macguire (exhaustive report,64o pages), " Pipes and
Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines" in Smithsonian Report
(American Bureau of Ethnology) for 1897, vol. i. ; and authorities
quoted in Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
CALUMPIT, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, at the junction of the Quingua river with the
Rio Grande de la Pampanga, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila.
Pop. (1903) 13,897. It is served by the Manila & Dagupan
railway, and the bridge across the Rio Grande is one of the
longest in the Philippines. The surrounding country is a fertile
plain, producing large quantities of rice, as well as sugar, Indian
corn and a variety of fruits. Calumpit has a large rice-mill
and one of the largest markets in the PhiliDpines. The bridge,
convent and church of the town were fired and completely
destroyed by insurgent troops in 1 899. The language is Tagalog.
CALVADOS, a department of north-western France, formed
in 1790 out of Bessin, Cinglais, HiSmois, Bocage, the Campagne
de Caen, Auge and the western part of Lieuvin. Pop. (1906)
403,431. Area, 2197 sq. m. It received its name from a ledge
of rocks, stretching along the coast for a distance of about 15 m.
between the mouths of the rivers Orne and Vire. It is bounded N.
by the English Channel, E. by the department of Eure, S. by that
of Orne, W. by that of Manche. The Bocage, or south-western
part of the department, is elevated, being crossed from south-east
to north-west by the hills of Normandy, the highest of which is
1 197 ft. ; the rest of the surface is gently undulating, and consists
of extensive valleys watered by numerous streams which fall into
the English Channel. The coast, formed by cliffs, sandy beaches
or reefs, is generally inaccessible, except at the mouths of the
principal rivers, such as the Touques, the Dives, the Orne and
the Vire, which are navigable at high tide for several miles inland.
Trouville is the chief of the numerous coast resorts. The climate,
though humid and variable, is healthy. The raising of cattle,
sheep and horses is the mainstay of the agriculture of the de-
partment. Pasture is good and abundant in the east and north-
west, and there is a large export trade in the butter, eggs and
cheese (Camembert, Livarot, Pont l'Ev£que) of these districts,
carried on by Honfleur, Isigny and other ports. The plain of
Caen is a great centre for horse breeding. Wheat, oats, barley,
colza and potatoes are the chief crops. The orchards of Auge
and Bessin produce a superior kind of cider, of which upwards of
40,000,000 gallons are made in the department; a large quantity
of cider brandy (eau-de-vie de Calvados) is distilled. Poultry
to a considerable amount is sent to the Paris markets, and there
is a large output of honey and wax. The spinning and weaving
of wool and cotton are the chief industries. Besides these,
paper-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, shipbuilding yards,
rope-works, dye-works, distilleries and bleach-fields, scattered
throughout the department, give employment to a number of
hands. There are productive iron-mines and building-stone,
slate and lime are plentiful. Fisheries, chiefly of lobster, oyster
(Courseulles) , herring andmackerel, are prosecuted. Coal, timber,
grain, salt-fish and cement are among the imports; exports
include iron, dairy products and sand. Caen and Honfleur are
the most important commercial ports. There is a canal 9 m. in
length from Caen to Ouistreham on the coast. The department
is served by the Ouest-fitat railway. It is divided into the six
arrondissements (38 cantons, 763 communes) of Caen, Falaise,
Bayeux, Vire, Lisieux and Pont l'EvSque. Caen, the capital, is the
seat of a court of appeal and the centre of an acadimie (educa-
tional division). TTie department forms the diocese of Bayeux,
in the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, and belongs to the region
of the III. army-corps. The other principal towns are Falaise,
Lisieux, Cond6-sur-Noireau, Vire, Honfleur and Trouville (q.v.).
Amongst the great number of medieval churches which
the department possesses,, the fine Gothic church of St. Pierre-
sur-Dives is second in importance only to those of Lisieux and
Bayeux; that of Norrey, a good example of the Norman-Gothic
style, and that of Tour-en-Bessin, in which Romanesque and
Gothic architecture are mingled, are of great interest. Fontaine-
Henri has a fine chateau of the 15th and 16th centuries.
CALVART, DENIS (1 540-1619), Flemish painter, was born at
Antwerp. After studying landscape-painting for some time in
70
CALVARY— CALVI
his native city he went to Bologna, where he perfected himself in
the anatomy of the human form under Prospero Fontana, and so
completely lost the mannerism of Flemish art that his paintings
appear to be the work of an Italian. From Bologna he went to
Rome, where he assisted Lorenzo Sabbatini (1533-15 7 7) in his
works for the papal palace, and devoted much of his time to
copying and studying the works of Raphael. He ultimately
returned to Bologna and founded a school, of which the greatest
ornaments are Guido and Domenichino. His works are especially
admired for the power of grouping and colouring which they
display.
CALVARY, the conventional English rendering of the cdlvaria
of the Vulgate, the Latin version of the Greek Kpaviov, both
meaning " skull " and representing the Hebrew Golgotha, the
name given to the scene of Christ's crucifixion. The term " a
Calvary " is applied to a sculptured representation of the
Crucifixion, either inside a church, or adjoining one in the open
air. There are many examples of the latter in France, Italy
and Spain. Among the most important are the Sacro Monte
(i486) at Varallo in Piedmont, and those at Guimiliau (1581),
Plougastel (1602), St Thegonnec (16 10), and Pleyben near
Quimper (1670), in Brittany, all in good preservation.
CALV& EMMA (1864- )> Spanish operatic soprano, was
born at Madrid, and trained in Paris, making her first important
appearance in opera at Brussels in 1882. She sang mainly in
Paris for some years, but in 1892 was first engaged at Covent
Garden, London, and at once became famous as the most vivid
Carmen (in Bizet's opera) of the day.
CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART (1831-1884), English poet
and wit, and the literary father of what may be called the
university school of humour, was born at Martley in Worcester-
shire on the 2 2nd of December 1 83 1 . His father, the Rev. Henry
Blayds, resumed in 1852 the old family name of Calverley, which
his grandfather had exchanged for Blayds in 1807. It was as
Charles Stuart Blayds that most of the son's university distinc-
tions were attained. He went up to Balliol from Harrow in 1850,
and was soon known in Oxford as the most daring and most
high-spirited undergraduate of his time. He was a universal
favourite, a delightful companion, a brilliant scholar and the
playful enemy of all " dons." In 1851 he won the Chancellor's
prize for Latin verse, and it is said that the entire exercise was
written in an afternoon, when his friends had locked him into his
rooms, declining to let him out till he had finished what they were
confident would prove the prize poem. A year later he took his
name off the books, to avoid the consequences of a college
escapade, and migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge. Here he
was again successful in Latin verse, and remains the unique
example of an undergraduate who has won the Chancellor's prize
at both universities. In 1856 he took second place in the first
class in the Classical Tripos. He was elected fellow of Christ's
(1858), published Verses and Translations in 1862, and was called
to the bar in 1865. Owing to an accident while skating he was
prevented from following up a professional career, and during
the last years of his life he was an invalid. His Translations into
English and Latin appeared in 1866; his Theocritus translated into
English Verse in 1869; Fly Leaves in 1872; and Literary Remains
in 1885. He died on the 17th of February 1884. Calverley was
one of the most brilliant men of his day; and, had he enjoyed
health, might have achieved distinction in any career he chose.
Constitutionally indolent, he was endowed with singular gifts in
every department of culture; he was a scholar, a musician, an
athlete and a brilliant talker. What is left us marks only a small
portion of his talent, but his sparkling, dancing verses, which have
had many clever imitators, are still without a rival in their own
line. His humour was illumined by good nature; his satire was
keen but kind; his laughter was of that human sort which is often
on the verge of tears. Imbued with the classical spirit, he intro-
duced into the making of light verse the polish and elegance of the
great masters, and even in its most whimsical mood his verse is
raised to the level of poetry by the saving excellence of style.
His Complete Works,* with a biographical notice by Sir W. J.
Sendall, appeared in 190 1. (A. Wa.)
CALVERT, the name of three English artists: Charles (1785-
1852), a well-known landscape-painter; Edward (1803-1883),
an important wood-engraver and follower of Blake; and
Frederick, an excellent topographical draughtsman, whose
work in water-colour is represented at the Victoria and Albert
Museum, and who published a volume of Picturesque Views in
Staffordshire and Shropshire (1830).
CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE (1810-1873), English chemist,
was born in London on the 14th of November 1 819. From about
1836 till 1846 he lived in France, where, after a course of study at
Paris, he became manager of some chemical works, later acting as
assistant to M. E. Chevreul. On his return to England he settled
in Manchester as a consulting chemist, and was appointed
professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution in that city.
Devoting himself almost entirely to industrial chemistry, he
gave much attention to the manufacture of coal-tar products,
and particularly carbolic acid, for the production of which he
established large works in Manchester in 1865. Besides con-
tributing extensively to the English and French scientific
journals, he published a work on Dyeing and Calico-Printing.
He died in Manchester on the 24th of October 1873.
CALVERT, SIR HARRY, Bart. (c. 1763-1826), British general,
was probably born early in 1 763 at Hampton, near London. He
was educated at Harrow, and at the age of fifteen entered the
army. In the following year he served with his regiment in
America, being present at the siege of Charleston, and serving
through the campaign of Lord Cornwallis which ended with the
surrender of Yorktown. From 1 781 to 1 783 he was a prisoner of
war. Returning to England in 1784, he next saw active service
in 1 793-1 794 in the Low Countries, where he was aide-de-camp to
the duke of York, and in 1795 was engaged on a confidential
mission to Brunswick and Berlin. In 1 799, having already served
as deputy adjutant general, he was made adjutant general,
holding the post till 18 18. In this capacity he effected many
improvements in the organization and discipline of the service.
He greatly improved the administration of the army medical and
hospital department, introduced regimental schools, developed
the two existing military colleges (since united at Sandhurst), and
was largely responsible for the founding of the Duke of York's
school, Chelsea. In recognition of his work as adjutant general
he was made a G.C.B. (1815), and, °& retiring from office, received
a baronetcy (1818). In 1820 he was made governor of Chelsea
hospital. He died on the 3rd of September 1826, at Middle
Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
CALVES' HEAD CLUB, a club established shortly after his
death in derision of the memory of Charles I. Its chief meeting
was held on the 30th of each January, the anniversary of the
king's execution, when the dishes served were a cod's head to
represent the individual, Charles Stuart; a pike representing
tyranny; a boar's head representing the king preying on his
subjects; and calves' heads representing Charles as king and his
adherents. On the table an axe held the place of honour. After
the banquet a copy of the king's Ikon Basilike was burnt, and
the toast was " To those worthy patriots who killed the tyrant."
After the Restoration the club met secretly. The first mention
of it is in a tract reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany entitled
" The Secret History of the Calves' Head Club." The club
survived till 1734, when the diners were mobbed owing to the
popular ill-feeling which their outrages on good taste provoked,
and the riot which ensued put a final stop to the meetings.
CALVI, a sea-port in Corsica, capital of an arrondissement in.
the N.W. of the island, 112 m. N. of Ajaccio by road. Pop.
(1906) 1967. It is situated on the Bay of Calvi, in a malarial
region, and is the port in Corsica nearest to France, being 109 m.
from Antibes; the harbour, however, is exposed to the east and
north-east winds. The modern town lies at the foot of a rock, on
which stands the old town with its steep rock-paved streets and
fortified walls, commanded by the Fort Muzello. Fishing is,
carried on, and timber, oil, wine, lemons and other sub-tropical
fruits are exported to some extent. The most importan t buildings
are the old palace of the Genoese governor, used as barracks, and
the church (16th century), with the monument of the Baglioni
CALVIN
71
family, which was intimately associated with the history of the
town.
Calvi was founded in the 13th century and in 1278 passed into
the hands of the Genoese. From that date it was remarkable for
its adherence to their side, especially in 1553 when it repulsed two
attacks of the united forces of the French and Turks. In recognii
tion thereof the Genoese senate caused the words Civitas Calvi
semper fidelis to be carved on the chief gate of the city, which still
preserves the inscription. In 1794 Calvi was captured by the
English, but it was retaken by the Corsicans in the following
year.
CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564), Swiss divine and reformer, was
born at Noyon, in Picardy, on the 10th of July 1 509. His father,
Gerard Cauvin or Calvin, 1 was a notary-apostolic and procurator-
fiscal for the lordship of Noyon, besides holding certain ecclesi-
astical offices in connexion with that diocese. The name of his
mother was Jeanne le Franc; she was the daughter of an inn-
keeper at Cambrai, who afterwards came to reside at Noyon.
Ggrard Cauvin was esteemed as a man of considerable sagacity
and prudence, and his wife was a godly and attractive lady. She
bore him five sons, of whom John was the second. By a second
wife there were two daughters.
Of Calvin's early years only a few notices remain. His father
destined him from the first for an ecclesiastical career, and paid
for his education in the household of the noble family of Hangest
de Montmor. In May 152 1 he was appointed to a chaplaincy
attached to the altar of La Gesine in the cathedral of Noyon, and
received the tonsure. The actual duties of the office were in such
cases carried out by ordained and older men for a fraction of the
stipend. The plague having visited Noyon, the young Hangests
were sent to Paris in August 1523, and Calvin accompanied them,
being enabled to do so by the income received from his benefice.
He lived with his uncle and attended as an out-student the
College de la Marche, at that time under the regency of Mathurin
Cordier, a man of character, learning and repute as a teacher,
who in later days followed his pupil to Switzerland, taught at
Neuchitel, and died in Geneva in 1 564. In dedicating to him his
Commentary on the First Epistle to the Thessalonians, as " eximiae
pietatis et doctrinae viro," he declares that so had he been aided
by his instruction that whatever subsequent progress he had made
he only regarded as received from him, and " this," he adds, " I
wish to testify to posterity that if any utility accrue to any from
my writings they may acknowledge it as having in part flowed
from thee." From the College de la Marche he removed to the
College de Montaigu, 1 where the atmosphere was more ecclesi-
astical and where he had for instructor a Spaniard who is
described as a man of learning and to whom Calvin was indebted
for some sound training in dialectics and the scholastic philosophy.
He speedily outstripped all his competitors in grammatical
studies, and by his skill and acumen as a student of philosophy,
and in the college disputations gave fruitful promise of that
consummate excellence as a reasoner in the department of
speculative truth which he afterwards displayed. Among his
friends were the Hangests (especially Claude), Nicolas and
Michel Cop, sons of the king's Swiss physician, and his own
kinsman Pierre Robert, better known as OHve'tan. Such friend-
ships testify both to the worth and the attractiveness of his
character, and contradict the old legend that he was an unsociable
misanthrope. Pleased with his success, the canons at Noyon
gave him the curacy of St Martin de Marteville in September
1527. After holding this preferment for nearly two years, he
exchanged it in July 1529 for the cure of Pont L'EvGque, a village
1 The family name of Calvin seems to have been written indiffer-
ently Cauvin, Chauve, Chauvin, Calvus, Calvinus. In the~con-
temporary notices of Gerard and his family, in the capitular registers
of the cathedral at Noyon, the name is always spelt Cauuin. The
anagram of Calvin is Alcuin, and this in its Latinized form Alcuinus
appears in two editions of his InstiHUio as that of the author (Audin,
Vie de Calvin, i. 520). The syndics of Qeneva address him in a letter
Written in 1540, and still preserved, as " Docteur Caulvin." In his
letters written in French he usually signs himself " Jean Calvin."
He affected the title of " Maftre," for what reason is not known.
1 Pierre de Montaigu refounded this institution in 1388. Erasmus
and Ignatius Loyola also studied here.
near to Noyon, and the place to which his father originally,
belonged. He appears to have been not a little elated by his
early promotion, and although not ordained, he preached several
sermons to the people. But though the career of ecclesiastical
preferment was thus early opened to him, Calvin was destined
not to become a priest. A change came over the mind both of his
father and himself respecting his future career. Gerard Cauvin
began to suspect that he had not chosen the most lucrative
profession for his son, and that the law offered to a youth of his
talents and industry a more promising sphere. 8 He was also now
out of favour with the cathedral chapter at Noyon. It is said also
that John himself, on the advice of his relative, Pierre Robert
Olive'tan, the first translator of the Bible into French, had begun
to study the Scriptures and to dissent from the Roman worship.
At any rate he readily complied with his father's suggestion, and
removed from Paris to Orleans (March 1528) in order *o study
law under Pierre Taisan de Tfitoile, the most distinguished
jurisconsult of his day. The university atmosphere here was
less ascetic than at Paris, but Calvin's ardour knew no slackening,
and such was his progress in legal knowledge that he was fre-
quently called upon to lecture, in the absence of one or other of
the regular staff. Other studies, however, besides those of law
occupied him while in this city, and moved by the humanistic
spirit of the age he eagerly developed his classical knowledge.
" By protracted vigils," says Beza, " he secured indeed a solid
erudition and an excellent memory; but it is probable he at the
same time sowed the seeds of that disease (dyspepsia) which
occasioned him various illnesses in after life, and at last brought
upon him premature death." 4 His friends here were Melchior
Wolmar, a German schoolmaster and a man of exemplary
scholarship and character, Francois Daniel, Francois de Connam
and Nicolas Duchemin; to these his earliest letters were
written.
From Orleans Calvin went to Bburges in the autumn of 1529
to continue his studies under the brilliant Italian, Andrea Alciati
(1492-1550), whom Francis I. had invited into France and
settled as a professor of law in that university. His friend
Daniel went with him, and Wolmar followed a year later. By
Wolmar Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced to the study of
the New Testament in the original, a service which he gratefully
acknowledges in one of his printed works. 6 The conversation of
Wolmar may also have been of use to him in his consideration of
the doctrines of the Reformation, which were now beginning to
be widely diffused through France. Twelve years had elapsed
since Luther had published his theses against indulgences —
twelve years of intense excitement and anxious discussion, not
in Germany only, but in almost all the adjacent countries. In
France there had not been as yet any overt revolt against the
Church of Rome, but multitudes were in sympathy with any
attempt to improve the church by education, by purer morals,
by better preaching and by a return to the primitive and un-
corrupted faith. Though we cannot with Beza regard Calvin at
this time as a centre of Protestant activity, he may well have
preached at Lignieres as a reformatory Catholic of the school of
Erasmus. Calvin's own record of his " conversion " is so scanty
and devoid of chronological data that it is extremely difficult to
trace his religious development with any certainty. But it seems
probable that at least up to 1532 he was far more concerned
about classical scholarship than about religion.
His residence at Bourges was cut short by the death of his
father in May 1531. Immediately after this event he went to
Paris, where the " new learning " was now at length ousting the
medieval scholasticism from the university. He lodged in the
College Fortet, reading Greek with Pierre Danes and beginning
Hebrew with Francois Vatable. It was at this time (April 1 532)
that Calvin issued his first publication, a commentary in Latin on
Seneca's tract De Clementia. This book he published at his own
cost, and dedicated to Claude Hangest, abbot of St filoi, a
member of the de Montmor family, with whom Calvin had been
8 Galv. Praef. ad Comment, in Psalmos.
4 Jo, Calvinx Vita, sub init.
* Epist, Ded. t Comment in Ep. II. ad Corinthios praefix.
72
CALVftf
brought up. It was formerly thought that Calvin published this
work with a view to influence the king to put a stop to the attacks
on the Protestants, but there is nothing in the treatise itself or in
the commentary to favour this opinion.
Soon after the publication of his first book Calvin returned
to Orleans, where he stayed for a year, perhaps again reading
law, and still undecided as to his life's work. He visited Noyon
in August 1533, and by October of the same year was settled
again in Paris. Here and now his destiny became certain. The
conservative theology was becoming discredited, and humanists
like Jacques Lefevre of fitaples (Faber Stapulensis) and G6rard
Roussel were favoured by the court under the influence of
Margaret of AngoulSme, queen of Navarre and sister of Francis I.
Calvin's old friend, Nicolas Cop, had just been elected rector of
the university and had to deliver an oration according to custom
in the church of the Mathurins, on the feast of All Saints. The
oration (certainly influenced but hardly composed by Calvin)
was in effect a defence of the reformed opinions, especially of
the doctrine of justification by faith alone. It is to the period
between April 1532 and November 1533, and in particular to
the time of his second sojourn at Orleans, that we may most
fittingly assign the great change in Calvin which he describes
(PraeJ. ad Psalmos; opera xxxi. 21-24) as his "sudden con-
version " and attributes to direct divine agency. It must have
been at least after his Commentary on Seneca's De Clementia
that his heart was " so subdued and reduced to docility that in
comparison with his zeal for true piety he regarded all other
studies with indifference, though not entirely forsaking them.
Though himself a beginner, many flocked to him to learn the
pure doctrine, and he began to seek some hiding-place and means
of withdrawal from people." This indeed was forced upon him,
for Cop's address was more than the conservative party could
bear, and Cop, being summoned to appear before the parlement
of Paris, found it necessary, as he failed to secure the support
either of the king, or of the university, to make his escape to
Basel. An attempt was at the 6ame time made to seize Calvin,
but, being forewarned of the design by his friends, he also made
his escape. His room in the College Fortet, however, was
searched, and his books and papers seized, to the imminent
peril of some of his friends, whose letters were found in his
repositories. He went to Noyon, but, proceedings against him
being dropped, soon returned to Paris. But desiring both
security and solitude for study he left the city again about New
Year of 1534 and became the guest of Louis du Tillet, a canon of
the cathedral, at Angoul£me, where at the request of his host he
prepared some short discourses, which were circulated in the
surrounding parishes, and read in public to the people. Here, too
in du Tillet 's splendid library, he began the studies which resulted
in his great work, the Institutes f and paid a visit to Nerac, where
the venerable Lef&vre, whose revised translation of the Bible
into French was published about this time, was spending his last
years under the kindly care of Margaret of Navarre.
Calvin was now nearly twenty-five years of age, and in the
ordinary way would have been ordained to the priesthood. Up
till this time his work for the evangelical cause was not so much
that of the public preacher or reformer as that of the retiring
but influential scholar and adviser. Now, however, he had to
decide whether, like Roussel and other of his friends, he should
strive to combine the new doctrines with a position in the old
church, or whether he should definitely break away from Rome.
His mind was made up, and on the 4th of May he resigned
his chaplaincy at Noyon and his rectorship at Pont l'£v£que.
Towards the end of the same month he was arrested and suffered
two short terms of imprisonment, the charges against him
being not strong enough to be pressed. He seems to have
gone next to Paris, staying perhaps with fitienne de la
Forge, a Protestant merchant who suffered for his faith in
February 1535. To this time belongs the story of the proposed
meeting between Calvin and the Spanish reformer Servetus.
Calvin's movements at this time are difficult to trace, but he
visited both Orleans and Poitiers, and each visit marked a stage
in his development.
The Anabaptists of Germany had spread into France, and
were disseminating many wild and fanatical opinions among
those who had seceded from the Church of Rome. Among other
notions which they had imbibed was that of a sleep of the soul
after death. To Calvin this notion appeared so pernicious that
he composed a treatise in refutation of it, under the title of
Psychopannychia. The preface to this treatise is dated Orleans
1534, but it was not printed till 1542. In it he chiefly dwells
upon the evidence from Scripture in favour of the belief that the
soul retains its intelligent consciousness after its separation from
the body — passing by questions of philosophical speculation, as
tending on such a subject only to minister to an idle curiosity.
At Poitiers Calvin gathered round him a company of cultured
and gentle men whom in private intercourse he influenced
considerably. Here too in a grotto near the town he for the first
time celebrated the communion in the Evangelical Church of
France, using a piece of the rock as a table.
The year 1534 was thus decisive for Calvin. From this time
forward his influence became supreme, and all who had accepted
the reformed doctrines in France turned to him for counsel and
instruction, attracted not only by his power as a teacher, but
still more, perhaps because they saw in him so full a develop-
ment of the Christian life according to the evangelical model.
Renan, no prejudiced judge, pronounces him " the most Christian
man of his time," and attributes to this his success as a reformer.
Certain it is that already he had become conspicuous as a prophet
of the new religion; his life was in danger, and he was obliged to
seek safety in flight. In company with his friend Louis du
Tillet, whom he had again gone to Angoulgme to visit, he set out
for Basel. On their way they were robbed by one of their servants,
and it was only by borrowing ten crowns from their other
servant that they were enabled to get to Strassburg, and thence
to Basel. Here Calvin was welcomed by the band of scholars
and theologians who had conspired to make that city the Athens
of Switzerland, and especially by Oswald Myconius, the chief
pastor, Pierre Viret and Heinrich Bullinger. Under the aupices
and guidance of Sebastian Mlinster, Calvin now gave himself to
the study of Hebrew. ' • - ;
f Francis I., desirous to continue the suppression of the Protest-
ants but anxious, because of his strife with Charles V., not to
break with the Protestant princes of Germany, instructed his
ambassador to assure these princes that it was only against
Anabaptists, and other parties who called in question all civil
magistracy, that his severities were exercised. Calvin, indignant
at the calumny which was thus cast upon the reformed party in
France, hastily prepared for the press his Institutes of the Christian
Religion, which he published " first that I might vindicate from
unjust affront my brethren whose death was precious in the sight
of the Lord, and, next, that some sorrow and anxiety should move
foreign peoples, since the same sufferings threatened many."
The work was dedicated to the king, and Calvin says he wrote it
in Latin that it might find access to the learned in all lands. 1
Soon after it appeared he set about translating it into French, as
he himself attests in a letter dated October 1536. This sets at
rest a question, at one time much agitated, whether the book
appeared first in French or in Latin. The earliest French edi tion
known is that of 1540, and this was after the work had been much
enlarged, and several Latin editions had appeared. In its first
form the work consisted of only six chapters, and was intended
merely as a brief manual of Christian doctrine. The chapters
follow a traditional scheme of religious teaching: (1) The Law,
(as in the Ten Words), (2) Faith (as in the Apostles' Creed)
(3) <v Prayer, (4) the Sacraments; to these were added (5) False
Sacraments, (6) Christian liberty, ecclesiastical power and civil
administration. The closing chapters of the work are more
polemical than the earlier ones. His indebtedness to Luther is
of course great, but his spiritual kinship with Martin Bucer of
1 This edition forms a small 8vo of 514 pages, and 6 pages of index.
It appeared at Basel from the press of Thomas Platter and Balthasar
Lasius in March 1536, and was published by Johann Oporin. The
dedicatory preface is dated 23rd August 1535. It is a masterpiece
of apologetic literature. See W, Walker, John Calvin, 132 f., and
for an outline of the contents of the treatise, ib, 137-149,
CALVIN
73
Strassburg is even more marked. Something also he owed to
Scotus and other medieval schoolmen. The book appeared
anonymously, the author having, as he himself says, nothing in
view beyond furnishing a statement of the faith of the persecuted
Protestants, whom he saw cruelly cut to pieces by impious and
perfidious court parasites. 1 In this work, though produced when
the author was only twenty-six years of age, we find a complete
outline of the Calvinist theological system. In none of the later
editions, nor in any of his later works do we find reason to believe
that he ever changed his views on any essential point from what
they were at the period of its first publication. . Such an instance
of maturity of mind and of opinion at so early an age would be
remarkable under any circumstances; but in Calvin's case it is
rendered peculiarly so by the shortness of the time which had
^l^pp^H since he gave himself to theological studies. It may be
doubted also if the history of literature presents us with another
Instance of a. book written at so early an age, which has exercised
such a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both
of contemporaries and of posterity.
After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Rcnee, duchess
of JFersara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), which at that time
afforded an asylum to several learned and pious fugitives from
persecution, Calvin returned through Basel to France to arrange
his affairs before finally taking farewell of his native country.
His intention was to settle at Strassburg or Basel, and to devote
himself to study. But being unable, in consequence of the war
between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach Strassburg by the
ordinary route, he with his younger brother Antoine and his
half-sister Marie journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making
for Basel In Geneva his progress was arrested, and his resolution
to pursue the quiet path of studious research was dispelled by
what he calls the " formidable obtestation " of Guillaume Farel. 2
After many struggles and no small suffering, this eneigetic spirit
bad succeeded in planting the evangelical standard at Geneva;
and anxious to secure the aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated
him on his arrival to relinquish his design of going farther, and to
devote himself to the work in that city. Calvin at first declined,
alleging as an excuse his need of securing more time for personal
improvement, but ultimately, believing that he was divinely
called to this task and that " God had stretched forth His hand
upon me from on high to arrest me," he consented to remain at
Geneva. He hurried to Basel, transacted some business, and
returned to Geneva in August 1536. He at once began to ex-
pound the epistles of St Paul in the church of St Pierre, and after
about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with
the consent of the people, an office which he would not accept
until it had been repeatedly pressed upon him. His services
seem, to have been rendered for some time gratuitously, for in
February 1537 there is an entry in the city registers to the effect
that six crowns had been voted to him, " since he has as yet
hardly received anything."
Calvin was in his twenty-eighth year when he was thus
constrained to settle at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his
life, with the exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post
to which he was thus called was not an easy one. Though the
people of Geneva had cast off the obedience of Rome, it was
largely a political revolt against the duke of Savoy, and they were
still (says Beza) " but very imperfectly enlightened in divine
knowledge; they had as yet hardly emerged from the filth of the
papacy." 3 This laid them open to the incursions of those
fanatical teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the
Reformation had called forth, and who hung mischievously upon
the rear of the reforming body. To obviate the evils ifience
resulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew up a condensed
statement of Christian doctrine consisting of twenty-one articles.
This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to
profess and swear to as the confession of their faith — a process
which, though not in accordance w?th modern notions of tie best
way of establishing men in the faith, was gone through, Calvin
tells us, " with much satisfaction." As the people took this oath
1 Praef. ad Psalmos. * Ibid.
8 Beza, Vit. Calv. an. 1536.
in the capacity of citizens, we may see here the basis laid for that
theocratic system which subsequently became peculiarly charac-
teristic of the Genevan polity. Deeply convinced of the import-
ance of education for the young, Calvin and his coadjutors were
solicitous to establish schools throughout the city, and to enforce
on parents the sending of their children to them; and as he had
no faith in education apart from religious training, he drew up a
catechism of Christian doctrine which the children had to learn
whilst they were receiving secular instruction. Of the troubles
which arose from fanatical teachers, the chief proceeded from
the efforts of the Anabaptists; a public disputation was held on
the 16th and 17th of March 1537, and so excited the populace
that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the
Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About
the same time also, the peace of Calvin and his friends was much
disturbed and their work interrupted by Pierre Caroli, another
native of northern France, who, though a man of loose principle
and belief, had been appointed chief pastor at Lausanne and was
discrediting the good work done by Pierre Viret in that city.
Calvin went to Viret's aid and brought Caroli before the com-
missioners of Bern on a charge of advocating prayers for the dead
as a means of their earlier resurrection. Caroli brought a
counter-charge against the Geneva divines of Sabellianism and
Arianism, because they would not enforce the Athanasian creed,
and had not used the words " Trinity " and " Person " in the
confession they had drawn up. It was a struggle between the
thoroughgoing humanistic reformer who drew his creed solely
from the " word of God " and the merely semi-Protestant
reformer who looked on the old creed as a priceless heritage. In
a synod held at Bern the matter was fully discussed, when a
verdict was given in favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli
deposed from his office and banished. He returned to France,
rejoined the Roman communion and spent the rest of his life in
passing to and from the old faith and the new. Thus ended an
affair which seems to have occasioned Calvin much more uneasi-
ness than the character of his assailant, and the manifest false-
hood of the charge brought against him, would seem to justify.
Two brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled De fugiendis
intpiarum sacris, the other De sacerdotio papali aly'iciendo, were
also published early in this year. r ,
Hardly was the affair of Caroli settled, when new and severer
trials came upon the Genevan Reformers. The austere sim-
plicity of the ritual which Farel had introduced, and to which
Calvin had conformed; the strictness with which the ministers
sought to enforce not only the laws of morality, but certain
sumptuary regulations respecting the dress and mode of living
of the citizens; and their determination in spiritual matters
and ecclesiastical ceremonies not to submit to the least dictation
from the civil power, led to violent dissensions. Amidst much
party strife Calvin perhaps showed more youthful impetuosity
than experienced skill. He and his colleagues refused to ad-
minister the sacrament in the Bernese form, i.e. with unleavened
bread, and on Easter Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all
because of the popular tumult. For this they were banished
from the city. They went first to Bern, and soon after to
Zurich, where a synod of the Swiss pastors had been convened.
Before this assembly they pleaded their cause, and stated what
were the points on which they were prepared to insist as needful
for the proper discipline of the church. They declared that they
would yield in the matter of ceremonies so far as to employ un-
leavened bread in the eucharist, to use fonts in baptism, and to
allow festival days, provided the people might pursue their
ordinary avocations after public service. These Calvin re-
garded as matters of indifference, provided the magistrates did
not make them of importance, by seeking to enforce them; and
he was the more willing to concede them, because he hoped
thereby to meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren whose
ritual was less simple than that established by Farel at Geneva.
But he and his colleagues insisted, on the other hand/that for the
proper maintenance of discipline, there should be a division of
parishes — that excommunications should be permitted, and
should be under the power of elders chosen by the council, in
v. 3 a
74
CALVIN
conjunction with the clergy — that order should be observed in
the admission of preachers — and that only the clergy should
officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It was proposed
also, as conducive to the welfare of the church, that the sacrament
of the Lord's Supper should be administered more frequently, at
least once every month, and that congregational singing of
psalms should be practised in the churches. On these terms the
synod interceded with the Genevese to restore their pastors;
but through the opposition of some of the Bernese (especially
Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) this was frustrated, and a
second edict of banishment was the only response.
Calvin and Farel betook themselves, under these circumstances,
to Basel, where they soon after separated, Farel to go to Neu-
chatel and Calvin to Strassburg. At the latter place Calvin
resided till the autumn of 1541, occupying himself partly in
literary exertions, partly as a preacher and especially an organizer
in the French church, and partly as a lecturer on theology.
These years were not the least valuable in his experience. In
1539 he attended Charles V.'s conference on Christian reunion at
Frankfort as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year
he appeared at Hagenau and Worms, as the delegate from the
city of Strassburg. He was present also at the diet at Regens-
burg, where he deepened his acquaintance with Melanchthon,
and formed with him a friendship which lasted through life. He
also did something to relieve the persecuted Protestants of
France. It is to this period of his life that we owe a revised and
enlarged form of his Institutes, his Commentary on the Epistle to
the Romans, and his Tract on the Lord's Supper. Notwithstand-
ing his manifold engagements, he found time to attend to the
tenderer affections; for it was during his residence at Strass-
burg that he married, in August 1540, Idelette de Bure, the
widow of one Jean Stordeur of Liege, whom he had converted
from Anabaptism. In her Calvin found, to use his own words,
"the excellent companion of his life," a " precious help " to him
amid his manifold labours and frequent infirmities. She died in
1549, to the great grief of her husband, who never ceased to
mourn her loss. Their only child Jacques, born on the 28th of
July 1542, lived only a few days.
During Calvin's absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed
in Geneva. An attempt was made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto
(1477-1547), bishop of Carpentras, to take advantage of this so
as to restore the papal supremacy in that district; but this
design Calvin, at the request of the Bernese authorities, who had
been consulted by those of Geneva, completely frustrated, by
writing such a reply to the letter which the bishop had addressed
to the Genevese, as constrained him to desist from all further
efforts. The letter had more than a local or temporary reference.
It was a popular yet thoroughgoing defence of the whole Protest-
ant position, perhaps the best apologia for the Reformation that
was ever written. He seems also to have kept up his connexion
with Geneva by addressing letters of counsel and comfort to the
faithful there who continued to regard him with affection. It
was. whilst he was still at Strassburg that there appeared at
Geneva a translation of the Bible into French, bearing Calvin's
name, but in reality only revised and corrected by him from the
version of 01iv6tan. Meanwhile the way was opening for his
return. Those who had driven him from the city gradually
lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall.
After much hesitation, for Strassburg had strong claims, he
yielded and returned to Geneva, where he was received with
the utmost enthusiasm (September 13, 1541)- He entered upon
his work with a firm determination to carry out those reforms
which he had originally purposed, and to set up in all its integrity
that form of church polity which he had carefully matured
during his residence at Strassburg. He now became the sole
directive spirit in the church at Geneva. Farel was retained
by the Neuchfttelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin's return, re-
moved to Lausanne. His duties were thus rendered exceedingly
onerous, and his labour became excessive. Besides preaching
every day in each alternate week, he taught theology three days
m the week, attended weekly meetings of his consistory, read
the Scriptures once a week in the congregation, carried on an I
extensive correspondence on a multiplicity of subjects, prepared
commentaries on the books of Scripture, and was engaged
repeatedly in controversy with the opponents of his opinions.
" I have not time," he writes to a friend, " to look out of my
house at the blessed sun, and if things continue thus I shall
forget what sort of appearance it has. When I have settled my
usual business, I have so many letters to write, so many questions
to answer, that many a night is spent without any offering of
sleep being brought to nature."
It is only necessary here to sketch the leading events of
Calvin's life after his return to Geneva. He recodified the
Genevan laws and constitution, and was the leading spirit in the
negotiations with Bern that issued in the treaty of February
1544. Of the controversies in which he embarked, one of the
most important was that in which he defended his doctrine
concerning predestination and election. His first antagonist on
this head was Albert Pighius, a Romanist, who, resuming the
controversy between Erasmus and Luther on the freedom of the
will, violently attacked Calvin for the views he had expressed
on that subject. Calvin replied to him in a work published
in 1543, in which he defends his own opinions at length, both
by general reasonings and by an appeal to both Scripture
and the Fathers, especially Augustine. So potent were his
reasonings that Pighius, though owing nothing to the gentleness
or courtesy of Calvin, was led to embrace his views. A still more
vexatious and protracted controversy on the same subject arose
in 1551: Jerome Hermes Bolsec, a Carmelite friar, having
renounced Romanism, had fled from France to Veigy, a village
near Geneva, where he practised as a physician. Being a zealous
opponent of predestinarian views, he expressed Ms criticisms
of Calvin's teaching on the subject in one of the public con-
ferences held each Friday. Calvin replied with much vehemence ,
and brought the matter before the civil authorities. The council
were at a loss which course to take ; not that they doubted which
of the disputants was right, for they all held by the views of
Calvin, but they were unable to determine to what extent and
in which way Bolsec should be punished for his heresy. The
question was submitted to the churches at Basel, Bern, Zurich
and Neucjiatel, but they also, to Calvin's disappointment, were
divided in their judgment, some counselling severity, others
gentle measures. In the end Bolsec was banished from Geneva ;
he ultimately rejoined the Roman communion and in 1577
avenged himself by a particularly slanderous biography 6f
Calvin. Another painful controversy was that with S6bastien
Castellio (151 5-1 563), a teacher in the Genevan school and a
scholar of real distinction. He wished to enter the preaching
ministry but was excluded by Calvin's influence because he had
criticized the inspiration of the Song of Solomon and the Genevan
interpretation of the clause "he descended into hell." The
bitterness thus aroused developed into life-long enmity. During
all this time also the less strict party in the city and in the
council did not cease to harry the reformer.
But the most memorable of all the controversies in which
Calvin was engaged was that into .which he was brought in 1553
with Michael Servetus (q.v.). After many wanderings, and
after having been condemned to death for heresy at Vienne,
whence he was fortunate enough to make his escape, Servetus
arrived in August 1 553 at Geneva on his way to Naples. He was
recognized in church and soon after, at Calvin's instigation,
arrested. The charge of blasphemy was founded on certain
statements in a book published by him in 1553, entitled Christi-
anismi Restitutio, in which he animadverted on the Catholic
doctrine of the Trinity, and advanced sentiments strongly
savouring of Pantheism. The story of his trial is told elsewhere
(see art. Servetus), but it must be noted here that the struggle
was something more than a doctrinal one. The cause of Servetus
was taken up by Calvin's Genevan foes headed by Philibert
Berthelier, and became a test of the relative strength of the lival
forces and of the permanence of Calvin's control. That Calvin
was actuated by personal spite and animosity against Servetus
himself may be open to discussion; we have his own express
declaration that, after Servetus was convicted, he used no
CALVIN
75
urgency that tie should be put to death, and at their last inter-
view he told Servetus that he never had avenged private injuries,
and assured him that if he would repent it would not be his fault
if all the pious did not give him their hands. 1 There is the fact
also that Calvin used his endeavour to have the sentence which
had been pronounced against Servetus mitigated, death by
burning being regarded by him as an " atrocity," for which he
sought to substitute death by the sword. 2 It can be justly
charged against Calvin in this matter that he took the initiative
tn bringing on the trial of Servetus, that as his accuser he pro-
secuted the suit against him with undue severity, and that he
approved the sentence which condemned Servetus to death.
When, however, it is remembered that the unanimous decision of
the Swiss churches and of the Swiss state governments was that
Servetus deserved to die; that the general voice of Christendom
was in favour of this; that even such a man as Melanchthon
affirmed the justice of the sentence;* that an eminent English
•divine of the next age should declare the process against him
" just and honourable/' * and that only a few voices here and
there were at the time raised against it, many will be ready to
accept the judgment of Coleridge, that the death of Servetus was
not " Calvin's guilt especially, but the common opprobrium of
all European Christendom." 5
Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vexing
dispute with the Lutherans respecting the Lord's Supper, which
ended in the separation of the evangelical party into the two great
sections of Lutherans and Reformed,— *he former holding that in
the eucharist the body and blood of Christ are objectively and
consubstantially present, and so are actually partaken of by the
oarnmunicants, and the latter that there is only a virtual presence
of the body and blood of Christ, and consequently only a spiritual
participation thereof through faith. In addition to these
•controversies on points of faith, he was for many years greatly
•disquieted, and sometimes even endangered, by the opposition
offered by the libertine party in Geneva to the ecclesiastical
discipline which he had established there. His system of church
polity was essentially theocratic; it assumed that every member
of the state was also under the discipline of the church; and he
asserted that the right of exercising this discipline was vested
exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers and elders.
His attempts to carry out these views brought him into collision
both with the authorities and with the populace, — the latter
being not unnaturally restive under the restraints imposed upon
their liberty by the vigorous system of church discipline, and the
former being inclined to retaip in their own hands a portion of
that power in things spiritual which Calvin was bent on placing
exclusively in the hands of the church rulers. His dauntless
courage, his perseverance, and his earnestness at length prevailed,
a&d he had the satisfaction, before he died, of seeing his favourite
system of church polity firmly established, not only at Geneva,
but |n other parts of Switzerland, and of knowing that it had been
adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland.
The men whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into
almost every country in Europe, and in varying degree these
principles did much for the cause of civil liberty.* Nor was it
only in religious matters that Calvin busied himself; nothing
was indifferent to him that concerned the welfare and good order
of the state or the advantage of its citizens. His work embraced
everything; he was consulted on every affair, great and small,
that came before the council, — on questions of law, police,
economy, trade, and manufactures, no less than on questions of
doctrine and church polity. To him the city owed her trade in
cloths and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her
1 Fidelis Expositio Errorum Served, sub init. Calvini, Opp. t. ix.
f * Calvin to Farel, 20th Aug. 1553.
* Tuo judicio prorsus assentior. Affirmo etiam vestros magi-
stratus juste fecisae quod hominem blasphemum, re ordine judicata,
interfecemnt. — Melanchthon to Calvin, 14th Oct. 1554.
4 Field On the Church, bk. iii. c. 27, vol. i. p. 288 (ed. Cambridge,
1847).
* Notes on English Divines, vol. i. p. 49. See also Table Talk,
. vol. ii. p. 282 (ed. 1835).
■ W. Walker, John Calvin, pp. 403-8.
citizens; sanitary regulations were introduced by him which
made Geneva the admiration of all visitors; and in him she
reverences the founder of her university. This institution was in
a sense Calvin's crowning work. It added religious education to
the evangelical preaching and the thorough discipline already
established, and so completed the reformer's ideal of a Christian
commonwealth.
Amidst these multitudinous cares and occupations, Calvin
found time to write a number of works besides those provoked by
the various controversies in which he was engaged. The most
numerous of these were of an exegetical character. Including
discourses taken down from his lips by faithful auditors, we have
from him expository comments or homilies on nearly all the
books of Scripture, written partly in Latin and partly in French.
Though naturally knowing nothing of the modern idea of a
progressive revelation, his judiciousness, penetration, and tact in
eliciting his author's meaning, his precision, condensation, and
concinnity as an expositor, the accuracy of his learning, the
closeness of his reasoning, and the elegance of his style, all unite
to confer a high value on his exegetical works. The series began
with Romans in 1540 and ended with Joshua in 1564. In 155&-
1550 also, though in very 01 health, he finally perfected the
Institutes.
The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave
himself could not but tell on his fragile constitution. Amid
many sufferings, however, and frequent attacks of sickness, he
manfully pursued his course; nor was it till his frail body, torn
by many and painful diseases — fever, asthma, stone, and gout,
the fruits for the most part of his sedentary habits and unceasing
activity — had, as it were, fallen to pieces around him, that his
indomitable spirit relinquished the conflict. In the early part of
the year 1 564 his sufferings became so severe that it was manifest
his earthly career was rapidly drawing to a close. On the 6th of
February of that year he preached his last sermon, having with
great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He
was several times after this carried to church, but never again
was able to take any part in the service. With his usual dis-
interestedness he refused to receive his stipend, now that he was
no longer able to discharge the duties of his office. In the midst
of his sufferings, however, his zeal and energy kept him in
continual occupation; when expostulated with for such un-
seasonable toil, he replied, u Would you that the Lord should
find me idle when He comes?" After he had retired from
public labours he lingered for some months, enduring the severest
agony without a murmur, and cheerfully attending to all the
duties of a private kind which his diseases left him strength to
discharge. On the 25th of April he made his will, on the 27th he
received the Little Council, and on the 28th the Genevan
ministers, in his sick-room; on the 2nd of May he wrote his last
letter — to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neuchatel
to see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and died
quietly, in the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the
evening of the 27th of May, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The
next day he was buried without pomp " in the common cemetery
called Plain-palais " in a spot not now to be identified.
Calvin was of middle stature; his complexion was somewhat
pallid and dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous,
bespoke the acumen of his genius. He was sparing in his food
and simple in his dress; he took but little sleep, and was capable
of extraordinary efforts of intellectual toil. He had a most
retentive memory and a very keen power of observation. He
spoke without rhetoric, simply, directly, but with great weight.
He had many acquaintances but few close friends. His private
character was in harmony with his public reputation and position.
If somewhat severe and irritable, he was at the same time
scrupulously just, truthful, and steadfast; he never deserted a
friend or took an unfair advantage of an antagonist; and on
befitting occasions he could be cheerful and even facetious
among his intimates. " God gave him," said the Little Council
after his death, " a character of great majesty." " I have been a
witness of him for sixteen years," says Beza, " and I think I am
fully entitled to say that in this man there was exhibited to all an
7 6
CALVINISTIC METHODISTS
example of the life and death of the Christian, such as it will not
be easy to depreciate, such as it will be difficult to emulate."
Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by
earlier reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his peculiar
gifts of learning, of logic and of stvle made him pre-eminently the
theologian of the new religion. The following may be regarded as
his characteristic tenets, though not all are peculiar to him.
The dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sovereignty
of God, to know whom is the supreme end of human endeavour.
God is made known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose
writers were " sure and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit."
To the Spirit speaking therein the Spirit-illumined soul of man
makes response. While God is the source of all good, man as a
sinner is guilty and corrupt. The first man was made in the image
and likeness of God, which not only implies man's superiority to all
other creatures, but indicates his original purity, integrity and
sanctity. From this state Adam fell, and in his fall involved the
whole human race descended from him. Hence depravity and
corruption, diffused through all parts of the soul, attach to all men,
and this first makes them obnoxious to the anger of God, and then
comes forth in works which the Scripture calls works of the flesh
(Gal. v. 19). Thus all are held vitiated and perverted in all parts
of their nature, and on account of such corruption deservedly con-
demned before God, by whom nothing is accepted save righteousness
innocence, and purity. Nor is that a being bound for another's offence ;
for when it is said that we through Adam's sin have become ob-
noxious to the divine judgment, it is not to be taken as if we, being
ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the fault of his offence, but
that, we having been brought under a curse through his trans-
gression, he is said to have bound us. From him, however, not only
has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence instilled from him
resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. Thus even infants,
whilst they bring their own condemnation with them from their
mother's womb, are bound not by another's but by their own fault.
For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their
iniquity, they have the seed shut up in them ; nay, their whole nature
is a sort of seed of sin, therefore it cannot but be hateful and abomin-
able to God {Instil, bk. ii. ch. i. sect. 8).
To redeem man from this state of guilt, and to recover him from
corruption, the Son of God became incarnate, assuming man's nature
into union with His own, so that in Him were two natures in one
person. Thus incarnate He took on Him the offices of prophet,
priest and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto
death, followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He
has perfected His work and fulfilled all that was required in a
redeemer of men, so that it is truly affirmed that He has merited
for man the grace of salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17). But until a man
is in some way really united to Christ so as to partake of Him, the
benefits of Christ's work cannot be attained by him. Now it is by
the secret and special operation of the Holy Spirit that men are
united to Christ and made members of His body. Through faith,
which is a firm and certain cognition of the divine benevolence
towards us founded on the truth of the gracious promise in Christ,
men are by the operation of the Spirit united to Christ and are made
partakers of His death and resurrection, so that the old man is
crucified with Him and they are raised to a new life, a life of righteous-
ness and holiness. Thus joined to Christ the believer has life in
Him and knows that he is saved, having the witness of the Spirit
that be< is a child of God. and having the promises, the certitude of
which the Spirit had before impressed on the mind, sealed by the
same Spirit on the heart (bk. hi. ch. 33-36). From faith proceeds
repentance, which is the turning of our life to God, proceeding from
a sincere and earnest fear of God, and consisting in the mortification
of the flesh and the old man within us and a vivification of the Spirit.
Through faith also the believer receives justification, his sins are
forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is held by Him as righteous,
the righteousness of Christ being imputed to him, and faitn being
the instrument by which the man lays hold on Christ, so that with
His righteousness the man appears in God's sight as righteous.
This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined from real
personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification come
to the believer from Christ no less than justification; the two
blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to be dis-
joined. The assurance which the believer has of salvation he
receives from the operation and witness of the Holy Spirit; but
this again rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation; and
this falls back on God's eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has
predestined some to eternal life while the rest of mankind are
predestined to condemnation and eternal death. Those whom
God has chosen to life He effectually calls to salvation, and they
are kept by Him in progressive faith and holiness unto the end
(bk. ih. passim). The external means or aids by which God unites
men into the fellowship of Christ, and sustains and advances those
who believe, are the church and its ordinances, especially the sacra-
ments. The church universal is the multitude gathered from diverse
nations, which though divided by distance of time and place, agree
in one common faith, and it is bound by the tie of the same religion ;
and wherever the word of God is sincerely preached, and the sacra*
mentB are duly administered, according to Christ's institute, there
beyond doubt is a church of the living God (bk. iv. ch. I, sect. 7-«).
The permanent officers in the church are pastors and teachers, to the
former of whom it belongs to preside over the discipline of the
church, to administer the sacraments, and to admonish and exhort
the members; while the latter occupy themselves with the exposition
of Scripture, so that pure and wholesome doctrine may be retained.
With tnem are to be joined for the government of the church certain
pious, grave and holy men as a senate in each church ; and to others,
as deacons, is to be entrusted the care of the poor. The election of
the officers in a church is to be with the people, and those duly
chosen and called are to be ordained by the laying on of the hands
of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The sacraments are two — Baptism
and the Lord s Supper. Baptism is the sign of initiation whereby
men are admitted into the society of the church and, being grafted
into Christ, are reckoned among the sons of God; it serves both
tor the confirmation of laith and as a confession before men. The
Lord's Supper is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that He is the
life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed unto true and blessed
immortality. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood
whereby Christ transfuses into us His lite, even as if it penetrated
into our bones and marrow, He in the Supper attests and seals;
and that not by a vain or empty sign set before us ; but there He
puts forth the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He fulfils what- He
promises. In the mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited
to us by the symbols of bread and wine ; and so His body and bicod,
in which He fulfilled all obedience for the obtaining of righteousness
for us, are presented. There is no such presence of Christ in the
Supper as that He is affixed to the bread or included in it or in any
way circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and sub-
stantial communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which
is exhibited to believers under the said symbols of the Supper, is to
be received, and that not as perceived by the imagination only or
mental intelligence, but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life
(bk. iv. ch. 15, 17).
The course of time has substantially modified many of these
positions. Even the churches which trace their descent from
Calvin's work and faith no longer hold in their entirety his views
on the magistrate as the preserver of church purity, the utter de-
pravity of human nature, the non-human character of the Bible,
the dealing of God with man. But his system Had an immense
value in tne history of Christian thought. It appealed to and
evoked a high order of intelligence, and its insistence on personal
individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So also, its insistence
on the chief end of man " to know and do the win of God fr made
for the strenuous morality that helped to build Tip the modern
world. Its effects are most clearly seen in Scotland, in Puritan
England and in the New England states, but its influence was and
is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be called
Calvinist.
Bibliography. — The standard edition of Calvin's works is that
undertaken by the Strassburg scholars, J. W. Baum, E. Cunitz,
E. Reuss. P. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vols., 1863-1900). The last
of these contains an elaborate bibliography which was also published
separately at Berlin in 1 900. The bulk of the writings was published
in English by the Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh,
1 843-1 855); the Institutes have often been translated. The early
lives by Beza and Collodon are given in the collected editions.
Among modern biographies are those by P, Henry, Das Leben J.
Calvins (3 vols., Hamburg, 1 835-1844; Eng. trans, by H. Stcbbing,
London and New York, 1849); V. Audin, Histoire de la vie, des
outrages, et des doctrines de Calvin (2 vols., Paris, 1841 ; Eng. trans,
by J. McGill, London, 1843 and 1830) unfairly antagonistic; T. H.
Dyer, Life of John Calvin (London, 1850) ; E. Stahehn, JoK Calvin,
Leben und ausgewdhlte Schriften (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863); F. W.
Kampschulte, Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Stoat in Cenf
(2 vols., 1869, 1890, unfinished); Abel Lefranc, La Jeunesse de
Calvin (Paris, 1888); E. Choisy, La Tktocratie a Geneve am, temps
de Calvin (Geneva, 1897) ; E. Doumergue, Jean Cabin; les homines
et les choses de son temps (5 vols., 1899-1908). See also A. M. Fair-
bairn, " Calvin and the Reformed Church M in the Cambridge Modern
History, vol. ii. (1904); P. Schaff's, History of the Christian Church,
vol. vii. (1892), and R. StahehVs article in Hauck-Herzog's ReaU
encyk. fur prot. Theologie und Kirche. Each of these contains a
useful bibliography, as also does the excellent life by Professor
Williston Walker, John Calvin, the Organizer of Reformed Protes-
tantism, " Heroes of the Reformation " series (IQ06). See also C. S.
Home in Mansfield Coll. Essays (1909). (W. L. A.; A. J. G.)
CALVINISTIC METHODISTS, a body of Christians forming a
church of the Presbyterian order and claiming to be the only
denomination in Wales which is of purely Welsh origin. Its
beginnings may be traced to the labours of the Rev. Griffith
Jones (1684-1761), of Llanddowror, Carmarthenshire, whose
sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a system of circu-
lating charity schools for the education of children. In striking
contrast to the general apathy of the clergy of the period,
Griffith Jones's zeal appealed to the public imagination, and his
powerful preaching exercised a widespread influence, many
CALVINISTIC METHODISTS
77
travelling long distances in order to attend bis ministry. There
was thus a considerable number of earnest people dispersed
throughout the country waiting for the rousing of the parish
clergy. An impressive announcement of the Easter Communion
Service, made by the Rev. Pryce Da vies, vicar of Talgarth,
on the 30th of March 1735, was the means of awakening
Howell Harris (1714-1773) of Trevecca, and he immediately
began to hold services in his own house. He was soon invited to
do the same at the houses of others, and ended by becoming a
fiery itinerant preacher, stirring to the depths every neighbour-
hood he visited. Griffith Jones, preaching at Llanddewi Brefi,
Cardiganshire — the place at which the Welsh Patron Saint,
David, first became famous — found Daniel Rowland (1713-1790),
curate of Llangeitho, in his audience, and his patronizing attitude
in listening drew from the preacher a personal supplication on his
behalf, in the middle of the discourse. Rowland was deeply
moved, and became an ardent apostle of the new movement.
Naturally a fine orator, his new-born zeal gave an edge to his
eloquence, and his fame spread abroad. Rowland and Harris
had been at work fully eighteen months before they met, at a
service in Devynock church, in the upper part of Breconshire.
The acquaintance then formed lasted to the end of Harris's life —
an interval of ten years excepted. Harris had been sent to
Oxford in the autumn of 1735 to " cure him of his fanaticism,"
but he left in the following February. Rowland had never been
to a university, but, like Harris, he had been well grounded in
general knowledge. About 1739 another prominent figure
appeared. This was Howell Davies of Pembrokeshire, whose
ministry was modelled on that of his master, Griffith Jones, but
with rather more clatter in his thunder.
In 1736, on returning home, Harris opened a school, Griffith
Jones supplying him with books from his charity. He also set up
societies, in accordance with the recommendations in Josiah
Wedgwood's little book on the subject; and these exercised a
great influence on the religious life of the people. By far the
most notable of Harris's converts was William Williams (1717-
1791), Panty Celyn, the great hymn- writer of Wales, who while
listening to the revivalist preaching on a tombstone in the
graveyard of Talgarth, heard the " voice of heaven," and was
" apprehended as by a warrant from on high." He was ordained
deacon in the Church of England, 1740, but Whitefield recom-
mended him to leave his curacies and go into the highways and
hedges. On Wednesday and Thursday, January 5th and 6th,
1743, the friends of aggressive Christianity in Wales met at
Wadford, near Caerphilly, Glam., in order to organize their
societies. George Whitefieid was in the chair. Rowland, Williams
and John Powell — afterwards of Llanmartin — (clergymen),
Harris, John Humphreys and John Cennick (laymen) were
present. Seven lay exhorters were also at the meetings; they
were questioned as to their spiritual experience and allotted
their several spheres; other matters pertaining to the new
conditions created by the revival were arranged. This is known
as the first Methodist Association — held eighteen months before
John Wesley's first conference (June 25th, 1744). Monthly
meetings covering, smaller districts, were organized to consider
local matters, the transactions of which were to be reported to
the Quarterly Association, to be confirmed, modified, or rejected.
Exhorters were divided into two classes — public, who were
allowed to itinerate as preachers and superintend a number of
societies; private, who were confined to the charge of one or
two societies. The societies were distinctly understood to be
part of the established church, as Wedgwood's were, and every
attempt at estranging them therefrom was sharply reproved;
but persecution made their position anomalous. They did not
accept the discipline of the Church of England, so the plea of
conformity was a feeble defence; nor had they taken out licenses,
so as to claim the protection of the Toleration Act. Harris's
ardent loyalty to the Church of England, after three refusals
to ordain him, and his personal contempt for ill-treatment from
persecutors, were the only things that prevented separation.
A controversy on a doctrinal point — " Did God die on
Calvary? " — raged for some time, the principal disputants
being Rowland and Harris; and in 17 51 it ended in an open
rupture, which threw the Connexion first into confusion and then
into a state of coma. The societies split up into Harrisites and
Rowlandites, and it was only with the revival of 1762 that the
breach was fairly repaired. This revival is a landmark in the
history of the Connexion. Williams of Pant y Celyn had just
published a little volume of hymns, the singing of which inflamed
the people. This led the bishop of St David's to suspend
Rowland's license, and Rowland had to confine himself to a
meeting-house at Llangeitho. Having been turned out of other
churches, he had leased a plot of land in 1759, anticipating the
final withdrawal of his license, in 1763, and a spacious building
was erected to which the people crowded from all parts on
Sacrament Sunday. Llangeitho became the Jerusalem of Wales;
and Rowland's popularity never waned until his physical powers
gave way. A notable event in the history of Welsh Methodism
was the publication in 1770, of a 4to annotated Welsh Bible by
the Rev. Peter Williams, a forceful preacher, and an indefatigable
worker, who had joined the Methodists in 1746, after being
driven from several curacies. It gave birth to a new interest in
the Scriptures, being the first definite commentary in the language*
A powerful revival broke out at Llangeitho in the spring of
1780, and spread to the south, but not to the north of Wales.
The ignorance of the people of the north made it very difficult
for Methodism to benefit from these manifestations, until the
advent of the Rev. Thomas Charles (1755-1814), who, having
spent five years in Somersetshire as curate of several parishes,
returned to his native land to marry Sarah Jones of Bala.
Failing to find employment in the established church, he joined
the Methodists in 1784. His circulating charity schools and
then his Sunday schools gradually made the North a new
country. In 1791 a revival began at Bala; and this, strange to
say, a few months after the Bala Association had been ruffled by
the proceedings which led to the expulsion of Peter Williams,
from the Connexion, in order to prevent him fnom selling John
Canne's Bible among the Methodists, because of some Sabellian
marginal notes.
In 1700, the Bala Association passed " Rules regarding the
proper mode of conducting the Quarterly Association," drawn
up by Charles; in 1801, Charles and Thomas Jones of Mold,
published (for the association) the " Rules and Objects of the
Private Societies among the People called Methodists." About
*795, persecution led the Methodists to take the first step
towards separation from the Church of England* Heavy fines
made it impossible for preachers in poor circumstances to
continue without claiming the protection of the Toleration Act,
and the meeting-houses had to be registered as dissenting chapels.
In a large number of cases this had only been delayed by so con-
structing the houses that they were used both as dwellings and
as chapels at one and the same time. Until 18 11 the Calvin-
is tic Methodists had no ministers ordained by themselves; their
enormous growth in numbers and the scarcity of ministers to
administer the Sacrament — only three in North Wales, two of
whom had joined only at the dawn of the century — made the
question of ordination a matter of urgency. The South Wales
clergy who regularly itinerated were dying out; the majority of
those remaining itinerated but irregularly, and were most of them
against the change. The lay element, with the help of Charles and
a few other stalwarts, carried the matter . through — ordaining
nine at Bala in June, and thirteen at Llandilo in August. In
1823, the Confession of Faith was published; it is based on the
Westminster Confession as Calvinistically construed," and
contains 44 articles* The Connexion's Constitutional Deed was
formally completed in 1826.
Thomas Charles had tried to arrange for taking over Trevecca
College when the trustees of the Countess of Huntingdon's
Connexion removed their seminary to Cheshunt in 1791; but the
Bala revival broke out just at the time, and, when things grew
quieter, other matters pressed for attention. A college had been
mooted in 18 16, but the intended tutor died suddenly, and the
matter was for the time dropped. Candidates, for the Connex-
ional ministry were compelled to shift for themselves until 1837,
78
CALVISIUS— CALW
when Lewis Edwards (i 809-1 887) and David Charles (1812-
1878) opened a school for young men at Bala. North and South
alike adopted it as their college, the associations contributing a
hundred guineas each towards the education of their students.
In 1842, the South Wales Association opened a college at
Trevecca, leaving Bala to the North; the Rev. David Charles
became principal of the former, and the Rev. Lewis Edwards of
the latter. After the death of Dr Lewis Edwards, Dr. T. C.
Edwards resigned the principalship of the University College at
Aberystwyth to become head of Bala (1891), now a purely
theological college, the students of which were sent to the
university colleges for their classical training. In 1 905 Mr David
Da vies of Llandinam — one of the leading laymen in the Connexion
— offered a large building at Aberystwyth as a gift to the
denomination for the purpose of uniting North and South in one
theological college; but in the event of either association
declining the proposal, the other was permitted to take possession,
giving the association that should decline the option of joining at
a later time. The Association of the South accepted, and that of
the North declined, the offer; Trevecca College was turned into
a preparatory school on the lines of a similar institution set up at
Bala in 1891.
The missionary collections of the denomination were given
to the London Missionary Society from 1798 to 1840, when a
Connexional Society was formed; and no better instances of
missionary enterprise are known than those of the Khasia and
Jaintia Hills, and the Plains of Sylhet in N. India. There
has also been a mission in Brittany since 1842.
The constitution of the denomination (called in Welsh, " Hen
Gorph," i.e. the Old Body) is a mixture of Presbyterianism and
Congregationalism; each church manages its own affairs and
reports (1) to the district meeting, (2) to the monthly meeting,
the nature of each report determining its destination. The
monthly meetings are made up of all the officers of the churches
comprised in each, and are split up into districts for the purpose
of a more local co-operation of the churches. The monthly
meetings appoint delegates to the quarterly Associations, of
which all officers are members. The Associations of North and
South are distinct institutions, deliberating and determining
matters pertaining to them in their separate quarterly gatherings.
For the purpose of a fuller co-operation in matters common to
both, a general assembly (meeting once a year) was established
in 1864. This is a purely deliberative conclave, worked by
committees, and all its legislation has to be confirmed by the two
Associations before it can have any force or be legal. The
annual conference of the English churches of the denomination
has no legislative standing, and is meant for social and spiritual
intercourse and discussions.
In doctrine the church is Calvinistic, but its preachers are far
from being rigid in this particular, being warmly evangelical,
and, in general, distinctly cultured. . The London degree largely
figures on the Connexional Diary; and now the Welsh degrees,
in arts and divinity, are being increasingly achieved. It is a
remarkable fact that every Welsh revival, since 1735, has broken
out among the Calvinistic Methodists. Those of 1735, 1762,
1780 and 1791 have been mentioned; those of 1817, 1832, 1859
and 1904-1905 were no less powerful, and their history is inter-
woven with Calvinistic Methodism, the system of which is so
admirably adapted for the passing oh of the torch. The minis-
terial system is quite anomalous. It started in pure itineracy;
the pastorate came in very gradually, and is not yet in universal
acceptance. The authority of the pulpit of any individual church
is in the hands of the deacons; they ask the pastor to supply so
many Sundays a year — from twelve to forty, as the case may
be — and they then fill the remainder with any preacher they
choose. The pastor is paid for his pastoral work, and receives
his Sunday fee just as a stranger does; his Sundays from home
he fills up at the request of deacons of other churches, and it is a
breach of connexional etiquette for a minister to apply for engage-
ments, no matter how many unfilled Sundays he may have.
Deacons and preachers make engagements seven or eight years
in advance. The Connexion provides for English residents
wherever required, and the English ministers are oftener in
their own pulpits than their Welsh brethren.
The Calvinistic Methodists form in some respects the strongest
church in Wales, and its forward movement, headed by Dr. John
Pugh of Cardiff, has brought thousands into its fold since its
establishment in 189 1. Its Connexional Book Room, opened in
1 89 1, yields an annual profit of from £1600 to £2000, the profits
being devoted to help the colleges and to establish Sunday
school libraries, etc. Its chapels in 1007 numbered 164 1 (with
accommodation for 488,080), manses 229; its churches 1 num-
bered 1428, ministers 921, unordained preachers 318, deacons
6179; its Sunday Schools 1731, teachers 27,895, scholars 193,460,
communicants 189,164, total collections for religious purposes
£300,912. The statistics of the Indian Mission are equally
good: communicants 8027, adherents 26,787, missionaries 23,
native ministers (ordained) 15, preachers (not ordained) 60.
The Calvinistic Methodists are intensely national in sentiment
and aspirations, beyond all suspicion loyalists. They take a
great interest in social, political and educational matters, and are
prominent on public bodies. They support the Eisteddfod as the
promoter and inspirer of arts, letters and music, and are con-
spicuous among the annual prize winners. They thus form a
living, democratic body, flexible and progressive in its movements,
yet with a sufficient proportion of conservatism both in religion
and theology to keep it sane and safe. (D. E. J.)
CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615), German chronologer, was
born of a peasant family at Gorschleben in Thuringia on the
2 1 st of February 1556. By the exercise of his musical talents
he earned money enough for the start, at Helmstadt, of an
university career, which the aid of a wealthy patron enabled him
to continue at Leipzig. He became director of the music-school
at Pforten in 1572, was transferred to Leipzig in the same
capacity in 1594, and retained this post until his death on the
24th of November 161 5, despite the offers successively made to
him of mathematical professorships at Frankfort and Wittenberg .
In his Opus Ckronologicum (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he
expounded a system based on the records of nearly 300 eclipses.
An ingenious, though ineffective, proposal for the reform of the
calendar was put forward in his Etenchus Calendar it Gregorian*
(Frankfort, 161 2); and he published a book on music, Melodiae
condendae ratio (Erfurt, 1592), still worth reading.
For details see V. Schmucks Leichenrede (1615); T. Bertuch's
Chronicou P or tense (17S9); F. W. E. Rost's Oratio ad renovendam
S. Calvisii memoriam (1805); J. G. Stallbaum's Nachrichten uber
die Cantor en an der Thomasschule (1842); Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographie; PoggendorfTs Biog.-Litterarisches Handworterbuch.
CALVO, CARLOS (1 824-1006), Argentine publicist and
historian, was born at Buenos Aires on the 26th of February
1824, and devoted himself to the study of the law. In i860 he
was sent by the Paraguayan government on a special mission to
London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published in 1863
his Derecho international Uorico y practico de Europa y America, in
two volumes, and at the same time brought out a French version.
The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern
authorities oh the subject, and by 1887 the first French edition
had become enlarged to six volumes. Sefior Calvo's next
publications were of a semi-historical character. Between 1862
and 1869 he published in Spanish and French his great collection
in fifteen volumes of the treaties and other diplomatic acts of thi
South American republics, and between 1864 and 1875 his
Annates kistoriques dt la resolution de VAmenque latine, in five
volumes. In 1884 he was one of the founders at the Ghent
congress of the Institut de Droit International. In the following
year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his
DicHonnaire du droit international public et privi in that city.
Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris.
CALW or Kalw, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, on the Nagold, 34 m. S.W. of Stuttgart by rail.
Pop. (1905), 4943. It contains a Protestant and a Roman
Catholic Church, two schools, missionary institution, and a fine
1 Adherents and members in scattered hamlets and attending
different meeting-houses or chapels, often combine to form one
society or church.
CALYI30N— CAMALDULIANS
79
public library. The industries include spinning and weaving
operations in wool and cotton. Carpets, cigars and leather are
also manufactured. Hie timber trade, chiefly with the Nether-
lands, is important. The place is in favour as a health resort.
The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages
the town was under the dominion of a powerful family of counts,
whose possessions finally passed to Wiirttemberg in 1345. In
1634 the town was taken by the Bavarians, and in 1692 by
the French.
CALYDON (KdXvS&v), an ancient town of Aetolia, according to
Pliny, 7 J Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was
said to have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have
been the scene of the hunting, by Meleager and other heroes, of
the famous Calydonian boar, sent by Artemis to lay waste the
fields; and to have taken part in the Trojan war. In historical
times it is first mentioned (391 B.C.) as in the possession of the
Achaeans, who retained it for twenty years, by the assistance of
the Lacedaemonian king, Agesilaus, notwithstanding the attacks
of the Arcarnanians. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) it was
restored by Epaminondas to the Aetolians. In the time of
Pompey it was a town of importance;" but Augustus removed
its inhabitants to Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate
his victory at Actium (3 1 B .c.) . The walls of Calydon are almost
certainly to be recognized in the Kastro of Kurtaga. These
comprise a circuit of over 2 m., with one large gate and five
smaller bnes, and are situated on a hill on the right or west bank
of the Euenus. Remains of large terrace walls outside the town
probably indicate the position of the .temple of Artemis Laphria,
whose &old and ivory statue was transferred to Patras, together
probably with her ritual. This included a sacrifice in which all
kinds of beasts, wild and tame, were driven into a wooden pyre
and consumed.
See W. M. Leake, Travels in N. Greece, i. p. 109, iff. pp-533 sag.Y
W. J. Wbodhouse, Aetolia, pp. 95 sqq. (E. Gfc.)
CALYPSO, in Greek mythology, daughter of Atlas (or Oceanus,
or Nereus), queen of the mythical island of Ogygia. When
Odysseus was shipwrecked on her shores, Calypso entertained
the hero with great hospitality, and prevailed on him to remain
with her seven years. Odysseus was then seized with a longing
to return to his wife and home; Calypso's promise of eternal
youth failed to induce him to stay, and Hermes was sent by
Zeus to bid her release him. When he set sail, Calypso died of
grief. (Homer, Odyssey, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254; Apollodorus i. 2, 7.)
CAM (CiO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)^ Portuguese discoverer,
the first European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to
explore the West African coast between Cape St Catherine (2 S. j
and Cape Cross (21 50' S.) almost from the equator to Walfish
Bay. When King John II. of Portugal revived the work of
Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam (about midsummer (?)
1482) to open up the African coast still further beyond the
equator. The^ mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps
in August 1482). and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but
only in fragments) erected on Shark Point; the great river was
also ascended for a short distance, and intercourse was opened
with the natives. Cam then coasted down along the present
Angola (Portuguese West Africa), and erected a second pillar,
probably marking the termination of this voyage, at Cape Santa
Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in 13 26' S. He
certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April 1 484,
when John II. ennobled him, made him a cavalleiro of his house-
hold (he was already an escudeiro or esquire in the same), and
granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (8th and 14th of
April 1484) . That Cam, on his second voyage of 148 5- 1486, was
accompanied by Martin Behaim (as alleged on the latter's
Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very doubtful; but we know that
the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more pillars
beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first at another
" Morite Negro " in 15 41' S., the second at Cape Cross in
2i° 50', this last probably marking the end of his progress
southward. According to one authority (a legend on the 1489
mapof HenricusMartellusGermanus), Cam died off Cape Cross;
but Joao de Barros and others make him return to the Congo,
and take thence a native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars
set up by Cam on his two voyages have all been discovered
in situ, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa
Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are
still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross padrao is
now at Kiel (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile) ; those
from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are
in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society.
See Barros, Decodes da Asia, Decade i. bk. Hi., esp. ch. 3; Ruy
de Pina, Chronica d % el Rei D. JoQo II. ; Garcia de Resende, Chronica;
Luciano Cordeiro, " Diogo Cao " in Bole tint oitheLisdon Geog. Sac* y
1892; E. G. Ravenstein, "Voyages of Diogo Cao," &c, in Geag y
Jnl, vol xvi. (1900) j.also Geog.' Jnl. xxxi. (1908). (C. R. B.)
CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO .(18*4-1896)1' Spanfch states-
man and financier, was born in Cadiz fn 1824. ^he first part of
lis life was devoted to mercantile,. and fiajanoial pursuits at
Cadiz and then in Madrid* where J*e njanaged the affairs pf and .
liquidated a mercantile and industrial society to the satisfaction
and profit of the shareholders. In 1837 he became a captain in
the national militia, in 1852 Conservative deputy in the Cortes
for Alcoy, in 1853 secretary of congress, and was afterwards
elected ten time* deputy,, twice swMor^ai life .se»aKwr.\in
1877. Camacho took a prominent part, in all financial debates
and committees, was offered a seat ipx the Mon cabinet of 1864,
and was appointed, under-secretary of state finances in 1866
under Canovasand O'DonnelL After the revolution of 1J868 he
declined the post of minister of finance offered by Marshal
Serrano, but served in that capacity in 1872 and 1^74 in.Sagasta's
cabinets. When the restoration took place, Camacho sat in the .
Cortes among the dynast^ Liberals with Sagasta. as leader, and
became finance minister in j88i at a critical, moment when
, Spain had to convert, reduce, and consolidate, her treasury .
and other debts with a view to resuming, payment pf coupons. .
Camacho drew up an excellent budget, and collected taxation ,
with a decidedly unpopular vigour. A few years later 9agasta.
again made him finance minister under the regency of Que,en
Christina, but had to sacrifice him when puhlic opinion very
clearly pronounced against his too radical financial reforms and.
his severity in collection of taxes. He was for the same reasons
unsuccessful as a governor of the Tobacco Monopoly Company, .
He then seceded from the Liberals, and during the last years of
his life he affected to vote with the Conservatives* wlgo made hum
governor of the Bank of Spain. He died in Madrid on, the 2,3rd of
January 1896. (A. E. H.) .
CAMALDUUANS, or Camaldolesx, a religious order founded
by St jRomuald. , Born of a noble family at Ravenna c. 950, he
retired at the age of twenty to the Benedictine monastery of
S. Apollinare in Classe; but being strongly, drawn to the ere-
mitical life, he went to live with a hermit in the neighbourhood of
Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here a colony of hermits
grew up around him and he became the superior. As soon as
they were established in their manner of life, Romuald moved to
another district and there formed a second settlement of hermits, ,
only to proceed in the same way to the establishment of other
colonies of hermits, or " deserts " as they were called, In this
way during the course of his r life Romuald formed a great number
of " deserts " throughout central Italy. His chief foundation
was at Camajdpli on the ^eights of the Tuscan Apennines qot far
from Arezzo> in a vale snow-covered during half the year,
Roniuald's idea was to reintroduce into the West the primitive
eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first Egyptian
and Syrian monks. His monks dwelt in separate huts around the
oratory, and came together only for divine service and on certain
days for meals. The life was one of extreme rigour in regard to
food, clothing, silence and general pbservance. Besides the
hermits there were lay brothers to help in carrying out the field
work and rougher occupations. St Romuald and the early
Camaldolese exercised considerable, influence on the religious
movements of their time; the emperors Otto HI. and .Henry II.
esteemed him highly, and sought his advice on religious questions.
Disciples of St Romuald went on missions to the stilj heathen
parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them suffered
martyrdom. In his extreme old age St Romuald with twenty-five
8o
,CAtyARG9— GAMBAQE^ES
of his monks started on a missionary expedition to Hungary,
but he was unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027.
After his death mitigations were gradually introduced into the
rule and manner of life; and in the monastery of St Michael in
Murano, Venice, the life became cenobitical. From that time to
the present day there have always been both eremitical and
cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter approximating to ordinary
Benedictine life. The Camaldolese spread all over Italy, and into
Germany, Poland and France. Camaldoli itself exists as a
" desert," the primitive observance of the institute being strictly
maintained. There are a few other "deserts," all in Italy,
except one in Poland; and there are about 00 hermits. The chief
monastery of the cenobitical Camaldolese is S. Gregorio on the
Caelian Hill in Rome; they number less than forty. Since the
nth century there have been Camaldolese nuns; at present there
are five nunneries with 150 nuns, all belonging to the cenobitical
branch of the order. The habit of the Camaldulians is white.
See Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1792) v. cc. 21-25; Max
Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregaiionen (1896) i. § 29; and the art.
11 Camaldulenser " in Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlextkon (2nd ed.),
and Herzog, RtaUncyklopadic (3rd ed.). (£. C. B.)
CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE (1710-1770),
French dancer, of Spanish descent, was born in Brussels on the
15th of April 1 7 10. Her father, Ferdinand Joseph de Cupis,
earned a scanty living as violinist and dancing-master, and from
childhood she was trained for the stage. At ten years of age she
was given lessons by Mile Francoise Prevost (1680-1741), then
the first dancer at the Paris Opera, and at once obtained an
engagement as premiere danseuse, first at Brussels and then at
Rouen. Under her grandmother's family name of Camargo she
made her Paris dSbut in 1726, and at once became the rage.
Every new fashion bore her name; her manner of doing her hair
was copied by all at court; her shoemaker — she had a tiny foot —
made his fortune. She had many titled adorers whom she nearly
ruined by her extravagances, among others Louis de Bourbon,
comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from the stage from
1736 to 1 741. In her time she appeared in seventy-eight ballets
or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the first
ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the
regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by
Nicolas Lancret in the Wallace collection, London.
CAM ARGUE (Insula Camaria), a thinly-populated region of
southern France contained wholly in the department of Bouches-
du-Rh6ne, and comprising the delta of the Rhone. The
Camargue is a marshy plain of alluvial formation enclosed
between the two branches of the river, the Grand Rhone to the
east and the Petit Rh6ne to the west. Its average elevation is
from 6J to 8 ft. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30 m. in
length and an area of 200 sq. m., of which about a quarter consists
of cultivated and fertile land. This is in the north and on the
banks of the rivers. The rest consists of rough pasture grazed by
the black bulls and white horses of the region and by large flocks
of sheep, or of marsh, stagnant water and waste land impregnated
with salt. The region is inhabited by flocks of flamingoes,
bustards, partridge, and by sea-birds of various kinds. The
£tang de Vaccares, the largest of the numerous lagoons and
pools, covers about 23 sq. m. ; it receives three main canals con-
structed to drain off the minor lagoons. The Camargue is
protected by dikes from the inundations both of the sea and of
the rivers. Inlets in the sea-dike let in water for the purposes of
the lagoon fisheries and the salt-pans; and the river- water is
used for irrigation and for the submersion of vines. The
climate is characterized by hard winters and scorching summers.
Rain falls in torrents, but at considerable intervals. The mistral,
blowing from the north and north-west, is the prevailing wind.
The south-eastern portion of the Camargue is known as the lie
du Plan du Bourg. A secondary delta to the west of the Petit
Rh6ne goes by the name of Petite Camargue.
CAMARINA, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south
coast, about 17 m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova). It was founded by
Syracuse in 599 B.C., but destroyed by the mother city in 552 for
attempting to assert its independence. Hippocrates of Gela
received its territory from Syracuse and restored the town in 49a*
but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484; the Geloans, however,
founded it anew in 461. It seems to have been in general hostile
to Syracuse, but, though an ally of Athens in 427, it gave some
slight help to Syracuse in 415-413. It was destroyed by the
Carthaginians in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 after its
abandonment by Dionysius's order, but in 258 fell into the
hands of the Romans. Its complete destruction dates from
a.d. 853. The site of the ancient city is among rapidly shifting
sandhills, and the lack of stone in the neighbourhood has led to
its buildings being used as a quarry even by the inhabitants of
Terranova, so that nothing is now visible above ground but a
small part of the wall of the temple of Athena and a few founda-
tions of houses; portions of the city wall have been, traced by
excavation, and the necropolis has been carefully explored (see
J. Schubring in Philologus, xxxii. 490; P. Orsi in Monumenli
dei Lined, ix. poi, 1899; xiv. 756, 1904). To the north
lay the lake to which the answer of the Delphic oracle referred,
l^l Kivet, Ka/i&pu'ai', when the citizens inquired as to the
advisability of draining it.
CAMBACfiR&S, JEAN JACQUES RfiGIS DE, duke of Parma
(1 753-1824), French statesman, was born at Montpellier on the
18th of October 1753. He was descended from a well-known
family of the legal nobility (noblesse de la robe). He was designed
for the magistracy of his province; and in 17 71, when for a time
the provincial parlement was suppressed, with the others, by the
chancellor Maupeou, he refused to sit in the royal tribunal
substituted for it. He continued, however, to study law with
ardour, and in 1774 succeeded his father as councillor in the
court of accounts and finances of his native town. Espousing
the principles of the Revolution in 1789, he was commissioned
by the noblesse of the province to draw up the cahier (statement of
principles and grievances); and the senichaussSe of Montpellier
elected him deputy to the states-general of Versailles; but the
election was annulled on a technical point. Nevertheless in
1792 the new department of H6rault, in which Montpellier is
situated, sent him as one of its deputies to the Convention
which assembled and proclaimed the Republic in September
1792. In the strife which soon broke out between the Girondins
and the Jacobins he took no decided part, but occupied himself
mainly with the legal and legislative work which went on almost
without intermission even during the Terror. The action of
Cambac6res at the time of the trial of Louis XVI. (December
25, 1792-January 20, 1793) was characteristic of his habits of
thought. At first he protested against the erection of the
Convention into a tribunal in these words: " The people has
chosen you to be legislators; it has not appointed you as judges."
He also demanded that the king should have due facilities for his
defence. Nevertheless, when the trial proceeded, he voted with
the majority which declared Louis to be guilty, but recommended
that the penalty should be postponed until the cessation of
hostilities, and that the sentence should then be ratified by the
Convention or by some other legislative body. It is therefore
inexact to count him among the regicides, as was done by the
royalists after 181 5. Early in 1793 he became a member of the
Committee of General Defence, but he did not take part in the
work of its more famous successor, the Committee of Public
Safety, until the close of the year 1 794. In the meantime he had
done much useful work, especially that of laying down, conjointly
with Merlin of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of
the revolutionary epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794
he also used his tact and eloquence on behalf of the restoration of
the surviving Girondins to the Convention, from which they had
been driven by the coup d'itat of the 31st of May 1793. In the
course of the year 1795, as president of the Committee of Public
Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign affairs, he was
largely instrumental in bringing about peace with Spain. Never-
theless, not being a regicide, he was not appointed to be one of
the five Directors to whom the control of public affairs was
entrusted after the coup d'Hat of Vendemiaire 1795; but, as
before, his powers of judgment and of tactful debating soon
carried him to the front in the council of Five Hundred. The
CAMBALUC— CAMBAY :,■/:.■
81.
moderation of his views brought him into opposition to the
Directors after the coup d'ikti of Fructidor (September 1797),
and for a time he retired into private life. Owing, however, to
the influence of Sieves, he became minister of justice in July
1799. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieves in
their enterprise of overthrowing the Directory {coup d'itat of
Brumaire 1799).
After a short interval Cambac6res was, by the constitution of
December 1799, appointed second consul of France — a position
which he owed largely to his vast legal knowledge and to the
conviction which Sieves entertained of his value as a mani-
pulator of public assemblies. It is impossible here to describe in
detail his relations to Napoleon, and the part which he played in
the drawing up of the Civil Code, later on called the Code
Napoleon. It must suffice to say that the skilful intervention of
Cambaceres helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon the
consulship for life (August 1, 1802); but the second consul is
known to have disapproved of some of the events which followed,
notably the execution of the due d'Enghien, the rupture with
England, and the proclamation of the Empire (May 19, 1304).
This last occurrence ended his title of second consul; it was
replaced by that of arch-chancellor of the Empire. To him was
decreed the presidence of the Senate in perpetuity. He also
became a prince of the Empire and received in 1808 the title
duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in
helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambaceres did
the state good service in many directions, notably by seeking to
curb the impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises
so fatal as the intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the
invasion of Russia (181 2) proved to be. At the close of the
campaign of 1814 he shared with Joseph Bonaparte the responsi-
bility for some of the actions which zealous Bonapartists have
deemed injurious to the fortunes of the emperor. In 1815,
during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at
the bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his
master, he felt the brunt of royalist vengeance, being for a time
exiled from France. A decree of 13th May 1818 restored him to
his civil rights as a citizen of France; but the last six years of his
life he spent in retirement. He was a member of the Academy
till the 31st of March 1816, when a decree of exclusion was
passed. In demeanour he was quiet, reserved and tactful, but
when occasion called for it he proved himself a brilliant orator.
He was a celebrated gourmet, and his dinners were utilized by
Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft.
See A. Aubriet, Vie de CambaUrls (2nd ed., Paris, 1825).
(J. H
L. R.)
CAMBALUC, the name by which, under sundry modifications,
the royal city of the great khan in China became known to Europe
during the middle ages, that city being in fact the same that we
now know as Peking. The word itself represents the Mongol
Khan-Balik, " the city of the khan/' or emperor, the title by
which Peking continues, more or less, to be known to the Mongols
and other northern Asiatics.
A city occupying approximately the same site had been the
capital of one of the principalities into which China was divided
some centuries before the Christian era; and during the reigns
of the two Tatar dynasties that immediately preceded the Mongols
in northern China, viz. that of the Khitans, and of the Kin or
" Golden " khans, it had been one of their royal residences.
Under the names of Yenking, which it received from the Khitan,
and of Chung-tu, which it had from the Kin, it holds a conspicuous
place in the wars of Jenghiz Khan against the latter dynasty.
Hecaptureditini2Z5,butitwasnottillx284thatit was adopted
as the imperial residence in lieu of Karakorum in the Mongol
steppes by his grandson Kublai. The latter selected a position
a few hundred yards to the north-east of the old city of Chung-tu
or Yenking, where he founded the new city of Ta-tu (" great
capital ")> called by the Mongols Taidu or Daitu, but also Khan-
Balik; and from this time dates the use of the latter name as
applied to this site.
The new city formed a rectangle, enclosed by a colossal mud
rampart, the longer sides of which ran north and south. These
were each about 5 J English m. in length, the shorter sides 3 J m.,
so that the circuit was upwards of 18 m. The palace of the
khan, with its gardens and lake, itself formed an inner enclosure
fronting the south. There were eleven city gates, viz. three on
the south side, always the formal front with the Tatars, and two
on each of the other sides; and the streets ran wide and straight
from gate to gate (except, of course, where interrupted by the
palace walls), forming an oblong chess-board plan.
Ta-tu continued to be the residence of the emperors till the
fall of the Mongol power (1368). The native dynasty (Ming)
which supplanted them established their residence at Nan-king
(" South Court "), but this proved so inconvenient that Yunglo,
the third sovereign of the dynasty, reoccupied Ta-tu, giving it
then, for the first time, the name of Pe-king (" North Court ").
This was the name in common use when the Jesuits entered
China towards the end of the 16th century, and began to send
home accurate information about China. But it is not so now;
the names in ordinary use being King-cheng or King-tu, both
signifying " capital" The restoration of Cambaluc was com-
menced in 1409. The size of the city was diminished by the
retrenchment of nearly one-third at the northern end, which
brought the enceinte more nearly to a square form. And this
constitutes the modern (so-called) " Tatar city " of Peking, the
south front of which is identical with the south front of the city
of Kublai. The wails were completed in 1437. Population
gathered about the southern front, probably using the material of
the old city of Yenking, and the excrescence so formed was, in
1544, enclosed by a wall and called the " outer city." It is the
same that is usually called by Europeans " the Chinese city."
The ruins of the retrenched northern portion of Kublai's great
rampart are still prominent along their whole extent, so that
there is no room for question as to the position qr true dimensions
of the Cambaluc of the middle ages; and it is most probable,
indeed it is almost a necessity, that the present palace stands on
the lines of KublaTs palace.
The city, under the name of Cambaluc, was constituted into an
archiepiscopal see by Pope Clement V. in 1307, in favour of the.
missionary Franciscan John of Montecorvino (<L 1330); but
though some successors were nominated it seems probable that
no second metropolitan ever actually occupied the seat.
Maps of the 16th and 17th centuries often show Cambaluc in
an imaginary region to the north of China, a part of the miscon-
ception that has prevailed regarding Cathay. The name is
often in popular literature written Cambalu, and is by Longfellow
accented in verse Cdmb&M. But this spelling originates in an
accidental error in Ramusio's Italian version, which was the chief
channel through which Marco Polo's book was popularly known.
The original (French) MSS. all agree with the etymology in calling
it Cambaluc, which should be accented C&mbdluc.
CAMBAY, a native state of India, within the Gujarat division
of Bombay. It has an area of 350 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 75,225,
showing a decrease of 16 % in the decade, due to the famine of
1899-1900. The estimated gross revenue is £27,189; the tribute,.
£1460. In physical character Cambay is entirely an alluvial
plain. As a separate state it dates only from about 1730, the
time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present
chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the
governors of Gujarat, who in 1742 murdered his brother-in-law,.
Nizam Khan, governor of Cambay, and established himself there.
The town of Cambay had a population in 1901 of 31,780. It
is supposed to be the Camanes of Ptolemy, and was formerly a
very flourishing city, the seat of an extensive trade, and cele-
brated for its manufactures of silk, chintz and gold stuffs; but
owing principally to the gradually increasing difficulty of access
by water, owing to the silting up of the gulf, its commerce has
long since fallen away, and the town has become poor and
dilapidated. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft., and in a
channel usually so shallow form a serious danger to shipping. The
trade is chiefly confined to the export of cotton. The town is
celebrated for its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments,
of reputation principally in China. The houses in many instances
are built of stone (a circumstance which indicates the former
82
CAMBAY, GULF OF— CAMBODIA
wealth of the city, as the material had to be brought from a very
considerable distance); and remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in
circumference, which formerly surrounded the town, enclose four
large reservoirs of good water and three bazaars. To the south-
east there are very extensive ruins of subterranean temples and
other buildings half-buried in the sand by which the ancient
town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the Jains, and
contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black, the
other white. The principal one, as the inscription intimates,
is Pariswanath, or Parswanath, carved in the reign of the
emperor Akbar; the black one has the date of 16 51 inscribed.
In 1 780 Cambay was taken by the army of General Goddard, was
restored to the Mahrattas in 1 783, and was afterwards ceded to the
British by the peshwa under the treaty of 1803. It was provided
with a railway in 1901 by the opening of the 11 m. required
to connect with the gaekwar of Baroda's line through Petlad.
CAMBAY, GULF OF, an inlet in the coast of India, in the
Gujarat division of Bombay. It is about 80 m. in length, but
is shallow and abounds in shoals and sandbanks. It is supposed
that the depth of water in this gulf has been decreasing for more
than two centuries past. The tides, which are very high, run
into it with amazing velocity, but at low water the bottom is
left nearly dry for some distance below the latitude of the town
of Cambay. It is, however, an important inlet, being the channel
by which the valuable produce of central Gujarat and the
British districts of Ahmedabad and Broach is exported; but the
railway from Bombay to Baroda and Ahmedabad, near Cambay,
has for some time past been attracting the trade to itself.
CAMBBR (derived through the Fr. from Ltft. camera, vault),
in architecture, the upward curvature given to a beam and
provided for the depression or sagging, which it is liable to,
before it has settled down to its bearings. A " camber arch '* is
a slight rise given to the straight-arch td correct an apparent
sinking in the centre (see Arch).
CAMBERT, ROBERT (1628-1677), French operatic composer,
was born in Paris in 1628. He was a pupil of Chamborinieres.
In 1655, after he had obtained the post of organist at the church
of St Honor6, he married Marie du Moustier. He was musical
superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother of Louis XIV.,
and for a time held a post with the marquis de Sourdeac. His
earlier works,' the words of which were furnished by Pierre
Perrin, continued to be performed before the court at Vincennes
till the death of his patron Cardinal Mazarin. In 1669 Perrin
received a patent for the founding of the AcadSmie Nalionale de
musique, the germ of the Grand Opera, and Cambert had a share
in the administration until both he and Perrin were discarded
in the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his subsequent neglect,
and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was musical
superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where
soon after his arrival he was appointed master of the band to
Charles II. One at least of his operas, Pomone, was performed in
London under his direction, but it did not suit the popular taste,
and he is supposed to have killed himself in London in 1677.
His other principal operas weTe Ariadne ou les amours de Bacchus
and Les Peines et les plaisirs de Vambur.
CAMBERWELL, a southern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Southwark and Bermondsey, E. by
Deptford and Lewisham, W. by Lambeth, and extending S. to
the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1001) 259,339.
Area, 4480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the derivation
of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of Peckham
and Nunhead, and Dulwich (q.v.) with its park, picture-gallery
and schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are
many good houses, pleasantly situated in Dulwich and south-
ward towards the high ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park
(72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and Park (113 acres) are
the largest of several public grounds, and Camberwell Green
was once celebrated for its fairs. Immediately outside the
southern boundary lies a well-known place of recreation,
the Crystal Palace. Among institutions may be mentioned the
Camberwell school of arts and crafts, Peckham Road. In
Camberwell Road is Cambridge House, a university settlement,
founded in 1897 and incorporating the earlier Trinity settlement.
The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has three divisions,
North, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member;
but is not wholly coincident with the municipal borough, the
Dulwich division extending to include Penge, outside the
county of London. The borough council consists of a mayor,
ten aldermen, and sixty councillors.
CAMBIASI, LUCA (1527-1585), Genoese painter, familiarly
known as Lucchetto da Genova (his surname is written also
Cambiaso or Cangiagio), was born at Moneglia in the Genoese
state, the son of a painter named Giovanni Cambiasi. He took to
drawing at a very early age, imitating his father, and developed
great aptitude for foreshortening. At the age of fifteen he painted,
along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's Metamorphoses
on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in conjunction-
with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great daring of
execution in the Palazzo Doria. He also formed an early friend-
ship with Giambattista Castello; both artists painted together,
with so much similarity of style that their works could hardly
be told apart; from this friend Cambiasi learned much in the
way of perspective and architecture. Luchetto's best artistic
period lasted for twelve years after his first successes; from that
time he declined in power, though not at once in reputation,
owing to the agitations and vexations brought upon him by a
passion which he conceived for his sister-in-law. His wife having
died, and the sister-in-law having taken charge of his house and
children, he endeavoured to procure a papal dispensation for
marrying her; but in this he was disappointed. In 1583 he
accepted an invitation from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial
a series of frescoes which had been begun by Castello, now
deceased; and it is said that one principal reason for his closing
with this offer was that he hoped to bring the royal influence to
bear upon the pope, but in this again he failed. Worn out with-
his disquietudes, he died in the Escorial in the second year of hfe
sojourn. Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold designer
in a Raphaelesque mode. His extreme facility astonished the
Spanish painters; and it is said that Philip II., watching one day
with pleasure the offhand zest with which Luchetto was painting-
a head of a laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of
seeing the laugh changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a
Weeping expression. The artist painted sometimes with a brush
in each hand, and with a certainty equalling or transcending that
even of Tintoret. He made a vast number of drawings, and was
also something of a sculptor, executing in this branch of art a
figure of Faith. Altogether he ranks as one of the ablest artists
Of his day. In personal character, notwithstanding his executive
energy^ he is reported to have been timid and diffident. His son
Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Luchetto.
The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen in Genoa. In the
church of S. Giorgio — the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazeo
Imperial i Terralba, a Genoese suburb— a fresco of the " Rape of the
Sabines "; in S. Maria da Carignano — a " Pieta," containing his own
£>rtrait and (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-
w. In the Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise
on the vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this
picture he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had,
up to that time, ever been given tor a single work. ,
CAMBODIA l (called by the inhabitants Sroc Khmer and by the
French Cambodge), a country of south-eastern Asia and a pro-
tectorate of France, forming part of French Indo-China.
Geography. — It is bounded N. by Siam and Laos, E. by
Annam, S.E. andS. by Cochin-China, S.W. by the Gulf of Siam,
and W. by Siam. Its area is estimated at approximately
65,000 sq. m.; its population at 1,500,000, of whom some
three-quarters are Cambodians, the rest Chinese, Annamese,
Chams, Malays, and aboriginal natives. The whole of Cambodia
lies in the basin of the lower Mekong, which, entering, this
territory on the north, flows south for some distance, then inclines
south-west as far as Pnom-penh, where it spreads into a delta and
resumes a southerly course. The salient feature of Cambodian
geography is the large lake Tonl6-Sap, in a depression 68 m. long
from south-east to north-west and 15 m. wide. It is fed by several
1 See also Indo-China, French.
CAMBODIA
83
rivers and innumerable torrents, and at flood-time serves as a
reservoir for the Mekong, with which it is connected by a channel
some 70 m. long, known as the Bras du Lac and joining the river at
Pnom-Penh. In June the watersof the Mekong, swollen by the rains
and the melting of the Tibetan snows, rise to a height of 40 to 45
ft. and flow through the Bras du Lac towards the lake, which then
covers an area of 770 sq. m., and like the river inundates the
marshes and forests on its borders. During the dry season the
current reverses and the depression empties so that the lake
shrinks to an area of 100 sq. m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft.
to a maximum of 5 ft. Tonl6-Sap probably represents the chief
wealth of Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over
30,000, most of whom are Annamese; the fish, which are taken by
means of large nets at the end of the inundation, are either dried
or fermented for the production of the sauce known as nuoc-mam.
The northern and western provinces of Cambodia which fall
■outside the densely populated zone of inundation are thinly
peopled; they consist of plateaus, in many places thickly
wooded and intersected by mountains, the highest of which does
not exceed 5000 ft. The region to the east of the Mekong is
traversed by spurs of the mountains of Annam and by affluents
of the Mekong, the most important of these being the Se-khong
and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into the Mekong at
Stung- treng. Small islands, inhabited by a fishing population,
fringe the west coast.
Climate, Fauna and Flora. — The climate of Cambodia, like
that of Cochin China, which it closely resembles, varies with the
monsoons. During the north-east monsoon, from the middle of
October to the middle of April, dry weather prevails and the
thermometer averages from 77 to 8o* F. During the south-
west monsoon, from the middle of April to the middle of
October, rain falls daily and the temperature varies between
85 and 95 . The wild animals of Cambodia include the
elephant, which is also domesticated, the rhinoceros, buffalo and
some species of wild ox; also the tiger, panther, leopard and
honey-bear. Wild boars, monkeys and rats abound and are the
chief enemies of the cultivator. The crocodile is found in the
Mekong, and there are many varieties of reptiles, some of them
venomous. The horse of Cambodia is only from 1 1 to 1 2 hands in
height, but is strong and capable of great endurance; the buffalo
is the chief draught animal. Swine are reared in large numbers.
Nux vomica, gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak and other
Valuable woods and gums are among the natural products.
People, — The Cambodians have a far more marked affinity
with their Siamese than with their Annamese neighbours. The
race is probably the result of a fusion of the Malay aborigines of
Indo-China with the Aryan and Mongolian invaders of the
country. The men are taller and more muscular than the
Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and inclined
to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the mouth
large and the eyes only slightly oblique. The skin is dark brown,
the hair black and, while in childhood the head is shaved with
the exception of a small tuft at the top, in later life it is dressed
so as to resemble a brush. Both sexes wear the Iangouti or loin-
cloth, which the men supplement with a short jacket, the women
with a long scarf draped round the figure or with a long clinging
robe. Morose, superstitious, and given to drinking and gambling,
the Cambodians are at the same time clean, fairly intelligent,
proud and courageous. The wife enjoys a respected position and
divorce may be demanded by either party. Polygamy is almost
confined to the richer classes. Though disinclined to work, the
Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen. Many of them
live on the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts
built upon piles or floating rafts. The religion of Cambodia is
Buddhism, and involves great respect towards the dead; the
worship of spirits or local genii is also wide-spread, and Brahman-
ism is still maintained at the court. Monks or bonzes are very
numerous; they live by alms and in return they teach the
young to read, and superintend, coronations, marriages, funerals
and the other ceremonials which play a large part in the lives of
the Cambodians. As in the rest of Indo-China, there is no
hereditary nobility, but there exist castes founded on blood-
relationship — the members of the royal family within the fifth
degree (the Br ah- V ansa) those beyond the fifth degree (Brah-
Van), and the Bakou, who, as descendants of the ancient Brah-
mans, exercise certain official functions at the court. These
castes, as well as the mandarins, who form a class by themselves,
are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are
nominated by the king and their children have a position at court,
and are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the admini-
stration. Under the native regime the common people attached
themselves to one or other of the mandarins, who in return
granted them the protection of his influence. Under French rule,
which has modified the old usages in many respects, local govern-
ment of the Annamese type tends to supplant this feudal system.
Slavery was abolished by a royal ordinance of 1897.
Cambodian idiom bears a likeness to some of the aboriginal
dialects of south Indo-China; it is agglutinate in character and
rich in vowel-sounds. The king's language and the royal writing,
and also religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan
origin and akin to Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and com-
plicated. The books (manuscripts) are generally formed of palm-
leaves upon which the characters are traced by means of a style.
Industry and Commerce. — Iron, worked by the tribe of the
Kouis, is found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians
show skill in working gold and silver; earthenware, bricks, mats,
fans and silk and cotton fabrics, are also produced to some
small extent, but fishing and the cultivation of rice and in a minor
degree of tobacco, coffee, cotton, pepper, indigo, maize, tea and
sugar are the only industries worthy of the name. Factories
exist near Pnom-Penh for the shelling of cotton-seeds. The
Cambodian is his own artificer and self-sufficing so far as his own
needs are concerned. Rice, dried fish, beans, pepper and oxen
are the chief elements in the export trade of the country, which
is in the hands of Chinese. The native plays little or no part in
commerce.
Trade is carried on chiefly through Saigon in Cochin-China,
Kampot, the only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to
coasting vessels. With the exception of the highway from
Pnom-Penh (q.v.) the capital, to Kampot, the roads of Cambodia
are not suited for vehicles. Pnom-Penh communicates regularly
by the steamers of the " Messageries Fluviales " by way of the
Mekong with Saigon.
Administration. — At the head of the government is the king
(raj). His successor is either nominated by himself, in which
case he sometimes abdicates in his favour, or else elected by the
five chief mandarins from among the Brah Vansa. The upayu-
vraj (obbaioureach) or king who has abdicated, the heir-pre r
sumptive (uparaj, obbareach) and the first princess of the blood
are high dignitaries with their own retinues. The king is
advised by a council of five ministers, the superior members of the
class of mandarins; and the kingdom is divided into about
fifty provinces administered by members of that body. France
is represented by a resident superior, who presides over the
ministerial council and is the real ruler of the country, and by
residents exercising supervision in the districts into which the
country is split up for the purposes of the French administration.
In each residential district there is a council, composed of natives
and presided over by the resident, which deliberates on questions
affecting the district. The resident superior is assisted by the
protectorate council, consisting of heads of French administrative
departments (chief of the judicial service, of public works, &c.)
and one native " notable," and the royal orders must receive its
sanction before they can be executed. The control of foreign
policy, public works, the customs and the exchequer are in
French hands, while the management of police, the collection of
the direct taxes and the administration of justice between
natives remain with the native government. A French tribunal
alone is competent to settle disputes where one of the parties is
not a native.
The following is a summary of the local budget of Cambodia
for 1899 and 1904; — Receipts. Expenditure.
1899 • • £235.329 £188,654
1904 . . 250,753 229,880
8 4
CAMBON, P. J.
The chief sources of revenue are the direct taxes, including
the poll-tax and the taxes on the products of the soil, which
together amounted to £172,636 in 1904. The chief heads of
expenditure are the civil list, comprising the personal allow-
ance to the king and the royal family (£46,018 in 1904),
public works (£39,593) and government house and residences
(£*9t977)-
History. — The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia,
are conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between
the autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now
represented by the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading
race from the plateaus of central Asia. As early as the 12th
century B.C., Chinese chronicles, which are almost the only source
for the history of Cambodia till the 5th century a.d., mention a
region called Fou-nan, in later times appearing under the name of
Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the Menam, it extended east-
wards to the Mekong and may be considered approximately
coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before
the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to
exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they
introduced Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hindu-
izing process became more marked about the 5th century a.d.,
when, under S'rutavarman, the Khmers as a nation rose into
prominence. The name Kambuja, whence the European form
Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu Katnbu, the name of the
mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been
officially adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country
about this period. At the end of the 7 th century the dynasty of
S'rutavarman ceased to rule over the whole of Cambodia, which
during the next century was divided into two portions ruled over
by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have been re-established
about the beginning of the 9th century, when with Jayavarman
III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of Khmer
greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monu-
ments were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see Angkor)
was completed under Yasovarman about a.d. 900. In the
10th century Buddhism, which had existed for centuries in
Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival Brahmanism,
the official religion. The construction of the temple of Angkor
Vat dates probably from the first half of the 12th century, and
appears to have been carried out under the direction of the
Brahman Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the
monarchs of this period. The conquest of the rival kingdom of
Champa, which embraced modern Cochin-China and southern
Annam, and in the later 15th century was absorbed by Annam,
may probably be placed at the end of the 12th century, in the
reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. War was
also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and
the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have
been the immediate cause of the decadence which now set in.
From the last decade of the 13th century there dates a valuable
description of Tchin-la 1 written by a member of a Chinese
embassy thereto. The same period probably also witnessed the
liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of Siam from the yoke of
the Khmers, to whom they had for long been subject, and the
expulsion of the now declining race f rbm the basin of the Menam.
The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of
which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the
14th century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive
and were able repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor-Thorn.
These aggressions were continued fn the 15th century, in the
course of which the capital was finally abandoned by the Khmer
kings, the ruin of the country being hastened by internal revolts
and by feuds between members of the royal family. At the end of
the 1 6th century, Lovek, which had succeeded Angkor-Thorn as
capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During that
century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the
country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the
middle of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in
Cambodia till the arrival of the French. At the beginning of the
translated by Abel Remusat, Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques
(1829).
17 th century the Nguyen, rulers of southern Annam, began to
encroach on the territory of Cochin-China, and in the course of
that and the 18th century, Cambodia, governed by two kings
supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a field for
the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of the
1 8th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were
annexed by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were con-
cluded after a last and indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a
result of which Ang-Duong, the proteg6 of Siam, was placed on
the throne at the capital of Oudong, and the Annamese evacuated
the country. In 1863, in order to counteract Siamese influence
there, Doudart de Lagree was sent by Admiral la Grandiere to the
court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and as a
result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate
of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom-
penh. In 1867 a treaty between France and Siam was signed,
whereby Siam renounced its right to tribute and recognized the
French protectorate over Cambodia in return for the provinces of
Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos territory as far as the
Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the king, con-
firming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal
authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by
it, its provisions were not put in force till several years later.
In 1904 the territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition
to it of the Siamese provinces of Melupre* and Bassac, and
the maritime district of Krat, the latter of which, together
with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 exchanged for the
provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By the
same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the
right bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was suc-
ceeded by his brother Sisowath.
See E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge (3 vols., Paris, 1 900-1904);
L. Moura, Le royaume de Cambodge (2 vols., Paris, 1883) ; A, Lectere,
Les codes cambodgiens (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on
Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, Voyage d' exploration en In&o-
Chine (Paris, 1873).
CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French statesman,
was the son of a wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In
1785 his father retired, leaving the direction of the business to
Pierre and his two brothers, but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to
politics, and was sent by his fellow-citizens as deputy suppliant
to Versailles, where he was little more than a spectator. In
January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was elected a member
of the municipality, was one of the founders of the Jacobin club
in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 179 1, he drew up
a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a
republic, — the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the
Legislative Assembly, Cambon became noted for his independence,
his honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active
member of the committee of finance and was often charged to
verify the state of the treasury. Nothing could be more false
than the common opinion that as a financier his sole expedient
was to multiply the emissions of as signals. His remarkable
speech of the 24th of November 1 791 is a convincing proof of his
sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from the clubs, and
even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new institu-
tions. On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a
law passed sequestrating the possessions of the emigres, and de-
manded, though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to
French Guiana. He was the last president of the Legislative
Assembly. Re-elected to the Convention, he opposed the pre-
tensions of the Commune and the proposed grant of money to
the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced Marat's
placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an
account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing
of military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez,
in spite of the general's great popularity. Cambon then incurred
the hatred of Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the
pay to the clergy, which would have meant the separation of
church and state. His authority grew steadily. On the 15th of
December 1792 he got the Convention to adopt a proclamation to
all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the trial of
CAMBON, P. P.— CAMBRA1
85
Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or postpone-
ment. He attempted to prevent the creation of tie Revolutionary
Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public
Safety he worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On
the 3rd of February 1793 he had decreed the emission of 800
millions of assignats, for the expenses of the war. His courageous
intervention in favour of the Girondists on the 2nd of June 1793
served Robespierre as a pretext to prevent his re-election to the
Committee of Public Safety. But Cambon soon came to the
conclusion that the security of France depended upon the triumph
of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to accord his active co-
operation to the second committee. He took an active share
in the various expedients of the government for stopping the
depreciation of the assignats. He was responsible, especially,
for the great operation known as the opening of the Grand Livre
(August 24), which was designed to consolidate the public debt
by cancelling the stock issued under various conditions prior to
the Revolution, and issuing new stock of a uniform character, so
that all fund-holders should hold stock of the revolutionary gov-
ernment and thus be interested in its stability. Each fund-holder
was to be entered in the Great Book, or register of the public
debt, for the amount due to him every year. The result of this
measure was a rise in the face value of the assignats from 27 %
to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of finance Carnbon
was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of dictator-
ship, his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary
Tribunal, won him Robespierre's renewed suspicion, and on
the 8th Thermidor Robespierre accused him of being anti-
revolutionary and an aristocrat. Cambon *s proud and vehement :
reply was the signal of the resistance to Robespierre's tyranny
and trie prelude to his fall. Cambon soon had reason to repent
of that event, for he became one of those most violently attacked
by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets and the
journals of J. L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former
Montagnard* He was charged with being responsible for the dis-
credit of the assignats, and even accused of malversations. On
the 21st of February 1795 the project which he presented to with-
draw four milliards of assignats from circulation, was rejected,
and on the 3rd of April he was excluded from the committee of
finance. On the 16th Germinal, Tallien procured a decree of ac-
cusation against him, but he was already in safety, taking refuge
probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not seem to have re-
mained in Paris, although in the riot of the 1st Prairial some of the
insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th Bru-
maire of the year IV. (the $th of October 1795), permitted him to
return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near
Mont#elIfer, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow
escape from ah attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to
find in Bonaparte the saviour of the republic, but, deceived by
the 1 8th Brumaife, he lived throughout the whole of the empire
in peaceful seclusion. During the Hundred Days he was deputy
for Herault in the chamber of representatives, and pronounced
himself strongly against the return of the Bourbons, and for
religious freedom. Under the Restoration the " amnesty ^
law of 1816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he withdrew
,to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died
on the 15th of February 1820. . (R. A.*)
See Bornarel, Cambon (Paris).
CAMBON, PIERRE. PAUL (1843- ), French diplomatist,
was born on the 20th of January 1843. He was called to the
Parisian bar, and became private secretary to Jules Ferry in the
prefecture of the Seine. After ten years of administrative work
in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as prefect succes-
sively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), Nord
(i#7 7-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being
nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886
he became French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to
Constantinople in 1890, and in 1898 to London. He was decor-
ated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and became a
,member of the French Academy of Sciences.
His brother, Jules Martin Cambon (1845- )> was called
to the bar in 1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and
entered the civil service in 187 1. He was prefect of the depart-
ment of Nord (1882) and of the Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891
became governor-general of Algeria (see Guyot, L'ceuvre de
M. Jules Cambon, Paris, 1897), where he had served in a minor
position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at
Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the pre-
liminaries of peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the
war with the United States. He was transferred in 1902 to
Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin.
CAMBORNE, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway,
13 m. E.N.E. of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1001), 14,726.
It lies on the northward slope of the central elevation of the
county, and is in the neighbourhood of some of the most pro-
ductive tin and copper mines. These and the manufacture of
mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants. The parish
church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient
stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. TheTe are science and art
and mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South
Condurrow mine, the school attracting a large number of students.
It was developed from classes initiated in 1859 DV *h* Miners'
Association, and a three years' course of instruction is provided.
Camborne (Cambron, Camrori) formed a portion of the ex-
tensive manor of Tehidy, which at the time of the Domesday
Survey was held by the earl of Mortain and subsequently by the
Dunstanville and Basset families. Its interests were economic-
ally insignificant until the beginning of the 18th century when the
rich deposits of copper and tin began to be vigorously worked at
Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this mine alone
had produced ore worth £2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth
£ 5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other
mines in the neighbourhood the population in i860 was double
that of 1830, six times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of
1660. Camborne was the scene of the scientific labours of
Richard Trevithick (1 771-1833), the engineer, born in the
neighbouring parish of IUogan, and of William Bickford, the
inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three fairs on
the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 2 5th of February were
granted in 1 708. The two former are still held, the last has been
transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the
subject of a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the
19th century it has been held on Saturdays.
CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the
main line of the Northern railway. Pop. (xoo6) 21 ,791 . Cambrai
is situated on the right and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of
which traverse the west of the town) and at one extremity of the
canal of St Quentin. The fortifications with which it was formerly
surrounded have been for the most part demolished. The fosses
have been filled up and the ramparts in part levelled to make
way, as the suburbs extended, for avettues stretching out on all
sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are the huge
square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the chateau de
Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the
13th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a
stone and brick structure of the early t 7th century. Handsome
boulevards now skirt the town, the streets of which are clean and
well-ordered, and a large public garden extends at the foot of the
citadel, with a statue of Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler.
The former cathedral of Cambrai was destroyed after the Revolu-
tion. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame is a church of the
19th century built on the site of the old abbey church of St
Sepulchre . Among other monuments it contains that of Fenelon,
archbishop from 1695 to 1 71 5, by David d'Angets. The church of
St G6ry (18th century) contains, among other works of art, a
marble rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. Hie Place
d'Armes, a large square in the centre of the town, is bordered on
the north by a handsome h6tel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt
in the 19th century. The Tour St Martin is an old church-tower
of the 15th and 18th centuries transformed into a belfry. The
triple stone portal, which gave entrance to the former archi-
episcopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance period. The
86
CAMBRIA— CAMBRIAN SYSTEM
present archbishop's palace, adjoining the cathedral) occupies
the site of an old Benedictine convent.
Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-
arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank
of France. Its educational institutions include communal
colleges, ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and
music. The library has over 40,000 volumes and there is a
museum of antiquities and objects of art. The chief industry of
Cambrai is the weaving of muslin {batiste) and other fine
fabrics (see Cambric); wool-spinning and weaving, bleaching
and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the manufacture of chicory,
oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are also large beet-
sugar works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in cattle,
grain, coal, hops, seed, &c.
Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of Camaracum, which is
mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was
the capital of the Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by
Charlemagne, it was captured and pillaged by the Normans in
870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the Hungarians in 953.
During the 10th, nth and 12th centuries it was the scene of
frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on the
one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately
effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XL, who had
obtained possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the
16th century Charles V. caused it to be fortified with a strong
citadel, for the erection of which the castles of Cavillers, Escau-
doeuvres and many others were demolished. From that date to
the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which assigned it to France, it
frequently passed from hand to hand by capture or treaty. In
1793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League of
Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II.,
Louis XII., Maximilian L, and Ferdinand the Catholic against
the Venetians in 1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is
also called, the Ladies' Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529
by Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis L, and Margaret of
Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of these monarchs. The
bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and was raised
in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till the
Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received
the title of count from the emperor Henry I. (910-936), and in
1510 were raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including
the town itself and its territory, called Cambresis.
See £. Bouly, Histaire de Cambrai et du Cambrisis (Cambria,
1843).
CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the
end of the western Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a
while both Wales and the land round the Solway (now Cumber-
land and adjacent regions), and the former came to be called
Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were some-
times interchanged by early medieval writers.
CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name now universally
employed to designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks
which possesses a connected suite of fossils. The strata of this
system rest upon the Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the
Ordovician system. Until the fourth decade of the 19th century
all stratified rocks older than the Carboniferous had been grouped
by geologists into a huge and indefinite " Transition Series." In
1 83 1 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison began the
herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of rocks as
it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England.
Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where
the rocks are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are
comparatively difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand,
began to work at the upper end of the series where the strati-
graphy is simple and the fossils are abundant. Murchison
naturally made the most of the fossils collected, and was soon able
to show that the transition series could be recognized by them,
just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to themselves; as
he eealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous rocks further
afield and continually lower in the series. This fossil-bearing
set of strata he first styled the " fossiliferous greywacke series,"
changing it in 1835 to " Silurian system.' '
In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name " Cambrian
series " for the older and lower members. Murchison published his
Silurian system in 1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to
include the barren slates and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the
Long Mynd. So far, the two workers had been in agreement;
but in his presidential address to the Geological Society of London
in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that the Cambrian contained
no fossils that differed from those of the Lower Silurian. Where-
upon Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh rocks
with the assistance of J. W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in
1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the
Upper Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his
Siluria, in which he treated the Cambrian system as a mere
local fades of the Silurian system, and he included in the latter,
under J. Barrande's term " Primordial zone," all the lower rocks,
although they had a distinctive fauna.
Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected
from similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of
" Cambrian " was almost discarded, because, following Murchison,
it was taken to apply only to a group of rocks without a charac-
teristic fauna and therefore impossible to recognize. Most of
the Cambrian rocks were coloured as Silurian on the British
official geological maps.
Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on
the British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of
the Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his
Silurian system downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick
adhered to the original grouping of his Cambrian system, and
even proposed to limit the Silurian to the Ludlow and Wenlock
beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base. This attitude he
maintained until the year of his death (1873), when there appeared
his introduction to Salter's Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian
Fossils.
It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was
necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was
left for the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove
that the rocks below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison
did indeed possess a characteristic fauna, and their work was con-
firmed by researches going on in other countries. To-day the
recognition of the earliest fossil-bearing recks, below the Llan-
deilo formation of Murchison, as belonging to the Cambrian
system, and the threefold subdivision of the system according to
palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly established.
It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian
as the lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages
being Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use
SUurique to cover the same period with the Cambrian as the
lowest series, but these differences of treatment are merely
nominal. Jules Marcou and others have used Taconic (Taconian)
as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C. Lap worth proposed to apply
the same term to the lowest sub-division only; he had also used
" Annelidian " in the same sense. These names are of historical
interest alone.
Cambrian Rocks. — The lithological characters of the Cambrian
rocks possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the
globe. Muds, sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant
types. In Scotland, North America and Canada important
deposits of limest9ne occur and subordinate limestones are
found in the Cambrian of central Europe.
In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of
the United States, the rocks still retain their original horizon-
tality of deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the
sands are still incoherent; but in most parts of the world they
bear abundant evidence of the many movements and stresses to
which they have been exposed through so enormous a period of
time. Thus, we find them more frequently, folded, tilted and
cleaved; the muds have become shales, slates, phyllites or
schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates have become
quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very gener-
ally dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more
CAMBRIAN SYSTEM
87
recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphatized
material are not wanting.
Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they
form an important feature and occur in considerable thickness;
Distribution of ^
Cambrian Rocks
ImMI Area* in «Mo* marine deports amhtowo. •
1 Art** gained by the Sea between the beginning
Sand c/«« of the Mod.
Otfnknomn. Ths broken lines Indicate the possible
distribution of Land and Sea. _
•Iter DcLappwcat
-TSS&SSsTs?
they are represented by lavas of oli vine-diabase and. by con-
temporaneous tuffs which are traversed by later granite and
quartz felsite. In the Cambrian of Brittany there are acid
lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and diorite appear
in the Ardennes* In Bohemia, North America and Canada
igneous rocks -have been observed.
-In China, on the Yang-tee river, a thick deposit has been found
full of boulders of drverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner
that is typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the
Gaisa beds near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These forma-
tions lie at the base of the lowest Cambrian strata and may
possibly be included in the pre-Cambrian, though m Norway
they are clearly resting upon a striated floor of crystalline rocks.
* Cumbrian Life.-^Iti a general survey of the life of this period,
as it is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are ap-
parent: (1) the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna
and that of the present day; (2} the Cambrian life assemblage
differs in no marked manner from that of the succeeding Ordovi-
cian and Silurian periods; there is a certain family likeness
which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary complexity and
diversity not only in the assemblage as a> whole but within
certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian
strata- we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks — if we leave
out of -account the' very few and very obscure organic remains
hitherto recorded from the pre-Cambrian — yet we appear to
enter suddenly into the presence of a world richly peopled with a
suite of organisms already far advanced in differentiation; the
Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from what must
have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this remote
period are distant from the. creatures of to-day.
• With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great
classes of animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple
protozoa appear in the form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges
are represented by such forms as Archaeoscypkia, Hexactinellid
sponges by Protespongia; Graptolites (Dictyograptus (Dtctyo-
nemo)) come on in the higher parts of the system. Medusa-like
casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of Scandinavia
(Medusina) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama (Brooksella) .
Corals, Archaeocyathus, Spirocyathus, &c.j lived in the Cambrian
seas along with starfishes (Palaeasterina), Cystideans, Protocys-
tites, Trochocystites and possibly Crinoids, Dendrocritms. An-
nelids left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor
(Arenicolites, Cruziana, Scolithus, &c). Crustacea occupied an
extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as
Hymenocaris, and Ostracods like Entomidclla; but by far the
most important in numbers and development were the Trilo-
bites, now extinct, but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the
Cambrian period trilobites had already attained their maximum
size; some species of Paradoxides were nearly 2 ft. long, but in
company with these monsters were tiny forms like Agnostus and
Microdiscus. Many of the Cambrian trilobites appear to have
been blind, and they had not at this period developed that
flexibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later.
Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non-
articulated forms (Obelus, Lingulella, Acrotreta, Discinopsis,
&c); amongst the articulate genera are Kutorgina, Orthis,
Rhynchonella. It is a striking fact that certain of these non-
articulate " lamp-shells " are familiar inhabitants of our present
seas. Each of the principal groups of true mollusca was repre-
sented: Pelecypods (Modioloides); Gasteropods (Scenella,
Pleurotomaria, Trochonema); Pteropods (Hyolithellus, Hyo-
litheSy SaltereUa); Cephalopods (Orthoceras, Cystoceras). Of
land plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain
markings on slates and sandstones, such as the " fucoids " of
Scandinavia and Scotland, the Phycoides of the Fichtelgebirge,
Eophyton and other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be
the casts of fucoid plants; but it is by no means sure that
many of them are not mere inorganic imitative markings or the
tracks or casts of worms. Oldhamia, a delicate branching body,
abundant in the Cambrian of the south-east of Ireland, is probably
a calcareous alga, but its precise nature has not been satisfactorily
determined.
Cambrian Stratigraphy. — Wherever the Cambrian strata have
been carefully studied it has now been found possible and con-
venient to arrange them into three series, each of which is charac-
terized by a distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a
Lower Cambrian with Olenellus, a middle series with Paradoxides
and an Upper Cambrian with Olenus. It is true that these
fossils are not invariably present in every occurrence of Cambrian
strata, but this fact notwithstanding, the threefold division holds
with sufficient constancy. An uppermost series lies above the
Olenus fauna in some areas; it is represented by the Tremadoc
beds ■ in Britain or by the Dictyonema beds or Eulotna-Niobe
fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention: (1)
Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first differ-
entiated from the old " Transition Series "; (2) North America,
on account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the
abundance and perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia,
made classic by the great labours of J. Barrande.
Great Britain and Ireland.— -The table on p. 660 contains the nantes
that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata
irt the areas of outcrop in Wales and England ; at the same time it
indicates approximately their relative position in- the system.
In Scotland the upper and middle series are represented by a
thick mass of limestone and dblomite, the Durness limestone
(1500 ft.)- In the lower series are, in descending; order, the " Ser-
pulite grits " or " Salterella beds," the " Fucoid beds " and the
" Eriboll quartzite," which is divided into an upper " Pipe rock "
and lower " Basal quartzite."
The Cambrian rocks of Ireland, a great series of purple and gree^n
shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded
sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh
rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in
the future to the overlying Ordovician.
North America. — On the North American continent, as in Europe,
the Cambrian system is divisible into three series: (1) the. lower
or " Georgian," with Olenellus fauna; (2) the middle or "Acadian,"
with Paradoxides of Dikelocephalus fauna; (3) the upper or " Pots-
dam," with Olenus fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms
for Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland
and Labrador coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south-
west of those points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain
valley into Alabama, a distance of some 2000 m. ; and the rocks
are brought up again on the western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah,
western Montana and British Columbia. The middle division covers
approximately the same region as the lower one, and in addition
it is found in the states of Texas, Oklahoma, and Arizona, in
western Montana, and possibly in western Wisconsin. The lower
division, in addition to covering the areas already indicated, spreads
over the interior of the United States.
Bohemia. — The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized
by J. F. Pompeskj to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian
groups. They were made famous through the researches of Barrande.
The Cambrian system is covered by his stages " B " and " C " ; the
88
GAfyf.BRJAN SYSTEM
former a barren series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter
a series of grey and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones,
greywackes and conglomerates.
Scandinavia. — Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished
clearly on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found
in a thin series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing
North Wales.
South Wales.
Midland and West of England.
Shropshire.
Malvern Hills.
Nuneaton.
Upper Cambrian,
Otenus fauna
Tremadoc slates
(Euloma-Niobe
fauna)
Lingula flags
(1) Dolgellybeds
(2) Ffestiniog
beds
(3) Maentwrog
beds
Tremadoc beds
Lingula flags
Shineton shales
and shales with
Dictyonema
Bronsil shales,
erey (Niobe
fauna)
Malvern black
shales (White-
leaved-oak
shales)
Upper Stocking-
ford shales
(Merivaleshales)
Middle Stocking-
ford shales,
(Oldbury shales)
Middle Cam-
brian, Paradox*
ides fauna
Menevian beds
Menevian beds
Solva group
Comley or Holly-
bush sandstone
with upper
Comley lime-
stone
Hollybush sand-
stone
Lower Stocking-
ford shales
(Purley shales)
Lower Cambrian,
CHenellus fauna
Harlech grits and
Llanbens slates
Caerfai group
Lower Comley
limestone
Wrekin quartzite
Hollybush sand-
stone with Mal-
vern quartzite
and conglomer-
ate at the base
Upper Hartshill
quartzite. Hyo-
lUhcs shales and
limestone
Middle and lower
Hartshill quart-
zite and the
quartzite of the
Lickey Hills
shales play an important part. Limestones and shales with the
Euloma-Niobe fauna come at the top. The upper series (Olenus)
has been minutely zoned by W. C. Brogger, S. A. Tuliberg and J. C.
Moberg. In the middle series (Paradoxides) three thin limestone
bands nave been distinguished, the F ragmen ten- Kalk, the Exulans-
Kalk and the Andrarums-Kalk.
On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by
the Rflros schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystal-
line schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian
rocks.
Baltic Province. — The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all
soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of
Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called " blue
clay " (really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a
fucoidal sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent
of the Lower Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an im-
portant break appears in the system, for the Paradoxides and Olenus
divisions are absent. The upper members are the " Ungulite grit "
and about 20 ft. of Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been
traced into Siberia (lat. 71 ) and on the island of Vaigatch.
Central Europe. — Besides the Bohemian region previously men-
tioned, Cambrian rocks arc present in Belgium and the north of
France, in Spain and the Thttringer Wald. In the Ardennes the
system is represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and
auartz schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks.
A. Dumont has arranged the whole series (Terrain araennais) into
three systems, an upper " Salmien," a middle " Revinien " and a
lower Devillien," but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to
unite the two lower groups in one.
France. — In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple
conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformabihty
upon pre-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern
Poitou. In the Rennes basin limestones — often dolomitic — are
associated with quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones
also occur in the Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old
lands of Languedoc, equivalents of the two upper divisions of the
Cambrian have been recorded ; and the uppermost members of the
system appear in Herault. Patches of Cambrian rocks are found
in the Pyrenees.
In Spain slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than
9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega,
thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian
rocks occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper
Cambrian strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal.
In Russian Poland is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and
shales; some of the beds yield a Paradoxtdes fauna.
In the Thuringer Wald are certain strata, presumably Cambrian
Bince the uppermost beds contain the Euloma-Niobe fauna.
Sardinia contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cam-
brian system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neo-
bolus or Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle
subdivision. The same group is probably represented in Corea
and the Liao-tung by
the thick " Sinisian u
formation of F. von
Richthofen.
In South America
upper Cambrian rocks
have been recorded from
north Argentina.
The Lower Cambrian
has been found at vari-
ous places in South
Australia; and in Tas-
mania a thick series of
strata appears to be in
part at least of Upper
Cambrian age.
General Physical
Conditions in the Cam-
brian Period. — The
Cambrian rocks previ-
ously described are all
such as would result
from deposition, in
comparatively shallow
seas, of the products
of degradation of land
surfaces by the ordinary
agents of denudation.
Evidences of shallow
water conditions are
abundant; very fre-
quently on the bedding
surfaces of sandstones
and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun's heat and
pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky,
and these records of the weather of this remote period are pre-
served as sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our
tidal reaches. Ripple marks and current bedding further point to
the shallowness of the water at the places where the rocks were
made.
No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses
of the sea— although the absence of well-developed eyes in the
trilobites has led some to assume that this condition was an
indication that the creatures lived in abyssal depths.
At the close of the pre-Cambrian, many of the deposits of
that period must have been elevated into regions of fairly high
ground; this we may assume from the nature of the Cambrian
deposits which are mainly the product of the denudation of such
ground. Over the land areas thus formed, the seas in Cambrian
time gradually spread, laying down first the series known as
Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the land the
wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits — in Europe, the middle
series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are
usually unconformable on older rocks.
During the general advance of the sea, local warnings of the
crust may have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake con-
ditions. The common occurrence of red strata has been cited in
support of this view.
Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free
from extensive volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in
Brittany the earlier portions of this period were marked by
voluminous outpourings; a condition that was feebly reflected
in central and southern Europe.
No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the
climatic peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red
rocks may in some cases suggest desert conditions; and there is
good reason to suppose that in what are now Norway and China
a glacial cold prevailed early in the period.
Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian
deposits, which may generally be explained by the greater
CAMBRlfc-^AtafcRIDGE, £ARLS : AND' DUKES OF 89
Tapidity of deposition in some areas than in others. Nothing
could be more striking than the difference between the thick-
nesses in western and eastern Europe; in Brittany the deposits
are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least 12,000 ft., in western
England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern Scotland 2000 ft.,
while no farther east than Scandinavia the complete Cambrian
succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North America,
the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous regions
on the west and on the east — reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter
and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British
Columbia) — while over the interior of the continent it is seldom
more than 1000 ft. thick.
Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the
Cambrian period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was
pointed out by Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there
appeared two marine provinces — a northern one extending from
Russia to the British Isles through Scandinavia and northern
Germany, and a southern one comprising France, Bohemia, the
Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that some kind
of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there is
a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and
eastern America; many fossils of this period are common to
Britain, Sweden and eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a
north Atlantic basin existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there
was also a Pacific basin more extensive than at present; this is
borne out by the similarity between the Cambrian faunas of
China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author postulates an
Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe, Greenland
and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the
present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between
Australia and India, where the faunas have much in common.
References. — The literature devoted to the Cambrian period
is very voluminous, important contributions having been made
by A. Sedgwick, Sir R. I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T.
Groom, J. W. Salter, J. E. Marr, C. D. Walcott, G. F. Matthew,
E. Emmons, E. Billings, J. Barrande, F. Schmidt, W. C. BrSzger,
S. A. Tullberg, S. L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson and many others.
A good general account of the period will be found in Sir A. Geikie's
Text-Book of Geology, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1003 (with references), and
from an American point of view, in T. C. Chamberlin and R. D.
Salisbury's Geology, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American sources).
See also J. E. Marr, The Classification of the Cambrian and Silurian
Rocks, 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of publication);
A. Geikie. Q, J. Geol. Soc, 1891, xlvii., Ann. address, p. 90; F. Freeh,
" Die geographische Verbreitung und Entwickelung des Cambrium,"
Ctmpte Rendu* Congrls Giol. Internal. 1 897, St-Pctersbourg (1899);
Geological Literature added to the Geological Society's Library ■, pub-
lished annually since 1893. 0- A. H.)
CAMBRIC, a word derived from Kameryk or Kamerijk y the
Flemish name of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord,
France, where the cloth of this name is said to have been first
made. It was originally made of fine linen * There is a record
of a privy purse expenditure in 1 530 for cambric for Henry VIII.'s
shirts. Cambric has been used for many years in the manufacture
of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine underclothing; also
for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The yarns for
this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads
and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch.
Embroidery cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste ,
said to be called after Baptiste, a linen -weaver of Cambrai, is a
kinii of cambric frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are
largely copied in cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton,
and in many cases cotton alone, taking the place of the original-
flax line yarns.
CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AKD DUKES OF. Under the Norman
and early Plantagenet kings of England the earldom of Cam-
bridge was united with that of Huntingdon, which was held
among others by David I,, king of Scotland, as the husband of
earl Waltheof s daughter, Matilda. As a separate dignity the
earldom dates from about 1340, when William V\, count (after-
wards duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King
Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William's death)
Edward created his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cam-
bridge, the title being afterwards merged in that of duke of Ydrk,
which was bestowed upon Edmund in 1385, Edmund's elder
son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who succeeded his father as duke
of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402, appears to have resigned
the latter dignity in or before 141 4, as in this year his younger
brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In the following
year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry V.,
and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son, Richard,
who in 141 5 became duke of York in succession to his uncle
Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held
by Richard, and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward,
afterwards King Edward IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the
Yorkist dynasty.
In 1 61 9 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon
James Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created
him earl of Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor
James, 3rd marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In
1651 when William, 2nd duke of Hamilton, died, his English title
became extinct.
Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of
earl of Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his
brother Henry, duke of Gloucester, only to become extinct on
Henry's death in the following year. In 1661 Charles, the infant
son of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II., was
designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but the child
died before the necessary formalities were completed. However,
two of James's sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 167 1), were
actually created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died
in childhood. After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701
it was proposed to grant an English title to George Augustus,
electoral prince of Hanover, who, after his grandmother, the
electress Sophia, and his father, the elector George Louis, was
heir to the throne of England; and to give effect to this proposal
George Augustus was created marquess and duke of Cambridge
in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of
Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in
favour of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He
and his son are dealt with below.
Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge (1 774-1850), was
born in London on the 24th of February 1774. Having studied
at the university of GBttingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the
Hanoverian and British armies, and, in November 1801, was
created earl of Tipperary and duke of Cambridge, becoming a
member of the privy council in the following year. The duke is
chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 181 5, on the
conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to
the rank of a kingdohi, and in the following year the duke was
appointed viceroy. He held this position until the separation of
Great Britain and Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and
moderation, appears to haVe ruled the country with great success
during a difficult period. Returning to England the duke became
very popular, and was active in supporting many learned and
benevolent societies. He died in London on the 8th of July 1850.
In r8i8 he tnarried Augusta (1797-1889), daughter of Frederick,
landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children : his successor,
George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick
William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and Mary Adelaide
(1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Tetik.
George William Frederick ' Charles, duke of Cam-
bridge (1810-1904), was born at Hanover on the 26th of
March 1819. He was thus about two months older than his
cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the line of
succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover
by the Rev. J. R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November
1837, after he had served for a short time in the Hanoverian
army, the rank of colonel in the British army was conferred upon
him, and he was attached to the staff at Gibraltar from October
1838 to April 1839. After serving in Ireland with the 12th
Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842 colonel of the
17th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to' 1845 he
was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and Was then
promoted major-general. In October 1846 he took command
of the Limerick district, and shortly afterwards of the Dublin
district. In 1850 his father died, and he succeeded to the
90
CAMBRIDGE, R. O.— CAMBRIDGE
dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry in 18 5 2 , he held
that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the Crimean
War, he was placed in command of the 1st division (Guards and
Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June
of the same year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was
present at the battles of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman,
and at the siege of Sevastopol. On the 15th of July 1856 he was
appointed general commanding-in-chief, on the 9th of November
1862 held marshal, and by letters patent, 1887, commander-
in-chief. The long period during which he held the command
of the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War
brought to light great administrative defects, and led to a re-
grouping of the departments, which, with the whole personnel
of the army, were brought under the authority of the secretary
of state for war. The constitutional changes involved did not,
however, affect seriously the organization of the military forces.
Only in 1870, after the successes of Prussia had created a pro-
found impression, were drastic changes introduced by Cardwell
into the entire fabric of the army. The objects of the reformers
of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods
adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by
the duke of Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority
of officers. Further changes were inaugurated in 1 880, and again
the duke found much to criticize. His opinions stand recorded
in the voluminous evidence taken by the numerous bodies
appointed to inquire into the condition of the army. They show
a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations as such,
a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this
judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally
supposed is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout
the period of change, while protesting, the duke invariably
accepted and loyally endeavoured to carry out the measures
on which the government decided. In a memorandum addressed
to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude as follows: —
" Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state policy it
is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made,
I am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability/ '
This attitude he consistently maintained in all cases in which his
training and associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate
changes the need for which was not apparent to him. His
judgment was especially vindicated in the case of an ill-advised
reduction of the artillery carried out by Mr. Stanhope. Under
the order in council of February 1888, the whole responsibility
for military duties of every kind was for the first time centred
upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out by the
Hartington commission in 1800, involved " an excessive
centralization " which " must necessarily tend to weaken the
sense of responsibility of the other heads of departments, and
thus to diminish their efficiency." The duke of Cambridge, whose
position entailed many duties apart from those strictly apper-
taining to a commander-in-chief, could not give personal atten-
tion to the vast range of matters for which he was made nominally
responsible. On the other hand, the adjutant-general could
act in his name, and the secretary of state could obtain military
advice from officials charged with no direct responsibility.
The effect was to place the duke in a false position in the eyes
of the army and of the country. If the administration of
the army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which
violated principles. His active control of its training during
the whole period of his command was less hampered, and more
directly productive of good results.
( Throughout his long term of office the duke of Cambridge
evinced a warm interest in the welfare of the soldier, and great
experience combined with a retentive memory made him a
master of detail. He was famous for plain, and strong,
language; but while quick to condemn deviations from
the letter of regulations, and accustomed to insist upon great
precision in drill, he was never a martinet, and his natural
kindliness made him ready to bestow praise. Belonging to the
older generation of soldiers, he could not easily adapt himself
to the new conditions, and in dispensing patronage he was some-
what distrustful of originality, while his position as a member of
the royal family tended to narrow his scope for selection. He
was thus inclined to be influenced by considerations of pure
seniority, and to underrate the claims of special ability. The
army, however, always recognized that in the duke of Cambridge
it had a commander-in-chief devoted to its interests, and keenly
anxious amid many difficulties to promote its well-being. The
duke resigned the commandership-in-chief on the 1st of November
1895, and was succeeded by Lord Wolseley, the duties of the
office being considerably modified. He was at the same time
gazetted honorary colonel-in-chief to the forces. He was made
ranger of Hyde Park and St James's Park in 1852, and of
Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military
Academy in 1862, and its president in 1870, and personal aide-
de-camp to Queen Victoria in 1882. He died on the 17th of
March 1904 at Gloucester House, London. The chief honours
conferred upon him were: G.C.H., 1825; K.G., 1835; G.C.M.G.,
1845; G.CJB., 1855; K.P., 1861; K.T., 1881. From 1854 he
was president of Christ's hospital. The duke of Cambridge was
married to Louisa Fairbrother, who took the name of FitzGeorge
after her marriage. She died in 1890.
See Rev. E. Sheppard, George, Duke of Cambridge; a Memoir
of his Private Life (London, 1906) ; and Willoughby Verner, Military
Life of the Duke of Cambridge (1905).
CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802), English poet,
was born in London on the 14th of February 17 17. He was
educated at Eton and at St John's College, Oxford. Leaving
the university without taking a degree, he took up residence at
Lincoln's Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and went to
live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In
1 751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society
of many notable persons. Horace Walpole in his letters makes
many jesting allusions to Cambridge in the character of news-
monger. He died at Twickenham on the 17th of September
1802. His chief work is the Scribleriad (1751), a mock epic
poem, the hero of which is the Martinus Scriblerus of Pope,
Arbuthnot and Swift. The poem is preceded by a dissertation
on the mock heroic, in which he avows Cervantes as his master.
The satire shows considerable learning, and was eagerly read
by literary people; but it never became popular, and the
allusions, always obscure, have little interest for the present-day
reader. He made a valuable contribution to history in his
Account of the War in India , . . on the Coast of Coromandel
from the year 17 50 to iy6o . . . (1761). He had intended to write
a history of the rise and progress of British power in India,
but this enterprise went no further than the work just named,
as he found that Robert Orme, who had promised him the use
of his papers, contemplated the execution of a similar plan.
The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge, Esq,, including several
Pieces never before published, with an Account of his Life and Char-
acter by his Son, George Owen Cambridge (1803), includes, besides the
Scribleriad, some narrative and satirical poems, and about twenty
papers originally published in Edward Moore's paper called The
World. His poems are included in A. Chalmers's English Poets ( 1 8 1 6) .
CAMBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough, the
seat of a university, and the county town of Cambridgeshire,
England, 56 m. N. by E. of London by the Great Eastern
railway, served also by the Great Northern, London & North-
western and Midland lines. Pop. (1901) 38,379. It lies in a flat
plain at the southern border of the low Fen country, at an
elevation of only 30 to 50 ft. above sea-level. The greater part of
the town is situated on the east (right) bank of the Cam, a
tributary of the Ouse, but suburbs extend across the river. To
the south and west the slight hills bordering the fenland rise
gently. The parliamentary borough of Cambridge returns one
member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 1 2 aldermen ,
and 36 councillors. Area, 3233 acres.
Cambridge University 1 shares with that of Oxford the first
place among such institutions in the British empire. It is the
dominating factor in the modern importance of agfay.
the town, and it is therefore necessary to outline
the historical conditions which led to its establishment. The
geographical situation of Cambridge, in its present appearance
1 See also Universities.
CAMBRIDGE
9 1
possessing little attraction or advantage, calls nevertheless for
first consideration. Cambridge, in fact, owed its growth to its
position on a natural line of communication between the east and
the midlands of England, flanked on the one hand by the deep
forests which covered the uplands, on the other by the unreclaimed
fens, then desolate and in great part impenetrable. The import-
ance of this highway may be judged from the number of early
earthworks in the vicinity of Cambridge; and the Castle Hill, at
the north side of the present town (near the west bank of the
river), is perhaps a British work. Roman remains discovered in
the same locality give evidence of the existence of a small town
or village at the junction of roads; the name of Camboritum is
usually attached to it, but without certainty. The modern name
of Cambridge has no connexion with this. The present form of
the name has usually been derived from a corruption of the
original name Grantebrycge or Grantabridge (Skeat); but Mr
Arthur Gray points out that there is no documentary evidence
for this corruption in the shape of such probable intermediate
forms as Grantebrig or Crantebrig. On the other hand, he brings
evidence to show that the name Cantebrig, though not applied to
the whole town, was very early given to that quarter of it near
the Cante brig, i.e. the bridge over the Cante (the ward beyond
the Great Bridge was called " Parcelle of Cambridge " as late as
1340); in this quarter, close to the bridge, Cambridge castle was
built by the Conqueror, and from the castle and the castle-
quarter the name spread within sixty years to the whole town,
the similarity between the names Grantebrig and Cantebrig
playing some part in this extension (The Dual Origin of the Town
of Cambridge, p. 3 1) . Granta is the earlier and still an alternative
name of the river Cam, this more common modern form having
been adopted in sympathy with the modern name of the town.
Cambridge had a further importance from its position at the head
of river navigation, and a charter of Henry I., in which the town
is already referred to as a borough, grants It exclusive rights as
a river-port, and regulates traffic and tolls. The wharves lay
principally along that part of the river where are now the
celebrated "backs" of some of the colleges, whose exquisite
grounds slope down to the water. The great Sturbridge or
Stourbridge Fkir at Barnwell, formerly one of the most important
in England, is a further illustration of the ancient commercial
importance of Cambridge; the oldest known charter concerning
it dates from the opening of the 13th century, though its initiation
may perhaps be placed a century before.
Concerning the early municipal history of Cambridge little is
known, but at the time of the Domesday survey its citizens felt
themselves strong enough to protest against the exactions of the
Norman sheriff, Roger Picot; and the town had attained a
considerable degree of importance when, in 1068, William the
Conqueror built a castle on the site known as Castle Hill, and used
it as a base of operations against Hereward the Wake and the
insurgents of the fenland. Cambridge, however, has practically
no further military history. From the 14th century onward
materials were taken from the castle by the builders of colleges,
while the gatehouse, the last surviving portion, was removed in
1842.
The medieval spirit of emulation between the universities of
Cambridge and Oxford resulted in a series of remarkable fables
to account for the foundation of both. That of Cambridge was
assigned to a Spanish prince, Cantaber, in the 4321st year after
the Creation. A charter from King Arthur dated 531, and the
transference of students from Cambridge to Oxford by King
Alfred, were also claimed as historical facts. The true germ of
the university is to be sought in the religious foundations in the
town. The earliest to be noticed is the Augustinian house of St
Giles, founded by Hugoline, wife of Roger Picot the sheriff, in
1092; this was removed in 1112 to Barnwell, where the chapel
dedicated to St Andrew the Less is practically the sole remnant
of its buildings. In 1224 the Franciscans came to Cambridge,
and later in the same century a number of other religious orders
settled here, such as the Dominicans, the Gilbertines and the
Carmelites, who had before been established at Newnham.
Students were gradually Attracted to these several religious
houses, and Cambridge was already recognized as a centre of
learning when, in 1 23 1, Henry III. issued a writ for its governance
as such, among other provisions conferring certain disciplinary
powers on the bishop of Ely. It soon became evident that the
influence of the religious orders on those who came to them for
instruction was too narrow. This was recognized elsewhere, for
it was in order to counteract that influence that Walter de
Merton drew up the statute of governance for his foundation of
Merton College, Oxford, a statute which was soon afterwards
used as a model by Hugh de Balsham, bishop of Ely, when, in
1 281-1284 he founded the first Cambridge college, Peterhouse.
The friction between town and university, due in the main to
the conflict of their jurisdictions, the tradition of which, as in the
sister university, died hard in the annual efforts of some under-
graduates to revive the " town and gown " riots, culminated
during the rebellion of Wat Tyler (138 1) in an episode which is
alone worthy of record and may serve to illustrate the whole.
This was an attack by the rabble, instigated, it is said, by the
more reputable townspeople, on the colleges, several of which
were sacked. The attack was ultimately defeated by the courage
and resource of Henry Spenser or Le Dispencer, bishop of
Norwich. The relations of the university of Cambridge with the
crown were never so intimate as those of Oxford. Henry III.
fortified the town with two gates, but these were burnt by the
rebellious barons; and in much later times the two first of the
Stuart kings, and the two first of the Georges, cultivated friendly
personal relations with the university. During the civil war the
colleges even melted down their plate for the war chest of King
Charles; but Cambridge showed little of the stubborn royalism
of Oxford, and submitted to the Commonwealth without serious
resistance.
The history of collegiate foundation in Cambridge after that of
Peterhouse may be followed through the ensuing description of
the colleges, but for ease of reference these are dealt c&Bmpm.
with in alphabetical order. The main street which
traverses the town from south to north, parallel to, and at a
short distance from the river, is known successively as Trumping-
ton Street, King's Parade, Trinity Street, St John's Street and
Bridge Street The majority of the colleges lie on either side of
this street, and chiefly between it and the river. Those of St
John's, Trinity, Trinity Hall, Clare, King's and Queens' present
the famous " backs " towards the river, which is crossed by a
series of picturesque bridges leading to the gardens and grounds
on the opposite bank.
Christ's College is not among the group indicated above; it
stands farther to the east, in St Andrew's Street. It was founded
in 1505 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII.
It incorporated God's House, which had been founded by
William Bingham, a cleric of London, in 1439, had been removed
when the site was required for part of King's College, and had
been refounded with the countenance of Henry VI. in 1448.
This was a small house, but the Lady Margaret's endowment
provided for a master, twelve fellows and forty-seven scholars.
Edward VI. added another fellowship and three scholarships
and the present number of fellows is fifteen. There are certain
exhibitions in election to which preference is given to schools
in the north of England — Giggleswick, Kirkby Lonsdale, Skipton
and Sedbergh. The buildings of Lady Margaret's foundation
were in great part faced in classical style in the 17th century;
a building east of the old quadrangle is also of this period, and
is ascribed to Inigo Jones. The rooms occupied by the foundress
herself are preserved, though in an altered condition, as are
those of the poet Milton, who was educated here, and with whom
the college has many associations. In the fine gardens is an
ancient mulberry tree believed to have been planted by him.
Among illustrious names connected with this college are John
Leland the antiquary, Archdeacon Paley, author of the Evidences,
and Charles Darwin, while Henry More and others of the school
of Cambridge Platonists in the 17th century were educated here.
Clare College lies close to the river, south of Trinity Hall. In
1326 the university erected a hall, known as University Hall, to
accommodate a number of students, and in 1338 Elizabeth de.
9 2
CAMBRIDGE
Burgh ; countess of Clare, re-endowed the hall, which took the
name of Clare Hall, and only became known as college in 1856.
There was a strong ecclesiastical tendency in this foundation;
six out of the twenty fellows were to be priests when elected.
The foundation now consists of a master and fifteen fellows,
besides scholars, of whom three receive emoluments from the
endowment of Lady Clare. The old college buildings were in
great part destroyed by fire in 1521; the present buildings
date from 1638 to 171 5, and are admirable examples of their
period. They surround a very beautiful quadrangle, and the
back towards the river is also fine. Unconfirmed tradition
indicates the poet Chaucer as an alumnus of this college; other
famous men associated with it were Hugh Latimer the martyr,
Ralph Cudworth, one of the " Platonists," and Archbishop
Tillotson.
Corpus Ckrisii College (commonly called Corpus) stands
on the east side of Trumpington Street. The influence of
medieval gilds in Cambridge, the character of which was
primarily religious, was exceedingly strong. About the be-
ginning of the 14th century there is first mentioned the gild of
St Mary, which was connected with Great St Mary's church.
The gild was at this time prosperous, but about 1350, when
the idea of the foundation of a college by the gilds was matured,
the fraternity of St Mary lacked the means to proceed save by
amalgamating with another gild, that of Corpus Christi. The
age of this institution, whose church was St Benedict's or St
Benet's, is not known. By the two gilds, therefore, the " House
of Scholars of Corpus Christi and the Blessed Virgin Mary "
was founded in 1352, the foundation being the only instance
of its kind. In early times it was commonly known as St Benet's
from the church connected with the Corpus gild which stands over
against the college, and served as its chapel for nearly three
centuries. The foundation consists of a master and twelve
fellows, with scholars of the old and later foundations. The
ancient small quadrangle remains, and is of historical rather
than architectural interest. The great quadrangle dates from
1823-1825. The library contains the famous collection of MSS.
bequeathed by Archbishop Matthew Parker, alumnus of the
college, in the 16th century.
Downing College is in the southern part of the town, to the
east of Trumpington Street. Sir George Downing, baronet, of
Gamlingay Park, who died in 1749, left estates to various
relations, who died without issue. In this event, Downing's will
provided for the foundation of a college, but the heirs contested
the will with the university, and in spite of a decision against
them in 1769, continued to hold the estates for many years, so
that it was not until 1800 that the charter for the college was
obtained. The foundation-stone was laid in 1807, and the two
ranges of buildings, in classical style, represent all that was
completed of an intended quadrangle. The foundation consists
of a master, professors of English law and of medicine, six
fellows and six scholars.
Emmanuel College overlooks St Andrew's Street. It was
founded in 1 584 by Sir Walter Mildmay (c. 1 5 20-1 589) , chancellor
of the exchequer and privy councillor under Queen Elizabeth.
The foundation, considerably enlarged from the original, consists
of a master, sixteen fellows and thirty scholars. There are further
scholarships on other foundations which are awarded by pre-
ference to pupils of Uppingham and other schools in the midlands.
Emmanuel was noted from the outset as a stronghold of Puritan-
ism; it is indeed recorded that Elizabeth rallied the founder
on his intention that this should be so. Mildmay assuredly had
the welfare of the church primarily at heart, and he attempted
to provide against the life residence of fellows, which he con-
sidered an unhealthy feature in some colleges. The site of
Emmanuel was previously occupied by a Dominican friary,
and some of its buildings were adapted to collegiate uses. There
is only a little of the earliest building remaining; the greater
part of the present college dates from the second half of the
18th century. The chapel, however, is by Sir Christopher Wren
(1677). Richard Holdsworth, Gresham professor, and William
Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, were masters of this college;
Bishops Joseph Hall and Thomas Percy were among its alumni,
as was John Harvard, principal founder of the great American
college which bears his name.
Gonville and Caius College (commonly called Caius, pronounced
Kees) , stands mainly on the west side of Trinity Street. It arose
out of an earlier foundation. In 1348 Edmund Gonvile or Gonevill
founded the hall of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, which
was commonly called Gonville Hall, for the education of twenty
scholars in dialectic and other sciences, with endowment for
a master and three fellows. This hall stood on part of the present
site of Corpus, but on the death of its founder in 1351 it was
moved to the north-west corner of the site of the present Caius,
by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity
Hall. The famous physician John Caius (q.v.) , who was educated
at this small institution, later conceived the idea of refounding
and enlarging it, obtained a charter to do so in 1557, and became
master of the new foundation of Gonville and Caius College.
The foundation consists of a master and not less than twenty-
two fellows, exclusive of the provision under the will of William
Henry Drosier (d. 1889), doctor of medicine and fellow of the
college, for the endowment of seven additional fellowships.
Since its refoundation by Caius, the college has had a peculiar
connexion with the study of medicine, while, besides many
eminent physicians, Sir Thomas Gresham, Judge Jeffreys,
Robert Hare, Jeremy Taylor, Henry Wharton and Lord Thurlow
are among its noted names. Three sides of the main quadrangle,
Tree Court, including the frontage towards Trinity Street, are
modern (1870). The interior of this court is picturesque, and
the design of the smaller Caius Court was inspired by Caius
himself. He also designed the gates of Honour, Virtue and
Humility, of which the two first stand in situ\ the gate of
Honour is a peculiarly good example of early Renaissance work.
Caius is buried in the chapel.
Jesus College lies apart from and to the north-east of the
majority of the colleges. It was founded in 1496 by John
Alcock, bishop of Ely. The site was previously occupied by a
Benedictine nunnery dedicated to St Radigund, which was
already in existence in the first half of the 1 2th century and was
claimed by Alcock to have been founded from Ely, to the bishops
of which it certainly owed much. The name given to Alcock's
college was that of " the most Blessed Virgin Mary, St John the
Evangelist, and the glorious Virgin Saint Radigund," but it
appears that the founder himself intended the name to be Jesus
College. He provided for a master and six fellows, but the
foundation now consists of a master and sixteen fellows, with
twenty scholars or more. There are several further scholarships
confined to the sons of clergymen of the Church of England.
Architecturally Jesus is one of the most interesting colleges in
Cambridge, for Alcock retained, and there still remains, a con-
siderable part of the old buildings of the nunnery. The most
important of these is the church, which Alcock, by removing
most of the nave and other portions, converted into the usual
form of a college chapel. The tower, however, is retained. The
bulk of the building is an admirable example of Early English
work, but there are traces of Norman; and Alcock added certain
Perpendicular features. Of the rest of the college buildings,
the hall is Alcock's work, the brick gatehouse is a fine structure
of the close of the 15th century, while the cloister is a little later,
and stands on the site of the nuns' cloister. Another court dates
from the 1 7th and early 18th centuries, and there is a considerable
amount of modern building. The most famous name connected
with Jesus College is that of Cranmer. Among many others are
Sir Thomas Elyot, John Bale, John Pearson, bishop of Chester,
Hugh Peters, Gilbert Wakefield, Thomas Malthus, Laurence
Sterne and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
King's College has its fine frontage upon the western side of
King's Parade. It was founded by King Henry VI, in 1441.
The first site was small and circumscribed, and in 1443 the existing
site was with difficulty cleared of dwellings. The king designed
a close connexion between this college and his other foundation
at Eton; he provided for a provost and for seventy scholars,
all of whom should be Etonians. In 1861, open scholarships
CAMBRIDGE
93
were instituted, and the foundation now consists of a provost,
forty-six fellows and forty-eight scholars. Half the scholarships
are still appropriated to Eton. An administrative arrangement
peculiar to King's College is that by which the provost has
absolute authority within its walls, to the exclusion of officers
of the University. The chief architectural ornament of the
college, and one of the most notable in the town, is the magnifi-
cent Perpendicular chapel, comparable with those of St George
at Windsor and Henry VII. at Westminster Abbey. The
building was begun in 1446, and extended (apart from the
interior fittings) over nearly seventy years. Within, the most
splendid features are the fan-vaulting which extends throughout
the chapel, the noble range of stained-glass windows, which
date for the most part from the early part of the 16th century,
and the wooden organ screen, which, with part of the stalls, is
of the time of Henry VIII. The college services are celebrated
for the beauty of their music. The bulk of the other collegiate
buildings are of the 18th century or modern. The old court
of King's College is occupied by the modern university library,
north of the chapel; the gateway, a good example (1444), is
preserved. John Frith the Martyr, Richard Croke, Giles
Fletcher, Richard Mulcaster, Sir William Temple, William
Oughtred, the poet Waller, and Horace Walpole and others of
his family are among many illustrious alumni of the college.
Magdalene College (pronounced Maudlin) stands on the west
bank of the Cam, near the Great Bridge. In 1428 the Bene-
dictines of Crowland Abbey founded a home for student monks
on this site, and in 15 19 Edward, duke of Buckingham, partly
secularized this institution by founding Buckingham College
in connexion with it. After the dissolution of the monastery,
Thomas, Baron Audley of Walden, erected Magdalene in place
of the former house in 1542. The foundation consists of a
master and seven fellows, besides scholars. There are some
valuable exhibitions appropriated to Wisbech school. The
appointment of the master is peculiar, the office being in the gift
of the occupant of Audley End, an estate near Saffron Walden,
Essex. Some parts of the original building are preserved, but
the most notable portion of the college is the Pepysian library,
dating c. 1 700. It contains the very valuable collection of books
bequeathed by Samuel Pepys to the college, at which he was a
student. Buckingham College had Archbishop Cranmer as a
lecturer; Charles Kingsjey and Charles Stewart. Parnell were
educated at Magdalene.
Pembroke College stands to the east of Trumpington Street.
It was founded in 1347 by Mary de St Paul, widow of Aylmer
de Valence, earl of Pembroke. Henry VI. made notable bene-
factions to it. The foundation consists of a master and thirteen
fellows, and there are six scholarships on the original foundation,
besides others of later institution. The older existing buildings
are mainly of the. 1 8th century, but much of the original fabric
was removed and rebuilt in 1874. The chapel is of the middle of
the 17 th century, and is ascribed to Sir Christopher Wren. The
poets Spenser and Gray, Nicholas Ridley the martyr, Archbishop
Whitgift and William Pitt were associated with this college;
and from the number of bishops whose names are associated
with it the college has obtained the style of collegium episcopate.
Peterhouse or St Peter's College is on the west side of Trump-
ington Street, almost opposite Pembroke. It has already been
indicated as the oldest Cambridge college (1284). Hugh de
Balsham, the founder, had settled some secular scholars in the
ancient Augustinian Hospital of St John in 1280, but the experi-
ment was not a success. Nor did he carry out his full intentions
as regards Peterhouse, the foundation of which followed on the
failure of the fusion of his scholars with the hospital; but
Simon Montagu, his successor in the bishopric of Ely, carried
on his work, and in 1344 gave the college a code of statutes in
which the influence of the Merton code is plainly visible. A
master and fourteen fellows formed the original foundation, but
the present consists of a master, and not less than eleven fellows
and twenty- three scholars. The hall retains some original work ;
it was first built out of a legacy from the founder. The library
building (c. 1590) is due to a legacy from Dr Andrew Perne
(master 1554-1580); and Dr Matthew Wren (master 1625-1634),
uncle of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren, directed
the building of the chapel and cloisters. The most famous name
connected with the college is that of Cardinal Beaufort.
Queens' College stands at the south of the riverside group, and
one of its ranges of buildings rises immediately from the river.
A college of St Bernard had been established in 1445 by Andrew
Docket or Dokett, rector of St Botolph's church, who had also
been principal of a hostel, or students' lodge, of St Bernard.
He sought and obtained the patronage of Margaret of Anjou,
wife of Henry VI., who undertook the foundation of a new house
on another site in 1448, to bear the name of Queens'. Docket
became the first master. In 1405 Elizabeth Woodvilte, wife of
Edward IV., became the college's second foundress. The
foundation consists of a president and eleven fellows. The
buildings are exceedingly picturesque. The main quadrangle,
of red brick, was completed very soon after the foundation.
The smaller cloister court, towards the river, retains building
of the same period, and the beautiful wooden gallery of the
president's lodge deserves notice. Another court is called
Erasmus's; the rooms which he is said to have occupied remain,
and a walk in the college garden across the river bears his name.
St Catherine's College, on the west side of Trumpington Street,
was founded by Dr Robert Woodlark or Wodelarke, chancellor
of the university and (1452) provost of King's College. It was
opened in 1473, but the charter of incorporation dates from 1475.
The foundation provided for a master (Woodlark being the first)
and three fellows; there are now six fellows, and twenty-six
scholars. The principal buildings, surrounding a court on three
sides, date mainly from a complete reconstruction of the college
at the close of the 17th century.
St John's College, at the north of the riverside group of colleges,
was founded in 151 1 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, also
foundress of Christ's College. It replaced the Hospital of St
John, which dated from the early years of the 13th century,
and has been mentioned already in connexion with Peterhouse.
The Lady Margaret died before the college was firmly established,
and her designs were not carried out without many difficulties,
which were overcome chiefly by the exertions of John Fisher,
bishop of Rochester, one of her executors. Thirty-two fellow-
ships were endowed, but subsequent endowments allowed
extension, and the foundation now consists of a master, fifty-six
fellows, sixty scholars and nine sizars. A large number of
exhibitions are appropriated to special schools. Of the four
courts of St John's, the easternmost is the original, and has a very
fine Tudor gateway of brick. The chapel is modern (1863-1 869),
an ornate example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The second
court, practically unaltered, dates from 1 598-1 602. In this there
is a beautiful masters' gallery, panelled, with a richly-moulded
ceiling; it is now used as a combination room or fellows' common-
room. The third court, which contains the library (1624), backs
on to the river, and the fourth, which is on the opposite bank,
was built c, 1830. A covered bridge connects the two, and is
commonly called the Bridge of Sighs from a certain resemblance
to the bridge of that name at Venice. Among the notable names
connected with this college are Cecil, Lord Burghley, Thomas
Cartwright, Wentworth, earl of Strafford, Roger Ascham,
Richard Bentley, John Cleveland, the satirist, Thomas Baker, the
historian, Lord Palmerston, Professor Adams, Sir John Herschel,
Bishop Colenso, Dr Benjamin Kennedy, Dean Merivale, Home
Tooke, Samuel Parr and William Wilberforce, and the poets
Herrick (afterwards of Trinity Hall) and Wordsworth.
Selwyn College, standing west of the river (Sidgwick Avenue),
was founded in 1882 by public subscription in memory of George
Augustus Selwyn, bishop of New Zealand and afterwards of
Lichfield, for the purpose of giving university education with
economy " combined," according to the charter, " with Christian
training, based upon the principles of the Church of England."
Sidney Sussex College faces Sidney Street. It was founded
under the will (1588) of the Lady Frances Sidney, dowager
countess of Sussex (d. 1589), and received its charter in 1596.
The foundress provided for a master, ten fellows and twenty
9 6
CAMBRIDGE
with privileges similar to those enjoyed by students from
affiliated colleges.
The principal social function of the university is the " May
Week " at the close of the Easter term. It actually takes place
Maywtk. in June and lasts longer than a week. There is a great
influx of visitors into Cambridge for this occasion.
The first four days are occupied by the college boat-races on the
Cam, and on subsequent days there are college balls, concerts,
theatrical performances and other entertainments. On the
Tuesday after the races there is a Congregation, at which prize
exercises are recited, and usually, but not invariably, a number
of honorary degrees are conferred on eminent men by invitation.
This final period of the academic year is called Commencement,
or in Latin Comitia Maxima.
Authorities. — For details of the administration of the university
and colleges, regulations as to studies, prizes, scholarships, &c, see
the annual Cambridge University Calendar and The Students* Hand*
book to the Unwersity and Colleges of Cambridge; see also R. Willis
and J. W. Clark, Architectural History of the Unwersity of Cambridge
(3 vols., Cambridge, 1886) ; J. Bass Mullinger, History of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge from the Earliest Times to the Accession of
Charles I. (2 vols., 1873-1884; third vol., 1900); and smaller
History of Cambridge, in Longman's "Epoch Series (1888);
J. W. Clark, Cambridge, Historical and Picturesque (London, 1890) ;
T. D. Atkinson, Cambridge Described and Illustrated, with intro-
duction by J. W. Clark (London, 1897); F. W. Maitland, Township
and Borough (Cambridge, 1808); C. W. Stubbs, Cambridge, in
"Mediaeval Towns" series (London, 1905); Arthur Gray, The
Dual Origin of the Town of Cambridge (publications of the Cambridge
Antiquarian Soc., new ser. No. I, Cambridge, 1908); J. W. Clark,
Liber memorandorum ecclesie de Bernewelle (Cambridge, 1907), with
an introduction by F. W. Maitland. For the individual colleges,
see the series of College Histories, by various authors (London, 1899
et seq.)*
CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Dorchester
county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Choptank river, near Chesa-
peake Bay, about 60 m. S.E. of Baltimore. Pop. (1890) 4192;
(1900) 5747 (i958beingnegroes);(i9io) 6407. It is served by the
Cambridge branch of the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washing-
ton railway (Pennsylvania railway), which connects with the
main line at Seaford, 30 m. distant, and with the Baltimore,
Chesapeake & Atlantic at Hurlock, 16 m. distant; and by
steamers of the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic railway
company. It is a business centre for the prosperous farming
region by which it is surrounded, and is a shipping point for
oysters and fish; among its manufactures are canned fruits
and vegetables, flour, hominy, phosphates, underwear and
lumber. Cambridge was founded in 1684, received its present
name in 1686, and was chartered as a city in 1900.
CAMBRIDGE, a city and one of the county-seats of Middlesex
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Charles river,
in the outskirts of Boston, of which it is in effect a part, although
under separate government. Pop. (1880) 52,669; (1890)
70,028; (1900) 91,886; (1910 census) 104,839. Of the
total population in 1900, 30,446 were foreign-born, including
11,235 Irish, 9613 English Canadians, 1944 English, 1483 French
Canadians and 1584 Swedish; and 54,200 were of foreign
parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 24,961 of Irish
parentage, 9829 of English- Canadian parentage, 2587 of English
parentage, and 2 288 of French- Canadian parentage. Cambridge
is entered directly by only one railway, the Boston & Maine.
The township, now practically built over by the city, contained
originally several separate villages, the names of which are still
used as a convenience in designating corresponding sections of
the municipality: Old Cambridge, North Cambridge, Cam-
bridgepbrt and East Cambridge, the last two being manufactur-
ing atld commercial districts.
Old Cambridge is noted as the seat of Harvard University
(q.v.) and as a literary and scientific centre. Radcliffe College
(1879), for women, practically a part of Harvard; an Episcopal
Theological School (1867), and the New Church (Swedenhorgian
or New Jerusalem) Theological School (1866) are other educa-
tional institutions of importance. To Cambridge also, in 1908,
was removed Andover Theological Seminary, a Congregational
institution chartered in 1807, opened in Andover, Massachusetts,
in 1808 (re-incorporated under separate trustees in 1907). This
seminary is one of the oldest and most famous theological institu-
tions in the United States; it grew out of the theological teaching
previously given in Phillips Academy, and was founded by the
widow of Lt.-Governor Samuel Phillips, her son JqIui Phillips
and Samuel Abbot (173 2-18 12). The instruction was strongly
Calvinistic in the earlier period, but the seminary has always
been " equally open to Protestants of every denomination."
Very liberal aid is given to students, and there is no charge for
tuition. The Bibliotheca Sacra, founded in 1843 by Edward
Robinson and in 1844 taken over by Professors Bela B. Edwards
and Edwards A. Park, and the Andover Review (1 884-1 893), have
been the organs of the seminary. In 1886 some of its professors
published Progressive Orthodoxy, a book which made a great stir
by its liberal tone, its opposition to supernaturalism and its
evident trend toward the methods of German " higher criticism."
Legal proceedings for the removal of five professors, after the
publication of this book, failed; and their successful defence
helped to secure greater freedom in thought and in instruction
in American Presbyterian and Congregational theological
seminaries. The seminary is now affiliated with Harvard
University, though it remains independent and autonomous.
Cambridge is a typical New England city, built up in detached
residences, with irregular streets pleasantly shaded, and a
considerable wealth of historic and literary associations. There
are many reminders of the long history of Harvard, and of the
War of Independence. Cambridge was the site of the camp of
the first American army, at the outbreak of the war, and from
it went the detachment which intrenched on Bunker's Hill.
Here are the Apthorp House (built in 1760), in which General
Burgoyne and his officers were lodged as prisoners of war in
1777; the elm under which, according to tradition, Washington
took command of the Continental Army on the 3rd of July 1775;
the old Vassall or Craigie House (1759), where Washington lived
in 1 775-1776, and which was later the home of Edward Everett,
Joseph E. Worcester, Jared Sparks and (1837-18S2) Henry W.
Longfellow. Elbridge Gerry lived and James Russell Lowell
was born, lived and died in " Elmwood " (built in 1767); Oliver
Wendell Holmes was born in. Cambridge also; John Fiske, the
historian, lived here; and there are many other literary associa-
tions, attractive and important for those interested in American
letters. InMt Auburn Cemetery are buried many artists, poets,
scholars and other men and women of fame. Cambridge is
one of the few American cities possessing a crematorium (1900).
The municipal water-works are excellent. A handsome bridge
joining Cambridgeport to Boston (cost about $2,250,000) was
opened late in 1906. Four other bridges span the Charles river
between the two cities. A dam between East Cambridge and
Boston, traversed by a roadway 150 ft. wide, was in the process
of construction in 1907 ; and an extension of the Boston subway
into Cambridge to the grounds of Harvard University, a distance
of about 3 m., was projected. The city government is admini-
stered almost entirely under the state civil-service laws, Cam-
bridge having been a leader in the adoption of its provisions.
A non-partisan association for political reform did excellent
work from 1890 to 1900, when it was superseded by a non-
partisan party. Since 1887 the city has declared yearly by
increasing majorities for prohibition of the liquor traffic. The
high schools enjoy a notable reputation. A handsome city hall
(cost $235,000) and public library (as well as a manual training
school) were given to the city by Frederick H. Rindge, a one-
lime resident, whose benefactions to Cambridge aggregated
in value $650,000. Cambridge has many manufacturing estab-
lishments, and in 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $42,407,064, an increase of 45-8% over their value in 1900.
The principal manufactures are slaughtering and meat-packing
products, foundry and machine-shop products, rubber boots and
shoes, rubber belting and hose, printing and publishing products,
carpentering, pianos and organs, confectionery and furniture.
Cambridge is one of the chief publishing centres of the oountry.
The tax valuation of property in 1906 ($105,153^35) was more
than $1000 per inhabitant.
CAMBRIDGE— -CAMBRIDGESHIRE
97
Cambridge is " one of the few American towns that may be
said to have owed their very name and existence to the pursuit
of letters " (T. W. Higginson). Its site was selected in 1630
by Governor Winthrop and others as suitable for fortifications
and defence, and it was intended to make it the capital of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony; but as Boston's peninsular position
gave it the advantage in commerce and in defence against the
Indians, the plan fell through, although up to 1638 various
sessions of the general court and particular courts were held
here. The township records (published) are continuous since
1632. A direct tax for the wooden " pallysadoe " about Cam-
bridge led the township of Watertown in 1632 to make the first
protest in America against taxation without representation.
The settlement was first known as the " New Towne," but in
1638 was named Cambridge in honour of the English Cambridge,
where several score of the first immigrants to the colony were
educated. The oldest college in America (Harvard) was founded
here in 1636. In 1639 there was set up in Cambridge the first
printing press of British North America (Boston having none
until 1676). Other notable dates in history are 1637 and 1647,
when general synods of New England churches met at Cambridge
to settle disputed doctrine and define orthodoxy; the departure
for Connecticut of Thomas Hooker's congregation in 1636; the
meeting of the convention that framed the present constitution
of the commonwealth, 1 779-1 780; the separation of the Con-
gregationalists and Unitarians of the first parish church, in 1829;
and the grant of a city charter in 1846. The original township
of Cambridge was very large, and there have been successively
detached from it, Newton (1691), Lexington (1713)* Brighton
(1837) and Arlington (1867).
See Lucius R. Paige, History of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1630-
X877 (Boston, Mass., 1877); T. W. Higginson, Old Cambridge
(New York, 1899); Arthur Gilman (ed.), The Cambridge of Eighteen
Hundred and Ninety-Six (Cambridge, 1896); and Historic Guide
to Cambridge (Cambridge, 1907.)
CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Guernsey county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on Wills Creek, about 75 m. E. by N. of Columbus.
Pop. (1890) 4361; (1900) 8241, of whom 407 were foreign-
born; ( 1 910 census) 11,327. It is served by the Baltimore &
Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and is connected by an
electric line with Byesville (pop. in 1900, 1267), about 7 m. S.
Cambridge is built on a hill about 800 ft. above sea-level.
There is a public library. Coal, oil, natural gas, clay and iron
are found in the vicinity, and among the city's manufactures are
iron, steel, glass, furniture and pottery. The value of its
factory products in 1905 was $2,440,917. The municipality
owns and operates the water-works. Cambridge was first settled
in 1798 by emigrants from the island of Guernsey (whence the
name of the county); was laid out as a town in 1806; was
incorporated as a village in 1837; and was chartered as a city
in 1893.
CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS, a school of philosophico-religious
thinkers which flourished mainly at Cambridge University in the
second half of the 17th century. The founder was Benjamin
Whichcote and the chief members were Ralph Cudworth,
Richard Cumberland, Joseph Glanvill, Henry More and John
Norris (see separate articles). Other less important members
were Nathanael Culverwel (d. 1651?), Theophilus Gale (1628-
1678), John Pordage (1607-1681), George Rust (d. 1670), John
Smith (1618-1652) and John Worthington (1618-1671). They
represented liberal thought at the time and were generally
known as Latitudinarians. Their views were due to a reaction
against three main tendencies in contemporary English thought:
the sacerdotalism of Laud and his followers, the obscurantist
sectaries and, most important of all, the doctrines of Hobbes.
They consist chiefly of a reconciliation between reason and
religion, resulting in a generally tolerant spirit. They tend
always to mysticism and the comtemplation of things transcen-
dental. In spite of inaccuracy and the lack of critical capacity
in dealing with their authorities both ancient and modern, the
Cambridge Platonists exercised a valuable influence on English
theology and thought in general. Their chief contributions to
thought were Cudworth's theory of the " plastic nature " of
God, More's elaborate mysticism, Norris's appreciation of Male-
branche, GlanvilTs conception of scepticism as an aid to Faith,
and, in a less degree, the harmony of Faith and Reason elaborated
by Culverwel. The one doctrine on which they all combined to
lay especial emphasis was the absolute existence of right and
wrong quite apart from the theory of divine authority. Their
chief authorities were Plato and the Neo-platonists (between
whom they made no adequate distinction), and among modern
philosophers, Descartes, Malebranche and Boehme. From these
sources they attempted to evolve a philosophy of religion,
which would not only refute the views of Hobbes, but would
also free theology finally from the errors of scholasticism,
without plunging it in the newer dangers of unfettered rational-
ism (see Ethics).
See Tulloch, Rational Theology in England in the 17th Century;
Hallam, Literature of Europe (chap, on Philosophy from 1650 to 1700 ;
Hunt, Religious Thought tn England] von Stein, Sieben Bucher zur
Geschichte des Platonismus (1862), and works on individual philo-
sophers appended to biographies.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded
N. by Lincolnshire, E. by Norfolk and Suffolk, S. by Essex and
Hertfordshire, and W. by Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire and
Northamptonshire. The area is 858-9 sq. m. The greater part
of the county falls within the district of the Fens, and is flat,
elevated only a few feet above sea-level, and intersected with
innumerable drainage channels. The physical characteristics of
this district, and the history of its reclamation from a marshy
and in great part uninhabitable condition, fall for consideration
under the heading Fens. Except in the south of the county the
scenery of the flat land is hardly ever varied by rising ground or
wood, and owes the attraction it possesses rather to individuality
than to beauty. At the south-eastern and southern boundaries,
and to the west of Cambridge, bordering the valley of the Cam on
the north, the land rises in gentle undulations; but for the rest,
such elevations as the Gog Magog Hills, S.E. of Cambridge, and
the gentle hillock on which the city of Ely stands, are isolated
and conspicuous from afar. The principal rivers are the Ouse
and its tributaries in the south and centre, and the Nene
in the north; the greater part of the waters of both these
rivers within Cambridgeshire flow in artificial channels, of
which those for the Ouse, two great parallel cuts between
Earith and Denver Sluice, in Norfolk, called the Bedford
Rivers, form the most remarkable feature in the drainage of
the county. The old main channel of the Ouse, from Ely
downward to Denver (below which are tidal waters), is filled
chiefly by the waters of the Cam or Granta, which joins the
Ouse 3 m. above Ely, the Lark (which with its feeder, the
Kennett, forms the boundary of the county with Suffolk for a
considerable distance) and the Little Ouse, forming part of the
boundary with Norfolk.
Geology. — By its geological features, Cambridgeshire is
divisible into three well-marked regions; in the south and
south-east are the low uplands formed by the Chalk; north of
this, but best developed in the south-west, is a clay and greensand
area; all the remaining portion is alluvial Fenland. The general
strike of the rocks is along a south-west and north-east line, the
dip is south-easterly. The oldest rock is the Jurassic Oxford
Clay, which appears as an irregular strip of elevated flat ground
reaching from Croxton by Conington and Fenny Drayton to
Willingham and Rampton. Eastward and northward it no doubt
forms the floor of the Fen country, and at Thorney and Whittlesea
small patches rise like islands, through the level fen alluvium.
The Coralline Oolite, with the Elsworth or St Ives rock at the
base, occurs as a small patch, covered by Greensand, at Upware,
whence many fossils have been obtained; elsewhere its place is
taken by the Ampthill Clays, which are passage beds between the
Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays. The latter clay lies in a narrow
strip by Papworth St Agnes, Oakington and Cottenham; a
large irregular outcrop surrounds Haddenham and Ely, and
similar occurrences are at March, Chatteris and Manea. Above
the Kimmeridge Clay comes the Lower Greensand, sandy for the
v. 4
9 8
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
greater part, but here and there hardened into the condition
known as " Carstone," which has been used as an inferior
building-stone. This formation is thickest in the south-west; it
extends from the border by Gamlingay, Cuxton and Cottenham,
and appears again in outliers at Upware, Ely and Haddenham.
The Gault forms a strip of flat ground, 4 to 6 m. wide, running
roughly parallel with the course of the river Cam, from Guilden
Morden through Cambridge to Soham; it is a stiff blue clay
200 ft. thick in the south-west, but is thinner eastward. At the
bottom of the chalk is the Chalk Marl, 10 to 20 ft. thick, with
a glauconitic and phosphatic nodule-bearing layer at its base,
known as the Cambridge Greensand. This bed has been largely
worked for the nodules and for cement; it contains many
fossils derived from the Gault below. Several outliers of Chalk
Marl lie upon the Gault west of the Cam. The Chalk comprises
all the main divisions of the formation, including the Totternhoe
stone, Melbourn rock and Chalk rock. Much glacial boulder
clay covers all the higher ground of the county; it is a stiff
brownish clay with many chalk fragments of travelled rocks.
Near Ely there is a remarkable mass of chalk, evidently trans-
ported by ice, resting on and surrounded by boulder clay.
Plateau gravel caps some of the chalk hills, and old river gravels
occur at lower levels with the bones of mammoth, rhinoceros and
other extinct mammals. The low-lying Fen beds are marly silt
with abundant peat beds and buried forests; at the bottom is a
gravel layer of marine origin.
Industries. — The climate is as a whole healthy, the fens being
so carefully drained that diseases to which dwellers in marshy
districts are commonly liable are practically eliminated. The
land is very fertile, and although some decrease is generally
apparent in the acreage under grain crops, Cambridgeshire is
one of the principal grain-producing counties in England.
Nearly nine-tenths of the total area is under cultivation, and an
unusually small proportion is under permanent pasture. Wheat
is the chief grain crop, but large quantities of barley and oats are
also grown. Among green crops potatoes occupy a large and
increasing area. Dairy-farming is especially practised in the
south-west, where the district of the Cam valley has long been
known as the Dairies; and much butter and cheese are sent to
the London markets. Sheep are pastured extensively on the
higher ground, but the number of these and of cattle for the
county as a whole is not large. Beans occupy a considerable
acreage, and fruit-growing and market-gardening are important
in many parts. There is no large manufacturing industry
common to the county in general; among minor trades brewing
is carried on at several places, and brick-making and lime-
burning may also be mentioned.
Communications. — The principal railway serving the county is
the Great Eastern, of which system numerous branch lines centre
chiefly upon Cambridge, Ely and March. Cambridge is also
served by branches of the Great Northern line from Hitchin,
of the London & North-Western from Bletchley and Bedford,
and of the Midland from Kettering. A trunk line connecting
the eastern counties with the north and north-west of England
runs northward from March under the joint working of the Great
Northern and Great Eastern companies. The artificial water-
ways provide the county with an extensive system of inland
navigation; and a considerable proportion of the industrial
population is employed on these. In this connexion the building
of boats and barges is carried on at several towns.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 549,723 acres, with a population in 1891 of 188,961,
and in 1901 of 190,682. The ancient county includes the two
administrative counties of Cambridge in the south and the Isle
of Ely in the north. The liberty of the Isle of Ely was formerly
of the independent nature of a county palatine, but ceased to
be so under acts of 1836 and 1837. Its area is 238,048 acres,
and that of the administrative county of Cambridge 315,171
acres. Cambridgeshire contains seventeen hundreds. The
municipal boroughs are Cambridge, the county town (pop.
38,379), in the administrative county of Cambridge, and Wisbech
(9381) in the Isle of Ely. The other urban districts are — in the
administrative county of Cambridge, Chesterton (9591), and in
the Isle of Ely, Chatteris (47"), Ely (7713), March (7565) and
Whittlesey (3909). Among other considerable towns Soham
(4230) and Littleport (41 81), both in the neighbourhood of Ely,
may be mentioned. The town of Newmarket, which, although
wholly within the administrative county of West Suffolk, is
mainly in the ancient county of Cambridgeshire, is famous for
its race-meetings. The county is in the south-eastern circuit,
and assizes are held at Cambridge. Each administrative county
has a court of quarter sessions, and the two are divided into ten
petty sessional divisions. The borough of Cambridge has a
separate court of quarter sessions, and this borough and Wisbech
have separate commissions of the peace. The university of
Cambridge exercises disciplinary jurisdiction over its members.
There are 168 entire civil parishes in the two administrative
counties. Cambridgeshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Ely
and the archdeaconries of Ely and Sudbury, but small portions
are within the dioceses of St Albans and Norwich. There are
194 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within
the county. The parliamentary divisions are three, namely,
Northern or Wisbech, Western or Chesterton, and Eastern or
Newmarket, each returning one member. The county also
contains the parliamentary borough of Cambridge, returning
one member; and the university of Cambridge returns two
members.
History. — The earliest English settlements in what is now
Cambridgeshire were made about the 6th century by bands of
Engles, who pushed their way up the Ouse and the Cam, and
established themselves in the fen-district, where they became
known as the Gyrwas, the districts corresponding to the modern
counties of Huntingdonshire and Cambridgeshire being dis-
tinguished as the lands of the North Gyrwas and the South
Gyrwas respectively. At this period the fen-district stretched
southward as far as Cambridge, and the essential unity which
it preserved is illustrated later by its inclusion under one
sheriff, chosen in successive years from Cambridgeshire proper,
the Isle of Ely and Huntingdonshire. In 656 numerous lands in
the neighbourhood of Wisbech were included in the endowment
of the abbey of Peterborough, and in the same century religious
houses were established at Ely and Thorney, both of which,
however, were destroyed during the Danish invasions of the
9th century. After the treaty of Wedmore the district became
part of the Danelaw. On the expulsion of the Danes by Edward
in the 10th century it was included in East Anglia, but in the
nth century was again overrun by the Danes, who in the course
of their devastations burnt Cambridge. The first mention of
the shire in the Saxon Chronicle records the valiant resistance
which it opposed to the invaders in 1010 when the rest of East
Anglia had taken ignominious flight. The shire-system of
East Anglia was in all probability not definitely settled before
the Conquest, but during the Danish occupation of the 9th century
the district possessed a certain military and political organization
round Cambridge, its chief town, whence probably originated
the constitution and demarcation of the later shire. At the time
of the Domesday Survey the county was divided as now, except
that the Isle of Ely, which then formed two hundreds having
their meeting-place at Witchford, is now divided into the four
hundreds of Ely, Wisbech, North Witchford and South Witch-
ford, while Cambridge formed a hundred by itself. The
hundred of Fiendish was then known as Flamingdike. Cam-
bridgeshire was formerly included in the diocese of Lincoln,
until, on the erection of Ely to a bishop's see in 1109, almost the
whole county was placed in that diocese. In 1291 the whole
county, with the exception of parishes in the deanery of Fordham
and diocese of Norwich, constituted the archdeaconry of Ely,
comprising the deaneries of Ely, Wisbech, Chesterton, Cambridge,
Shingay, Bourn, Barton and Camps. The Isle of Ely formerly
constituted an independent franchise in which the bishops
exercised quasi-palatinate rights, and offences were held to be
committed against the bishop's peace. These privileges were
considerably abridged in the reign of Henry VIII., but the Isle
still had separate civil officers, appointed by the bishop, chief
CAMBUSLANG— CAMBYSES
99
among whom were the chief justice, chief bailiff, deputy bailiff
and two coroners. The bishop is still custos rotulorum of the
Isle. Cambridgeshire has always been remarkable for its lack
of county families, and for the frequent changes in the ownership
of estates. No Englishmen retained lands of any importance
after the Conquest, and at the time of the Domesday Survey
the chief lay proprietors were Alan, earl of Brittany, whose
descendants the Zouches retained estates in the county until
the 15th century; Picot the sheriff, whose estates passed to
the families of Peverell and Peche; Aubrey de Vere, whose
descendants retained their estates till the 16th century; and
Hardwinus de Scalariis, ancestor of the Scales of Whaddon.
From the time of Hereward's famous resistance to the Con-
queror in the fen-district, the Isle of Ely was intimately concerned
with the great political struggles of the country. It was defended
against Stephen by Bishop Nigellus of Ely, who fortified Ely
and Aldreth, and the latter in 11 44 was held for the empress
Maud by Geoffrey de Mandeville. During the struggles between
John and his barons, Faukes de Breaute was made governor of
Cambridge Castle, which, however, surrendered to the barons
in the same year. The Isle of Ely was seized by the followers
of Simon de Montfort in 1 266, but in 1 267 was taken by Prince
Edward. At the Reformation period the county showed much
sympathy with the Reformers, and in 1642 the knights, gentry
and commoners of Cambridgeshire petitioned for the removal
of all unwarrantable orders and dignities, and the banishment
of popish clergy. In the civil war of the 17 th century
Cambridgeshire was one of the associated counties in which the
king had no visible party, though the university assisted him
with contributions of plate and money.
Cambridgeshire has always been mainly an agricultural
county. The Domesday Survey mentions over ninety mills
and numerous valuable fisheries, especially eel-fisheries, and
contains frequent references to wheat, malt and honey. The
county had a flourishing wool-industry in the 14th century,
and became noted for its worsted cloths. The Black Death of
1349 and the ravages committed during the Wars of the Roses
were followed by periods of severe depression, and in 1439 several
Cambridgeshire towns obtained a remission of taxation on the
plea of poverty. In the 16th century barley for malt was grown
in large quantities in the south, and the manufacture of willow-
baskets was carried on in the fen-districts. Saffron was extens-
ively cultivated in the 1 8th century, and paper was manufactured
near Sturbridge. Sturbridge fair was at this period reckoned
the largest in Europe, the chief articles of merchandise being
wool, hops and leather; and the Newmarket races and horse-
trade were already famous. Large waste areas were brought
under cultivation in the 17 th century through the drainage
of the fen-district, which was brought to completion about
1652 through the labours of Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman.
The coprolite industry was very profitable for a short period
from 1850 to 1880, and its decline was accompanied by a general
industrial and agricultural depression. Cambridgeshire returned
three members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295 the county
returned two members, the borough of Cambridge two members,
and the city of Ely two members, this being the sole return for
Ely. The university was summoned to return members in 1300
and again in 1603, but no returns are recorded before 16 14,
after which it continued to return two members. Under the
Reform Act of 1832 the county returned three members.
Antiquities, — In ecclesiastical architecture Cambridgeshire
would be rich only in the possession of the magnificent cathedral
at Ely and the round church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jesus
College and King's College chapels, and many other examples
in Cambridge. But there are many fine churches elsewhere.
At Thorney, a small town in the north of the county, which owes
much in appearance to the 8th duke of Bedford (d. 1872), the
parish church is actually a portion of the church of an abbey
said to date originally from the 7 th century, and refounded in
972 by Ethel wold, bishop of Winchester, as a Benedictine
monastery. The church is partly fine Norman. Another
Norman building of special interest is Sturbridge chapel near
Cambridge, which belonged to a lepers' hospital. To this
foundation King John granted a fair, which became, and continued
until the 18th century, one of the most important in England. It
is still held in September. At Swaffham Prior there are remains
of two churches in one churchyard, the tower of one being good
Transitional Norman, while that of the other is Perpendicular,
the upper part octagonal. Among many Early English examples
the church of Cherry Hinton near Cambridge may be mentioned.
The churches of Trumpington and Bottisham are fine specimens
of the Decorated style; in the first is a famous brass to Sir
Roger de Trumpington (1289). As Perpendicular examples the
tower and spire of St Mary's, Whittlesey, and the rich wooden
roof of Outwell church, may be selected. Monastic remains
are scanty. Excluding the town of Cambridge there are no
domestic buildings, either ancient or modern, of special note,
with the exception of Sawston Hall, in the south of the county,
a quadrangular mansion dated 1 557-1 584.
Authorities. — See D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. ii.
part i. (London, 1808); C. C. Babington, Ancient Cambridgeshire
(Cambridge, 1883); R. Bowes, Catalogue of Books printed at or
relating to Cambridge (Cambridge, 1891 et seq.); E. Conybeare,
History of Cambridgeshire (London, 1897) ; Victoria County History,
Cambridgeshire.
CAMBUSLANG, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is situ-
ated near the Clyde, 4J m. S.E. of Glasgow (of which it is a
residential suburb) by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1891)
83 235(1001) 12,252. Its leading industries include coal-mining,
turkey-red dyeing and brick-making. It contains one of the
largest steel works in the United Kingdom. Among the chief
edifices ar-* a public hall, institute and library. It was the
birthplace of John Claudius London (1783- 1843), the land-
scape gardener and writer on horticulture, whose Arboretum et
Fruticetum Britannicum still ranks as an authority.
CAMBYSES (Pers. Kambujiya), the name borne by the father
and the son of Cyrus the Great. When Cyrus conquered B abylon
in 539 he was employed in leading religious ceremonies {Chronicle
of Nabonidus), and in the cylinder which contains Cyrus's
proclamation to the Babylonians his name is joined to that of
his father in the prayers to Marduk. On a tablet cta'tcdj rom. the
first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babcf . Eur His
authority seems to have been quite ephemeral; it was only in
530, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East,
that he associated Cambyses on the throne, and numerous
Babylonian tablets of this time are dated from the Accession
and the first year of Cambyses, when Cyrus was " king of the
countries " (i.e. of the world). After the death of his fa the? In
the spring of 528 Cambyses became sole king. The tablets dated
from his reign in Babylonia go down to the end of his eighth
year, i.e. March 5 2 1 B.C. 1 Herodotus (iii. 66) , who dates his reign
from the death of Cyrus, gives him seven years five months, i.e.
from 528 to the summer of 521. For these dates cf. Ed. Meyer,
Forschungen zur alien Geschichte } ii. 470 ff.
The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek
authors, come from two different sources. The first, which
forms the main part of the account of Herodotus (iii. 2; 4;
IO ~37)> is °f Egyptian origin. Here Cambyses is made the
legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of Apries (Herod, iii. 2,
Dinon fr. 11, Polyaen. viii. 29), whose death he avenges on the
successor of the usurper Amasis. (In Herod, iii. 1 and Ctesias
ap. Athen* xiii. 560 D, this tradition is corrected by the Persians:
Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who sends
him a daughter of Apries instead of his own daughter, and by
her Cambyses is induced to begin the war.) His great crime is
the killing of the Apis, for which he is punished by madness,
in which he commits many other crimes, kills his brother and his
sister, and at last loses his empire and dies from a wound in the hip,
at the same place where he had wounded the sacred animal.
Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek mercen-
aries, especially about their leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, who
1 On the much discussed tablet, which is said to date from his
nth year, the writer had at first written " 10th year of Cyrus,"
and then corrected this date into " 1st year of Cambyses ; see
Strassmaier, Inschriften von Cambyses, No. 97.
IOO
CAMDEN, EARL
betrayed Egypt to the Persians. In the Persian tradition the
crime of Cambyses is the murder of his brother; he is further
accused of drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes, and
thus accelerates his ruin. These traditions are found in different
passages of Herodotus, and in a later form, but with some
trustworthy detail about his household, in the fragments of
Ctesias. With the exception of Babylonian dated tablets and
some Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary evidence
about the reign of Cambyses but the short account of Darius in
the Behistun inscription. It is impossible from these sources to
form a correct picture of Cambyses , character; but it seems
certain that he was a wild despot and that he was led by
drunkenness to many atrocious deeds.
It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered Asia,
Cambyses should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the only
remaining independent state of the Eastern world. Before he
set out on his expedition he killed his brother Bardiya (Smerdis),
whom Cyrus had appointed governor of the eastern provinces.
The date is given by Darius, whereas the Greek authors narrate
the murder after the conquest of Egypt. The war took place in
525, when Amasis had just been succeeded by his son Psam-
metichus III. Cambyses had prepared for the march through
the desert by an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought a
large supply of water to the stations. King Amasis had hoped
that Egypt would be able to withstand the threatened Persian
attack by an alliance with the Greeks. But this hope failed;
the Cyprian towns and the tyrant Polycrates of Samos, who
possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians, and
the commander of the Greek troops, Phanes of Halicarnassus,
went over to them. In the decisive battle at Pelusium the
Egyptians were beaten, and shortly afterwards Memphis was
taken. The captive king Psammetichus was executed, having
attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian inscriptions show that
Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the costume of the
Pharaohs, although we may very well believe that he did not
conceal his contempt for the customs and the religion of the
Egyptians. From Egypt Cambyses attempted the conquest of
Ethiopia (Cush), i.e. the kingdom of Napata and Meroe, the
modern Nubia. But his army was not able to cross the deserts;
after heavy losses he was forced to return. In an inscription
from Napata (in the Berlin museum) the Ethiopian king Nastesen
relates that he had beaten the troops of Kembasuden, i.e.
Cambyses, and taken all his ships (H. Schafer, Die Aethiopische
Kdnigsinschrift des Berliner Museums, 1001). Another expedi-
tion against the great oasis failed likewise, and the plan of attack-
ing Carthage was frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenicians
1 operate against their kindred. Meanwhile in Persia a usurper,
the Magian Gaumata, arose in the spring of 522, who pretended
to be the murdered Bardiya (Smerdis). He was acknowledged
throughout Asia. Cambyses attempted to march against him,
but, seeing probably that success was impossible, died by his
own hand (March 521). This is the account of Darius, which
certainly must be preferred to the traditions of Herodotus and
Ctesias, which ascribe his death to an accident. According to
Herodotus (iii. 64) he died in the Syrian Ecbatana, i.e. Hamath;
Josephus {Ant. xi. 2. 2) names Damascus; Ctesias, Babylon,
which is absolutely impossible.
See A. Lincke, Kambyses in der Sage, Litteratur und Kunst des
MittekUters, in Aegyptiaca: Festschrift fur Georg Ebers (Leipzig
1897), pp. 41-61; also Persia: Ancient History. (Ed. M.)
CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, ist Earl (1714-1794), lord
chancellor of England, was born in Kensington in 1714. He was
a descendant of an old Devonshire family of high standing, the
third son of Sir John Pratt, chief-justice of the king's bench in
the reign of George I. He received his early education at Eton
and King's College, Cambridge. In 1734 he became a fellow of
his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of B. A.
Having adopted his father's profession, he had entered the
Middle Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the
bar. He practised at first in the courts of common law, travelling
also the western circuit. For some years his practice was so
limited, and he became so much discouraged, that he seriously
thought of turning his back on the law and entering the church.
He listened, however, to the advice of his friend Sir Robert
Henley, a brother barrister, afterwards known as Lord Chancellor
Northington, and persevered, working on and waiting for success.
The first case which brought him prominently into notice and
gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government
prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller, William Owen, for a libel on
the House of Commons.
His speech for the defence contributed much to the verdict for
the defendant. In 1757, through the influence of William Pitt
(afterwards earl of Chatham), with whom he had formed an
intimate friendship while at Eton, he received the appointment
of attorney-general. The same year he entered the House of
Commons as member for the borough of Downton in Wiltshire.
He sat in parliament four years, but did not distinguish himself
as a debater. His professional practice now largely increased.
One of the most noticeable incidents of his tenure of office as
attorney-general was the prosecution of Dr. J. Shebbeare (1709-
1788), a violent party writer of the day, for a libel against the
government contained in his notorious Letters to the People of
England, which were published in the years 1 756-1 758. Asa
proof of Pratt's moderation in a period of passionate party
warfare and frequent state trials, it is noted that this was the
only official prosecution for libel which he set on foot. In
January 1762 Pratt was raised to the bench as chief -justice of the
common pleas. He was at the same time knighted. Soon after
his elevation the nation was thrown into great excitement about
the prosecution of John Wilkes, and the question involved in it
of the legality of " general warrants." Chief -Justice Pratt
pronounced, with decisive and almost passionate energy, against
their legality, thus giving voice to the strong feeling of the nation
and winning for himself an extraordinary degree of popularity
as one of the " maintainers of English constitutional liberty."
Honours fell thick upon him in the form of addresses from the city
of London and many large towns, and of presentations of freedom
from various corporate bodies. In July 1765 he was raised to
the peerage as Baron Camden, of Camden Place, in the county of
Kent; and in the following year he was removed from the court
of common pleas to take his seat as lord chancellor (July 30,
1766). This seat he retained less than four years; for although
he discharged its duties in so efficient a manner that, with one
exception, his decisions were never reversed on appeal, he took
up a position of such uncompromising hostility to the govern-
ments of the day, the Grafton and North administrations, on
the greatest and most exciting matters, the treatment of the
American colonies and the proceedings against John Wilkes,
that the government had no choice but to require of him the
surrender of the great seal. He retired from the court of chancery
in January 1770, but he continued to take a warm interest in
the political affairs and discussions of the time. He continued
steadfastly to oppose the taxation of the American colonists, and
signed, in 1778, the protest of the Lords in favour of an address
to the king on the subject of the manifesto of the commissioners
to America. In 1782 he was appointed president of the
council under the Rockingham administration, but retired in the
following year. Within a few months he was reinstated in this
office under the Pitt administration, and held it till his death.
Lord Camden was a strenuous opponent of Fox's India Bill, took
an animated part in the debates on important public matters
till within two years of his death, introduced in 1786 the scheme
of a regency on occasion of the king's insanity, and to the last
zealously defended his early views on the functions of juries,
especially of their right to decide on all questions of libel. He
was raised to the dignity of an earl in May 1 786, and was at the
same time created Viscount Bayham. Earl Camden died in
London on the 18th of April 1794. His remains were interred in
Seale church in Kent.
CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT, 2ND Earl and ist
Marquess (1750-1840), only son of the ist earl, was born on the
nth of February 1759, and was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge. In 1780 he was chosen member of parliament for
Bath, and he obtained the lucrative position of teller of the
CAMDEN, W.— CAMDEN
101
exchequer, an office which he kept until his death, although
after 1812 he refused to receive the large income arising from it.
In the ministry of William Pitt, Pratt was successively a lord of
the admiralty and a lord of the treasury; then, having suc-
ceeded his father in the earldom in 1794, he was appointed lord-
lieutenant of Ireland in 1 795. Disliked in Ireland as an opponent
of Roman Catholic emancipation and as the exponent of an
unpopular policy, Camden's term of office was one of commotion
and alarm, culminating in the rebellion of 1798. Immediately
after the suppression of the rising he resigned, and in 1804
became secretary for war and the colonies under Pitt, and in
1805 lord president of the council. He was again lord presi-
dent from 1807 to 181 2, after which date he remained for some
time in the cabinet without office. In 181 2 he was created
earl of Brecknock and Marquess Camden. He died on the 8th
of October 1840, and was succeeded by his only son, George
Charles, 2nd marquess (1 799-1 866). The present marquess is
his descendant. Camden was chancellor of the university of
Cambridge and a knight of the Garter.
CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623), English antiquary and
historian, was born in London on the 2nd of May 1551. His
father, Sampson Camden, a native of Lichfield, had settled in
London, and, as a painter, had become a member of the company
of painter-stainers. His mother, Elizabeth, belonged to the old
Cumberland family of Curwen. Young Camden received his
early education at Christ's Hospital and St Paul's school, and
in 1 566 went to Magdalen College, Oxford, probably as a servitor
or chorister. Failing to obtain a demyship at Magdalen he re-
moved to Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke College, and
later to Christ Church, where he was supported by his friend,
Dr Thomas Thornton, canon of Christ Church. As a defender
of the established religion he was soon engaged in controversy,
and his failure to secure a fellowship at All Souls' College is
attributed to the hostility of the Roman Catholics. In 1570
he supplicated in vain for the degree of B.A., and although a
renewed application was granted in 1573 it is doubtful if he ever
took a degree; and in 1571 he went to London and devoted
himself to antiquarian studies, for which he had already acquired
a taste.
Camden spent some time in travelling in various parts of
England collecting materials for his Britannia, a work which
was first published in 1586. Owing to his friendship with Dr
Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster, Camden was made
second master of Westminster school in 1575; and when Dr
Edward Grant resigned the headmastership in 1593 he was
appointed as his successor. The vacations which he enjoyed
as a schoolmaster left him time for study and travel, and during
these years he supervised the publication of three further
editions of the Britannia. Although a layman he was granted
the prebend of Ilfracombe in 1589, and in 1597 he resigned his
position at Westminster on being made Clarencieux king-at-arms,
an appointment which caused some ill-feeling, and the York
herald, Ralph Brooke, led an attack on the genealogical accuracy
of the Britannia, and accused its author of plagiarism. Camden
replied to Brooke in an appendix to the fifth edition of the
Britannia, published in 1600, and his reputation came through
the ordeal untarnished. Having brought out an enlarged and
improved edition of the Britannia in 1607, he began to work on a
history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, to which he had been
urged by Lord Burghley in 1597. The first part of this history
dealing with the reign down to 1588 was published in 161 5 under
the title Annates rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante
Elizabetha. With regard to this work some controversy at
once arose over the author's treatment of Mary, queen of Scots.
It was asserted that Camden altered his original narrative in
order to please James I., and, moreover, that the account which
he is said to have given to his friend, the French historian,
Jacques de Thou, differed substantially from his own. It seems
doubtful if there is any truth in either of these charges. The
second part of this work, finished in 161 7, was published, after
the author's death, at Leiden in 1625 and in London in 1627.
In 1622 Camden carried out a plan to found a history lectureship
at Oxford. He provided an endowment from some lands at
Bexley, and appointed as the first lecturer, his friend, Degory
Wheare. The present occupant of the position is known as the
Camden professor of ancient history. His concluding years were
mainly spent at Chislehurst, where he had taken up his residence
in 1609, and in spite of recurring illnesses he continued to work
at material for the improvement of the Britannia and kindred
subjects. He died at Chislehurst on the 9th of November 1623,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument now
stands to his memory.
The Britannia, the first edition of which is dedicated to Burgh-
ley, is a survey of the British islands written in elegant Latin.
It was first translated into English in 1610, probably under the
author's direction, and other translations have subsequently
appeared, the best of which is an edition edited by Richard
Gough and published in three volumes in 1789, and in four
volumes in 1806. The Annates has been translated into French,
and English translations appeared in 1635, x ^75 an( i 1688.
The Latin version was published at Leiden in 1639 and 1677,
and under the editorship of T. Hearne at Oxford in 171 7. In
addition to these works Camden compiled a Greek grammar,
Institutio Graecae Grammatices Compendiaria, which became
very popular, and he published an edition of the writings of Asser,
Giraldus Cambrensis, Thomas Walsingham and others, under the
title, Anglica, Hibernica, Normannica, Cambrica, a veteribus
scripta, published at Frankfort in 1602, and again in 1603.
He also drew up a list of the epitaphs in Westminster Abbey,
which was issued as Reges, Reginae, Nobiles et alii in ecclesia
collegiata Beati Petri Westmonasterii sepulli. This was enlarged
and published again in 1603 and 1606. In 1605 he published
his Remains concerning Britain, a book of collections from the
Britannia, which quickly passed through seven editions; and
he wrote an official account of the trial of the Gunpowder Plot
conspirators as Actio in Henricum Garnetum, Societatis Jesuiticae
in Anglia superiorem et caeteros.
Camden, who refused a knighthood, was a man of enormous
industry, and possessed a modest and friendly disposition.
He had a large number of influential friends, among whom were
Archbishop Ussher, Sir Robert Cotton, John Selden, the French
jurist Brisson, and Isaac Casaubon. His correspondence was
published in London in 169 1 by Dr Thomas Smith under the title,
Vita Gulielmi Camdeni et Illustrium virorum ad G. Camdenum
Epistolae. This volume also contains his Memorabilia de seipso;
his notes of the reign of James I.; and other interesting matter.
In 1838 the Camden Society was founded in his honour, and
much valuable work has been done under its auspices.
CAMDEN, a city and the county-seat of Camden county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Delaware river, directly opposite
Philadelphia, Pa. Pop. (1880) 41,659; (1890) 58,313; (1900)
75>935> °f "whom 10,097 were foreign-born and 5576 were
negroes; (1910) 94,538. It is a terminus of the Atlantic
City, the West Jersey & Sea Shore, and the Pennsylvania
( Amboy division) railways, and is also served by river and coasting
steamboat lines. Camden is practically a suburb of Philadelphia,
with which it is connected by ferries. It has several pleasant
residential sections, and among its public buildings are the
city hall, the Camden county court house, the post office, the
free public library, the Cooper hospital and the West Jersey
homeopathic hospital. The high school has a thoroughly
equipped manual training department. The city owns and
operates its water-works system, and is an important manufactur-
ing and ship-building centre, among its manufactories being
chemical works; asbestos, wall-paper, oil-cloth and morocco-
leather factories; woollen, worsted and yarn mills; preserving
factories; iron and steel mills; boot and shoe factories; and
ship-yards. In 1900 the total value of the city's manufactured
products was $20,451,874 (of which $17,969,954 was the value
of factory products, which in 1905 had increased 86*5% to
$33,587,273), several of the largest items being worsted goods
($2,000,991 in 1900, and $2,528,040 in 1005); leather, tanned,
curried and finished ($1,515,935 in 1900, and $6,364,928 in
1905); oil-cloth ($1,638,556 in 1900); pickles, preserves and
102
CAMDEN— CAMEL
sauces ($685, 3 58 in 1900), and wooden ships and boats ($409,500
in 1000, and $361,089 in 1905, when the value of the iron and
steel ship-building industry was $4,673,504). The first settlers
on the site of Camden came in 1 6 79, but for a century the settle-
ment consisted of isolated farms and a small group of houses
about the ferry by which travellers from the east crossed to
Philadelphia. The early settlers were largely Quakers. About
1773 Jacob Cooper laid out a town near the ferry, and gave it
the name Camden in honour of Lord Chancellor Camden, who
had been one of the strongest onDonents of the Stamp Act.
The settlement, however, was known variously as" Pluckemin,"
" The Ferry " and " Cooper's Ferry " until about the time of
the War of 181 2. Until 1828 it was administratively a part
of the town of Newton, Gloucester county, but in that year,
with more than a thousand inhabitants, it was chartered as a
city under its present name. During the British occupation
of Philadelphia in the War of Independence, a British force
was stationed here, and Camden was the scene of several skir-
mishes between the British troops and the New Jersey irregular
militia. Camden was the home of Walt Whitman from 1873
until his death.
CAMDEN, a town and the county-seat of Kershaw county,
South Carolina, U.S.A., near the Wateree river, 33 m. N.E. of
Columbia. Pop. (1800) 3533; (1000) 2441; this decrease was
due to the separation from Camden during the decade of its
suburb " Kirk wood," which was re-annexed in 1905. It is
served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and
the Southern railways. Camden is situated about 100 ft. above
the river, which is navigable to this point. The town is a winter
resort, chiefly for Northerners. Cotton, grain and rice are
produced in the vicinity, and there are some manufactories,
including cotton mills, a cotton-seed oil mill and planing mills.
Camden, first known as Pine Tree Hill, is one of the oldest
interior towns of the state, having been settled in 1758; in 1768
the present name was adopted in honour of Lord Chancellor
Camden. The town was first incorporated in 1791; its present
charter dates from 1800. For a year following the capture of
Charleston by the British in May 1780, during the War of
Independence, Camden was the centre of important military
operations. It was occupied by the British under Cornwallis in
June 1780, was well fortified and was garrisoned by a force
under Lord Rawdon. On the 16th of August Gen. Horatio
Gates, with an American force of about 3600, including some
Virginia militia under Charles Porterfield (1 750-1780) and Gen.
Edward Stevens (1745-1820), and North Carolina militia under
Gen. Richard Caswell (1 729-1789), was defeated here by the
British, about 2000 strong, under Lord Cornwallis, who had
joined Rawdon in anticipation of an attack by Gates. Soon
after the engagement began a large part of the Americans,
mostly North Carolina and Virginia militia, fled precipitately,
carrying Gates with them; but Baron De Kalb and the Maryland
troops fought bravely until overwhelmed by numbers, De Kalb
himself being mortally wounded. A monument was erected to
his memory in 1825, Lafayette laying the corner-stone. The
British loss in killed, wounded and missing was 324; the
American loss was about 800 or 000 killed and 1000 prisoners,
besides arms and baggage. On the 3rd of December Gates was
superseded by Gen. Nathanael Greene, who after Cornwallis had
left the Carolinas, advanced on Camden and arrived in the
neighbourhood on the 19th of April 1781. Considering his force
(about 1450) insufficient for an attack on the fortifications, he
withdrew a short distance north of Camden to an advantageous
position on Hobkirk's Hill, where on the 25th of April Rawdon,
with a force of only 950, took him somewhat by surprise and
drove him from the field. The casualties on each side were nearly
equal: American 271; British 258. On the 8th of May Rawdon
evacuated the town, after burning most of it. On the 24th of
February 1 86 5 , during the Civil War, a part of Gen. W.T. Sherman's
army entered Camden and burned stores of tobacco and cotton,
and several buildings. (See American War of Independence.)
See also T. J. Kirkland and R. M. Kennedy, Historic Camden
(Columbia, S.C., 1905).
CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal), the
name of the single-humped Arabian Camelus dromedarius, but
also applied to the two-humped central Asian C. bactrianus and
to the extinct relatives of both. The characteristics of camels
and their systematic position are discussed under the headings
Tylopoda and Artiodactyla. The two living species are
distinguishable at a glance. It may be mentioned that the
Bactrian camel, which is a shorter-legged and more ponderous
animal than the Arabian species, grows an enormously long and
thick winter coat, which is shed in blanket-like masses in spring.
The Arabian camel, which is used not only in the country from
which it takes its name, but also in North Africa and India, and
has been introduced into Australia and North America, is known
only as a domesticated animal. On the other hand, the Bactrian
species, which is employed throughout a large tract of central
Asia in the domesticated condition, appears, according to recent
researches, to exist in the wild state in some of the central
Asian deserts. From the examination of specimens collected by
Dr Sven Hedin, Professor W. Leche shows that the wild Bactrian
camel differs from the domesticated breed of central Asia in the
following external characters: the humps are smaller; the long
hair does not occupy nearly so much of the body; the colour is
much more rufous; and the ears and muzzle are shorter. Many
important differences are also recorded between the skulls of the
two animals, and it is especially noteworthy that the last lower
molar is smaller in the wild than in the tame race. In connexion
with this point it should be noticed that, unlike what occurs in
the yak, the wild animal is not larger than the tame one, although
it is incorrect to say that the former is decidedly the inferior of
the latter in point of stature. Dr Leche also institutes a com-
parison between the skeletons of the wild and the tame Bactrian
camel with the remains of certain fossil Asiatic camels, namely,
Camelus knoUochi from Sarepta, Russia, and C. alutensis from
the Aluta valley, Rumania. This comparison leads to the
important conclusion that the wild Bactrian Camelus bactrianus
ferus comes much nearer to the fossil species than it does to the
domesticated breed, the resemblance being specially noticeable
in the absolutely and relatively small size of the last molar. In
view of these differences from the domesticated breed, and the
resemblance of the skull or lower jaw to that of the extinct
European species, it becomes practically impossible to regard
the wild camels as the offspring of animals that have escaped
from captivity.
On the latter hypothesis it has been generally assumed that
the wild camels are the descendants of droves of the domesticated
breed which escaped when certain central Asian cities were
overwhelmed by sand-storms. This theory, according to Pro-
fessor Leche, is rendered improbable by Dr Sven Hedin's
observations on the habits and mode of life of the wild camel.
The habitat of the latter extends from the lower course of the
Keria river to the desert at the termination of that river, and
thence to the neighbourhood of the Achik, the ancient bed of the
Tarim river. These animals also occur in the desert district
south of the Tarim; but are most abundant in the deserts and
mountains to the southward of Kuruktagh, where there are a
few brackish-water pools, and are also common in the barren
mountains between Kuruktagh and Choetagh. Large herds
have also been observed in the deserts near Altyntagh. The
capacity of camels for travelling long distances without water
— owing to special structural modifications in the stomach —
is familiar to all. That the Arabian species was one of the
earliest animals to be domesticated is evident from the record
of Scripture, where six thousand camels are said to have formed
part of the wealth of the patriarch Job. Camels also formed
part of the present which Pharaoh gave to Abraham, and it was
to a company of Ishmaelites travelling from Gilead to Egypt on
camels, laden with spices, much as their Arabian descendants do
at the present day, that Joseph was sold by his brothers.
The hump (or humps) varies in size according to the condition
of the animal, becoming small and flaccid after hard work and
poor diet.
During the rutting-season male camels become exceedingly
CAMELFORD— CAMELLIA
103
savage and dangerous, uttering a loud bubbling roar and engaging
in fierce contests with their fellows. The female carries her
young for fully eleven months, and produces only one calf at a
time, which she suckles for a year. Eight days after birth the
young Arabian camel stands 3 ft. high, but does not reach its
full growth till its sixteenth or seventeenth year; it lives from
forty to fifty years. The flesh of the young camel resembles veal,
and is a favourite food of the Arabs, while camel's milk forms
an excellent and highly nutritious beverage, although it does
not furnish butter. The long hair is shorn every summer, and
woven into a variety of stuffs used by the Arab for clothing
himself and his family, and covering his tent. It was in raiment
of camel's hair that John the Baptist appeared as a preacher.
The hair imported into Europe is chiefly used in the manufacture
of small brushes used by painters, while the thick hide is formed
into a very durable leather. The droppings are used as fuel, and
from the incinerated remains of these sal-ammoniac is extracted,
which was at one time largely exported from Egypt.
The Bactrian camel is, if possible, of still more importance
to many of the central Asian Mongol races, supplying them
alike with food and raiment. It is, however, as " the ship of the
desert," without which vast tracts of the earth's surface could
scarcely be explored, that the camel is specially valuable. In
its fourth year its training as a beast of burden begins, when it
is taught to kneel and to rise at a given signal, and is gradually
accustomed to bear increasing loads. These vary in weight
from 500 to 1000 lb, according to the variety of camel employed,
for of the Arabian camel there are almost as many breeds as
there are of the horse. When crossing a desert camels are
expected to carry their loads 25 m. a day for three days without
drink, getting a supply of water, however, on the fourth; but
the fleeter breeds will carry their rider and a bag of water 50 m.
a day for five days without drinking. When too heavily laden
the camel refuses to rise, but on the march it is exceedingly
patient under its burden, only yielding beneath it to die.
Relieved from its load it does not, like other animals, seek the
shade, even when that is to be found, but prefers to kneel beside
its burden in the broad glare of the sun, seeming to luxuriate
in the burning sand. When overtaken by a dust-storm it falls
on its knees, and stretching its neck along the sand, closes its
nostrils and remains thus motionless till the atmosphere clears;
and in this position it affords some shelter to its driver, who,
wrapping his face in his mantle, crouches behind his beast.
The food of the camel consists chiefly of the leaves of trees,
shrubs and dry hard vegetables, which it is enabled to tear down
and masticate by means of its powerful front teeth. As regards
temperament, if, writes Sir F. Palgrave, " docile means stupid,
well and good; in such a case the camel is the very model of
docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate an animal
that takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can, that in
some way understands his intentions, or shares them in a sub-
ordinate fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or half-
fellow-feeling with his master, like the horse or elephant, then
I say that the camel is by no means docile — very much the
contrary. He takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention
whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on when once
set agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside, and
then should some tempting thorn or green branch allure him out
of the path, continues to walk on in the new direction simply
because he is too dull to turn back into the right road. In a
word, he is from first to last an undomesticated and savage
animal rendered serviceable by stupidity alone, without much
skill on his master's part, or any co-operation on his own, save
that of an extreme passiveness. Neither attachment nor even
habit impresses him; never tame, though not wide-awake enough
to be exactly wild."
For extinct camels see Tylopoda. (R. L.*)
The Biblical expression (Matt. xix. 24, &c), " it is easier for a camel
to go through a needle's eye," &c, is sometimes explained by saying
that the " needle's eye " means the small gate which is opened in the
great gate of a city, when the latter is closed for the night; but
recent criticism (e.g. Post in Hastings 1 Diet., under " Camel j throws
doubt on this explanation, and assumes that the more violent hyper-
bole is intended. There is a various reading xdptXos (cable) for jrA/jqXof
(camel), but Cheyne, in the Ency. Biblica, rejects this (see Cable).
CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT, ist Baron (1737-1793),
English politician and art patron, was a nephew of the ist earl
of Chatham. He sat in parliament from 1761 till 1784, siding
against his uncle and following George Grenvilie, who was also
a relative; and in 1784 he was raised to the peerage. He
dabbled in architecture and the arts generally, and was a pro-
minent figure in the artistic circles of his day. His son Thomas
Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford (1775-1804), who succeeded him
in 1793, had an adventurous and misspent career in the navy,
but is principally remembered for his death in a duel with
Mr Best on the 10th of March 1804, the title becoming extinct.
CAMELLIA, a genus or subgenus of evergreen trees or shrubs
belonging to the natural order Ternstroemiaceae, with thick
dark shining leaves and handsome white or rose-coloured
flowers. The name Camellia was given by Linnaeus in honour
of George Joseph Camellus or Kamel, a Moravian Jesuit who
travelled in Asia and wrote an account of the plants of the
Philippine Island, Luzon, which is included in the third volume
of John Ray's Historia Plantarum (1704). Modern botanists
are agreed that the tea-plant, placed by Linnaeus in a separate
genus, Thea, is too nearly allied to Camellia to admit of the
two being regarded as distinct genera. Thea and Camellia are
therefore now considered to represent one genus, which has been
generally called Camellia, but more correctly Thea, as this name
was the earlier of the two. Under the latter view Camellia is
regarded as a subgenus or section of Thea. It contains about
eight species, natives of India, China and Japan. Most of the
numerous cultivated forms are horticultural products of C.
japonica, a native of China and Japan, which was introduced
into Europe by Lord Petre in 1739. The wild plant has red
flowers, recalling those of the wild rose, but most of the cultivated
forms are double. In the variety anemonaeflora nearly all the
stamens have become transformed into small petaloid structures
which give the flower the appearance of a double anemone.
Another species, C. reticulata, a native of Hongkong, is also
prized for its handsome flowers, larger than those of C. japonica,
which are of a bright rose colour and as known in cultivation
semi-double or double.
Both C. sasanqua and C. drupifera, the former inhabiting
Japan and China, the latter Cochin- China and the mountains
of India, are oil-yielding plants. The oil of C. sasanqua (of which
sasankwa is the native Japanese name) has an agreeable odour
and is used for many domestic purposes. It is obtained from
the seeds by subjecting them to pressure sufficient to reduce them
to a coarse powder, and then boiling and again pressing the
crushed material. The leaves are also used in the form of a
decoction by the Japanese women for washing their hair; and
in a dried state they are mixed with tea on account of their
pleasant flavour. The oil of C. drupifera, which is closely allied
to C. sasanqua, is used medicinally in Cochin-China. The flowers
of these two species, unlike those of C. japonica and C. reticulata,
are odoriferous.
Camellias, though generally grown in the cool greenhouse,
are hardy in the south of England and the south-west of Scotland
and Ireland. They grow best in a rich compost of sandy peat
and loam, and should not be allowed to get too dry at the roots;
a liberal supply of water is especially necessary during the
flowering period. The best position — when grown out of doors —
is one facing north or north-west, with a wall or hedge behind
for protection from cold winds. July is the best time for plant-
ing; care must be taken that the roots are evenly spread, not
matted into a ball.
The plants are propagated by layers or cuttings, and the
single-flowered ones also by seeds. Cuttings are taken in
August and placed in sandy peat or loam in a cold shaded frame.
In the following spring those which have struck are placed in a
gentle heat, and in September or October the rooted plants are
potted off. Camellias are also propagated by grafting or inarching
in early spring on stocks of the common variety of C. japonica.
The scale insect sometimes attacks the camellia. To remove
104
CAMEO— CAMERA OBSCURA
the white scale, the plants are washed with a sponge and solution
of soft soap as soon as their growth is completed, and again
before the buds begin to swell. The brown scale may be got rid
of by repeated washings with one of the many insecticides, but
it should be applied at a temperature of oo°.
CAMEO, a term of doubtful origin, applied in the first instance
to engraved work executed in relief on hard or precious stones.
It is also applied to imitations of such stones in glass, called
" pastes,'' or on the shells of molluscous animals. A cameo is
therefore the converse of an intaglio, which consists of an
incised or sunk engraving in the same class of materials. For
the history of this branch of art, and for an account of some of
its most remarkable examples, see Gem.
The origin of the word is doubtful and has been a matter of
copious controversy. The New English Dictionary quotes its use
in a Sarum inventory of 1222, " lapis unus cameu " and " tnagnus
catnehu." The word is in current use in the 13th century. Thus
Matthew Paris, in his Life of Abbot Leofric of St Albans, in the
Abbatum S. Albani Vitae, says: " retentis quibusdam nobilibus
lapidibus insculptis, quos camaeos vulgariter appellamus." In
variant forms the word has found its way into most languages, e.g.
Latin, camahulus, camahclus, camaynus; Italian, chammeo, chameo;
French, camahieu, chemahou, camaut, camaieu. The following may
be mentioned among the derivations that have been proposed: —
von Hammer: camaut, the hump of a camel; LittrS and others:
camateum, an assumed Low Latin form from Kajxareixw and
KapcLTov; Chabouillet and Babelon: jcetjxqXta, treasures,
connecting the word in particular with the dispersion of treasures
from Constantinople, in 1204; King: Arabic cornea, an amulet.
For a bibliography of the question, see Babelon, Cat. des CamSes
. . . dela Bwliotheque Nationale, p. iv.
CAMERA (a Latin adaptation of Gr. jca/xdpa, an arched
chamber), in law, a word applied at one time to the English
judges' chambers in Serjeants' Inn, as distinct from their bench
in Westminster Hall. It was afterwards applied to the judges'
private room behind the court, and, hence, in the phrase in
camera, to cases heard in private, i.e. in chambers. So far as
criminal cases are concerned, the courts have no power to hear
them in private, nor have they any power to order adults (men
or women) out of court during the hearing. In civil proceedings
at common law, it may also be laid down that the public cannot
be excluded from the court; in Malan v. Young, 1889, 6 T.L.R.
68, Mr Justice Denman held that he had power to hear the case
in camera, but he afterwards stated that there was considerable
doubt among the judges as to the power to hear cases in camera,
even by consent, and the case was, by consent of the parties,
finally proceeded with before the judge as arbitrator. In the court
of chancery it is the practice to hear in private cases affecting
wards of the court and lunatics, family disputes (by consent),
and cases where a public trial would defeat the object of the
action (Andrew v. Raeburn, 1874, L.R. 9 Ch. 522). In an action
for infringement of a patent for a chemical process the defendant
was allowed to state a secret process in camera (Badische A nil in
und Soda Fabrik v. Oilman, 1883, 24 Ch. D. 156). The Court
of Appeal has decided that it has power to sit in private; in
M ell or v. Thompson, 1885, 31 Ch. D. 55, it was stated that a
public hearing would defeat the object of the action, and render
the respondent's success in the appeal useless. In matrimonial
causes, the divorce court, following the practice of the ecclesi-
astical courts under the provisions of the Matrimonial Causes Act
1857, s. 22, hears suits for nullity of marriage on physical grounds
in camera, but not petitions for dissolution of marriage, which
must be heard in open court. It was also decided in Druce v.
Bruce, 1003, 19 T.L.R. 387, that in cases for judicial separation
the court has jurisdiction to hear the case in camera, where it is
satisfied that justice cannot be done by hearing the case in public.
CAMERA LUCIDA, an optical instrument invented by Dr
William Hyde Wollaston for drawing in perspective. Closing
one eye and looking vertically downwards with the other through
a slip of plain glass, e.g. a microscope cover-glass, held close to
the eye and inclined at an angle of 45 to the horizon, one can
9ee the images of objects in front, formed by reflection from the
Object
Image
Fig.
Objeet
n ^ t -^ jtTUt Image
v 2nd Image 7^
Fig. 2.
surface of the glass, and at the same time one can also see through
the transparent glass. The virtual images of the objects appear
projected on the surface of a sheet of paper placed beneath the
slip of glass, and their outline can be accurately traced with a
pencil. This is the simplest form of the camera lucida. The
image (see fig. 1) is, however, inverted and
perverted, and it is not very bright owing to
the poor reflecting power of unsilvered glass.
The brightness of the image is sometimes in-^
creased by silvering the glass; and on removing
a small portion of the silver the observer can
see the image with part of the pupil while he
sees the paper through the unsilvered aperture
with the remaining part. This form of the in-
strument is often used in conjunction with the
microscope, the mirror being attached to the eye-piece and the
tube of the microscope being placed horizontally.
About the beginning of the 19th century Dr Wollaston in-
vented a simple form of the camera lucida which gives bright
and erect images. A four-sided prism of glass is constructed
having one angle of oo°, the opposite angle of 13 5 , and the two
remaining angles each of 67J . This is represented in cross-
section and in position in fig. 2. When the pupil of the eye is
held half over the edge of the prism a,
one sees the image of the object with
one half of the pupil and the paper with
the other half. The image is formed by
successive total reflection at the surfaces
b c and a b. In the first place an in-
verted image (first image) is formed in
the face b c, and then an image of this
image is formed in a b, and it is the
outline of this second image seen pro-
jected on the paper that is traced by the
pencil. It is desirable for two reasons that the image should
lie in the plane of the paper, and this can be secured by placing
a suitable lens between the object and the prism. If the image
does not lie in the plane of the paper, it is impossible to see it
and the pencil-point clearly at the same time. Moreover, any
slight movement of the head will cause the image to appear to
move relatively to the paper, and will render it difficult to obtain
an accurate drawing.
Before the application of photography, the camera lucida was
of considerable importance to draughtsmen. The advantages
claimed for it were its cheapness, smallness and portability;
that there was no appreciable distortion, and that its field was
much larger than that of the camera obscura. It was used largely
for copying, for reducing or for enlarging existing drawings. It
will readily be understood, for example, that a copy will be half-
size if the distance of the object from the instrument is double
the distance of the instrument from the copy. (C. J. J.)
CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical apparatus consisting of a
darkened chamber (for which its name is the Latin rendering)
at the top of which is placed a box or lantern containing a convex
lens and sloping mirror, or a prism combining the lens and
mirror. If we hold a common reading lens (a magnifying lens)
in front of a lamp or some other bright object and at some
distance from it, and if we hold a sheet of paper vertically at a
suitable distance behind the lens, we see depicted on the paper
an image of the lamp. This image is inverted and perverted.
If now we place a plane
mirror (e.g. a lady's hand
glass) behind the lens and
inclined at an angle of 45 to
the horizon so as to reflect
the rays of light vertically
downwards, we can produce
on a horizontal sheet of
paper an unperverted image
of the bright object (fig. 1), i.e. the image has the same appear-
ance as the object and is not perverted as when the reflection of a
printed page is viewed in a mirror. This is the principle of the
■1 IVt
Object f Mirror\ Image
Lens
Image without
Mirror
Image with Mirror
FlG. I.
CAMERA OBSCURA
105
Fig. 2.
camera obscura, which was extensively used in sketching from
nature before the introduction of photography, although it is
now scarcely to be seen except as an interesting side-show at
places of popular resort. The image formed on the paper may
be traced out by a pencil, and it will be noticed that in this case
the image is real — not virtual as in the case of the camera
lucida. Generally the mirror and lens are combined into a
single piece of worked glass represented in section in fig. 2.
Rays from external objects are first re-
fracted at the convex surface a b, then totally
reflected at the plane surface a c, and finally
refracted at the concave surface b c (fig. 2)
so as to form an image on the sheet of paper
d e. The curved surfaces take the place of
the lens in fig. 1, and the plane surface per-
-^ forms the function of the mirror. The prism
a b c is fixed at the top of a small tent fur-
nished with opaque curtains so as to prevent the diffused day-
light from overpowering the image on the paper, and in the
darkened tent the images of external objects are seen very
distinctly.
Quite recently, the camera obscura has come into use with
submarine vessels, the periscope being simply a camera obscura
under a new name. (C. J. J.)
History. — The invention of this instrument has generally been
ascribed, as in the ninth edition of this work, to the famous
Neapolitan savant of the 16th century, Giovanni Battista della
Porta, but as a matter of fact the principle of the simple camera
obscura, or darkened chamber with a small aperture in a window
or shutter, was well known and in practical use for observing
eclipses long before his time. He was anticipated in the improve-
ments he claimed to have made in it, and all he seems really to
have done was to popularize it. The increasing importance
of the camera obscura as a photographic instrument makes it
desirable to bring together what is known of its early history,
which is far more extensive than is usually recognized. In
southern climes, where during the summer heat it is usual to
close the rooms from the glare of the sunshine outside, we may
often see depicted on the walls vivid inverted images of outside
objects formed by the light reflected from them passing through
chinks or small apertures in doors or window-shutters. From
the opening passage of Euclid's Optics (c. 300 B.C.), which
formed the foundation for some of the earlier middle age treatises
on geometrical perspective, it would appear that the above
phenomena of the simple darkened room were used by him to
demonstrate the rectilinear propagation of light by the passage
of sunbeams or the projection of the images of objects through
small openings in windows, &c. In the book known as Aris-
totle's Problems (sect. xv. cap. 5) we find the correlated problem
of the image of the sun passing through a quadrilateral aperture
always appearing round, and he further notes the lunated image
of the eclipsed sun projected in the same way through the
interstices of foliage or lattice-work.
There are, however, very few allusions to these phenomena
in the later classical Greek and Roman writers, and we find the
first scientific investigation of them in the great optical treatise
of the Arabian philosopher Alhazen (q.v.)> who died at Cairo in
a.d. 1038. He seems to have been well acquainted with the
projection of images of objects through small apertures, and to
have been the first to show that the arrival of the image of an
object at the concave surface of the common nerve — or the
retina — corresponds with the passage of light from an object
through an aperture in a darkened place, from which it falls
upon a surface facing the aperture. He also had some knowledge
of the properties of concave and convex lenses and mirrors in
forming images. Some two hundred years later, between
a.d. 1266 and 1279, these problems were taken up by three
almost contemporaneous writers on optics, two of whom, Roger
Bacon and John Peckham, were Englishmen, and Vitelloor
Witelo, a Pole.
That Roger Bacon was acquainted with the principle of the
camera obscura is shown by his attempt at solving Aristotle's
problem stated above, in the treatise De Specidis, and also from
his references to Alhazen's experiments of the same kind, but
although Dr John Freind, in his History of Physick, has given him
the credit of the invention on the strength of a passage in the
Perspective, there is nothing to show that he constructed any
instrument of the kind. His arrangement of concave and plane
mirrors r by which the realistic images of objects inside the house
or in the street could be rendered visible though intangible,
there alluded to, may apply to a camera on Cardan's principle or
to a method of aerial projection by means of concave mirrors,
which Bacon was quite familiar with, and indeed was known
long before his time. On the strength of similar arrangements of
lenses and mirrors the invention of the camera obscura has also
been claimed for Leonard Digges, the author of Pantometria
(1 571), who is said to have constructed a telescope from informa-
tion given in a book of Bacon's experiments.
Archbishop Peckham, or Pisanus, in his Perspective Communis
(1279), and Vitello, in his Optics (1270), also attempted the
solution of Aristotle's problem, but unsuccessfully. Vitello's
work is to a very great extent based upon Alhazen and some of
the earlier writers, and was first published in 1535. A later
edition was published, together with a translation of Alhazen,
by F. Risner in 1572.
The first practical step towards the development of the camera
obscura seems to have been made by the famous painter and
architect, Leon Battista Alberti, in 1437, contemporaneously
with the invention of printing. It is not clear, however, whether
his invention was a camera obscura or a show box, but in a
fragment of an anonymous biography of him, published in
Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (xxv. 296), quoted by
Vasari, it is stated that he produced wonderfully painted
pictures, which were exhibited by him in some sort of small
closed box through a very small aperture, with great verisimili-
tude. These demonstrations were of two kinds, one nocturnal,
showing the moon and bright stars, the other diurnal, for day
scenes. This description seems to refer to an arrangement of a
transparent painting illuminated either from the back or the front
and the image projected through a hole on to a white screen in a
darkened room, as described by Porta (Mag. Nat. xvii. cap. 7)
and figured by A. Kircher (Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae), who
notes elsewhere that Porta had taken some arrangement of pro-
jecting images from an Albertus, whom he distinguished from
Albertus Magnus, and who was probably L. B. Alberti, to whom
Porta also refers, but not in this connexion.
G. B. I. T. Libri-Carucci dalla Sommaja (1 803-1 869), in his
account of the invention of the camera obscura in Italy (Histoire
des sciences mathimatiques en Italie, iv. 303), makes no mention
of Alberti, but draws attention to an unpublished MS. of Leonardo
da Vinci, which was first noticed by Yenturi in 1797, and has
since been published in facsimile in vol. ii. of J. G. F. Ravaisson-
Mollien's reproductions of the MSS. in the Institut de France at
Paris (MS. D, fol. 8 recto). After discussing the structure of the
eye he gives an experiment in which the appearance of the
reversed images of outside objects on a piece of paper held in
front of a small hole in a darkened room, with their forms and
colours, is quite clearly described and explained with a diagram,
as an illustration of the phenomena of vision. Another similar
passage is quoted by Richter from folio 404b of the reproduc-
tion of the Codice A&antico, in Milan, published by the Italian
government. These are probably the earliest distinct accounts
of the natural phenomena of the camera obscura, but remained
unpublished for some three centuries. Leonardo also discussed
the old Aristotelian problem of the rotundity of the sun's image
after passing through an angular aperture, but not so successfully
as Maurolycus. He has also given methods of measuring the
sun's distance by means of images thrown on screens through
small apertures. He was well acquainted with the use of magni-
fying glasses and suggested a kind of telescope for viewing the
moon, but does not seem to have thought of applying a lens to
the camera.
The first published account of the simple camera obscura was
discovered by Libri in a translation of the Architecture of
v. 40
io6
CAMERA OBSCURA
Vitruvius, with commentary by Cesare Caesariano, one of the
architects of Milan cathedral, published at Como in 1 521, shortly
after the death of Leonardo, and some twenty years before
Porta was born. He describes an experiment made by a
Benedictine monk and architect, Dom Papnutio or Panuce, of
the same kind as Leonardo's but without the demonstration.
About the same time Francesco Maurolico, or Maurolycus,
the eminent mathematician of Messina, in his Theoremata de
Lutnine et Umbra, written in 1521, fully investigated the optical
problems connected with vision and the passage of rays of light
through small apertures with and without lenses, and made
great advances in this direction over his predecessors. He was
the first correctly to solve Aristotle's problem, stated above,
and to apply it practically to solar observations in a darkened
room (Cosmograpkia, 1535). Erasmus Reinhold has described
the method in his edition of G. Purbach's Theoricae Novae
Planetarutn (1542), and probably got it from Maurolycus. He
says it can also be applied to terrestrial objects, though he only
used it for the sun. His pupil, Rainer Gemma-Frisius, used it
for the observation of the solar eclipse of January 1544 at
Louvain, and fully described the methods he adopted for making
measurements and drawings of the eclipsed sun, in his De Radio
Astronomico et Geometrico (1545). He says they can be used for
observation of the moon and stars and also for longitudes. The
same arrangement was used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, by
M. Moestlin and his pupil Kepler — the latter applying it in 1607
to the observation of a transit of Mercury — also by Johann
Fabricius, in 161 1, for the first observations of sun-spots. It is
interesting to note this early employment of the camera obscura
in the field of astronomical research, in which its latest achieve-
ments have been of such pre-eminent value.
The addition of optical appliances to the simple dark chamber
for the purpose of seeing what was going on outside, was first
described by Girolamo Cardan in his De Subtilitate (1550), as
noted by Libri. The sun shining, he fixed a round glass speculum
{orbem e vitro) in a window-shutter, and then closing it the images
of outside objects would be seen transmitted through the
aperture on to the opposite wall, or better, a white paper screen
suitably placed. The account is not very clear, but seems to
imply the use of a concave mirror rather than a lens, which
might be suggested by the word orbem. He refers to Maurolycus'
work with concave specula.
We now come to Giovanni Battista della Porta, whose account
of the camera obscura in the first edition of the Magia Naturalis,
in four books (1558, lib. iv. cap. 2), is very similar to Caesariano's
— a darkened room, a pyramidal aperture towards the sun, and a
whitened wall or white paper screens, but no lens. He discloses
as a great secret the use of a concave speculum in front of the
aperture, to collect the rays passing through it, when the images
will be seen reversed, but by prolonging them beyond the centre
they would be seen larger and unreversed. This is much the
same as Cardan's method published eight years earlier, but
though more detailed is not very clear. He then notes the
application to portraiture and to painting by laying colours on
the projected images. Nothing is said about the use of a lens
or of solar observations. The second edition, in which he in the
same words discloses the use of a convex lens in the aperture as a
secret he had intended to keep, was not published till 1589,
thirty-one years after the first. In this interval the use of the
lens was discovered and clearly described by Daniello Barbara, a
Venetian noble, patriarch of Aquileia, in his work La Pratica
della perspettiva (p. 192), published in 1568, or twenty-one
years before Porta's mention of it. The lens used by Barbara
was an ordinary convex or old man's spectacle-glass; concave,
he says, will not do. He shows how the paper must be moved
till it is brought into the focus of the lens, the use of a diaphragm
to make the image clearer, and also the application of the method
for drawing in true perspective. That Barbara was really the
first to apply the lens to the camera obscura is supported by
Marius Bettinus in his Apiaria (1645), anc * by Kaspar Schott in
his Magia Universalis (1657), the former taunting Porta with the
appropriation.
In an Italian translation of Euclid's Optica, with commentary,
Egnacio Danti (1573), after discussing the effects of plane,
convex and concave reflectors, fully describes the method of
showing reversed images parsing through an aperture in a
darkened room, and shows how, by placing a mirror behind the
aperture, unreversed images might be obtained, both effects
being illustrated by diagrams. F. Risner, who died in 1580,
also in his Opticae (1606) very clearly explained the reversal of
the images of the simple camera obscura. He notes the con-
venience of the method for solar observations and its previous
use by some of the observers already mentioned, as well as its
advantages for easily and accurately copying on an enlarged or
reduced scale, especially for chorographical or topographical
documents. This is probably the first notice of the application
of the camera to cartography and the reproduction of drawings,
which is one of its principal uses at the present time. In
the Diversarum Speculationum Malhematicarum et Physicarum
(1585), by the Venetian Giovanni Battista Benedetti, there is a
letter in which he discusses the simple camera obscura and
mentions the improvement some one had made in it by the use
of a double convex lens in the aperture; he also says that the
images could be made erect by reflection from any plane mirror.
Thus the use of the camera and of the lens with it was well
known before Porta published his second edition of the Magia
Naturalis in 1589. In this the description of the camera obscura
is in lib. xvii. cap. 6. The use of the convex lens, which is given
as a great secret, in place of the concave speculum of the first
edition, is not so clearly described as by Barbara; the addition
of the concave speculum is proposed for making the images
larger and clearer, and also for making them erect, but no details
are given. He describes some entertaining peep-show arrange-
ments, possibly similar to Alberti's, and indicates how the dark
chamber with a concave speculum can be used for observing
eclipses. There is no mention whatever of a portable box or
construction beyond the darkened room, nor is there in his later
work, De Refractione Optices Parte (1593), in which he discusses
the analogy between vision and the simple dark room with an
aperture, but incorrectly. Though Porta's merits were un-
doubtedly great, he did not invent or improve the camera
obscura. His only novelty was the use of it as a peep-show;
his descriptions of it are vague, but being published in a book of
general reference, which became popular, he acquired credit for
the invention.
The first to take up the camera obscura after Porta was Kepler,
who used it in the old way for solar observations in 1600, and
in his Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena (1604) discusses the early
problems of the passages of light through small apertures, and
the rationale of the simple dark chamber. He was the first to
describe an instrument fitted with a sight and paper screen for
observing the diameters of the sun and moon in a dark room.
In his later book, Dioptrice (161 1), he fully discusses refraction
and the use of lenses, showing the action of the double convex
lens in the camera obscura, with the principles which regulate
its use and the reason of the reversal of the image. He also
demonstrates how enlarged images can be produced and projected
on paper by using a concave lens at a suitable distance behind
the convex, as in modern telephotographic lenses. He was the
first to use the term camera obscura, and in a letter from Sir H.
Wotton written to Lord Bacon in 1620 we learn that Kepler had
made himself a portable dark tent fitted with a telescope lens
and used for sketching landscapes. Further, he extended the
work of Maurolycus, and demonstrated the exact analogy
between the eye and the camera and the arrangement by which
an inverted image is produced on the retina.
In 1609 the telescope came into use, and the danger of observ-
ing the sun with it was soon discovered. In 161 1 Johann
Fabricius published his observations of sun-spots and describes
how he and his father fell back upon the old method of projecting
the sun's image in a darkened room, finding that they could
observe the spots just as well as with the telescope. They do
not seem to have used a lens, or thought of using the telescope
for projecting an enlarged image on Kepler's principle. This
CAMERARIUS
107
was done in 161 2 by Christoph Scheiner, who fully described his
method of solar observation in the Rosa Ursina (1630), demon-
strating very clearly and practically the advantages and dis-
advantages of using the camera, without a lens, with a single
convex lens, and with a telescopic combination of convex
object-glass and concave enlarging lens, the last arrangement
being mounted with an adjustable screen or tablet on an equa-
torial stand. Most of the earlier astronomical work was done
in a darkened room, but here we first find the dark chamber
constructed of wooden rods covered with cloth or paper, and
used separately to screen the observing- tablet.
Various writers on optics in the 17 th century discussed the
principle of the simple dark chamber alone and with single or
compound lenses, among them Jean Tarde (Les Astres de Borbon,
1623); Descartes, the pupil of Kepler (Dioptrique, 1637);
Bettinus (Apiaria, 1645); A. Kircher (Ars Magna Lucis et
Umbrae, 1646); J. Hevelius (Selenographia, 1647); Schott
Magia Universalis Naturae et Artis, 1674); C. F. M. Deschales
(Cursusy seu Mundus Mathematicus, 1674); Z. Traber (Nervus
Opticus , 1675), but their accounts are generally more interesting
theoretically than as recording progress in the practical use and
development of the instrument.
The earliest mention of the camera obscura in England is
probably in Francis Bacon's De Augmentis Scientiarum, but it is
only as an illustration of the projected images showing better
on a white screen than on a black one. Sir H. Wotton's letter
of 1620, already noted, was not published till 1651 {Reliquiae
Wottonianae, p. 141) , but in 1658 a description of Kepler's portable
tent camera for sketching, taken from it, was published in a work
called Graphice, or the most excellent Art of Painting, but no
mention is made of Kepler. In W. Oughtred's Engiist edition
(1633) of the RScriations mathSmatiques (1627) of Jean Leurechon
(" Henry van Etten ") there is a quaint description, with
figures, of the simple dark chamber with aperture, and also of a
sort of tent with a lens in it and the projection on an inner wall
of the face of a man standing outside. The English translation
of Porta's Natural Magick was published in 1658.
Robert Boyle seems to have been the first to construct a box
camera with lens for viewing landscapes. It is mentioned in his
essay On the Systematic or Cosmical Qualities of Things (ch. vi.),
written about 1570, as having been made several years before
and since imitated and improved. It could be extended or
shortened like a telescope. At one end of it paper was stretched,
and at the other a convex lens was fitted in a hole, the image
being viewed through an aperture at the top of the box. Robert
Hooke, who was some time Boyle's assistant, described (Phil.
Trans., 1668, 3, p. 741) a camera lucida on the principle of the
magic lantern, in which the images of illuminated and inverted
objects were projected on any desired scale by means of a broad
convex lens through an aperture into a room where they were
viewed by the spectators. If the objects could not be inverted,
another lens was used for erecting the images. From Hooke's
Posthumous Works (1705), p. 127, we find that in one of the
Cutlerian lectures on Light delivered in 1680, he illustrated the
phenomena of vision by a darkened room, or perspective box,
of a peculiar pattern, the back part, with a concave white screen
at the end of it, being cylindrical and capable of being moved
in and out, while the fore part was conical, a double convex
lens being fixed in a hole in front. The image was viewed
through a large hole in the side. It was between 4 and 5 ft.
long.
Johann Zahn, in his Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus (1685-
1686), described and figured two forms of portable box cameras
with lenses. One was a wooden box with a projecting tube in
which a combination of a concave with a convex lens was fitted,
for throwing an enlarged image upon the focusing screen,
which in its proportions and application is very similar to our
modern telephotographic objectives. The image was first thrown
upon an inclined mirror and then reflected upwards to a paper
screen on the top of the box. In an earlier form the image is
thrown upon a vertical thin paper screen and viewed through a
hole in the back of the camera. There is a great deal of practical
information on lenses in connexion with the camera and other
optical instruments, and the book is valuable as a repertory
of early practical optics, also for the numerous references to
and extracts from previous writers. An improved edition was
published in 1702.
Most of the writers already noticed worked out the problems
connected with the projection of images in the camera obscura
more by actual practice than by calculation, but William
Molyneux, of Dublin, seems to have been the first to treat them
mathematically in his Dioptrica Nova (1692), which was also the
first work in English on the subject, and is otherwise an interest-
ing book. He has fully discussed the optical theory of the dark
chamber, with and without a lens, and its analogy to the eye.
also several optical problems relating to lenses of various forms
and their combinations for telescopic projection, rules for finding
foci, &c. He does not, however, mention the camera obscura
as an instrument in use, but in John Harris's Lexicon Technicum
(1704) we find that the camera obscura with the arrangement
called the " scioptric ball," and known as scioptricks, was on sale
in London, and after this must have been in common use as a
sketching instrument or as a show.
Sir Isaac Newton, in his Opticks (1704), explains the principle
of the camera obscura with single convex lens and its analogy
with vision in illustration of his seventh axiom, which aptly
embodies the correct solution of Aristotle's old problem. He
also made great use of the simple dark chamber for his optical
experiments with prisms, &c. Joseph Priestley (1772) mentions
the application of the solar microscope, both to the small and
portable and the large camera obscura. Many patterns of these
two forms for sketching and for viewing surrounding scenes
are described in W. J. 's Gravesande's Essai de perspective
(1711), Robert Smith's Compleat System of Optics (1738), Joseph
Harris's Treatise on Optics (1775), Charles Hutton's Philo-
sophical and Mathematical Dictionary, and other books on optics
and physics of that period. The camera obscura was first
applied to photography (q.v.) probably about 1794, by Thomas
Wedgwood. His experiments with Sir Humphrey Davy in
endeavouring to fix the images of natural objects as seen in the
camera were published in 1802 (Journ. Roy. Inst.). (J. Wa.)
CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1 500-1 574), German classical
scholar, was born at Bamberg on the 12th of April 1500. His
family name was Liebhard, but he was generally called Kammer-
meister, previous members of his family having held the office
of chamberlain (camerarius) to the bishops of Bamberg. He
studied at Leipzig, Erfurt and Wittenberg, where he became
intimate with Melanchthon. For some years he was teacher
of history and Greek at the gymnasium, Nuremberg. In 1530
he was sent as deputy for Nuremberg to the diet of Augsburg,
where he rendered important assistance to Melanchthon in
drawing up the Confession of Augsburg. Five years later he
was commissioned by Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg to reorganize
the university of Tubingen; and in 1541 he rendered a similar
service at Leipzig, where the remainder of his life was chiefly
spent. He translated into Latin Herodotus, Demosthenes,
Xenophon, Homer, Theocritus, Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoretus,
Nicephorus and other Greek writers. He published upwards of
150 works, including a Catalogue of the Bishops of the Principal
Sees; Greek Epistles; Accounts of his Journeys, in Latin verse;
a Commentary on Plautus; a treatise on Numismatics; Euclid
in Latin; and the Lives of Helius Eobanus Hessus, George of
Anhalt and Philip Melanchthon. His Epistolae Familiares
(published after his death) are a valuable contribution to the
history of his time. He played an important part in the Re-
formation movement, and his advice was frequently sought by
leading men. In 1535 he entered into a correspondence with
Francis I. as to the possibility of a reconciliation between the
Catholic and Protestant creeds; and in 1568 Maximilian II.
sent for him to Vienna to consult him on the same subject.
He died at Leipzig on the 1 7th of April 1 574.
See article by A. Horawitz in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie;
C. Bursian, Die Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland
(1883); J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. (ed. 1908), ii. 266.
io8
CAMERARIUS— CAMERON, S.
CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (i 534-1598), German botanist and
physician, son of the classical scholar of the same name, was
born at Nuremberg on the 6th of November 1 534. After finishing
his studies in Germany he visited Italy, where he graduated as
doctor of medicine. On his return he was invited to reside at
the courts of several princes, but preferred to settle in his native
town of Nuremberg, where he had a botanical garden and
formed extensive collections. He wrote a Hortus Medicus
(1588) and several other works. He died at Nuremberg on the
nth of October 1598.
» CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB (1665-1721), German
botanist and physician, was born at Tubingen on the 12th of
February 1665, and became professor of medicine and director
of the botanical gardens at Tubingen in 1687. He died at
Ttlbingen on the nth of September 1721. He is chiefly known
for his investigations on the reproductive organs of plants
(De sexu plantarum epistola, 1694).
CAMERINO (anc. Camerinum), a city and episcopal see (since
465, if not sooner; Treia is now combined with it) of the Marches,
Italy, in the province of Macerata, 6 m. S. of the railway
station of Castelraimondo (to which there is an electric tramway)
which is 24 m. W. of Macerata; 2148 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1001) of town, 4005; of commune, 12,083. The cathedral
is modern, the older building having fallen in 1799; the church
of S. Venanzio suffered similarly, but preserves a portal of the
15th century. The citadel, perhaps constructed from the plans
of Leonardo da Vinci, dates from 1503. Camerino occupies
the site of the ancient Camerinum, the inhabitants of which
(Camertes Umbri) became allies of the Romans in 310 B.C. (at
the time of the attack on the Etruscans in the Ciminian Forest).
On the other hand, the Kafikpriot referred to in the history of
the year 295 B.C. are probably the inhabitants of Clusium.
Later it appears as a dependent autonomous community with
thtfoedus aequutn (Mommsen, Rdm. Staatsrecht, iii. 664). Two
cohorts of Camertes fought with distinction under Marius
against the Cimbri. It was much affected by the conspiracy of
Catiline, and is frequently mentioned in the Civil Wars; under
the empire it was a municipiutn. It belonged to ancient Umbria,
but was on the borders of Picenum. No ancient buildings are
visible, the Romanlevel lying as much as 30 ft. below the modern.
See P. Savini, Storia della Cittd, di Camerino (2nd ed., Camerino,
1805) ; M. Mariani, Intorno agli antichi Camerti Umbri (Camerino,
1900). . r, .. t (T.As.) ...
CAMERON, JOHN (1570-1623), Scottish theologian, was born
at Glasgow about 1579, and received his early education in his
native city. After having taught Greek in the university for
twelve months, he removed to Bordeaux, where he was soon
appointed a regent in the college of Bergenia He did not
remain long at Bordeaux, but accepted the offer of a chair of
philosophy at Sedan, where he passed two years. He then
returned to Bordeaux, and in the beginning of 1604 he was
nominated one of the students of divinity who were maintained
at the expense of the church, and who for the period of four
years were at liberty to prosecute their studies in any Protestant
seminary. During this period he acted as tutor to the two sons
of Calignon, chancellor of Navarre. They spent one year at
Paris, and two at Geneva, whence they removed to Heidelberg.
In this university, on the 4th of April 1608, he gave a public
proof of his ability by maintaining a series of theses, De triplici
Dei cum Hotnine Foedere, which were printed among his works.
The same year he was recalled to Bordeaux, where he was
appointed the colleague of Dr Primrose; and when Francis
Gomarus was removed to Leiden, Cameron, in 1618, was
appointed professor of divinity at Saumur , the principal seminary
of the French Protestants.
In 1620 the progress of the civil troubles in France obliged
Cameron to seek refuge for himself and family in England. For
a short time he read private lectures on divinity in London;
and in 1622 the king appointed him principal of the university
of Glasgow in the room of Robert Boyd, who had been removed
from his office in consequence of his adherence to Presbyterian-
ism. Cameron was prepared to accept Episcopacy, and was
cordially disliked for his adherence to the doctrine of passive
obedience. He resigned his office in less than a year.
He returned to France, and lived at Saumur. After an
interval of a year he was appointed professor of divinity at
Montauban. The country was still torn by civil and religious
dissensions; and Cameron excited the indignation of the more
strenuous adherents of his own party. He withdrew to the
neighbouring town of Moissac; but he soon returned to Montau-
ban, and a few days afterwards he died at the age of about
forty-six. Cameron left by his first wife several children, whose
maintenance was undertaken by the Protestant churches in
France. All his works were published after his death.
His name has a distinct place in the development of Calvinistic
theology in Europe. He and his followers maintained that the
will of man is determined by the practical judgment of the
mind; that the cause of men's doing good or evil proceeds from
the knowledge which God infuses into them; and that God does
not move the will physically, but only morally, by virtue of its
dependence on the judgment of the mind. This peculiar doctrine
of grace and free-will was adopted by Amyraut, Cappel, Bochart,
Daill6 and others of the more learned among the Reformed
ministers, who dissented from Calvin's. The Cameronites (not
to be confused with the Scottish sect called Cameronians)
are moderate Calvinists, and approach to the opinion of the
Arminians. They are also called Universalists, as holding the
universal reference of Christ's death, and sometimes Amyrald-
ists. The rigid adherents to the synod of Dort accused them
of Pelagianism, and even of Manichaeism, and the controversy
between the parties was carried on with great zeal; yet the
whole question between them was only, whether the will of man
is determined by the immediate action of God upon it, or by
the intervention of a knowledge which God impresses on the
mind.
CAMERON, RICHARD (1648 ?-i68o), founder of a Scottish
religious sect of Cameronians, which formed the nucleus of
the regiment of this name in the British army, was born at
Falkland in the county of Fife. He was educated at the village
school, and his success was so great that, while still a youth,
he was appointed schoolmaster. In this situation he became
acquainted with some of the more enthusiastic field-preachers.
Persuaded by them he resigned his post and entered the family
of Sir Walter Scott of Harden as chaplain and tutor. Refusing
to acknowledge the Indulgence, he joined the ranks of the non-
conforming ministers, and incited the inhabitants of the southern
counties of Scotland to protest openly against the new edict.
So formidable was the agitation that the government pronounced
illegal all armed assemblages for religious purposes. Cameron
took refuge in Holland, where he resided for some time; but
in the autumn of 1679 (probably) he returned to Scotland, and
once more made himself formidable to the government. Shortly
after the defeat of the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge in that
year, Cameron was slain in a skirmish at the Aird's, or Airs,
Moss, fighting bravely at the head of the few troops which he
had been able to collect. His prayer before going into battle
became a tradition — " Lord spare the green and take the ripe."
After the accession of William HI. the survivors were amnestied,
and the Cameronian regiment was formed from them.
See Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol. iii. (1007) ; Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopddie (1897), s.v. " Cameronianer '; A. Smellie,
Men of the Covenant; Herkless, Richard Cameron; P. Walker, Six
Saints of the Covenant.
CAMERON, SIMON (1790-1889), American politician, was
bom in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of March
1799. Left an orphan at the age of nine, he early entered
journalism, and, in banking and railway enterprises, accumulated
a considerable fortune. He became influential in Pennsylvania
politics, and in 1845-1849 served in the United States Senate,
being elected by a combination of Democratic, Whig and
"American" votes to succeed James Buchanan. In 1854,
having failed to secure the nomination for senator from the
"Know-Nothing" Party, which he had recently joined, he
became a leader of the " People's Party," as the Republican
CAMERON, V. L.— CAMERONIANS
109
Party was at first called in Pennsylvania. In 1857 he was
elected to the United States Senate as a Republican, despite a
Democratic majority in the state legislature, a fact that gave
rise to charges of bribery. His prominence as a candidate first
for the presidential and then for the vice-presidential nomination
in the Republican national convention of i860 led to his being
selected by President Lincoln as secretary of war. His adminis-
tration of this office at a critical time was marked by his accus-
tomed energy, but unfortunately also by partiality in the letting
of government contracts, which brought about his resignation
at Lincoln's request in January 1862 and his subsequent censure
by the House of Representatives. Lincoln sent him as minister
to Russia, but he returned in November 1862. He again served
in the Senate (after 1872, being chairman of the committee on
foreign relations) from 1867 until 1877, when he resigned to
make room for his son, whose election he dictated. Cameron
was one of the ablest political organizers the United States has
ever known, and his long undisputed control of Pennsylvania
politics was one of the most striking examples of " boss rule "
in American history. The definition of an honest politician as
" one who when he is bought will stay bought " has been
attributed to him. He died on the 26th of June 1889.
His son James Donald Cameron (1833- ) was born at
Middletown, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of May 1833, graduated
at Princeton in 1852, became actively interested in his father's
banking and railway enterprises, and from 1863 to 1874 was
president of the Northern Central railway. Trained in the
political school of his father, he developed into an astute politician.
From June 1876 to March 1877 he was secretary of war in
President Grant's cabinet. In the Republican national conven-
tion of 1876 he took an influential part in preventing the nomina-
tion of James G. Blaine, and later was one of those who directed
the policy of the Republicans in the struggle for the presidency
between Tilden and Hayes. From 1877 until 1897 he was a
member of the United States Senate, having been elected
originally to succeed his father, who resigned in order to create
the vacancy. He was chairman of the Republican national
committee during the campaign of 1880.
CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT (1844-1894), English traveller
in Central Africa, was born at Radipole, near Weymouth, Dorset-
shire, on the 1st of July 1844. He entered the navy in 1857,
served in the Abyssinian campaign of 1868, and was employed
for a considerable time in the suppression of the East African
slave trade. The experience thus obtained led to his being
selected to command an expedition sent by the Royal Geographi-
cal Society in 1873, to succour Dr. Livingstone. He was also
instructed to make independent explorations, guided by Living-
stone's advice. Soon after the departure of the expedition from
Zanzibar, Livingstone's servants were met bearing the dead
body of their master. Cameron's two European companions
turned back, but he continued his march and reached Ujiji,
on Lake Tanganyika, in February 1874, where he found and
sent to England Livingstone's papers. Cameron spent some time
determining the true form of the south part of the lake, and
solved the question of its outlet by the discovery of the Lukuga
river. From Tanganyika he struck westward to Nyangwe,
the Arab town on the Lualaba previously visited by Livingstone.
This river Cameron rightly believed to be the main stream of
the Congo, and he endeavoured to procure canoes to follow
it down. In this he was unsuccessful, owing to his refusal to
countenance slavery, and he therefore turned south-west.
After tracing the Congo-Zambezi watershed for hundreds of
miles he reached Bihe and finally arrived at the coast on the
28th of November 1875, being the first European to cross
Equatorial Africa from sea to sea. His travels, which were
published in 1877 under the title Across Africa, contain valuable
suggestions for the opening up of the continent, including the
utilization of the great lakes as a " Cape to Cairo " connexion.
In recognition of his work he was promoted to the rank of
commander, made a Companion of the Bath and given the gold
medal of the Geographical Society. The remainder of Cameron's
life was chiefly devoted to projects for the commercial develop-
ment of Africa, and to writing tales for the young. He visited
the Euphrates valley in 1878-1879 in connexion with a proposed
railway to the Persian Gulf, and accompanied Sir Richard
Burton in his West African journey of 1882. At the Gold Coast
Cameron surveyed the Tarkwa region, and he was joint author
with Burton of To the Gold Coast for Gold (1883). He was killed,
near Leighton Buzzard, by a fall from horseback when returning
from hunting, on the 24th of March 1894.
A second edition of Across Africa, with new matter and corrected
maps, appeared in 1885. A summary of Cameron's great journey,
from his own pen, appears in Dr Robert Brown's The Story of Africa,
vol. ii. pp. 266-279 (London, 1893).
CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN (1629-1719), Scottish
Highland chieftain, was the eldest son of John Cameron and the
grandson of Alan Cameron, the head of the clan Cameron.
Having lost his father in infancy he passed part of his youth with
the marquess of Argyll at Inveraray, leaving his guardian about
1647 to take up his duties as chief of the clan Cameron, a position
in which he succeeded his grandfather. In 1653 Lochiel joined
the earl of Glencairn in his rising on behalf of Charles H., and
after the defeat of this attempt he served the Royalist cause by
harassing General Monk. In 1681 he was knighted by Charles II.,
and in July 1689 he was with Viscount Dundee at Killiecrankie.
He was too old to share personally in the Jacobite rising of 171 5,
but his sympathies were with the Stuarts, and his son led the
Camerons at Sheriff muir. Lochiel, who died in February 17 19,
is called by Macaulay the "Ulysses of the Highlands." He was a
man of enormous strength and size, and one who met him in 17 16
says " he wrung some blood from the point of my fingers with a
grasp of his hand." An incident showing his strength and
ferocity in single combat is used by Sir Walter Scott in The Lady
of the Lake (canto v.). Lochiel's son and successor, John, who
was attainted for sharing in the rebellion of 1 7 1 5, died in Flanders
in 1 748. John's son Donald, sometimes called " gentle Lochiel,"
joined Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, in 1745, was
wounded at Culloden, and escaped to France, dying in the same
year as his father. The 79th regiment, or Cameron Highlanders,
was raised from among the members of the clan in 1793 by Sir
Alan Cameron (i753^ lS28 )-
See Memoirs of Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel (Bannatyne Club,
1842).
CAMERONIANS, the name given to that section of the Scottish
Covenanters (q.v.) who followed Richard Cameron (q.v.), and
who were chiefly found among those who signed the Sanquhar
Declaration in 1680. Known also as " Society Men," " San-
quharians " and " Hillmen," they became a separate church
after the religious settlement of 1600, taking the official title
of Reformed Presbyterians in 1743. Societies of Cameronians
for the maintenance of the Presbyterian form of worship were
formed about 1681 ; their testimony, " The Informatory Vindica-
tion," is dated 1687; and they quickly became the most pro-
nounced and active adherents of the covenanting faith. Holding
fast to the two covenants, the National Covenant of 1580 and
the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, tnev wished to restore
the ecclesiastical order which had existed between 1638 and 1649,
and were dissatisfied with the moderate character of the religious
settlement of 1690. Refusing to take the oaths of allegiance to
an " uncovenanted " ruler, or to exercise any civil function, they
passed through a period of trial and found some difficulty in
maintaining a regular ministry; but in 1706 they were reinforced
by some converts from the established church. They objected
strongly to the proposal for the union of England and Scotland,
and were suspected of abetting a rising which took place in the
west of Scotland in 1706; but there appears to be no foundation
for the statement that they intrigued with the Jacobites, and
they gave no trouble to the government either in 1 715 or in 1745.
In 171 2 they publicly renewed the covenants at Auchensauch
Hill in Lanarkshire, and in 1743 their first presbytery was
constituted at Braehead, while a presbytery was f ormed in North
America in 1774. In 1863 the Cameronians, or Reformed
Presbyterians, decided to inflict no penalties upon those members
who had taken the oaths, or had exercised civil functions, and
no
CAMEROON
consequently a few congregations seceded. In 1876 the general
body of the Reformed Presbyterians united with the Free Church
of Scotland, leaving the few seceding congregations as the
representatives of the principles of the Cameronians. In the
British army the first battalion of the Cameronians (Scottish
Rifles) is directly descended from the " Cameronian guard,"
which, composed of Cameronians, was embodied by the con-
vention parliament in 1689, and was afterwards employed to
restore order in the Highlands.
See J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, vols. vii. and viii. (Edin-
burgh, 1905) ; and A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. iv. (Edinburgh,
1907).
CAMEROON 1 (Ger. Kamerun), a German protectorate inWest
Africa, bounded W. by the Atlantic, N.W. by British Nigeria,
N. by Lake Chad, E. and S. by French Congo, save for a short
CAMEROON
Scale, 1 :g,tioo,ooo
En^li-th Mifca
o- to go fio 80 TOP
C E A K
Longitude East n" of Green wit-h
distance on the south where it is conterminous with the Spanish
Muni river settlement.
Boundaries and Area. — The sea frontier extends from the Rio
del Rey, just where the great bend of the coast -line east to south
begins, forming the Bight of Biafra, to the Campo river, a dis-
tance of 200 m. The north-western boundary, laid down in an
agreement between Germany and Great Britain on the 15th of
November 1893, runs from the mouth of the Rio del Rey to the
" rapids " of the Cross river in 8° 48' E. Thence it is continued
in a north-east line towards Yola, as far as the confines of that
1 This English form of the name, adopted in the 10th ed. of the
Ency. Brit., from the German, appears preferable both to the un-
English Kamerun and to the older and clumsy " the Cameroons."
town. The boundary is then deflected south so as to leave
Yola in British territory, turning north again to cross the Benuc
river at a spot 3 m. west of where the Faro joins the Benue.
From this point the frontier goes north-east to the border of
Lake Chad, 35 m. east of the meridian of the town of Kuka.
The southern shores of Lake Chad for a distance of some 40 m.
belong to the protectorate. The south and east boundaries
were laid down by agreements between Germany and France on
the 24th of December 1885, the 15th of March 1894 and the
1 8th of April 1908. The south boundary runs in a fairly direct
line from the mouth of the Campo river to the river Dscha (or
Ngoko), which it follows to its confluence with the Sanga. The
eastern boundary runs from the Sanga irregularly north to io° N.,
where it approaches the British frontier at Yola, so that at its
narrowest part the protectorate is little more than 50 m. across.
From io° N. the frontier turns eastwards to
the Logone, thence going north-east to the
Shari river, which it follows to Lake Chad.
The protectorate has an area of about 190,000
sq. m. Estimated population (1908) 3,500,000,
of whom 1 1 28 were whites.
Origin of the Name. — The name Camaroes was
first given by the Portuguese discoverers of
the 15th and 16th centuries to a large bay or
estuary, lying south-east of a great mountain
close to the sea, met with after passing the
Niger delta. This estuary they called the Rio
dos Camaroes (the river of Prawns), from the
abundance of the Crustacea found therein.
The name Camaroes was also used to designate
the neighbouring mountains. The English
usage until nearly the end of the 19th century
was to confine the term " the Cameroons " to
the mountain range, and to speak of the
estuary as the Cameroons river. Locally it was
often called " the Bay." On their acquisition
of the country in 1884 the Germans extended
the use of the name in its Teutonic form —
Kamerun — to the whole protectorate.
Physical Features. — Cameroon forms the
north-west corner of the great Central African
plateau. This becomes evident in its eastern
section, where are wide-spreading plains, which
farther west assume an undulating character,
and gradually merge into a picturesque moun-
tain range. This range, running from north
to south, is flanked by a parallel and lower
range in the west, with a wide valley between.
In the north-west the Upper Guinea mountains
send their eastern spurs across the boundary,
and from a volcanic rift, which runs south-
west to north-east, the Cameroon peak towers
up, its summit 13,370 ft. high. This mountain,
whose south-western base is washed by the
Atlantic, is the highest point on the western
side of Africa, and it alone of the great moun-
tains of the continent lies close to the coast.
From any vantage point, but especially from
the sea, it presents a magnificent spectacle,
while some 30 m. westward rises Clarence peak, the culminating
point of Fernando Po. With an area, on an isolated base, of
700 to 800 sq. m., Cameroon mountain has but two distinct
peaks, Great Cameroon and Little Cameroon (5820 ft.), which
is from foot to top covered with dense forest. The native
designation of the highest peak is Mongo-ma-Loba, or the
Mountain of Thunder, and the whole upper region is usually
called Mongo-mo-Ndemi, or the Mountain of Greatness. On the
principal summit there are a group of craters. In 1909 the
mountain was in eruption and huge streams of lava were
ejected. Inland the Chebchi and Mandara mountains indicate
the direction and extent of the rift.
The mountains of the plateau sweep grandly round to the
CAMEROON
in
east on reaching the eighth degree of N. lat. Here they give
rise to a number of small rivers, which collect in the rift and
form the Benue, the great eastern affluent of the Niger. This
part of the protectorate is known as Adamawa (q.v.). Farther
north, beyond the Mandara mountains, the country, here part
of the ancient sultanate of Bornu, slopes to the shores of Lake
Chad, and has a general level of 800 to 1000 ft. The greater part
of Cameroon is thus a mountainous country, with, on the coast,
a strip of low land. In the south this is very narrow ; it widens to-
wards the north save where the Cameroon peak reaches to the sea.
At the foot of the Cameroon peak a number of estuaries cut
deep bays which form excellent harbours. The small rivers
which empty into them can be ascended for some miles by steam
launches. The principal estuary, which is over 20 m. wide, is
called, as already noted, the Cameroon river or bay. The term
river is more particularly confined to a ramification of the estuary
which receives the waters of the Mungo river (a considerable
stream which flows south from the Cameroon mountains), the
Wuri, a river coming from the north-east, and various smaller
rivers. Under the shadow of Cameroon peak lies the bay of
Ambas, with the islands of Ndami (Ambas) and Mondola. It
forms a tolerable harbour, capable of receiving large vessels.
Traversing the central portion of the country is a large river
known in its upper course as the Lorn, and in its lower as the
Sanaga, which enters the ocean just to the south of the Cameroon
estuary. Both the Lorn and the Nyong (a more southerly
stream) rise in the central plateau, from which they descend in
splendid cascades, breaking through the parallel coast range in
rapids, which indicate the extent of their navigability. The
Lokunja and Kribi are smaller rivers with courses parallel to
and south of the Nyong. In the south-east of the colony the
streams — of which the chief are the Dscha and Bumba — are
tributaries of the Sanga, itself an affluent of the Congo (q.v.).
About 100 m. of the right bank of the Sanga, from the confluence
of the Dscha upwards, are in German territory. In the north
the country drains into Lake Chad through the Logone and
Shari (q.v.). Including the headwaters of the Benue the colony
has four distinct river-systems, one connecting with the Niger,
another with the Congo, and a third with Lake Chad, the fourth
being the rivers which run direct to the sea. The Niger and
Shari systems communicate, with, at high water, but one obstruc-
tion to navigation. The connecting link is a marshy lake named
Tuburi. From it issues the Kebbi (Mao Kebi) a tributary of
the Benue, and through it flows a tributary of the Logone, the
chief affluent of the Shari. The one obstruction in the waterway
is a fall of 165 ft. in the Kebbi.
Geology. — The oldest rocks, forming the greater mass of the
hinterland, are gneisses, schists and granites of Archaean age.
Along the Benue river a sandstone (Benue sandstone) forms the
banks to 14 E. Cretaceous rocks occur around the basalt
platform of the Cameroon mountain and generally along the
coastal belt. Basalt and tuff, probably of Tertiary age, form
the great mass of the Cameroon mountain, also the island of
Fernando Po. Extensive areas in the interior, more especially
towards Lake Chad, are covered with black earth of alluvial or
lacustrine origin.
Climate. — The country lies wholly within the tropics and has
a characteristic tropical climate. In the interior four seasons
can be distinguished; a comparatively dry and a wet one alter-
nating. July to October are the coldest months, and also bring
most rain, but there is hardly a month without rain. On the
coast the temperature is high all the year round, but on the
plateau it is cooler. Malarial fever is frequent, and even the
Africans, especially those coming from other countries, suffer from
it. The middle zone of the Cameroon mountain has, however, a
temperate climate and affords excellent sites for sanatoria.
Flora and Fauna. — The southern part of the low coast is
chiefly grass land, while the river mouths and arms of the bays
are lined with mangroves. The mountainous region is covered
with primeval forest, in which timber and valuable woods for
cabinet-making are plentiful. Most important are the Elaeis
guineensis, Sterculia acuminata and the wild coffee tree. On
Cameroon peak the forest ascends to 8000 ft.; above it is grass
land. Towards the east the forest gradually grows thinner,
assumes a park-like appearance, and finally disappears, wide
grass uplands taking its place. The country north of the Benue
is rich and well cultivated. Cotton and rubber are found in
considerable quantities, and fields of maize, corn, rice and sugar-
cane bear witness to the fertility of the soil.
Animals are plentiful, including the great pachyderms and
carnivora. The latter prey on the various kinds of antelopes
which swarm on the grass lands. Two kinds of buffaloes are
found in the forests, which are the home of the gorilla and
chimpanzee. Large rodents, like the porcupine and cane rat,
are numerous. Of birds there are 316 species, and several of
venomous snakes.
Inhabitants. — The north of Cameroon is inhabited by Fula
(q.v.) and Hausa (q.v.) and allied tribes, the south by Bantu-
speaking races. The Fula came from the north and north-east,
gradually driving the Bantu-negroes before them. They brought
horses and horned cattle, unknown in these regions until then,
and they founded well-organized states, like that of Adamawa,
now divided between Cameroon and the British protectorate
of Nigeria. In the vicinity of the rivers Benue, Faro and Kebbi,
the people, who are good agriculturists, raise cereals and other
crops, while on the plateaus stock-raising forms the chief pursuit
of the inhabitants. In this northern region villages are built
in the Sudanese zeriba style, surrounded with thorn fences;
more important places are enclosed by a well-built wall and
strongly fortified. Of martial disposition, the people often
waged war with their neighbours, and also amongst themselves
until the pacification of the hinterland by Germany at the
beginning of the 20th century.
The Bantu-negroes inhabit the country south of about 7 N.
Chief among the tribes are the Dualla (q.v.), the Ba-kwiri (q.v.),
the Ba-Long, the Ba-Farami, the Wuri, the Abo and the Ba-
Kundu. They build square nouses, are active traders and are
ruled by independent chiefs, having no political cohesion.
Among the Dualla a curious system of drum signals is note-
worthy. In the coast towns are numbers of Krumen, who,
however, rarely settle permanently in the country. The Fula,
as also most of the Hausa, are Moslems, the other tribes are
pagans. Missionary societies, both Protestant and Roman
Catholic, are represented in the colony, and their schools are
well attended, as are the schools belonging to the government.
In all the schools German is taught, but pidgin-English is largely
spoken at the coast towns.
Chief Towns. — Duala, the chief town in the protectorate, is
situated on the Cameroon estuary at the mouth of the Wuri
river in 4 2' N. o° 42' E. It consists of various trading stations
and native towns close to one another on the south bank of the
river and known, before the German occupation, as Cameroon,
Bell town, Akwa town, &c. Hickory, on the north side of the
stream and the starting point of the railway to the interior, is
also part of Duala, which has a total population of 22,000, includ-
ing about 170 Europeans. Duala is the headquarters of the
merchants and missionaries. The principal streets are wide
and tree lined, the sanitation is good. The government offices
are placed in a fine park in which are statues of Gustav Nachtigal
and others. The port is provided with a floating dock. The
seat of government is Buea, a post 3000 ft. above the sea on the
slopes of the Cameroon mountain. Victoria is a flourishing
town in Ambas Bay, founded by the British Baptist missionaries
expelled from Fernando Po in 1858 (see below). Batanga and
Campo are trading stations in the southern portion of the colony.
On the route from Duala to Lake Chad is the large commercial
town of Ngaundere, inhabited chiefly by Hausas and occupied
by the Germans in 1901. Another large town is Garua on the
Benue river. Farther north and within 30 m. of Lake Chad is
Dikwa (Dikoa), in Bornu, the town chosen by Rabah (q.v.) as his
capital after his conquest of Bornu. Gulfei on the lower Shari
and Kusseri on the Logone are also towns of some note. Ngoko
is a trading station on the Dscha, in the south-east of the pro-
tectorate, near the confluence of that river with the Sanga.
112
CAMEROON
Products and Industry. — Cameroon is rich in natural products,
one of the most important being the oil-palm. Cocoa cultivation
was introduced by the Germans and proved remarkably success-
ful. Rubber is collected from the Landolphia and various
species of Ficus. Palm-oil, palm kernels, cocoa, copal, copra,
Calabar beans, kola-nuts and ivory are the principal exports.
There are several kinds of finely-grained wood, amongst which
a very dark ebony is specially remarkable. Cotton, indigo and
various fibres of plants deserve notice. The natives grow several
kinds of bananas, yams and batatas, maize, pea-nuts, sugar-cane,
sorghum and pepper. Minerals have not been found in paying
quantities. Iron is smelted by the natives, who, especially
amongst the Hausas, are very clever smiths, and manufacture
fine lances and arrow heads, knives and swords, and also hoes.
Dikwa is the centre of an important trade of which the chief
articles are coffee, sugar, velvet, silk and weapons, as well as gold
and silver objects brought by caravans from Tripoli. The
natives round the Cameroon estuary are clever carvers of wood,
and make highly ornamental figure heads for their canoes, which
also sometimes show very fine workmanship. In the interior
the people use the wild-growing cotton and fibres of plants to
manufacture coarse drapery and plait-work. Plantations
founded by German industry are fairly successful. Large
reserves are set apart for the natives by government when
marking off the land granted to plantation companies. The
best-known of these companies, the Sild-Kamerun, holds a
concession over a large tract of country by the Sanga river,
exporting its rubber, ivory and other produce via the Congo.
The principal imports are cotton goods, spirits, building material,
firearms, hardware and salt. The annual value of the external
trade in the period 1 900-1 005 averaged about £800,000. In 1 007
the value of the trade had increased to £1,700,000. Some 70%
of the import and export trade was with Germany, the remainder
being almost entirely with Great Britain. The percentage of the
trade with Germany was increasing, that with Britain decreasing.
Communications, — There is regular steamship communication
with Europe by German and British boats. On the rivers which
run into the Cameroon estuary small steam launches ply. The
protectorate belongs to the Postal Union, and is connected by cable
with the British telegraph station at Bonny in the Niger delta.
An imperial guarantee of interest was obtained in 1005 for
the construction of a railway from Hickory to Bayong, a place
100 m. to the north, the district traversed being fertile and
populous. From Victoria a line runs to Soppo (22 m.) near
Buea and is continued thence northward. Another line, sanc-
tioned in 1008, runs S.E. from Duala to the upper waters of the
Nyong. In the neighbourhood of government stations excellent
roads have been built. The chief towns in the coast region are
connected by telegraph and telephone.
Government Revenue, 6*c. — The administration is under the
direction of a governor appointed by and responsible to the
imperial authorities. The governor is assisted by a chancellor
and other officials and an advisory council whose members are
merchants resident in the protectorate. Decrees having the
force of law are issued by the imperial chancellor on the advice
of the governor. In Adamawa and German Bornu are various
Mahommedan sultanates controlled by residents stationed at
Garua and Kusseri. Revenue is raised chiefly by customs dues
on spirits and tobacco and a general 10% ad valorem duty on
most goods. A poll tax is imposed on the natives. The local
revenue (£131,000 in 1905) is supplemented by an imperial grant,
the protectorate in the first twenty-one years of its existence
never having raised sufficient revenue to meet its expenditure,
which in 1905 exceeded £230,000. Order is maintained by a
native force officered by Germans.
History. — Cameroon and the neighbouring coast were dis-
covered by the Portuguese navigator, Fernando Po, towards the
close of the 1 5th century. They were formerly regarded as with-
in the Oil Rivers district, sometimes spoken of as the Oil Coast.
Trading settlements were established by Europeans as early as
the 17th century. The trade was confined to the coast, the
Dualla and other tribes being recognized intermediaries between
the coast " factories " and the tribes in the interior, whither
they allowed no strange trader to proceed. They took a quantity
of goods on trust, visited the tribes in the forest, and bartered
for ivory, rubber and other produce. This method of trade,
called the trust system, worked well, but when the country came
under the administration of Germany, the system broke down,
as inland traders were allowed to visit the coast. Before this
happened the " kings " of the chief trading stations — Akwa and
Bell — were wealthy merchant princes. From the beginning
until near the end of the 19th century they were very largely
under British influence. In 1837 the king of Bimbia, a district
on the mainland on the north of the estuary, made over a large
part of the country round the bay to Great Britain. In 1845, at
which time there was a flourishing trade in slaves between
Cameroon and America, the Baptist Missionary Society made
its first settlement on the mainland of Africa, Alfred Saker
(1814-1880) obtaining from the Akwa family the site for a
mission station. In 1848 another mission station was estab-
lished at Bimbia, the king agreeing to abolish human sacri-
fices at the funerals of his great men. Into the Cameroon
country Saker and his colleagues introduced the elements
of civilization, and with the help of British men-of-war
the oversea slave trade was finally stopped (c. 1875). The
struggles between the Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa families were also
largely composed. In 1858, on the expulsion of the Baptists
from Fernando Po (q.v.), Saker founded at Ambas Bay a colony
of the freed negroes who then left the island, the settlement
being known as Victoria. Two years after this event the first
German factory was established in the estuary by Messrs Woer-
mann of Hamburg. In 1870 the station at Bimbia was given up
by the missionaries, but that at Akwa town continued to flourish,
the Dualla showing themselves eager to acquire education, while
Saker reduced their language to writing. He left Cameroon in
1876, the year before George Grenfell, afterwards famous for
his work on the Congo, came to the country, where he remained
three years. Like the earlier missionaries he explored the
adjacent districts, discovering the Sanaga in its lower course.
Although British influence was powerful and the British consul
for the Oil Rivers during this period exercised considerable
authority over the native chiefs, requests made by them — in
particular by the Dualla chiefs in 1882 — for annexation by Great
Britain, were refused or neglected, with the result that when
Germany started on her quest to pick up unappropriated parts
of the African coast she was enabled to secure Cameroon. A
treaty with King Bell was negotiated by Dr Gustav Nachtigal,
the signature of the king and the other chiefs being obtained at
midnight on the 15th of July 1884. Five days later Mr E. H.
Hewett, British consul, arrived with a mission to annex the
country to Great Britain. 1 Though too late to secure King BelPs
territory, Mr Hewett concluded treaties with all the neighbouring
chiefs, but the British government decided to recognize the
German claim not only to Bell town, but to the whole Cameroon
region. Some of the tribes, disappointed at not being taken over
by Great Britain, refused to acknowledge German sovereignty.
Their villages were bombarded and they were reduced to sub-
mission. The settlement of the English Baptists at Victoria,
Ambas Bay, was at first excluded from the German protectorate,
but in March 1887 an arrangement was made by which, while
the private rights of the missionaries were maintained, the
sovereignty of the settlement passed to Germany. The Baptist
Society thereafter made over its missions, both at Ambas Bay
and in the estuary, to the Basel Society.
The extension of German influence in the interior was gradually
accomplished, though not without considerable bloodshed. That
part of Adamawa recognized as outside the British frontier was
occupied in 1901 after somewhat severe fighting. In 1902 the
imperial troops first penetrated into that part of Bornu reserved
to Germany by agreements with Great Britain and France.
They found the country in the military occupation of France.
The French officers, who stated that their presence was due to
1 On the 26th of July a French gunboat also entered the estuary
on a belated annexation mission.
CAMILING— CAMISARDS
"3
the measures rendered necessary by the ravages of Rabah and
his sons, withdrew their troops into French territory. The shores
of Lake Chad were first reached by a German military force on
the 2nd of May 1902. In 1904 and again in 1905 there were
native risings in various parts of the protectorate. These dis-
turbances were followed, early in 1906, by the recall of the
governor, Herr von Puttkamer, who was called upon to answer
charges of maladministration. He was succeeded in 1907 by
Dr T. Seitz. Collisions on the southern border of the protectorate
between French and German troops led in 1 905-1 906 to an
accurate survey of the south and east frontier regions and to a
new convention (1908) whereby for the straight lines marking
the frontier in former agreements natural features were largely
substituted. Germany gained a better outlet to the Sanga river.
The ascent of the Cameroon mountain was first attempted by
Joseph Merrick of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1847; but it
was not till 1 86 1 that the summit was gained, when the ascent
was made by Sir Richard Burton, Gustav Mann, a noted botanist,
and Senor Calvo. The starting-point was Babundi, a place on the
seashore west of the mountain. From the south-east the summit
was reached by Mary Kingsley in 1895.
See Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (London, 1897) ;
Sir R. Burton, AbeoktUa and the Cameroon* Mountains (2 vols.,
London, 1863); E. B. Underhill, Alfred Saker . . . A Biography
(London, 1884) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, George Grenfell and the Congo
. . . and Notes on the Cameroons . . . (London, 1908) ; Max Buchner,
Kamerun Skizzen und Betrachtungen (Leipzig, 1887); S. Passage,
Adamaua (Berlin, 1895); E. Zint graph, Nord-Kamerun (Berlin,
1895) ; F. Hutter, Wanderungen und Forschungen im Nord-Hinter-
land von Kamerun (Brunswick, 1902); F. Bauer, Die deutsche
Niger-Benue-Tsadsee-Expedition, 1902-1903 (Berlin, 1904); C. Rene,
Kamerun und die deutsche Tsddsee Eisenbahn (Berlin, 1905) ; O.
Zimmermann, Durch Busch und Steppe vom Campo bis zum Schari,
1892-1 902 (Berlin, 1909) ; also British Foreign Office Reports. For
special study of particular sciences see F. Wohltmann, Der Planum
genbau in Kamerun und seine Zukunft (Berlin, 1896); F. Plehn, Die
Kamerunkuste, Studien zur Klimatologie, Physiologic und Pathologic
in den Tropen (Berlin, 1898) ; E. Esch, F. Solger, M. Oppenheim and
O. Jaekel, Beitrdge zur Geologic von Kamerun (Stuttgart, 1904). For
geology the following works may also be consulted: Stromer von
Reichenbach, Geologic der deutschen Schutzgebictc in Afrika (Berlin,
1896); A. von Koenen, " Ober Fossilien der unteren Kreide am
Ufer des Mungo in Kamerun," Abh. k. Wiss., Gflttingen, 1897;
E. Cohen, " Lava vom Camerun-Gebirge," Neues Jahrb. f. Mm. t
1887. (F. K. C.)
CAMILING, a town of the province of Tarlac, Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, on the Camiling river, about 80 m. N.N.W. of
Manila. Pop. (1903) 25,243. In 1903 after the census had been
taken, the adjacent towns of Santa Ignacia (pop. 191 1) and
San Clemente (pop. 1822) were annexed to Camiling. Its pro-
ducts are rice, Indian corn and sugar. Fine timber grows in the
vicinity. The principal language is Docano; Pangasinan, too,
is spoken. Being in an isolated position, very difficult of access
during the rainy season, Camiling has always been infested with
thieves and bands of outlaws, who come here for concealment.
CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, Roman soldier and statesman,
of patrician descent, censor in 403 B.C. He triumphed four
times, was five times dictator, and was honoured with the title
of Second Founder of Rome. When accused of having unfairly
distributed the spoil taken at Veii, which was captured by him
after a ten years' siege, he went into voluntary exile at Ardea.
The real cause of complaint against him was no doubt his
patrician haughtiness and his triumphal entry into Rome in a
chariot drawn by white horses. Subsequently the Romans,
when besieged in the Capitol by the Gauls, created him dictator;
he completely defeated the enemy (but see Brenntjs and Rome:
History, ii., " The Republic ") and drove them from Roman
territory. He dissuaded the Romans, disheartened by the
devastation wrought by the Gauls, from migrating to Veii, and
induced them to rebuild the city. He afterwards fought success-
fully against the Aequi, Volsci and Etruscans, and repelled a
fresh invasion of the Gauls in 367. Though patrician in sym-
pathy, he saw the necessity of making concessions to the plebeians
and was instrumental in passing the Licinian laws. He died of
the plague in the eighty-first year of his age (365). The story of
Camillus is no doubt largely traditional. To this element prob-
ably belongs the story of the schoolmaster who, when Camillus
was attacking Falerii (q.v.), attempted to betray the town by
bringing into his camp the sons of some of the principal inhabit-
ants of the place. Camillus, it is said, had him whipped back
into the town by his pupils, and the Faliscans were so affected
by this generosity that they at once surrendered.
See Livy v. 10, vi. 4; Plutarch, Camillus. For the Gallic retreat,
see Polybius ii. 18; T. Mommsen, Romischc Forschungen, ii. pp. 113-
152 (1879).
CAMILLUS and CAMILLA, in Roman antiquity, originally
terms used for freeborn children. Later, they were used to
denote the attendants on certain priests and priestesses, especially
the flamen dialis and flaminica and the curiones. It was neces-
sary that they should be freeborn and the children of parents
still alive (Dion. Halic. ii. 21). The name Camillus has been
connected with the Cadmilus or Casmilus of the Samothracian
mysteries, identified with Hermes (see Cabeiri).
CAMISARDS (from camisade, obsolete Fr. for " a night attack/'
from the Ital. camiciata, formed from camicia — Fr. chemise — a
shirt, from the fact of a shirt being worn over the armour in
order to distinguish friends from foes), the name given to the
peasantry of the C6vennes who, from 1702 to 1705 and for some
years afterwards, carried on an organized military resistance to
the dragonnades, or conversion by torture, death and confiscation
of property, by which, in the Huguenot districts of France, the
revocation of the edict of Nantes was attempted to be enforced.
The Camisards were also called Barbets (" water-dogs," a term
also applied to the Waldenses), Vagabonds, Assemblers {assembUc
was the name given to the meeting or conventicle of Huguenots),
Fanatics and the Children of God. They belonged to that
romance-speaking people of Gothic descent whose mystic
imagination and independent character made the south of
France the most fertile nursing-ground of medieval heresy (see
Cathars and Albigenses). At the time of the Reformation
the same causes produced like results. Calvin was warmly
welcomed when he preached at NImes; Montpellier became the
chief centre for the instruction of the Huguenot youth. It was,
however, in the great triangular plateau of mountain called the
Cevennes that, among the small farmers, the cloth and silk
weavers and vine dressers, Protestantism was most intense and
universal. These people were (and still are) very poor, but
intelligent and pious, and of a character at once grave and fervent.
From the lists of Huguenots sent from Languedoc to the galleys
(1684 to 1762), we gather that the common type of physique is
" belle taiUe, cheveux bruns, visage ovale." The chief theatre
of the revolt comprised that region of the Cevennes bounded by
the towns of Florae, Pont-de-Montvert, Alais and Lasalle, thus
embracing the southern portion of the department of Lozdre
(the Bas-G6vaudan) and the neighbouring district in the east
of the department of Gard.
In order to understand the War of the Cevennes it is necessary
to recall the persecutions which preceded and followed the
revocation of the edict of Nantes. It is also necessary to re-
member the extraordinary religious movement which had for a
great number of years agitated the Protestants of France.
Faced by the violation of that most solemn of treaties, a treaty
which had been declared perpetual and irrevocable by Henry IV.,
Louis XIII. and even Louis XIV. himself, they could not, in
the enthusiasm of their faith, believe that such a crime would be
left unpunished. But being convinced that no human power
could give them liberty of conscience, they went to the Bible
to find when their deliverance would come. As far back as
1686 Pierre Jurieu published his work V Accomplissement des
propMtics, in which, speaking of the Apocalypse, he predicted
the end of the persecution and the fall of Babylon — that is
to say of Roman Catholicism — for 1689. The Revolution in
England seemed to provide a striking corroboration of his
prophecies, and the apocalyptic enthusiasm took so strong a
hold on people's minds that Bossuet felt compelled to refute
Jurieu's arguments in his Apocalypse expliquce, published in
I 1689. The Lettres pastorales of Jurieu (Rotterdam, 1686-1687),
I a series of brief tracts which were secretly circulated in France,
ii4
CAMISARDS
continued to narrate events and prodigies in which the author
saw the intervention of God, and thus strengthened the courage
of his adherents. This religious enthusiasm, under the influence
of Du Serre, was manifested for the first time in the Dauphine.
Du Serre, who was a pupil of Jurieu, communicated his mystic
faith to young children who were called the " petits prophetes,"
the most famous of whom was a girl named " La belle Isabeau."
Brought up on the study of the prophets and the Apocalypse,
these children went from village to village quoting and requoting
the most obscure and terrible passages from these ancient
prophecies (see Antichrist). It is necessary to remember that
at this time the Protestants were without ministers, all being in
exile, and were thus deprived of all real religious instruction. They
listened with enthusiasm to this strange preaching, and thousands
of those who were called New Catholics were seen to be giving up
attendance at Mass. The movement advanced in Languedoc
with such rapidity that at one time there were more than three
hundred children shut up in the prisons of Uzes on the charge
of prophesying, and the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier,
which was entrusted with their examination, went so far in
their ignorance as to pronounce these irresponsible infants
guilty of fanaticism. After the peace of Ryswick, 1697, the
fierceness of the persecution was redoubled in the South. " I
will show no mercy to the preachers," wrote the terrible Baville,
the so-called " king of Languedoc," and he kept his word. The
people of the Cevennes were in despair, for their loyalty to the
king had been remarkable. In 1683 on the 6th of September
an assembly composed of fifty pastors, sixty-four noblemen and
thirty-four notables, held at Colognac, had drawn up a statement
of its unalterable loyalty to Louis XIV. It is important to notice
that the revolt of the CeVennes was essentially a popular move-
ment. Among its leaders there was not a single nobleman, but
only men of the people, a baker, a blacksmith, some ex -soldiers;
but by far the most extraordinary characterisic is the presence,
no longer of children, but of men and women who declared
themselves inspired, who fell into religious ecstasies and roused in
their comrades the most heroic bravery in battle and at the stake.
The assassination of the abb£ du Chayla marks the beginning
of the war of the CeVennes. The abbe, a veteran Catholic
missionary from Siam, had been appointed inspector of missions
in the C6vennes. There he introduced the " squeezers " (which
resembled the Scottish " boot "), and his systematic and refined
cruelty at last broke the patience of his victims. His murder, on
the 23rd of July 1702, at Pont de Monvert, was the first blow in
the war. It was planned by Esprit Siguier, who at once began to
carry out his idea of a general massacre of the Catholic priests.
He soon fell, and was succeeded by Laporte, an old soldier, who,
as his troop increased, assumed the title of " the Colonel of the
Children of God," and named his camp the " Camp of the
Eternal." He used to lead his followers to the fight, singing
Clement Marot's grand version of the 68th Psalm, " Que Dieu se
montre seulement," to the music of Goudimel. Besides Laporte,
the forest-ranger Castanet, the wool-carders Conderc and Mazel,
the soldiers Catinat, Joany and Ravenel were selected as captains
— all men whom the thiomanie or prophetic malady had visited.
But the most important figures are those of Roland, who after-
wards issued the following extraordinary despatch to the inhabit-
ants of St Andre: — " Nous, comte et seigneur Roland, gencsralis-
sime des Protestants de France, nous ordonnons que vous ayez a
cong6dier dans trois jours tous les pretres et missionnaires qui sont
chez vous, sous peine d'etre brules tout vifs, vous et eux " (Court,
i. p. 219); and Jean Cavalier, the baker's boy, who, at the age of
seventeen, commanded the southern army of the Camisards, and
who, after defeating successively the comte de Broglie and three
French marshals, Montrevel, Berwick and Villars, made an
honourable peace. (See Cavalier, Jean.)
Cavalier for nearly two years continued to direct the war.
Regular taxes were raised, arsenals were formed in the great
limestone caves of the district, the Catholic churches and their
decorations were burned and the clergy driven away. Occasion-
ally routed in regular engagements, the Camisards, through their
desperate valour and the rapidity of their movements, were
constantly successful in skirmishes,night attacks and ambuscades.
A force of 60,000 was now in the field against them; among
others, the Irish Brigade which had just returned from the
persecutions of the Waldenses. The rising was far from being
general, and never extended to more than three or four thousand
men, but it was rendered dangerous by the secret and even in
many places the open support of the people in general. On the
other hand their knowledge of a mountainous country clothed in
forests and without roads, gave the insurgents an enormous
advantage over the royal troops. The rebellion was not finally
suppressed until Baville had constructed roads throughout this
almost savage country.
Montrevel adopted a policy of extermination, and 466 villages
were burned in the Upper Cevennes alone, the population being
for the most part put to the sword. Pope Clement XI. assisted
in this work by issuing a bull against the " execrable race of the
ancient Albigenses," and promising remission of sins to the hoi}'
militia which was now formed among the Catholic population,
and was called the Florentines, Cadets of the Cross or White
Camisards. Villars, the victor of Hochstadt and Friedlingen,
saw that conciliation was necessary; he took advantage of the
feeling of horror with which the quiet Protestants of Nimes and
other towns now regarded the war, and published an amnesty.
In May 1704 a formal meeting between Cavalier and Villars took
place at Nimes. The result of the interview was that a document
entitled Tres humble requite des r&formis du Languedoc au Roi was
despatched to the court. The three leading requests for liberty
of conscience and the right of assembly outside walled towns, for
the liberation of those sentenced to prison or the galleys under the
revocation, and for the restitution to the emigrants of their
property and civil rights, were all granted, — the first on condition
of no churches being built, and the third on condition of an oath
of allegiance being taken . The greater part of the Camisard army
under Roland, Ravenel and Joany would not accept the terms
which Cavalier had arranged. They insisted that the edict of
Nantes must be restored, — " point de paix, que nous n'ayons nos
temples." They continued the war till January 1705) by which
time all their leaders were either killed or dispersed.
In 1 709 Mazel and Claris, with the aid of two preaching women,
Marie Desubas and Elizabeth Ca talon, made a serious effort to
rekindle revolt in the Vivarais. In 1711 all opposition and all
signs of the reformed religion had disappeared. On the 8th
of March 171 5, by medals and a .proclamation, Louis XIV.
announced the entire extinction of heresy.
What we know of the spiritual manifestations in the CeVennes
(which much resembled those of the Swedish Raestars of Smaland
in 1844) is chiefly derived from Le Thi&tre sacrl des Cevennes,
London, 1707, reprinted at Paris in 1847; A Cry From the Desert,
&c, by John Lacy, London, 1707; La Clef des prophities de M.
Marion, London, 1707; Avertissements prophitiques d y £lie
Marion, &c, London, 1707. About the date of these publications
the three prophets of the Cevennes, Marion, Durand-Fage and
Cavalier (a cousin of the famous Jean Cavalier) were in London
and were objects of lively curiosity. The consistory of the French
church in the Savoy sent a protest to the lord mayor against
" cette secte impie et extra vagante " and the matter was tried at
the Guildhall. Misson, author of the Thidtre sacrl, declared in
defence of the accused, that the same spirit which had caused
Balaam's ass to speak could speak through the mouths of these
prophets from the C6vennes. Marion and, his two friends Fatio,
a member of the Royal Society of London, and Daude, a leading
savant, who acted as his secretaries, were condemned to the
pillory and to the stocks. Voltaire relates (Siicle de Louis XI V.
c. 36) that Marion wished to prove his inspiration by attempting
to raise a dead body (Thomas Ernes) from St Paul's churchyard.
He was at last compelled to leave England. 1
The inspiration (of which there were four degrees, avertissetnent,
1 This curious affair provoked a lengthy controversy, which is
described in " La Relation historique de ce qui s'est passe a Londres
au sujet des prophetes camisards " (RSpublique des Lettres, 1708),
in the study of M. Vesson, Les Prophetes camisards a Londres (1803),
and also in the book Les Prophetes cevenols, ch. iii. (1861) by Alfred
Dubois.
CAMOENS
"5
souffle, prophitie, dons) was sometimes communicated by a kiss at
the assembly. The patient, who had gone through several fasts
three days in length, became pale and fell insensible to the ground.
Then came violent agitations of the limbs and head, as Voltaire
remarks, " quite according to the ancient custom of all nations,
and the rules of madness transmitted from age to age." Finally
the patient (who might be a little child, a woman, a half-witted
person) began to speak in the good French of the Huguenot Bible
words such as these : " Mes freres, amendez-vous, faites penitence,
la fin du monde approche; le jugement g6n6ral sera dans trois
mois ; r6pentez-vous du grand p6ch6 que vous avez commis d'aller
a la messe; c'est le Saint-Esprit qui parle par ma bouche "
(Brueys, Histoire dufanatismedenotre temps ; Utrecht, 1737, vol. i.
p. 153). The discourse might go on for two hours; after which
the patient could only express himself in his native patois, — a
Romance idiom, — and had no recollection of his " ecstasy." All
kinds of miracles attended on the Camisards. Lights in the sky
guided them to places of safety, voices sang encouragement to
them, shots and wounds were often harmless. Those entranced
fell from trees without hurting themselves; they shed tears of
blood; and they subsisted without food or speech for nine days.
The supernatural was part of their life. Much literature has been
devoted to the discussion of these marvels. The Catholics
Flechier (in his Lettres ckoisies) and Brueys consider them the
product of fasting and vanity, nourished on apocalyptic literature.
The doctors Bertrand (Du magnttisme animal, Paris, 1826) and
Calmeil (De la folic, Paris, 1845) speak of magnetism, hysteria
and epilepsy, a prophetic monomania based on belief in divine
possession. The Protestants especially emphasized the spiritu-
ality of the inspiration of the Camisards; Peyral, Histoire des
pasteurs du desert, ii. 280, wrote: " II fallait a cet effort gigan-
tesque un ressort prodigieux, Penthousiasme ordinaire n'y eut pas
suffi. ' ' D ubois, who has made a careful study of the problem , says :
" L'inspiration c6venole nous apparait comme un phSnomlne
purement spirituel." Conservative Catholics, such as Hippoly te
Blanc in his book on V Inspiration des Camisards (1859), regard
the whole thing as the work of the devil. The publication
of J. F. K. Hecker's work, Die VolkskrankheUen des Mittelalters,
made it possible to consider the subject in its true relation. This
was translated into English in 1844 by B. G. Babington as The
Epidemics of the Middle Ages.
Although the Camisards were guilty of great cruelties in the
prosecution of the war, there does not seem to be sufficient ground
for the charge made by Marshal de Villars: " Le plupart de leurs
chefs ont leurs demoiselles " (letter of 9th August 1704, in the
War Archives, vol. 1 797). Court replied to these unjust charges:
" Their enemies have accused them of leading a life of licence
because there were women in their camps. These were their wives ,
their daughters, their mothers, who were there to prepare their
food and to nurse the wounded" {Histoire, vol. i. p. 71).
Bibliography. — The works devoted to the history of the Cami-
sards are very numerous. Nevertheless there exists no work speci-
fically devoted to this extremely interesting period in French history,
for in none of the published works has proper use been made of the
valuable documents preserved in the archives of the ministry of
war. Among the chief works are : — Pere Louvreleuil (priest, former
cure of St. Germain de Calberte), Histoire dufanatistne renouvele ou
Von raconte Us sacrileges, les maladies et les meurtres commis dans
les Cevennes (Toulouse, 1704); M. de Brueys, Suite de V histoire du
fanatisme de noire temps ou Ion voit les dernters troubles des Cevennes
(Paris, 1709); Lettres ckoisies de M. Flechier Svique de Ntmes avec
une relation des fanatiques du Vivarez (Paris, 17 15); Madame de
Merez de 1' Incarnation, Memoires et journal trhs fidele de ce qui s'est
passS le 11 de may 1703 jusqu'au 1 juin 170$ a Ntmes touchant les
phanatiques, published by E. de Barthelemy (Montpellier, 1874).
These works are written by Catholic writers immediately after the
war of the Cevennes, and, despite their partiality, include some
valuable documents. MSmoires du marquis de Guiscard (Delft, 1 705) ;
Maximilien Misson, Le ThSdtrc sacre des Cevennes ou Recti de diverses
merveilles nouvellement operSes dans cette partie de la province de
Languedoc (London, 1707); Misson, the author of the Voyages en
Halve, which met with such a great success, gave prominence to
the facts relating to the inspiration of the Camisards; the ThSdtre
also contains important extracts from the works of Benoit, Brueys,
Guiscard and Boyer, and several original letters from Camisards;
Histoire des Camisards, &c. (London, 1740), the anonymous work of a
distinguished writer, which was eventually condemned by the par-
lement of Toulouse to be torn up and burnt in 1759; Antoine Court,
Histoire des troubles des Cevennes (3 vols., 1760), the best work of this
period, compiled from numerous manuscript references. The war of the
Cevennes has been treatedin several English works, e.g. A Compleat
History of the Cevennes, giving a Particular Account of the Situation,
&c, by a doctor of civil law (London, 1703). This work includes
a dedication to the queen, an historical account of the people of the
Cevennes, the bull of Pope Clement against the Camisards, and the
bishop of Nimes's mandate publishing the bull, and a discourse on
the obligations of the English to help the Camisards, and a form of
prayer used in the Camisard assembly, printed in London in 1703
under the title Formulaire de pri&res des Chennols dans leurs as-
semblSes. The History of the Rise and Downfal of the Camisards, &c.
(London, 1709), dealt with the prophets of the Cevennes in London,
and is only an abridged translation of Pere Louvreleuirs work.
Among modern works are, Ernest Moret, Quinze ans du regne de
Louis XIV (3 vols., 1859), a work which gives a remarkable history
of the war of the Cevennes ; Les Insurges protestants sous Louis XI V,
studies and unedited documents published by G. Frosterus (1868);
MSmoires de Bonbonnoux, chief Camisard and pastor of the desert,
published by Vielles (1883); Bonnemere, Histoire de la guerre des
Camisards (1859). Two popular works are — F. Puaux, Histoire
populaire de la guerre des Camisards (1875); Anna E. Bray, The
Revolt of the Protestants of the CSvennes with some Account of the
Huguenots of the Seventeenth Century (London, 1870). (F. Px.)
CAMOENS [Cam6es], LUIS VAZ DE (1524-1580), the prince
of Portuguese poets, sprang from an illustrious and wealthy
family of Galician origin, whose seat, called the castle of Camoens,
lay near Cape Finisterre. His ancestor, the poet Vasco Pires
de Camoens, followed the party of Peter the Cruel of Castile
against Henry II., and on the defeat of the former had to take
refuge along with other Galician nobles in Portugal, where he
founded the Portuguese family of his name. King Fernando
received him well, and gave him posts of honour and estates,
and though the master of Aviz sequestered some of these and
Vasco lost others after the battle of Aljubarrota, where he
fought on the Spanish side, considerable possessions still remained
to him. Ant&o Vaz, the grandfather of Luis, married one of the
Algarve Gamas, so that Vasco da Gama and Camoens, the dis-
coverer of the sea route to India and the poet who immortalized
the voyage in his Lusiads, were kinsmen. Antfio's eldest son
Simao Vaz was born in Coimbra at the close of the 15th century,
and married Anna de S& e Macedo, who bore him an only son,
Luis Vaz de Camoens; thus the poet, like his father and grand-
father, was a cavalleirofidalgo, that is, an untitled noble.
Four cities dispute the honour of being his birthplace, though
Lisbon has the better title; and there is a like dispute about
the year, which, however, was almost certainly 1524. The poet
spent his childhood in Coimbra, where his father owned a pro-
perty, and made his first studies at the college of All Saints,
designed for " honourable poor students," and there contracted
friendships with noblemen like D. Goncalo da Sirveira and his
brother D. Alvaro, who were inmates of the nobles' college of
St Michael. These colleges were offshoots from and attached to
the Augustinian monastery of Santa Cruz, an important religious
and scholastic establishment, where the poet's uncle D. Ben to
de Camoens, a virtuous and very learned man, was professed.
The Renaissance, though late in penetrating into Portugal, had
by this time definitely triumphed, and the university of Coimbra,
after its reform in 1537 under the auspices of King John III.,
boasted the best teachers drawn from every country, among
them George Buchanan. The possession of classical culture
was regarded as the mark of a gentleman ; the colleges of Santa
Cruz required conversation within the walls to be in Greek or
Latin, and the university, when it absorbed the colleges, adopted
the same rule. Li these surroundings, aided by a retentive
memory, Camoens steeped himself in the literature and mytho-
logy of the ancients, as his works show, and he was thus able in
after years to perfect the Portuguese language and to enrich it
with many neologisms of classical origin . It is fortunate , however,
for his country and his fame that he never followed the fashion
of writing in Latin; on the contrary, except for his Spanish
poems, he always employed his native tongue. After completing
his grammar and rhetoric the poet entered on his university
course for the degree of bachelor of arts, which lasted for three
years, from 1539 to 1542, and during this period he met Jorge
n6
CAMOENS
de Montemayor, the author of Diana, who was then studying
music. He seems to have imbibed much of that encyclopaedic
instruction to which the humanists aspired, for his writings show
a very extensive reading, and his scientific knowledge and faculty
of observation compelled the admiration of the great Humboldt.
The thoroughness of his teaching is apparent when we remember
that he wrote his epic in the fortresses of Africa and Asia, far
from books, and yet gave proof of acquaintance with universal
history, geography, astronomy, Greek and Latin literature, and
the modern poetry of Italy and Spain. Much of the credit for this
learning must be attributed to the encouragement of D. Ben to,
now prior of Santa Cruz, who became chancellor of the university
the very year when Camoens entered it. There is a tradition
that this uncle destined him for the church and caused him to
study theology. The poet's knowledge of dogma and the Bible,
his friendly intercourse with the Lisbon Dominicans at the end of
his life, and the share he is said to have taken in their disputa-
tions, make the hypothesis a likely one, but he made his own
choice and preferred a lay life. We have very little verse of his
Coimbra time, but it seems that he began in the Italian manner,
following the new classical school of Sa de Miranda (q.v,) ,and that,
though attached to the popular muse and well acquainted with
the national songs and romances, legends and lore, his poetry
in the old style (medida velha) is mostly of later date. An
exception may perhaps be found in his Auto after the manner
of Gil Vicente (q.v.), The AmphUryons, a Portuguese adaptation
from Plautus which was very well received. At the age of
eighteen Camoens left Coimbra, bidding adieu to the old city
in verses breathing the most tender saudade. Lisbon, which
impressed Cervantes so much as to draw from him a classic
description in the novel PersUes y Sigismunda, made an even
greater impression on the youthful Camoens, and the Lusiads
are full of eulogistic epithets on the city and the Tagus.
Arriving in 1543, it has been conjectured that he became
tutor to D. Antonio de Noronha, son of the great noble D.
Francisco de Noronha, count of Linhares, who had lately returned
from a French embassy to his palace at Xabregas. The poet's
birth and talents admitted him to the society of men like D.
Constantine de Braganza, the duke of Aveiro, the marquis of
Cascaes, the count of Redondo, D. Manoel de Portugal and
D. Goncalo da Silveira, son of the count of Sortelha, who died
a Christian martyr in Monomotapa. At Xabregas Camoens
must have met Francisco de Moraes (q.v.), who had served as
secretary to the count of Linhares on his embassy, and there
he probably read the MS. of Paltneirim; this would explain the
origin of two of his roundels which are clearly founded on
passages in the romance. Camoens had had a youthful love
affair in Coimbra, but on Good Friday of the year 1544 he
experienced the passion of his life. On that day in some Lisbon
church he caught sight of D. Catherina de Ataide (daughter of
D. Antonio de lima, high chamberlain to the infant D. Duarte),
who had recently become a lady-in-waiting to the queen. This
young girl, the Nathercia of his after songs, counted then some
thirteen years, and was destined to be his Beatrice. To see more
of her, he persuaded the count of Linhares to introduce him to
the court, where his poetical gifts and culture ensured him a
ready welcome, and his fifth idyll, addressed to his patron on
this occasion, paved the way for his entrance. Though inferior
to his later compositions, it excels in harmony any verse pre-
viously written in Portuguese. At first his suit probably met
with few difficulties, and if Catherina's family regarded it
seriously, their poverty, combined with the fact that the poet
came of a good stock and had the future in his hands, may have
prevented any real opposition. It was his own imprudence that
marred his fortunes, and his consciousness of this fact gave his
muse that moving expression, truth and saudade, which are
lacking in the somewhat artificial productions of the sentimental
Petrarch. But while Camoens gained protectors and admirers,
his temperament and conduct ensured him envious foes, and the
secret of his love got out and became the subject of gossip. All
was not smooth with the lady, who showed herself coy; now
yielding to her heart, she was kind; and then listening to her
friends, who would have preferred a better match for her, she
repelled her lover. Jealousy then seized him, and sick of court
life for the moment, he gladly accompanied his patron to the
latter's country house; but once there he recognized that
Lisbon was the centre of attraction for him and that he could
not be happy at a distance. His verses at this time reveal his
parlous condition. He oscillates between joy and depression.
He passes from tender regrets to violent outbursts, which are
followed by calm and peace, while expressions of passionate love
alternate with bold desires and lofty ambitions. It is clear that
there was an understanding between him and Catherina and
that they looked forward to a happy ending, and this encouraged
him in his weary waiting and his search for a lucrative post
which would enable him to approach her family and ask for her
hand. From this period date the greater part of his roundels and
sonnets, some of the odes and nearly all the eclogues.
His fifth eclogue shows that he was seriously thinking of Ids
patriotic poem in 1544; and from the fourth it seems likely
that the Lusiads were in course of composition, and that cantos
3 and 4 were practically completed. He had by now established
his fame and was known as the Lusitanian Virgil, but presently
he had a rude awakening from his dreams of love and glory.
He had shown his affection too openly, and some infraction of
court etiquette, about which the queen was strict, caused the
tongue of scandal to wag; perhaps it was an affair with one of
Catherina's brothers, even a duel, that led to the decree which
exiled him from Lisbon.
Camoens's rashness, self-confidence and want of respect for
the authorities all contributed to the penalty, and the composi-
tion of the play El Rei Seleuco would aggravate his offence in the
eyes of John III. Produced in 1545 and derived from Plutarch,
the plot was calculated to draw attention to the relations between
the king and his stepmother, and to recall the action of D. Manoel
in robbing his son John HI. of his intended bride. Camoens
composed it for a wedding festivity in the house of Estacio da
Fonseca, and some of the verses refer so openly to his passion,
that if , as is likely, he spoke them himself, emphasizing them
with voice and gesture so as to publish his love to the world, this
new boldness, combined with the subject of the piece, must have
rendered his exile a certainty. All we know definitely, however,
is that the court was henceforth closed to him, and in 1546 he had
to leave Lisbon, the abode of his love and the scene of his
triumph. Tradition says that he went to the Ribatejo and
spent seven or eight months with his mother's relatives in or
near Santarem, whence he poured out a number of his finest
poems, including his Elegy of Exile and some magnificent
sonnets, which, in vigour of ideas and beauty of expression,
exceeded anything he had hitherto produced. Poets cannot live
on bays, however, and pressed by necessity he determined to
become a soldier.
One of his best modern biographers thinks that he petitioned
the king for liberty to commute his penalty into military service
in Africa; but whether this be so, or whether he merely went
there to gain his spurs, certain it is that in the autumn of 1 547 he
proceeded to Ceuta. For the next two years, the usual period of
service there, he lived the routine life of a common soldier in this
famous trade emporium and outpost-town, and he lost his right
eye in a skirmish with the Moroccans, though some writers
make the incident occur on the voyage across the straits when
his ship was attacked by Sallee rovers. Elegy ii. and a couple
of odes date from his stay in Ceuta. He is full of sadness and
almost in despair, but is saved from suicide by love and memory
of the past. He has intervals of calm and resignation, even of
satirical humour, and these become more frequent as the term of
his exile draws near, and in one of them he wrote his prose
letter to a " Lisbon friend." The octaves on the Discontent of the
World, which breathe a philosophic equanimity and lift the reader
out of the tumult of daily life, go to show that his restless heart
had found peace at last and that he had accustomed himself to
solitude.
In November 1549 the aged governor of Ceuta, D. Affonso de
Noronha, was summoned to court and created viceroy of India,
CAMOENS
117
and Camoens accompanied him to Lisbon, intending to follow him
to the East in the armada which was due to sail in the spring of
1550. Reaching the capital in December, the poet almost
immediately enlisted, but when the time came for departure he
had changed his mind. His affection for Catherina and dreams
of literary glory detained him, and he lived on in the expecta-
tion of obtaining a post on the strength of his services and wound.
But month after month passed by without result, and in his
disappointment he allied himself with a group of hot-blooded
youths, including the ex-friar Antonio Ribeiro, nicknamed
" the Chiado," after whom the main street of Lisbon takes its
name, and endeavoured to forget his troubles in their society.
He took part in their extravagances and gained the name of
" Trinca-fortes " (" Crack-braves ") from his bohemian com-
panions, while there were ladies who mocked at his disfigurement,
dubbing him " devil " and " eyeless face." In the course of his
adventures he had often to draw his sword, either as attacker or
attacked, and he boasted that he had seen the soles of the feet of
many but none had seen his. When the reply to his application
came from the palace it was a negative one, and he had now
nothing further to expect. His stock of money brought from
Ceuta was certainly exhausted, and misery stared him in the face,
making him desperate. On the feast of Corpus Christi, the 16th
of June 1552, he found two masked friends of his engaged in a
street fight near St Dominic's convent, and joining in the fray he
wounded one Goncalo Borges, a palace servant, with the result
that he was apprehended and lodged in gaol. This unprovoked
attack upon a royal servant on so holy a day constituted a serious
offence and cost him eight months' imprisonment. In a pathetic
sonnet he describes his terrible experiences, which made such an
impression on him that years afterwards he recurred to them in
his great autobiographical Canzon 1 o. When Borges' wound was
completely healed, the poet's friends intervened to assist him,
and it was arranged that on his formally imploring pardon
Borges should grant it and desist from proceeding with the case.
This was effected on the 13th of February 1553, and on the 7th
of March the king, taking into consideration that Camoens was
" a youth and poor and decided to serve this year in India,"
confirmed the pardon. He had been obliged to humble his pride
and enlist again, but while he complained of his troubles he
recognized, in his frank, honest way, that his own mistakes were
in part the causes of them.
After bidding good-bye to Catherina for the last time, Camoens
set sail on Palm Sunday, the 24th of March 1553, in the " S.
Bento," the flagship of a fleet of four vessels, under Ferna5
Alvares Cabral. His last words, he says in a letter, were those of
Scipio Africanus, " Ingrata patria, non possidebis ossa mea."
He relates some of his experiences on board and the events
of the voyage in various sonnets in Elegy iii. and in the Lusiads.
In those days the sailors navigated the ships, while the men-at-
arms kept the day and night watches, helped in the cleaning and,
in case of necessity, at the pumps, but the rank of Camoens
doubtless saved him from manual work. He had much time to
himself in his six months' voyage and was able to lay in a store of
nautical knowledge, while tempestuous weather off the Cape of
Good Hope led him to conceive the dramatic episode of Adamastor
(Lusiads, canto 5). The " S. Bento," the best ship of the fleet,
weathered the Cape safely, and without touching at Mozambique,
the watering-place of ships bound for India, anchored at Goa in
September. It seems probable that the idea of the Lusiads
took further shape on the voyage out, and that Camoens modified
his plan; cantos 3 and 4 were already written, but from an
historical he now made it a maritime epic. The discovery of
India became the main theme, while the history of Portugal was
interlaced with it, and the poem ended with the espousals
between Portugal and the ocean, and a prophecy of the future
greatness of the fatherland.
At the time of his arrival Goa boasted 100,000 inhabitants,
and with its magnificent harbour was the commercial capital of
the west of India. The first viceroy had been content with a sea
dominion, but the great Affonso de Albuquerque saw that this
was not enough to secure the supremacy of the Portuguese;
recognizing the strategic value of Goa, he seized it and made it
the capital of a land empire, and built fortresses in every important
point through the East. Since his death a succession of remark-
able victories had made the flag of Portugal predominant, but
the enervating climate, the pleasures and the plunder of Asia,
began to tell on the conquerors. Corruption was rife from the
governor downwards, because the ruling ambition was to get
rich and return home, and the hero of one day was a pirate the
next. After all, it was only human nature, for a governorship
lasted but three years and Portugal was far away, so the saying
went round — " They are installed the first year, they rob the
second, and then pack up in the third to sail away." Camoens
was well received at first, owing to his talents and bravery, and
he found the life cheap and merry, but having left his country
with high ideals, the injustice and demoralization of manners
he found in India soon disgusted him. He compared Goa to
Babylon, and called it " the mother of villains and the stepmother
of honest men."
His first military service in the East took place in November
1553, when he went with a force led by the viceroy to chastise a
petty king on the Malabar coast. The expedition only lasted
two or three months, and after some trivial combats it returned
to Goa. In February of the following year Camoens accom-
panied the viceroy's son, D. Fernando de Menezes, who led an
armada to the mouth of the Red Sea and thence up the Arabian
coast to snap up hostile merchantmen and suppress piracy.
Next the fleet went on to Ormuz, as was the custom with these
annual cruises, and then to Bassora, where the poet helped to
make some valuable prizes, and wrote a sonnet — it was ever,
with him, " in one hand the sword, in the other the pen " !
Returning to Goa in November he learnt of the deaths of Prince
John, and of his friend and pupil the young D. Antonio de
Noronha, and paid his tribute in a feeling sonnet and eclogue.
In February 1555 he sailed on another pirate hunt and spent
six weary months off Cape Guardafui, varied by a visit to
Mombasa and by further work on his epic, and only got back to
Goa in the following September. His experiences are recorded
in the profound and sad 10th Canzon.
Meanwhile Francisco Barreto, an honourable and generous
man, had become governor-general of India in the June of 1555,
and, his appointment being popular, a reign of festivities began
in Golden Goa to welcome his succession, in the course of which
Camoens produced his Filodemo, a dramatized novel written in
his court days. The same occasion probably gave birth to the
Disparates na India (" Follies of India "), and certainly to the
Satyr a do Torneio (" Satire of the Tourney "), which confirmed
the poet's reputation as a sayer of sharp things and gave con-
siderable umbrage to those whom the cap fitted. However, it
was not the enmities thus aroused but military duty which
compelled him to quit Goa once more in the spring of 1556. He
had enlisted in Lisbon for five years, the usual term, and in
compliance with the orders of the governor he sailed for the
Moluccas in April and there fought and versified for two years,
though nearly all is guesswork at this period of his life. He
appears to have spent the time between September 1556 and
February 1557 in the island of Ternate, where he wrote Canzon
6, revealing a state of moral depression similar to that of
Canzon 10, and he perhaps visited Banda and Amboina. In the
following year he took part in the military occupation of Macao,
which the emperor of China had presented to the Portuguese in
return for their destruction of a pirate fleet which had besieged
Canton. The poet's 6ve years' term of service was now over,
and he remained at Macao many months waiting for a ship to
carry him back to India. He had made some profit out of the
Merct de Viagem, granted by the governor Barreto to free him
from the poverty in which he habitually lived, and he spent his
money royally. At the same time he continued his epic, working
in the grotto which still bears his name.
All seemed to be going smoothly with him until suddenly his
fortunes took a serious turn for the worse. As the result of an
intrigue the captain of the yearly ship from China to India, who
acted as governor of Macao during his stay in port, imprisoned
n8
CAMOENS
Camoens, and took him on board with a view of bringing him to
trial in India. The ship, however, was wrecked in October 1 559
at the mouth of the Mekong river, and the poet had to save his
life and his Lusiads by swimming to shore, and though he
preserved the six or seven finished cantos of the poem, he lost
everything else. While wandering about on the Cambodian
coast awaiting the monsoon and a vessel to take him to Malacca,
he composed those magnificent stanzas "By the Waters of
Babylon," called by Lope de Vega " the pearl of all poetry,"
in which he recalls the happy days of his youth, sighs for Lisbon
(Sion) and his love, and mourns his long exile from home. He
got somehow to Malacca, and after a short stay there reached
Goa, still as prisoner, in June 1561. He was straightway lodged
in gaol, where he heard for the first time of the death of Catherina,
and he poured out his grief in the great sonnet, Alma Minha
GentU. The viceroy, D. Constantius de Braganca, had recently
returned from Jafanapatam, bringing as prize a tooth of Buddha,
and Camoens approached him with a splendid epistle in twenty
octaves, after the manner of Horace's ode to Augustus. It
failed, however, to hasten the consideration of his case, but in
September the Conde de Redondo, a good friend, came into
office and immediately ordered his release from prison. His
troubles were not yet at an end, however, for one Miguel
Rodriguez Coutinho, a well-known soldier and citizen of Goa
who lent money at usurious rates, thought the opportunity a
good one to obtain repayment of a debt, and had Camoens
lodged once more in gaol. As soon as he came out the poet
composed a burlesque roundel satirizing his persecutor under the
nickname of Fios Seccos (" dry threads ").
Though very poor he now led an easier, even a pleasant life
for a time. He was able to see his friends D. Vasco de Ataide,
D. Francisco de Almeida, Heitor da Silveira, Joao Lopes Leitao
and Francisco de Mello, all men of family and note. One day he
invited them to a banquet, at which, instead of the usual dishes,
each guest was served with a set of witty verses, and after these
had been read out and chaff had gone round, the food came and
they formed a merry party. The poet used his interest with the
viceroy to recommend to him the naturalist Garcia da Orta,
whose Colloquies on the simples and drugs of the East, the first
product of the press in India, appeared in April 1563 with an
ode by Camoens. His life for the next three years is almost a
blank, but we know that he was hard at work finishing his epic,
assisted by the advice of the historian Diogo do Couto, who
became its commentator, and further that the new viceroy, his
friend D. Antao de Noronha, nominated him to a reversion of
the factory of Chaul, which, however, never fell into possession.
It is clear from his writings that fourteen years in the East had
told on Camoens. His best friends were dead or scattered, and
he was overwhelmed with saudade. His sole ambition was to go
home and print his poem, but he had no money to pay his
passage. In September 1567, however, Pedro Barreto was
named captain of Mozambique, and insisted on the poet accom-
panying him to Sofala, at the same time lending him two hundred
cruzades. It was part of the way home, so Camoens accepted,
but after they reached Mozambique Barreto called in this money,
and his debtor, being unable to pay, was detained there for two
whole years. Here Diogo do Couto found him " so poor that he
ate at the cost of friends, and in order that he might embark for
the Kingdom we friends collected for him the clothes he needed
and some gave him to eat, and that winter he finished perfecting
the Lusiads for the press and wrote much in a book he was
making, which he called Parnaso of Luiz de Catnoes, z. book of
much learning, doctrine and philosophy, which was stolen from
him." Thanks to Couto and others, Camoens was able to
liquidate his debt and set sail in November 1 569 in the " Santa
Clara," and he reached Portugal on the 7th of April 1570, after
an absence of seventeen years.
The only wealth he brought with him from India was the MS.
of his great poem, a" Tesoro del Luso "in the words of Cervantes.
Moreover, he returned at an unfortunate moment — one of pest
and famine. The great plague which had killed a quarter, or, as
some say, half of the population of the capital, was declining,
but a rigid quarantine prevailed, and the ship had to lie off
Cascaes until the sanitary authorities allowed her to enter the
Tagus. Camoens was welcomed by his mother, whom he found
" very old and very poor " — his father had died at Goa about
1555 — and after a visit to Catherina 's tomb, which inspired the
poignant sonnet 337, he set about obtaining the royal licence
to print the Lusiads. This was dated the 24th of September
1 571 and gave him a ten years' copyright, and as soon as the
book appeared some friendly and influential hand, perhaps D.
Manoel de Portugal, perhaps D. Francisca de Aragao for whom
he had rhymed in the happy days of his youth, presented the
national epic to King Sebastian. Shortly afterwards, on the
28th of July 1572, the king gave the poet a pension of fifteen
milreis for the term of three years, as a reward for his services
in India and for his poem. It was relatively a considerable sum,
seeing that he had no great military record, and it seems even
generous when we remember that Magellan had only received
twelve, and had left Portugal because King Manoel would not
give him a slight increase. Many functionaries with families
had less to live on, and Camoens's subsistence was secure for the
time being, and he could afford an attendant, so that the legend
of the slave Antonio may well be true. Moreover, he was in the
enjoyment of the fame his poem brought him. Philip II. is
said to have read and admired it, and the powerful minister,
Pedro de Alcacova Carneiro, echoed the general opinion when
he remarked that it had only one defect, in not being short
enough to learn by heart or long enough to have no ending.
Tributes came from abroad too. Tasso wrote and sent Camoens
a sonnet in his praise, Fernando de Herrera celebrated him, and
the year 1580 saw the publication of two Spanish versions, one
at Alcala, the other at Salamanca. His pension lapsed in 1575,
but on the 2nd of August it was renewed for a further term;
owing, however, to a mistake of the treasury officials, Camoens
drew nothing for about a year and a half and fell into dire distress.
This explains the story of Ruy da Camara, who had engaged him
to translate the penitential psalms, and not receiving the version,
called on the poet, who said in excuse that he had no spirit
for such work now that he wanted for everything, and that
his slave had asked him for a penny for fuel and he could not
give it.
On the 2nd of June 1578, just before his start for the expedition
to Africa which cost him his life and Portugal her independence,
King Sebastian had renewed the poet's pension for a further
period. Though Camoens had neither the health nor the means
to accompany the splendid train of nobles and courtiers who
followed the last crusading monarch to his doom, he began an
epic to celebrate the enterprise, but burnt it when he heard the
news of the battle of Alcacer. Instead, he mourned the death
of his royal benefactor in a magnificent sonnet, and in Elegy x.
reproached the cowardly soldiery who contributed to the rout.
On the 31st of January 1580 the cardinal king Henry died, and,
foreseeing the Spanish invasion, Camoens wrote in March to bis
old friend D. Francisco de Almeida: " All will see that I so loved
my country that I was content not only to die in her but with her."
A great plague had been raging in Lisbon since the previous year,
and the poet, who lay ill in his poor cottage in the rua de Santa
Anna, depressed by the calamities of his country, fell a victim
to it. He was removed to a hospital and there passed away,
unmarried and the last of his line, on the 10th of June 1580.
A Carmelite, Frei Jose" Indio, attended him in his last moments
and received the only recognition Camoens could give, his copy
of the Lusiads. He wrote afterwards: " What more grievous
thing than to see so great a genius thus unfortunate. I saw him
die in a hospital in Lisbon, without a sheet to cover him, after
having triumphed in the East Indies and sailed 5000 leagues
by sea." The house of Vimioso supplied the winding-sheet, and
Camoens was buried with other victims of the plague in a common
grave in the cemetery of Santa Anna. Years later D. Goncalo
Coutinho erected in the church of that invocation an in memoriam
slab of marble with an inscription, and subsequently epitaphs
were added by other admirers, but the earthquake of 1755
damaged the building, and all traces of these last acts of homage
CAMOENS
119
to genius have disappeared. The third centenary of the poet's
death was made the occasion of a national apotheosis, and on the
8th of June 1880 some remains, piously believed to be his, were
borne with those of Vasco da Gama to the national pantheon,
the Jeronymos at Belem.
The masterpiece of Camoens, the Lusiads, is the epos of dis-
covery. It is written in hendecasyllabic ottava rima, and is
divided into ten cantos containing in all 1 102 stanzas. Its argu-
ment is briefly as follows. After an exordium proposing the sub-
ject, invoking the Tagus muses and addressing King Sebastian,
Vasco da Gama's ships are shown sailing up the East African
coast on their way to India. At a council of the gods the fate
of the fleet is discussed, and Bacchus promises to thwart the
voyage, while Venus and Mars favour the navigators. They
arrive at Mozambique, where the governor endeavours to destroy
them by stratagem, and, this failing, Bacchus tries other plots
against them at Quiloa and Mombasa which are foiled by Venus.
In answer to her appeal, Jupiter foretells the glorious feats of
the Portuguese in the East, and sends Mercury to direct the
voyagers to Melinde, where they are hospitably received and get
a pilot to guide them to India. The local ruler visits the fleet
and asks Gama about his country and its history, and in response
the latter gives an account of the origin of the kingdom of
Portugal, its kings and principal achievements, ending with the
incidents of the voyage out. This recital occupies cantos 3,
4 and 5, and includes some of the most admired and most power-
ful episodes in the poem, e.g. those of Ignez de Castro, King
Manoel's dream of the rivers Ganges and Indus, the speech of
the old man of Belem and the apparition of Adamastor off the
Cape of Good Hope. Canto 6 describes the crossing of the Indian
Ocean from Melinde to Calicut and a fresh hostile attempt on the
part of Bacchus. He descends to Neptune's palace, and at a
council of the sea-gods it is resolved to order Aeolus to loose the
winds against the Portuguese, but the tempest is quelled by Venus
and her nymphs in answer to Gama' s prayer, and the morning
light reveals the Ghats of India. Just before the storm, occurs
the night scene in which Velloso entertains his shipmates with
the story of the Twelve of England, another of the famous
episodes. Canto 7 is taken up with the arrival at Calicut, a
description of the country and the details of Gama's reception
by the raja. The governor of the city visits the fleet and
inquires about the pictures on their banners, wnereupon Paulo
da Gama, Vasco 's brother, tells him of the deeds of the early
Portuguese kings. Meanwhile Bacchus, not to be baulked, appears
to a priest in the guise of Mahomet, and stirs up the Moslems
against the Christian adventurers, with the result that the raja
charges Gama with being a leader of convicts and pirates. To
this the captain makes a spirited reply and gets his despatch,
but he has new snares to avoid and further difficulties to over-
come before he is finally able to set sail on the return voyage.
Pitying their toils, Venus determines to give the voyagers repose
and pleasure on their way home, and directs their course to an
enchanted island, which is described in canto 9, in the longest
and perhaps the most beautiful episode in the poem. On landing
they are received by the goddess and her nymphs, and general
joy ensues, heightened by banquets and amorous play. In a
prophetic song, the siren tells of the exploits of the Portuguese
viceroys, governors and captains in India until the time of
D. John de Castro, after which Tethys ascends a mountain with
Gama, shows him the spheres after the system of Ptolemy and
the globe of Asia and Africa, and describes the Indian life of
St Thomas the apostle. Finally the navigators quit the island
and reach Lisbon, and an epilogue contains a patriotic exhorta-
tion to King Sebastian and visions of glory, which ended so
disastrously at the battle of Alcacer.
Though the influence of Camoens on Portuguese has been
exaggerated, it was very considerable, and he so far fixed the
written language that at the present day it is commonly and not
inaccurately called " the language of Camoens." The Lusiads
is the most successful modern epic cast in the ancient mould,
and it has done much to preserve the corporate life of the Portu-
guese people and to keep alive the spirit of nationality in times
of adversity like the " Spanish Captivity " and the Napoleonic
invasion. Even now it forms a powerful bond between the
mother-country and her potentially mighty daughter-nation
across the Atlantic, the United States of Brazil. The men of
the Renaissance saw nothing incongruous in that mixture of
paganism and Christianity which is found in the Lusiads as in
Ariosto, though some modern critics, like Voltaire, consider it a
grave artistic defect in the poem. The fact that the Lusiads
is written in a little-known language, and its intensely national
and almost exclusively historical character, undoubtedly militate
against a right estimate of its value, now that Portugal, once a
world power, has long ceased to hold the East in fee or to guide
the destinies of Europe. But though political changes may and
do react on literary appreciations, the Lusiads remains none
the less a great poem, breathing the purest religious fervour,
love of country and spirit of chivalry, with splendid imaginative
and descriptive passages full of the truest and deepest poetry.
The structure is Virgilian, but the whole conception is the
author's own, while the style is natural and noble, the diction
nearly always correct and elegant, and the verse, as a rule,
sonorous and full of harmony.
In addition to his epic, Camoens wrote sonnets, canzons, odes,
sextines, eclogues, elegies, octaves, roundels, letters and comedies.
The roundels include cartas, motes, voltas, cantigas , trovas,
pastorals and endechas. In the opinion of many competent
judges Camoens only attains his true stature in his lyrics; and
a score of his sonnets, two or three of the canzons, eclogues and
elegies, and the Babylonian roundels will bear comparison with
any composition of the same kind that other literatures can show.
Referring to the Lusiads, A. von Humboldt calls Camoens a
" great maritime painter," but in his best lyrics he is a thinker
as well as a poet, and when free from the trammels of the epic
and inherited respect for classical traditions, he reveals a person-
ality so virile and deep, a philosophy so broad and human, a
vision so wide, and a form and style so nearly perfect, as not only
to make him the foremost of Peninsular bards but to entitle him
to a place in that small company of universal poets of the first
rank.
The oldest and most authentic portrait of Camoens appeared
in 1624 with his life, by Manoel Severim de Faria. It is a kitcat
and shows the poet in armour wearing a laurel crown; his right
hand holds a pen, his left rests on a copy of the Lusiads, while a
shield above shows the family arms, a dragon rising from between
rocks. The likeness exhibits a Gothic or northern type, and the
tradition of his red beard and blue eyes confirms it. Except for
an ode, sonnet and elegy, all Camoens's lyrics were published
posthumously.
Authorities. — The most modern and most critical biographies
are those of Dr Theophilo Braga, Camdes, epoca e Vide (Oporto,
1907), and of Dr Wilhelm Storck, Luis de Camdes Leben (Paderborn,
1890), while the most satisfactory edition of the complete works is
due to the Visconde de Juromenha (6 vols., Lisbon, 1 860-1 869),
though it contains some spurious matter. While rejecting without
good reason many of the traditions accepted by Juromenha in his
life of the poet, Storck embroiders on his own account, and Braga
must be preferred to him. Two volumes of Innocencio da Silva's
Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez (14 and 15) are entirely devoted
to Camoens and Camoniana, the second of them dealing fully with
the tercentenary celebrations. Among modern Portuguese studies
of the national epic the most important are perhaps Camdes e a
Renascenca em Portugal, by Oliveira Martins, and Camdes e Senti-
merUo National, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, 1891). The latter volume
contains useful information on the various editions of Camoens,
with an account of the texts and remarks on his plagiarists. Very
few poets have been so often translated, and a list and estimate of
the English translations of the Lusiads from the time of Sir Richard
Fanshawe (1655) downwards, will be found in Sir Richard Burton's
Camoens: His Life and His Lusiads, which, notwithstanding some
errors, is a most informing book, and the result of a curious similarity
of temperament and experience between master and disciple.
Burton translated the Lusiads (2 vols., London, 1880) and the
Lyricks (sonnets, canzons, odes and sextines; 2 vols., London,
1884), and left a version of all the minor works in MS. The accurate
and readable version of the epic by Mr J. J. Aubertin, with the
Portuguese text opposite, has eone through two editions (2nd ed.,
2 vols., London, 1884), and there is a version of seventy of the
sonnets, accompanied by the Portuguese text, by the same author
(London, 1881). (E. Pr.)
120
CAMORRA— CAMP
CAM ORRA, a secret society of Naples associated with robbery,
blackmail and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful.
Probably both the word and the association were introduced
into Naples by Spaniards. There is a Spanish word camorra
(a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have existed in Spain
long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It was
in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was
primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan
prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and
oppression, its first purpose being the protection of prisoners.
In or about 1830 the Camorra was carried into the city by
prisoners who had served their terms. The members worked
the streets in gangs. They had special methods of communicat-
ing with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach of
the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached.
A long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze
meant he was not " worth powder and shot," and so on. The
society rapidly extended its power, and its operations included
smuggling and blackmail of all kinds in addition to ordinary
road-robberies. Its influence grew to be considerable. Princes
were in league with and shared the profits of the smugglers:
statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact, were
involved in the society's misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra
drew huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The
general disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly
organized that merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to
superintend the loading and unloading of merchandise. Being
non-political, the government did not interfere with the society;
indeed its members were taken into the police service and the
Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled the authorities.
After 1848 the society became political. In i860, when the
constitution was granted by Francis II., the camorristi then in
gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became
all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862.
Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its
power. In September 1877 there was a determined effort to
exterminate it: fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi
being simultaneously arrested in the market-place. Though
much of its power has gone, the Camorra has remained vigorous.
It has grown upwards, and highly-placed and well-known camor-
risti have entered municipal administrations and political life.
In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra's power were made in
the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the
Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commis-
sioner. A government inquiry also took place. As the result
of this investigation the Honest Government League was
formed, which succeeded in 1901 in entirely defeating the
Camorra candidates at the municipal elections.
The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the " swell
mobsmen," the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed
with and levied fines on people of highest rank. Most of these
were well connected. There were the lower order of blackmailers
who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &c; and there were
political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the society
were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve
for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted
camorrista when he was sometimes called picciotto d' honore, and
after giving proof of courage and zeal became a picciotto di
sgarro, one, that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some
localities he was then called tamurro. The initiatory ceremony
for full membership is now a mock duel in which the arm alone
is wounded. In early times initiation was more severe. The
camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground, and at a signal
all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the novice had
at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that his hand
was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate
as picciotto di sgarro lasted three years, during which the lad had
to work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as
master. After initiation there was a ceremony of reception.
The camorristi stood round a table on which were a dagger,
a loaded pistol, a glass of water or wine supposed to be poisoned
and a lancet. The picciotto was brought in and one of his veins
opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he held it out to
the camorristi and swore to keep the society's secrets and obey
orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock the
pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to
die for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the
dagger, placed his right hand on the lad's head while with the
left he fired off the pistol into the air and smashed the poison-
glass. He then drew the dagger from the table and presented
it to the new comrade and embraced him, as did all the others.
The Camorra was divided into centres, each under a chief.
There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one time
to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was
Aniello Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested.
The chief of every centre was elected by the members of it. All
the earnings of the centre were paid to and then distributed by
him. The camorristi employ a whole vocabulary of cant terms.
Their chief is tnasto or si masto, " sir master." When a member
meets him he salutes with the phrase Masto, volite niente?
("Master, do you want anything?"). The members are
addressed simply as si.
See Monnier, La Camorra (Florence, 1863) ; Umilta, Camorra et
Mafia (Neuchatel, 1878); Alongi, La Camorra (1890); C. W.
Heckethorn, Secret Societies of All Ages (London, 1897); Blasio,
Usi e costumi dei Camorriste (Naples, 1897).
CAMP (from Lat. campus, field), a term used more particularly
in a military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized
place of food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary
housing (see Camping-out). The shelter of troops in the
field has always been of the greatest importance to their well-
being, and from the earliest times tents and other temporary
shelters have been employed as much as possible when it is not
feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in barracks or in
houses. The applied sense of the word " camp " as a military
post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the
Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern
warfare the word is used in two ways. In the wider sense,
" camp " is opposed to " billets," " cantonments " or " quarters,"
in which the troops are scattered amongst the houses of towns
or villages for food and shelter. In a purely military camp the
soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground allotted for their
sole use. They are thus kept in a state of concentration and
readiness for immediate action, and are under better disciplinary
control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from the
weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the
restricted sense " camp " implies tents for all ranks, and is thus
opposed to " bivouac," in which the only shelter is that afforded
by improvised screens, &c, or at most small tentes oVabri carried
in sections by the men themselves. The weight of large regula-
tion tents and the consequent increase in the number of horses
and vehicles in the transport service are, however, disadvantages
so grave that the employment of canvas camps in European
warfare is almost a thing of the past. If the military situation
permits, all troops are put into quarters, only the outpost troops
bivouacking. This course was pursued by the German field
armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter campaign.
Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole
army to bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are
not to be depended upon, tents must be provided, for no troops
can endure many successive nights in bivouac, except in summer,
without serious detriment to their efficiency. In a war on the
Russo-German frontier, for instance, especially if operations
were carried out in the autumn and winter, tents would be
absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In this
connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates
many of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For
training purposes in peace time, standing camps are formed.
These may be considered simply as temporary barracks. An
entrenched camp is an area of ground occupied by, or suitable
for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and protected by
fortifications.
Ancient Camps. — English writers use " camp " as a generic
term for any remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA— CAMPANELLA
121
their special age, size, purpose, &c. Thus they include under it
various dissimilar things. We may distinguish (i) Roman
"camps " (castra) of three kinds, large permanent fortresses, small
permanent forts (both usually built of stone) and temporary
earthen encampments (see Roman Army); (2) Pre-Roman;
and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English
hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to
their special periods. Often we can say no more than that the
" camp " is not Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified
with earthen walls were thrown up as early as the Bronze Age
and probably earlier still, and that they continued to be built
down to Norman times. These consisted of hilltops or cliff-
promontories or other suitable positions fortified with one or
more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining
huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have
come in first with the Normans. Their mottes or earthen mounds
crowned with wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded
by an enclosure on the flat constituted a new element in
fortification and greatly aided the conquest of England. (See
Castle.)
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, the low country surrounding the
city of Rome, bounded on the N.W. by the hills surrounding
the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E. by the Sabine mountains,
on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W. by the sea.
(See Latium, and Rome (province).)
CAMPAIGN, a military term for the continuous operations of
an army during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the
time when armies went into quarters during the winter and
literally " took the field " at the opening of summer. The word
is also used figuratively, especially in politics, of any continuous
operations aimed at a definite object, as the " Plan of Campaign "
in Ireland during 1 886-1887. The word is derived from the Latin
Campania, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f. Italian, la
Campagna di Roma, from which came two French forms: (1)
Champagne, the name given to the level province of that name,
and hence the English " champaign," a level tract of country free
from woods and hills; and (2) Campagne f and the English
" campaign " with the restricted military meaning.
CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE (1752-1822),
French educator, the companion of Marie Antoinette, was born
at Paris in 1752. Her father, whose name was Genest, was first
clerk in the foreign office, and, although without fortune, placed
her in the most cultivated society. At the age of fifteen she could
speak English and Italian, and had gained so high a reputation
for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader to the three
daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general favourite, and
when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the
secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of
5000 livres as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first
lady of the bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued
to be her faithful attendant till she was forcibly separated from
her at the sacking of the Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792.
Madame Campan survived the dangers of the Terror, but after
the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost penniless, and being
thrown on her own resources by the illness of her husband, she
bravely determined to support herself by establishing a school at
St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by
Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment
of Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded
by Napoleon at £couen for the education of the daughters and
sisters of members of the Legion of Honour. This post she held
till it was abolished at the restoration of the Bourbons, when she
retired to Mantes, where she spent the rest of her life amid the
kind attentions of affectionate friends, but saddened by the loss
of her only son, and by the calumnies circulated on account of her
connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in 1822, leaving valu-
able MSmoires sur la vie privie de Marie Antoinette, suivis de
souvenirs et anecdotes kistoriques sur les regnes de Louis XI V.-X V.
(Paris, 1823); a treatise De V Education des Femmes; and one or
two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style.
The most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that
which especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place
given to domestic economy in the education of girls. At ficouen
the pupils underwent a complete training in all branches of
housework.
See Jules Flammermont, Les MSmoires de Madame de Campan
(Paris, 1886), and histories of the time.
CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568- 1639), Italian Renaissance
philosopher, was born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen
years of age he had mastered nearly all the Latin authors pre-
sented to him. In his fifteenth year he entered the order of the
Dominicans, attracted partly by reading the lives of Albertus
Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of learning. He took a
course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in Abruzzo, and
in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow course of
study, he happened to read the De Rerum Natura of Bernardino
Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its
appeal to nature rather than to authority. His first work in
philosophy (he was already the author of numerous poems) was a
defence of Telesio, PhUosopkia sensibus demonstrata (1591). His
attacks upon established authority having brought him into
disfavour with the clergy, he left Naples, where he had been
residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven years he led an
unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his talents and
the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox, and
was an uncompromising advocate of the pope's temporal power.
He returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was
committed to prison because he had joined those who desired to
free Naples from Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudee, however,
declares that the expressions used by Campanella were wrongly
interpreted as revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven
years m prison. Yet his spirit was unbroken; he composed
sonnets, and prepared a series of works, forming a complete
system of philosophy. During the latter years of his confinement
he was kept in the castle of Sant' Elmo, and allowed considerable
liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been regarded
as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was thought
better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set at
liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of
the Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at
Rome by the pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy
headed by his pupil, Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go
to Paris (1634), where he was received with marked favour by
Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of his life he spent in
preparing a complete edition of his works; but only the first
volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of
May 1639.
In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (q.v.),
a follower of Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore,
in the uncertain half-light which preceded the dawn of modern
philosophy. The sterility of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he
understood it, drove him to the study of man and nature,
though he was never entirely free from the medieval spirit.
Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region of
theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception.
The prime fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and
Descartes, the certainty of individual consciousness. To this
consciousness he assigned a threefold content, power, will and
knowledge. It is of the present only, of things not as they are,
but merely as they seem. The fact that it contains the idea of
God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the divine existence,
since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from the Infinite.
God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect degree,
those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity
possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action
presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its
parts have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate
are in everything. The more remote from God, the greater the
degree of imperfection (i.e. Not-being) in things. Of imperfect
things, the highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue
of the possession of reason are akin to the Divine and superior to
the lower creation. Next comes the mathematical world of
space, then the corporeal world, and finally the empirical world
with its limitations of space and time. The impulse of self-
122
CAMPANIA
preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion; above this
comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the perfection
of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and love,
and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in
origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is
superior to the state, and, therefore, all temporal government
should be in subjection to the pope as the representative
of God.
In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio,
advocates the experimental method and lays down heat and
cold as the fundamental principles by the strife of which all life
is explained. In political philosophy (the Civitas Solis) he
sketches an ideal communism, obviously derived from the
Platonic, based on community of wives and property with state-
control of population and universal military training. In every
detail of life the citizen is to be under authority, and the authority
of the administrators is to be based on the degree of knowledge
possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial organism
for the promotion of individual and collective good. In contrast
to More's Utopia, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking in
practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity
in the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to
whether this system was a philosophic dream, or a serious
attempt to sketch a constitution for Naples in the event of her
becoming a free city. The De Monorchia Hispanica contains
an able account of contemporary politics especially Spanish.
Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic
thinker, is among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern
empirical science, and on the other of Descartes and Spinoza.
Yet his fondness for the antithesis of Being and Not-being
(Ens and Non-ens) shows that he had not shaken off the spirit of
scholastic thought.
Bibliography. — For his works see Quetif-Echard, appendix to
E. S. Cypriano, Vita Campanellae (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722);
Al. d'Ancona's edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854). The most
important are De sensu rerum (1620); Realis philosophiae epilo-
gisticae partes IV. (with Civitas Solis) (1623); Atheismus trtum-
phatus (1631); Philos. rationalis (1637); Philos. universalis sen
metaph. (1637); De Monorchia Hispanica (1640). For his life, see
Cypriano (above); M. Baldachini, Vita e filos. di Tommaso Cam-
panula (Naples, 1840-1853, 18^7-1857); Dom. Berti, Lettere inedite
di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti (1878); and Nuovi docu-
menti di T. C. (1881); and especially L. Amabile, Fra T. Cam-
panella (3 vols., Naples, 1882). For his philosophy H.Ritter, History
of Philos.; M. Carriere, Philos. Weltanschauung d. Reformations-
zeity pp. 542-608; C. Dareste, Th. Morus et Campanella (Paris, 1843) ;
Chr. Sigwart, Kleine Schriften, i. 125 seq.; and histories of philo-
sophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda, Fra Tommaso
Campanella e la sua dottrina socials e politico di fronte al socialismo
moderno (Nocera Inferiore, 1895). His poems, first published by
Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered and printed again (1834)
by J. G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered into Englisn verse by
J. A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography see Diet, de theol.
cath. t col. 1446 (1904).
CAMPANIA, a territorial division of Italy. The modern
district (II. below) is of much greater extent than that known
by the name in ancient times.
I. Campani was the name used by the Romans to denote the
inhabitants first of the town of Capua and the district subject to
it, and then after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 B.C.),
to describe the inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally.
The name, however, is pre-Roman and appears with Oscan
terminations on coins of the early 4th (or late 5th) century B.C.
(R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 143), which were certainly
struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of Campania, whom the
name properly denotes, a branch of the great Sabelline stock
(see Sabini) ; but in what precise spot the coins were minted is
uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the
Samnitcs deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in
the last quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded
appearance being at the conquest of their chief town Capua,
probably in 438 B.C. (or 445, according to the method adopted in
interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on this see under Cumae), or 424
according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was taken by them in 428 or
421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite language they
spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all Campania
except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans
remained here and there for at least another century (Conway,
op. cit. p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took
over not merely the wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their
customs; the haughtiness and luxury of the men of Capua was
proverbial at Rome. This town became the ally of Rome in
338 B.C. (Livy viii. 14) and received the civitas sine suffragio, the
highest status that could be granted to a community which did
not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was
completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their terri-
tories (Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally inde-
pendent in alliance with Rome. These towns were faithful to
Rome throughout the Hannibalic war. But Capua and the
towns dependent on it revolted (Livy xxiii.-xxvi.); after its
capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and the jealousy
and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both
finally appeased (cf . Cicero, Leg. A grar. ii. 88) . We have between
thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating,
probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway,
Italic Dialects, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to
the curious cult described under Jovilae, while two or three
are curses written on lead; see Osca Lingua.
See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff. ; J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd
ed.), c. " Capua "; Th. Mommsen, C.LL. x. p. 365. (R. S. C.)
The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from
Campani (see above), and did not come into common use until the
middle of the 1st century a.d. Polybius and Diodorus avoid it
entirely. Varro and Livy use it sparingly, preferring Camp anus
ager. Polybius (2nd century B.C.) uses the phrase rA weSia tA
xar A Kaxiny v to express the district bounded on the north by the
mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the Apennines of
Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which
ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by
the sea, and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy.
But the geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division
of Italy Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried
the north boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and
even the river Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village
of San Pietro in Fine preserves the memory of the north-east
boundary which ran between Venafrum and Casinum. On the
east the valley of the Volturnus and the foot-hills of the Apen-
nines as far as Abellinum formed the boundary; this town is
sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to
Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From
the time of Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended
much farther north, and included the whole of Latium. This
district was governed by a corrector, who about a.d. 333 received
the title of consular is. It is for this reason that the district round
Rome still bears the name of Campagna di Roma, being no doubt
popularly connected with Ital. campo, Lat. campus. This district
(to take its earlier extent), consisting mainly of a very fertile plain
with hills on the north, east and south, and the sea on the south
and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the Liris and Vol-
turnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right down
to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is
comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is
the main plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the
central Apennines, and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus,
Sebethus, Savo, belong entirely to Campania.
The road system of Campania was extremely well developed
and touched all the important towns. The main lines are
followed (though less completely) by the modern railways. The
most important road centre of Campania was Capua, at the east
edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to the north-west, was the
only bridge over the Volturnus until the construction of the Via
Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing through
Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the
Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum
and Cales. At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia
began to turn east and to approach the mountains on its way to
Bene ven turn, while the Via Popillia went straight on to Nola
(whence a road ran to Abella and Abellinum) and thence to
CAMPANIA
123
Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating at Regium. From
Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia and Telesia,
while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is no ancient
warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae,
Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae,
Puteoli and Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella
and Neapolis. Neapolis could also be reached by a branch from
the Via Popillia at Suessula, which passed through Acerrae.
From Suessula, too, there was a short cut to the Via Appia before
it actually entered the mountains. Domitian further improved
the communications of this district with Rome, by the construc-
tion of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at
Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river
Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must
have been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along
the shore, past Liternum to Cumae and therice to Puteoli. Here
it fell into the existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana
over the hills, at the back, and the newer, dating from the time
of Agrippa, through the tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast.
The mileage in both cases was reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond
Naples a road led along the coast through Herculaneum to
Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and Surrentum,
and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From
Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran
to Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but
outside the limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to
Abellinum and thence to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum
was another important centre : it lay at the point where the Via
Latina was crossed at right angles by a road leaving the Via Appia
at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca, while east of
Teanum it ran on to Aliifae, and there fell into the road from
Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched
off to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and
rejoined it near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed,
probable that the original road made the dStour by Venafrum,
in order to give a direct communication between Rome and the
interior of Samnium (inasmuch as roads ran from Venafrum to
Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Aliifae), and Th. Mommsen
{Corp. Inscrip. Lat. x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies the antiquity
of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo), though it is
shown in Kiepert's map at the end of the volume, with a milestone
numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error both in placing
and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the
road to Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short
cut was not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century
coins of Telesia, Aliifae and Aesernia are all of the Campania n
type.
Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most
important from the commercial point of view. Its period of
greatest comparative importance was the 2nd-ist century B.C.
The harbours constructed by Augustus by connecting the Lacus
Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the sea, and that at Misenum
(the latter the station of one of the chief divisions of the Roman
navy, the other fleet being stationed at Ravenna), were mainly
naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but was less
important than Puteoli.
The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as
in modern times; 1 the best portion was the Campi Laborini or
Leborini (called Phlcgraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in
modern times, though the name has now extended to the whole
province of Caserta) between the roads from Capua to Puteoli and
Cumae (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xviii. in). The loose black volcanic
earth (terra pulla) was easier to work than the stiffer Roman soil,
and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt, wheat and millet
are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables; and the
roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the
Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the
east and south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other
districts also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited
to the slopes than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good.
1 The name Osci — earlier Opsci, Opusci (Gr. 'OtucoL) — presumably
meant " tillers of the soil."
The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania
(Pompeii, Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but
at some date soon after that Latin became general, except in
Neapolis, where Greek was the official language during the whole
of the imperial period.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway,
Italic Dialects,??. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklo-
padie, iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434.
II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably
larger area than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the comparti-
tnento of Campania belong the five provinces of Caserta, Bene-
vento, Naples, Avellino and Salerno.
It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila
(Abruzzi) and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of
Foggia (Apulia), on the east by that of Potenza (Basilica ta) and
on the south and west by the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289
sq. m. It thus includes the whole of the ancient Campania, a
considerable portion of Samnium (with a part of the main chain
of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of Latium adjectutn,
consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part of which
lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the extra-
ordinarily fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro,
with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains
and the sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc.
Liris), which rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno
(94 m. in length), with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which
rises near Sarno and waters the fertile plain south-east of
Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose main tributary is the Tanagro,
which is in turn largely fed by another Calore. The headwaters
of the Sele have been tapped for the great aqueduct for the
Apulian provinces.
The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of
Fondi with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient Ager
Caecubus), renowned for its wine (see Fondi). The mountains
(of the ancient Aumnci) then come down to the sea, and on the
east side of the extreme promontory to the south-east is the port
of Gaeta, a strongly fortified naval station. The east side of
the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the marshes at the mouth of the
Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its unhealthy lagoons,
continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico, which reaches
the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as far
as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct
craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &c.) to the west of
Naples, which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of
Naples. Here the scenery completely changes: the Bay of
Naples, indeed, is one of the most beautiful in the world. The
island of Procida lies 2§ m. south-west of the Capo Miseno, and
3 m. south-west of Procida is that of Ischia. In consequence
of the volcanic character of the district there are several import-
ant mineral springs which are used medicinally, especially at
Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of Ischia.
Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy
in the 1st century B.C., is now mainly noticeable for the large
armour-plate and gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the
volcanic earth (pozzolana) which forms so important an element
in concrete and cement, and is largely quarried near Rome also.
Naples, on the other hand, is one of the most important harbours
of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco and Torre Annun-
ziata at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports for smaller
vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is manu-
factured extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellam-
mare di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval
shipbuilding yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castel-
lammare the promontory of Sorrento, ending in the Punta della
Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m. south-west) forms the
south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest point of this
mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine
chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east
as Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the
low marshy ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno,
malaria is very prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf
of Salerno is formed by another mountain group, culminating
124
CAMPANI-ALIMENIS— CAMPANILE
in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.); and on the east side of this
is the Gulf of Policastro, where the province of Salerno, and with
it Campania, borders on the province of Potenza.
The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1001; that of
the province of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 com-
munes, the chief towns being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua
Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni (20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844);
that of the province of Benevento was 256,504, with 73 communes,
the only important town being Benevento itself (24,647); that of
the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69 communes, the most
important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del Greco (33,299),
Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata (28,143),
Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino (Principato
Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425, with
128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and
Ariano di Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno
(Principato Citeriore) 564,328, with 158 communes, the chief
towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera
Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief railway centre: a main
line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence there is a
branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to
Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on
the line between Sulmona and Campobasso or Benevento),
Sparanise (branch to Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples.
From Caserta, indeed, there are two independent lines to Naples,
while a main line runs to Benevento and Foggia across the
Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to Vinchiaturo
(for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From
Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples,
branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato,
San Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to
Caserta (and thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local
lines to Pozzuoli and Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to
Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the other via Pompeii, which together
make up the circum-Vesuvian electric line, and were in connexion
with the railway to the top of Vesuvius until its destruction in
April 1906. The main line for southern Italy passes through
Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and
Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for
Mercato San Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one
line going east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro),
Potenza and Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line
along the east coast of Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-
south-east along the west coast of Calabria to Reggio.
Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli
and the towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia
(including the latter) on the north-east shores of the Bay of
Naples. The native peasant industries are (besides agriculture,
for which see Italy) the manufacture of pottery and weaving
with small hand-looms, both of which are being swept away by
the introduction of machinery; but a government school of
textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement of
the trade. (T. As.)
CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO, Italian mechanician and
natural philosopher of the 17th century, was born at Spoleto.
He held a curacy at Rome in 166 1, but devoted himself principally
to scientific pursuits. As an optician he is chiefly celebrated
for the manufacture of the large object-glasses with which
G. D. Cassini discovered two of Saturn's satellites, and for an
attempt to rectify chromatic aberration by using a triple eye-
glass; and in clock-making, for his invention of the illuminated
dial-plate, and that of noiseless clocks, as well as for an attempt
to correct the irregularities of the pendulum which arise from
variations of temperature. Campani published in 1678 a work
on horology, and on the manufacture of lenses for telescopes.
His younger brother Giuseppe was also an ingenious optician
(indeed the attempt to correct chromatic aberration has been
ascribed to him instead of to Matteo), and is, besides, note-
worthy as an astronomer, especially for his discovery, by the
aid of a telescope of his own construction, of the spots in Jupiter,
the credit of which was, however, also claimed by Eustachio
Divini.
CAMPANILE, the bell tower attached to the churches and
town-halls in Italy (from campana, a bell). Bells are supposed
to have been first used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope
Sabinian (604), the immediate successor to St Gregory; and
their use by the municipalities came with the rights granted by
kings and emperors to the citizens to enclose their towns with
fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a great bell. It is to
the Lombard architects of the north of Italy that we are indebted
for the introduction and development of the campanile, which,
when used in connexion with a sacred building, is a feature
peculiar to Christian architecture — Christians alone making use
of the bell to gather the multitude to public worship. The
campanile of Italy serves the same purpose as the tower or
steeple of the churches in the north and west of Europe, but
differs from it in design and position with regard to the body of
the church. It is almost always detached from the church, or
at most connected with it by an arcaded passage. As a rule also
there is never more than one campanile to a church, with a few
exceptions, as in S. Ambrogio, Milan; the cathedral of Novara;
S. Abbondio, Como; S. Antonio, Padua; and some of the
churches in south Italy and Sicily. The design differs entirely
from the northern type; it never has buttresses, is very tall and
thin in proportion to its height, and as a rule rises abruptly from
the ground without base or plinth mouldings undiminished to
the summit; it is usually divided by string-courses into storeys
of nearly equal height, and in north and central Italy the wall
surface is decorated with pilaster strips and arcaded corbel
strings. Later, the square tower was crowned with an octagonal
turret, sometimes with a conical roof, as in Cremona and Modena
cathedrals. As a rule the openings increase in number and
dimensions as they rise, those at the top therefore giving a light-
ness to the structure, while the lower portions, with narrow slits
only, impart solidity to the whole composition.
The earliest examples are those of the two churches of S.
Apollinare in Classe (see Basilica, fig. 8) and S. Apollinare Nuovo
at Ravenna, dating from the 6th century. They are circular,
of considerable height, and probably were erected as watch
towers or depositories for the treasures of the church. The next
in order are those in Rome, of which there are a very large
number in existence, dating from the 8th to the nth century.
These towers are square and in several storeys, the lower part
quite plain till well above the church to which they are attached.
Above this they are divided into storeys by brick cornices carried
on stone corbels, generally taken from ancient buildings, the
lower storeys with blind arcades and the upper storeys with open
arcades. The earliest on record was one connected with St
Peter's, to the atrium of which, in the middle of the 8th century,
a bell-tower overlaid with gold was added. One of the finest is
that of S. Maria-in-Cosmedin, ascribed to the 8th or 9U1 century.
In the lower part of it are embedded some ancient columns of the
Composite Order belonging to the Temple of Ceres. The tower
is 1 20 ft. high, the upper part divided into seven storeys, the four
upper ones with open arcades, the bells being hung in the second
from the top. The arches of the arcades, two or three in number,
are recessed in two orders and rest on long impost blocks (their
length equal to the thickness of the wall above), carried by a
mid-wall shaft. This type of arcade or window is found in early
German work, except that, as a rule, there is a capital under the
impost block. Rome is probably the source from which the
Saxon windows were derived, the example in Worth church being
identically the same as those in the Roman campanili. In the
campanile of S. Alessio there are two arcades in each storey, each
divided with a mid-wall shaft. Among others, those of SS.
Giovanni e Paolo, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Francesca Romana,
S. Croce in Gerusalemme, S. Giorgio in Velabro (fig. 1), S. Cecilia,
S. Pudenziana, S. Bartolommeo in Isola (982), S. Silvestro in
Capite, are characteristic examples. On some of the towers are
encrusted plaques of marble or of red or green porphyry, enclosed
in a tile or moulded brick border; sometimes these plaques are
in majolica with Byzantine patterns.
The early campanili of the north of Italy are of quite another
type, the north campanile of S. Ambrogio, Milan (1129), being
CAMPANILE
decorated with vertical flat pilaster strips, four on each face, and
horizontal arcaded corbel strings. Of earlier date (879), the
campanile of S. Satiro at Milan is in perfect preservation; it is
divided into four storeys by arched corbel tables, the upper
storey having a similar arcade with mid-wall shaft to those in
Rome. One of the most notable examples in north Italy is the
campanile of Pomposa near Ferrara. It is of immense height
and has nine storeys crowned with a lofty conical spire, the wall
face being divided vertically with pilaster strips and horizontally
From a photograph by Alinari.
Fig. 1. — Campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome.
with arcaded corbel tables, — this campanile, the two towers of
S. Antonio, Padua, and that of S. Gottardo, Milan, of octagonal
plan, being among the few which are thus terminated. In the
campanile at Torcello we find an entirely different treatment:
doubly recessed pilaster-strips divide each face into two lofty
blind arcades rising from the ground to the belfry storey, over
100 ft. high, with small slits for windows, the upper or belfry
storey having an arcade of four arches on each front. This is the
type generally adopted in the campanili of Venice, where there
are no string-courses. The campanile of St Mark's was of similar
design, with four lofty blind arcades on each face. The lower
portion, built in brick, 162 ft. high, was commenced in 902 but
125
not completed till the middle of the 12th century. In 15 10 a
belfry storey was added with an open arcade of four arches on
each face, and slightly set back from the face of the tower above
was a mass of masonry with pyramidal roof, the total height
being 320 ft. On the 14th of July 1902 the whole structure
collapsed; its age, the great weight of the additions made in
1 510, and probably the cutting away inside of the lower part,
would seem to have been the principal contributors to this
disaster, as the pile
foundations were found to
be in excellent condition.
In central Italy the two
early campanili at Lucca
return to the Lombard
type of the north, with
pilaster strips and arcaded
corbel strings, and the
same is found in S. Fran-
cesco (Assisi), S. Frediano
(Lucca), S. Pietro-in-
Grado and S. Michele-
in-Orticaia (Pisa), and S.
Maria-Novella (Florence).
The campanile of S. Nic-
cola, Pisa, is octagonal on
plan, with a lofty blind
arcade on each face like
those in Venice, but with
a single string-course half-
wayup. Thegallery
above is an open eaves
gallery like those in north
Italy.
In southern Italy the
design of the campanile
varies again. In the two
more important examples
at Bari and Molfetta, there
are two towers in each case
attached to the east end
of the cathedrals. The
campanili are in plain
masonry, the storeys being
suggested only by blind
arches or windows, there
being neither pilaster
strips nor string-courses.
The same treatment is
found at B arietta and
Caserta Vecchia; in the
latter the upper storey has
been made octagonal with
circular turrets at each
angle, and this type of
design is followed at
Amalfi, the centre portion
being circular instead of
octagonal and raised much
higher. In Palermo the From a photograph by Brogi.
campanile of the Marto- Fig.2.— Campanileof St Mark's, Venice*
rana, of which the two lower storeys, decorated with three concen-
tric blind pointed arches on each face, probably date from the
Saracenic occupation, has angle turrets on the two upper storeys.
The upper portions of the campanile of the cathedral have
similar angle turrets, which, crowned with conical roofs, group
well with the central octagonal spires of the towers. The two
towers of the west front of the cathedral at Cefalu resemble
those of Bari and Molfetta as regards their treatment.
The campanili of S. Zenone, Verona, and the cathedrals of
Siena and Prato, differ from those already mentioned in that
they owe their decoration to the alternating courses of black
and white marble. Of this type by far the most remarkable so
126
CAMPANILE
far as its marble decoration is concerned is Giotto's campanile at
Florence, built in 1334. It measures 275 ft. high, 45 ft. square,
and is encased in black, white and red marble, with occasional
sculptured ornament. The angles are emphasized by octagonal
projections, the panelling of which seems to have ruled that of
the whole structure. There are five storeys, of which the three
upper ones are pierced with windows; twin arcades side by side
From a photograph by Alinari.
Fig. 3. — Giotto's Campanile, Florence.
in the two lower, and a lofty triplet window with tracery in the
belfry stage. A richly corbelled cornice crowns the structure,
above which a spire was projected by Giotto, but never carried
out.
The loftiest campanile in Italy is that of Cremona, 396 ft.
high. Though built in the second half of the 13th century, and
showing therefore Gothic influence in the pointed windows of the
belfry and two storeys below, and the substitution of the pointed
for the semicircular arch of the arcaded corbel string-courses, it
follows the Lombard type in its general design, and the same is
found in the campanile of S. Andrea, Mantua. In the 16th
century an octagonal lantern in two strings crowned with a
conical roof was added. Owing to defective foundations, some
of the Italian campanili incline over considerably; of these
leaning towers, those of the Garisendi and Asinelli palaces at
Bologna form con-
spicuous objects in
the town; the two
more remarkable ex-
amples are the cam-
panile of S. Martino
at Este, of early
Lombard type, and
the leaning tower at
Pisa, which was built
by the citizens in
1 1 74 to rival that of
Venice. The Pisa
tower is circular on
plan, about 51 ft. in
diameter and 172 ft.
high. Not including
the belfry storey,
which is set back on
the inner wall, it is
divided into seven
storeys all sur-
rounded with an open
gallery or arcade.
(See Architecture,
Plate I. fig. 62.)
Owing to the sinking
of the piles on the
south side, the in-
clination was already
noticed when the
tower was about 30
ft. high, and slight
additions in the
height of the masonry
on that side were in-
introduced to correct
the level, but with-
out result, so that
the works were
stopped for many
years and taken up
again in 1234 under
the direction of
William of Inns-
bruck; he also at-
tempted to rectify
the levels by increas-
ing the height of
the masonry on the
south side. At a
later period the bel- From * Photograph by Alinari.
fry storey was added. Fig. 4. — Campanile of the Palazzo del
The inclination now Signore, Verona,
approaches 14 ft. out of the perpendicular. The outside is built
entirely in white marble and is of admirable workmanship, but
it is a question whether the equal subdivision of the several
storeys is not rather monotonous. The campanili of the churches
of S. Nicolas and S. Michele in Orticaia, both in Pisa, are also
inclined to a slight extent.
The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches,
but there are others belonging to civic buildings some of which
are of great importance. The campanile of the town hall of
Siena rises to an enormous height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft.
wide; it is built in brick and crowned with a battlemented
CAMPANULA— CAMPBELL, G.
127
parapet carried on machicolation corbels, 16 ft. high, all in stone,
and a belfry storey above set back behind the face of the tower.
The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is similarly
crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced
in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example
is the fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4,
the lower portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone
and above entirely in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft.,
and pierced with putlog holes only. The belfry window on each
face is divided into three lights with coupled shafts. An octagonal
tower of two storeys rises above the corbelled eaves.
In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general
proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself
easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were
adhered to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei
Greci. In that of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio re-
turned to the simple brickwork of Verona, crowned with a
belfry storey in stone, with angle pilasters and columns of the
Corinthian order in antis, and central turret with spire above.
In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins are either
decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters, with
or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a
belfry storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of
their greater projection present a fine effect. (R. P. S.)
CAMPANULA (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants
containing about 230 species, found in the temperate parts
of the northern hemisphere, chiefly in the Mediterranean region.
The name is taken from the bell-shaped flower. The plants
are perennial, rarely annual or biennial, herbs with spikes or
racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several are native in
Britain; Campanula rotundifolia is the harebell (q.v.) or Scotch
bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths, — the delicate
slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers;
C. Rapunculus, rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a
panicle of broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and
occurs on gravelly roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It
is cultivated, but not extensively, for its fleshy roots, which
are used, either boiled or raw, as salad. Many of the species
are grown in gardens for their elegant flowers; the dwarf forms
are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or fronts of borders.
C. Medium, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple and white
flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there
are numerous varieties. C. persicifolia, a perennial with more
open flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous
forms, including white and blue-flowered and single and double.
C. glomerata, which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on the
stems and branches, found native in Britain in chalky and dry
pastures, is known in numerous varieties as a border plant.
C. pyramidalis, with numerous flowers forming a tall pyramidal
inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are also a number
of alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as C. alpina, cauca-
sica, caespiiosa and others. The plants are easily cultivated.
The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by young
cuttings in spring, or by seeds.
CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788-1866), American religious
leader, was born near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the
1 2th of September 1788, and was the son of Thomas Campbell
( 1 763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman of the Presbyterian
" Seceders." Alexander in 1809, after a year at Glasgow
University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania,
where the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Associa-
tion of Washington, " for the sole purpose of promoting simple
evangelical Christianity." With his father's desire for Church
unity the son agreed. He began to preach in 1810, refusing any
salary; in 181 1 he settled in what is now Bethany, West
Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run Church, as the
Christian Association was now called. In 181 2, urging baptism
by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his
father's place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (q.v., popularly
called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed
momentarily to approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists,
but by his statement, " I will be baptized only into the primitive
Christian faith," by his iconoclastic preaching and his editorial
conduct of The Christian Baptist (1 823-1 830), and by the tone
of his able debates with Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the
disfavour of the Redstone Association of Baptist churches in
western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his followers transferred
their membership to the Mahoning Association of Baptist
churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the
Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to
the Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery
neighbours, now established The Millennial Harbinger (1830-
1865), in which, on Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation,
but which he used principally to preach the imminent Second
Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in which year he died,
on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia, having been for
twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He travelled,
lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in
England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian
champions, with Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert
Owen; and edited a revision of the New Testament.
See Thomas W. Grafton's Alexander Campbell , Leader of the Great
Reformation of the Nineteenth Century (St Louis, 1897).
CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs Patrick Campbell)
(1865- ), English actress, was born in London, her maiden
name being Tanner, and in 1884 married Captain Patrick
Campbell (d. 1000). After having appeared on the provincial
stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre, London,
in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero's Second
Mrs Tanqueray at the St James's, her remarkable impersonation
at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For
some years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London,
playing notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson's For
the Crown, and in Macbeth', and her Magda (Royalty, 1900)
could hold its own with either Bernhardt or Duse. In later
years she paid successful visits to America, but in England
played chiefly on provincial tours.
CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1710-1796), Scottish theologian, was
born at Aberdeen on the 25th of December 17 19. His father, the
Rev. Colin Campbell, one of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of
George Campbell of Westhall, who claimed to belong to the Argyll
branch of the family, died in 1728, leaving a widow and six
children in somewhat straitened circumstances. George, the
youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and after
attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes
at Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an
apprentice to a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he
attended the theological lectures, and when the term of his
apprenticeship expired, he was enrolled as a regular student in
the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a distinguished career he was,
in 1746, licensed to preach by the presbytery of Aberdeen. From
1 748 to 1 757 he was minister of Banchory Ternan, a parish on the
Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then transferred to Aber-
deen, which was at the time a centre of considerable intellectual
activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King's
College; John Gregory (1 724-1773), Reid's predecessor, held the
chair of medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor
of divinity at Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie
(173 5-1 803) became professor of moral philosophy in the same
college. These men, with others of less note, formed themselves
in 1 7 58 into a society for the discussions of questions in philosophy.
Reid was its first secretary, and Campbell one of its founders. It
lasted till about 1773, and during this period numerous papers
were read, particularly those by Reid and Campbell, which were
afterwards expanded and published.
In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In
1763 he published his celebrated Dissertation on Miracles, in
which he seeks to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are
capable of proof by testimony, and that the miracles of Christi-
anity are sufficiently attested. There is no contradiction, he
argues, as Hume said there was, between what we know by
testimony and the evidence upon which a law of nature is based;
they are of a different description indeed, but we can without
inconsistency believe that both are true. The Dissertation is not
128
CAMPBELL, J.— CAMPBELL, LORD
a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was
and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In
1 771 Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal
College, and resigned his city charge, although he still preached
as minister of Greyf riars, a duty then attached to the chair. His
Philosophy of Rhetoric, planned at Banchory Ternan years before,
appeared in 1776, and at once took a high place among books on
the subject. In 1778 his last and in some respects his greatest
work appeared, A New Translation of the Gospels. The critical
and explanatory notes which accompanied it gave the book a
high value.
In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the
offices he held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he
received a pension of £300 from the king. ' He died on the 3 1st of
March 1796.
His Lectures on Ecclesiastical History were published after his
death with a biographical notice Ijy G. 5. Keith ; there is a uniform
edition of his works in 6 vols.
CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at
Edinburgh on the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the
legal profession, he was sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an
attorney; but his tastes soon led him to abandon the study of
law and to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1736 he
published the Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke
of Marlborough, and soon after contributed several important
articles to the Ancient Universal History. In 1742 and 1744
appeared the Lives of the British Admirals, in 4 vols., a popular
work which has been continued by other authors. Besides
contributing to the Biographia Britannica and Dodsley's Pre-
ceptor, he published a work on The Present State of Europe,
consisting of a series of papers which had appeared in the Museum.
He also wrote the histories of the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish,
French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend settlements in the East
Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal, Algarve, Navarre
and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the Modern
Universal History. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a
vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying
in it a descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar
Islands in the West Indies. By the king he was appointed agent
for the provinces of Georgia in 1 7 5 5 . His last and most elaborate
work, Political Survey of Britain, 2 vols. 4to, was published in
1744, and greatly increased the author's reputation. Campbell
died on the 28th of December 1775. He received the honorary
degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in 1745.
CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, Baron (1770-1861), lord
chancellor of England, the second son of the Rev. George Campbell,
D.D., was born on the 17th of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife,
where his father was for fifty years parish minister. For a few
years Campbell studied at the United College, St Andrews. In
1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn, and, after a
short connexion with the Morning Chronicle, was called to the
bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at nisi
prius (i.e. on jury trial) . Of these Reports he published altogether
four volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas
1807 to Hilary 181 6. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal
to criminal business, but in spite of his unceasing industry he
failed to attract much attention behind the bar; he had changed
his circuit from the home to the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly,
and it was not till 1827 that he obtained a silk gown and found
himself in that " front rank " who are permitted to have political
aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the borough of Stafford
in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in 1831. In the
House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive zeal
for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense,
but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however,
like that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by
the abolition of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of
new and striking principles.
Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries
Abolition Act 1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act
1833; ^e Real Property Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act
1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts 1841 ; and the Judgments
Act 1838. All these measures were important and were carefully
drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a biographical
notice. The second was called for by the preference which the
common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the
half-blood of the first . purchaser; the fourth conferred an
indefeasible title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term
shortened by Lord Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth
reduced the number of witnesses required by law to attest wills,
and removed the vexatious distinction which existed in this
respect between freeholds and copyholds; the last freed an
innocent debtor from imprisonment only before final judgment
(or on what was termed mesne process), but the principle stated
by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be imprisoned
was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in 1869. 1
In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land
Registration (q.v.), which formed the theme of his maiden speech
in parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His
most important appearance as member for Stafford was in defence
of Lord John Russell's first Reform Bill (183 1). In a temperate
and learned speech, based on Fox's declaration against constitu-
tion-mongering, he supported both the enfranchising and the
disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the cries of " cor-
poration robbery," " nabob representation," " opening for young
men of talent," &c. The following year (1832) found Campbell
solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he
represented till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general
and was returned by Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841. 2
His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that
of a moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church
and state, and opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot.
In parliament he continued to lend the most effective help to the
Liberal party. His speech in 1835 in support of the motion for
inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities with a view to their
partial appropriation for national purposes (for disestablishment
was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much terse argu-
ment, and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the
formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell
had a fierce encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which
followed the motion of T. Spring Rice(af terwards Lord Monteagle)
on the repair and maintenance of parochial churches and chapels.
The legal point in the dispute (which Campbell afterwards made
the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether the church-
wardens of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any means
of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or ecclesiastical
censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but on the
broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported
the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh
annuity-tax.
In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne in the action
(thought by some to be a political conspiracy 8 ) which the Hon.
G. C. Norton brought against the Whig premier for criminal
conversation with his wife. At this time also he exerted himself
for the reform of justice in the ecclesiastical courts, for the
uniformity of the law of marriage (which he held should be a
purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners charged with
felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of The Times news-
paper, which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the
duchess of Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly
remarkable for the confession — " I despair of any definition of
libel which shall exclude no publications which ought to be
suppressed, and include none which ought to be permitted."
His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced in the
1 Two of his later acts, allowing the defendant in an action for libel
to prove Veritas, and giving a right of action to the representatives of
persons killed through negligence, also deserve mention.
2 Greville in his Memoirs says that Campbell got this post on
condition that he should not expect the ordinary promotion to the
bench, a condition which, it if were so, he immediately violated by
claiming the vice-chancellorship on the death of Sir John Leach.
Pepys (Lord Cottenham) and Bickersteth (Lord Langdale) were both
promoted to the bench in preference to Campbell.
8 " There can be no doubt that old Wynton was at the bottom of
it all, and persuaded Lord Grant ley to urge it on for mere political
purposes."— Greville, iii. 351.
CAMPBELL, LORD
129
prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the
bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular
ground that " the vast bulk of the population believe that
morality depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be
raised among them that the ten commandments were given by
God from Mount Sinai, men would think they were at liberty to
steal, and women would consider themselves absolved from the
restraints of chastity." But his most distinguished effort at the
bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House of Commons in
the famous case of Stockdale v. Hansard, 1837, 7 C. and P. 731.
The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers,
a report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated
that an obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the
prisoners to read. Stockdale sued the Commons' publisher, and
was met by the plea of parliamentary privilege, to which, however,
the judges did not give effect, on the ground that they were
entitled to define the privileges of the Commons, and that publica-
tion of papers was not essential to the functions of parliament.
The matter was settled by an act of 1840.
In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John
Frost, one of the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town
of Newport, all of whom were found guilty of high treason. We
may also mention, as matter of historical interest, the case
before the high steward and the House of Lords which arose out
of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the earl of
Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was
clear that the "punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call
honour " was no excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment
of everybody, Lord Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of
felony because the full name of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett
Phipps Tuckett) was not legally proved. It is difficult to suppose
that such a blunder was not preconcerted. Campbell himself
made the extraordinary declaration that to engage in a duel
which could not be declined without infamy (i.e. social disgrace)
was " an act free from moral turpitude," although the law
properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne
administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable
chancellor of Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to
resign, and the Whig attorney-general, who had never practised
in equity, became chancellor of Ireland, and was raised to the
peerage with the title of Baron Campbell of St Andrews, in the
county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth Campbell, the eldest
daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the Campbells of
Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in
1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the
withdrawal of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post
of chancellor Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then
resigned it to his successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards) .
The circumstances of his appointment and the erroneous belief
that he was receiving a pension of £4000 per annum for his few
days' court work brought Campbell much unmerited obloquy. 1
It was during the period 1 841-1849, when he had no legal duty,
except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish
appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary
fame troubled Lord Campbell's leisure. 2
Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her
Lives of the Queens of England, and by Lord Brougham's Lives of
Eminent Statesmen, he at last produced, in 1849, The Lives of the
Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from
the earliest times till the reign of King George IV., 7 vols. 8vo.
The conception of this work is magnificent; its execution
wretched. Intended to evolve a history of jurisprudence from
the truthful portraits of England's greatest lawyers, it merely
exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning, without a
trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a spark of
that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and
spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present
1 See thereon J. B. Atlay, The Victorian Chancellors (1908), vol. ii.
p. 174.
2 In 1842 he published the Speeches of Lord Campbell at the Bar
and in the House of Commons, with an Address to the Irish Bar as
Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Edin., Black).
becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A
charming style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be
expected from a hard- worked barrister; but he must certainly
be held responsible for the frequent plagiarisms, the still more
frequent inaccuracies of detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes
on almost every page, the hasty insinuations against the memory
of the great departed who were to him as giants, and the petty
sneers which he condescends to print against his own contem-
poraries, with whom he was living from day to day on terms of
apparently sincere friendship.
These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke,
Eldon, Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed
out by the biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards. 1
And yet the book is an invaluable repertory of facts, and must
endure until it is superseded by something better. It was
followed by the Lives of the Chief Justices of England, from the
Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield, 8vo, 2 vols.,
a book of similar construction but inferior merit.
It must not be supposed that during this period the literary
lawyer was silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently.
The 3rd volume of the Protests of the Lords, edited by Thorold
Rogers (1875), contains no less than ten protests by Campbell,
entered in the years 1 842-1 845. He protests against Peel's
Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen Act 1843, as
conferring undue power on church courts; against the per-
petuation of diocesan courts for probate and administration;
against Lord Stanley's absurd bill providing compensation for
the destruction of fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and
against the Parliamentary Proceedings Bill, which proposed
that all bills, except money bills, having reached a certain stage
or having passed one House, should be continued to next session.
The last he opposed because the proper remedy lay in resolutions
and orders of the House. He protests in favour of Lord Mont-
eagle's motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn duties;
of Lord Normanby's motion on the queen's speech in 1843, for-
inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military
occupation) ; of Lord Radnor's bill to define the constitutional
powers of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened
Mazzini's letters. In 1844 he records a solitary protest against
the judgment of the House of Lords in R, v. M tilts } 1844,
10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed that a man regularly
married according to the rites of the Irish Presbyterian Church,
and afterwards regularly married to another woman by an
episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of
bigamy, because the English law required for the validity of a
marriage that it should be performed by an ordained priest.
On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was
appointed chief justice of the queen's bench. For this post he
was well fitted by his knowledge of common law, his habitual
attention to the pleadings in court and his power of clear state-
ment. On the other hand, at nisi prius and on the criminal
circuit, he was accused of frequently attempting unduly to
influence juries in their estimate of the credibility of evidence.
It is also certain that he liked to excite applause in the galleries
by some platitude about the " glorious Revolution " or the
" Protestant succession." He assisted in the reforms of special
pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with
Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of
Lords. But he had neither the generous temperament nor the
breadth of view which is required in the composition of even a
mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was made lord chancellor of
Great Britain, probably on the understanding that Bethell
should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House of
Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In
the same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier
an amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare's
legal acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural
x It was of this book that Sir Charles Wetherell said, referring to
its author, " and then there is my noble and biographical friend who
has added a new terror to death. See Misrepresentations in Camp-
bell's " Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham" corrected by St Leonards
(London, 1869).
V. 5
13°
CAMPBELL, J. F.— CAMPBELL, T.
process which runs through the book: " If Shakespeare was
really articled to a Stratford attorney, in all probability, during
the five years of his clerkship, he visited London several times
on his master's business, and he may then have been intro-
duced to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his country-
men connected with that theatre." The only positive piece of
evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash's " Epistle
to the Gentlemen of the Two Universities," prefixed to Greene's
Arcadia, 1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to
be Shakespeare) with having left the " trade of Noverint " and
busied himself with "whole Hamlets" and "handfuls of
tragical speeches." The knowledge of law shown in the plays
is very much what a universal observer must have picked up.
Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelli-
gent layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has
been well said of him in explanation of his success, that he lived
eighty years and preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had
a hard head, a splendid constitution, tireless industry, a generally
judicious temper. He was a learned, though not a scientific
lawyer, a faithful political adherent, thoroughly honest as a
judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there was nothing
admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did his
principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the
magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults
of others. His life was the triumph of steady determination
unaided by a single brilliant or attractive quality.
Authorities. — Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his Auto-
biography, Diary and Letters, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881);
E. Foss, The Judges of England ( 1 848-1864); W. H. Bennet, Select
Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter (1867);
E. Manson, Builders of our Law (ed. 1904) ; J. B. Atlay , The Victorian
Chancellors, vol. ii. (1908).
CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, of Islay (1822-1885), Gaelic
scholar, was born on the 29th of December 1822, heir to the
beautiful Isle of Islay, on the west coast of Argyllshire. Of this
inheritance he never became possessed, as the estate had to be
sold by his father, and he began life under greatly changed
conditions. Educated at Eton and at Edinburgh University,
he occupied at various times several minor government posts.
His leisure was largely employed in collecting, translating and
editing the folklore of the western Highlands, taken down from
the lips of the natives. The results of his investigations were
published in four volumes under the title Popular Tales of the
West Highlands (1 860-1 862), and form a most important con-
tribution to the subject, the necessary precursor to the subse-
quent Gaelic revival in Great Britain. Campbell was also
devoted to geology and other scientific pursuits, and he invented
the sunshine recorder, used in most of the British meteorological
stations. He died at Cannes on the 17th of February 1885.
CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD (1800-1872), Scottish divine,
son of the Rev. Donald Campbell, was born at Kilninver, Argyll-
shire, in 1800. Thanks to his father he was already a good
Latin scholar when he went to Glasgow University in 181 1.
Finishing his course in 181 7, he became a student at the Divinity
Hall, where he gained some reputation as a Hebraist. After
further training at Edinburgh he was licensed as preacher by the
presbytery of Lome in 182 1. In 1825 he was appointed to the
parish of Row on the Gareloch. About this time the doctrine
of Assurance of Faith powerfully influenced him. He began to
give so much prominence to the universality of the Atonement
that his parishioners went so far as to petition the presbytery in
1829. This petition was withdrawn, but a subsequent appeal
in March 1830 led to a presbyterial visitation followed by an
accusation of heresy. The General Assembly by which the charge
was ultimately considered found Campbell guilty of teaching
heretical doctrines and deprived him of his living. Declining an
invitation to join Edward Irving in the Catholic Apostolic
Church, he worked for two years as an evangelist in the High-
lands. Returning to Glasgow in 1843, he was minister for
sixteen years in a large chapel erected for him, but he never
attempted to found a sect. In 1856 he published his famous
book on The Nature of the Atonement, which has profoundly
influenced all writing on the subject since his time. His aim is to
view the Atonement in the light of the Incarnation. The divine
mind in Christ is the mind of perfect sonship towards God
and perfect brotherhood towards men. By the light of this
divine fact the Incarnation is seen to develop itself naturally
and necessarily as an atonement; the penal element in the
sufferings of Christ is minimized. Subsequent critics have
pointed out that Campbell's position was not self-consistent in
the place assigned to the penal and expiatory element in the
sufferings of Christ, nor adequate in its recognition of the principle
that the obedience of Christ perfectly affirms all righteousness
and so satisfies the holiness of God. In 1859 his health gave way,
and he advised his congregation to join the Barony church,
where Norman McLeod was pastor. In 1862 he published
Thoughts on Revelation. In 1868 he received the degree of D.D.
from Glasgow University. In 1870 he removed to Roseneath, and
there began his Reminiscences and Reflections, an unfinished
work published after his death by his son. Campbell was greatly
loved and esteemed by a circle of friends, which included Thomas
Erskine, Norman McLeod, Bishop Alexander Ewing, F. D.
Maurice, D. J. Vaughan, and he lived to be recognized and
honoured as a man whose opinion on theological subjects carried
great weight In 187 1 a testimonial and address were presented
to him by representatives of most of the religious bodies in
Scotland. He died on the 27th of February 1872, and was
buried in Roseneath churchyard. (D. Mn.)
CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1008), British classical scholar,
was born at Edinburgh on the 3rd of September 1830. His
father, Robert Campbell, R.N., was a first cousin of Thomas
Campbell, the poet. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy,
and Glasgow and Oxford universities. He was fellow and tutor
of Queen's College, Oxford (1855-1858), vicar of Milford, Hants
(1858-1863), and professor of Greek and Gifford lecturer at the
university of St Andrews (1863-1894). In 1894 he was elected
an honorary fellow of Balliol. As a scholar he is best known by
his work on Sophocles and Plato. His published works include:
Sophocles (2nd ed., 1879); Plato, Sophistes and Politicus (1867),
Theaetetus (2nd ed., 1883), Republic (with Jowett, 1894); Life
and Letters of Benjamin Jowett (with E. Abbott, 1897), Letters of
B. Jowett (1899); Life of James Clerk Maxwell (with W. Garnett,
new ed., 1884); A Guide to Greek Tragedy for English Readers
(1891) ; Religion in Greek Literature (1898) ; On the Nationalisation
of the Old English Universities (1901); Verse translations of the
plays of Aeschylus (1800); Sophocles (1896); Tragic Drama in
Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare (1004); Paralipomena
Sophoclea (1907). He died on the 25th of October 1908.
CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867- ), British Congre-
gationalist divine, son of a United Free Methodist minister of
Scottish descent, was born in London, and educated at schools in
Bolton and Nottingham, where his father successively removed,
and in Belfast, the home of his grandfather. At an early age he
taught in the high school at Ashton, Cheshire, and was already
married when in 189 1 he went to Christchurch, Oxford, where
he graduated in 1895 in the honours school of modern history.
He had gone to Oxford with the intention of becoming a clergy-
man in the Church of England, but in spite of the influence of
Bishop Gore, then head of the Pusey House, and of Dean Paget
(afterwards bishop of Oxford), his Scottish and Irish Noncon-
formist blood was too strong, and he abandoned the idea in order
to take up work in the Congregational ministry. He accepted a
call, on leaving Oxford, to the small Congregational church in
Union Street, Brighton, and quickly became famous there as a
preacher, so much so that on Joseph Parker's death he was chosen
as his successor (1003) at the City Temple, London. Here he
notably enhanced his popularity as a preacher, and became one
of the recognized leaders of Nonconformist opinion. At the end
of 1906 he attracted widespread attention by his vigorous
propagation of what was called the " New Theology," a restate-
ment of Christian beliefs to harmonize with modern critical
views and beliefs, and published a book with this title which
gave rise to considerable discussion.
CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844), Scottish poet, eighth son
of Alexander Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of
CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN
131
July 1777. Hisfather, who was a cadet of the family of Campbell
of Kirnan, Argyllshire, belonged to a Glasgow firm trading in
Virginia, and lost his money in consequence of the American
war. Campbell was educated at the grammar school and
university of his native town. He won prizes for classics and for
verse-writing, and the vacations he spent as a tutor in the
western Highlands. His poem " Glenara " and the ballad of
" Lord Ullin's Daughter " owe their origin to a visit to Mull. In
May 1 7Q7 he went to Edinburgh to attend lectures on law. He
supported himself by private teaching and by writing, towards
which he was helped by Dr Robert Anderson, the editor of the
British Poets. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were
Sir Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Dr Thomas
Brown, John Leyden and James Grahame. To these early
days in Edinburgh may be referred " The Wounded Hussar,"
" The Dirge of Wallace " and the " Epistle to Three Ladies."
In 1799, six months after the publication of the Lyrical Ballads
of Wordsworth and Coleridge, The Pleasures of Hope was pub-
lished. It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his
time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to
men's hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland
and with negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but
Campbell was deficient in energy and perseverance and did not
follow it up. He went abroad in June 1800 without any very
definite aim, visited Klopstock at Hamburg, and made his way to
Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days after his
arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his
best lyrics, " Hohenlinden," "Ye Mariners of England" and
" The Soldier's Dream," belong to his German tour. He spent
the winter in Altona, where he met an Irish exile, Anthony
McCann, whose history suggested "The Exile of Erin." 1 He
had at that time the intention of writing an epic on Edinburgh to
be entitled " The Queen of the North." On the outbreak of war
between Denmark and England he hurried home, the " Battle of
the Baltic " being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was
introduced to the first Lord Minto, who took him in the next
year to London as occasional secretary. In June 1803 appeared
a new edition of the Pleasures of Hope, to which some lyrics were
added.
In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair,
and settled in London. He was well received in Whig society,
especially at Holland House. His prospects, however, were
slight when in 1805 he received a government pension of £200.
In that year the Campbells removed to Sydenham. Campbell
was at this time regularly employed on the Star newspaper, for
which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he published a
narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza," Gertrude of Wyoming,"
with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow and
fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from over-
elaboration. Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: " Your
timidity or fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will
not let you give your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful,
as they present themselves; but you must chasten, and refine,
and soften them, forsooth, till half their nature and grandeur is
chiselled away from them. Believe me, the world will never
know how truly you are a great and original poet till you venture
to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your fancy." In
181 2 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at the
Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to
become a candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh
University. In 1 814 he went to Paris, making there the acquaint-
ance of the elder Schlegel, of Baron Cuvier and others. His
pecuniary anxieties were relieved in 181 5 by a legacy of £4000.
He continued to occupy himself with his Specimens of the British
Poets, the design of which had been projected years before. The
work was published in 1819. It contains on the whole an
admirable selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed
to it an essay on poetry containing much valuable criticism. In
1820 he accepted the editorship of the New Monthly Magazine,
1 The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned
to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell's claim is established in Literary
Remains of the United Irishmen, by R. R. Madden (1887).
and in the same year made another tour in Germany. Four
years later appeared his " Theodric," a not very successful poem
of domestic life. He took an active share in the foundation of
the university of London, visiting Berlin to inquire into the
German system of education, and making recommendations
which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected lord
rector of Glasgow University three times (1 826-1 829). In the
last election he had Sir Walter Scott for a rival. Campbell
retired from the editorship of the New Monthly Magazine in 1830,
and a year later made an unsuccessful venture with the Metro-
politan Magazine. He had championed the cause of the Poles
in The Pleasures of Hope, and the news of the capture of Warsaw
by the Russians in 183 1 affected him as if it had been the deepest
of personal calamities. " Poland preys on my heart night and
day," he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy found a
practical expression in the foundation in London of the Associa-
tion of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and
Algiers, where he wrote his Letters from the South (printed 1837).
The small production of Campbell may be partly explained
by his domestic calamities. His wife died in 1828. Of his two
sons, one died in infancy and the other became insane. His own
health suffered, and he gradually withdrew from public life.
He died at Boulogne on the 15th of June 1844, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey.
Campbell's other works include a Life of Mrs Siddons (1842), and
a narrative poem, " The Pilgrim of Glencoe " (1842). See The Life
and Letters of Thomas Campbell (3 vols., 1849), edited by William
Beattie, M.D. ; Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Camp-
bell ( 1 860) , by Cyrus Redding ; The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell
(1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev.
W. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet's life by William Allingham ;
and the " Oxford Edition " of the Complete Works of Thomas Campbell
(1908}, edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also Thomas Campbell in
the Famous Scots Series, by J. C. Hadden, and a selection by
Lewis Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series.
CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY (1836-1908), English
prime minister, was born on the 7 th of September 1836, being the
second son of Sir James Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfar-
shire, lord provost of Glasgow. His elder brother James, who
just outlived him, was Conservative M.P. for Glasgow and
Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1006. Both his father and
his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an
important drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable
fortunes; and he assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in
compliance with the provisions of the will of his maternal uncle,
Henry Bannerman, from whom he inherited a large property in
Kent. He was educated at Glasgow University and at Trinity
College, Cambridge (senior optime, and classical honours) ; was
returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal in 1868 (after an
unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became financial
secretary at the war office (1 871-1874; 1 880-1 882), secretary
to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland
(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause
of Home Rule for Ireland, he " found salvation," to use his own
phrase, and followed his leader. In Mr Gladstone's 1886 ministry
he was secretary for war, and filled the same office in the Liberal
ministry of 1 892-1895. In the latter year he was knighted
(G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister to obtain the duke
of Cambridge's resignation of the office of commander-in-chief;
but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff in substitution
for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the ministry.
It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and
therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of
small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June
1895 led to the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy,
popular and possessed of a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T.
Healy had said that he tried to govern Ireland with Scottish
jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the general respect of all
parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel retired, his
claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but
his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active
politics and Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent
member of the inner Liberal circle and a stanch party man, it
was not supposed by the public at this time that any ambition
132
CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN
for the highest place could be associated with Sir Henry Campbell-
Bannerman; but the divisions among the Liberals, and the
rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made
the political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he
was apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined
with his honourable record and experience to make him a safe
man; and in December 1898, on Sir W. Harcourt's formal
resignation of the leadership of the Opposition, he was elected
to nil the position in the House of Commons with the general
assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary impotence,
and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir
Henry had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently inter-
preted his duty as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the
Radical party together in the midst of its pronounced differences.
In this he was successful, although the advent of the Boer War
of 1 899-1902 created new difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists.
The leader of the Opposition from the first denounced the
diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and Mr Chamberlain,
and objected to all armed intervention or even preparation for
hostilities. Sir Henry's own tendency to favour the anti-war
section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and
his allusion to " methods of barbarism " in connexion with the
conduct of the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the
crisis within the party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists,
who looked to Lord Rosebery (q.v.) and Mr Asquith (q.v.) for
their political inspiration, showed pronounced signs of restiveness.
But a party meeting was called on the 9th of July, and Sir Henry
was unanimously confirmed in the leadership.
The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency
throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The
political conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the
first time since 1892. The blunders of the government were open
to a united attack, andMr Chamberlain's tariff-reform movement
in 1903 provided a new rallying point in defence of the existing
fiscal system. In the Liberal campaign on behalf of free trade
the real leader, however, was Mr Asquith. Sir Henry's own
principal contribution to the discussion was rather unfortunate,
for while insisting on the blessings derived by England from its
free- trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical admission
(at Bolton in 1903) that " 12,000,000 British citizens were under-
fed and on the verge of hunger." But Lord Salisbury's retire-
ment, Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the
accumulating opposition in the country to the Education Act of
1902 and to the continued weight of taxation, together with the
growth of the Labour movement, and the antagonism to the
introduction of Chinese coolies (1904) into South Africa under
conditions represented by Radical spokesmen as those of
" slavery," made the political pendulum swing back. A Liberal
majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at
by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only
a question of time (see the articles on Balfour, A. J., and
Chamberlain, J.). On the 4th of December 1905 the Unionist
government resigned, and the king sent for Sir Henry Campbell-
Bannerman, who in a few days formed his cabinet. Lord
Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to
co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd
of November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately
flouted his well-known susceptibilities by once more writing
Home Rule in large letters on the party programme, and he
declared at Bodmin that he would " never serve under that
banner." Sir Henry's actual words, which undoubtedly influenced
the Irish vote, were that he " desired to see the effective manage-
ment of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative Irish
assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered
to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise
the Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led
up to their larger policy." But if Lord Rosebery once more
separated himself from the official Liberals, his principal hench-
men in the Liberal League were included in the cabinet, Mr
Asquith becoming chancellor of the exchequer, Sir Edward Grey
foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war minister. Other sections
of the party were strongly represented by Mr John Morley as
secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at
Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R. T. Reid (Lord
Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education
minister (afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as
president of the Board of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home
secretary, and Mr John Burns — a notable rise for a Labour
leader — as president of the Local Government Board. Lord
Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin
(colonial secretary) , Lord Carrington (agriculture) , Lord Aberdeen
(lord lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the
duchy of Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general),
Mr L. V. Harcourt (first commissioner of works), and Captain
John Sinclair (secretary for Scotland) completed the ministry,
a place of prominence outside the cabinet being found for Mr
Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the colonies. In 1907
Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as education
minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there
was a decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to
keep his seat in the Commons.
At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming
Liberal majority was returned, irrespective of the Labour and
Nationalist vote, and Sir Henry himself was again elected for
Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379, the Labour members 51,
the Nationalists 83 , and the Unionists only 157. His premiership
was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his party; it
may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime
ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather
than that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or
his commanding personality, nor any positive programme, that
brought the Liberals back to power, but the country's weariness
of their predecessors and the successful employment at the
elections of a number of miscellaneous issues. But as the man
who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the gap in the days
of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously criticized by
the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly marked
out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance;
and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the
demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all
sections. Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved
to be a powerful unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous
party; and though the illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his
wife (daughter of General Sir Charles Bruce) ,whom he had married
in i860, made his constant attendance in the House of Commons
impossible, his domestic sorrow excited widespread sympathy
and appealed afresh to the affection of his political followers.
This became all the more apparent as his own health failed during
1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the leadership
in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the
premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November,
when it became clear that his health was not equal to active work,
four or five months elapsed before the necessary change became a
fait accompli. Personal affection and political devotion had in
these two years made him appear indispensable to the party,
although nobody ever regarded him as in the front line of English
statesmen so far as originality of ideas or brilliance of debating
power were concerned. It is not the fortune of many more
brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character. From
the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that
Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would
before long succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of
April Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's resignation was formally
announced. He died on the 22nd of the same month. He had
spoken in the House of Commons on the 13th of February, but
since then had been prostrated and unable to transact business,
his illness dating really from a serious heart attack in the night
of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the Colston
banquet.
From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman's premiership was chiefly marked by the
continued controversies remaining from the general election of
1906, — tariff reform and free trade, the South African question
CAMPBELTOWN
133
and the allied Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the
administration of Ireland, and the amendment of the Education
Act of 1902 so as to remove its supposed denominational character.
In his speech at the Albert Hall on the 21st of December 1905 it
was noticeable that, before the elections, the prime minister laid
stress on only one subject which could be regarded as part of a
constructive programme — the necessity of doing something for
canals, which was soon shelved to a royal commission. But in
spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill (1007), the struggles
over education (Mr Birrell's bill of 1906 being dropped on account
of the Lords' amendments), the rejection by the peers of the
Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1006), and the failure (again due
to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill a,nd Valuation
Bill (1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be
a period of bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reform-
ing measures of some moment were carried. A new Small
Holdings Act (1907) for England was passed; the Trades
Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades unions from
the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr Lloyd-
George's Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906)
were welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own
policy; a long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the
Deceased Wife's Sister Act (1907) ; and acts for establishing a
public trustee, a court of criminal appeal, a system of probation
for juvenile offenders, and a census of production, were passed in
1907. Meanwhile, though the Colonial Conference (re-named
Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a wide difference of
opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade government
and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the ministry
took a decided step — in the establishment of a self-governing
constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies — which,
for good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane's
new army scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain.
In foreign affairs, the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for
delimiting the British and Russian spheres of influence in the
Middle East laid the foundations of entirely new relations between
the British and Russian governments. On the other hand, so
far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal party, Sir
Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership can only be regarded
as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a
conciliator of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator,
ready to sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his
following, that he kept the party together, while his colleagues
went their own ways in their own departments. His own special
" leads " were few, owing to the personal reasons given above;
his declaration at the Queen's Hall, London, early in 1907, in
favour of drastic land reform, served only to encourage a number
of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the House of
Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education Bill
and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when
his method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons
was disclosed in 1907. The House passed by an enormous
majority a resolution (introduced on June 25) " that in order to
give effect to the will of the people, as expressed by their represent-
atives, it is necessary that the power of the other House to alter
or reject bills passed by this House should be so restricted by law
as to secure that within the limits of a single parliament the final
decision of the Commons shall prevail "; but the prime minister's
explanation that statutory provision should be made for two or
three successive private conferences between the two Houses as
to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that,
only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by
the Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form
it would become law over their heads, was obviously not what was
wanted by enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The
problem still remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a
" law " to restrict their own powers. After the passing of this
resolution the cry against the House of Lords rapidly weakened,
since it became clear at the by-elections (culminating at Peckham
in March 1908) that the " will of the people " was by no means
unanimously on the side of the bill*, which had failed to pass.
The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the
confidence of the Opposition, who found that they had outlived
the criticisms of the general election, and both on the question
of tariff reform and on matters of general politics were again
holding their own. The failure of the government in Ireland
(where the only success was Mr BirrelTs introduction of the
Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal divisions as regards
socialistic legislation, their variance from the views of the self-
governing colonies on Imperial administration, the admission
after the general election that the alleged " slavery " of the
Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill's phrase,
a " terminological inexactitude," and the introduction of extreme
measures such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent
opportunities of electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal
promises of economy had been largely falsified, the reductions
in the navy estimates being dangerous in themselves, while the
income tax still remained at practically the war level. For
much of all this the prime minister's colleagues were primarily
responsible; but he himself had given a lead to the anti-militarist
section by prominently advocating international disarmament,
and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague
conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical
ideal and the general inadequacy of the prime minister's policy
of pacificism. Sir Henry's rather petulant intolerance of Unionist
opposition, shown at the opening of the 1906 session in his
dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour with the words " Enough
of this foolery!" gradually gave way before the signs of Unionist
reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment when
the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive
under their obligations, government policy stood in need of con-
centration against an Opposition no longer divided and making
marked headway in the country, and the ministry had to
be reconstituted under a successor, Mr Asquith, towards
whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal devotion as
had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
leadership. (H. Ch.)
CAMPBELTOWN, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and
seaport of Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is
situated on a fine bay, towards the S.E. extremity of the
peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of the Mull and 83 m.
S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad
monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined
when the capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial
of its antiquity has survived, but the finely sculptured granite
cross standing on a pedestal in the market-place belongs to the
1 2 th century, and there are ruins of some venerable chapels and
churches. Through the interest of the Campbells, who are still
the overlords and from whom it takes its name, it became a
royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr
Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the
churches (one of which occupies the site of a castle of the
Macdonalds), the town house, the Academy and the Athenaeum.
The staple industry is whisky distilling, of which the annual
output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than half for export. The
port is the head of a fishery district and does a thriving trade.
Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen manufacturing
are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity. There are
three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called
Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth.
At its entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar.
On the Atlantic shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish,
5 m. distant. Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown
by a light railway. Near the village of Southend is Machrireoch,
the duke of Argyll's shooting-lodge, an old structure modernized,
commanding superb views of the Firth of Clyde and its islands,
and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood the castle of
Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the Campbells
in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647
General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the
Macdonalds to be slain after their surrender. Of the ancient
church founded here by Columba, only the walls remain.
Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray, Irvine and Oban in
sending one member (for the " Ayr Burghs ") to parliament.
*34
CAMPE— CAMPER
CAMPB, JOACHIM HEINRICH (i 746-181 8), German educa-
tionist, was born at Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied
theology at the university of Halle, and after acting for some
time as chaplain at Potsdam, he accepted a post as director of
studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau (see Basedow). He
soon after set up an educational establishment of his own at
Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one
of his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble
health. In 1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of
education, and purchased the Schulbuchhandlung, which under
his direction became a most prosperous business. He died in
181 8. His numerous educational works were widely used
throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the
Kleine Kinderbibliothek (nth ed., 181 5); Robinson der Jilngere
(59th ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every
European language; and SUmmUiche Kinder- undJugendschriften,
37 vols.
CAMPECHB (Campeachy), a southern state of Mexico, com-
prising the western part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded
N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by Guatemala, S.W.^by Tabasco and
N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico designated on English
maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264; (1000)
86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 S Q- m -
The name of the state is derived from its principal forest product,
Palo de campeche (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan,
consists of a vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations
in the north, heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts
in the north adapted to grazing. The northern part is insuf-
ficiently watered, the rains filtering quickly through the soil.
In the south, however, there are some large rivers, and the
forest region is very humid. The climate is hot and unhealthy.
In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de T6rminos,
a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the
southern districts. Among the products and exports are log-
wood, fustic, lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoise-
shell and chicle, the last extracted from the zapote chico trees
(Achras sapota, L.). Stock-raising engages some attention.
One railway crosses the state from the capital, Campeche, to
Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means of transportation
except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen (pop. in
1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de T6rminos
and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest
products, and owing to its inland water communications with
the forest areas of the interior is the principal port of the state
and of Tabasco.
CAMPECHE, or Campeche de Baranda, a fortified city and
port of Mexico, and capital of a state of the same name, situated
on the Bay of Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and
90 m. S.W. of Merida, in lat. 20 5' N., long. oo° 16' W.
Pop. (1000) 17,109. Campeche was one of the three open ports
of this coast under the Spanish regime, and its walls, general
plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and comfortable stone
residences are evidence of the wealth it once possessed. It is
still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf coast of Mexico.
It had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed large
profits from its logwood exports, both of which have been largely
lost. It was formerly the principal port for the state and for a
part of Yucatan, but the port of Carmen at the entrance to
Laguna de T6rminos is now the chief shipping port for logwood
and other forest products, and a considerable part of the trade
of Campeche has been transferred to Progreso, the port of
Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow roadstead defended
by three forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf 160 ft. long,
but vessels drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie outside
and discharge cargo into lighters. The exports include logwood,
cotton, hides, wax, tobacco, salt and cigars of local manufacture.
The principal public buildings are the old citadel, some old
churches, the town hall, a handsome theatre, hospital and
market. The streets are traversed by tramways, and a railway
runs north-eastward to Merida. Campeche stands on the site
of an old native town, of which there are interesting remains in
the vicinity, and which was first visited by Hernandez de
C6rdoba in 1517. The Spanish town was founded in 1540, and
was sacked by the British in 1659 and by buccaneers in 1678
and 1685. During the revolution of 1842 Campeche was the
scene of many engagements between the Mexicans and people
of Yucatan.
CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was
born at Milan of a noble Bolognese family. At first he followed
a legal career at Pavia and Bologna, and when in 1499 he took
his doctorate he was esteemed the most learned canonist in
Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de' Gualtavillani, by
whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro, born in
1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista,
became bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went
into the church; on account of his services during the rebellion
of Bologna, he was made by Julius II. auditor of the Rota in
1 51 1, and sent to Maximilian and to Vienna as nuncio. Raised
to the see of Feltre in 151 2, he went on another embassy to
Maximilian in 15 13, and was created cardinal priest of San
Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a
subsidy from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England
on the ostensible business of arranging a crusade against the
Turks. Wolsey, then engaged in beginning his reform of the
English church, procured that he himself should be joined to
the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who arrived in
England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position
and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio's
mission failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome,
where he was received in Consistory on the 28th of November
1 5 19, with the gift from the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano
Castellesi (q.v.), who had been deposed, and large gifts of money
and furniture. He was made protector of England in the
Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave him the rich see
of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of Bologna. After
attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity of
Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to
restore peace. On the 1st of October 1 528 he arrived in England
as co-legate with Wolsey in the matter of Henry's divorce. He
brought with him a secret document, the Decretal, which defined
the law and left the legates to decide the question of fact; but
this important letter was to be shown only to Henry and Wolsey.
" Owing to recent events," that is, the loss of the temporal power,
Clement was in no way inclined to offend the victorious Charles V.,
Catherine's nephew, and Campeggio had already received (16th
of September 1528) distinct instructions " not to proceed to
sentence under any pretext without express commission, but
protract the matter as long as possible." After using all means
of persuasion to restore peace between the king and queen,
Campeggio had to resist the pressure brought upon him to give
sentence. The legatine court opened at Blackfriars on the 18th
of June 1529, but the final result was certain. Campeggio could
not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his only
escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea
of the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he
left England on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had
been searched at Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had
been burnt. Returning to Bologna, the cardinal assisted at
the coronation of Charles V. on the 24th of February 1530, and
went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was deprived by
Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was
finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the
see of Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament
(nth of March 1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish
dominions made ample amends. In 1537 he became cardinal
bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on the 25th of July 1539.
His tomb is in the ch urch of S. Maria in Trastevere. (E. Tn.)
CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and natural-
ist, was born at Leiden on the nth of May 1722. He was
educated at the university there, and in 1746 graduated in
philosophy and medicine. After the death of his father in 1748
he spent more than a year in England, and then visited Paris,
Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he
had been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine
CAMPHAUSEN— CAMPHORS
135
and surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in
1755 he was called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the
Athenaeum in Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six
years, and retired to his country house near Franeker, in order
uninterruptedly to carry on his studied. In 1763, however, he
accepted the professorship of medicine, surgery and anatomy at
Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten years. He then
returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in 1776
spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned
as one of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Fries-
land, and the latter years of his life were much occupied with
political affairs. In 1787 he was nominated to a seat in the
council of state, and took up his residence at the Hague, where
he died on the 7th of April 1789.
Camper's works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very
numerous; the most important of those bearing on comparative
anatomy were published m 3 vols, at Paris in 1803, under the title
CEuvres de P. Camper qui ont pour objet Vhistoire naturelle, la
fhysiologie, et Vanatomie comparer. His Dissertation physique sur
les differences reelles que prisentent les traits du visage chez Us hommes
de dtjf&rents pays et de differents Ages; sur le beau qui caracUrise
les statues antiques et les pieces gravies, Sec, which was published in
1 78 1 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial
angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also Anatomy.)
CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON (1812-1896), Prussian statesman,
was born at Hiinshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of
October 181 2. Having studied jurisprudence and political
economy at the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg, Munich and
Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne, and immediately
devoted his attention to financial and commercial questions.
Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this
capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor
in the ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of
the second chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate
Liberal party. In 1869 he was appointed minister of finance.
On taking office, he was confronted with a deficit in the revenue,
which he successfully cleared off by effecting a conversion of a
greater part of the state loans. The French war indemnity
enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the state debt
and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm
adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either
of the Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism
to the tobacco monopoly and the general economic policy of
the latter brought about his retirement. Camphausen's great
services to Prussia were recognized by his sovereign in the
bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a dignity
carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the
18th of May 1896.
CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM (1818-1885), German painter,
was born at Dusseldorf, and studied under A. Rethel and F. W.
von Schadow. As an historical and battle painter he rapidly
became popular, and in 1859 was made professor of painting
at the Dusseldorf academy, together with other later distinctions.
His " Flight of Tilly " (1841), " Prince Eugene at the Battle of
Belgrade " (1843 ; in the Cologne museum), " Flight of Charles II.
after the Battle of Worcester " (Berlin National Gallery),
" Cromwell's Cavalry " (Munich Pinakothek), are his principal
earlier pictures; and his " Frederick the Great at Potsdam,"
" Frederick II. and the Bayreuth Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg,"
and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein campaign and the war of
1866 (notably " Lines of Duppel after the Battle," at the Berlin
National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as a representa-
tive of patriotic historical art. He also painted many portraits
of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He
died at Dusseldorf on the 16th of June 1885.
CAMPHORS, organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and
ketones of the hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring
associated with volatile oils in many plants. They are extracted
together with volatile oils by distilling certain plants with steam,
the volatile oils being subsequently separated by fractional
distillation. The term " camphor " is generally applied to the
solid products so obtained, and hence includes the " stear-
optenes," or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are mostly
white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they
are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol
and ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two
main groups, according to the nature of the corresponding
hydrocarbon or terpene. In this article only the camphors of
commercial importance will be treated; details as to the chemical
structure, syntheses and relations will be found in the article
Terpenes.
Menthol, mentka or peppermint camphor, Ci H w OH, 5-methyi-
2-isopropyl hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs
in the volatile oils of Mentha piperita and M. arvensis (var.
piper ascens and glabrata), from which it is obtained by cooling
and subsequently pressing the separated crystals; or by frac-
tional distillation. It crystallizes in prisms, having the odour
and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42 and boils at 212 . It is
very slightly soluble in water, but readily dissolves in alcohol
and ether. It is optically active, being laevo-rotatory. Menthol
is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in rheumatism, neuralgia,
throat affections and toothache. It acts also as a local anaes-
thetic, vascular stimulant and disinfectant.
Thymol, thyme camphor, C W H 1S 0H, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl
phenol, an oxycymene, occurs in die volatile oil of Ajowan,
Carum ajowan, garden thyme, Thymus vulgaris, wild thyme,
T. Serpyllum and horse mint, Monarda punctata. Thymol
crystallizes in large colourless plates which melt at 44 and boil
at 230 . It has the odour of thyme, is sparingly soluble in water,
but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in alkaline solutions. In
medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more active than
phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol, which
has been introduced in surgery under the names aristol and
annidalin, as a substitute for iodoform.
Borneol, Borneo camphor or camphol, also known as Malayan,
Bams or Dryobalanops camphor, Q0H17OH, occurs in fissures in
the wood of Dryobalanops aromatica, a majestic tree flourishing
in the East Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo
and inactive modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic
camphor. Borneol melts at 203 and boils at 212 . It is very
similar to common or Japan camphor, but has a somewhat
peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce common camphor
to a mixture of d- and /-borneol.
Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor, QoH w O, which
constitutes the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product
of the camphor laurel, Cinnamonum camphor a, a tree flourishing
in Japan, Formosa and central China. It also occurs in various
volatile oils, e.g. lavender, rosemary, sage and spike. To ex-
tract the camphor, chips of the tree are steamed, and the mixed
vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are conducted to a
condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates out.
This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20 % of the total,
which is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distilla-
tion and cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained
is exported from Japan in two grades — Samuel A and Samuel B.
It is purified by mixing with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings
or quicklime and subliming, by steam distillation or by crystalliza-
tion. Common camphor forms a translucent mass of hexagonal
prisms, melting at 175 and boiling at 204 . It sublimes very
readily. In alcoholic solution it is dextro-rotatory; the laevo
form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil of Matricaria parthe-
nium and closely resembles the d form. Camphor is chiefly used
in the celluloid industry. The so-called " artificial camphor "
is pinene hydrochloride (see Terpenes).
Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant,
and, in some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite
antiseptic. It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the
relief of myalgia, sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloro-
form, thymol or carbolic acid, it is a valuable local application
for neuralgia and for toothache due to dental caries. Taken
internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a diaphoretic and a
feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as various
substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg).
In large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration
being followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform con-
vulsions, coma and death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and
136
CAMPHUYSEN— CAMPION, E.
in such conditions as diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is
a popular remedy for " cold in the head," but it is not to be
relied upon as a prophylactic against infection either by an
ordinary cold or true influenza.
CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ (1586-162 7), Dutch
painter, poet and theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum.
As he manifested great artistic talent, his brother, in whose
charge he was left on the death of his parents, placed him under
the painter Govaerts. But at that time there was intense
interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the prevailing
enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a private
tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(i6i6).
As, however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with
fervour, he was deprived of this post and driven into exile (161 9).
His chief solace was poetry; and he has left a translation of the
Psalms, and a number of short pieces, remarkable for their fresh-
ness and depth of poetic feeling. He is also the author of several
theological works of fair merit, among which is a Compendium
Doctrinae Sociniorum\ but his fame chiefly rests on his pictures,
which, like his poems, are mostly small, but of great beauty; the
colouring, though thin, is pure; the composition and pencilling
are exquisite, and the perspective above criticism. The best of
his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and his views of
the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent at
Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1 598) is by some considered
to have been the author of several of the works ascribed to him;
and his son Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul
Potter, is similarly credited.
CAMPI, GIULIO (1500-1572), the founder of a school of
Italian painters, was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter,
Galeazzo Campi (147 5-1 536), under whom he took his first
lessons in art. He was then taught by Giulio Romano; and
he made a special study of Titian, Correggio and Raphael. His
works are remarkable for their correctness, vigour and loftiness
of style. They are very numerous, and the church of St Margaret
in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among the
earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the
latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as
historian of Cremona.
GiuhVs pupil, Bernardino Campi (1522-1592), in some
respects superior to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After
an education under Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained
such skill that when he added another to the eleven Caesars of
Titian, it was impossible to say which was the master's and
which the imitator's. He was also much influenced by Correggio
and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the frescoes of the
cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.
CAMPILLO, JOSfi DEL (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was
of very obscure origin. From his own account of his youth,
written to Antonio de Mier in 1726, we only know that he was
born in " a house equally poor and honest," that he studied
Latin by his own wish, that he entered the service of Don
Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of C6rdoba, who wished
apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take
orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 17 13, being then
eighteen years of age. In 171 5 he became " page " to D. Fran-
cisco de Ocio, superintendent general of customs, who doubtless
employed him as a clerk. In 1 717 he attracted the favourable
notice of Patiiio, the head of the newly-organized navy, and was
by him transferred to the naval department. Under the pro-
tection of Patino, who became prime minister in 1726, Campillo
was constantly employed on naval administrative work both at
home and in America. It was Patifio's policy to build up a navy
quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much
attention abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo
proved an industrious and honest subordinate. Part of his
experience was to be present at a shipwreck in Central America
in which he was credited with showing spirit and practical
ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1 7 26 he was denounced
to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden books.
The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the
incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the
Holy Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence
in damping all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741,
when Spain was entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war
with England, that Campillo was summoned by the king to take
the place of prime minister. He had to find the means of carrying
on a policy out of all proportion to the resources of Spain, with
an empty treasury. His short tenure of power was chiefly
notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the system of
farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of contractors
and financiers. Campillo's predecessors were constantly com-
pelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the
demands of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A
whole year's revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo
persuaded the king to allow him to establish a system of direct
collection, by which waste and pilfering would be avoided.
Some progress was made towards putting the national finances
on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent the king
from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money
needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the nth of
April 1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a New
System of Government for America printed at Madrid 1789. He
also left a MS. treatise with the curious title, What is superfluous
and is wanting in Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to be,
and not what it is.
See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, Patino y Campillo (Madrid, 1882).
CAMPINAS, an inland city of the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil,
65 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Sao Paulo and 114 m. from the
port of Santos, with which it is connected by the Paulista & Sao
Paulo railway. Pop. (1890) of the city and municipality,
33,921. Campinas is the commercial centre of one of the oldest
coffee-producing districts of the state and the outlet for a rich
and extensive agricultural region lying farther inland. The
Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to
Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-
west into new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple
production, though Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are pro-
duced largely for local consumption. The city is built in a bowl-
like depression of the great central plateau, and the drainage
from the surrounding hillsides has produced a dangerously
insanitary condition, from which one or two virulent fever
epidemics have resulted.
CAMPING OUT. The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life,
and living in tents, touring in vans, boatSjpicc, has been elabor-
ately developed in modern times, and a considerable literature
has been devoted to it, to which the curious may be referred.
See, for Europe, A. A. Macdonell's Camping-out (1892) and Voyages
on German Rivers (1890); G. R. Lowndes, Gipsy Tents (1890).
For Australia and Africa, W. B. Lord, Shifts and Expedients of
Camp Life (1871); the articles by F. J. Jackson in the Big Game
Shooting volume of the "Badminton Library"; the articles on
11 Camping out " in The Encyclopaedia of Sport; F. C. Selous, A
Hunters Wanderings in Africa (1881), and Travel and Adventure in
South
(189
W. W. Pascoe, Canoe and Camp Cookery (1893); Woodcraft, by
"Nessmuk" (1895); W. S. Rainsford, Camping and Hunting in
the Shoshone (1806); S. E. White, The Forest (1903), and The
Mountains (1904) ; Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camp-
ing (1904), published hy " The Appalachian Mountain Club,"
Boston. Valuable information will be found in the sporting
periodicals, and in the catalogues of outfitters and dealers in sporting
goods.
CAMPION, EDMUND (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in
London, received his early education at Christ's Hospital, and, as
the best of the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make
the complimentary speech when Queen Mary visited the city on
the 3rd of August 1553. He went to Oxford and became fellow
of St John's College in 1557, taking the oath of supremacy on the
occasion of his degree in 1564, in which year he was orator in the
schools. He had already shown his talents as a speaker at the
funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas White,
the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration
fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen
Elizabeth to the university, and won a regard, which the queen
CAMPION, T.
137
preserved until the end. Religious difficulties now began to bese t
him; but at the persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of
Gloucester, although holding Catholic doctrines, he took deacon's
orders in the English Church. Inwardly " he took a remorse of
conscience and detestation of mind." .Rumours of his opinions
began to spread and, giving up the office of proctor, he left Oxford
in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a proposed restoration
of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry followed
him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three
months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying
himself by writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holin-
shed's Chronicles), a superficial work of no real value. At last he
escaped to Douai, where he joined William Allen (q.v.) and was
reconciled to the Roman Church. After being ordained sub-
deacon, he went to Rome and became a Jesuit in 1573, spending
some years at Brtinn, Vienna and Prague. In 1580 the Jesuit
mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert
Parsons (q.v.) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance
Campion's fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in
the characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London
on the 24th of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His
presence became known to the authorities and an indiscreet
declaration, " Campion Brag/' made the position more difficult.
The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth he led a hunted
life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in Berkshire, Oxford-
shire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. Dining this time he
was writing his Decern Rationes, a rhetorical display of reasons
against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private
press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the
benches of St Mary's, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27 th
of June 1 58 1. The sensation was immense, and the pursuit
became keener. On his way to Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in
Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th of July and the follow-
ing day, yielding to the foolish importunity of some pious women.
Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London, bearing on
his hat a paper with the inscription, " Campion, the Seditious
Jesuit." CommilttQto the Tower, he was examined in the
presence of Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to
be really queen of IMgfand, and on his replying straightly in the
affirmative, she made him offers, not only of life but of wealth and
dignities, on conditions which his conscience could not allow. He
was kept a long tifHe in prison, twice racked by order of the
council, and every^^B&rt was made to shake his constancy.
Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a forged
confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four
public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and
although still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for
preparation, he bore himself so easily and readily that he won the
admiration of most of the audience. Racked again on the 31st
of October, he was indicted at Westminster that he with others
had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise a sedition in the realm
and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November he was
brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply
to him said: " If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to
be condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects
as ever the queen had." He received the sentence of the traitor's
death with the Te Deum laudamus, and, after spending his last
days in pious exercises, was led with two companions to Tyburn
(1st of December 1581) and suffered the barbarous penalty. Of
all the Jesuit missionaries who suffered for their allegiance to the
ancient religion, Campion stands the highest. His life and his
aspirations were pure, his zeal true and his loyalty unquestionable.
He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.
An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson's
Edmund Campion (1867) ; and a complete list of his works in
De Backer's Bibliotheque de la compagnie de JSsus. (E. Tn.)
CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620), English poet and musician,
was born in London on the 12th of February 1 567, and christened
at St Andrew's, Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of
the Middle Temple, who was by profession one of the cursitors of
the chancery court, the clerks " of course," whose duties were to
draft the various writs and legal instruments in correct form. His
mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of Laurence Searle, one of the
queen's serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of Campion's father
in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died herself
soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the
orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his
stepson by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to
Peterhouse, Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied
at Cambridge for four years, and left the university, it would
appear, without a degree, but strongly imbued with those tastes
for classical literature which exercised such powerful influence
upon his subsequent work. In April 1587 he was admitted to
Gray's Inn, possibly with the intention of adopting a legal
profession, but he had little sympathy with legal studies and does
not appear to have been called to the bar. His subsequent
movements are not certain, but in 159 1 he appears to have taken
part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance
of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears
with the degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records
does not permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The
rest of his life was probably spent in London, where he practised
as a physician until his death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving
behind him, it would appear, neither wife nor issue. He was
buried the same day at St Dunstan's-in-the-West, Fleet Street.
The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being
a group of five anonymous poems included in the Songs of Divers
Noblemen and Gentlemen, appended to Newman's surreptitious
edition of Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, which appeared in 1591.
In 1595 appeared under his own name the" Poemata, a collection
of Latin panegyrics, elegies and epigrams, which evince much
skill in handling, and won him considerable reputation. This was
followed in 1601 by A Booke of Ayres, one of the song-books so
fashionable in his day, the music of which was contributed in equal
proportions by himself and Philip Rosseter, while the words were
almost certainly all written by him. The following year he
published his Observations in the Art of English Poesie, " against
the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming," in favour of rhyme-
less verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry. Its
appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of
the crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped
champions, but the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by
Daniel, who in his Defence of Ryme, published the same year,
finally demolished the movement.
In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of
the marriage of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of
Songs of Mourning (set to music by Coperario or John Cooper)
for the loss of Prince Henry, which was sincerely lamented by the
whole English nation. The same year he wrote and arranged
three masques, the Lords 9 Masque for the marriage, of Princess
Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of Queen Anne
at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl of
Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex.
If, moreover, as appears quite likely, his Two Bookes of Ayres
(both words and music written by himself) belongs also to this
year, it was indeed his annus mirabilis.
Some time in or after 161 7 appeared his Third and Fourth
Booke of Ayres; while to that year probably also belongs his
New Way of making Foure Parts in Counter-point, a technical
treatise which was for many years the standard text-book on
the subject. It was included, with annotations by Christopher
Sympson, in Playfair's Brief Introduction to the Skill of Musick y
and two editions appear to have been bought up by 1660. In
1 618 appeared The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham
Castle on the occasion of the king's entertainment there, the
music by Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost
certainly by Campion; and in 1619 he published his Epigram-
malum Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber unus, a reprint of his
1 S9S collection with considerable omissions, additions (in the
form of another book of epigrams) and corrections.
While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in
his own day, in the years that followed his death his works sank
into complete oblivion. No doubt this was due to the nature
of the media in which he mainly worked, the masque and the
v. 5 a
i3«
CAMPISTRON-
song-book. The nrcsque was an amusement at any time too
costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was practically
extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more
ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan
ascendancy, with its distaste for all secular music, effectively
put an end to the madrigal. Its loss involved that of many
hundreds of dainty lyrics, including those of Campion, and it
is due to the enthusiastic efforts of Mr A. H. Bullen, who first
published a collection of the poet's works in 1889, that his genius
has been recognized and his place among the foremost rank of
Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him.
Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to
him " the superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies," but we
may thank the fates that his precepts of rhymeless versification
so little affected his practice. His rhymeless experiments are
certainly better conceived than many others, but they lack the
spontaneous grace and freshness of his other poetry, while the
whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must have possessed
a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is unmusical;
moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave
rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic
features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they
frequently shift from line to line. His range was very great both
in feeling and expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate
epithalamium or a simple country ditty, the result is always full
of unstudied freshness and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred
pieces he is particularly successful, combining real poetry with
genuine religious fervour.
Bibliography. — Works, &c, ed. A. H. Bullen (1889) excluding
A New Way, &c. ; Songs and Masques, ed. A. H. Bullen (1903), with
an introduction on Campion's music by Janet Dodge; Poems, &c.
Sin English), ed. P. Vivian (1907) ; Complete Works, ed. P. Vivian
Clarendon Press, 1008). The " Observations in the Art of English
'oesie " are also published in Haslewood's Ancient Critical Essays
and Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Critical Essays, vol. ii. (1903).
(P. VN.)
CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE (1656-1723), French
dramatist, was born at Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the
age of seventeen he was wounded in a duel and sent to Paris.
Here he became an ardent disciple of Racine. If he copied his
master's methods of construction with some success, in the
execution of his plans he never advanced beyond mediocrity,
nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of Athalie
and Phedre. He secured the patronage of the influential duchesse
de Bouillon by dedicating Arminius to her, and in 1685 he scored
his first success with Andronic, which disguised under other
names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France.
The piece made a great sensation, but Campistron's treatment
is weak, and he failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent
in his subject. Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, due de
Vend6me, to write the book of an opera to be performed at a
fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He handed on the com-
mission to Campistron, who produced Acis et Galathie for Lulli's
music. Campistron had another success in Tiridate (1691), in
which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story
of Amnon's passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other
tragedies and two comedies, one of which, Le Jaloux disabuse",
has been considered by some judges to be his best work. In
1686 he had been made intendant to the due de Vend6me and
followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him on all his
campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man
under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual.
Many honours were conferred on him. The king of Spain
bestowed on him the order of St James of the Sword; the duke
of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in Montferrat; and
in 1 701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty years
of service with Vend6me he retired to his native place, where
he died on the nth of May 1723.
CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE (1817-1901),
Spanish poet, was born at Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of
September 181 7. Abandoning his first intention of entering the
Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid, found an opening in
politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and, after occupying
-CAMPOBASSO
several subordinate posts, became governor of Castell6n de la
Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies
grew more pronounced with time, and his PoUmicas can la
Democracia (1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of
his political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from
1840, when he published his Ternezas y flares, a collection of
idyllic verses, remarkable for their technical excellence. His
Ayes del Alma (1842) and his Fdbulas morales y politicas (1842)
sustained his reputation, but showed no perceptible increase of
power or skill. An epic poem in sixteen cantos, Colon (1853), is
no more successful than modern epics usually are. Campoamor's
theatrical pieces, such as El Palacio de la Verdad (1871), Dies
Irae (1873), El Honor (1874) and Glorias Humanas (1885), are
interesting experiments; but they are totally lacking in dramatic
spirit He always showed a keen interest in metaphysical and
philosophic questions, and defined bis position in La Filosofia
de las leyes (1846), El Personalismo (1855), Lo Absoluto (1865)
and El Ideismo (1883). These studies are chiefly valuable as
embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to
the composition of those doloras, humoradas and pequeHos
poemas, which the poet's admirers consider as a new poetic
species. The first collection of Dolor as was printed in 1846, and
from that date onwards new specimens were added to each
succeeding edition. It is difficult to define a dolor a. One critic
has described it as a didactic, symbolic stanza which combines
the lightness and grace of the epigram, the melancholy of the
endecha, the concise narrative of the ballad, and the philosophic
intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared that a
dolora is a dramatic humor ada, and that a peque&o poema is a
dolora on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory.
The humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form
to which Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes
no further. It cannot be denied that in the Doloras Campoamor's
special gifts of irony, grace and pathos find their best expression.
Taking a commonplace theme, he presents in four, eight or twelve
lines a perfect miniature of condensed emotion. By his choice
of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal facility and copiousness
which have led many Spanish poets to destruction. It pleased
him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this affectation has been
reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the impression of
insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using mysticism
as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of
the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching
morality by satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism
of a genial, epicurean nature. His influence has not been alto-
gether for good. His formula is too easily mastered, and to his
example is due a plague of doloras and humoradas by poetasters
who have caricatured their model. Campoamor, as he himself
said, did not practise art for art's sake; he used art as the
medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are poor. He died
at Madrid on the 12 th of February 1001. Of late years a deep
silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge
him with the impartiality of another generation. The over-
whelming bulk of his work will perish; we may even say that
it is already dead. His pretensions, or the pretensions put
forward in his name, that he discovered a new poetic genre will
be rejected later, as they are rejected now by all competent
judges. The title of a philosophic poet will be denied to him.
But he will certainly survive, at least in extract, as a distinguished
humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and sententious aphorism,
an artist of extremely finished execution. (J. F.-K.)
CAMPOBASSO, a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the
province of Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated
2132 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town 11,273; commune
14,491. The town itself contains no buildings of antiquarian
interest, but it has some fine modern edifices. Its chief industry
is the manufacture of arms and cutlery. Above the town are
the picturesque ruins of a castle of the 15th century. The date
of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The town, with
the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of counts
until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in considera-
tion of a payment of 108,000 ducats.
CAMPODEA— CAMUCCINI
x 39
CAMPODEA* a small whitish wingless insect with long (IwiHk
antennae and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-
known species (Campodea staphylinus) has a wide distribution
and is equally at home in the warm valleys of south Europe,
in the subarctic conditions of mountain tops, in caves and in
woods and gardens in England. It lives in damp places under
stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves. Although
blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into
the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with
its antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling
that of a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or
thysanurous insects of the order Aptera (q.v.).
CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, Conde de (1723-1802),
Spanish statesman and writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de
Sorribia, in Asturias, on the istof July 1723. From 1788 to 1793
he was president of the council of Castile; but on the accession
of Charles IV. he was removed from his office, and retired from
public life, regretted by the true friends of his country. His first
literary work was Antiquidad marUima de la republica de
Cartago, with an appendix containing a translation of the Voyage
of Hanno the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared
in a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admir-
able essays, Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular,
1774, and Discurso sobre la education popular de los artesanos
y su fomento, 1775. As a supplement to the last, he published
four appendices, each considerably larger than the original essay.
The first contains reflections on the origin of the decay of arts and
manufactures in Spain during the last century. The second
points out the steps necessary for improving or re-establishing
the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection of royal
ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts
and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials.
The third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with
the results of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances
of towns. The fourth contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez
de Mata on national commerce, with some observations adapted
to present circumstances. These were all printed at Madrid in
1774 and 1 7 7 7 , in five volumes. Count Campomanes died on the
3rd of February 1802.
Don A. Rodriguez Vtlfet has placed a biographical notice of Campo-
manes as an introduction to the first edition of his Cartas politico-
economical, published in 1878.
CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE (1831-1000), Spanish
marshal, senator and knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at
Segovia on the 14th of December 1831. He graduated as a
lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was attached to the staff
college as an assistant professor. He took part in the Morocco
campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen
actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a
professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under
Prim. In 1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to
the rank of general in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the
Federal Republican government in 1873 confided to General
Campos several high commands, in which he again distinguished
himself against the Cantonal Republicans and the Carlists.
About that time he began to conspire with a view to restore the
son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his
designs, Marshal Serrano,in 1874, appointed him to the command
of a division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of
May of that year, and in the operations around Estella in June.
On both occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the
other commanders to proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected
to hold aloof, and would have been arrested, had not the minister
of war, Ceballos, answered for his good behaviour, and quartered
him in Avila under surveillance. He managed to escape, and
after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at Sagunto on the
29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII. king
of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great
influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as
a sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso,
and later by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important
political crisis, and on every international or colonial question,
especially when othei .generals or the army itself became trouble-
some. He took an important part in the military operations
against the Carlists, and in the negotiations with their leaders,
which put an end to the civil war in 1876. In the same way he
brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878. On his return
from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet for a
few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever
afterwards treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In
1 88 1, with other discontented generals, he assisted Sagas ta in
obtaining office. After the death of King Alphonso, Campos
steadily supported the regency of Queen Christina, and held high
commands, though declining to take office. In 1893 he was
selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla, and went to
the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of peace,
which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed
a serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of
Canovas to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as
well as in his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he
was not allowed to give them local self-government, as he wished.
Subsequently he remained aloof from politics, and only spoke
in the senate to defend his Cuban administration and on army
questions. After the war with America, and the loss of the
colonies in 1899, when Sefior Silvela formed a new Conservative
party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency of
the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this post
up to the time of his death. This took place in the summer
recess of 1000 at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa,
where he was buried.
CAMPOS, an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
on the Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m.
N.E. of the city of Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1800) of the city,
22,518; of the municipality, 78,036. The river is navigable for
small steamers above and below the city, but is closed to v coast-
wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at its mouth. The
shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahe*), 60 m. south-
west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water
communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes
united by canals. Campos has indirect railway communication
with Rio de Janeiro by way of Macah6, and is the starting point
for several small independent lines. The elevation of the city is
only 69 ft. above sea level, and it stands near the western margin
of a highly fertile alluvial plain devoted to the production of
sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and many kinds of tropical
fruit are produced in abundance.
CAMPULUNG (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung),
the capital of the department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat
of a suffragan bishop; situated among the outlying hills of the
Carpathian Mountains, at the head of a long well-wooded glen
traversed by the river Tlrgului, a tributary of the Argesh. Pop.
(1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine scenery render C&mpulung
a popular summer resort. In the town are more than twenty
churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both claim
to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first
prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for
several paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July
and the 24th of October; and there is a considerable traffic with
Transylvania, over the Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the
south by a branch railway to Ploesci. Near C&mpulung are the
remains of a Roman camp; and, just beyond the gates, vestiges
of a Roman colony, variously identified with Romula, Stepenium
and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi.
CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO (1773-1844), Italian historical
painter, was born at Rome. He was educated by his brother
Pietro, a picture-restorer, and Boru belli, an engraver, and, up to
the age of thirty, attempted nothing higher than copies of the
great masters, his especial study being Raphael. As an original
painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the French artist
David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness and
patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was
essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both
personally, and as an artist, and received many honours and
140
CAMULODUN
preferments from the papal and other Italian courts. He was
appointed director of the Academy of San Luca and of the
Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of the pictures
of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all the
orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief
works are the classical paintings of the " Assassination of Caesar/'
the " Death of Virginia," the " Devotion of the Roman Women,"
" Young Romulus and Remus," " Horatius Codes," the " St
Thomas," which was copied in mosaic for St Peter's, the " Pre-
sentation of Christ in the Temple " and a number of excellent
portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection of
pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including
Raphael's " Madonna with the Pink ") being bought by the duke
of Northumberland.
CAMULODUNUM, also written CamalodCnum (mod. Col-
chester, q.v.), a British and Roman town. It was the capital of
the British chief Cunobelin and is named on his coins: after his
death and the Roman conquest of south Britain, the Romans
established (about a.d. 48) a colonic or municipality peopled
with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve both as an
informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It was
stormed and burnt a.d. 61 in the rising of Boadicea (q.v.), but
soon recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman
Britain. Its walls and some other buildings still stand and
abundant Roman remains enrich the local museum. The name
denotes " the fortress of Camulos," the Celtic Mars.
CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON (1740-1804), French revolu-
tionist, was a successful advocate before the Revolution. In
1789 he was elected by the third estate of Paris to the states
general, and attracted attention by his speeches against social
inequalities. Elected to the National Convention by the depart-
ment of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee of
general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged
with the surveillance of General C. F. Dumouriez. Delivered
with his colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he
was exchanged for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November
1795. He played an inconspicuous role in the council of the Five
Hundred. On the 14th of August 1789 the Constituent Assembly
made Camus its archivist, and in that capacity he organized the
national archives, classified the papers of the different assemblies
of the Revolution and drew up analytical tables of the proces-
verbaux. He was restored to the office in 1796 and became
absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican,
refusing to take part in the Napoleonic r6gime.
CAMUS, CHARLES 6TIENNE LOUIS (1690-1768), French
mathematician and mechanician, was born at Crecy-en-Brie,
near Meaux, on the 25th of August 1699. He studied mathe-
matics, civil and military architecture, and astronomy, and
became associate of the Academie des Sciences, professor of
geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and fellow
of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied
Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the
expedition to Lapland for the measurement of a degree of the
meridian. He died on the 2nd of February 1768. He was the
author of a Cours de mathtmatiques (Paris, 1766), and a number
of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects (see goggen-
dorff, Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch).
CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES (1672-1732), French
mechanician, was born near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September
1672. After studying for the church, he devoted himself to
mechanical inventions, a number of which he described in his
Traiil des forces tnouvanles pour la pratique des arts el m&iers,
Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732.
CAMUS DE MfiZI&RES, NICOLAS LE (1721-1789), French
architect, was born at Paris on the 26th of March 17 21, and died
at the same city on the 27th of July 1789. He published several
works on architectural and related subjects.
CANA, of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the
home of Nathanael, and the scene of Christ's " beginning of
miracles " (John ii. 1-11, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it
is evident from the biblical narrative that it was in the neighbour-
hood of, and higher than, Capernaum. Opinion as to identifica-
UM— CANAAN
tion is fairly divided between Kefr Kenna and Kana-el-JeliL
The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth, contains a
ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter
is an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no
remains but a few cisterns.
CANAAN, CANAANITES. These geographical and ethnic
terms have a shifting reference, which doubtless arises out of the
migrations of the tribes to which the term " Canaanites "
belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems to be applied to a
population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in Josh. xi. 3,
Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii. 12) not only to these, but to a
people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 1 1 it seems to be used
of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is
disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively
to the population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-
Israelitish inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the
writer called the Yahwist (J); see e.g. Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18;
Ex. xv. 15; Num. xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg.iii. 1; Ps. cvi. 3$,
and elsewhere. It was also, as Augustine tells us, 1 a usage of the
Phoenicians to call their land " Canaan." This is confirmed by
coins of the city of Laodicea by the Lebanon, which bear the
legend, " Of Laodicea, a metropolis in Canaan "; these coins are
datedunder Antiochus IV. (i75-i64B.c.),andhissuccessors, Greek
writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest, viz. that the original
name of Phoenicia was xw, i.e. Kena, a short, collateral form of
Kena'an or Kan'an The form Kan'an is favoured by the Egyptian
usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or Arabian
nomads, from the fortress of Taru (ShOr?) to " the Ka-n-'-na,"
and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in " the
Ka-n-'-na." By this geographical name is probably meant all
western Syria and Palestine with Raphia — " the (first) city of the
Ka-n-'-na " — for the south-west boundary towards the desert*
In the letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their
Egyptian overlord '—commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna
tablets — we find the two forms Kinahl?i and Kinafrna, corres-
ponding to Kena' and Kena'an respectively, and standing, as
Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its widest extent.
On the name " Canaan " Winckler remarks, 4 " There is at
present no prospect of an etymological explanation." From the
fact that Egyptian (though not Hebrew) scribes constantly
prefix the article, we may suppose that it originally meant
" the country of the Canaanites," just as the Hebrew phrase
" the Lebanon " may originally have meant " the highlands of
the Libnites "; and we are thus permitted to group the term
" Canaan " with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan,
Anak (generally with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor
are scholars more unanimous with regard to the region where the
terms " Canaanite " and " Canaan " arose. It may be true that
the term Kinal^hi in the Amarna letters corresponds to Syria and
Palestine in their entirety. But this does not prove that the
terms " Canaanite " and " Canaan " arose in that region, for
they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let
us refer at this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps
hardly estimated at its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples
in Gen. x. Here we find " Canaan " included among the four
sons of Sam. If Cush in v. 6 really means Ethiopia, and M-s-r-i-m
Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if IJam is really a Hebraized
form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t (black), 6 the
passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has recently been
suggested, 6 Cush, M-s-r-i-m, and Put are in north Arabia, and
gam is the short for Yarfeam or Yeratme'el (see 1 Chr. ii. 25-27,
42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all
becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an
Arabian name. Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning
1 Enarratio in Psalm civ.
2 W. M. MQller, Asien und Eurojba, p. 205.
8 The letters are written in the official and diplomatic language-
Babylonian, though " Canaanitish " words and idioms are not
wanting.
4 Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, p. 181.
• These explanations are endorsed by Driver (Genesis t on Gen. x.).
• See the relevant articles in Ency. Bib. and Cheyne's Genesis
and Exodus.
CANAAN
141
from about 4000 B.C. 1 a wave of Semitic migration poured out of
Arabia, and flooded Babylonia certainly, and possibly, more or
less, Syria and Palestine also. Also that between 2800 and 2600
B.C. a second wave from Arabia took the same course, covering
not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and probably
also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet with
the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213),
the first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the
first part of his name is identical with the name of the father of
Canaan in Genesis (9am or Kham), indicating his Arabian
origin. 1 It was he, too, who restored the ancient supremacy of
Babylonia over Syria and Palestine, and so prevented the
Babylonizing of these countries from coming to an abrupt end.
We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors
arrived in the second Semitic migration, came to call their land
" Canaan." They had in fact the best right to do so. The first of
the Canaanite immigrants were driven seawards by the masses
which followed them. They settled in Phoenicia, and in after
times became so great in commerce that " Canaanite " became a
common Hebrew term for " merchant " (e.g. Isa. xxiii. 8). It is
a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their
inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and re-
ligious phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and
belonged properly to the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia. 8
For their own traditions as to their origin see Phoenicia; we
cannot venture to reject these altogether. The masses of immi-
grants which followed them may have borne the name of
Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be given.
Both within and without Palestine the name was famous.
First, as regards the Old Testament. We find " the Amorite "
(a collective term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x.
1 6-1 8a) among other tribal names, the exact original reference of
which had probably been forgotten. No one in fact would
gather from this and parallel passages how important a part was
played by the Amorites in the early history of Palestine. In
Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we find them
located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi. 13,
21 f., Josh.ii.10, ix.10, xxiv.8, i2,&c. we hear of two great Amorite
kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the
east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in
Gen. xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh.xxiv.15, Judg. i.34, Am.ii.9, 10, &c,
where the name of Amorite is synonymous with " Canaanite,"
except that " Amorite " is never used for the population on the
coast. Next, as to the extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian
inscriptions and in the Amarna tablets Amar and Amurru have a
more limited meaning, being applied to the mountain-region
east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later on, Amurru
became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as
north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term " the
land of gatti " (conventionally = Hittites) displaced " Amurru "
so far as north Palestine is concerned (see Hittites).
Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first
stage of the second great Arabian migration. In the interval
preceding the second stage Syria with Palestine became an
Egyptian dependency, though the links with the sovereign
power were not so strong as to prevent frequent local rebellions.
Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of a strong
hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the
Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not
quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs
began to seek their opportunities, though as a rule they did not
find them because they could not obtain the help of a neighbour-
ing king. 4 The boldest of the disaffected was Aziru, son of Abd-
1 For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, Gesch. Isr. i. 127 f. ;
Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Palestine (1002), pp. 6-8, 25-28.
* It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name
differently (5 R. 44 a b 21}, kimta rapashtum, " wide family." That,
however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaan-
ism or Arabism.
* See Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G. A.
Cooke, N. Sent. Inscriptions (e.g. pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar's in-
scription) .
4 See Amarna Letters, Winckler's edition, No. 7.
ashirta, a prince of Amurru, who even before the death of Amen-
hotep III. endeavoured to extend his power into the plain of
Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or Hamath),
reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the
attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused
infinite trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor
of Gubla (Gebal).
It was, first, the advance of the Batti (Hittites) into Syria,
which began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more
threatening in that of his successor, and next, the resumption of
the second Arabian migration, which most seriously undermined
the Egyptian power in Asia. Of the former we cannot speak
here (see Hittites), except so far as to remark the Abd- Ashirta
and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the gatti, was after-
wards clever enough to make a treaty with their king, and, with
other external powers, to attack the districts which remained
loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals
for aid to the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in
his religious innovations to attend to such messages. What most
interestsus is the mention of troublesomeinvaderscalled sometimes
sa-gas (a Babylonian ideogram meaning " robber "), sometimes
Sabiri. Who are these JJabiri? Not, as was at first thought by
some, specially the Israelites, but all those tribes of land-hungry
nomads (" Hebrews ") who were attracted by the wealth and
luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it for
themselves. Among these we may include not only die Israelites
or tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites,
Ammonites and Edomites. We meet with the Sabiri in north
Syria. Itakkama writes thus to the Pharaoh, 5 "Behold,
Namyawaza has surrendered all the cities of the king, my lord,
to the Sa-gas in the land of Kadesh and in Ubi. But I will go,
and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the
cities to the king, my lord, from the tjabiri, to show myself
subject to him; and I will expel the Sa-gas." Similarly Zimrida,
king of Sidon, declares, " All my cities which the king has given
into my hand, have come into the hand of the Babiri." 6 . Nor
had Palestine any immunity from the Arabian invaders. The
king of Jerusalem, Abd-Qiba, the second part of whose name has
been thought to represent the Hebrew Yahweh, 7 reports thus to
the Pharaoh, " If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and
princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not,
these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my lord. 8
Abd-Qiba's chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and
the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treason-
able league with the Babiri. Apparently this restless warrior
found his death at the siege of Gina. 9 All these princes, however,
malign each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest
their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for
instance, whom Itakkama (see above) accuses of disloyalty,
writes thus to the Pharaoh, " Behold, I and my warriors and my
chariots, together with my brethren and my Sa-gas, and my Suti 10
are at the disposal of the(royal) troops, to go whithersoever the king,
my lord, commands." u This petty prince, therefore, sees no harm
in having a band of Arabians for his garrison, as indeed Hezekiah
long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against Sennacherib.
From the same period we have recently derived fresh and
important evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as
the material gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified
and critically examined, a true history of early Palestine will be
within measurable distance. At present, there are five places
whence the new evidence has been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy,
generally identified with the Lachish of the Old Testament.
Excavations were made here in 1 890-1 892 by Flinders Petrie
and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of 1 Kings
ix. 16. Here R. A. S. Macalister began excavating in 1902.
3. Tell-es-Safy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m.f rom
Eleutheropolis. Here F. J. Bliss and R. A. S. Macalister made
5 Op. cit. No. 146. 6 Op. cit. No. 147.
7 Johns, Assyrian Deeds, iii. p. 16.
8 Amarna Letters, No. 180 (xi. 20-24).
• Ibid. No. 164 (xi. i«$- 1 8). l0 Nomads of the Syrian desert.
11 Amarna Letters, No. 144 (xi. 24-32).
142
CANACHUS— CANADA
some discoveries in 1890-1900. A complete examination of the
site, however, was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near
LejjQn (Megiddo-Legio). Schumacher began working here in
1903 for the German Palestine Society. 5. Taannek, on the
south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst Sellin of
Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1002-1904). It may
be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform
tablet belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer,
a deed of sale; at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian
stele, three seals, and three cylinders with Babylonian mytho-
logical representations; at Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a
Babylonian legend, and at Taannek, twelve tablets and frag-
ments of tablets were found near the fragments of the terra-
cotta box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact
that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used
Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence.
But much beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive
sanctuaries, for instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths
at Gezer is described in detaii in P.E.F. Quart, Statement,
January 1003, p. 23, and July 1903, p. 219. There is reason,
as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the result of a gradual
development, beginning with two small pillars, and gradually
enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at Tell-e§-
§afy. The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved
to be of great antiquity; Sellings discoveries at Taannek and those
of Bliss at Tell-es-Safy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars
have also been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx.
25, 26, and numerous jars with the skeletons of infants. We
cannot doubt that the sacrificing of children was practised on a
large scale among the Canaanites. Their chief deity was Ashtart
(Astarte) , the goddess of fertility. Numerous images of her have
been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of the divine
form vary in the different places. The other images which have
been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however,
infer that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish
Pantheon. What the images do prove is the large amount of
intercourse between Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of
Egyptians in the subject country.
See the TeU~el~Amarna Letters, ed. by Winckler, with translation
(1896) ; the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements
from 1903 onwards; Sellin's report of excavations at Tell Ta'annek;
also H. W. Hogg, " Recent Assyriology," &c, in Inaugural Lectures
ed. by Prof. A. S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical
questions, see Dillmann's commentaries and the Bible dictionaries.
See further articles Palestine; Jews. (T. K. C.)
CANACHUS, a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part
of the 6th century B.C. He was especially noted as the author
of two great statues of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple
at Miletus, and one in cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins
of Miletus furnish us with copies of the former and show the god
to have held a stag in one hand and a bow in the other. The
rigidity of these works naturally impressed later critics.
CANADA* The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern
half of the continent of North America and its adjacent islands,
excepting Alaska, which belongs to the United States, and
Newfoundland, still a separate colony of the British empire.
Its boundary on the south is the parallel of latitude 40°, between
the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the- Woods, then a chain of small
lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon river on the
north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with
their connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From
this eastward to the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial
line nearly corresponding to lat. 45 ; then an irregular line
partly determined by watersheds and rivers divides Canada
from Maine, coming out on the Bay of Fundy. The western
boundary is the Pacific on the south, an irregular line a few miles
inland from the coast along the " pan handle " of Alaska to
Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141 to the Arctic Ocean.
A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the
Atlantic on the east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belong-
ing to Newfoundland.
Physical Geography. — In spite of these restrictions of its
natural coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada
is admirably provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf
of St Lawrence with its much indented shores and the coast of
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick supply endless harbours, the
northern ones closed by ice in the winter, but the southern ones
open all the year round; and on the Pacific British Columbia
is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with well-sheltered
harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken
shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of
sheltered navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of
Newfoundland to Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British
Columbian coast, are of great advantage for the coasting trade.
The greatly varied Arctic coast line of Canada with its large
islands, inlets and channels is too much clogged with ice to be of
much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a mediterranean sea 850 m.
long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with its outlet Hudson
Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and whalers,
and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada,
though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of
the nine provinces of Canada only two have no coast line on salt
water, the western prairie provinces of Alberta and Saskatche-
wan; but Manitoba and Ontario have a seaboard only on
Hudson Bay and its southern extension James Bay respectively,
and there is no probability that the shallow harbours of the
latter bay will ever be of much importance for shipping, though
Churchill Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become
an important grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water
navigation is, however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great
Lakes.
The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple,
and drawn on a large scale, more than half of its surface sloping
gently inwards towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with
higher margins to the south-east and south-west. In the main
it is a broad trough, wider towards the north than towards the
south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay occupying much of its
north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains rise gradually
to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern member
of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America.
The physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with
its geology that at least an outline of the geological factors
involved in its history is necessary to understand the present
physiography. The mountain structures originated in three
great orogenic periods, the earliest in the Archean, the second at
the end of the Palaeozoic and the third at the end of the Mesozoic.
The Archean mountain chains, which enclosed the atokgy.
present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that
they had already been worn down almost to a plain before the
early Palaeozoic sediments were laid down. This ruling geological
and physical feature of the North American continent has been
named by E. Suess the " Canadian Shield." Round it the
Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from its own waste,
were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places still
almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east
of this " pro taxis," or nucleus of the continent, were pushed
against its edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of moun-
tains, which, however, extends only a short distance into Canada.
The Mesozoic sediments were almost entirely laid down to the
west and south-west of the protaxis, upon the flat-lying Palaeo-
zoic rocks, and in the prairie region they are still almost hori-
zontal; but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up into the
series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast region.
The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest,
and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights
deserving the name of mountains. Owing to this unsymmetric
development of North America the main structural watershed
is towards its western side, on the south coinciding with the
Rocky Mountains proper, but to the northward falling back to
ranges situated further west in the same mountain region. The
great central area of Canada is drained towards Hudson Bay,
but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, tjbe Mackenzie
flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence
north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and
the other to the south-east of the Archean protaxis. While
GEOGRAPHY!
CANADA
*43
these ancient events shaped the topography in a broad way, its
final development was comparatively recent, during the glacial
period, when the loose materials were scoured from some regions
and spread out as boulder clay, or piled up as moraines in others;
and the original water-ways were blocked in many places. The
retreat of the ice left Canada much in its present condition
except for certain post-glacial changes of level which seem to be
still in progress. For this reason the region has a very youthful
topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as evidence
that the rivers have not long been at work. The uneven carving
down of the older mountain systems, especially that of the
Archean protaxis, and the disorderly scattering of glacial material
provide most of the lake basins so characteristic of Canada.
Lakes and Rivers.— As a result of the geological causes just
mentioned many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes
of all sizes and shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles
long and a thousand feet deep to ponds lost to sight in the forest.
Thousands of these lakes have been mapped more or less carefully,
and every new survey brings to light small lakes hitherto un-
known to the white man. For numbers they can be compared
only with those of Finland and Scandinavia in Europe, and for
size with those of eastern Africa; but for the great extent of
lake-filled country there is no comparison. From the map it
will be noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes
occur within five hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay,
and belong to the Archean protaxis or project beyond its edges
into the Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks which lean against it.
The most famous of the lakes are those of the St Lawrence
system, which form part of the southern boundary of Canada
and are shared with the United States; but many others have
the right to be called " Great Lakes " from their magnitude.
There are nine others which have a length of more than ioo m.,
and thirty-five which are more than 50 m. long. Within the
Archean protaxis they are of the most varied shapes, since they
represent merely portions of the irregular surface inundated by
some morainic dam at the lowest point. Comparatively few
have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water, the great
majority running into long irregular bays and containing many
islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian
Bay and Lake-of-the- Woods. In the Cordilleran region on the
other hand the lakes are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections
of mountain valleys occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords
of the adjoining coast are valleys occupied by the sea. The lakes
of the different regions present the same features as the nearest
sea coasts but on a smaller scale. The majority of the lakes have
rocky shores and islands and great variety of depth, many of the
smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and are slowly
filling up with vegetable matter, ultimately becoming peat bogs,
the muskegs of the Indian. Most of Canada is so well watered
that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few
small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, e.g. the Quill and Old
Wives lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets. In
such cases the waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in
solution which are deposited as a white rim round the basin
towards the end of the summer when the amount of water has
been greatly reduced by evaporation. It is interesting to find
maritime plants, such as the samphire, growing on their shores
a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet
above it. In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over
at the lowest point from one basin into the next below, making
chains of lakes with no long or well-defined channels between,
since in so young a country there has not yet been time for the
rivers to have carved wide valleys. Thus canoe navigation may
be carried on for hundreds of miles, with here and there a water-
fall or a rapid requiring a portage of a few hundred yards or at
most a mile or two. The river systems are therefore in many
cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive
connecting links between the lakes receive different names. The
best example of this is the familiar one of the St Lawrence, which
may be said to begin as Nipigon river and to take the names St
Mary's, St Clair, Detroit and Niagara, before finally flowing
from Lake Ontario to the sea under its proper name. As these
lakes are great reservoirs and settling basins, the rivers which
empty them are unusually steady in level and contain beautifully
clear water. The St Lawrence varies only a few feet in the year
and always has pellucid bluish-green water, while the Mississippi,
whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of the Great
Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and low-water and is
loaded with mud. The St Lawrence is far the most important
Canadian river from the historic and economic points of view,
since it provided the main artery of exploration in early days, and
with its canals past rapids and between lakes still serves as a
great highway of trade between the interior of the continent and
the seaports of Montreal and Quebec It is probable that
politically Canada would have followed the course of the States
to the south but for the planting of a French colony with widely
extended trading posts along the easily ascended channel of the
St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was the
ultimate bond of union between Canada and the empire.
North of the divide between the St Lawrence system and
Hudson Bay there are many large rivers converging on that
inland sea, such as Whale river, Big river, East Main, Rupert
and Nottaway rivers coming in from Ungava and northern
Quebec; Moose and Albany rivers with important tributaries
from northern Ontario; and Severn, Nelson and Churchill
rivers from the south-west. All of these are rapid and shallow,
affording navigation only for canoes; but the largest of them,
Nelson river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, Winnipeg,
Winnipegosis and Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers,
and receive the waters of Lake-of-the- Woods, Lake Seul and
many others emptying into Winnipeg river from Ontario; of
Red river coming in from the United States to the south; and
of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western
prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river. The
parallel of 49° approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters
from the streams going south to the Missouri, though a few
small tributaries of the latter river begin on Canadian territory.
The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of
northern British Columbia are drained through the Athabasca
and Peace rivers, first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake,
then north through Slave river to Great Slave Lake, and finally
north-west through Mackenzie river to the Arctic Ocean. If
measured to the head of Peace river the Mackenzie has a length
of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than 1000 m. of
navigation for stern-wheel steamers. Unfortunately, like other
northward-flowing rivers, it does not lead down to a frequented
sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern fur-trading
posts. The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known delta in
lat. 69 , and in its flood season the head-waters pour down their
torrents before the thick ice of the lower part with its severer
climate has yet given way, piling up the ice in great barriers and
giving rise to widespread floods along the lower reaches. Similar
floodinglakes place in several other important northward-flowing
rivers in Canada, the St Lawrence at Montreal affording the
best-known instance. Second among the great north-western
rivers is the Yukon, which begins its course about 18 m.
from tide-water on an arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea
and just within the Canadian border. It flows first to the north,
then to the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into
Alaska, and then south-west, ending in Bering Sea, the northward
projection of the Pacific, 2000 m. from its head-waters. Of
its course 1800 m. are continuously navigable for suitable
steamers, so that most of the traffic connected with the rich
Klondike gold-fields passes over its waters. The rest of the
rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through British Columbia
and are much shorter, though the two southern ones carry a
great volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of snow
and rain in the Cordilleran region. The Columbia is the largest,
but after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m.,
it passes into the United States. With its expansions, the
narrow and deep Arrow lakes, it is an important waterway in the
Kootenay region. The Fraser, next in size but farther north,
follows a similar course, entering the sea at Vancouver; while
the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are much
144
CANADA
[GEOGRAPHY
shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and
Liard rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory.
All of these rivers are waterways of some importance in their
lower course, and are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats
supplying the posts and mining camps of the interior with their
requirements. In most cases they reach the coast through deep
valleys or profound canyons, and the transcontinental railways
find their way beside them, the Canadian Pacific following at
first tributaries of the Columbia near its great bend, and after-
wards Thompson river and the Fraser; while the Grand Trunk
Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries.
The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing
east and north is very sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains,
but there are two lakes, the Committee's Punch Bowl and
Fortress Lake, right astride of it, sending their waters both east
and west; and there is a mountain somewhat south of Fortress
Lake whose melting snows drain in three directions into tribu-
taries of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca,
so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the Atlantic
(Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans. The divide between the
St Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents
one or two lakes draining each way, but in a much less striking
position, since the water-parting is flat and boggy instead of
being a lofty range of mountains. The rivers of Canada, except
the St Lawrence, are losing their importance as means of com-
munication from year to year, as railways spread over the
interior and cross the mountains to the Pacific; but from the
point of view of the physical geographer there are few things
more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in
which they drain the country. As most of the Canadian rivers
have waterfalls on their course, they must become of more
and more importance as sources of power., The St Lawrence
system, for instance, generates many thousand horse-power at
Sault Ste Marie, Niagara and the Lachine rapids. All the
larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this way, and
many new enterprises of the kind are projected in eastern
Canada; but the thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the
Rocky Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they
will some day find use in manufactures like those of Switzerland.
The Archean Protaxis. — The broad geological and geographical
relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the
more important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more
detail, and for that purpose five areas may be distinguished,
much the largest being the Archean protaxis, covering about
2,000,000 sq. m. It includes Labrador, Ungava and most of
Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south; and the
western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to
the Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river. The
southern parts of the Arctic islands, especially Banksland,
belong to it also. This vast area, shaped like a broad-limbed
V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre, is made up chiefly of
monotonous and barren Laurentian gneiss and granite; but
scattered through it are -important stretches of Keewatin and
Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as
suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges. The
Keewatin and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, schists and
more or less metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of special
interest for their ore deposits, which include most of the important
metals, particularly iron, nickel, copper and silver. The southern
portion of the protaxis is now being opened up by railways, but
the far greater northern part is known only along the lakes and
rivers which are navigable by canoe. Though once consisting
of great mountain ranges there are now no lofty elevations
in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador,
where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach
6000 ft. or more. In every other part the surface is hilly or
mammilated, the harder rocks, such as granite or greenstone,
rising as rounded knobs, or in the case of schists forming narrow
ridges, while the softer parts form valleys generally floored with
lakes. From the summit of any of the higher hills one sees that
the region is really a somewhat dissected plain, for all the hills
rise to about the same level with a uniform skyline at the horizon.
The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken 0/ as a plateau, but
probably half of it falls below 1000 ft. The lowland part includes
from 100 to 500 m. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and
extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake
Winnipeg. Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an
average of about 1500 ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at
a few points near Lake Superior and on the eastern coast of
Labrador. In most parts the Laurentian hills are bare roches
tnoutonnies scoured by the glaciers of the Ice Age, but a broad
band of clay land extends across northern Quebec and Ontario
just north of the divide. The edges of the protaxis are in general
its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often have a
descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great
Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they
have cut back deep gorges or canyons into the tableland. The
waterfalls are utilized at a few points to work up into wood pulp
the forests of spruce which cover much of Labrador, Quebec and
Ontario. Most of the pine that formerly grew on the Archean
at the northern fringe of the settlements has been cut, but the
lumberman is still advancing northwards and approaching the
northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine forests, beyond
which spruces, tamarack (larch) and poplar are the prevalent
trees. As one advances northward the timber grows smaller and
includes fewer species of trees, and finally the timber line is
reached, near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and
somewhat farther south on the Labrador side. Beyond this to
the north are the " barren grounds " on which herds of caribou
(reindeer) and musk ox pasture, migrating from north to south
according to the season. There are no permanent ice sheets
known on the mainland of north-eastern Canada, but some of
the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are
partially covered with glaciers on their higher points. Unless
by its mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known,
the barren grounds can never support a white population and
have little to tempt even the Indian or Eskimo, who visit it
occasionally in summer to hunt the deer in their migrations.
The Acadian Region. — The "maritime provinces" of eastern
Canada, including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince
Edward Island, may be considered together; and to these
provinces as politically bounded may be added, from a physical
point of view, the analogous south-eastern part of Quebec — the
entire area being designated the Acadian region^ Taken as a
whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and
extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic,
may be regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian
mountain system that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the
United States. The rocks underlying it have been subjected
to successive foldings and crumplings by forces acting chiefly
from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with alternating pro-
longed periods of waste and denudation. The main axis of
disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the
south-eastern part of Quebec,forming the Notre Dame Mountains,
and terminates in the GaspS peninsula as the Shickshock
Mountains. The first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height,
but the Shickshocks rise above 3000 ft. The province of New
Brunswick exhibits approximately parallel but subordinate
ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly flat Silurian and
Carboniferous rocks. The peninsula of Nova Scotia, connected
by a narrow neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still another
and more definite system of parallel ridges, deeply fretted on
all sides by bays and harbours. A series of quartzites and slates
referred to the Cambrian, and holding numerous and important
veins of auriferous quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-
eastern side, while valuable coal-fields occur in Cape Breton and
on parts of its shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence. In New
Brunswick the Carboniferous rocks occupy a large area, but
the coal seams so far developed are thin and unimportant.
Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova Scotia
and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already
mentioned, have not yet become the objects of important
industries. Copper and asbestos are the principal mineral
products of that part of Quebec included in the region now under
GEOGRAPHY]
CANADA
H5
description, although many other minerals are known and
already worked to some extent. Extensive tracts of good arable
land exist in many parts of the Acadian region. Its surface was
originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of the
forest continue to hold a prominent place. Prince Edward
Island, the smallest province of Canada, is low and undulating,
based on Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording
a red and very fertile soil, much of which is under cultivation.
The St Lawrence Plain. — As the St Lawrence invited the
earliest settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication
with the Old World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest
and most populous part of the country on its shores and near the
Great Lakes which it leads up to; and this early development
was greatly helped by the flat and fertile plain which follows
it inland for over 600 m. from the city of Quebec to Lake Huron.
This affords the largest stretch of arable land in eastern Canada,
including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec with an
area of some 38,000 sq. m. In Quebec the chief portion is south
of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal
to the mountains of the " Eastern Townships," while in Ontario
it extends from the Archean on the north to the St Lawrence
and Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. The whole region is
underlain by nearly horizontal and undisturbed rocks of the
Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward. Superimposed on
these rocks are Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and sand
deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of
St Lawrence. Though petroleum and salt occur in the south-
west peninsula of Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and
the real wealth of this district lies in its soil and climate, which
permit the growth of all the products of temperate regions.
Georgian Bay and the northern part of Lake Huron with the
whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the foot of the
Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes; so
that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous
cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an
elevated, rocky and mostly forest-covered tract of the Archean
from the newer and far more extensive farm lands of the west.
For many years this southern projection of the northern wilder-
ness was spanned by only one railway, and offered a serious
hindrance to the development of the regions beyond; but
settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly filling
up the gap between east and west.
The Interior Continental Plain. — Passing westward by rail
from the forest-covered Archean with its rugged granite hills,
the flat prairie of Manitoba with its rich grasses and multitude of
flowers comes as a very striking contrast, introducing the Interior
Continental plain in its most typical development. This great
plain runs north-westward between the border of the Archean
protaxis and the line of the Rocky Mountains, including most
of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan and most of
Alberta. At the international boundary in lat. 40° it is 800 m.
wide, but in lat. 56 it has narrowed to 400 m. in width, and to
the north of lat. 62 it is still narrower and somewhat interrupted ,
but preserves its main physical features to the Arctic Ocean
about the mouth of the Mackenzie. This interior plain of the
continent represents the area of the ancient sea by which it was
occupied in Mesozoic times, with a more ancient margin towards
the north-west against the Archean, where undisturbed lime-
stones and other rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest upon
the downward slope of the Laurentian Shield. Most of the plains
are underlain by Cretaceous and early Tertiary shales and
sandstones lying nearly unaltered and undisturbed where they
were deposited, although now raised far above sea-level, par-
ticularly along the border of the Rocky Mountains where they
were thrust up into foot-hills when the range itself was raised.
These strata have been subjected to great denudation, but owing
to their comparatively soft character this has been, in the main,
nearly uniform, and has produced no very bold features of
relief. Coal and lignitic coal are the principal economic minerals
met with in this central plain, though natural gas occurs and is
put to use near Medicine Hat, and " tar sands " along the north-
eastern edge of the Cretaceous indicate the presence of petroleum.
Its chief value lies in its vast tracts of fertile soil, now rapidly
filling up with settlers from all parts of the world, and the grassy
uplands in the foot-hill region affording perennial pasturage for
the cattle, horses and sheep of the rancher. Though the region
is spoken of as a plain there are really great differences of level
between the highest parts in south-western Alberta, 4500 ft.
above the sea, and the lowest in the region of Lake Winnipeg,
where the prairie is at an elevation of only 800 ft. The very
flat and rich prairie near Winnipeg is the former bed of the glacial
Lake Agassiz; but most of the prairie to the west is of a gently
rolling character and there are two rather abrupt breaks in the
plain, the most westerly one receiving the name of the Missouri
Coteau. The first step represents a rise to 1600 ft., and the
second to 3000 ft. on an average. In so flat a country any eleva-
tion of a few hundred feet is remarkable and is called a mountain,
so that Manitoba has its Duck and Riding mountains. More
important than the hills are the narrow and often rather deep
river valleys cut below the general level, exposing the soft rocks
of the Cretaceous and in many places seams of lignite. When
not too deep the river channels may be traced from afar across
the prairie by the winding band of trees growing beside the water.
The treeless part of the plains, the prairie proper, has a triangular
shape with an area twice as large as that of Great Britain. North
of the Saskatchewan river groves or " bluffs " of trees begin,
and somewhat farther north the plains are generally wooded,
because of the slightly more humid climate. It has been proved,
however, that certain kinds of trees if protected will grow also
on the prairie, as may be seen around many of the older farm-
steads. In the central southern regions the climate is arid enough
to permit of " alkaline " ponds and lakes, which may completely
dry up in summer, and where a supply of drinking-water is often
hard to obtain, though the land itself is fertile.
The Cordilleran Belt. — The Rocky Mountain region as a whole,
best named the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt, includes several
parallel ranges of mountains of different structures and ages,
the eastern one constituting the Rocky Mountains proper.
This band of mountains 400 m. wide covers towards the south
almost all of British Columbia and a strip of Alberta east of the
watershed, and towards the north forms the whole of the Yukon
Territory. While it is throughout essentially a mountainous
country, very complicated in its orographic features and inter-
locking river systems, two principal mountain axes form its
ruling features — the Rocky Mountains proper, above referred
to, and the Coast Ranges. Between them are many other
ranges shorter and less regular in trend, such as the Selkirk
Mountains, the Gold Ranges and the Caribou Mountains.
There is also in the southern inland region an interior plateau,
once probably a peneplain, but now elevated and greatly dissected
by river valleys, which extends north-westward for 500 m. with a
width of about 100 m. and affords the largest areas of arable
and pasture land in British Columbia. Similar wide tracts of
less broken country occur, after a mountainous interruption, in
northern British Columbia and to some extent in the Yukon
Territory, where wide valleys and rolling hills alternate with
short mountain ranges of no great altitude. The Pacific border
of the coast range of British Columbia is ragged with fjords and
channels, where large steamers may go 50 or 100 m. inland
between mountainous walls as on the coast of Norway; and
there is also a bordering mountain system partly submerged
forming Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands.
The highest mountains of the Cordillera in Canada are near the
southern end of the boundary separating Alaska from the Yukon
Territory, the meridian of 141 , and they include Mount Logan
(19,540 ft.) and Mount St Elias (18,000 ft.), while the highest
peak in North America, Mount McKinley (20,000 ft.), is not far
to the north-west in Alaska. This knot of very lofty mountains,
with Mount Fairweather and some others, all snowy and glacier-
clad for almost their whole height, are quite isolated from the
highest points of the Rocky Mountains proper, which are 1000 m.
to the south-east. Near the height of land between British
Columbia and Alberta there are many peaks which rise from
10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level, the highest which has been
146
CANADA
[GEOGRAPHY
carefully measured being Mount Robson (13,700 ft.). The next
range to the east, the Selkirks, has several summits that reach
10,000 ft. or over, while the Coast Ranges scarcely go beyond
9000 ft. The snow line in the south is from 7500 to 9000 ft.
above sea-level, being lower on the Pacific side where the heaviest
snowfall comes in winter than on the drier north-eastern side.
The snow line gradually sinks as one advances north-west,
reaching only 2000 or 3000 ft. on the Alaskan coast. The
Rockies and Selkirks support thousands of glaciers, mostly not
very large, but having some 50 or 100 sq. m. of snowfield. All
the glaciers are now in retreat, with old tree-covered moraines,
hundreds or thousands of feet lower down the valley. The
timber line is at about 7500 ft. in southern British Columbia and
4000 ft. in the interior of the Yukon Territory. On the westward
slopes, especially of the Selkirks and Coast Ranges, vegetation is
almost tropical in its density and luxuriance, the giant cedar
and the Douglas fir sometimes having diameters of 10 ft. or more
and rising to the height of 150 ft. On the eastern flanks of the
ranges the forest is much thinner, and on the interior plateau
and in many of the valleys largely gives way to open grass land.
The several ranges of the Cordillera show very different types of
structure and were formed at different ages, the Selkirks with
their core of pre-Cambrian granite, gneiss and schists coming
first, then the Coast Ranges, which seem to have been elevated
in Cretaceous times, formed mainly by a great upwelling of
granite and diorite as batholiths along the margin of the continent
and sedimentary rocks lying as remnants on their flanks; and
finally the Rocky Mountains in the Laramie or early Eocene,
after the close of the Cretaceous. This latest and also highest
range was formed by tremendous thrusts from the Pacific side,
crumpling and folding the ancient sedimentary rocks, which run
from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous, and faulting them along
overturned folds. The outer ranges in Alberta have usually
the form of tilted blocks with a steep cliff towards the north-east
and a gentler slope, corresponding to the dip of the beds, towards
the south-west. Near the centre of the range there are broader
foldings, carved into castle and cathedral shapes. The most
easterly range has been shown to have been actually pushed
7 m. out upon the prairies. In the Rocky Mountains proper no
eruptive rocks have broken through, so that no ore deposits of
importance are known from them, but in the Cretaceous syn-
clines which they enclose valuable coal basins exist. Coal of a
bituminous and also semi-anthracite kind is produced, the best
mined on the Pacific slope of the continent, the coking coals of
the Fernie region supplying the fuel of the great metal mining
districts of the Kootenays in British Columbia, and of Montana
and other states to the south. The Selkirks and Gold Ranges
west of the Rockies, with their great areas of eruptive rocks,
both ancient and modern, include most of the important mines
of gold, silver, copper and lead which give British Columbia its
leadership among the Canadian provinces as a producer of metals.
In early days the placer gold mines of the Columbia, Fraser
and Caribou attracted miners from everywhere, but these have
declined, and lode mines supply most of the gold as well as the
other metals. The Coast Ranges and islands also include many
mines, especially of copper, but up to the present of less value
than those inland. Most of the mining development is in
southern British Columbia, where a network of railways and
waterways gives easy access; but as means of communication
improve to the north a similar development may be looked for
there. The Atlin and White Horse regions in northern British
Columbia and southern Yukon have attracted much attention,
and the Klondike placers still farther north have furnished
many millions of dollars' worth of gold. Summing up the
economic features of the Cordilleran belt, it includes many of
the best coal-mines and the most extensive deposits of gold,
copper, lead and zinc of the Dominion, while in silver, nickel and
iron Ontario takes the lead. When its vast area stretching from
the international boundary to beyond the Arctic circle is opened
up, it may be expected to prove the counterpart of the great
mining region of the Cordillera in the United States to the
south.
Climate. — In a country like Canada ranging from lat. 42°
to the Arctic regions and touching three oceans, there must
be great variations of climate. If placed upon Europe it would
extend from Rome to the North Cape, but latitude is of course
only one of the factors influencing climate, the arrangement of
the ocean currents and of the areas of high and low pressure
making a very wide difference between the climates of the two
sides of the Atlantic. In reality the Pacific coast of Canada,
rather than the Atlantic coast, should be compared with western
Europe, the south-west corner of British Columbia, in lat. 48°
to 50°, having a climate very similar to the southern coast of
England. In Canada the isotherms by no means follow parallels
of latitude, especially in summer when in the western half of the
country they run nearly north-west and south-east; so that the
average temperature of 55 is found about on the Arctic circle
in the Mackenzie river valley, in lat. 50° near the Lake-of-the-
Woods, in lat. 55 at the northern end of James Bay, and in
lat. 49 on Anticosti in the Gulf of St Lawrence. The proximity
of the sea or of great lakes, the elevation and the direction of
mountain chains, the usual path of storms and of prevalent
winds, and the relative length of day and amount of sunshine in
summer and winter all have their effect on different parts of
Canada. One cannot even describe the climate of a single
province, like Ontario or British Columbia, as a unit, as it varies
so greatly in different parts. Details should therefore be sought
in articles on the separate provinces. In eastern Canada Ungava
and Labrador are very chill and inhospitable, owing largely
to the iceberg-laden current sweeping down the coast from
Davis Strait, bringing fogs and long snowy winters and a
temperature for the year much below the freezing-point. South
of the Gulf of St Lawrence, however, the maritime provinces
have much more genial temperatures, averaging 40 F. for the
year and over 6o° for the summer months. The amount of rain
is naturally high so near the sea, 40 to 56 in., but the snowfall
is not usually excessive. In Quebec and northern Ontario the
rainfall is diminished, ranging from 20 to 40 in., while the snows
of winter are deep and generally cover the ground from the begin-
ning of December to the end of March. The winters are brilliant
but cold, and the summers average from 6o° to 65 F., with
generally clear skies and a bracing atmosphere which makes
these regions favourite summer resorts for the people of the
cities to the south. The winter storms often sweep a little to
the north of southern Ontario, so that what falls as snow in the
north is rain in the south, giving a much more variable winter,
often with too little snow for sleighing. The summers are warm,
with an average temperature of 65 and an occasional rise to 90 .
As one goes westward the precipitation diminishes to 17-34 in.
in Manitoba and 13-35 for the other two prairie provinces, most
of this, however, coming opportunely from May to August, the
months when the growing grain most requires moisture. There
is a much lighter snowfall in winter than in northern Ontario
and Quebec, with somewhat lower temperatures. The snow
and the frost in the ground are considered useful as furnishing
moisture to start the wheat in spring. The precipitation in
southern Saskatchewan and Alberta is much more variable than
farther east and north, so that in some seasons crops have been
a failure through drought, but large areas are now being brought
under irrigation to avoid such losses. The prairie provinces
have in most parts a distinctly continental climate with com-
paratively short, warm summers and long, cold winters, but
with much sunshine in both seasons. In southern Alberta,
however, the winter cold is often interrupted by chinooks,
westerly winds which have lost their moisture by crossing the
mountains and become warmed by plunging down to the plains,
where they blow strongly, licking up the snow and raising the
temperature, sometimes in a few hours, from 20 to 40 F.
In this region cattle and horses can generally winter on the grass
of the ranges without being fed, though in hard seasons there
may be heavy losses. Northwards chinooks become less frequent
and the winter's cold increases, but the coming of spring is not
much later, and the summer temperatures, with sunshine for
I twenty hours out of twenty-four in June, are almost the same
FLORA AND FAUNAJ
CANADA
H7
as for hundreds of miles to the south, so that most kinds of grain
and vegetables ripen far to the north in the Peace river valley.
Though the climate of the plains is one of extremes and often
of rather sudden changes, it is brisk and invigorating and of
particular value for persons affected with lung troubles.
The climate of the Cordilleran region presents even more
variety than that of the other provinces because of the ranges
of mountains which run parallel to the Pacific. Along the coast
itself the climate is insular, with little frost in winter and mfld
heat in summer, and with a very heavy rainfall amounting to
100 in. on the south-west side of Vancouver Island and near
Port Simpson. Within 100 m. inland beyond the Coast Range
the precipitation and general climate are, like those of Ontario,
comparatively mild and with moderate snowfall towards the
south, but with keen winters farther north. The interior
plateau may be described as arid, so that irrigation is required
if crops are to be raised. The Selkirk Mountains have a heavy
rainfall and a tremendous snowfall on their western flanks, but
very much less precipitation on their eastern side. The Rocky
Mountains have the same relationships but the whole precipita-
tion is much less than in the Selkirks. The temperature depends
largely, of course, on altitude, so that one may quickly pass from
perpetual snow above 8000 ft. in the mountains to the mild, moist
climate of Vancouver or Victoria, which is like that of Devonshire.
In the far north of the territories of Yukon, Mackenzie and
Ungava the climate has been little studied, as the region is un-
inhabited by white men except at a few fur-trading posts.
North-west and north-east of Hudson Bay it becomes too severe
for the growth of trees as seen on the " barren grounds," and
there may be perpetual ice beneath the coating of moss which
serves as a non-conducting covering for the " tundras." There
is, however, so little precipitation that snow does not accumulate
on the surface to form glaciers, the summer's sun having warmth
enough to thaw what falls in the winter. Leaving out the mari-
time provinces, southern Ontario, southern Alberta and the
Pacific coast region on the one hand, and the Arctic north,
particularly near Hudson Bay, on the other, Canada has snowy
and severe winters, a very short spring with a sudden rise of
temperature, short warm summers, and a delightful autumn
with its " Indian summer." There is much sunshine, and the
atmosphere is bracing and exhilarating.
Flora.— The general flora of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec
and Eastern Ontario is much the same, except that in Nova
Scotia a number of species are found common also to Newfound-
land that are not apparent inland. Professor Macoun gives
us a few notable species— Calluna vulgaris, Salisb., AlchemUla
vulgaris, L., Rhododendron maximum, L., Ilex glabia, Gray,
Hudsonia ericoides, L., Gaylussacia dumosa, F. and G., and
Schezaea pusilla, Pursh. In New Brunswick the western flora
begins to appear as well as immigrants from the south, while
in the next eastern province, Quebec, the flora varies consider-
ably. In the lower St Lawrence country and about the Gulf
many Arctic and sub-Arctic species are found. On the shores
of the lower reaches Thalictrum alpinum, L., Vesicaria arctica,
Richards, Arapis alpina, L., Saxifraga oppositifolia, L., Ceras-
tium alpinum, L., Saxifraga caespitosa, L. and S. have been
gathered, and on the Shickshock Mountains of Eastern Canada
Silene acaulis, L., Lychnis alpina, L., Cassiope hypnoides, Don.,
Rhododendron laponicum, Wahl, and many others. On the
summit of these hills (4000 ft.) have been collected Aspidium
aculeatum, Swartz var., Scopulinum, D. C. Eaton, Pellaea densa,
Hook, Gallium kamtschaticum, Sletten. From the city of
Quebec westwards there is a constantly increasing ratio of
southern forms, and when the mountain (so called) at Montreal
is reached the representative Ontario flora begins. In Ontario
the flora of the northern part is much the same as that of the
Gulf of St Lawrence, but from Montreal along the Ottawa and
St Lawrence valleys the flora takes a more southern aspect, and
trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants not found in the eastern
parts of the Dominion become common. In the forest regions
north of the lakes the vegetation on the shores of Lake Erie
requires a high winter temperature, while the east and north
shores of Lake Superior have a boreal vegetation that shows
the summer temperature of this enormous water-stretch to be
quite low. Beyond the forest country of Ontario come the
prairies of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In the
ravines the eastern flora continues for some distance, and then
disappearing gives place to that of the prairie, which is found
everywhere between the Red river and the Rocky Mountains
except in wooded and damp localities. Northwards, in the
Saskatchewan country, the flora of the forest and that of the
prairies intermingle. On the prairies and the foot-hills of the
Rocky Mountains a great variety of grasses are found, several
years' collection resulting in 42 genera and 156 species. Of
the best hay and pasture grasses, Agropyrum EXymus, Stipa,
Bromus, Agrostis, Calamagrostes and Poa, there are 59 species.
Besides the grasses there are leguminous plants valuable for
pasture — Astragalus, Vicia (wild vetch), Lathyrus (wild pea) of
which there are many species. The rose family is represented
by Prunus, Potentilla, Fragaria, Rosa, Rubus and Amelanchier.
About the saline lakes and marshes of the prairie country are
found Ruppia maritima, L., Heliotr opium curassavicum, L.,
natives of the Atlantic coast, and numerous species of Cheno-
podium, A triplex and allied genera. The flora of the forest belt
of the North-West Territories differs little from that of northern
Ontario. At the beginning of the elevation of the Rocky Moun-
tains there is a luxurious growth of herbaceous plants, including
a number of rare umbellifers. At the higher levels the vegetation
becomes more Arctic. Northwards the valleys of the Peace and
other rivers differ little from those of Quebec and the northern
prairies. On the western slope of the mountains, that is, the
Selkirk and Coast ranges as distinguished from the eastern or
Rocky Mountains range, the flora differs, the climate being damp
instead of dry. In some of the valleys having an outlet to the
south the flora is partly peculiar to the American desert, and
such species as Purshia tridentata, D.C., and Artemisia tridentata,
Nutt., and species of Gilia, Aster and Erigonum are found that
are not met with elsewhere. Above Yale, in the drier part of the
Fraser valley, the absence of rain results in the same character
of flora, while in the rainy districts of the lower Fraser the
vegetation is so luxuriant that it resembles that of the tropics.
So in various parts of the mountainous country of British
Columbia, the flora varies according to climatic conditions.
Nearer the Pacific coast the woods and open spaces are filled
with flowers and shrubs. Liliaceous flowers are abundant,
including Eryihoniums, Trilliums, Alliums, Brodeaeas, Fritil-
larias, Siliums, Camassias and others.
Fauna. — The larger animals of Canada are the musk ox and
the caribou of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the
far north; the caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces
except in Price Edward Island; the moose, with an equally
wide range in the wooded country; the Virginia deer, in one or
other of its varietal forms, common to all the southern parts;
the black-tailed deer or mule deer and allied forms, on the western
edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn
antelope on the plains, and a small remnant of the once plentiful
bison found in northern Alberta and Mackenzie, now called
"wood buffalo." The wapiti or American elk at one time
abounded from Quebec to the Pacific, and as far north as the
Peace river, but is now found only in small numbers from
Manitoba westwards. In the mountains of the west are the
grizzly bear, black bear and cinnamon bear. The black bear
is also common to most other parts of Canada; the polar bear
everywhere along the Arctic littoral. The large or timber wolf
is found in the wooded districts of all the provinces, and on the
plains there is also a smaller wolf called the coyote. In British
Columbia the puma or cougar, sometimes called the panther
and the American lion, still frequently occurs; and in all parts the
common fox and the silver fox, the lynx, beaver, otter, marten,
fisher, wolverene, mink, skunk and other fur-bearing animals.
Mountain and plain and Arctic hares and rabbits are plentiful
or scarce in localities, according to seasons or other circumstances.
In the mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or Rocky
Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, while the
148
CANADA
[POPULATION
saddleback and white mountain sheep have recently been dis-
covered in the northern Cordillera. The birds of Canada are mostly
migratory, and are those common to the northern and central
states of the United States. The wildfowl are, particularly in
the west, in great numbers; their breeding-grounds extending
from Manitoba and the western prairies up to Hudson Bay, the
barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of geese —
including the Canada goose, the Arctic goose or wavey, the
laughing goose, the brant and others — all breed in the northern
regions, but are found in great numbers throughout the several
provinces, passing north in the spring and south in the autumn.
There are several varieties of grouse, the largest of which is the
grouse of British Columbia and the pennated grouse and the
prairie chicken of Manitoba and the plains, besides the so-called
partridge and willow partridge, both of which are grouse. While
the pennated grouse (called the prairie chicken in Canada) has
always been plentiful, the prairie hen (or chicken) proper is a
more recent arrival from Minnesota and the Dakotas, to which
it had come from Illinois and the south as settlement and accom-
panying wheatfields extended north. In certain parts of Ontario
the wild turkey is occasionally found and the ordinary quail, but
in British Columbia is found the California quail, and a larger bird
much resembling it called the mountain partridge. The golden
eagle, bald-headed eagle, osprey and a large variety of hawks
are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the horned owl
and others inhabiting northern climates. The raven frequently
remains even in the colder parts throughout the winter; these,
with the Canada jay, waxwing, grosbeak and snow bunting,
being the principal birds seen in Manitoba and northern districts
in that season. The rook is not found, but the common crow
and one or two other kinds are there during the summer. Song-
birds are plentiful, especially in wooded regions, and include the
American robin, oriole, thrushes, the cat-bird and various
sparrows; while the English sparrow, introduced years ago,
has multiplied excessively and become a nuisance in the towns.
The smallest of the birds, the ruby throat humming-bird, is
found everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains.
The sea-birds include a great variety of gulls, guillemots, cor-
morants, albatrosses (four species), fulmars and petrels, and in
the Gulf of St Lawrence the gannet is very abundant. Nearly
all the sea-birds of Great Britain are found in Canadian waters
or are represented by closely allied species. (A. P. C.)
Area and Population. — The following table shows the division
of the Dominion into provinces and districts, with the capital,
population and estimated area of each.
Areainsq.m.
Population.
Official Capital.
1881.
1 901.
Provinces —
Ontario ....
260,862
1,926,922
2,182,947
Toronto
Quebec ....
Nova Scotia
351,873
1,359,027
1,648,898
Quebec
Halifax
21428
440,572
459.574
New Brunswick
27.985
321,233
331.120
Fredericton
Manitoba ....
73,732
62,260
255.211 l
Winnipeg
British Columbia
372,630
49,459
178,657
Victoria
Prince Edward Island
2,184
108,891
103,259
Charlottetown
Saskatchewan
250,650
| 25,515
91,460"
Regina
Alberta ....
253,540
72,841 J
Edmonton
Districts —
Keewatin ....
516,571
•\
8,800
Yukon ....
196,976
27,219
Dawson City
Mackenzie ....
562,182
' 30,931
5,2i6
Ungava ....
354,961
5,H3
Franklin ....
500,000
J
The Dominion .
3,745,574*
4,324,810
5,371,315
Ottawa
1 The census is taken every ten years, save in these three provinces,
where it is taken every five. Their population in 1906 was: —
Manitoba, 360,000; Saskatchewan, 257,000; Alberta, 184,000.
" The areas assigned to Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick and British Columbia are exclusive of the territorial
seas, that to Quebec is exclusive of the Gulf of St Lawrence (though
including the islands lying within it), and that to Ontario is exclusive
of the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes. About 500,000 sq. m.
belong to the Arctic region and 125,755 sq. m. are water.
In 1867 the Dominion was formed by the union of the provinces
of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (Lower Canada) and
Ontario (Upper Canada). In 1869 the North-west Territories
were purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company, from a corner
of which Manitoba was carved in the next year. In 187 1 British
Columbia and in 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the Dominion.
The islands and other districts within the Arctic circle became
a portion of the Dominion only in 1880, when all British posses-
sions in North America, excepting Newfoundland, with its
dependency, the Labrador coast, and the Bermuda islands,
were annexed to Canada. West of the province of Ontario, then
inaccurately denned, the provinces of Manitoba and British
Columbia were the only organized divisions of the western
territory, but in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia,
Athabasca, Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed, leaving
the remainder of the north-west as unorganized territories, a
certain portion of the north-east, called Keewatin, having
previously been placed under the lieutenant-governor of Mani-
toba. In 1905 these four districts were formed into the two
provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin was
placed directly under the federal government. In 1898, owing
to the influx of miners, the Yukon territory was constituted
and granted a limited measure of self-government. The un-
organized territories are sparsely inhabited by Indians, the
people of the Hudson's Bay Company's posts and a few
missionaries.
Population, — The growth of population is shown by the
following figures:— 1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891,
4*833,239; *9 OI > 5>37 I >3 I S- Since 1001 the increase has been
more rapid, and in 1905 alone 144,621 emigrants entered Canada,
of whom about two-fifths were from Great Britain and one- third
from the United States.
The density of population is greatest in Prince Edward Island,
where it is 51-6 to the sq. m.; in Nova Scotia it is 22-3; New
Brunswick, n«8; Ontario, 9*9; Manitoba, 4*9; Quebec, 4-8;
Saskatchewan, i-oi; Alberta, 0-72; British Columbia, 0-4;
the Dominion, i-8. This is not an indication of the density in
settled parts; as in Quebec, Ontario and the western provinces
there are large unpopulated districts, the area of which enters
into the calculation. The population is composed mainly of
English- or French-speaking people, but there are German
settlements of some extent in Ontario, and of late years there
has been a large immigration into the western provinces and
territories from other parts of Europe, including Russians,
Galicians, Polish and Russian Jews, and Scandinavians. These
foreign elements have been assimilated
more slowly than in the United States,
but the process is being hastened by
the growth of a national consciousness.
English, Irish and Scots and their
descendants form the bulk of the popula-
tion of Ontario, French-Canadians of
Quebec, Scots of Nova Scotia, the Irish
of a large proportion of New Brunswick.
In the other provinces the latter race
tends to confine itself to the cities.
Manitoba is largely peopled from On-
tario, together with a decreasing number
of half-breeds — i.e. children of white
fathers (chiefly French or Scottish) and
Indian mothers — who originally formed
the bulk of its inhabitants. Alberta and
Saskatchewan, particularly the ranching
districts, are chiefly peopled by English
immigrants, though since 1900 there has
also been a large influx from the United States. British
Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the
mining districts a large proportion is American. Since 187 1
a great change has taken place throughout the west,
i.e. from Lake Superior to the Pacific. Then Manitoba was
principally inhabited by English and French half-breeds (or
M6tis), descendants of Hudson's Bay Company's employes, or
FINANCE]
CANADA
149
adventurous pioneers from Quebec, together with Scottish settlers,
descendants of those brought out by Lord Selkirk (q.v.), some
English army pensioners and others, and the van of the immigra-
tion that shortly followed from Ontario. Beyond Manitoba
buffalo were still running on the plains, and British Columbia
having lost its mining population of 1859 and i860 was largely
inhabited by Indians, its white population which centred in the
city of Victoria being principally English.
French is the language of the province of Quebec, though
English is much spoken in the cities; both languages are officially
recognized in that province, and in the federal courts and parlia-
ment. Elsewhere, English is exclusively used, save by the
newly-arrived foreigners. The male sex is slightly the more
numerous in all the provinces except Quebec, the greatest
discrepancy existing in British Columbia.
The birth-rate is high, especially in Quebec, where families
of twelve to twenty are not infrequent, but is decreasing in
Ontario. In spite of the growth of manufactures since 1878,
there are few large cities, and the proportion of the urban
population to the rural is small. Herein it differs noticeably
from Australia. Between 1891 and 1901 the number of farmers
in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime provinces decreased, and
there seemed a prospect of the country being divided into a
manufacturing east and an agricultural west, but latterly large
tracts in northern Ontario and Quebec have proved suitable for
cultivation and are being opened up.
Religion. — There is no established church in Canada, but in
the province of Quebec certain rights have been allowed to the
Roman Catholic church ever since the British conquest. In that
province about 87 % of the population belongs to this church,
which is strong in the others also, embracing over two-fifths of
the population of the Dominion. The Protestants have shown
a tendency to subdivision, and many curious and ephemeral
sects have sprung up; of late years, however, the various sections
of Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists have united, and a
working alliance has been formed between Presbyterians,
Methodists and Congregationalists. The Methodists are the
strongest, and in Ontario form over 30% of the population.
Next come the Presbyterians, the backbone of the maritime
provinces. The Church of England is strong in the cities,
especially Toronto. Save among the Indians, active disbelief
in Christianity is practically non-existent, and even among them
90% are nominally Christian.
Indians. — The Indian population numbers over 100,000 and
has slightly increased since 1881. Except in British Columbia
and the unorganized territories, nearly all of these are on reserva-
tions, where they are under government supervision, receiving
an annuity in money and a certain amount of provisions; and
where, by means of industrial schools and other methods,
civilized habits are slowly superseding their former mode of life.
British Columbia has about 25,000, most of whom are along the
coast, though one of the important tribes, the Shuswaps, is in
the interior. An almost equal number are found in the three
prairie provinces. Those of Ontario, numbering about 20,000,
are more civilized than those of the west, many of them being
good farmers. In all the provinces they are under the control
of the federal government which acts as their trustee, investing
the money which they derive chiefly from the sale of lands and
timber, and making a large annual appropriation for the pay-
ment of their annuities, schools and other expenses. While
unable to alienate their reservations, save to the federal govern-
ment, they are not confined to them, but wander at pleasure.
As they progress towards a settled mode of life, they are given
the franchise; this process is especially far advanced in Ontario.
A certain number are found in all the provinces. They make
incomparable guides for fishing, hunting and surveying parties,
on which they will cheerfully undergo the greatest hardships,
though tending to shrink from regular employment in cities or
on farms.
Orientals. — The Chinese and Japanese numbered in 1006 about
20,000, of whom, three-quarters were in British Columbia, though
they were spreading through the other provinces, chiefly as
laundrymen. They are as a rule frugal, industrious and law-
abiding, and are feared rather for their virtues than for their
vices. Since 1885 a tax has been imposed on all Chinese entering
Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to £100 ($500). British
Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to lay a similar restriction on the
Japanese, but the act was disallowed by the federal legislature.
Finance. — Since 187 1 the decimal system of coinage, corre-
sponding to that of the United States, has been the only one
employed. One dollar is divided into one hundred cents
(£i=$4*86|). The money in circulation consists of a limited
number of notes issued by the federal government, and the
notes of the chartered banks, together with gold, silver and
copper coin. Previous to 1906 this coin was minted in England,
but in that year a branch of the royal mint was established at
Ottawa. Though the whole financial system rests on the main-
tenance of the gold standard, gold coin plays a much smaller
part in daily business than in England, France or Germany.
United States' notes and silver are usually received at par; those
of other nations are subject to a varying rate of exchange.
The banking system, which retains many features of the
Scotch system, on which it was originally modelled, combines
security for the note-holders and depositors with prompt increase
and diminution of the circulation in accordance with the varying
conditions of trade. This is especially important in a country
where the large wheat crop renders an additional quantity of
money necessary on very short notice during the autumn and
winter. There has been no successful attempt to introduce the
"wild cat " banking , which had such disastrous effects in the early
days of the western states. Since federation no chartered bank
has been compelled to liquidate without paying its note-holders
in full. The larger banks are chartered by the federal govern-
ment; in the smaller towns a number of private banks remain,
but their importance is small, owing to the great facilities given
to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906 there
were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from
619 in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has
rapidly increased. The banks are required by law to furnish
to the finance minister detailed monthly statements which are
published in the official gazette. Once in every ten years the
banking act is revised and weaknesses amended. Clearing-
houses have been established in the chief commercial centres.
In October 1006 the chartered banks had an aggregate paid-up
capital of over $94,000,000 with a note circulation of $83,000,000
and deposits of over $553,000,000.
There are four kinds of savings banks in Canada: — (1) the
post-office savings banks; (2) the government savings banks
of the Maritime provinces taken over at federation and being
gradually merged with the former; (3) two special savings banks
in the cities of Montreal and Quebec; (4) the savings bank
departments of the chartered banks. The rate of interest
allowed by the government is now 3 %, and the chartered banks
usually follow the government rate. The amount on deposit in
the first three increased from $5,057,607 in 1868 to $89,781,546
in October 1006. The returns from the chartered banks do not
specify the deposits in these special accounts.
The numerous loan and trust companies also possess certain
banking privileges.
The federal revenue is derived mainly from customs and
excise duties, with subsidiary amounts from mining licences,
timber dues, post-office, &c. Both the revenue and the expendi-
ture have in recent years increased greatly, the revenue rising
from $46,743,103 in 1899 to $71,186,073 in 1905 and the expendi-
ture keeping pace with it. The debt of the Dominion in 1873
and in 1905 was: —
1873.
1905.
Gross debt .
Assets
Net debt
$129,743,432
30,894,970
98,848,462
$377,678,580
111,454,413
266,224,167
While the debt had thus increased faster than the population,
it weighed less heavily on the people, not only on account of the
ISO
CANADA
[COMMERCE
great increase in commercial prosperity, but of the much lower
rate of interest paid, and of the increasing revenue derived from
assets. Whereas in 1867 the rate of interest was over 4%, and
interest was being paid on former provincial loans of over 6%,
Canada could in 1006 borrow at 3%. -
The greater part of the debt arises from the assumption of the
debts of the provinces as they entered federation, expenditure
on canals and assistance given to railways. It does not include
the debts incurred by certain provinces since federation, a
matter which concerns themselves alone. A strong prejudice
against direct taxation exists, and none is imposed by the
federal government, though it has been tentatively introduced
in the provinces, especially in Quebec, in the form of liquor
licences, succession duties, corporation taxes, &c. British
Columbia has a direct tax on property and on income. The
cities, towns and municipalities resort to it to supply their local
needs, and there is a tendency, especially pronounced in Ontario
on account of the excellence of her municipal system, to devolve
the burden of educational payments, and others more properly
provincial, upon the municipal authorities on the plea of
decentralization.
Commerce and Manufactures, — Since 1867 the opening up of
the fertile lands in the north-west, the increase of population,
the discovery of new mineral fields, the construction of railways
and the great improvement of the canal system have changed
the conditions, methods and channels of trade. The great
extension during the same period of the use of water-power has
been of immense importance to Canada, most of the provinces
possessing numerous swift-flowing streams or waterfalls, capable
of generating a practically unlimited supply of power.
In 1878 the introduction of the so-called " National Policy "
of protection furthered the growth of manufactures. Protection
still remains the trade policy of Canada, though modified by a
preference accorded to imports from Great Britain and from most
of the British colonies. The tariff, though moderate as compared
with that of the United States, amounted in 1007 to about 28%
on dutiable imports and to about 16% on total imports.
Tentative attempts at export duties have also been made. Inter-
provincial commerce is free, and the home market is greatly
increasing in importance. The power to make commercial
treaties relating to Canada rests with the government of Great
Britain, but in most cases the official consent of Canada is
required, and for many years no treaty repugnant to her interests
has been signed. The denunciation by the British government
in 1897 of commercial treaties with Belgium and Germany, at
the request of Canada, was a striking proof of her increasing
importance, and attempts have at various times been made to
obtain the full treaty-making power for the federal government.
The great proportion of the foreign trade of the Dominion is
with the United States and Great Britain. From the former
come most of the manufactured goods imported and large
quantities of raw materials; to the latter are sent food-stuffs.
Farm products are the most important export, and with the
extension of this industry in the north-west provinces and in
northern Ontario will probably continue to be so. Gold, silver,
copper and other minerals are largely exported, chiefly in an
unrefined state and almost entirely to the United States. The
exports of lumber are about equally divided between the two.
Formerly, the logs were shipped as square timber, but now
almost always in the form of deals, planks or laths; such square
timber as is still shipped goes almost entirely to Great Britain.
Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper is exported chiefly to
the United States. To that country fresh fish is sent in large
quantities, and there is an important trade in canned salmon
between British Columbia and Great Britain. Few of the
manufacturers do more than compete with the foreigner for an
increasing share of the home market. In this they have won
increased success, at least five-sixths of the manufactured goods
used being produced within the country, but a desire for further
protection is loudly expressed. Though the chief foreign
commerce is with Great Britain and the United States, the
Dominion has trade relations with all the chief countries of the
world and maintains commercial agents among them. Her
total foreign trade (import and export) was in 1906 over
£100,000,000.
Shipping. — The chief seaports from east to west are Halifax,
N.S., Sydney, N.S., St John, N.B., Quebec and Montreal
on the Atlantic; and Vancouver, Esquimalt and Victoria, B.C.,
on the Pacific. Halifax is the ocean terminus of the Intercolonial
railway; St John, Halifax and Vancouver of the Canadian
Pacific railway. Prince Rupert, the western terminus of the
Grand Trunk Pacific railway, was in 1906 only an uninhabited
harbour, but was being rapidly developed into a flourishing city.
Though Halifax and St John are open in winter, much of the
winter trade eastwards is done through American harbours,
especially Portland, Maine, owing to the shorter railway journey.
Esquimalt, Halifax, Kingston (Ont.) and Quebec have well-
equipped graving-docks. The coast, both of the ocean and of
the Great Lakes, is well lighted and protected. The decay of the
wooden shipbuilding industry has lessened the comparative
importance of the mercantile marine, but there has been a great
increase in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade and upon
inland waters. Numerous steamship lines ply between Canada
and Great Britain; direct communication exists with France,
and the steamers of the Canadian Pacific railway run regularly
to Japan and to Australia.
Internal Communications. — Her splendid lakes and rivers,
the development of her canal system, and the growth of railways
have made the interprovincial traffic of Canada far greater than
her foreign, and the portfolio of railways and canals is one of
the most important in the cabinet. There are, nominally, about
200 railways, but about one-half of these, comprising five-sixths
of the mileage, have been amalgamated into four great systems:
the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian Northern
and the Intercolonial; most of the others have been more or less
consolidated. With the first of the four large systems is connected
the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Intercolonial, as also a line across
Prince Edward Island, is owned and operated by the federal
government. Originally built chiefly as a military road, and
often the victim of political exigencies, it has not been a commer-
cial success. With the completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific
(planned for 191 1) and the Canadian Northern, the country
would possess three trans-continental railways, and be free from
the reproach, so long hurled at it, of possessing length without
breadth.
At numerous points along the frontier, connexion is made
with the railways of the United States. Liberal aid is given
by the federal, provincial and municipal governments to the
construction of railways, amounting often to more than half
the cost of the road. The government of Ontario has con-
structed a line to open up the agricultural and mining districts
of the north of the province, and is operating it by means of a
commission. Practically all the cities 1 and large towns have
electric tramways, and electricity is also used as a motive power
on many lines uniting the larger cities with the surrounding
towns and villages. Since 1903 the Dominion government
has instituted a railway commission of three members with
large powers of control over freight and passenger rates and
other such matters. Telephone and express companies are also
subject to its jurisdiction. From its decisions an appeal may
be made to the governor-general in council, i.e. to the federal
cabinet. It has exercised a beneficial check on the railways
and has been cheerfully accepted by them. In Ontario a some-
what similar commission, appointed by the local government,
exercises extensive powers of control over railways solely
within the province, especially over the electric lines.
Despite the increase in railway facilities, the waterways remain
important factors in the transportation of the country. Steamers
ply on lakes and rivers in every province, and even in the far
northern districts of Yukon and Mackenzie. Where necessary
obstacles are surmounted by canals, on which over £22,000,000
have been spent, chiefly since federation. The St Lawrence
1 In Canada a city must have over 10,000 inhabitants, a town
over 2000.
EDUCATION, &c.]
CANADA
!5*
river canal system from Lake Superior to tide water overcomes
a difference of about 600 ft., and carries large quantities of
grain from the west to Montreal, the head of summer navigation
on the Atlantic. These canals have a minimum depth of 14 ft.
on the sills, and are open to Canadian and American vessels
on equal terms; the equipment is in every respect of the most
modern character. So great, however, is the desire to shorten
the time and distance necessary for the transportation of grain
from Lake Superior to Montreal that an increasing quantity
is taken by water as far as the Lake Huron and Georgian Bay
ports, and thence by rail to Montreal. Numerous smaller canals
bring Ottawa into connexion with Lake Champlain and the
Hudson river via Montreal; by this route the logs and sawn
lumber of Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick find their
destination. It has long been a Canadian ideal to shorten the
distance from Lake Superior to the sea. With this object
in view, the Trent Valley system of canals has been built,
connecting Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay (an arm of
Lake Huron) via Lake Simcoe. In 1899 and subsequently
surveys were made with a view to connecting the Georgian
Bay through the intervening water stretches, with the Ottawa
river system, and thence to Montreal. In 1903 all tolls were
taken off the Canadian canals, greatly to the benefit of trade.
Mining. — The mineral districts occur from Cape Breton
to the islands in the Pacific and the Yukon district. Nova
Scotia, British Columbia and the Yukon are still the most
productive, but the northern parts of Ontario are proving
rich in the precious metals. Coal, chiefly bituminous, occurs
in large quantities in Nova Scotia, British Columbia and in
various parts of the north-west (lignite), though most of the
anthracite is imported from the United States, as is the greater
part of the bituminous coal used in Ontario. Under the stimulus
of federal bounties, the production of pig iron and of steel,
chiefly from imported ore, is rapidly increasing. Bounties on
certain minerals and metals are also given by some of the
provinces. The goldfields of the Yukon, though still valuable,
show a lessening production. Sudbury, in Ontario, is the centre
of the nickel production of the world, the mines being chiefly
in American hands, and the product exported to the United
States. Of the less important minerals, Canada is the world's
chief producer of asbestos and corundum. Copper, lead, silver
and all the important metals are mined in the Rocky Mountain
district. From Quebec westwards, vast regions are still partly,
or completely, unexplored.
Lumber. — In spite of great improvidence, and of loss by
fire, the forest wealth of Canada is still the greatest in the
world. Measures have been taken, both by the provincial and
the federal governments, for its preservation, and for reforesta-
tion of depleted areas. Certain provinces prohibit the exporta-
tion of logs to the United States, in order to promote the growth
of saw-mills and manufactures of wooden-ware within the
country, and the latter have of late years developed with great
rapidity. The lumber trade of British Columbia has suffered
from lack of an adequate market, but is increasing with the
greater demand from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
A great development has also taken place in Ontario and the
eastern provinces, through the use of spruce and other trees,
long considered comparatively useless, in the manufacture of
wood-pulp for paper-making.
Crown Lands. — Large areas of unoccupied land remain in
all the provinces (except Prince Edward Island). In Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta, the so-called railway belt of British
Columbia and the territories, these crown lands are chiefly
owned by the federal parliament; in the other provinces, by
the local legislatures. So great is their extent that, in spite
of the immigration of recent years, the Dominion government
gives a freehold of 160 acres to every bona fide settler, subject
to certain conditions of residence and the erection of buildings
during the first three years. Mining and timber lands are sold
or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by
the provinces must be paid for, save in certain districts of
Ontario, where free grants are given, but the price charged is
low. The Canadian Pacific railway controls large land areas
in the two new provinces; and large tracts in these provinces
are owned by land companies. Both the Dominion and the
provincial governments have set apart certain areas to be
preserved, largely in their wild state, as national parks. Of
these the"m° st extensive are the Rocky Mountains Park at Banff,
Alberta, owned by the Dominion government, and the " Algon-
quin National Park," north-east of Lake Simcoe, the property
of Ontario.
Fisheries. — The principal fisheries are those on the Atlantic
coast, carried on by the inhabitants of Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, Prince Edward Island, and the eastern section of Quebec.
Cod, herring, mackerel and lobsters are the fish chiefly caught,
though halibut, salmon, anchovies and so-called sardines are
also exported. Bounties to encourage deep-sea fishing have
been given by the federal government since 1882. In British
Columbian waters the main catch is of salmon, in addition to
which are halibut, oolachan, herring, sturgeon, cod and shell-
fish. The lakes of Ontario and Manitoba produce white fish,
sturgeon and other fresh-water fish. About 80,000 persons find
more or less permanent employment in the fishing industry,
including the majority of the Indians of British Columbia.
The business of fur-seal catching is carried on to some extent
in the North Pacific and in Bering Sea by sealers from Victoria,
but the returns show it to be a decreasing industry, as well as
one causing friction with the United States. Indeed, no depart-
ment of national life has caused more continual trouble between
the two peoples than the fisheries, owing to different laws
regarding fish protection, and the constant invasion by each
of the territorial waters of the other.
Education. — The British North America Act imposes on the
provincial legislatures the duty of legislating on educational
matters, the privileges of the denominational and separate
schools in Ontario and Quebec being specially safeguarded. In
1871, the New Brunswick legislature abolished the separate
school system, and a contest arose which was finally settled by
the authority of the legislature being sustained, though certain
concessions were made to the Roman Catholic dissentients.
Subsequently a similar difficulty arose in Manitoba, where the
legislature in 1800 abolished the system of separate schools
which had been established in 1871. After years of bitter
controversy, in which a federal ministry was overthrown, a
compromise was arranged in 1897, in which the Roman Catholic
leaders have never fully acquiesced. In the provinces of Alberta
and Saskatchewan, formed in 1905, certain educational privileges
(though not amounting to a separate school system) were
granted to the Roman Catholics.
All the provinces have made sacrifices to insure the spread of
education. In 1901, 76% of the total population could read
and write, and 86% of those over five years of age. These
percentages have gradually risen ever since federation, especially
in the province of Quebec, which was long in a backward state.
The school systems of all the provinces are, in spite of certain
imperfections, efficient and well-equipped, that of Ontario
being especially celebrated. A fuller account of their special
features will be found under the articles on the different
provinces.
Numerous residential schools exist and are increasing in
number with the growth of the country in wealth and culture.
In Quebec are a number of so-called classical colleges, most of
them affiliated with Laval University.
Higher education was originally organized by the various
religious bodies, each of which retains at least one university
in more or less integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick,
Ontario and Manitoba support provincial universities at
Fredericton, Toronto and Winnipeg. Those of most importance *
are: — Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. (1818); the Univer-
sity of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. (1800); McGill
University, Montreal, Que. (1821); Laval University, Quebec,
and Montreal, Que. (1852); Queen's University, Kingston, Ont.
(1841); the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. (1827);
1 The date of foundation is given in brackets.
152
CANADA
[AGRICULTURE
Trinity University, Toronto, Ont. (1852); Victoria Uni-
versity, Toronto, Ont. (1836); the University of Ottawa,
Ottawa, Ont. (1848); the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Man. (1877).
Of these McGill (see Montreal) is especially noted for the
excellence of its training in practical and applied science. Many
of the students, especially in the departments of medicine and
theology, complete their education in the United States, Britain
or Europe.
Most of the larger towns and cities contain public libraries,
that of Toronto being especially well-equipped.
Of the numerous learned and scientific societies, the chief is
the Royal Society of Canada, founded in 1881.
Defence. — The command in chief of all naval and military
forces is vested in the king, but their control rests with the
federal parliament. The naval forces, consisting of a fisheries
protection service, are under the minister of marine and fisheries,
the land forces under the minister of militia and defence. Prior
to 1003, command of the latter was vested in a British officer,
but since then has been entrusted to a militia council, of which
the minister is president. The fortified harbours of Halifax
(N.S.) and Esquimalt (B.C.) were till 1905 maintained and
garrisoned by the imperial government, but have since been
taken over by Canada. This has entailed the increase of the
permanent force to about 5000 men. Previously, it had num-
bered about 1000 (artillery, dragoons, infantry) quartered in
various schools, chiefly to aid in the training of the militia. In
this all able-bodied citizens between the ages of 18 and 6b are
nominally enrolled, but the active militia consists of about
45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying state of efficiency. These
cannot be compelled to serve outside the Dominion, though
special corps may be enlisted for this purpose, as was done
during the war in South Africa (1 890-1002). At Quebec is a
Dominion arsenal, rifle and ammunition factories. Cadet corps
flourish in most of the city schools. At Kingston (Ont.) is the
Royal Military College, to the successful graduates of which a
certain number of commissions in the British service is annually
awarded.
Justice and Crime. — Justice is well administered throughout
the country, and even in the remotest mining camps there has
been little of the lawlessness seen in similar districts of Australia
and the United States. For this great credit is due to the
" North-west mounted police," the " Riders of the Plains,"
a highly efficient body of about seven hundred men, under the
control of the federal government. Judges are appointed for
life by the Dominion parliament, and cannot be removed save by
impeachment before that body, an elaborate process never
attempted since federation, though more than once threatened.
From the decisions of the supreme court of Canada appeal may be
made to the judicial committee of the imperial privy council.
Authorities. — The Canadian Geological Survey has published
(Ottawa, since 1845) a series of reports covering a great number
of subjects. Several provinces have bureaus or departments of
mines, also issuing reports. The various departments of the federal
and the provincial governments publish annual reports and frequent
special reports, such as the decennial report on the census, from
which a vast quantity of information may be obtained. Most of this is
summed up in the annual Statistical Year Book of Canada and in the
Official Handbook of the Dominion of Canada, issued at frequent
intervals by the Department of the Interior. See also J. W. White
(the Dominion geographer), Atlas of Canada (1906); J. Castell
Hopkins, Canada: an Encyclopaedia (6 vols., 189&-1900); The
Canadian Annual Review (yearly since 1902), replacing H. J.
Morgan's Canadian Annual Register (1 878-1 886) ; Sir J. W. Dawson,
Handbook of Canadian Geology (1889); George Johnson, Alphabet
of First Things in Canada (3rd ed., 1898) ; A. G. Bradley, Canada
in the Twentieth Century (1903); Transactions of the Royal Society
of Canada (yearly since 1883) ; R. C. Breckenridee, The Canadian
Banking System (1895); A. Shortt, History of Canadian Banking
(1902-1906); Sir S. Fleming, The Intercolonial (1876); John
Davidson, " Financial Relations of Canada and the Provinces "
{Economic Journal. June IQ05) ; Transactions of the Royal Society
of Canada, passim, for valuable papers by H. M. Ami, A. P. Coleman,
G. M. Dawson, W. F. Ganong, 6. J. Harrington and others; also
articles in Canadian Economics and in the Handbook of Canada,
published on the occasion of visits of the British Association.
(W. L. G.)
Agriculture
Canada is pre-eminently an agricultural country. Of the
total population (estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are
directly engaged in practical agriculture. In addition large
numbers are engaged in industries arising out of agriculture;
among these are manufacturers of agricultural implements,
millers of flour and oatmeal, curers and packers of meat, makers
of cheese and butter, and persons occupied in the transportation
and commerce of grain, hay, live stock, meats, butter, cheese,
milk, eggs, fruit and various other products. The country is
splendidly formed for the production of food. Across the
continent there is a zone about 3500 m. long and as wide as or
wider than France, with (over a large part of this area) a climate
adapted to the production of foods of superior quality. Since
the opening of the 20th century, great progress has been made
in the settlement and agricultural development of the western
territories between the provinces of Manitoba and British
Columbia. The three " North- West Provinces " (Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta) have a total area of 369,869,898 acres,
of which 12,853,120 acres are water. In 1006 their population
was 808,863, nearly double what it was in 1001. The land in
this vast area varies in virginal fertility, but the best soils are
very rich in the constituents of plant food. Chemical analyses
made by Mr F. T. Shutt have proved that soils from the North-
West Provinces contain an average of 18,000 lb of nitrogen,
15,580 lb of potash and 6,700 lb of phosphoric acid per acre,
these important elements of plant food being therefore present
in much greater abundance than they are in ordinary cultivated
European soils of good quality. The prairie lands of Manitoba
and Saskatchewan produce wheat of the finest quality. Horse
and cattle ranching is practised in Alberta, where the milder
winters allow of the outdoor wintering of live stock to a greater
degree than is possible in the colder parts of Canada. The
freezing of the soil in winter, which at first sight seems a drawback,
retains the soluble nitrates which might otherwise be drained out.
The copious snowfall protects vegetation, supplies moisture, and
contributes nitrogen to the soil. The geographical position of
Canada, its railway systems and steamship service for freight
across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, are favourable to the
extension of the export trade in farm products to European and
oriental countries. Great progress has been made in the develop-
ment of the railway systems of Canada, and the new trans-
continental line from the Atlantic to the Pacific, passing through
Saskatchewan via Saskatoon, and Alberta via Edmonton,
renders possible of settlement large areas of fertile wheat-growing
soil. The canal system of Canada, linking together the great
natural waterways, is also of much present and prospective
importance in cheapening the transportation of agricultural
produce.
Of wheat many varieties are grown. The methods of cultiva-
tion do not involve the application of so much hand labour per
acre as in Europe. The average yield of wheat for the cnpa.
whole of Canada is nearly 20 bushels per acre. In
1 901 the total production of wheat in Canada was 55% million
bushels. In 1906 the estimated total production was 136
million bushels. The total wheat acreage, which at the census
of 1 90 1 was 4,224,000, was over 6,200,000 in 1906, an increase of
nearly two million acres in five years.
Up to the close of the 19th century, Ontario was the largest
wheat-growing province in Canada. In 1900 the wheat acreage
in Ontario was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an
average yield of 19-10 bushels per acre. Over three-quarters of
this production was of fall or winter wheat, the average yield
of which in Ontario over a series of years since 1883 had been
about 20 bushels per acre. But the predominance in wheat-
growing has now shifted to the new prairie regions of the west.
A census taken in 1906 shows that the total acreage of wheat in
the North-West Provinces was 5,062,493, yielding 110,586,824
bushels, an average in a fairly normal season of 21*84 bushels
per acre. Of this total wheat acreage, 2,721,079 acres were in
Manitoba, 2,117,484 acres in Saskatchewan, and 223,930 acres
AGRICULTURE]
CANADA
J 53
in Alberta, with average yields per acre at the rates of 20-02
bushels in Manitoba, 23* 70 in Saskatchewan and 26-49 m Alberta.
In these provinces spring wheat is almost universally sown,
except in Alberta where fall or winter wheat is also sown to a
considerable extent. Summer fallowing for wheat is a practice
that has gained ground in the North-West Provinces. Land
ploughed and otherwise tilled, but left unseeded during the
summer, is sown with wheat in the succeeding autumn or spring.
Wheat on summer fallow land yielded, according to the North-
West census of 1906, from 2 to 8 bushels per acre more than that
sown on other land. Summer fallowing is, however, subject to
one drawback: the strong growth which it induces is apt to
retard the ripening of the grain. Canada is clearly destined to
rank as one of the most important grain-producing countries of
the world. The northern limits of the wheat-growing areas have
not been definitely ascertained; but samples of good wheat
were grown in 1907 at Fort Vermilion on the Peace river, nearly
600 m. north of Winnipeg in lat. 58-34 and at Fort Simpson on
the Mackenzie river in lat. 61-52, more than 800 m. north of
Winnipeg and about 1000 m. north of the United States
boundary. As a rule the weather during the harvesting period
permits the grain to be gathered safely without damage from
sprouting. Occasionally in certain localities in the north-west
the grain is liable to injury from frost in late summer; but as
the proportion of land under cultivation increases the climate
becomes modified and the danger from frost is appreciably less.
The loss from this cause is also less than formerly, because
any grain unfit for export is now readily purchased for the
feeding of animals in Ontario and other parts of eastern
Canada.
Suitable machinery for cleaning the grain is everywhere in
general use, so that weed seeds are removed before the wheat
is ground. This gives Canadian wheat excellent milling pro-
perties, and enables the millers to turn out flour uniform in
quality and of high grade as to keeping properties. Canadian
flour has a high reputation in European markets. It is known
as flour from which bakers can make the best quality of bread,
and also the largest quantity per barrel, the quantity of albumi-
noids being greater in Canadian flour than in the best brands of
European. Owing to its possession of this characteristic of what
millers term " strength," i.e. the relative capacity of flour to
make large loaves of good quality, Canadian flour is largely in
demand for blending with the flour of the softer English wheats.
For this reason some of the strong Canadian wheats have com-
manded in the home market 5s. and 6s. a quarter more than
English-grown wheat. At the general census of 1901 the number
of flouring and grist mill establishments, each employing five
persons and over, was returned at 400, the number of employes
being 4251 and the value of products $31,835,873. A special
census of manufactures in 1906 shows that these figures had
grown in 1905 to 832 establishments, 5619 employes and
$56,703,269 value of the products. There is room for a great
extension in the cultivation of wheat and the manufacture and
exportation of flour.
In the twelve months of 1907 Canada exported 37,503,057
bushels of wheat of the value of $34,132,759 and 1,858,485
barrels of flour of the value of $7,626,408. The corresponding
figures in 1000 were — wheat, 16,844,650 bushels, value,$i 1,995,488,
and flour, 768,162 bushels, value, $2,791,885.
Oats of fine quality are grown in large crops from Prince
Edward Island on the Atlantic coast to Vancouver Island on the
Pacific coast. Over large areas the Canadian soil and climate
are admirably adapted for producing oats of heavy weight per
bushel. In all the provinces of eastern Canada the acreage under
oats greatly exceeds that under wheat. The annual average
oat crop in all Canada is estimated at about 248 million bushels.
As the total annual export of oats is now less than three million
bushels the home consumption is large, and this is an advantage
in maintaining the fertility of the soil. In 1007 the area under
oats in Ontario was 2,932,509 acres and yielded 83,524,301
bushels, the area being almost as large as that of the acreage
under hay and larger than the combined total of the other
principal cereals grown in the province. Canadian oatmeal is
equal in quality to the best. It is prepared in different forms,
and in various degrees of fineness.
Barley was formerly grown for export to the United States
for malting purposes. After the raising of the duty on barley
under the McKinley and Dingley tariffs that trade was practically
destroyed and Canadian farmers were obliged to find other uses
for this crop. Owing to the development of the trade with the
mother-country in dairying and meat products, barley as a home
feeding material has become more indispensable than ever.
Before the adoption of the McKinley tariff about nine million
bushels of barley were exported annually, involving the loss of
immense stores of plant food. In 1007, with an annual produc-
tion of nearly fifty million bushels, only a trifling percentage was
exported, the rest being fed at home and exported in the form of
produce without loss from impoverishment of the soil. The
preparation of pearl or pot barley is an incidental industry.
Rye is cultivated successfully, but is seldom used for human
food. Flour from wheat, meal from oats, and meal from Indian
corn are preferred.
Buckwheat flour is used in considerable quantities in some
districts for the making of buckwheat cakes, eaten with maple
syrup. These two make an excellent breakfast dish, character-
istic of Canada and some of the New England states. There are
also numerous forms of preparations from cereals, sold as break-
fast foods, which, owing to the high quality of the grains grown
in Canada and the care exercised in their manufacture, compare
favourably with similar products in other countries.
Peas in large areas are grown free from serious trouble with
insect pests. Split peas for soup, green peas as vegetables and
sweet peas for canning are obtained of good quality.
Vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of
the diet of the people. There is a comparatively small export,
except in the case of turnips and potatoes and of vegetables
which have been canned or dried. Besides potatoes, which
thrive well and yield large quantities of excellent quality, there
are turnips, carrots, parsnips and beets. The cultivation of
sugar beets for the manufacture of sugar has been established
in Ontario and in southern Alberta, where in 1006 an acreage
under this crop of 3344 yielded 27,211 tons, an average of
8- 13 tons per acre. Among the common vegetables used in the
green state are peas, beans, cabbage, cauliflowers, asparagus,
Indian corn, onions, leeks, tomatoes, lettuce, radish, celery,
parsley, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash and rhubarb. Hay, of
good quality of timothy (Pfdeum pratense), and also of timothy
and clover, is grown over extensive areas. For export it is put
up in bales of about 150 lb each. Since 1899 a new form of
pressing has been employed, whereby the hay is compressed to
stow in about 70 cub. ft. per ton. This has been a means of
reducing the ocean freight per ton. The compact condition
permits the hay to be kept with less deterioration of quality
than under the old system of more loose baling. Austrian brome
grass (Bromus inermis) and western rye grass (Agropyrum
tenerum) are both extensively grown for hay in the North-West
Provinces.
The almost universal adoption of electrical traction in towns
has not led to the abandonment of the breeding of horses to
the extent that was at one time anticipated. Heavy
draught horses are reared in Ontario, and to a less
but increasing extent in the North-West Provinces,
the breeds being mainly the Clydesdale and the Shire.
Percherons are also bred in different parts of Canada, and a
few Belgian draught horses have been introduced. Good
horses suitable for general work on farms and for cabs, omni-
buses, and grocery and delivery wagons, are plentiful for local
markets and for export. Thoroughbred and pure bred hackney
stallions are maintained in private studs and by agricultural
associations throughout the Dominion, and animals for cavalry
and mounted infantry remounts are produced in all the provinces
including those of the North-West. Useful carriage horses
and saddle horses are bred in many localities. Horse ranching
is practised largely in Alberta. There are no government
Live
154
CANADA
[AGRICULTURE
stud farms. The total number of horses in the Dominion was
estimated on the basis of census returns at 2,019,824 for the
year 1907, an increase of 609,309 since 1901.
Cattle, sheep, swine and poultry are reared in abundance.
The bracing weather of Canadian winters is followed by the
warmth and humidity of genial summers, under which crops
grow in almost tropical luxuriance, while the cool evenings and
nights give the plants a robustness of quality which are not
to be found in tropical regions, and also make life for the various
domestic animals wholesome and comfortable. In the North-
West Provinces there are vast areas of prairie land, over which
cattle pasture, and from which thousands of fat bullocks
are shipped annually. Throughout other parts bullocks are
fed on pasture land, and also in stables on nourishing and
succulent feed such as hay, Indian corn fodder, Indian corn
silage, turnips, carrots, mangels, ground oats, barley, peas,
Indian corn, rye, bran and linseed oil cake. The breeding
of cattle, adapted for the production of prime beef and of
dairy cows for the production of milk, butter and cheese,
has received much attention. There is government control of
the spaces on the steamships in which the cattle are carried,
and veterinary inspection prevents the exportation of diseased
animals.
A considerable trade has been established in the exportation
of dressed beef in cold storage, and also in the exportation
of meat and other foods in hermetically sealed receptacles.
By the Meat and Canned Foods Act of 1907 of the Dominion
parliament and regulations thereunder, the trade is carried
on under the strictest government supervision, and no canned
articles of food may be exported unless passed as absolutely
wholesome and officially marked as such by government
inspectors. There is a considerable trade in " lunch tongues."
The cattle breeds are principally those of British origin.
For beef, shorthorns, Herefords, Galloways and Aberdeen-
Angus cattle are bred largely, whilst for dairying purposes,
shorthorns, Ayrshires, Jerseys, Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians
prevail. The French-Canadian cattle are highly esteemed in
eastern Canada, especially by the farmers of the French provinces.
They are a distinct breed of Jersey and Brittany type, and
are stated to be descended from animals imported from France
by the early settlers. The estimated number of cattle in Canada
in 1907 was 7,439,051, an increase of 2,066,547 over the figures
of the census of 1901.
All parts of the Dominion are well adapted for sheep; but
various causes, amongst which must be reckoned the prosperity
of other branches of agriculture, including wheat-growing and
dairying, have in several of the provinces contributed to prevent
that attention to this branch which its importance deserves,
though there are large areas of rolling, rugged yet nutritious
pastures well suited to sheep-farming. In the maritime provinces
and in Prince Edward Island sheep and lambs are reared in large
numbers. In Ontario sheep breeding has reached a high degree
of perfection, and other parts of the American continent draw
their supplies of pure bred stock largely from this province.
All the leading British varieties are reared, the Shropshire,
Oxford Down, Leicester and Cotswold breeds being most
numerous. There are also excellent flocks of Lincolns and South-
downs. The number of sheep and lambs in Canada was estimated
for the year 1907 at 2,830,785, as compared with 2,465,565
in 1 00 1.
Pigs, mostly of the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth
breeds, are reared and fattened in large numbers, and there
is a valuable export trade in bacon. Canadian hogs are fed,
as a rule, on feeds suited for the production of what are known
as " fleshy sides." Bacon with an excess of fat is not wanted,
except in the lumber camps; consequently the farmers of
Canada have cultivated a class of swine for bacon having
plenty of lean and firm flesh. The great extension of the dairy
business has fitted in with the rearing of large numbers of
swine. Experimental work has shown that swine fattened with
a ration partly of skim-milk were lustier and of a more healthy
appearance than swine fattened wholly on grains. Slaughtering
and curing are carried on chiefly at large packing houses. The
use of mechanical refrigerating plants for chilling the pork
has made it practicable to cure the bacon with the use of a
small percentage of salt, leaving it mild in flavour when delivered
in European markets. Regular supplies are exported during
every week of the year. Large quantities of lard, brawn and
pigs' feet are exported. In 1907 the number of pigs in Canada
was estimated at 3,530,060, an increase of 1,237,385 over the
census record of 1901. Turkeys thrive well, grow to a fine
size and have flesh of tender quality. Chickens are raised
in large numbers, and poultry-keeping has developed greatly
since the opening of the 20th century. Canadian eggs are
usually packed in cases containing thirty dozens each. Card-
board fillers are used which provide a separate compartment
for each egg. There are cold storage warehouses at various
points in Canada, at which the eggs are collected, sorted and
packed before shipment. These permit the eggs to be landed
in Europe in a practically fresh condition as to flavour, with
the shells quite full.
Canada has been called the land of milk and honey. Milk
is plentiful, and enters largely into the diet of the people. With
a climate which produces healthy, vigorous animals, ^^
notably free from epizootic diseases, with a fertile ^Sacu,
soil for the growth of fodder crops and pasture, with
abundance of pure air and water, and with a plentiful supply
of ice, the conditions in Canada are ideal for the dairying
industry. Large quantities of condensed milk, put up in her-
metically sealed tins, are sold for use in mining camps and
on board steamships. The cheese is chiefly of the variety known
as " Canadian Cheddar." It is essentially a food cheese rather
than a mere condiment, and 1 ft) of it will furnish as much
nourishing material as 2 J ft) of the best beefsteak. The industry
is largely carried on by co-operative associations of farmers.
The dairy factory system was introduced into Canada in 1864,
and from that time the production and exportation of cheese
grew rapidly. Legislation was passed to protect Canadian
dairy produce from dishonest manipulation, and soon Canadian
cheese obtained a deservedly high reputation in the British
markets. In 1891 cheese factories and creameries numbered
1733, and in 1899 there were 3649. In 1908 there were 4355
of these factories, of which 1284 were in Ontario, 2806 in
Quebec, and 265 in the remaining seven provinces of Canada.
Those in Ontario are the largest in size. Amongst the British
imports of cheese the Canadian product ranks first in quality,
whilst in quantity it represents about 72% of the total value
of the cheese imports, and 84% of the total value of the imports
of that kind of cheese which is classed as Cheddar. In 1906
the total exports of cheese to all countries from Canada reached
215,834,543 ft) of the value of $24,433,169.
Butter for export is made in creameries, where the milk,
cream and butter are handled by skilled makers. The creameries
are provided with special cold storage rooms, into which the
butter is placed on the same day in which it is made. From
them it is carried in refrigerator railway cars and in cold storage
chambers on steamships to its ultimate destination. For the
export trade it is packed in square boxes made of spruce or
some other odourless wood. These are lined with parchment
paper, and contain each 56 ft) net of butter. The total export of
butter from Canada in 1906 was 34,03i>5 2 5 ft>> of the value
of $7,075,539. According to a census of manufactures taken
in 1906, the total value of factory cheese and butter made in
Canada during that year was $32,402,265.
There are large districts lying eastward of the Great Lakes
and westward of the Rocky Mountains, where apples of fine
quality can be grown; and there are other smaller pnug,
areas in which pears, peaches and grapes are grown
in quantities in the open air. The climate is favourable to the
growth of plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants,
gooseberries, etc. There are many localities in which cran-
berries are successfully grown, and in which blueberries also
grow wild in great profusion.
Apples and pears are the chief sorts of fruit exported. The
AGRICULTURE]
CANADA
'55
high flavour, the crisp, juicy flesh and the long-keeping qualities
of the Canadian apples are their chief merits. Apples are
exported in barrels and also in boxes containing about one
bushel each. Large quantities are also evaporated and exported.
Establishments for evaporating fruit are now found in most
of the larger apple-growing districts, and canning factories and
jam factories have been established in many parts of Canada, and
are conducted with advantage and profit.
The chief fruit-growing districts have long been in southern
and western Ontario and in Nova Scotia; but recently much
attention has been devoted to fruit-growing in British Columbia,
where large areas of suitable land are available for the cultivation
of apples, pears and other fruits. In some parts of the semi-
arid districts in the interior of the province irrigation is being
successfully practised for the purpose of bringing land under
profitable cultivation for fruit. Collections of fruit grown in
British Columbia have received premier honours at the com-
petitive exhibitions of the Royal Horticultural Society in London,
where their high quality and fine colour have been greatly
appreciated.
Wine is made in considerable quantities in the principal
vine-growing districts, and in several localities large vineyards
have been planted for this purpose. An abundance of cider
is also made in all the large apple-growing districts.
Honey is one of the minor food-products of Canada, and
in many localities bees have abundance of pasturage. Canadian
honey for colour, flavour and substance is unsurpassed. Maple
sugar and syrup are made in those areas of the country where
the sugar-maple tree flourishes. The syrup is used chiefly
as a substitute for jam or preserved fruits, and the sugar is
used in country homes for sweetening, for cooking purposes
and for the making of confectionery. The processes of manu-
facture have been improved by the introduction of specially
constructed evaporators, and quantities of maple sugar and
syrup are annually exported.
Tobacco is a new crop which has been grown in Canada
since 1004. Its cultivation promises to be successful in parts
of Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia.
The department of agriculture of the Dominion government
renders aid to agriculture in many ways, maintaining the
SM t mU experimental farms and various effective organiza-
tions for assisting the live-stock, dairying and fruit-
growing industries, for testing the germination and purity of
agricultural seeds, and for developing the export trade in
agricultural and dairy produce. The health of animals branch,
through which are administered the laws relating to the
contagious diseases of animals, and the control of quarantine
and inspection stations for imported animals, undertakes also
valuable experiments on the diseases of farm live-stock, including
glanders in horses, tuberculosis in cattle, &c. The policy of
slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been success-
fully initiated by Canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts
of the country indicating a considerable decrease from the
previous year in the number of horses destroyed and the amount
of compensation paid. A disease of cattle in Nova Scotia,
known as the Pictou cattle disease, long treated as contagious,
has now been demonstrated by the veterinary officers of the
department to be due to the ingestion of a weed, the ragwort,
Senecio Jacobea. Hog cholera or swine fever has been almost
eradicated. A laboratory is maintained for bacteriological and
pathological researches and for the preparation of preventive
vaccines. Canada is entirely free from rinderpest, pleuro-
pneumonia and foot-and-mouth disease.
The work of the live-stock branch is directed towards the
improvement of the stock-raising industry, and is carried on
through the agencies of expert teachers and stock judges, the
systematic distribution of pure-bred breeding stock, the yearly
testing of pure-bred dairy herds, the supervision of the accuracy
of the registration of pure-bred animals and the nationalization
of live-stock records. The last two objects are secured by act
of the Dominion parliament passed in 1005. Under this act
a record committee, appointed annually by the pedigree stud,
herd and flock book associations of Canada, perform the duties
of accepting the entries of pure-bred animals for the respective
pedigree registers, and are provided with an office and with
stationery and franking privileges by the government. Pedigree
certificates are certified as correct by an officer of the department
of agriculture, so that in Canada there exist national registration
and government authority for the accuracy of pedigree live-
stock certificates. The government promotes the extension
of markets for farm products; it maintains officers in the
United Kingdom who make reports from time to time on the
condition in which Canadian goods are delivered from the steam-
ships, and also on what they can learn from importing and
distributing merchants regarding the preferences of the market
for different qualities of farm goods and different sorts of packages.
Through this branch of the public service a complete chain of
cold-storage accommodation between various points in Canada
and markets in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, has been
arranged. The government offered a bonus to those owners of
creameries who would provide cold-storage accommodation at
them and keep the room in use for a period of three years. It also
arranged with the various railway companies to run refrigerator
cars weekly on the main lines leading to Montreal and other
export poin ts. The food-products from any shippers are received
into these cars at the various railway stations at the usual
rates, without extra charge for icing or cold-storage service.
The government offered subventions to those who would provide
cold-storage warehouses at various points where these were
necessary, and also arranged with the owners of ocean steam-
ships to provide cold-storage chambers on them by means of
mechanical refrigerators. The policy of encouraging the provision
of ample cold-storage accommodation has been developed
still further by the Cold Storage Act of the Dominion parliament
passed in 1907, under which subsidies are granted in part pay-
ment of the cost of erecting and equipping cold-storage ware-
houses in Canada for the preservation of perishable food-
products.
Besides furnishing technical and general information as to
the carrying on of dairying operations, the government has
established and maintained illustration cheese factories and
creameries in different places for the purpose of introducing the
best methods of co-operative dairying in both the manufacturing
and shipping of butter and cheese. Inspectors are employed
to give information regarding the packing of fruit, and also to
see to the enforcement of the Fruit Marks Acts, which prohibit
the marking of fruit with wrong brands and packing in any
fraudulent manner.
The seed branch of the department of agriculture was estab-
lished in 1900 for the purpose of encouraging the production and
use of seeds of superior quality, thereby improving all kinds of
field and garden crops grown in Canada. Seeds are tested in
the laboratory for purity and germination on behalf of farmers
and seed merchants, and scientific investigations relating to
seeds are conducted and reported upon. In the year 1906- 1907
6676 samples of seeds were tested. Encouragement to seed-
growing is given by the holding of seed fairs, and bulletins are
issued on weeds, the methods of treating seed-wheat against
smut and on other subjects. Collections of weed seeds are
issued to merchants and others to enable them readily to identify
noxious weed seeds. The Seed Control Act of 1905 brings under
strict regulations the trade in agricultural seeds, prohibiting
the sale for seeding of cereals, grasses, clovers or forage plants
unless free from weeds specified, and imposing severe penalties
for infringements.
The census and statistics office, reorganized as a branch of the
department of agriculture in 1905, undertakes a complete census
of population, of agriculture, of manufactures and of all the
natural products of the Dominion every ten years, a census of
the population and agriculture of the three North- West Provinces
every five years, and various supplemental statistical inquiries
at shorter intervals.
Experimental farms were established in 1887 in different parts
of the Dominion, and were so located as to render efficient help
i S 6
CANADA
[HISTORY
to the farmers in the more thickly settled districts, and at the
same time to cover the varied climatic and other conditions
which influence agriculture in Canada. The central experimental
farm is situated at Ottawa, near the boundary line
Bxp V*j between Quebec and Ontario, where it serves as an aid
fyJZtt, to agriculture in these two important provinces. One
of the four branch farms then established is at Nappan,
Nova Scotia, near the boundary between that province and New
Brunswick, where it serves the farmers of the three maritime
provinces. A second branch experimental farm is at Brandon
in Manitoba, a third is at Indian Head in Saskatchewan and
the fourth is at Agassiz in the coast climate of British Columbia.
In 1 906- 1 907 two new branch farms were established. One is
situated at Lethbridge, southern Alberta, where problems will
be investigated concerning agriculture upon irrigated land and
dry farming under conditions of a scanty rainfall. The other
is at Lacombe, northern Alberta, about 70 m. south of Edmonton,
in the centre of a good agricultural district on the Canadian
Pacific railway. Additional branch farms in different parts of
the Dominion are in process of establishment. At all these
farms experiments are conducted to gain information as to the
best methods of preparing the land for crop and of maintaining
its fertility, the most useful and profitable crops to grow, and
how the various crops grown can be disposed of to the greatest
advantage. To this end experiments are conducted in the
feeding of cattle, sheep and swine for flesh, the feeding of cows
for the production of milk, and of poultry both for flesh and eggs.
Experiments are also conducted to test the merits of new or
untried varieties of cereals and other field crops, of grasses, forage
plants, fruits, vegetables, plants and trees; and samples,
particularly of the most promising cereals, are distributed
freely among farmers for trial, so that those which promise to
be most profitable may be rapidly brought into general cultiva-
tion. Annual reports and occasional bulletins are published
and widely distributed, giving the results of this work. Farmers
are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large corre-
spondence is conducted with those interested in agriculture in
all parts of the Dominion, who are encouraged to ask advice and
information from the officers of the farms.
The governments of the several provinces each have a depart-
ment of agriculture. Among other provincial agencies for
i ^ riu imparting information there are farmers' institutes,
cultural travelling dairies, live-stock associations, farmers',
orgmniwa- dairymen's, seed-growers', and fruit-growers' associa-
tions, and agricultural and horticultural societies.
These are all maintained or assisted by the several
provinces. Parts of the proceedings and many of the ad-
dresses and papers presented at the more important meetings of
these associations are published by the provincial governments,
and distributed free to farmers who desire to have them. There
are also annual agricultural exhibitions of a highly important
character, where improvements in connexion with agricultural
and horticultural products, live-stock, implements, &c, are
shown in competition. The Dominion government makes in
turn to one of the chief local agricultural exhibition societies a
grant of $50,000 for the purposes of the national representation
of agriculture and live-stock. The exhibition receiving the grant
loses its local character, and thus becomes the Dominion exhibi-
tion or fair for that year.
There are several important agricultural colleges for the
practical education of young men in farming, foremost amongst
them being the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. Agri-
cultural colleges are also maintained at Truro, Nova Scotia,
and Winnipeg, Manitoba. In most of the provinces are dairy
schools where practical instruction and training are given.
Since the beginning of the 20th century agricultural education
and rural training in Canada have been greatly stimulated by
the munificence of Sir William C. Macdonald of Montreal. A
donation by him of $10,000, distributed to boys and girls on
Canadian farms for prizes in a competition for the selection of
seed grain, as recommended by Professor J. W. Robertson, led
to the Macdonald- Robertson Seed Growers' Association. This
tloas mad
education,
soon assumed national proportions in the Canadian Seed Growers'
Association, which, with the seed branch of the department of
agriculture mentioned above, has done much to raise to a
uniform standard of excellence the grain grown over large areas
of the Canadian wheat-fields. The Macdonald Institute at
Guelph, Ontario, the buildings and equipment of which Sir
William provided at a cost of $182,500, and the Macdonald
College at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. west of Montreal, have
been established to promote the cause of rural education upon
the lines of nature study, with school gardens, manual training,
domestic science, &c, which on both sides of the Atlantic are
now being found so effective in the hands of properly trained
and enthusiastic teachers. The property of the Macdonald
College at Ste Anne de Bellevue comprises 561 acres, of which
74 acres are devoted to campus and field-research plots, 100 acres
to a petite culture farm and 387 acres to a live-stock and
grain farm. The college includes a school for teachers, a school
of theoretical and practical agriculture and a school of household
science for the training of young women. The land, buildings
and equipment of the college, which cost over $2,500,000, were
presented by Sir William Macdonald, who in addition has pro-
vided for the future maintenance of the work by a trust fund of
over $2,000,000. In connexion with the public elementary schools
throughout Canada, where the principles of agriculture are taught
to some extent, manual training centres, provided out of funds
supplied by the same public-spirited donor, are now maintained
by local and provincial public school authorities. (E. H. G.)
History
About a.d. 1000 Leif Ericsson, a Norseman, led an expedition
from Greenland to the shores probably of what is now Canada,
but the first effective contact of Europeans with Canada pff ffff Ff
was not until the end of the 15th century. John
Cabot (g.».), sailing from Bristol, reached the shores of Canada
in 1497. Soon after fishermen from Europe began to go in
considerable numbers to the Newfoundland banks, and in time
to the coasts of the mainland of America, In 1534 a French
expedition under Jacques Carrier, a seaman of St Malo, sent
out by Francis I., entered the Gulf of St Lawrence. In the
following year Cartier sailed up the river as far as the Lachine
Rapids, to the spot where Montreal now stands. During the
next sixty years the fisheries and the fur trade received some
attention, but no colonization was undertaken.
At the beginning of the 17th century we find the first great
name in Canadian history. Samuel de Champlain (q.v.), who
had seen service under Henry IV. of France, was bl--^
employed in the interests of successive fur-trading cokwr*
monopolies and sailed up the St Lawrence in 1603.
In the next year he was on the Bay of Fundy and had a share
in founding the first permanent French colony in North America
— that of Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia. In 1608
he began the settlement which was named Quebec. From 1608
to his death in 1635 Champlain worked unceasingly to develop
Canada as a colony, to promote the fur trade and to explore
the interior. He passed southward from the St Lawrence to
the beautiful lake which still bears his name and also westward,
up the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, in the dim hope of reaching
the shores of China. He reached Lake Huron and Lake Ontario,
but not the great lakes stretching still farther west.
The era was that of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), and
during that great upheaval England was sometimes fighting
France. Already, in 16 13, the English from Virginia had
almost completely wiped out the French settlement at Port
Royal, and when in 1629 a small English fleet appeared at
Quebec, Champlain was forced to surrender But in 1632
Canada was restored to France by the treaty of St Germain-en-
Laye. Just at this time was formed under the aegis of Cardinal
Richelieu the " Company of New France," known popularly
as "The Company of One Hundred Associates." With 120
members it was granted the whole St Lawrence valley; for
fifteen years from 1629 it was to have a complete monopoly
of trade; and products from its territory were to enter France
HISTORY]
CANADA
*57
free of duty. In return the company was to take to New
France 300 colonists a year; only French Catholics might
go; and for each settlement the company was to provide
three priests. Until 1663 this company controlled New
France.
It was an era of missionary zeal in the Roman Catholic church,
and Canada became the favourite mission. The Society of
Jesus was only one of several orders — Franciscans (Recollets),
Sulpicians, Ursulines, &c. — who worked in New France. The
Jesuits have attracted chief attention, not merely on account
of their superior zeal and numbers, but also because of the
tragic fate of some of their missionaries in Canada. In the
voluminous Relations of their doings the story has been preserved.
Among the Huron Indians, whose settlements bordered on the
lake of that name, they secured a great influence. But there was
relentless war between the Hurons and the Iroquois occupying
the southern shore of Lake Ontario, and when in 1649 the
Iroquois ruined and almost completely destroyed the Hurons,
the Jesuit missionaries also fell victims to the conquerors ,
rage. Missionaries to the Iroquois themselves met with a similar
fate and the missions failed. Commercial life also languished.
The company planned by Richelieu was not a success. It did
little to colonize New France, and in 1660, after more than thirty
years of its monopoly, there were not more than 2000 French
in the whole country. In 1663 the charter of the company
was revoked. No longer was a trading company to discharge
the duties of a sovereign. New France now became a royal
province, with governor, intendant, &c, on the model of the
provinces of France.
In 1664 a new " Company of the West Indies " (Compagnie
des I rules Occidentales) was organized to control French trade
and colonization not only in Canada but also in West Africa,
South America and the West Indies. At first it promised well.
In 1665 some 2000 emigrants were sent to Canada; the
European population was soon doubled, and Louis XIV. began
to take a personal interest in the colony. But once more,
in contrast with English experience, the great trading company
proved a failure in French hands as a colonizing agent, and in
1674 its charter was summarily revoked by Louis XIV. Hence-
forth in name, if not in fact, monopoly is ended in Canada.
By this time French explorers were pressing forward to
unravel the mystery of the interior. By 1659 two Frenchmen,
Radisson and Groseillers, had penetrated beyond the great
lakes to the prairies of the far West; they were probably the
first Europeans to see the Mississippi. By 1666 a French
mission was established on the shores of Lake Superior, and
in 1673 Joliet and Marquette, explorers from Canada, reached
and for some distance descended the Mississippi. Five years
later Cavelier de la Salle was making his toilsome way westward
from Quebec to discover the true character of the great river
and to perform the feat, perilous in view of the probable hostility
of the natives, of descending it to the sea. In 1682 he accom-
plished his task, took possession of the valley of the Mississippi
in the name of Louis XIV. and called it Louisiana. Thus
frpm Canada as her basis was France reaching out to grasp
a continent.
There was a keen rivalry between church and state for
dominance in this new empire. In 1659 arrived at Quebec
a young prelate of noble birth, Francois Xavier de Laval-
Montmorency, who had come to rule the church in Canada.
An ascetic, who practised the whole cycle of medieval austerities,
he was determined that Canada should be ruled by the church,
and he desired for New France a Puritanism as strict as that
of New England. His especial zeal was directed towards the
welfare of the Indians. These people showed, to their own
ruin, a reckless liking for the brandy of the white man. Laval
insisted that the traders should not supply brandy to the natives.
He declared excommunicate any one who did so and for a
time he triumphed. More than once he drove from Canada
governors who tried to thwart him. In 1663 he was actually
invited to choose a governor after his own mind and did so,
but with no cessation of the old disputes. In 1672 Louis de
Buade, comte de Frontenac (q.v.), was named governor of New
France, and in him the church found her match. Yet not
at once; for, after a bitter struggle, he was recalled in 1682.
But Canada needed him. He knew how to control the ferocious
Iroquois, who had cut off France from access to Lake Ontario;
to check them he had built a fort where now stands the city
of Kingston. With Frontenac gone, these savages almost
strangled the colony. On a stormy August night in 1689
1500 Iroquois burst in on the village of Lachine near Montreal,
butchered 200 of its people, and carried off more than 100 to
be tortured to death at their leisure. Then the strong man
Frontenac was recalled to face the crisis.
It was a critical era. James II. had fallen in England, and
William III. was organizing Europe against French aggression.
France's plan for a great empire in America was
now taking shape and there, as in Europe, a deadly J53i*
struggle with England was inevitable. Frontenac Engisnd.
planned attacks upon New England and encouraged
a ruthless border warfare that involved many horrors. Him,
in return, the English attacked. Sir William Phips sailed from
Boston in 1690, conquered Acadia, now Nova Scotia, and then
hazarded the greater task of leading a fleet up the St Lawrence
against Quebec. On the 16th of October 1600 thirty-four
English ships, some of them only fishing craft, appeared in
its basin and demanded the surrender of the town. When
Frontenac answered defiantly, Phips attacked the place; but
he was repulsed and in the end sailed away unsuccessful.
Each side had now begun to see that the vital point was
control of the interior, which time was to prove the most
extensive fertile area in the world. La Salle's expedition had
aroused the French to the importance of the Mississippi, and
they soon had a bold plan to occupy it, to close in from the
rear on the English on the Atlantic coast, seize their colonies
and even deport the colonists. The plan was audacious, for
the English in America outnumbered the French by twenty
to one. But their colonies were democracies, disunited because
each was pursuing its own special interests, while the French
were united under despotic leadership. Frontenac attacked
the Iroquois mercilessly in 1696 and forced these proud savages
to sue for peace. But in the next year was made the treaty
of Ryswick, which brought a pause in the conflict, and in 1698
Frontenac died.
After Frontenac the Iroquois, though still hostile to France,
are formidable no more, and the struggle for the continent is
frankly between the English and the French. The peace of
Ryswick proved but a truce, and when in 170 1, on the death of
the exiled James II., Louis XIV. flouted the claims of William III.
to the throne of England by proclaiming as king James's son,
renewed war was inevitable. In Europe it saw the brilliant
victories of Marlborough; in America it was less decisive, but
France lost heavily. Though the English, led by Sir Hovenden
Walker, made in 171 1 an effort to take Quebec which proved
abortive, they seized Nova Scotia; and when the treaty of
Utrecht was made in 17 13, France admitted defeat in America
by yielding to Britain her claims to Hudson Bay, Newfoundland
and Nova Scotia. But she still held the shores of the St Lawrence,
and she retained, too, the island of Cape Breton to command its
mouth. There she built speedily the fortress of Louisbourg, and
prepared once more to challenge British supremacy in America.
With a sound instinct that looked to future greatness, France
still aimed, more and more, at the control of the interior of the
continent. The danger from the Iroquois on Lake Ontario had
long cut her off from the most direct access to the West, and from
the occupation of the Ohio valley leading to the Mississippi, but
now free from this savage scourge she could go where she would.
In 1 701 she founded Detroit, commanding the route from Lake
Erie to Lake Huron. Her missionaries and leaders were already
at Sault Ste Marie commanding the approach to Lake Superior,
and at Michilimackinac commanding that to Lake Michigan.
They had also penetrated to what is now the Canadian West, and
it was a French Canadian, La Veiendrye, who, by the route
leading past the point where now stands the city of Winnipeg,
i6o
CANADA
[HISTORY
of the necessary capital, but as this was coupled with a voice
in the decision of the route, it complicated the latter question,
about which a keen contest arose. The most direct and therefore
commercially most promising line of construction passed near
the boundary of the United States. Recent friction with that
country made this route objected to by the imperial and many
Canadian authorities. Ultimately the longer, more expensive,
but more isolated route along the shores of the Gulf of
St Lawrence was adopted. The work was taken in hand at once,
and pressed steadily forward to completion. It has since been
supplemented by other lines built for more distinctly com-
mercial ends. Though not for many years a financial success,
the Inter-Colonial railway, which was opened in 1876, has
in a marked way fulfilled its object by binding together socially
and industrially widely separated portions of the Dominion.
Within a month of the meeting of the first parliament of the
Dominion a question of vast importance to the future of the
HudMoa'M country was broughtforward by the Hon.W.McDougall
B*y cotw in a series of resolutions which were adopted, and on
p*ay which was based an address to the queen praying that
Her Majesty would unite Rupert's Land and the North-
West Territories to Canada. A delegation consisting
of Sir G. E. Cartier and the Hon. W. McDougall was in 1868 sent
to England to negotiate with the Hudson's Bay Company (q.v.)
for the extinction of its claims, and to arrange with the imperial
government for the transfer of the territory. After prolonged
discussions the company agreed to surrender to the crown, in
consideration of a payment of £300,000, the rights and interests
in the north-west guaranteed by its charter, with the exception
of a reservation of one-twentieth part of the fertile belt, and
45,000 acres of land adjacent to the trading posts of the company.
For the purposes of this agreement the " fertile belt " was to be
bounded as follows: — " On the south by the U.S. boundary,
on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on the north by the
northern branch of the Saskatchewan river, on the east by
Lake Winnipeg, the Lake of the Woods, and the waters connect-
ing them." An act authorizing the change of control was passed
by the imperial parliament in July 1868; the arrangement made
with the Hudson's Bay Company was accepted by the Canadian
parliament in June 1869; and the deed of surrender from the
Hudson's Bay Company to Her Majesty is dated November 19th,
1869. In anticipation of the formal transfer to the Dominion
an act was passed by the Canadian parliament in the same month
providing for the temporary government of Rupert's Land and
the North- West Territories. On the 28th of September the Hon.
W. McDougall was appointed the first governor, and left at once
to assume control on the 1st of December, when it had been
understood that the formal change of possession would take place.
Meanwhile a serious condition of affairs was developing in the
Red river settlement, the most considerable centre of population
toedrtve m tne new * v squired territory. The half-breeds
rebellion, regarded with suspicion a transfer of control concerning
which they had not been consulted. They resented the
presence of the Canadian surveyors sent to lay out roads
and townships, and the tactless way in which some of these
did their work increased the suspicion that long-established
rights to the soil would not be respected. A population largely
Roman Catholic in creed, and partly French in origin and
language, feared that an influx of new settlers would overthrow
cherished traditions. Some were afraid of increased taxation.
A group of immigrants from the United States fomented disturb-
ance in the hope that it would lead to annexation. Louis Kiel,
a fanatical half-breed, placed himself at the head of the move-
ment. His followers established what they called a " provisional
government " of which he was chosen president, and when the
newly appointed governor reached the boundary line he was
prevented from entering the territory. Several of the white
settlers who resisted this rebellious movement were arrested and
kept in confinement. One of these, a young man named Thomas
Scott, having treated Riel with defiance, was court-martialled
for treason to the provisional government, condemned, and on
the 4th of March 1870, shot in cold blood under the walls of Fort
Garry. This crime aroused intense excitement throughout the
country, and the Orange body, particularly, to which Scott
belonged, demanded the immediate punishment of his murderer
and the suppression of the rebellion. An armed force, composed
partly of British regulars and partly of Canadian volunteers,
was made ready and placed under the command of Colonel
Garnet Wolseley, afterwards Lord Wolseley. As a military
force could not pass through the United States, the expedition
was compelled to take the route up Lake Superior, and from the
head of that lake through 500 m. of unbroken and difficult
wilderness. In August 1870, the force reached Fort Garry,
to find the rebels scattered and their leader, Riel, a fugitive in
the neighbouring states. Meanwhile, during the progress of the
expedition, an act had been passed creating Manitoba a province,
with full powers of self-government, and the arrival of the
military was closely followed by that of the first governor,
Mr (later Sir) Adams G. Archibald, who succeeded in organiz-
ing the administration on a satisfactory basis. Fort Garry
became Winnipeg, and there were soon indications that it
was destined to be a great city, and the commercial door-
way to the vast prairies that lay beyond. Meanwhile, till
adequate means of transportation were provided, it was seen
that city and prairie alike must wait for any large inflow of
population.
Provision was made in the British North America Act to
receive new provinces into the Dominion. Manitoba was the
first to be constituted; in 1871 British Columbia,
which had hitherto held aloof, determined, under the -roviB^,,
persuasion of a sympathetic governor, Mr (later Sir)
Antony Musgrave, to throw in its lot with the Dominion.
Popular feeling in British Columbia itself was not strongly in
favour of union, and the terms under which the new province
was to be received were the subject of much negotiation with the
provincial authorities, and were keenly debated in parliament
before the bill in which they were embodied was finally carried.
The clause on which there was the widest divergence of opinion
was one providing that a trans-continental railway, connecting
the Pacific province with the eastern part of the Dominion,
should be begun within two, and completed within ten years.
To a province which at the time contained a population of only
36,000, and but half of this white, the inducement thus held out
was immense. The Opposition in parliament claimed that the
contract was one impossible for the Dominion to fulfil. The
government of Sir John Macdonald felt, however, that the
future of the Dominion depended upon linking together the
Atlantic and the Pacific, and in view of the vast unoccupied
spaces lying between the Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains,
open to immigration from the United States, their audacity in
undertaking the work was doubtless justified. The construction
of the Canadian Pacific railway, thus inaugurated, became for
several years the chief subject of political contention between
opposing parties.
Anticipating the order of chronology slightly, it may be
mentioned here that in 1873 Prince Edward Island {q.v.), which
had in 1865 decisively rejected proposals of the Quebec conference
and had in the following year repeated its rejection of federation
by a resolution of the legislature affirming that no terms Canada
could offer would be acceptable, now decided to throw in its lot
with the Dominion. The island had become involved in heavy
railway expenditure, and financial necessities led the electors to
take a broader view of the question. In the end the federal
government assumed the railway debt, arrangements were
made for extinguishing certain proprietary rights which had
long been a source of discontent, and on the 1st of July 1873
the Dominion was rounded off by the accession of the new
province.
Finally in 1878, in order to remove all doubts about un-
occupied territory, an imperial order in council was passed
in response to an address of the Canadian parliament, annex-
ing to the Dominion all British possessions in North America,
except Newfoundland. That small colony, which had been re-
presented at the Quebec conference, also rejected the proposals
—x,-t>"
'&Bptf-"-B# >3S° C uo° D i2f E irf F 115°
G 110° H 105° I 100" r % I
CANADA
Scale* 1^14,250,000'
English Miles
o 50 too 200 joo 400
<■■■'-- * * i L
ttaiiwin/s . . . --■ Canals
Principal Watwr partings ■-—■«— Qtacitrs ^?F*
Sffff* Capitals
Pruvincsat Capitals •*«*
M &S N 80° Q 75° P 70' Q 65' R 60° S 55° T S°° U 45° ^V 4Q° W 35
HISTORY]
CANADA
161
Ditfi-
of 1865, and, in spite of various efforts to arrange satisfac-
tory terms, has steadily held aloof, and so has proved the only
obstacle to the complete political unification of British North
America.
A signal proof was soon furnished of the new standing in
the empire which federation had given to the Canadian provinces.
A heritage of differences and difficulties had been
left to be settled between England, Canada and the
wkA th* American Union as the result of the Civil War. In
£Sf retaliation for the supposed sympathy of Canadians
with the South in this struggle the victorious North
took steps to abrogate in 1866 the reciprocity treaty of
1854, which had conferred such great advantages on both
countries. It followed that the citizens of the United States
lost the right which they had received under the treaty to
share in the fisheries of Canada. American fishermen, how-
ever, showed so little inclination to give up what they had
enjoyed so long, that it was found necessary to take vigorous
steps to protect Canadian fishing rights, and frequent causes
of friction consequently arose. During the progress of the
Civil War American feeling had been greatly exasperated by
the losses inflicted on commerce by the cruiser "Alabama,"
which, it was claimed, was allowed to leave a British port in
violation of international law. On the other hand, Canadian
feeling had been equally exasperated by the Fenian raids,
organized on American soil, which had cost Canada much
expenditure of money and some loss of life. In addition to
these causes of difference there was an unsettled boundary
dispute in British Columbia, and questions about the navigation
of rivers common to the United States and Canada. In i860
the government of Canada sent a deputation to England to
press upon the imperial government the necessity of asserting
Canada's position in regard to the fisheries, and the desirability
of settling other questions in dispute with the republic. The
outcome of this application was the appointment of a commission
to consider and if possible settle outstanding differences between
the three countries. The prime minister of the Dominion,
Sir John Macdonald, was asked to act as one of the imperial
commissioners in carrying on these negotiations. This was
the first time that a colonist had been called upon to assist
in the settlement of international disputes. The commission
assembled at the American capital in February 187 1, and
after discussions extending over several weeks signed what
is known as the treaty of Washington. By the terms of this
treaty the "Alabama" claims and the San Juan boundary
were referred to arbitration; the free navigation of the St
Lawrence was granted to the United States in return for the
free use of Lake Michigan and certain Alaskan rivers; and
it was settled that a further commission should decide the
excess of value of the Canadian fisheries thrown open to the
United States over and above the reciprocal concessions made
to Canada. Much to the annoyance of the people of the
Dominion the claims for the Fenian raids were withdrawn
at the request of the British government, which undertook to
make good to Canada any losses she had suffered. To some of
these terms the representative of Canada made a strenuous
opposition, and in finally signing the treaty stated that he
did so chiefly for imperial interests, although in these he
believed Canadian interests to be involved. The clauses relating
to the fisheries and the San Juan boundary were reserved for
the approval of the Canadian parliament, which, in spite of
much violent opposition, ratified them by a large majority.
Under the " Alabama " arbitration Great Britain paid to
the United States damages to the amount of $15,500,000,
while the German Emperor decided the San Juan boundary
in favour of the United States. The Fishery Commission, on
the other hand, which sat in Halifax, awarded Canada $5,500,000
as the excess value of its fisheries for twelve years, and after
much hesitation this sum was paid by the United States into
the Canadian treasury. An imperial guarantee of a loan for
the construction of railways was the only compensation Canada
received for the Fenian raids.
The second general election for the Dominion took place
in 1872. It was marked by the complete defeat of the Anti-
Unionist party in Nova Scotia, only one member of cmmadtim
which secured his election, thus exactly reversing the Pacific
vote of 1867. While Sir John Macdonald's adminis- ^^
tration was supported in Nova Scotia, it was weakened qu *
in Ontario on account of the clemency shown to Riel, and in
Quebec by the refusal to grant a general amnesty to all who had
taken part in the rebellion. Two important members of the
cabinet, Sir G. Carrier and Sir F. Hincks, were defeated.
Opposition to the Washington treaty and dread of the bold
railway policy of the government also contributed to weaken
its position. But a graver blow, ending in the complete over-
throw of the administration, was soon to fall as the result of
the election. In 1872 two companies had been formed and
received charters to build the Canadian Pacific railway. Sir
Hugh Allan of Montreal was at the head of the one, and the
Hon. David Macpherson of Toronto was president of the other.
The government endeavoured to bring about an amalgamation
of these rival companies, believing that the united energies
and financial ability of the whole country were required for
so vast an undertaking. While negotiations to this end were
still proceeding the election of 1872 came on with the result
already mentioned. Soon after the meeting of parliament,
a Liberal member of the House, Mr L. S. Huntingdon, formally
charged certain members of the cabinet with having received
large sums of money, for use in the election, from Sir Hugh Allan,
on condition, as it was claimed, that the Canadian Pacific
contract should be given to the new company, of which he
became the head on the failure of the plan for amalgamation.
These charges were investigated by a royal commission, which
was appointed after it had been decided that the parliamentary
committee named for that purpose could not legally take
evidence under oath. Parliament met in October 1873, to receive
the report of the commission. While members of the government
were exonerated by the report from the charge of personal
corruption, the payment of large sums of money by Sir Hugh
Allan was fully established, and public feeling on the matter
was so strong that Sir J. Macdonald, while asserting his own
innocence, felt compelled to resign without waiting for the
vote of parliament. Lord Dufferin, who had succeeded Lord
Lisgar as governor-general in 1872, at once sent for the
leader of the Opposition, Mr Alexander Mackenzie (q.v.) f
who succeeded in forming a Liberal administration which,
on appealing to the constituencies, was supported by an over-
whelming majority, and held power for the five following years.
On the accession to power of the Liberal party, a new policy
was adopted for the construction of the trans-continental
railway. It was proposed to lessen the cost of construction by
utilizing the water stretches along the route, while, on the ground
that the contract made was impossible of fulfilment, the period
of completion was postponed indefinitely. Meanwhile the
surveys and construction were carried forward not by a company,
but as a government work. Under this arrangement British
Columbia became exceedingly restive, holding the Dominion
to the engagement by which it had been induced to enter the
union. A representative of the government, Mr (later Sir
James) Edgar, sent out to conciliate the province by some
new agreement, failed to accomplish his object, and all the
influence of the governor-general, Lord Dufferin, who paid
a visit at this time to the Pacific coast, was required to quiet
the public excitement, which had shown itself in a resolution
passed by the legislature for separation from the Dominion
unless the terms of union were fulfilled.
Meanwhile a policy destined to affect profoundly the future
of the Dominion had, along with that of the construction
of the Canadian Pacific railway, become a subject
of burning political discussion and party division. »J^ aa i
During the period of Mr Mackenzie's administration poiky."
a profound business depression affected the whole
continent of America. The Dominion revenue showed a series
of deficits for several years in succession. The factories of
v. 6
164
CANADA
[HISTORY
The Washington Treaty of 1871 has already been referred to.
Its clauses dealing with the fisheries and trade lasted for fourteen
years, and were then abrogated by the action of the United
States. Various proposals on the part of Canada for a renewal
of the reciprocity were not entertained. After 1885 Canada was
therefore compelled to fall back upon the treaty of 1818 as the
guarantee of her fishing rights. It became necessary to enforce
the terms of that convention, under which the fishermen of the
United States could not pursue their avocations within the three
miles' limit, tranship cargoes of fish in Canadian ports, or enter
them except for shelter, water, wood or repairs. On account of
infractions of the treaty many vessels were seized and some were
condemned. In 1887 a special commission was appointed to
deal with the question. On this commission Mr Joseph Chamber-
lain, Sir Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper represented
British and Canadian interests; Secretary T. F. Bayard, Mr
W. le B. Putnam and Mr James B. Angell acted for the United
States. The commission succeeded in agreeing to the terms of
a treaty, which was recommended to Congress by President
Cleveland as supplying " a satisfactory, practical and final
adjustment, upon a basis honourable and just to both parties,
of the difficult and vexed questions to which it relates." This
agreement, known as the Chamberlain-Bayard treaty, was
rejected by the Senate, and as a consequence it became necessary
to carry on the fisheries under a modus vivendi renewed annually.
In 1886 a difference about international rights on the high seas
arose on the Pacific coast in connexion with the seal fisheries
of Bering Sea. In that year several schooners, fitted out in
British Columbia for the capture of seals in the North Pacific,
were seized by a United States cutter at a distance of 60 m.
from the nearest land, the officers were imprisoned and fined,
and the vessels themselves subjected to forfeiture. The British
government at once protested against this infraction of inter-
national right, and through long and troublesome negotiations
firmly upheld Canada's claims in the matter. The dispute was
finally referred to a court of arbitration, on which Sir John
Thompson, premier of the Dominion, sat as one of the British
arbitrators. It was decided that the United States had no
jurisdiction in the Bering Sea beyond the three miles' limit, but
the court also made regulations to prevent the wholesale slaughter
of fur-bearing seals. The sum of $463,454 was finally awarded
as compensation to the Canadian sealers who had been unlawfully
seized and punished. This sum was paid by the United States
in 1898.
As the result of communications during 1897 between Sir
Wilfrid Laurier and Secretary Sherman, the governments of
Great Britain and the United States agreed to the appointment
of a joint high commission, with a view of settling all outstanding
differences between the United States and Canada. The com-
mission, which included three members of the Canadian cabinet
and a representative of Newfoundland, and of which Lord
Herschell was appointed chairman, met at Quebec on the 23rd
of August 1898. The sessions continued in Quebec at intervals
until the 10th of October, when the commission adjourned to
meet in Washington on the 1st of November, where the discussions
were renewed for some weeks. Mr Nelson Dingley, an American
member of the commission, died during the month of January,
as did the chairman, Lord Herschell, in March, as the result of
an accident, soon after the close of the sittings of the commission.
The Alaskan boundary, the Atlantic and inland fisheries, the
alien labour law, the bonding privilege, the seal fishery in the
Bering Sea and reciprocity of trade in certain products were
among the subjects considered by the commission. On several
of these points much progress was made towards a settlement,
but a divergence of opinion as to the methods by which the
Alaskan boundary should be determined put an end for the time
to the negotiations.
In 1903 an agreement was reached by which the question of
this boundary, which depended on the interpretation put upon
the treaty of 1825 between Russia and England, should be
submitted to a commission consisting of "six impartial jurists
of repute," three British and three American. The British
commissioners appointed were: Lord Alverstone, lord chief
justice of England; Sir Louis Jette, K.C., of Quebec; and A.B.
Aylesworth, K.C., of Toronto. On the American side were
appointed: the Hon. Henry C. Lodge, senator for Massachusetts;
the Hon. Elihu Root, secretary of war for the United States
government; and Senator George Turner. Canadians could not
be persuaded that the American members fulfilled the condition
of being " impartial jurists," and protest was made, but, though
the imperial government also expressed surprise, no change
in the appointments was effected. The commission met in
London, and announced its decision in October. This was
distinctly unfavourable to Canada's claims, since it excluded
Canadians from all ocean inlets as far south as the Portland
Channel, and in that channel gave to Canada only two of the
four islands claimed. A statement made by the Canadian
commissioners, who refused to sign the report, of an unexplained
change of opinion on the part of Lord Alverstone, produced a
widespread impression for a time that his decision in favour
of American claims was diplomatic rather than judicial. Later
Canadian opinion, however, came to regard the decision of the
commission as a reasonable compromise. The irritation caused
by the decision gradually subsided, but at the moment it led
to strong expressions on the part of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and
others in favour of securing for Canada a fuller power of making
her own treaties. While the power of making treaties must
rest ultimately in the hands that can enforce them, the tendency
to give the colonies chiefly interested a larger voice in inter-
national arrangements had become inevitable. The mission
of a Canadian cabinet minister, the Hon. R. Lemieux, to Japan
in 1907, to settle Canadian difficulties with that country, illus-
trated the change of diplomatic system in progress.
Under the British North American Act the control of education
was reserved for the provincial governments, with a stipulation
that all rights enjoyed by denominational schools at gaaottO^m.
the time of confederation should be respected. Pro-
vincial control has caused some diversity of management; the
interpretation of the denominational agreement has led to acute
differences of opinion which have invaded the field of politics.
In all the provinces elementary, and in some cases secondary,
education is free, the funds for its support being derived from
local taxation and from government grants. The highly organized
school system of Ontario is directed by a minister of education,
who is a member of the provincial cabinet. The other provinces
have boards of education, and superintendents who act under
the direction of the provincial legislatures. In Quebec the
Roman Catholic schools, which constitute the majority, are
chiefly controlled by the local clergy of that church. The
Protestant schools are managed by a separate board. In
Ontario as well as in Quebec separate schools are allowed to
Roman Catholics. In Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince
Edward Island, Manitoba and British Columbia the public
schools are strictly undenominational. This position was only
established in New Brunswick and Manitoba after violent
political struggles, and frequent appeals to the highest courts of
the empire for decisions on questions of federal or provincial juris-
diction. The right of having separate schools has been extended
to the newly constituted provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Secondary education is provided for by high schools and
collegiate institutes in all towns and cities, and by large resi-
dential institutions at various centres, conducted on the principle
of the English public schools. The largest of these is Upper
Canada College at Toronto. Each province has a number of
normal and model schools for the training of teachers. For
higher education there are also abundant facilities. M'Gill
University at Montreal has been enlarged and splendidly en-
dowed by the munificence of a few private individuals; Toronto
University by the provincial legislature of Ontario; Queen's
University at Kingston largely by the support of its own graduates
and friends. University work in the maritime provinces, instead
of being concentrated, as it might well be, in one powerful
institution, is distributed among five small, but within their
range efficient universities. The agricultural college at Guelph and
HIST0RV1
CANADA
165
Indian
tribe*.
the experimental farms maintained by the federal government
give excellent training and scientific assistance to farmers.
Sir William Macdonald in 1908 built and endowed, at an ex-
penditure of at least £700,000, an agricultural college and normal
school at St Anne's, near Montreal. While the older universities
have increased greatly in influence and efficiency, the following
new foundations have been made since confederation: — Uni-
versity of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1877; Presbyterian College,
Winnipeg, 1870; Methodist College, Winnipeg, 1888; Wesleyan
College, Montreal, 1873; Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868;
School of Practical Science, Toronto, 1877; Royal Military
College, Kingston, 1875; M'Master University, Toronto, 1888.
All the larger universities have schools of medicine in affiliation,
and have the power of conferring medical degrees. Since 1877
Canadian degrees have been recognized by the Medical Council
of Great Britain.
In her treatment of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country
(numbering 93,318 in 1001) Canada has met with conspicuous
success. Since the advance of civilization and indis-
criminate slaughter have deprived them of the bison,
so long their natural means of subsistence, the north-
west tribes have been maintained chiefly at the expense of
the country. As a result of the great care now used in watching
over them there has been a small but steady increase in their
numbers. Industrial and boarding schools, established in
several of the provinces, by separating the children from the
degrading influences of their home life, have proved more
effectual than day schools for training them in the habits and
ideas of a higher civilization. (See Indians, North American.)
The constitution of the Dominion embodies the first attempt
made to adapt British principles and methods of government
-#*--. to a fokral system. The chief executive authority
tion is vested in the sovereign, as is the supreme command
of the military and naval forces. The governor-
general represents, and fulfils the functions of, the crown,
which appoints him. He holds office for five years, and his
powers are strictly limited, as in the case of the sovereign,
all executive acts being done on the advice of his cabinet, the
members of which hold office only so long as they retain the
confidence of the people as expressed by their representatives
in parliament. The governor-general has, however, the inde-
pendent right to withhold his assent to any bill which he considers
in conflict with imperial interests. The following governors-
general have represented the crown since the federation of the
provinces, with the year of their appointment : Viscount Monck,
1867; Sir John Young (afterwards Baron Lisgar), 1868; the
earl of Dufferin, 1872; the marquess of Lome (afterwards duke
of Argyll), 1878; the marquess of Lansdowne, 1883; Lord
Stanley of Preston (afterwards earl of Derby), 1888; the earl
of Aberdeen, 1893; the earl of Minto, 1898; Earl Grey, 1904.
The upper house, or Senate, is composed of members who hold
office for life and are nominated by the governor-general in
council. It originally consisted of 72 members, 24 from Quebec,
24 from Ontario, and 24 from the maritime provinces, but this
number has been from time to time slightly increased as new
provinces have been added. The House of Commons consists
of representatives elected directly by the people. The number
of members, originally 196, is subject to change after each
decennial census. The basis adopted in the British North
America Act is that Quebec shall always have 65 representatives,
and each of the other provinces such a number as will give
the same proportion of members to its population as the number
65 bears to the population of Quebec at each census. In 1908
the number of members was 218.
Members of the Senate and of the House of Commons receive
an annual indemnity of $2500, with a travelling allowance.
Legislation brought forward in 1906 introduced an innovation
in assigning a salary of $7000 to the recognized leader of the
Opposition, and pensions amounting to half their official income
to ex-cabinet ministers who have occupied their posts for
five consecutive years. This pension clause has since been
repealed. One principal object of the framers of the Canadian
constitution was to establish a strong central government. An
opposite plan was therefore adopted to that employed in the
system of the United States, where the federal government
enjoys only the powers granted to it by the sovereign states.
The British North America Act assigns to the different provinces,
as to the central parliament, their spheres of control, but all
residuary powers are given to the general government. Within
these limitations the provincial assemblies have a wide range of
legislative power. In Nova Scotia and Quebec the bicameral
system of an upper and lower house is retained; in the other
provinces legislation is left to a single representative assembly.
For purely local matters municipal institutions are organized
to cover counties and townships, cities and towns, all based
on an exceedingly democratic franchise.
The creation of a supreme court engaged the attention of
Sir John Macdonald in the early years after federation, but
was only finally accomplished in 1876, during the premiership
of Alexander Mackenzie. This court is presided over by a chief
justice, with five puisne judges, and has appellate civil and
criminal jurisdiction for the Dominion. By an act passed in
1891 the government has power to refer to the supreme court
any important question of law affecting the public interest.
The right of appeal from the supreme court, thus constituted,
to the judicial committee of the privy council marks, in questions
judicial, Canada's place as a part of the British empire.
The appointment, first made in 1897, of the chief justice
of Canada, along with the chief justices of Cape Colony and
South Australia, as colonial members of the judicial committee
still further established the position of that body as the final
court of appeal for the British people. The grave questions
of respective jurisdiction which have from time to time arisen
between the federal and provincial governments have for the
most part been settled by appeal to one or both of these judicial
bodies. Some of these questions have played a considerable
part in Canadian politics, but are of too complicated a nature
to be dealt with in the present brief sketch. They have
generally consisted in the assertion of provincial rights against
federal authority. The decision of the courts has always been
accepted as authoritative and final.
An excellent bibliography of Canadian history will be found in the
volume Literature of American History, published by the American
Library Association. The annual Review of Historical Publications
Relating to Canada, published by the University of Toronto, gives
a critical survey of the works on Canadian topics appearing from
year to year. (G. R. P.)
Literature
1. English-Canadian Literature is marked by the weaknesses
as well as the merits of colonial life. The struggle for existence,
the conquering of the wilderness, has left scant room for broad
culture or scholarship, and the very fact that Canada is a colony,
however free to control her own affairs, has stood in the way
of the creation of anything like a national literature. And yet,
while Canada's intellectual product is essentially an offshoot
of the parent literature of England, it is not entirely devoid of
originality, either in manner or matter. There is in much of
it a spirit of freedom and youthful vigour characteristic of the
country. It is marked by the wholesomeness of Canadian life
and Canadian ideals, and the optimism of a land of limitless
potentialities.
The first few decades of the period of British rule were lean
years indeed so far as native literature is concerned. This
period of unrest gave birth to little beyond a flood of political
pamphlets, of no present value save as material for the historian.
We may perhaps except the able though thoroughly partisan
writings of Sir John Beverley Robinson and Bishop Strachan
on the one side, and Robert Fleming Gourlay and William
Lyon Mackenzie on the other. In the far West, however, a
little group of adventurous fur-traders, of whom Sir Alexander
Mackenzie, David Thompson, Alexander Henry and Daniel
Williams Harmon may be taken as conspicuous types, were
unfolding the vast expanse of the future dominion. They were
men of action, not of words, and had no thought of literary
i6b
CANADA
[LITERATURE
fame, but their absorbingly interesting journals are none the
less an essential part of the literature of the country.
Barring the work of Francis Parkman, who was not a Canadian,
no history of the first rank has yet been written in or of Canada.
Canadian historians have not merely lacked so far the genius
for really great historical work, but they have lacked the point
of view; they have stood too close to their subject to get the
true perspective. At the same time they have brought together
invaluable material for the great historian of the future. Robert
Christie's History of Lower Canada (i 848-1 854) was the first
serious attempt to deal with the period of British rule. William
Kingsford's (1810-1898) ambitious work, in ten volumes, comes
down like Christie's to the Union of 1841, but goes back to the
very beginnings of Canadian history. In the main it is impartial
and accurate, but the style is heavy and sometimes slovenly.
J. C. Dent's (1841-1888) Last Forty Years (1880) is practically
a continuation of Kingsford. Dent also wrote an interesting
though one-sided account of the rebellion of 1837. Histories
of the maritime provinces have been written by Thomas Chandler
Haliburton, Beamish Murdoch and James Hannay. Hali-
burton's is much the best of the three. The brief but stirring
history of western Canada has been told by Alexander Begg
(1840- 1 898); and George Bryce (b. 1844) and Beckles Willson
(b. 1869) have written the story of the Hudson's Bay Company .
Much scholarship and research have been devoted to local and
special historical subjects, a notable example of which is Arthur
Doughty 's exhaustive work on the siege of Quebec. J. McMullen
(b. 1820), Charles Roberts (b. i860) and Sir John Bourinot
(1837-1902) have written brief and popular histories, covering
the whole field of Canadian history more or less adequately.
Alpheus Todd's (1821-1884) Parliamentary Government in
England (1867-1869) and Parliamentary Government in the
British Colonies (1880) are standard works, as is also Bourinot's
Parliamentary Procedure and Practice (1884).
Biography has been devoted mainly to political subjects.
The best of these are Joseph Pope's Memoirs of Sir John Mac-
donald (1894), W. D. le Sueur's Frontenac (1906), Sir John
Bourinot's Lord Elgin (1905), Jean Mcllwraith's Sir Frederick
Haldimand (1904), D. C. Scott's John Graves Simcoe (1905),
A. D. de Celles' Papineau and Cartier (1904), Charles Lindsey's
William Lyon Mackenzie (1862), J. W. Longley's Joseph Howe
(1005) and J. S. Willison's Sir Wilfrid Laurier (1903).
In belles lettres very little has been accomplished, unless we
may count Goldwin Smith (q.v.) as a Canadian. As a scholar,
a thinker, and a master of pure English he has exerted a marked
influence upon Canadian literature and Canadian life.
While mediocrity is the prevailing characteristic of most
of what passes for poetry in Canada, a few writers have risen
to a higher level. The conditions of Canadian life have not been
favourable to the birth of great poets, but within the limits
of their song such men as Archibald Lampman (1861-1891),
William Wilfred Campbell (b. 1861), Charles Roberts, Bliss
Carman (b. 1861) and George Frederick Cameron have written
lines that are well worth remembering. Lampman's poetry is
the most finished and musical. He fell short of being a truly
great poet, inasmuch as great poetry must, which his does not,
touch life at many points, but his verses are marked by the
qualities that belonged to the man — sincerity, purity, seriousness.
Campbell's poetry, in spite of a certain lack of compression, is
full of dramatic vigour; Roberts has put some of his best work
into sonnets and short lyrics, while Carman has been very
successful with the ballad, the untrammelled swing and sweep
of which he has finely caught; the simplicity and severity of
Cameron's style won the commendation of even so exacting a
critic as Matthew Arnold. One remarkable drama — Charles
Heavysege's (1816-1876) Saul (1857)— belongs to Canadian
literature. Though unequal in execution, it contains passages
of exceptional beauty and power. The sweetness and maturity
of Isabella Valency Crawford's (1851-1887) verse are also very
worthy of remembrance. The habitant poems of Dr W. H.
Drummond (1854-1007) stand in a class by themselves,
between English and French Canadian literature, presenting
the simple life of the habitant with unique humour and
picturesqueness.
The first distinctively Canadian novel was John Richardson's
(1706-185 2) Wacousta (1832), a stirring tale of the war of 1812.
Richardson afterwards wrote half a dozen other romances,
dealing chiefly with incidents in Canadian history. Susanna
Moodie (1803-1885) and Katharine Parr Traill (1802-1899),
sisters of Agnes Strickland, contributed novels and tales to one
of the earliest and best of Canadian magazines, the Literary
Garland (1838-1847). The Golden Dog, William Kirby's (181 7-
1906) fascinating romance of old Quebec, appeared in 1877,
in a pirated edition. Twenty years later the first authorized
edition was published. James de Mille (1 833-1 880) was the
author of some thirty novels, the best of which is Helena's
Household (1868), a story of Rome in the 1st century. The
Dodge Club (1869), a humorous book of travel, appeared, curiously
enough, a few months before Innocents Abroad. De Mille's
posthumous novel, A Strange Manuscript found in a Copper
Cylinder (1888), describes a singular race whose cardinal doctrine
is that poverty is honourable and wealth the reverse. Sir Gilbert
Parker (b. 1862) stands first among contemporary Canadian
novelists. He has made admirable use in many of his novels
of the inexhaustible stores of romantic and dramatic material
that lie buried in forgotten pages of Canadian history. Of
later Canadian novelists mention may be made of Sara Jeannette
Duncan (Mrs Everard Cotes, b. 1862), Ralph Connor (Charles
W. Gordon, b. 1866), Agnes C. Laut (b. 1872), W. A. Fraser
(b. 1859) and Ernest Thompson Seton (b. i860). Thomas
Chandler Haliburton (q.v.) stands in a class by himself. In many
respects his is the most striking figure in Canadian literature.
He is best known as a humorist, and as a humorist he ranks
with the creates of " My Uncle Toby " and " Pickwick." But
there is more than humour in Haliburton's books. He lacked,
in fact, but one thing to make him a great novelist: he had no
conception of how to construct a plot. But he knew human
nature, and knew it intimately in all its phases; he could
construct a character and endow it with life; his people talk
naturally and to the point; and many of his descriptive
passages are admirable. Those who read Haliburton's books
only for the sake of the humour will miss much of their value.
His inimitable Clockmaker (1837), as well as the later books,
The Old Judge (1849), The Attach* (1843), Wise Saws and
Modern Instances (1853) and Nature and Human Nature (1855),
are mirrors of colonial life and character. i
For general treatment of English-Canadian literature, reference'
may be made to Sir John Bourinot's Intellectual Development of the
Canadian People (1881); G. Mercer Adam's Outline Historv of
Canadian Literature (1887); "Native Thought and Literature/'
in J. E. Collins's Life of Str John A. Macdonald (1883) ; " Canadian
Literature," by J. M. Oxley, in the Encyclopaedia Americana, vol. ix.
(1904); A. MacMurchy's Handbook of Canadian Literature (1906);
and articles by J. Castell Hopkins, John Reade, A. B. de Mille and
Thomas O'Hagan, in vol. v. of Canada : an Encyclopaedia of the
Country (1898-1900); also to Henry J. Morgan's Bibltotheca Cana-
densis (1867) and Canadian Men and Women of the Time (1898);
W. D. Lighthall, Songs of the Great Dominion; Theodore Rand's
Treasury of Canadian Verse (1900); C. C. James's Bibliography of
Canadian Verse (1898); L. E. Homing's and L. J. Burpee's Biblio-
graphy of Canadian Fiction (1904) ; S. E. Dawson's Prose Writers of
Canada (1901) ; " Canadian Poetry," by J. A. Cooper, in The
National, 29, p. 364; " Recent Canadian Fiction," by L. J. Burpee,
in The Forum, August 1899. For individual authors, see Hali-
burton's A Centenary Chaplet (1897), with a bibliography; " Hali-
burton," by F. Blake Crofton, in Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the
Country; C. H. Farnham's Life of Francis Parkman and H. D.
Sedgwick's Francis Parkman (1901); and articles on " Parkman,"
by E. L. Godlrin, in The Nation, 71, p. 441; by Justin Winsor in
The Atlantic, 73, p. 660; by W. D. Howells, The Atlantic, 34, p. 602;
by John Fiske, The Atlantic, 73, p. 664; by J. B. Gilder in The
Critic, 23, p. 322; " Goldwin Smith as a Critic," by H. Spencer,
Contemp. Review, 41, p. 519; " Goldwin Smith's Historical Works,"
by C. E. Norton, North American Review, 99, p. 523; "Poetry of
Charles Heavysege," by Bayard Taylor, Atlantic, 16, p. 412;
" Charles Heavysege," by L. J. Burpee, in Trans. Royal Society of
Canada, 1901 ; <T Archibald Lampman," by VV. D. Howells, Literature
(N.Y.), 4, p. 217; "Archibald Lampman," by L. J. Burpee, in
North American Notes and Queries (Quebec), August and September
1900; "Poetry of Bliss Carman," by J. P. Mowbray, Critic, 41.
LITERATURE]
CANADA
167
p. 308 ; " Isabella Valency Crawford," in Poet-Lore (Boston), xiii. No.
4; Roberts and the Influences of his Time (1906), by Jame9 Cappon;
" William Wilfred Campbell," Sewanee Review, October 1900;
" Kingsford's History of Canada," by G. M. Wrong, N. A. Review,
1, p. 550; "Books of Gilbert Parker," by C. A. Pratt, Critic, 33,
p. 271. (L J. B.)
2. French-Canadian Literature at the opening of the 20th
century might be described as entirely the work of two genera-
tions, and it was separated from the old regime by three more
generations whose racial sentiment only found expression in
the traditional songs and tales which their forefathers of the
17th century had brought over from the mere palrie. Folk-lore
has always been the most essentially French of all imaginative
influences in Canadian life; and the songs are the quintessence
of the lore. Not that the folk-songs have no local variants.
Indian words, like moccasin and toboggan, are often introduced.
French forms are freely turned into pure Canadi&nisms, like
cageux, raftsman, boucane, brushwood smoke, portage, &c.
New characters, which appeal more directly to the local audience,
sometimes supplant old ones, like the quatre vieux sauvages
who have ousted the time-honoured quatre-z-officiers from the
Canadian version of Malbrouk. There are even a few entire
songs of transatlantic origin. But all these variants together
are mere stray curios among the crowding souvenirs of the
old home over sea. No other bridge can rival le Pont d' Avignon.
" Ici " in Cest le bon vin qui danse ici can be nowhere else but
in old France — le bon vin alone proves this. And the Canadian
folk-singer, though in a land of myriad springs, still goes a la
claire fontaine of his ancestral fancy; while the lullabies his
mother sang him, like the love-songs with which he serenades
his blonde, were nearly all sung throughout the Normandy of
le Grand Monarque. The habitant was separated from old-
world changes two centuries ago by difference of place and
circumstances, while he has hitherto been safeguarded from
many new-world changes by the segregative influences of race,
religion, language and custom; and so his folk-lore still remains
the intimate alter et idem of what it was in the days of the great
pioneers. It is no longer a living spirit among the people at
large; but in secluded villages and " back concessions " one
can still hear some charming melodies as old and pure as the
verses to which they are sung, and even a few quaint survivals
of Gregorian tunes. The best collection, more particularly
from the musical point of view, is Les Chansons populaires
du Canada, started by Ernest Gagnon (1st ed. 1865).
Race-patriotism is the distinguishing characteristic of French-
Canadian literature, which is so deeply rooted in national
politics that L. J. Papineau, the most insistent demagogue
of 1837, must certainly be named among the founders, for
the sake of speeches which came before written works both
in point of time and popular esteem. Only 360 volumes had
been published during 80 years, when, in 1845, the first famous
book appeared— Francois Xavier Garneau's (1800-1866) Histoire
du Canada. It had immense success in Canada, was favourably
noticed in France, and has influenced all succeeding men of
letters. Unfortunately, the imperfect data on which it is based,
and the too exclusively patriotic spirit in which it is written,
prevent it from being an authoritative history: the author
himself declares " Vous verrez si la dSfaite de nos ancitres ne
vaut pas toutes les victoires" But it is of far-reaching importance
as the first great literary stimulus to racial self-respect. " Le
Canada francais avait perdu ses lettres de noblesse; Garneau
les lui a rendues." F. X. Garneau is also remembered for his
poems, and he was followed by his son Alfred Garneau (1836-
1904).
A. Genn-Lajoie was a mere lad when the exile of some com-
patriots inspired Le Canadien errant, which immediately became
a universal folk-song. Many years later he wrote discrimin-
atingly about those Dix ans au Canada (1888) that saw the
establishment of responsible government. But his fame rests
on Jean Rivard (1874), the prose bucolic of the habitant. The
hero, left at the head of a fatherless family of twelve when
nearly through college, turns from the glut of graduates swarming
round the prospects of professional city-bred careers, steadfastly
wrests a home from the wilderness, helps his brothers and
sisters, marries a habitante fit for the wife of a pioneer, brings
up a large family, and founds a settlement which grows into
several parishes and finally becomes the centre of the electoral
district of " Rivard ville," which returns him to parliament
These simple and earnest Scenes de la vie rielle are an appealing
revelation of that eternal secret of the soil which every people
wishing to have a country of its own must early lay to heart;
and Jean Rivard, le dSfricheur, will always remain the eponym
of the new colons of the 19th century.
Philippe de Gaspe's historical hovel, Les Anciens Canadicns
( 1 863) , is the complement of Garneau and Gerin-Lajoie. Every-
thing about the author's life helped him to write this book.
Born in 1784, and brought up among reminiscent eye-witnesses
of the old r6gime, he was an eager listener, with a wonderful
memory and whole-hearted pride in the glories of his race and
family, a kindly seigneur, who loved and was loved by all his
censitaires, a keen observer of many changing systems, down
to the final Confederation of 1867, and a man who had felt
both extremes of fortune (MSmoires, 1866). The story rambles
rather far from its well-worn plot. But these very digressions
give the book its intimate and abiding charm; for they keep
the reader in close personal touch with every side of Canadian
life, with songs and tales and homely forms of speech, with
the best features of seigniorial times and the strong guidance
of an ardent church, with voyageurs, coureurs de bois, Indians,
soldiers, sailors and all the strenuous adventurers of a wild,
new, giant world. The poet of this little band of authors was
Octave Cremazie, a Quebec bookseller, who failed in business
and spent his last years as a penniless exile in France. He
is usually rather too derivative, he lacks the saving grace of
style, and even his best Canadian poems hardly rise above
fervent occasional verse. Yet he became a national poet,
because he was the first to celebrate occasions of deeply felt
popular emotion in acceptable rhyme, and he will always remain
one because each occasion touched some lasting aspiration
of his race. He sings what Garneau recounts — the love of
mother country, mother church and Canada. The Guerre de
Crimie, Guerre d'ltalie, even Castel-fidardo, are duly chronicled.
An ode on Mgr. de Montmorency-Laval, first bishop of Quebec,
brings him nearer to his proper themes, which are found in full
perfection in the Chant du vieux soldat canadien, composed in
1856 to honour the first French man-of-war that visited British
Quebec, and Le Drapeau de Carillon (1858), a centennial paean
for Montcalm's Canadians at Ticonderoga. Much of the mature
work of this first generation, and of the juvenilia of the second,
appeared in Les Soirees canadiennes and Le Foyer canadien,
founded in 1862 and 1863 respectively. The abb6 Ferland was
an enthusiastic editor and historian, and Etienne Parent should
be remembered as the first Canadian philosopher.
At Confederation many eager followers began to take up the
work which the founders were laying down. The abbe Casgrain
devoted a life-time to making the French- Canadians appear as
the chosen people of new-world history; but, though an able
advocate, he spoilt a really good case by trying to prove too
much. His Pelerinage au pays d> Evangeline (1888) is a splendid
defence of the unfortunate Acadians; and all his books attract
the reader by their charm of style and personality. But his
Montcalm et Levis (1891) and other works on the conquest, are
all warped by a strong bias against both Wolfe and Montcalm,
and in favour of Vandreuil, the Canadian-born governor; while
they show an inadequate grasp of military problems, and
practically ignore the vast determining factor of sea-power
altogether. Benjamin Suite's comprehensive Histoire des
Canadiens-francais (1882) is a well-written, many-sided work.
Thomas Chapais' monographs are as firmly grounded as they
are finely expressed; his Jean Talon (1904) is ot prime im-
portance; and his Montcalm (1001) is the generous amende
honorable paid by French-Canadian literature to a much mis-
represented, but admirably wrought, career. A. G6rin-Lajoie's
cry of " back to the land " was successfully adapted to modern
developments in Le Saguenay (1896) and L'Outaouais superieur
i68
CANAL
(1889) by Arthur Buies, who showed what immense inland
breadths of country lay open to suitable " Jean Rivards " from
the older settlements along the St Lawrence. In curatory,
which most French-Canadians admire beyond all other forms
of verbal art, Sir Wilfrid Laurier has greatly surpassed L. J.
Papineau, by dealing with more complex questions, taking a
higher point of view, and expressing himself with a much apter
flexibility of style.
Among later poets may be mentioned Pierre Chauveau (1820-
1800), Louis Fiset, (b. 1827), and Adolphe Poisson (b. 1849).
Louis Frechette (1 830-1 008) has,however, long been the only poet
with a reputation outside of Canada. In 1 879 Les Fleurs bor tales
won the Prix Monthyon from the French Academy. In 1887
La Ligende d'un peuple became the acknowledged epic of a race.
He occasionally nods; is rather strident in the patriotic vein;
and too often answers the untoward call of rhetoric when his
subject is about to soar into the heights of poetry. But a rich
vocabulary, a mastery of verse-forms quite beyond the range
of Cremazie, real originality of conception, individual distinction
of style, deep insight into the soul of his people, and, still more,
the glow of warm-blooded life pulsing through the whole poem,
all combine to give him the greatest place at home and an im-
portant one in the world at large. Les Vengeances (1875),
by Leon Pamphile Le May, and Les Aspirations (1904), by W.
Chapman, worthily represent the older and younger contem-
poraries. Dr N6r6e Beauchemin keeps within somewhat narrow
limits in Les Floraisons mattUinales (1897); but within them
he shows true poetic genius, a fine sense of rhythm, rhyme and
verbal melody, a curiosa felicitas of epithet and phrase, and
so sure an eye for local colour that a stranger could choose no
better guide to the imaginative life of Canada.
A Canadian drama hardly exists; among its best works are
the pleasantly epigrammatic plays of F. G. Marchand. Novels
are not yet much in vogue; though Madame Conan's VOublU
(1902) has been crowned by the Academy; while Dr Choquette's
Les Ribaud (1898) is a good dramatic story, and his Claude
Paysan (1899) is an admirably simple idyllic tale of the hopeless
love of a soil-bound habitant, told with intense natural feeling
and fine artistic reserve. Chief- Justice Routhier, a most accom-
plished occasional writer, is very French-Canadian when arraign-
ing Les Grands Dr antes of the classics (1889) before his ecclesi-
astical court and finding them guilty of Paganism.
The best bibliographies are Phileas Gagnon's Essai de biblio-
rraphie canadienne (1895), and Dr N. E. Dionne's list of publications
from the earliest times in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada for 1905. (W. Wo.)
CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being
doublets of the word), an artificial water course used for the
drainage of low lands, for irrigation (q.v.), or more especially
for the purpose of navigation by boats, barges or ships. Probably
the first canals were made for irrigation, but in very early times
they came also to be used for navigation, as in Assyria and Egypt.
The Romans constructed various works of the kind, and Charle-
magne projected a system of waterways connecting the Main
and the Rhine with the Danube, while in China the Grand Canal,
joining the Pei-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang and constructed in the
13th century, formed an important artery of commerce, serving
also for irrigation. But although it appears from Marco Polo
that inclines were used on the Grand Canal, these early waterways
suffered in general from the defect that no method being known
of conveniently transferring boats from one level to another
they were only practicable between points that lay on nearly
the same level; Jand inland navigation could not become
generally useful and applicable until this defect had been remedied
by the employment of locks. Great doubts exist as to the person,
and even the nation, that first introduced locks. Some writers
attribute tlieir invention to the Dutch, holding that nearly a
century earlier than in Italy locks were used in Holland where
canals are very numerous, owing to the favourable physical
conditions. On the other hand, the contrivance has been claimed
for engineers of the Italian school, and it is said that two brothers
Doraenico of Viterbo constructed a lock-chamber enclosed by
a pair of gates in 1481, and that in 1487 Leonardo da Vinci
completed six locks uniting the canals of Milan. Be that as it
may, however, the introduction of locks in the 14th or 15th
century gave a new character to inland navigation and laid the
basis of its successful extension.
The Languedoc Canal (Canal du Midi) may be regarded as
the pioneer of the canals of modern Europe. Joining the Bay
of Biscay and the Mediterranean it is 148 m. long and rises
620 ft. above sea-level with 119 locks, its depth being about
6} ft. It was designed by Baron Paul Riquet de Bonrepos
(1604-1680) and was finished in 1681. With it and the still
earner Briare canal (1605-1642) France began that policy of
canal construction which has provided her with over 3000 m.
of canals, in addition to over 4600 m. of navigable rivers. In
Russia Peter the Great undertook the construction of a system
of canals about the beginning of the 18th century, and in Sweden
a canal with locks, connecting Eskilstuna with Lake Malar,
was finished in 1606. Li England the oldest artificial canal
is the Foss Dyke, a relic of the Roman occupation. It extends
from Lincoln to the river Trent near Torksey (n m.), and
formed a continuation of the Caer Dyke, also of Roman origin
but now filled up, which ran from Lincoln to Peterborough
(40 m.). Camden in his Britannia says that the Foss Dyke was
deepened and to some extent rendered navigable in 1121. Little,
however, was done in making canals in Great Britain until the
middle of the 18th century, though before that date some pro-
gress had been made in rendering some of the larger rivers
navigable. Li 1759 the duke of Bridgewater obtained powers
to construct a canal between Manchester and his collieries at
Worsley, and this work, of which James Brindley was the
engineer, and which was opened for traffic in 1761 ,was followed by
a period of great activity in canal construction, which, however,
came to an end with the introduction of railways. According
to evidence given before the royal commission on canals in 1006
the total mileage of existing canals in the United Kingdom was
3901. In the United States the first canal was made in 1792-
1706 at South Hadley, Massachusetts, and the canal-system,
though its expansion was checked by the growth of railways, has
attained a length of 4200 m., most of the mileage being in New
York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. The splendid inland navigation
system of Canada mainly consists of natural lakes and rivers,
and the artificial waterways are largely " lateral " canals, cut
in order to enable vessels to avoid rapids in the rivers. (See
the articles on the various countries for accounts of the canal-
systems they possess.)
The canals that were made in the early days of canal-construc-
tion were mostly of the class known as barge or boat canals,
and owing to their limited depth and breadth were only available
for vessels of small size. But with the growth of commerce
the advantage was seen of cutting canals of such dimensions
as to enable them to accommodate sea-going ships. Such
ship-canals, which from an engineering point of view chiefly
differ from barge-canals in the magnitude of the works they
involve, have mostly been constructed either to shorten the
voyage between two seas by cutting through an intervening
isthmus, or to convert important inland places into sea-ports.
An early example of the first class is afforded by the Caledonian
Canal (q.v.), while among later ones may be mentioned the
Suez Canal (q.v.), the Kaiser Wilhelm, Nord-Ostsee or Kiel
Canal, connecting Brunsbuttel at the mouth of the Elbe with
*Kiel (q.v.) on the Baltic, and the various canals that have
been proposed across the isthmus that joins North and South
America (see Panama Canal). Examples of the second class
are the Manchester Ship Canal and the canal that runs from
Zeebrugge on the North Sea to Bruges (q.v.).
Construction. — In laying out a line of canal the engineer is
more restricted than in forming the route of a road or a railway.
Since water runs downhill, gradients are inadmissible, and the
canal must either be made on one uniform level or must be
adapted to the general rise or fall of the country through which
it passes by being constructed in a series of level reaches at
varying heights above a chosen datum line, each closed by a
CANAL
169
Dimem*
lock or some equivalent device to enable vessels to be transferred
from one to another. To avoid unduly heavy earthwork, the
reaches must closely follow the bases of hills and the windings
of valleys, but from time to time it will become necessary to
cross a sudden depression by the aid of an embankment or
aqueduct, while a piece of rising ground or a hill may involve
a cutting or a tunnel. Brindley took the Bridge water canal
over the Irwell at Barton by means of an aqueduct of three
stone arches, the centre one having a span of 63 ft., and T.
Telford arranged that the Ellesmere canal should cross the Dee
valley at Pont-y-Cysyllte partly by embankment and partly
by aqueduct. The embankment was continued till it was 75 ft.
above the ground, when it was succeeded by an aqueduct, 1 000 ft.
long and 127 ft. above the river, consisting of a cast iron trough
supported on iron arches with stone piers. Occasionally when
a navigable stream has to be crossed, a swing viaduct is necessary
to allow shipping to pass. The first was that built by Sir E.
Leader Williams to replace Brindley's aqueduct at Barton,
which was only high enough to give room for barges (see Man-
chester Ship Canal). One of the earliest canal tunnels was
made in 1 766-1 777 by Brindley at Harecastle on the Trent and
Mersey canal; it is 2S80 yds. long, 12 ft. high and 9 ft. wide,
and has no tow-path, the boats being propelled by men lying
on their backs and pushing with their feet against the tunnel
walls (" leggers "). A second tunnel, parallel to this but 16 ft.
high and 14 ft. wide, with a tow-path, was finished by Telford in
1827. Standedge tunnel, on the Huddersfield canal, is over 3 m.
long, and is also worked by leggers.
I The dimensions of a canal, apart from considerations of water-
supply, are regulated by the size of the vessels which are to be
used on it. According to J. M. Rankine, the depth of
water and sectional area of waterway should be such
as not to cause any material increase of the resistance
to the motion of the boats beyond what would be encountered
in open watcc, and he gives the following rules as fulfilling these
conditions: —
Least breadth of bottom =2 X greatest breadth of boat.
Least depth of water » i| ft. X greatest draught of boat.
Least area of waterway =6Xgreatest midship section of boat.
The ordinary inland canal is commonly from 25 to 30 ft. wide
at the bottom, which is flat, and from 40 to 50 ft. at the water
level, with a depth of 4 or 5 ft., the angle of slope of the sides
varying with the nature of the soil. To retain the water in porous
ground, and especially on embankments, a strong watertight
lining of puddle or tempered clay must be provided on the bed
and sides of the channel. Puddle is made of clay which has been
finely chopped up with narrow spades, water being supplied
until it is in a semi-plastic state. It is used in thin layers, each
of which is worked so as to be firmly united with the lower
stratum. The full thickness varies from 2 to 3 ft. To prevent
the erosion of the sides at the water-line by the wash from the
boats, it may be necessary to pitch them with stones or face
them with brushwood. In some of the old canals the slopes
have been cut away and vertical walls built to retain the towing-
paths, with the result of adding materially to the sectional area
of the waterway.
A canal cannot be properly worked without a supply of
water calculated to last over the driest season of the year. If
there be no natural lake available in the district for
Mtlppfy. storage and supply, or if the engineer cannot draw upon
some stream of sufficient size, he must form artificial
reservoirs in suitable situations, and the conditions which must
be attended to in selecting the positions of these and in con-
structing them are the same as those for drinking-water supply,
except that the purity of the water is not a matter of moment.
They must be situated at such an elevation that the water from
them may flow to the summit-level of the canal, and if the
expense of pumping is to be avoided, they must command a
sufficient catchment area to supply the loss of water from the
canal by evaporation from the surface, percolation through the
bed, and lockage. If the supply be inadequate, the draught of
the boats plying on the canal may have to be reduced in a dry
season, and the consequent decrease in the size of their cargoes
will both lessen the carrying capacity of the canal and increase
the working expenses in relation to the tonnage handled. Again,
since the consumption of water in lockage increases both with
the size of the locks and the frequency with which they are used,
the difficulty of finding a sufficient water supply may put a
limit to the density of traffic possible on a canal or may prohibit
its locks from being enlarged so as to accommodate boats of the
size necessary for the economical handling of the traffic under
modern conditions. It may be pointed out that the up con-
sumes more water than the down traffic. An ascending boat
on entering a lock displaces a volume of water equal to its
submerged capacity. The water so displaced flows into the lower
reach of the canal, and as the boat passes through the lock is
replaced by water flowing from the upper reach. A descending
boat in the same way displaces a volume of water equal to its
submerged capacity, but in this case the water flows back into
the higher reach where it is retained when the gates are
closed.
An essential adjunct to a canal is a sufficient number of
waste-weirs to discharge surplus water accumulating during
floods, which, if not provided with an exit, may waato-
overflow the tow-path, and cause a breach in the banks, win mn4
stoppage of the traffic, and damage to adjoining * io £
lands. Hie number and positions of these waste-weirs ** *
must depend on the nature of the country through which the
canal passes. Wherever the canal crosses a stream a waste-
weir should be formed in the aqueduct; but independently
of this the engineer must consider at what points large influxes
of water may be apprehended, and must at such places form
not only waste-weirs of sufficient size to carry off the surplus, but
also artificial courses for its discharge into the nearest streams.
These waste-weirs are placed at the top water-level of the
canal, 90 that when a flood occurs the water flows over them
and thus relieves the banks.
Stop-gates are necessary at short intervals of a few miles
for the purpose of dividing the canal into isolated reaches,
so that in the event of a breach the gates may be shut, and
the discharge of water confined to the small reach intercepted
between two of them, instead of extending throughout the
whole line of canal. In broad canals these stop-gates may be
formed like the gates of locks, two pairs of gates being made
to shut in opposite directions. In small works they may be
made of thick planks slipped into grooves formed at the narrow
points of the canal under road bridges, or at contractions made
at intermediate points to receive them. Self-acting stop-gates
have been tried, but have not proved trustworthy. When
repairs have to be made stop-gates allow of the water being
run off by " off-lets " from a short reach, and afterwards restored
with but little interruption of the traffic. These off-lets are pipes
placed at the level of the bottom of the canal and provided
with valves which can be opened when required. They are
generally formed at aqueducts or bridges crossing rivers, where
the contents of the canal between the stop-gates can be run
off into the stream.
Locks are chambers, constructed of wood, brickwork, masonry
or concrete, and provided with gates at each end, by the aid
of which vessels are transferred from one reach of Lockm.
the canal to another. To enable a boat to ascend,
the upper gates and the sluices which command the flow of
water from the upper reach are closed. The sluices at the lower
end of the lock are then opened, and when the level of the water
in the lock has fallen to that of the lower reach, the boat passes
in to the lock. The lower gates and sluices being then closed,
the upper sluices are opened, and when the water rising in
the lock has floated the boat up the level of the upper reach
the upper gates are opened and it passes out. For a descending
boat the procedure is reversed. The sluices by which the lock is
filled or emptied are carried through the walls in large locks,
or consist of openings in the gates in small ones. The gates
are generally of oak, fitting into recesses of the walls when
open, and closing against sills in the lock bottom when shut.
v. 6 a
170
CANAL
In small narrow locks single gates only are necessary; in large
locks pairs of gates are required, fitting together at the head
or "mitre-post" when closed. The vertical timber at the
end of the gate is known as the " heel-post," and at its foot is
a casting that admits an iron pivot which is fixed in the lock
bottom, and on which the gate turns. Iron straps round the
head of the heel-post are let into the lock-coping to support
the gate. The gates are opened and closed by balance beams
projecting over the lock side, by gearing or in cases where
they are very large and heavy by the direct action of a hydraulic
ram. In order to economize water canal locks are made only
a few inches wider than the vessels they have to accommodate.
The English canal boat is about 70 or 75 ft. long and 7 or 8 ft.
in beam; canal barges are the same length but 14 or 15 ft.
in width, so that locks which will hold one of them will admit
two of the narrower canal boats side by side. In general canal
locks are just long enough to accommodate the longest vessels
using the navigation. In some cases, however, provision is
made for admitting a train of barges; such long locks have
sometimes intermediate gates by which the effective length
is reduced when a single vessel is passing. The lift of canal
locks, that is, the difference between the level of adjoining
reaches, is in general about 8 or 10 ft., but sometimes is as
little as 1 J ft. On the Canal du Centre (Belgium) there are locks
with a lift of 17 ft., and on the St Denis canal near La Villette
basins in Paris there is one with a lift of 32! ft. In cases where
a considerable difference of level has to be surmounted the
locks are placed close together in a series or " flight," so that
the lower gates of one serve also as the upper gates of the next
below. To save water, expedally where the lift is considerable,
side ponds are sometimes employed; they are reservoirs into
which a portion of the water in a lock-chamber is run, instead
of being discharged into the lower reach, and is afterwards
used for partially filling the chamber again. Double locks,
that is, two locks placed side by side and communicating by
a passage which can be opened or closed at will, also tend to
save water, since each serves as a side pond to the other. The
same advantage is gained with double flights of locks, and time
also is saved since vessels can pass up and down simultaneously.
A still greater economy of water can be effected by the use
of inclined planes or vertical lifts in place of locks. In China
inclines, "^e mcunes appear to have been used at an early
date, vessels being carried down a sloping plane of
stonework by the aid of a flush of water or hauled up it by
capstans. On the Bude canal (England) this plan was adopted
in an improved form, the small flat-bottomed boats employed
being fitted with wheels to facilitate their course over the
inclines. Another variant, often adopted as an adjunct to
locks where many small pleasure .boats have to be dealt with,
is to fit the incline itself with rollers, upon which the boats
travel. In some cases the boats are conveyed on a wheeled
trolley or cradle running on rails; this plan was adopted on
the Morris canal, built in 1825-1831,^1 the case of 23 inclines
having gradients of about 1 in 10, the rise of each varying
from 44 to 100 ft. Between the Ourcq canal and the Marne,
near Meaux, the difference of level is about 40 ft., and barges
weighing about 70 tons are taken from the one to the other on
a wheeled cradle weighing 35 tons by a wire rope over an incline
nearly 500 yards long. But heavy barges are apt to be strained
by being supported on cradles in this way, and to avoid this
objection they are sometimes drawn up the inclines floating
in a tank or caisson filled with water and running on wheels.
This arrangement was utilized about 1840 on the Chard canal
(England), and 10 years later it was adapted at Blackhill on
the Monkland canal (Scotland) to replace a double flight of
locks, in consequence of the traffic having been interrupted
by insufficiency of water. There the height to be overcome
was 96 ft. Two pairs of rails, of 7 ft. gauge, were laid down
on a gradient of 1 in 10, and on these ran two carriages having
wrought iron, water-tight caissons with lifting gates at each
end, in which the barges floated partially but not wholly sup-
ported by water. The carriages, with the barge and water,
weighed about 80 tons each, and were arranged to counter-
balance each other, one going up as the other was going down.
The power required was provided by two high pressure steam
engines of 25 h.p., driving two large drums round which was
coiled, in opposite directions, the 2-inch wire rope that hauled
the caissons. An incline constructed on the Union canal at
Foxton (England) to replace 10 locks giving a total rise of
75 ft., accommodates barges of 70 tons, or two canal boats
of 33 tons. It is in some respects like the Monkland canal
incline, but the movable caissons work on four pairs of rails
on an incline of 1 in 14, broadside on, and the boats are entirely
waterborne. Steam power is employed, with an hydraulic
accumulator which enables hydraulic power to be used in
keeping the caisson in position at the top of the incline while
the boats are being moved in or out, a water-tight joint being
maintained with the final portion of the canal during the
operation. The gates in the caisson and canal are also worked
by hydraulic power. The incline is capable of passing 200 canal
boats in 12 hours, and the whole plant is woiked by three men.
Vertical lifts can only be used instead of locks with advantage
at places where the difference in level occurs m a short length
of canal, since otherwise long embankments or /Jftl>
aqueducts would be necessary to obtain sites for
their construction. An early example was built in 1&00 at
Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham canal. It
consisted of a timber caisson, weighing 64 tons when toll of
water, counterpoised by heavy weights carried on timber
platforms. The lift of 1 2 ft. was effected in about three minutes
by two men working winches. Seven lifts, erected on the Grand
Western canal between Wellington and Tiverton about 1835,
consisted of two chambers with a masonry pier between them.
In each chamber there worked a timber caisson, suspended
at either end of a chain hung over large pulleys above. As
one caisson descended the other rose, and the apparatus was
worked by putting about a ton more water in the descending
caisson than in the ascending one. At Anderton a lift was
erected in 1875 to connect the Weaver navigation with the
Trent and Mersey canal, which at that point is 50 ft. higher than
the river. The lift is a double one, and can deal with barges
up to 100 tons. The change is made while the vessels are
floating in 5 ft. of water contained in a wrought iron caisson,
75 ft. long and 15} ft. wide. An hydraulic ram 3 ft. in diameter
supports each caisson, the bottom of which is strengthened
so as to transfer the weight to the side girders. The descending
caisson falls owing to being filled with 6 in. greater depth
of water than the ascending one, the weight on the rams (240
tons) being otherwise constant, since the barge displaces its
own weight of water; an hydraulic accumulator is used to over-
come the loss of weight in the descending caisson when it begins
to be immersed in the lower level of the river. The two presses
in which the rams work are connected by a 5-in. pipe, so that
the descent of one caisson effects the raising of the other. A
similar lift, completed in 1888 at Fontinettes on the Neuffosse
canal in France, can accommodate vessels of 250 tons, a total
weight of 785 tons being lifted 43 ft.; and a still larger example
on the Canal du Centre at La Louviere in Belgium has a rise
of 50 ft., with caissons that will admit vessels up to 400 tons,
the total weight lifted amounting to over 1000 tons. This lift,
with three others of the same character, overcomes the rise
of 217 ft., which occurs in this canal in the course of 4$ m.
Haulage. — The horse or mule walking along a tow-path
and drawing or " tracking " a boat or barge by means of a
towing rope, still remains the typical method of AnimtA
conducting traffic on the smaller canals; on ship- power.
canals vessels proceed under their own steam or are
aided by tugs. Horse traction is very slow. The maximum
speed on a narrow canal is about 3) m. an hour, and the
average speed, which, of course, depends largely on the number
of locks to be passed through, very much less. It has been
calculated that in England on the average one horse hauls
one narrow canal boat about 2 m. an hour loaded or 3 m.
empty, or two narrow canal boats ij m. loaded and 2jm.
CANAL DOVER— CANALE
171
empty. Efforts have accordingly been made not only to quieten
the rate of transit, but also to move heavier loads, thus in cre as i ng
the carrying capacity of the waterways. But at speeds exceeding
about 3^ m. an hour the " wash " of the boat begins to cause
erosion of the banks, and thus necessitates the employment
of special protective measures, such as building side walls
of masonry or concrete. For a canal of given depth there is
a particular speed at which a boat can be hauled with a smaller
expenditure of energy than at a higher or a lower speed, this
maximum being the speed of free propagation of the primary
wave raised by the motion of the boat (see Wave). About
1830 when, in the absence of railways, canals could still aspire
to act as carriers of passengers, advantage was taken of this
fact on the Glasgow and Ardrossan canal, and subsequently
on some others, to run fast passenger boats, made lightly of
wrought iron and measuring 60 ft. in length by about 6 ft.
in breadth. Provided with two horses they started at a low speed
behind the wave, and then on a given signal were jerked on the
top of the wave, when their speed was maintained at 7 or 8 m.
an hour, the depth of the canal being 3 or 4 ft. This method,
however, is obviously inapplicable to heavy barges, and in their
case improved conditions of transport had to be sought in other
directions.
Steam towage was first employed on the Forth and Clyde
canal in 1802, when a tug-boat fitted with steam engines by
W. Symington drew two barges for a distance of
^Up^wer. ioini.in6 hours in the teeth of a strong headwind.
As a result of this successful experiment it was proposed
to employ steam tugs on the Bridgewater canal; but the
project fell through owing to the death of the duke of Bridge-
water, and the directors of the Forth and Clyde canal also
decided against this method because they feared damage to
the banks. Steam tugs are only practicable on navigations on
which there are either no locks or they are large enough to admit
the tug and its train of barges simultaneously; otherwise the
advantages are more than counterbalanced by the delays at
locks. On the Bridgewater canal, which has an average width
of 50 ft. with a depth of 5 J ft., is provided with vertical stone
walls in place of sloping banks, and has no locks for its entire
length of 40 m. except at Runcorn, where it joins the Mersey,
tugs of 50 i.h.p., with a draught of 4 ft., tow four barges, each
weighing 60 tons, at a rate of nearly 3 m. an hour. On the
Aire and Calder navigation, where the locks have a minimum
length of 215 ft., a large coal traffic is carried in trains of boat-
compartments on a system designed by W. H. Bartholomew.
The boats are nearly square in shape, except the leading one
which has an ordinary bow; they are coupled together by
knuckle-joints fitted into hollow stern-posts, so that they can
move both laterally and vertically, and a wire rope in tension
on each side enables the train to be steered. No boat crews are
required, the crew of the steamer regulating the train. If the
number of boats does not exceed n they can be pushed, but
beyond that number they are towed. Each compartment
carries 35 tons, and the total weight in a train varies from
700 to 900 tons. On the amval of a train at Goole the boats
are detached and are taken over submerged cradles under
hydraulic hoists which lift the boat with the cradle sufficiently
high to enable it to be turned over and discharge the whole
cargo at once into a shoot and thence into sea-going steamers.
Another method of utilizing steam-power, which was also first
tried on the Forth and Clyde canal by Symington in 1789,
is to provide each vessel with a separate steam engine, and
many barges are now running fitted in this way. Experiments
have also been made with internal combustion engines in place
of steam engines. In some cases, chiefly on rivers having a
strong current, recourse has been had to a submerged chain
passed round a drum on a tug: this drum is rotated by stran
power and thus the tug is hauled up against the current. To
obviate the inconvenience of passing several turns of the chain
round the drum in order to get sufficient grip, the plan was
introduced on the Seine and Oise in 1893 of passing the chain
round a pulley which could be magnetized at will, the necessary
adhesion being thus obtained by the magnetic attraction
exercised on the iron chain; and it was also adopted about
the same time in combination with electrical haulage on a small
portion of the Bourgogne canal, electricity being employed
to drive the motor that worked the pulley. Small locomotives
running on rails along the towpath were tried on the Shropshire
Union canal, where they were abandoned on account of practical
difficulties in working, and also on certain canals in France
and Germany, where, however, the financial results were not
satisfactory. On portions of the Teltow canal, joining the
Havel and the Spree, electrical tractors run on rails along
both banks, taking their power from an overhead wire; they
attain a speed of 2§ m. an hour when hauling two 600-ton
barges. The electrical supply is also utilized for working th$
lock gates and for various other purposes along the route of
the canal. In the Mont-de-Rilly tunnel, at the summit level of the
Aisne-Marne canal, a system of cable-traction was established
in 1894, the boats being taken through by being attached to
an endless travelling wire rope supported by pulleys on the
towpath.
When railways were being carried out in England some canal
companies were alarmed for their future, and sold their canals to
the railway companies, who in 1906 owned 1138 m. of canals out
of a total length in the United Kingdom of 3901 m. As some of these
canals are links in the chain of internal water communication com-
plaints have frequently arisen on the question of through traffic
and tolls. The great improvements carried out in America and on
the continent of Europe by state aid enable manufacturers to get
the raw material they use and goods they export to and from their
ports at much cheaper rates than those charged on British canals.
The association of chambers of commerce and other bodies having
taken up the matter, a royal commission was appointed in 1906 to
report on the canals and water-ways of the kingdom, with a view to
considering how they could be more profitably used for national
purposes. Its Report was published in December 1909. j
Authorities. — L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals (2nd
ed., 1896); Chapman, Canal Navigation; Firisi, On Canals; R.
Fulton, Canal Navigation; Tat ham, Economy of Inland Navigation;
Valancy, Treatise on Inland Navigation; D. Stevenson, Canal and
River Engineering; John Phillips, History of Inland Navigation;
J. Priestley, History of Navigable Rivers , Canals , &c. in Great
Britain (1831); T. Telford, Life (1838); John Smeaton, Reports
(1837) ; Reports of the International Congresses on Interior Naviga-
tion; Report and Evidence of the Royal Commission on Canals (Great
Britain), 1906-9. (E. L. W.)
CANAL DOVER, a city of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
on the Tuscarawas river, about 70 m. S. by £. of Cleveland.
Pop. (1890) 3470; (1900) 5422, of whom 939 were foreign-born.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania
railways, and by the Ohio canal, and is connected with Cleveland
by an inter-urban electric line. It lies on a plateau about 880 ft.
above sea-level and commands pleasant views of diversified
scenery. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity, and the city
manufactures iron, steel, tin plate, electrical and telephone
supplies, shovels, boilers, leather, flour, brick and tile, salt,
furniture and several kinds of vehicles. The municipality owns
and operates its water-works. Canal Dover was laid out as a
town in 1807, and was incorporated as a village in 1842, but its
charter was soon allowed to lapse and was not revived until 1867.
Canal Dover became a city under the Ohio municipal code of
1003.
CANALE (or Canaletto), ANTONIO (1697-1768), Venetian
painter, born on the 18th of October 1697, was educated under
his father Bernard, a scene-painter of Venice, and for some
time followed his father's line of art. In 17 19 he went to Rome,
where he employed himself chiefly in delineating ancient ruins,
and particularly studied effects of light and shade, in which he
became an adept. He was the first painter who made practical
use of the camera lucida. On returning home he devoted his
powers to views in his native city, which he painted with a clear
and firm touch and the most facile mastery of colour in a deep
tone, introducing groups of figures with much effect. In his
latter days he resided some time in England. His pictures, m
their particular range, still remain unrivalled for their magnificent
perspective. The National Gallery, London, has five pictures
by him, notably the " View on the Grand Canal, Venice," and
'74
CANCALE— CANCEL
Land varies in value according to the amount of water available,
but as a rule commands an extraordinarily high price. In the
Terrenos de secano, or non-irrigable districts, the average price
of an acre ranges from £7 to £17; in the Terrenos de riego,
or irrigable land, it ranges from £100 to £250. Until 1853
wine was the staple product, and although even the finest brand
(known as Vidonia) never equalled the best Madeira vintages,
it was largely consumed abroad, especially in England. The
annual value of the wine exported often exceeded £500,000.
In 1853, however, the grape disease attacked the vineyards;
and thenceforward the production of cochineal, which had
been introduced in 1825, took the place of viticulture so com-
pletely that, twenty years later, the exports of cochineal were
worth £556,000. France and England were the chief purchasers.
This industry declined in the later years of the ioth century,
and was supplanted by the cultivation of sugar-cane, and
afterwards of bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and onions. Bananas
are the most important crop. Other fruit? grown in
smaller quantities include oranges, figs, dates, pineapples,
guavas, custard-apples and prickly pears. Tobacco-planting
is encouraged by the Spanish government, and the sugar trade
is maintained, despite severe competition. The grain harvest
docs not supply the needs of the islanders. Pigs and sheep of a
small, coarse- woolled breed, are numerous; and large herds
of goats wander in an almost wild state over the higher hills.
Fishing is a very important industry, employing over 10,000
hands. The fleet of about 2200 boats operates along some
600 m. of the African coast, between Cape Cantin and the
Arguin Bank. Shipbuilding is carried on at Las Palmas;
and the minor industries include the manufacture of cloth,
drawn-linen (calado) work, silk, baskets, hats, &c. A group
of Indian merchants, who employ coolie labour, produce silken,
jute and cotton goods, Oriental embroideries, wrought silver,
brass-ware, porcelain, carved sandal-wood, &c. The United
Kingdom heads the import trade in coal, textiles, hardware,
iron, soap, candles and colonial products. Timber comes chiefly
from North America and Scandinavia, alcohol from Cuba and
the United States, wheat and flour from various British
possessions, maize from Morocco and Argentina. Large
quantities of miscellaneous imports are sent by Germany,
Spain, France and Italy. Bananas, tomatoes, potatoes, sugar
and wine are exported. The total value of the foreign trade
fluctuates very greatly, and the difficulty of forming an estimate
is enhanced in many years by the absence of official statistics;
but imports and exports together probably amount in a normal
year to about £1,000,000. The chief ports are Las Palmas
and Santa Cruz, which annually accommodate about 7000
vessels of over 8,000,000 tons. In 1854 all the ports of the
Canaries were practically declared free; but on the 1st of
November 1904 a royal order prohibited foreign vessels from
trading between one island and another. This decree deprived
the outlying islands of their usual means of communication, and,
in answer to a protest by the inhabitants, its operation was
postponed.
History. — There is ground for supposing that the Phoenicians
were not ignorant of the Canaries. The Romans learned of
their existence through Juba, king of Mauretania, whose account
of an expedition to the islands, made about 40 B.C., was preserved
by the elder Pliny. He mentions " Canaria, so called from
the multitude of dogs of great size/ 1 and " Nivaria, taking
its name from perpetual snow, and covered with clouds/'
doubtless Teneriffe. Canaria was said to abound in palms
and pine trees. Both Plutarch and Ptolemy speak of the
Fortunate Islands, but from their description it is not clear
whether the Canaries or one of the other island groups in the
western Atlantic are meant; see Isles of the Blest. In
the 1 2th century the Canaries were visited by Arab navigators,
and in 1334 they were rediscovered by a French vessel driven
among them by a gale. A Portuguese expedition, undertaken
about the same time, foiled to find the archipelago, and want
of means frustrated the project of conquest entertained by a
grandson of Alphonso X. of Castile, named Juan de la Cerda,
who had obtained a grant of the islands and had been crowned
king of them at Avignon, by Pope Clement VI. Two or possibly
more Spanish expeditions followed, and a monastic mission
was established, but at the close of the 14th century the Guanches
remained unconquered and unconverted. In 1402, however,
Gadifer de la Salle and Jean de B&hencourt (q.v.) sailed with
two vessels from Rochelle, and landed early in July on Lanzarote.
The relations between these two leaders, and their respective
shares in the work of conquest and exploration, have been
the subject of much controversy. Between 1402 and 1404
La Salle conquered Lanzarote and part of Fuerteventura,
besides exploring other islands; Blthencourt meanwhile sailed
to Cadiz for reinforcements. He returned in 1404 with the
title of king, which he had secured from Henry III. of Castile.
La Salle, thus placed in a position of inferiority, left the islands
and appealed unsuccessfully for redress at the court of Castile.
In 1405 B6thencourt visited Normandy, and returned with fresh
colonists who conquered Hierro. In December 1406 he left the
Canaries, entrusting their government to his nephew Maciot
de Blthencourt, and reserving for himself a share in any profits
obtained, and the royal title. Eight years of misrule followed
before Queen Catherine of Castile intervened. Maciot there-
upon sold his office to her envoy, Pedro Barba de Campos;
sailed to Lisbon and resold it to Prince Henry the Navigator;
and a few years afterwards resold it once more to Enrique de
Guzman, count of Niebla. Jean de Bethencourt, who died
in 1422, bequeathed the islands to his brother Reynaud; Guzman
sold them to another Spaniard named Paraza, who was forced
to re-sell to Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile in 1476; and
Prince Henry twice endeavoured to enforce his own claims.
Meanwhile the Guanches remained unconquered throughout
the greater part of the archipelago. In 1479 the sovereignty
of Ferdinand and Isabella over the Canaries was established
by the treaty of Alcacova, between Portugal and Castile. After
much bloodshed, and with reinforcements from the mother
country, the Spaniards, under Pedro de Vera, became masters
of Grand Canary in 1483. Palma was conquered in 1491, and
Teneriffe in 1495, by Alonzo de Lugo. The archipelago was
included for administrative purposes in the captaincy-general
of Andalusia until 1833, when it was made a separate province..
In 1902 a movement in favour of local autonomy was repressed
by Spanish troops.
Bibliography. — For a general description of the islands, see Les
lies Canaries, by T. Pitard and L. Proust (Paris, 1909) ; Madeira and
the Canary Islands, by A. Samler Brown, a guide for travellers and
invalids, with coloured maps and plates (London, 1901); A Guide
to the Canary Islands, by J. H. T. Ellerbeck (London, 1892) ; The
Canary Islands as a Winter Resort, by J. Whitford (London, 1890,
with maps and illustrations) ; De la Tierra Canaria, by L. and A.
Millares Cubas (Madrid, 1894) ; and Physikalische Beschreibung der
kanarischen Inseln, by L. von Buch (Berlin, 1825). Besides the inter-
esting folio atlas of von Buch (Paris, 1836), good modern maps have
been published by E. Stanford (London, 1891, I2| English m. to
1 in.), and M. Perez y Rodriquez (Madrid, 1 896-1808, 4 sheets). See
also Histoire natureUe des Ues Canaries, by P. Barker- Webb and S.
Berthelot (Paris, 1835-1849) ; and " Les lies Canaries et les parages
de pSche canariens," by Dr. A. Taquin, in the B.S.R. Beige G. 26
(1902), and 27 (1903); and, for history and antiquities, the Historic
feneral de las islas Canarias, by A. Millares Cubas, in 10 vols. (Las
'almas, 1 893- 1 895) , and Historxa de la Inquisicion en las islas Canarias,
by the same author (Las Palmas, 1874); AntiquiUs canariennes,
by S. Berthelot (Paris, 1879).
CANCALE, a fishing port of north-western France in the depart-
ment of Ille-et-Vilaine on the Bay of Cancale, 9 m. E.N.E. of
St Malo by road. Pop. (1906) town 3827, commune 7061.
It exports oysters, which are found in its bay in large numbers
and of excellent quality, and equips a fleet for the Newfoundland
cod-fisheries. The harbour is protected by the rocks known
as the Rochers de Cancale. In 1758 an English army under
the duke of Marlborough landed here for the purpose of attacking
St Malo and pillaged the town. It was again bombarded by the
English in 1779.
CANCBL (from the Lat. cancelli, a plural diminutive of cancer,
a grating or lattice, from which are also derived " chancel "
and " chancellor "), a word meaning to cross out, from the
CANCELLI— CANCER
i75
crossed latticed lines drawn across a legal document to annul it,
hence to delete or destroy.
CANCELLI (plural of Lat. cancellus, dim. of cancer, a crossing
bar), in architecture, the term given to barriers which correspond
to the modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen divid-
ing the body of a church from the part occupied by the ministers;
hence " chancel " (q.v.). By the Romans cancelli were similarly
employed to divide off portions of the courts of law (cf. the
English " bar ").
CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549), Spanish missionary to Central
America, was born at Barbastro near Saragossa. After working
for some time in Dominica and Haiti, he crossed to the mainland,
where he had great success in pacifying the Indians whom more
violent methods had failed to- subdue. He upheld the cause
of the natives at an ecclesiastical assembly held in Mexico in
1546, and three years later, on the 26th of June, met his death
at their hands on the west coast of Florida.
CANCER (" The Crab "), in astronomy, the fourth sign of the
zodiac, denoted by the symbol % . Its name may be possibly
derived from the fact that when the sun arrives at this part of
the ecliptic it apparently retraces its path, resembling in some
manner the sidelong motion of a crab. It is also a constellation,
mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.c.)?JPtoiemy catalogued 13 stars in it, Tycho Brahe
15 and Hevelius 20. Its most interesting objects are: a large
loose cluster of stars, known as Praesepe or the Beehive, visible
as a nebulous patch to the naked eye, and f Cancri, a remarkable
multiple star, composed of two stars, of magnitudes 5 and 5*7,
revolving about each other in 60 years, and a third star of magni-
tude 5- 5 which revolves about these two in an opposite direction
in a period of 17$ years; from irregularities in the motion of this
star, it is supposed to be a satellite of an invisible body which
itself revolves about the two stars previously mentioned, in a
period of 600 to 700 years.
GANGER* or Carcinoma (from Lat. cancer, Gr. jcapxb'wMa,
an eating ulcer), the name given to a class of morbid growths
or tumours which occur in man, and also in most or all vertebrate
animals. The term " malignant disease " is commonly used
as synonymous with " cancer." Far the general pathology, &c,
of tumours see Tumour.. v ^ -
Cancer exists in various forms, which, although differing from
each other in many points, have yet certain common characters
to which they owe their special significance.
1. In structure such growths are composed of nucleated cells
and free nuclei together with a milky fluid called cancer juice,
all contained within a more or less dense fibrous stroma or
framework.
2. They have no well-defined limits, and they involve all
textures in their vicinity, while they also tend to spread by the
lymphatics and veins, and to cause similar growths in distant
parts or organs called " secondary cancerous growths."
3. They are undergoing constant increase, and their progress
is usually rapid.
4. Pain is a frequent symptom. When present it is generally
of a severe and agonizing character, and together with the local
effects of the disease and the resulting condition of ill health or
" cachexia," hastens the fatal termination to which all cancerous
growths tend.
5. When such growths are removed by the surgeon they are
apt to return either at the same or at some other part.
The chief varieties of cancer are Scirrhus or hard cancer,
Encepkaloid or soft cancer and Epithelial cancer.
Scirrhus is remarkable for its hardness, which is due to the
large amount of its fibrous, and relatively small proportion of
its cell elements. It is of comparatively slow growth, but it
tends to spread and to ulcerate. Its most common seat by far
is the female breast, though it sometimes affects internal organs.
Encephaloid is in structure the reverse of the last, its softness
depending on the preponderance of its cell over its fibrous ele-
ments. Its appearance and consistence resemble brain substance
(hence its name), and it is of such rapid growth as to have given
rise to its being occasionally termed acute cancer. Its most
frequent seats are internal organs or the limbs. Ulceration and
haemorrhage are common accompaniments of this form of cancer.
Epithelial cancer is largely composed of cells resembling the
natural epithelium of the body. It occurs most frequently
in those parts provided with epithelium, such as the skin and
mucous membranes, or where those adjoin, as in the lips. This
form of cancer does not spread so rapidly nor produce secondary
growths in other organs to the same extent as the two other
varieties, but it tends equally with them to involve the neigh-
bouring lymphatic glands, and to recur after removal.
Cancer affects all parts of the body, but is much more frequent
in some tissues than in others. According. to recent statistics
prepared by the registrar-general for England and Wales (sixty-
seventh annual report) the most frequent seats are, in numerical
order, as follows: — males — stomach, liver, rectum, intestines,
aesophagus, tongue; females — uterus, breast, stomach, liver,
intestines, rectum. Other statistics give similar, though not
identical results. It may be said, broadly, that the most frequent
seats are the female sexual organs and after them the digestive
tract in both sexes. In children, in whom cancer is rare, the
most frequent seats appear to be — under five, the kidneys
and supra-renal bodies; five to ten, the brain; ten to twenty,
the arm and leg bones.
Cancer tends to advance steadily to a fatal termination,
but its duration varies in different cases according to the part
affected and according to the variety of the disease. Soft
cancer affecting important organs of the body often proves
fatal in a few months, while, on the other hand, cases of hard
or epithelial cancer may sometimes last for several years;
but no precise limit can be assigned for any form of the disease.
In some rare instances growths exhibiting ail the signs of cancer
may exist for a great length of time without making any progress,
and may even dwindle and disappear altogether. This is called
" spontaneous cure."
Cancer has been the subject of observation from time
immemorial, and of the most elaborate investigation by innumer-
able workers in recent years; but the problems of its „
origin and character have hitherto baffled inquiry. nM€mrc ^
Modern scientific study of them may be said to have
begun with J. Mutter's microscopic work in the structure of
cancerous tissue early in the 19th century. A great impetus
to this line of investigation was given by the cellular theory
of R. Virchow and the pathological researches of Sir J. Paget,
and general attention was directed to the microscopic examina-
tion of the cells of which cancer is composed. This led to a
classification, on which much reliance was once placed, of
different kinds of cancer, based on the character of the cells,
and particularly to a distinction between carcinoma, in which the
cells are of the epithelial type, and sarcoma, in which they are
of the connective tissue type. The distinction, though still
maintained, has proved barren; it never had any real signifi-
cance, either clinical or pathological, and the tendency in
recent research is to ignore it. The increased knowledge gained
in numerous other branches of biological science has also been
brought to bear on the problem of cancer and has led to a number
of theories; and at the same time the apparently increasing
prevalence of the disease recorded by the vital statistics of
many countries has drawn more and more public attention
to it. Two results have followed. One is the establishment
of special endowed institutions devoted to cancer research;
the other is the publication and discussion of innumerable
theories and proposed methods of treatment. Popular interest
has been constantly fanned by the announcement of some
pretended discovery or cure, in which the public is invited to
place its trust. Such announcements have no scientific value
whatever. In the rare cases in which they are not pure quackery,
they are always premature and based on inadequate data.
Organized cancer research stands on a different footing.
It may be regarded as the revival at the end of the 10th century
of what was unsuccessfully attempted at the beginning. As
early as 1702, at the suggestion of Mr. John Howard, surgeon,
a ward was opened at the Middlesex hospital in London for
176
CANCER
the special benefit of persons suffering from cancer. It was
fitted up and endowed anonymously by Mr. Samuel Whitbread,
M.P. for Bedford, and according to the terms of the benefaction
at least six patients were to be continually maintained in it
until relieved by art or released by death. The purpose was
both philanthropic and scientific, as Mr. Howard explained in
bringing forward the suggestion. Two principal objects, he
said, presented themselves to his mind, " namely, the relief of
persons suffering under this disease and the investigation of
a complaint which, although extremely common, is both with
regard to its natural history and cure but imperfectly known."
This benefaction was the origin of one of the most complete
institutions for the scientific study of cancer that exists to-day.
In 1804 a Society for Investigating the Nature of Cancer
was formed by a number of medical men in London, Edinburgh
and other towns at the instigation of John Hunter. The aim
was collective investigation, and an attempt was made to carry
it out by issuing forms of inquiry; but the imperfect means
of communication then existing caused the scheme to be aban-
doned in a short time. Subsequent attempt? at collective
investigation also failed until recently. About 1 900 a movement,
which had been for some time gathering force, began to take
visible shape simultaneously in different countries. The cancer
ward at tie Middlesex hospital had then developed into a
cancer wing, and to it were added special laboratories for the
investigation of cancer, which were opened on the 1st of March
1900. In this establishment the fully equipped means of clinical
and laboratory research were united under one roof and manned
by a staff of investigators under the direction of Dr W. S*
Lazarus Barlow. In the same year the Deutsche ComitS fUr
Krebsforsckung was organized in Berlin, receiving an annual
subsidy of 5000 marks (£250) from the imperial exchequer.
This body devoted its energies to making a census of cancer
patients in Germany on a definite date. A special ward for
cancer was also set apart at the Charite" hospital in Berlin,
with a state endowment of 53,000 marks (£2560) per annum,
and a laboratory for cancer research was attached to the first
medical clinique under Professor Ernst von Leyden at the
same hospital. A third institution in Germany is a special cancer
department at the Royal Prussian Institute for Experimental
Therapeutics at Frankfort-on-Main, which has been supported,
like the Imperial Cancer Research Fund in England, by private
contributions on a generous scale. The fund just mentioned
was initiated in October 1901, and its operations took definite
shape a year later, when Dr. E. F. Bashford was appointed
general superintendent of research. The patron of the founda-
tion was King Edward VII., and the president was the prince of
Wales. It had in 1908 a capital endowment of about £120,000,
subscribed by private munificence and producing an income
of about £7000 a year. The central laboratory is situated
in the examination building of the Royal Colleges of Physicians
and Surgeons in London, and the work is conducted under the
superintendence of an executive committee formed by repre-
sentatives of those bodies. In the United States a cancer
laboratory, which had been established in Buffalo in 1899
under Dr Roswell Park, was formally placed under the control
of New York state in June 1901, and is supported by an annual
grant of $15,000 (£3000). There are other provisions in the
United States connected with Harvard and Cornell universities.
At the former the " Caroline Brewer Croft Fund for Cancer
Research " started special investigations in the surgical depart-
ment of the Harvard Medical School in 1900 or the previous
year, and in connexion with the Cornell University Medical
School there is a small endowment called the "Huntingdon
Cancer Research Fund." There appear to be institutions of
a similar character in other countries, in addition to innumerable
investigators at universities and other ordinary seats of scientific
research.
Some attempt has been made to co-ordinate the work thus
carried on in different countries. An international cancer
congress was held at Heidelberg and Frankfort in 1906, and
a proposal was put forward by German representatives that a
permanent international conference on cancer should be estab-
lished, with headquarters in Berlin. The committee of the
Imperial Cancer Research Fund did not fall in with the proposal,
being of opinion that more was to be gained in the <«ift ti^g
stage of knowledge by individual intercourse and exchange
of material between actual laboratory workers.
In spite of the immense concentration of effort indicated
by the simultaneous establishment of so many centres of endowed
research, and in spite of tne light thrown upon
the problem from many sides by modern biological ^cmc**-.
science, our knowledge of the origin of cancer is
still in such a tentative state that a detailed account of
the theories put forward is not called for; it will suffice to
indicate their general drift. The actual pathological process
of cancer is extremely simple. Certain cells, whichare apparently
of a normal character and have previously performed normal
functions, begin to grow and multiply in an abnormal way
in some part of the body. They continue this process so per-
sistently that they first invade and then destroy the surrounding
tissues ; nothing can withstand their march. They are moreover
carried to other parts of the body, where they establish them-
selves and grow in the same way. Their activity is carried on
with relentless determination, though at a varying pace, until
the patient dies, unless they are bodily removed. Hence the
word "malignant." The problem is — what are these cells,
or why do they behave in this way? The principal answers
put forward may be summarized. — (1) they are epithelial cells
which grow without ceasing because the connective tissue has
lost the capacity to hold their proliferative powers in check
(H. Freund, following K. Thiersch and W. Wakleyer); (2) they
are embryonic cells accidentally shut off (J. F. Cohnheim);
(3) they are epithelial cells with a latent power of unlimited
proliferation which becomes active on their being dislocated
from the normal association (M. W. H. Ribbert and Borrmann);
(4) they are stimulated to unlimited growth by the presence
of a parasite (Plimmer, Sanfelice, Roncali and others); (5) they
are fragments of reproductive tissue (G. T. Beatson); (6) they
are cells which have lost their differentiated character and
assumed elementary properties (von Hausemann, O. Hertwig).
The very number and variety of hypotheses show that none
is established. Most of them attempt to explain the growth
but not the origin of the disease. The hypothesis of a parasitic
origin, suggested by recent discoveries in relation to other
diseases, has attracted much attention; but the observed
phenomena of cancerous growths are not in keeping with those
of all known parasitic diseases, and the theory is now somewhat
discredited. A more recent theory that cancer is due to failure
of the normal secretions of the pancreas has not met with
much acceptance.
Some generalizations bearing on the problem have been
drawn from the work done in the laboratories of the Imperial
Cancer Research Fund They may be summarily stated thus.
Cancer has been shown to be an identical process in all vertebrates
(including fishes), and to develop at a time which conforms in
a striking manner to the limits imposed by the long or short
compass of life in different animals. Cancerous tissue can be
artificially propagated in the short-lived mouse by actual
transference to another individual, but only to one of the same
species. Cancerous tissue thus propagated presents ail the
characteristic features of the malignant growth of sporadic
tumours; it infiltrates and produces extensive secondary
growths. Under suitable experimental conditions the aggregate
growth of a cancer is undefined, of enormous and, so far as we
can judge, of limitless amount. This extraordinary growth is due
to the continued proliferation of cancerous cells when trans-
planted. The processes by which growing cancer cells are trans-
ferred to a new individual are easily distinguishable and funda-
mentally different from all known processes of infection. The
artificial propagation of cancer causes no specific symptoms of
illness in the animal in which it proceeds. Under artificial
propagation cancer maintains all the characters of the original
tumours of the primary hosts. Carcinoma and sarcoma agree
CANCRIN— CANDIA
177
m possessing all the pathological and cellular features of malig-
nant new growths.
Simultaneously with the active pursuit of laboratory research
much statistical work has been devoted to establishing the broad
/jrffc , * acts °* *k e prevalence and incidence of cancer on a
of cancer. nrm hasis. The point of most general interest is the
apparently steady increase of the disease in all countries
possessing fairly trustworthy records. It will be sufficient to
give the figures for England and Wales as an example.
Annual Death-rates from Cancer to a
England and Wales.
Million
LIVING.
1871-1875.
1876-1880.
18S1-1885.
1 886-1890.
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1 901- 1904.
445
493
547
<*i
711
800
861
In forty years the recorded rate had risen from 403 to 861.
The question how far these and similar statistics represent a
real increase cannot be satisfactorily resolved, because it is
impossible to ascertain how, much of the apparent increase is
due to more accurate diagnosis and improved registration.
Some of it is certainly due to those causes, so that the recorded
figures cannot be taken to represent the facts as they stand.
At the same time it is certain that some increase has taken place
in consequence of the increased average length of life; a larger
proportion of persons now reach the ages at which cancer is*
most frequent. Increase due to this fact, though it is a real
increase, does not indicate that the cause of cancer is more rife
or more potent; it only means that the condition of the popula-
tion in regard to age is more favourable to its activity. On the
whole it seems probable that, when allowance has been made
for this factor and for errors due to improved registration, a real
increase due to other causes has taken place, though it is not so
great as the recorded statistics would indicate.
The long-established conclusions concerning the incidence of
the disease in regard to age and sex have been confirmed and
rendered more precise by modern statistics. Cancer is a disease
of old age; the incidence at the ages of sixty-five to seventy-five
is ten times greater than at the ages thirty-five to forty-five.
Tliis fact is the source of frequent fallacies when different countries
or districts and different periods are compared with each other,
unless account is taken of the differences in age and constitution.
With regard to sex females are far more liable than males; the
respective death-rates per million living for England and Wales
in 1904 were— males 740; females 1006. But the two rates
show a tendency to approximate; the increase shown over
a series of years has been considerably more rapid among males
than among females. One result of more careful examination
of statistics has been to discredit, though perhaps somewhat
hastily, certain observations regarding the prevalence of cancer
in special districts and special houses. On the other hand the
fuller statistics now available concerning the relative frequency
of cancer in the several organs and parts of the body, of which
some account is given above, go to confirm the old observation
that cancer commonly begins at the seat of some local irritation.
By far the most frequent seats of disease are the uterus and
breast in women and the digestive tract in both sexes, and these
are all particularly subject to such irritation. With regard to
the influence of heredity the trend of modern research is to
minimize or deny its importance in cancer, as in phthisis, and
to explain family histories by other considerations. At most
heredity is only thought to confer a predisposition.
The only " cure " for cancer remains removal by operation;
but improved methods of diagnosis enable this to be done in
7> ^ many cases at an earlier stage of the disease than
mtaL formerly; and modern methods of surgery permit not
only of operation in parts of the body formerly inacces-
sible, but also more complete removal of the affected tissues.
Numerous forms of treatment by modern therapeutic means,
both internal and external, have been advocated and tried;
but they are all of an experimental nature and have failed to
meet with general acceptance. One of the most recent is treat-
ment by trypsin, a pancreatic ferment. This has been suggested
by Dr John Beard of Edinburgh in conformity with the theory,
mentioned above, that failure of the pancreatic secretions is
the cause of cancer. It has been claimed that the drug exercises
a favourable influence in conjunction with operation and even
without it. The experience of different observers with regard
to results is contradictory; but clinical investigations conducted
at Middlesex hospital in a number of cases of undoubted cancer
in strict accordance with Dr Beard's directions, and summarized
by Dr Walter Ball and Dr Fairfield Thomas in the Sixth Report
from the Cancer Research Laboratories (Archives of Middlesex
Hospital, vol. ix.) in May 1907, resulted in the conclusion " that
the course of cancer, considered both as a disease and as a
morbid process, is unaltered by the administration of trypsin
and amylopsin." The same conclusion has been reached after
similar trials at the cancer hospital. Another experimental
method of treatment which has attracted much attention
is application of the X-rays. The results vary in a capricious
and inexplicable manner; in some cases marked benefit has
followed, in others the disease has been as markedly aggravated.
Until more is known both of cancer and of X-rays, their use must
be considered not only experimental but risky. (A. Sl.)
CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON (1738-1812), German
mineralogist and metallurgist, was born on the aist of February
1738, at Breitenbach, Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1764 he entered
the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt at Hanau, be-
coming professor of mathematics at the military academy, head
of the civil engineering department of the state, director of the
theatre and (1774) of the mint* A work on the copper mines of
Hesse (1767) earned him a European reputation, and in 1783 he
accepted from Catherine H. of Russia the directorship of the
famous Staraya salt-works, living thenceforth in Russia. In
1708 he became a councillor of state at St Petersburg. He pub-
lished many works on mineralogy and metallurgy, of which the
most important, the Grundssilge der Berg- und Sal&werkskwtde
(13 vols., Frankfort, 1 773-1791), has been translated into several
languages. His son, Count Georg von Cancrin, or Kankrin
(1774-1845), was the eminent Russian minister of finance.
CANDELABRUM (from Lat. candela, a taper or candle),
the stand on which ancient lamps were placed. The most ancient
example is the bronze candelabrum made by Callimachus for the
Erechtheum at Athens, to carry the lamp sacred to Minerva.
In this case it is probable the lamp was suspended, as in the
example from Pompeii, now in the Naples museum; this con-
sisted of a stalk or reed, the upper part moulded with projecting
feature to carry the lamps, and a base resting on three lions' or
griffins' feet; sometimes there was a disk at the top to carry
a lamp, and sometimes there was a hollow cup, in which resinous
woods were burnt, The origin of the term suggests that on the
top of the disk was a spike to carry a wax or tallow candle (candela
or funalia). Besides these bronze candelabra, of which there are
many varieties in museums, the Romans used more ponderous
supports in stone or marble, of which many examples were found
in the Thermae. These consisted of a base, often triangular,
and of similar design to the small sacrificial altars, and a shaft
either richly moulded or carved with the acanthus plant and
crowned with a large cup or basin. There is a fine example of
the latter in the Vatican. The Roman examples seem to have
served as models for many of the candelabra in the churches in
Italy. The word " candelabrum " is also now used to describe
many different forms of lighting with multiple points, and is
often applied to hanging lights as well as to those which rise from
a stand.
CANDIA, formerly the capital and still the most populous city
of Crete (?.».), to which it has given its name. It is situated on
the northern shore somewhat nearer the eastern than the western
end of the island, in 35 20' N. lat. and 25 9.' E. long. It is still
surrounded by its extensive Venetian fortifications; but they
have fallen into disrepair, and a good part of the town is in a
dilapidated condition, mainly from the effects of earthquakes.
The principal buildings are the Venetian loggia (barbarously
mutilated by the new regime), the Konak (now Prefecture),
the mosques, which are fourteen in number, the new cathedral,
iy8
CANDIDATE— CANDLE
the two Greek churches, the Armenian church, the Capuchin
monastery, the bazaars and the baths. There are also some
beautiful Venetian fountains. The town is the seat of a Greek
archbishop. A highly interesting museum has been formed
here containing the antiquities found during the recent excava-
tions. The chief trade is in oil and soap, both of which are of
excellent quality. The coasting trade, which is of considerable
importance, is mainly carried on in Turkish vessels. The manu-
facture of leather for home consumption is an extensive industry,
and wine of good quality is produced in the neighbourhood.
The harbour, which had grown almost inaccessible, was deepened
by Mustapha Pasha between 1820 and 1840. It is formed for
the most part by the ancient moles, and was never deep enough
to admit the larger vessels even of the Venetians, which were
accustomed to anchor in the port of the neighbouring island
of Standia. A short distance from St George's Gate there was
a small village exclusively inhabited by lepers, who numbered
about seventy families, but they have now been transported to
Spinalonga. The population of the town is estimated at from
15,000 to 18,000, about half being Mahommedan Greeks. The
site of Candia, or, as it was till lately locally known, Megalo
castro (the Great Fortress), has been supposed to correspond
with that of the ancient Heracleion, the seaport of Cnossus,
and this appellation has now been officially revived by its Greek
inhabitants. The ruins of Cnossus are situated at the distance
of about 3 m. to the south-east at the village of Makryteichos
or Long Wall. Founded by the Saracens in the 9th century,
Candia was fortified by the Genoese in the 12th, and was greatly
extended and strengthened by the Venetians in the 13th, 14th
and 15th centuries. It was besieged by the Turks under the
vizier Achmet in 1667; and, in spite of a most heroic defence,
in which the Venetians lost 30,000 in killed and wounded, it
was forced to surrender in 1669. (See also Crete.)
CANDIDATE, one who offers himself or is selected by others
for an office or place, particularly one who puts up for election
to parliament or to any public body. The word is derived
from the Latin candidatus, clad in white (candidus). In Rome,
candidates for election to the higher magistracies appeared in
the Campus Martius, the Forum and other public places, during
their canvass, in togas with the white of the natural wool
brightened by chalk.
CANDLE (Lat. candela, from candere, to glow), a cylindrical
rod of solid fatty or waxy matter, enclosing a central fibrous
wick, and designed to be burnt for giving light. The oldest
materials employed for making candles are beeswax and tallow,
while among those of more recent introduction are spermaceti,
stearine and paraffin wax. Waxlights (cereus, sc. funis) were
known to the Romans. In the midlde ages wax candles were
little used, owing to their expense, except for the ceremonies
of the church and other religious purposes (see Lights, Cere-
monial Use of), but in the 15th century, with the cheapening of
wax, they began to find wider employment. The tallow candle,
mentioned by Apuleius as sebeceus, was long an article of domestic
manufacture. The tallow was melted and strained, and then
lengths of cotton or flax fibre, or rushes from which most of the
external skin had been stripped, only sufficient being left to
support the pith ("rushlights"), were dipped into it, the opera-
tion being repeated until the desired thickness had been attained.
In Paris, in the 13th century, there was a gild of candlemakers
who went from house to house to make tallow candles, the
manufacture of wax candles being in the hands of another gild.
This separation of the two branches of the trade is also exempli-
fied by the existence of two distinct livery companies in the
city of London — the Waxchandlers and the Tallowchandlers;
the French chandelle properly means tallow candle, candles made
of materials less fusible than tallow being called bougies, a term
said to be derived from the town of Bougie in Algeria, either
because wax was produced there or because the Venetians
imported wax candles thence into Europe. The old tallow
"dips" gave a poor light, and tallow itself is now used only
to a limited extent, except as a source of "stearine." This is
the trade name for a mixture of solid fatty acids — mainly
stearic and palmitic — manufactured not only from tallow and
other animal fats, but also from such vegetable fats as palm-oil.
Paraffin wax, a mixture of solid hydrocarbons obtained from
crude North American and Rangoon petroleum, and also yielded
in large quantities by the Scotch shale oil industry, is, at least
in Great Britain, a still more important material of candle-
manufacture, which came into use about 1854. Spermaceti,
a crystalline fatty substance obtained from the sperm whale
(Physeter macrocephalus) , was introduced as a material for
candles about a century earlier. In practice the candlemaker
mostly uses mixtures of these materials. For instance, 5-10%
of stearine, which is used alone for candles that have to be burnt
in hot climates, is mixed with paraffin wax, to counteract the
tendency to bend with heat exhibited by the latter substance.
Again, the brittleness of spermaceti is corrected by the addition
of beeswax, stearine, paraffin wax or ceresin (obtained from the
mineral wax ozocerite) . In some " composite " candles stearine
is mixed with the hard fat (" cocoa-nut stearine ") expressed from
cocoa-nut oil by hydraulic pressure; and this cocoa-nut stearine
is also used for night-lights, which are short thick candles with
a thin wick, calculated to burn from six to ten hours.
The stearine or stearic acid industry originated in the discovery
made by M. E. Chevreul about 181 5, that fats are glycerides
or compounds of glycerin with fatty acids, mostly palmitic,
stearic and oleic. TT\e object of the candlemaker is to remove
this glycerin, not only because it is a valuable product in itself,
but also because it is an objectionable constituent of a candle;
the vapours of acrolein formed by its decomposition in the
flame are the cause of the unpleasant odours produced by
tallow " dips." He also removes the oleic acid, which is liquid
at ordinary temperatures, from the palmitic and stearic acids,
mixtures of which solidify at temperatures varying from about
130 to is 5° F., according to the percentage of each present
Several methods are in use for the decomposition of the fats.
In the autoclave process the fat, whether tallow, palm-oil or a
mixture of the two, mixed with 25 or 30% of water and about
3 % of lime, is subjected in an autoclave to steam at a pressure
of about 120 lb per square inch for eight or ten hours, when
nearly all of it is saponified. On standing the product separates
into two layers — "sweet water" containing glycerin below,
and the fatty acids with a certain amount of lime soap above.
The upper layer is then boiled and treated with enough sulphuric
acid to decompose the lime soap, the calcium sulphate formed
is allowed to subside, and the fatty acids are run off into shallow
boxes to be crystallized or " seeded " prior to the separation
of the oleic acid, which is effected by pressing the solid blocks
from the boxes, first cold and then hot, by hydraulic machinery.
In another process saponification is effected by means of con-
centrated sulphuric acid. The fat is mixed with 4-6% of the
acid and treated with steam in boiling water till the hydrolysis
is complete, when on standing the glycerin and sulphuric acid
sink to the bottom and the fatty acids rise to the top. Owing
to the darkness of their colour, when this process is employed,
the latter usually have to be distilled before being crystallized.
The autoclave process yields about 45% of stearine, one-third
of which is recovered from the expressed oleic acid, but with
sulphuric acid saponification the amount of stearine is higher —
over 60%— and that of oleic acid less, part of it being converted
into solid material by the action of the acid. The yield of
glycerin is also less. In a combination of the two processes the
fat may first be treated by the autoclave process, so as to obtain
a full yield (about 10%) of glycerin, and the resulting fatty
acids then subjected to acid saponification, so as to get the higher
amount of stearine. At the best, however, some 30% of oleic
acid remains, and though often sought, no satisfactory method
of converting this residue into solid has been discovered. It
constitutes " red oil," and is used in soap-making and in woollen
manufacture. In the process patented by Ernst Twitchell
in 1808, decomposition is effected by boiling the fat with half
its bulk of water in presence of a reagent obtained by the action
of sulphuric acid on oleic acid and an aromatic hydrocarbon such
as benzene.
CANDLEMAS— CANDLESTICK
179
The wick is a most important part of a candle, and unless
it is of proper size and texture either too much or too little
fuel will be supplied to the flame, and the candle will gutter
or be otherwise unsatisfactory. The material generally employed
is cotton yarn, plaited or " braided " by machinery, and treated
or " pickled " with a solution of boracic acid, ammonium or
potassium nitrate, or other salt. The tightness of the plaiting
varies with the material used for the candle, wicks for stearine
being looser than for paraffin, but tighter than for wax or
spermaceti. The plaited wick is flat and curls over as the
candle burns, and thus the end is kept projecting into the
outer part of the flame where it is consumed, complete com-
bustion being aided by the pickling process it has undergone.
In the old tallow dips the strands of cotton were merely twisted
together, instead of being plaited; wicks made in this way
had no determinate bias towards the outside of the flame,
and thus were not wholly consumed, the result being that there
was apt to be an accumulation of charred matter, which choked
the flame unless removed by periodical " snuffing."
Four ways of making candles may be distinguished — dipping,
pouring, drawing and moulding, the last being that most com-
monly employed. Dipping is essentially the same as the domestic
process already described, but the rate of production is increased
by mounting a number of wicks in a series of frames, each of
which in turn is brought over the tallow bath so that its wicks
can be dipped. Pouring, used in the case of wax, which cannot
well be moulded because it contracts in cooling and also has
a tendency to stick to the moulds, consists in ladling molten
wax upon the wicks suspended from an iron ring. When of
the desired thickness the candles are rolled under a plate on
a marble slab. In drawing, used for small tapers, the wick,
rolled on a drum, is passed through the molten wax or paraffin,
drawn through a circular hole and slowly wound on a second
drum; it is then passed again through the molten material
and through a somewhat larger hole, and reeled back on the
first drum, this process being repeated with larger and larger
holes until the coating is of the required thickness. In moulding,
a number of slightly conical moulds are fixed by the larger
extremity to a kind of trough, with their tapered ends projecting
downwards and with wicks arranged down their centres. The
molten material is poured into the trough and fills the moulds,
from which the candles are withdrawn when solidified. Modern
candle-moulding machines are continuous in their operation;
long lengths of wick are coiled on bobbins, one for each mould,
and the act of removing one set of candles from their moulds
draws in a fresh set of wicks. " Self-fitting ends," which were
invented by J. L. Field in 1864, and being shaped like a trun-
cated cone enable the candles to be fixed in candlesticks of any
diameter, are formed by means of an attachment to the tops
of the moulds; spirally twisted candles are, as it were, unscrewed
from their moulds. It is necessary to be able to regulate the
temperature of the moulds accurately, else the candles will
not come out freely and will not be of good appearance. For
stearine candles the moulds are immersed in tepid water and
the cooling must be slow, else the material will crystallize,
though if it be too slow cracking will occur. For paraffin, on
the other hand, the moulds must be rather hotter than the molten
material (about 200 F.), and must be quickly cooled to prevent
the candles from sticking.
A candle-power, as a unit of light in photometry, was defined
by the (London) Metropolis Gas Act of i860 as the light given
by a sperm candle, of which six weighed 1 lb and each burned
120 grains an hour.
See W. Lant Carpenter, Soaps and Candles (London, 1805) ; C. E.
Groves and W. Thorp, Chemical Technology, vol. ii. " Lighting "
lighting;
fine (Ne
York, 1906) \ J. Lewkowitsch, Oils, Fats, and Waxes (London, 1909).
(London, 1895); L. L. Lamborn, Soaps, Candles and Glycerine (New
) I J«
CANDLEMAS (Lat. festum candelarum sive luminum), the
name for the ancient church festival, celebrated annually on
the 2nd of February, in commemoration of the presentation
of Christ in the Temple. In the Greek Church it is known as
"ticairami rod Kvplov ("the meeting of the Lord," i.e. with
Simeon and Anna), in the West as the Purification of the Blessed
Virgin. It is the most ancient of all the festivals in honour of the
Virgin Mary. A description is given of its celebration at Jeru-
salem in the Peregrinatio of Etheria (Silvia), in the second half
of the 4th century. It was then kept on the 14th of February,
forty days after Epiphany, the celebration of the Nativity
(Christmas) not having been as yet introduced; the Armenians
still keep it on this day, as " the Coming of the Son of God into
the Temple." The celebration gradually spread to other parts
of the church, being moved to the 2nd of February, forty days
after the newly established feast of Christmas. In 542 it was
established throughout the entire East Roman empire by
Justinian. Its introduction in the West is somewhat obscure.
The 8th-century Gdasian Sacramentary, which embodies a
much older tradition, mentions it under the title of Purification
of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which has led some to suppose that
it was ordained by Pope Gelasius I. in 492 l as a counter-attraction
to the heathen Lupercalia; but for this there is no warrant.
The procession on this day was introduced by Pope Sergius I.
(687-701). The custom of blessing the candles for the whole
year on this day, whence the name Candlemas is derived, did not
come into common use until the nth century.
In the Quadragesimae de Epiphania as described by Etheria
there is, as Monsignor Duchesne points out {Christian Worship, p.
272), no indication of a special association with the Blessed
Virgin; and the distinction between the festival as celebrated in
the East and West is that in the former it is a festival of Christ,
in the latter a festival pre-eminently of the Virgin Mother.
See L. Duchesne, Christian Worship (Eng. trans., London, 1904) ;
art. s.v. by F. G. Holweck in the Catholic Encyclopaedia.
CANDLESTICK, the receptacle for holding a candle, now-
adays made in various art-forms. The word was formerly
used for any form of support on which lights, whether candles
or lamps, were fixed; thus a candelabrum (q.v.) is sometimes
spoken of from tradition as a candlestick, e.g. as when Moses
was commanded to make a candlestick for the tabernacle, of
hammered gold, a talent in weight, and consisting of a base
with a shaft rising out of it and six arms, and with seven lamps
supported on the summits of the six arms and central shaft.
When Solomon built the temple, he placed in it ten golden
candlesticks, five on the north and five on the south side of the
Holy Place; but after the Babylonish captivity the golden
candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it had been
before in the tabernacle by Moses. On the destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus, it was carried with other spoils to Rome.
Representations of the seven-branched candlestick, as it is called,
occur on the arch of Titus at Rome, and on antiquities found
in the Catacombs at Rome. The primitive form of candlestick
was a torch made of slips of bark, vine tendrils or wood dipped
in wax or tallow, tied together and held in the hand by the
lower end, such as are frequently figured on ancient painted
vases. The next step was to attach to them a cup (discus)
to catch the dripping wax or tallow.
A candlestick may be either " flat " or " tall." The former
has a short stem, rising from a dish, and is usually furnished
with an extinguisher fitting into a socket; the latter has a pillar
which may be only a few inches in height or may rise to several
feet, and rarely has an extinguisher. The flat variety is some-
times called a " bedroom candlestick." The beginnings of this
interesting and often beautiful appliance are not exactly known,
but it dates certainly as far back as the 14th century and is
probably older. It is most usually of metal, earthenware or
china, but originally it was made of some hard wood and had
no socketed pillar, the candle fitting upon a metal spike, in the
fashion still familiar in the case of many church candlesticks.
It has been constantly influenced by mobiliary and architectural
fashions, and has varied, as it still varies, from the severest
simplicity of form and material to the most elaborate artistic
treatment and the costliest materials — gold and silver, crystal,
marble and enamel. Previous to the 17th century, iron, lattcn,
bronze and copper were chiefly used, but thenceforward the
1 So Baronius, Ann. ad ann. 544.
i8o
CANDLISH— CANDOLLE
most elegant examples were chiefly of silver, though in more
modern periods Sheffield plate, silver plate and china became
exceedingly popular. Sometimes the base and sconce are of one
material and the pillar of another, as when the former are of
silver and the pillar of marble or china. The choice and com-
bination of materials are, indeed, infinite. The golden age of the
candlestick lasted, roughly speaking, from the third quarter
of the 17th century to the end of the 18th. The later Jacobean,
Queen Anne and early Georgian forms were often extremely
elegant, with broad bases, round, oval or square and swelling
stems. Fine examples of these periods, especially when of silver,
are much sought after and command constantly augmenting
prices. As with most domestic appliances the history of the
candlestick is an unceasing tendency towards simplicity, the
most elaborate and fantastic forms, animals and reptiles, the
monstrous creatures of mythology, lions and men-at-arms, angels
and cupids, having gradually given place to architectural motives
such as the baluster stem and to the classic grace of the Adam
style. The candlestick in its modern form is, indeed, artistically
among the least unsatisfactory of household plenishings.
CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH (1806-1873), Scottish divine,
was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of March 1806, and spent
his early years in Glasgow, where he graduated in 1823. During
the years 18 23-1 8 26 he went through the prescribed course
at the divinity hall, then presided over by Dr Stevenson MacGill,
and on leaving, accompanied a pupil as private tutor to Eton,
where he stayed two years. In 1829 he entered upon his life's
work, having been licensed to preach during the summer
vacation of the previous year. After short assistant pastorates at
St Andrew's, Glasgow, and Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, he obtained
a settled charge as minister of the important parish of St George's,
Edinburgh. Here he at once took the place he so long held
as one of the ablest preachers in Scotland. Destitute of natural
oratorical gifts and somewhat ungainly in his manner, he
attracted and even riveted the attention of his audience by
a rare combination of intellectual keenness, emotional fervour,
spiritual insight and power of dramatic representation of
character and life. His theology was that of the Scottish
Calvinistic school, but his sympathetic character combined
with strong conviction gathered round him one of the largest
and most intelligent congregations in the city.
From the very commencement of his ministry in Edinburgh,
Candlish took the deepest interest in ecclesiastical questions,
and he soon became involved as one of the chief actors in the
struggle which was then agitating the Scottish church. His
first Assembly speech, delivered in 1839, placed him at once
among the leaders of the party that afterwards formed the
Free Church, and his influence in bringing about the Disruption
of 1843 was inferior only to that of Thomas Chalmers. Great
as was his popularity as a preacher, it was in the arena of
ecclesiastical debate that his ability chiefly showed itself, and
probably no other single man had from first to last so large a
share in shaping the constitution and guiding the policy of
the Free Church. He took his stand on two principles: the
right of the people to choose their ministers, and the independence
of the church in things spiritual. On his advice Hugh Miller
was appointed editor of the Witness, the powerful Free Church
organ. He was actively engaged at one time or other in nearly
all the various schemes of the church, but special mention
should be made of his services on the education committee,
of which he was convener from 1846 to 1863, and in the un-
successful negotiations for union among the non-established
Presbyterian denominations of Scotland, which were carried
on during the years 1863-1873. In the Assembly of 1861 he
filled the moderator's chair.
As a theologian the position of Candlish was perhaps inferior
to that which he held as a preacher and ecclesiastic, but it was
not inconsiderable. So early as 1841 his reputation in this
department was sufficient to secure for him the government
nomination to the newly founded chair of Biblical criticism
in the university of Edinburgh. Owing to the opposition of
Lord Aberdeen, however, the presentation was cancelled. In
1847 Candlish, who had received the degree of D.D. from Prince-
ton, New Jersey, in 1841, was chosen by the Assembly of the
Free Church to succeed Chalmers in the chair of divinity in the
New College, Edinburgh. After partially fulfilling the duties
of the office for one session, he was led to resume the charge
of St George's, the clergyman who had been chosen by the
congregation as his successor having died before entering on
his work. In 1 86 2 he succeeded William Cunningham as principal
of New College with the understanding that he should still
retain his position as minister of St George's. He died on the
19th of October 1873.
Though his greatest power was not displayed through the
press, Candlish made a number of contributions to theological
literature. In 1842 he published the first volume of his Con-
tributions towards the Exposition of the Book of Genesis, a work
which was completed in three volumes several years later.
In 1854 he delivered, in Exeter Hall, London, a lecture on
the Theological Essays of the Rev. F. D. Maurice, which he after-
wards published, along with a fuller examination of the doctrine
of the essays. In this he defended the forensic aspect of the
gospel. A treatise entitled The Atonement; its Reality, Com-
pleteness and Extent (1861) was based upon a smaller work
which first appeared in 1845. In 1864 he delivered the first
series of Cunningham lectures, taking for his subject The Father-
hood of God. Published immediately afterwards, the lectures
excited considerable discussion on account of the peculiar views
they represented. Further illustrations of these views were
given in two works published about the same time as the
lectures, one a treatise On the Sonship and Brotherhood of
Believers, and the other an exposition of the first epistle of
St John.
See William Wilson, Memorials of R. 5. Candlish, D.D., with a
chapter on his position as a theologian by Robert Rainy.
CANDOLLE, AUGUSTTN PYRAME DB (1 778-1841), Swiss
botanist, was born at Geneva on the 4th of February 1778. He
was descended from one of the ancient families of Provence,
whence his ancestors had been expatriated for their religion
in the middle of the 16th century. Though a weakly boy he
showed great aptitude for study, and distinguished himself
at school by his rapid attainments in classical and general
literature, and specially by a faculty for writing elegant verse.
He began his scientific studies at the college of Geneva, where
the teaching of J. P. E. Vaucher first inspired him with the
determination to make botanical science the chief pursuit of
his life. In 1796 he removed to Paris. His first productions,
Historia PlantarumSucculentarumfovoh., i7oo)and Astragalogia
(1802), introduced him to the notice of Cuvier, for whom he acted
as deputy at the College de France in 1802, and to J. B. Lamarck,
who afterwards confided to him the publication of the third
edition of the Flore franchise ( 1803-18 15). The Principes
lUmentaires de bolanique, printed as the introduction to this
work, contained the first exposition of his principle of classifica-
tion according to the natural as opposed to the Linnean or
artificial method. In 1804 he was granted the degree of doctor
of medicine by the medical faculty of Paris, and published his
Essai sur les propriitSs mtdicales des plantes comparers avec leurs
formes exterieures et leur classification naturelle, and soon after,
in 1806, his Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum.
At the desire of the French government he spent the summers
of the following six years in making a botanical and agricultural
survey of the whole kingdom, the results of which were published
in 1813. In 1807 he was appointed professor of botany in the
medical faculty of the university of Montpellier, and in 18 10
he was transferred to the newly founded chair of botany of the
faculty of sciences in the same university. From Montpellier,
where he published his Thiorie H&mentaire de la bolanique (1813),
he removed to Geneva in 18 16, and in the following year was
invited by the now independent republic to fill the newly created
chair of natural history. The rest of his life was spent in an
attempt to elaborate and complete his " natural " system of
botanical classification. The results of his labours in this
department are to be found in his Regni vegetabilis sy sterna
CANDON— CANE-FENCING
181
naturak, of which two volumes only were completed (182 1)
when he found that it would be impossible for him to execute
the whole work on so extensive a scale. Accordingly in 1824
he began a less extensive work of the same kind — his Prodromus
systematis regni vegetabilis— but even of this he was able to finish
only seven volumes, or two-thirds of the whole. He had been
for several years in delicate health when he died on the 9th of
September 1841 at Geneva.
His son, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyrame de Candolle,
born at Paris on the 28th of October 1806, at first devoted
himself to the study of law, but gradually drifted to botany
and finally succeeded to his father's chair. He published a
number of botanical works, including continuations of the
Prodromus in collaboration with his son, Anne Casimir
Pyrame de Candolle. He died at Geneva on the 4th of April
1893.
CANDON, a town of South Ilocos province, Luzon, Philippine
Islands, on the W. coast, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila.
Pop. ( 1 003) 1 8,828. Its climate is hot, though healthy. Candon
is surrounded by an extensive and fertile plain, and is defended by
a small fort. Its inhabitants are noted for their honesty and
industry, as well as for their regard for law and order. They carry
on an extensive traffic with the wild tribes of the neighbouring
mountains. Indigo is grown in considerable quantity, as are
rice and tobacco. The weaving of blankets, handkerchiefs, and
cotton and silk cloths constitutes quite an important industry.
The language is Ilocanc .
CANDYTUFT (Iberis amara, so called from Iberia, i.e. Spain,
where many species of the genus are native, and amara, bitter,
i.e. in taste), a small annual herb (natural order Cruciferae) with
white or purplish flowers, the outer petals of which are longer
than the rest. It is a native of western Europe and found wild
on dry soil in cultivated ground in the centre and east of England.
This and several other species of the genus are known as garden
plants, and are of easy culture in ordinary garden soil if well
exposed to sun and air. The common candytuft of gardens is
/. umbellata, a hardy annual, native of southern Europe, and
known in a number of varieties differing in colour of flowers.
/. coronaria (rocket candytuft) has long dense heads of white
flowers and is also an annual. Some species have a shrubby
growth and are evergreen perennials; the best-known is /.
sempervirens, a native of southern Europe, a much-branched
plant about a foot high with long racemes of white flowers.
I. gibr altar ica is a showy, handsome half hardy evergreen.
CANE, a name applied to many plants which have long,
slender, reed-like stalks or stems, as, for example, the sugar-cane,
the bamboo-cane or the reed-cane. From the use as walking-
sticks to which many of these plants have been applied, the
name " cane " is improperly given to sticks, irrespective of the
source from which they are derived. Properly it should be re-
stricted to a peculiar class of palms, known as rattans, included
under the two closely allied genera Calamus and Daemonorops, of
which there are a large number of species. The plants are found
widely extended throughout the islands of the Indian Archi-
pelago, the Malay Peninsula, China, India and Ceylon; and also
in Australia and Africa. They were described by Georg Eberhard
Rumpf or Rumphius (162 7-1 702), governor of Amboyna, and
author of the Herbarium Amboynense (6 vols, folio, Amsterdam,
1 741-17 55), under the name of Palmijunci, as inhabitants of
dense forests into which the rays of the sun scarce can penetrate,
where they form spiny bushes, obstructing the passage through
the jungle. The slender stems rarely exceed an inch in diameter
and are generally much smaller. They creep or trail to an
enormous length, often reaching 500 or 600 ft., and support
themselves on trees or bushes by recurved spines borne on the
stalk or back of the midrib of the leaf, or by stiff hooks replacing
the upper leaflets. In some cases the midrib is elongated beyond
the leaflets to form a long whip-like structure, bearing recurved
hooks at intervals. The natives, in preparing the canes for the
market, strip off the leaves by pulling the cut plant through a
notch made in a tree. The canes always present distinct rings
at the junction of the sheathing leaves with the stem. They
assume a yellow colour as they dry; and those imported from
Calcutta have a glossy surface, while the produce of the Eastern
Archipelago presents a dull exterior.
Canes, on account of their lightness, length, strength and
flexibility, are used for a great variety of purposes by the inhabit-
ants of the countries in which they grow. Split into thin strips
they are twisted to form ropes and ships' cables, an application
mentioned by Captain Dampier in his Voyages. A more im-
portant application, however, is for basket-work, and for making
chairs, couches, pillows, &c, as the great strength and durability
of thin and easily prepared strips admit of such articles being
made at once airy, strong and flexible. Much of the beautiful
and elaborate basket-work of the Chinese and Japanese is made
from thin strips of cane, which are also used by the Chinese for
larger works, such as door-mats, houses and sheds.
A very large trade with Western countries and the United
States is carried on in canes and rattans, the principal centres
of the trade being Bat a via, Sarawak, Singapore, Penang and
Calcutta. In addition to the varieties used for walking-sticks,
whip and umbrella handles, &c, the common rattans are in
extensive demand for basket-making, the seats and backs of
chairs, the ribs of cheap umbrellas, saddles and other harness-
work; and generally for purposes where their strength and
flexibility make them efficient substitutes for whalebone. The
walking-stick " canes " of commerce include a great many
varieties, some of which, however, are not the produce of trailing
palms. The well-known Malacca canes are obtained from
Calamus Scipionum, the stems of which are much stouter than
is the case with the average species of Calamus.
CANEA, or Khania, the principal seaport and since 1841
the capital of Crete, finely situated on the northern coast of
the island, about 25 m.. from its western extremity, on the
isthmus of the Akrotiri peninsula, which lies between the Bay
of Canea and the Bay of Suda (latitude 35 31' N., longitude
24° i' E.). Surrounded by a massive Venetian wall, it forms
a closely built, irregular and overcrowded town, though of late
years a few of its streets have been widened. The ordinary
houses are of wood; but the more important buildings are of
more solid materials. The Turks have a number of mosques;
there are Greek churches and a Jewish synagogue; an old
Venetian structure serves as a military hospital; and the
prison is of substantial construction. The town is now the
principal seat of government; the seat of a Greek bishop, who
is suffragan to the metropolitan at Candia, and the official
residence of the European consuls. The harbour, formed by
an ancient transverse mole nearly 1200 ft. long, and protected
by a lighthouse and a fort, would admit vessels of considerable
tonnage; but it has been allowed to silt up until it shoals off
from 24 ft. to 10 or even 8, so that large vessels have to anchor
about 4 or 5 m. out. The principal articles of trade are oil and
soap, and there is a pretty extensive manufacture of leather.
The fosse is laid out in vegetable gardens; public gardens have
been constructed outside the walls; and artesian wells have
been bored by the government. To the east of the town a
large Arab village had grown up, inhabited for the most part
by natives of Egypt and Cyrenaica, who acted as boatmen,
porters and servants, but since the fall of the Turkish govern-
ment most of these have quitted the island; while about a
mile off on the rising ground is the village of Khalepa, where
the consuls and merchants reside. The population of the town
is estimated at 20,000. Canea probably occupies the site of
the ancient Cydonia, a city of very early foundation and no small
importance. During the Venetian rule it was one of the strongest
cities in the island, but it fell into the hands of the Turks in
1646, several years before the capture of Candia. In 1856 it
suffered from an earthquake. The neighbouring plain is famous
for its fruitfulness, and the quince is said to derive its name
Cydonia from the town. (See also Crete.)
CANE-FENCING (the Fr. canne), the art of defending oneself
with a walking-stick. It may be considered to be single-stick
fencing without a guard for the hand, with the important
difference that in cane-fencing the thrust is as important as
i8a
CANEPHORAE— CANIS MAJOR
the cut, and thus canne approaches nearer to sabre-play.
The cuts are practically identical with those of the single-stick
(q.v.), but they are generally given after one or more rapid
preliminary flourishes (moulinets, circles) which the lightness
of the stick facilitates, and which serve to perplex and disconcert
an assailant. The thrusts are similar to those in foil-play, but
are often carried out with both hands grasping the stick, giving
greater force and enabling it to be used at very close quarters.
The canes used in French fencing schools are made of several
kinds of tough wood and are about 3 ft. long, tapering towards
the point. As very severe blows are exchanged, masks, gloves,
padded vests and shin-guards, similar to those used in football,
are worn.
See Georges d'Amoric, French Method of the Noble Art of Self-
Defence (London, 1898); J. Charlemont, L Art de la Boxe franchise
el de la Canne (Paris, 1899).
CANEPHORAE (Gr. k&vcov, a basket, and <txpuv, to carry),
" basket-bearers," the title given of old to Athenian maidens of
noble family, annually chosen to carry on their heads baskets
with sacrificial implements and apparatus at the Panathenaic
and other festivals. The term (also in the form Canephori) is
applied in architecture to figures of either sex carrying on
their heads baskets, containing edibles or material for sacrifices.
The term might well be applied to the Caryatide figures of the
Erechtheum. Those represented in the Panathenaic frieze of
the Parthenon carry vases on their shoulders.
CANES VENATICI (" The Hounds/' or " the Greyhounds "),
in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere named
by Hevelius in 1690, who compiled it from the stars between
the older asterisms Ursa Major, Bootes and Coma Berenices.
Interesting objects in this portion of the heavens are: the famous
spiral nebula first described by Lord Rosse; a-Canum Venati-
corum, a double star, of magnitudes 3 and 6; this star was
named Cor Caroli, or The Heart of Charles II., by Edmund
Halley, on the suggestion of Sir Charles Scarborough (1616-1694) ,
the court physician; a cluster of stars of the nth magnitude
and fainter, extremely rich in variables, of the 900 stars examined
no less than 132 being regularly variable.
CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSfi (1 770-1843), Spanish statesman,
was born in 1770. He took an active part in the Spanish resist-
ance to Napoleon in a civil capacity and was an energetic
member of the cortes of 1812. On the return of the Bourbon
line in 18 14, Canga-Arguelles was sent into exile in the province
of Valencia. On the restoration in 1820 of the constitution of
181 2, he was appointed minister of finance. He continued at
this post till the spring of 1821, distinguishing himself by the
zeal and ability with which he sought to reform the finances
of Spain. It was high time; for the annual deficit was greater
than the entire revenue itself, and landed and other property
was, to an unheard-of extent, monopolized by the priests.
The measures he proposed had been only partially enforced,
when the action of the king with regard to the ministry, of
which he was a member, obliged him to resign. Thereafter,
as a member of the Moderate Liberal party, Canga-Arguelles
advocated constitutional government and financial reform, till
the overthrow of the constitution in 1823, when he fled to
England. He did not return to Spain till 1829, and did not
again appear in public life, being appointed keeper of the archives
at Simancas. He died in 1843. Canga-Arguelles is the author
of three works: Elemenlos de la Ciencia de Hacienda (Elements
of the Science of Finance), London, 1825; Diccionario de
Hacienda (Dictionary of Finance), London, 1827; and Obser-
vaciones sobre la guerra de la Peninsula (Observations on the
Peninsular War), in which he endeavoured to show that his
countrymen had taken a far more effective part in the national
struggle against the French than English historians were willing
to admit.
CANGAS DE ONfS, or Cangas, a town of northern Spain, in
the province of Oviedo; situated on the right bank of the river
Sella, in a fertile, well-watered, partly wooded, undulating
region. Pop. (1900) 8537. The trade of Cangas de Onis is chiefly
in live-stock and coal from the neighbouring mines. A Latin
inscription on the town-hall records the fact that this place
was the residence of the first Spanish kings after the spread of
the Moors over the Peninsula. Here early in the 8th century
lived King Pelayo, who started the Christian reconquest of
Spain. His historic cave of Covadonga is only 8 m. distant
(see Asturias). The church of the Assumption, rebuilt in the
19th century, is on the model and site of an older church of the
middle ages. Near Cangas are ruins and bridges of the Roman
period.
CANGAS DE TINft), a town of northern Spain, in the province
of Oviedo, and on the river Narcea. Pop. (1000) 22,742. There
is no railway and the river is not navigable, but a good road
runs through Tineo, Grado and the adjacent coal-fields, to the
ports of Cudillero and Aviles. The inhabitants have thus an
easily accessible market for the farm produce of the fertile hills
round Cangas de Tineo, and for the cloth, leather, pottery, &c,
manufactured in the town.
CANGUE, or Cang, the European name for the Chinese Kia
or Kea y a portable pillory, carried by offenders convicted of
petty offences. It consists of a square wooden collar weighing
from 20 to 60 lb, through a hole in which the victim's head
is thrust. It fits tight to the neck and must be worn day and
night for the period ordered. The offender is left exposed in
the street. Over the parts by which it fastens slips of paper
bearing the mandarin's seal are pasted so that no one can liberate
the condemned. The length of the punishment is usually from
a fortnight to a month. As the cangue is 3 to 4 ft. across the
convict is unable to feed himself or to lie down, and thus, unless
fed by friends or passers-by, often starves to death. As in the
English pillory, the name of the man and the nature of his
offence are inscribed on the cangue.
CANINA, LUIGI (1 795-1856), Italian archaeologist and
architect, was born at Casale in Piedmont. He became professor
of architecture at Turin, and his most important works were
the excavation of Tusculum in 1829 and of the Appian Way in
1848, the results of which he embodied in a number of works
published in a costly form by his patroness, the queen of
Sardinia.
CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO (161 7-1666), Italian designer
and engraver, was born at Rome. He was a pupil of Domenichino
and afterwards of Antonio Barbalonga. He painted some
altar-pieces at Rome, including two admired pictures for the
church of San Martino a* Monti, representing the martyrdom
of St Stephen and of St Bartholomew. Having accompanied
Cardinal Chigi to France, he was encouraged by the minister
Colbert to carry into execution his project of designing from
medals, antique gems and similar sources a series of portraits
of the most illustrious characters of antiquity, accompanied
with memoirs; but shortly after the commencement of the
undertaking Canini died at Rome. The work, however, was
prosecuted by his brother Marcantonio, who, with the assistance
of Picard and Valet, completed and published it in 1699, under
the title of Iconografia di Gio. Ag. Canini. It contains 150
engravings. A reprint in Italian and French appeared at Amster-
dam in 1731.
CANIS MAJOR (" Great Dog "),in astronomy, a constellation
placed south of the Zodiac, just below and behind the heels of
Orion. Canis minor , the " little dog," is another constellation,
also following Orion and separated from Canis major by the
Milky Way. Both these constellations, or at least their principal
stars, Sirius in the Great Dog and Procyon in the Little Dog,
were named in very remote times, being referred to as the " dogs
of Orion " or in equivalent terms. Sirius is the brightest star
in the heavens; and the name is connected with the adjectives
aeipte and adovos, scorching. It may possibly be related to
the Arabic Siraj, thus meaning the " glittering one." Hommel
has shown that Sirius and Procyon were " the two Si'ray "
or glitterers. It is doubtful whether Sirius is referred to in the
Old Testament. By some it has been identified with the Hebrew
mazzarotk, the Lucifer of the Vulgate; by others with mazzaloth*
the duodecim signa of the Vulgate; while Professor M. A. Stern
identifies it with the Hebrew kimah, which is rendered variously
CANITZ
183
in the Vulgate as Arcturus, Hyades and Pleiades. 1 The in-
habitants of the Euphrates valley included! both constellations
in their stellar system; but considerable difficulty is encountered
in the allocation of the Babylonian names to the dominant
stars. The name kak-ban, which occurs on many tablets, has
been determined by Epping and Strassmaier, and also by
Jensen and Hommel, as equivalent to Sirius; etymologically
this word means " dog-star " (or, according to R. Brown,
Primitive Constellations, " bow-star "). On the other hand,
Kaksidi or Kak-si-sa, meaning the " leader," has been identified
by Sayce and others with Sirius, while Hommel regards it as
Procyon. The question is mainly philological, and the arguments
seem inconclusive. We may notice, however, that connexions
were made between Kaksidi and the weather, which have
strong affinities with the ideas expressed at a later date by the
Greeks. For example, its appearance in the morning with the
sun heralded the "north winds," the /Sopku Inprlcu or
aquilones etesiae f the strong and dangerous north-westerly winds
of Greece which blow for forty days from the rising of the star;
again, when Sirius appeared misty the " locusts devour."
Sirius also appears in the cosmogony of Zoroaster, for Plutarch
records that Ormuzd appointed this star to be a guard and
overseer in the heavens, and in the A vesta we find that Tistrya
(Sirius) is " the bright and happy star, that gives happy dwelling."
With the Egyptians Sirius assumed great importance. Appearing
with the sun when the Nile was rising, Sirius was regarded as a
herald of the waters which would overspread the land, renewing
its fertility and promising good harvests for the coming season.
Hephaestion records that from its aspect the rise of the water
was foretold, and the Roman historian Florus adds that the
weather was predicted also. Its rising marked the commence-
ment of their new year, the annus canarius and annus cynicus
of the Romans. It was the star of Sept or Sothis, and, according
to one myth, was identified with the goddess Hathor — the
Aphrodite of the Greeks. It was the " second sun " of the
heavens, and according to Maspero {Dawn of Civilization, 1894)
" Sahu and Sopdit, Orion and Sirius, were the rulers of this
mysterious world of night and stars."
The Greeks, borrowing most of their astronomical knowledge
from the Babylonians, held similar myths and ideas as to the
constellations and stars. Sirius was named Zelpcos, Kvwv
(the dog) and t6 Bxrrpov, the star; and its heliacal rising was
associated with the coming of the dry, hot and sultry season.
Hesiod tells us that " Sirius parches head and knees"; Homer
speaks similarly, calling it k*k6v <rij/ia, the evil star, and the
star of late summer (or&pa), the rainy and stormy season.
Procyon (UpoKvwv) was so named because it rose before Kfcw.
The Euphratean myth of the dogs has its parallel in Greece,
Sirius being the hound of the hunter Orion, and as recorded by
Aratus always chasing the Hare; Pindar refers to the chase
of Pleione, the mother of the Pleiads, by Orion and his dogs.
Similarly Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius, when
Bootes became Icarius, and Virgo his daughter Erigone.
The Romans adopted the Greek ideas. They named the
constellation Canis, and Sirius was known as Cants also, and
as Canicula. Procyon became Antecanem and Antecanis, but
these names did not come into general use. They named the
hottest part of the year associated with the heliacal rising of
Sirius the Dies caniculares, a phrase which has survived in the
modern expression "dog-days"; and the pestilences which
then prevailed occasioned the offering of sacrifices to placate
this inimical star. Festus narrates, in this connexion, the sacri-
ficing of red dogs at the feast of Floralia, and Ovid of a dog
on the Robigalia. The experience of the ancient Greeks that
Sirius rose with the sun as the latter entered Leo, i.e. the hottest
part of the year, was accepted by the Romans with an entire
disregard of the intervening time and a different latitude. To
quote Sir Edward Sherburne (Sphere of ManHius, 1675),
" The greater part of the Antients assign the Dog Star rising
to the time of the Sun's first entering into Leo, or, as Pliny
writes, 23 days after the summer solstice, as Varro 29, as
1 See G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament (1905).
Columella 30. 2 ... At this day with us, according to
Vulgar computation, the rising and setting of the said Star
is in a manner coincident with the Feasts of St Margaret
(which is about the 13 th of our July) and St Lawrence (which
falls on the 10th of our August)."
Sirius is the most conspicuous star in the sky; it sends to
the earth eleven times as much light as Aldebaran, the unit
standard adopted in the revised Harvard Photometry; numeric-
ally its magnitude is-i-6. At the present time its colour is
white with a tinge of blue, but historical records show that this
colour has not always prevailed. Aratus designated it xot/uXos,
many coloured; the Alexandrian Ptolemy classified it with
Aldebaran, Antares and Betelgeuse as inrbuppos, fiery red;
Seneca describes it as " redder than Mars "; while, in the
10th century, the Arabian Biruni termed it " shining red."
On the other hand Sufi, who also flourished in the 10th century,
pointedly omits it from his list of coloured stars. The question
has been thoroughly discussed by T. J. J. See, who shows
that Sirius has shone white for the last 1000 to 1200 years. 3
The parallax has been determined by Sir David Gill and W. L.
Eikin to be 03 7"; it is therefore distant from the earth over
5X10" miles, and its light takes 8-6 years to traverse the inter-
vening space. If the sun were at the same distance Sirius would
outshine it 30 times, the sun appearing as a star of the second
magnitude. It has a large proper motion, which shows recurrent
undulations having a 50-year period. From this Bessel surmised
the existence of a satellite or companion, for which C. A. F.
Peters and A. Auwers computed the elements. T. H. Safford
determined its position for September 1861; and on the 31st
of January 1862, Alvan G. Clark, of Cambridgeport, Mass.,
telescopicaUy observed it as a barely visible, dull yellow star
of the 9th to 10th magnitude. The mean distance apart is
about 20 astronomical units; the total mass of the pair is 3-7
times the mass of the sun, Sirius itself being twice as massive
as its companion, and, marvellously enough, forty thousand
times as bright. The spectrum of Sirius is characterized by
prominent absorption lines due to hydrogen, the metallic lines
being weak; other stars having the same spectra are said
to be of the " Sirian type." Such stars are the most highly
heated (see Star).
Procyon, or a Canis minoris, is a star of the 2nd magnitude,
one-fifth as bright as Sirius, or numerically 0-47 when compared
with Aldebaran. It is more distant than Sirius, its parallax
being 0-33"; and its light is about six times that of the sun.
Its proper motion is large, 1*25", and its velocity at right angles
to the line of sight is about n m. per second. Its proper motion
shows large irregularities, pointing to a relatively massive com-
panion; this satellite was discovered on the 13th of November
1896 by J. M. Schaeberle, with the great Lick telescope, as a
star of the 13th magnitude. Its mass is equal to about that
of the sun, but its light is only one twenty-thousandth.
CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG, Freiherr von
(1654-1699), German poet and diplomatist, was born at Berlin
on the 27th of November 1654. He attended the universities
of Leiden and Leipzig, travelled in England, France, Italy and
Holland, and on his return was appointed groom of the bed-
chamber (Kammerjunker) to the elector Frederick William
of Brandenburg, whom he accompanied on his campaigns in
Pomerania and Sweden. In 1680 he became councillor of lega-
tion, and he was employed on various embassies. In 1697 the
elector Frederick HI. made him a privy councillor, and the
emperor Leopold I. created him a baron of the Empire. Having
fallen ill on an embassy to the Hague, he obtained his discharge
and died at Berlin in 1699. Canitz's poems (Nebenstunden
unterschiedener Gedichte), which did not appear until after his
death (1700), are for the most part dry and stilted imitations
of French and Latin models, but they formed a healthy
•For other values of the interval between the summer solstice
and the rising of Sirius, see Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman
Antiquities.
* See Thomas Barker, Phil. Trans., 1760, 51, p. 498, for quotations
from classical authors; also T. J. J. See, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
vol. xi. p. 269.
184
CANIZARES— CANNIBALISM
contrast to the coarseness and bombast of the later Silesian
poets.
A complete edition of Canitz's poems was published by U. Konig
in 1727; see also L. Fulda, Dte Gegner der viveiten schlesischen
Sckule, ii. (1883).
CAfllZARES, JOSfi DE (1676-1750), Spanish dramatist, was
born at Madrid on the 4th of July 1676, entered the army, and
retired with the rank of captain in 1702 to act as censor of the
Madrid theatres and steward to the duke of Osuna. In his
fourteenth year Canizares recast a play by Lope de Vega under
the title of Las Cuenias del Gran Capitdn, and he speedily became
a fashionable playwright. His originality, however, is slight,
and EL Ddtnine Lucas, the only one of his pieces that is still read,
is an adaptation from Lope de Vega. Canizares produced a
version of Racine's Iphig&nie shortly before 17 16, and is lo some
extent responsible for the destruction of the old Spanish drama.
He died on the 4th of September 1750, at Madrid.
CANNAE (mod. Canne), an ancient village of Apulia, near the
river Aufidus, situated on a hill on the right bank, 6 m.
S.W. from its mouth. It is celebrated for the disastrous defeat
which the Romans received there from Hannibal in 216 B.C.
(see Punic Wars). There is a considerable controversy as to
whether the battle took place on the right or the left bank of the
river. In later times the place became a municipium, and un-
important Roman remains still exist upon the hill known as
Monte di Canne. In the middle ages it became a bishopric,
but was destroyed in 1276.
See O. Schwab, Das Schlachtfeld von Canna (Munich, 1898), and
authorities under Punic Wars.
CANNANORE, or Kananore, a town of British India, in the
Malabar district of Madras, on the coast, 58 m. N. from Calicut
and 470 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1001) 27,81 1. Cannanore
belonged to the Kalahasti or Cherakal rajas till the invasion of
Malabar by Hyder Ali. In 1498 it was visited by Vasco da
Gama; in 1501 a Portuguese factory was planted here by
Cabral; in 1502 da Gama made a treaty with the raja, and in
1505 a fort was built. In 1656 the Dutch effected a settlement
and built the present fort, which they sold to Ali Raja in 177 1.
In 1783 Cannanore was captured by the British, and the reigning
princess became tributary to the East India Company. Here is
the residence of the Moplah chief, known as the Ali Raja, who
owns most of the Laccadive Islands. Cannanore is the head-
quarters of a military division.
CANNES, a seaport of France, in the department of the Alpes
Mari times, on the Mediterranean, 19 m. S.W. of Nice and 120 m.
E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. ( 1 906) 24, 53 1 . It enjoys a southern
exposure on a seaward slope, and is defended from the northern
winds by ranges of hills. Previous to 1 83 1 , when it first attracted
the attention of Lord Brougham, it mainly consisted of the old
quarter (named Sucquet), and had little to show except an
ancient castle, and a church on the top of Mont Chevalier,
dedicated in 1603 to Notre Dame du Mont Esperance; but
since that period it has become a large and important town,
and is now one of the most fashionable winter resorts in the
south of France, much frequented by English visitors, the
Americans preferring Nice. The neighbourhood is thickly studded
with magnificent villas, which are solidly built of a stone so soft
that it is sawn and not hewn. There is an excellent quay, and
a beautiful promenade runs along the beach; and numerous
sheltered roads stretch up the valleys amidst groves of olive
trees. On the north the modern town climbs up to Le Cannet
(2 m.), while on the east it practically extends along the coast
to Golfe Jouan (3} m.), where Napoleon landed on the 1st of
March 1815, on his return from Elba. From Cannes a railway
runs north in 12} m. to Grasse. On the top of the hill behind
the town are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant cemetery.
In the most prominent part of the latter is the grave of Lord
Brougham, distinguished by a massive stone cross standing on
a double basement, with the simple inscription — " Henricus
Brougham, Natus mdcclxxviii., Decessit mdccclxvdi."; and
in the immediate vicinity lies James, fourth duke of Montrose,
who died December 1874. The country around is very beautiful
and highly fertile; orange and lemon trees are cultivated like
peach trees in England, while olives, almonds, figs, peaches,
grapes and other fruits are grown in abundance, and, along
with the produce of the fisheries, form the chief exports of the
town. Essences of various kinds are manufactured, and flowers
are extensively cultivated for the perfumers. The climate of
Cannes has been the subject of a considerable variety of opinion,
— the preponderance being, however, in its favour. According
to Dr de Valcourt, it is remarkable by reason of the elevation
and regularity of the temperature during the height of the day,
the clearness of the atmosphere and abundance of light, the
rarity of rain and the absence of fogs.
Cannes is a place of great antiquity, but its earlier history
is very obscure. It was twice destroyed by the Saracens in the
8th and the 10th centuries; but it was afterwards repeopled
by a colony from Genoa. Opposite the town is the island of
Ste Marguerite (one of the Lenns) , in the citadel of which the Man
with the Iron Mask was confined from 1686 to 1698, and which
acquired notoriety as the prison whence Marshal Bazaine escaped
in August 1874. On the other chief island (St Honorat) of the
Lenns is the famous monastery (5th century to 1 788) , in connexion
with which grew up the school of Lerins, which had a wide
influence upon piety and literature in the 5th and 6th centuries.
See L. Alliez, Histoire du monastere de Lirins (2 vols., Paris, 1862) ;
and Les Ties de Lirins, Cannes, et les rivages environnanis (Paris, i860; ;
Cartulaire du monastere de Lerins (2 vols., Paris, 1883 and 1905) ; de
Valcourt, Cannes and its Climate (London, 1873) ; Joanne, special
Guide to Cannes; J. R. Green, essay on Cannes and St Honorat,
in the first series of his Stray Studies (1st ed., 1876); A. Cooper-
Marsdin, The School of Lirins (Rochester, 1905). (W. A. B. C.) ,
CANNIBALISM, the eating of human flesh by men (from a
Latinized form of Carib, the name of a tribe of South America,
formerly found also in the West Indies), also called " anthro-
pophagy "(Gr. &vdp(i)Tros, man, and (j>ay€LV f to eat). Evidence
has been adduced from some of the palaeolithic cave-dwellings
in France to show that the inhabitants practised cannibalism,
at least occasionally. From Herodotus, Strabo and others we
hear of peoples like the Scythian Massagetae, a nomad race
north-east of the Caspian Sea, who killed old people and ate
them. In the middle ages reports, some of them probably un-
trustworthy, by Marco Polo and others, attributed cannibalism
to the wild tribes of China, the Tibetans, &c In our own days
cannibalism prevails, or prevailed until recently, over a great part
of West and Central Africa, New Guinea, Melanesia (especially
Fiji) and Australia. New Zealand and the Polynesian Islands
were great centres of the practice. It is extensively practised
by the Battas of Sumatra and in other East Indian islands and
in South America; in earlier days it was a common feature of
Indian wars in North America. Sporadic cannibalism occurs
among more civilized peoples as a result of necessity or as a
manifestation of disease (see Lycanthropy).
Classification. — Cannibalistic practices may be classified from
two points of view: (1) the motives of the act; (2) the cere-
monial regulations. A third division of subordinate importance
is also possible, if we consider whether the victims are actually
killed for food or whether only such are eaten as have met their
death in battle or other ways.
1. From a psychological point of view the term cannibalism
groups together a number of customs, whose only bond of union
is that they all involve eating of human flesh, (a) Food canni-
balism, where the object is the satisfaction of hunger, may occur
sporadically as a result of real necessity or may be kept up for
the simple gratification of a taste for human flesh in the absence
of any lack of food in general or even of animal food, (i.) Canni-
balism from necessity is found not only among the lower races,
such as the Fuegians or Red Indian tribes, but also among
civilized races, as the records of sieges and shipwrecks show.
(ii.) Simple food cannibalism is common in Africa; the Niam-
Niam and Monbuttu carry on wars for the sake of obtaining
human flesh; in West Africa human flesh could formerly be
seen exposed for sale in the market like any other article of
commerce; and among some tribes it is the practice to sell the
corpses of dead relatives for consumption as food, (b) In
CANNING, LORD
185
curious contrast to this latter custom is the practice of devouring
dead kinsfolk as the most respectful method of disposing of their
remains. In a small number of cases this practice is combined
with the custom of killing the old and sick, but in the great
majority of peoples it is simply a form of burial; it seems to
prevail in most parts of Australia, many parts of Melanesia,
Africa and South America, and less frequently in other parts
of the world. To this group belong the customs described by
Herodotus; we may perhaps regard as a variant form the custom
of using the skull of a dead man as a drinking-cup. This practice
is widely found, and the statement of Herodotus that the skull
was set in gold and preserved by the Issedones may point in
this direction; from the account given of the Tibetans some
seven hundred years ago by William of Ruysbruck (Rubruquis)
it appears that they had given up cannibalism but still preserved
the use of the skull as a drinking vessel. Another modification
of an original ritual cannibalism is the custom of drinking the
ashes of the dead, which is practised by some African and South
American tribes. The custom of holding burial feasts has also
been traced to the same origin. More incomprehensible to the
European than any other form of cannibalism is the custom of
partaking of the products of putrefaction as they run down from
the body. The Australians smoke-dry the bodies of tribesmen;
here, too, it is the custom to consume the portions of the body
which are rendered liquid by the heat, (c) The ritual cannibal-
ism just mentioned shades over into and may have been originally
derived from magical cannibalism, of which three sub-species
may be distinguished, (i.) Savages are accustomed, on the one
hand, to abstain from certain foods in order that they may not
acquire certain qualities; on the other hand other foods are
eagerly desired in order that they may by partaking of the flesh
also come to partake of the mental or bodily peculiarities of
the man or animal from which the meat is derived; thus, after
the birth of a child, especially the first-born, the parents are
frequently forbidden the flesh of slow-moving animals, because
that would prevent the child from learning to walk; conversely,
eating the heart of a lion is recommended for a warrior to make
him brave; from this point of view therefore we readily under-
stand the motives which lead to the eating of those slain in
battle, both friends and foes, (ii.) We may term protective an
entirely different kind of magical cannibalism, which consists in
the consumption of a small portion of the body of a murdered
man, in order that his ghost may not trouble the murderer;
according to Hans EgMe, the Eskimo, when they kill a witch,
eat a portion of her heart, that she may not haunt them, (iii.)
The practice is also said to have the effect of causing the relatives
of the murdered man to lose heart or to prevent them from
exercising the right of revenge; in this case it may be brought
into relation with the ceremony of the blood covenant in one of
the forms of which the parties drink each other's blood; or, it
may point to a reminiscence of a ritual eating of the dead kins-
man. The late survival of this idea in Europe is attested by its
mention by Dante in the Purgatorio. (d) The custom of eating
food offered to the gods is widespread, and we may trace to
this origin Mexican cannibalism, perhaps, too, that of Fiji. The
Aztec worship of the god of war, Huitzilopochtli, led to the
sacrifice of prisoners, and the custom of sacrifice to their frequent
wars. The priest took out the heart, offered it to the sun, and
then went through the ceremonies of feeding the idol with the
heart and blood; finally the bodies of the victims were consumed
by the worshippers, (e) We reach an entirely different set of
motives in penal and revenge cannibalism. For the origin of
these ideas we may perhaps look to that of protective magic,
dealt with above; but it seems possible that there is also some
idea of influencing the lot of the criminal in a future life; it
may be noted that the whole of the body is seldom eaten in
protective cannibalism; among the Battas, however, the
criminal, and in parts of Africa the debtor, are entirely consumed.
Other cases, especially where the victim is an enemy, may be due
to mere fury and bravado. (/) In the west of North America a
peculiar kind of cannibalism is found, which is confined to a
certain body of magicians termed " Hametzen " and a necessary
condition of admission to their order. Another kind of initiatory
cannibalism prevailed in the south of Australia, where a magician
had to eat a portion of a child's body before he was admitted.
The meaning of these ceremonials is not clear.
2. Most kinds of cannibalism are hedged round with ceremonial
regulations. Certain tribes, as we have seen above, go to war
to provide human flesh; in other cases it is only the nearest
relatives who may not partake of a body; in other cases again
it is precisely the nearest relatives on whom the duty falls. A
curious regulation in south-east New Guinea prescribes that the
killer of the victim shall not partake in the feast; in some cases
the whole of the clan to which belonged the man for whom
revenge is taken abstains also; in other cases this clan, together
with any others of the same intermarrying group, takes part in
the feast to the exclusion of (a) the dan or group with which
they intermarry and (b) all outside clans. Some peoples forbid
women to eat human flesh; in others certain classes, as the
Muri of the Bambala, a tribe in the Kassai, may be forbidden to
eat it. In Mindanao the only person who might eat of a slain
enemy was the priest who led the warriors, and he was not per-
mitted to escape this duty. In Grand Bassam all who had taken
part in a festival at the foundation of a new village were com-
pelled to eat of the human victim. But the variations are too
numerous for any general account to be given of ceremonial
limitations. S. R. Steinmetz has proposed a division into endo-
and exo-cannibalism; but these divisions are frequently of
minor importance, and he has failed to define satisfactorily the
limits of the groups on which his classification is based.
Origin. — It will probably never be possible to say how canni-
balism originated; in fact the multiplicity of forms and the
diversity of ceremonial rules — some prescribing that tribesmen
shall on no account be eaten, others that the bodies of none but
tribesmen shall provide the meal of human flesh — point to a
multiple origin. It has been maintained that the various forms
of endo-cannibalism (eating of tribesmen) spring from an original
practice of food cannibalism which the human race has in common
with many animals; but this leaves unexplained inter alia the
limitation of the right of participation in the funeral meal to the
relatives of the dead man; at the same time it is possible to
argue that the magical ideas now associated with cannibalism
are of later growth. Against the view put forward by Steinmetz
it may be urged that we have other instances of magical foods,
such as the eating of a lion's heart, which do not point to an
original custom of eating the animal as food. We shall probably
be justified in referring all forms of endo-cannibalism to a ritual
origin; otherwise the limitation is inexplicable; on the other
hand exo-cannibalism, in some of its forms, and much of the
extension of endo-cannibalism must be referred to a desire for
human flesh, grown into a passion.
Bibliography.— Steinmetz, in Mitt. Anihrop. Ges. Wien f N.F.
xvi. ; Andree, Die Anthropaphagie; Bergmann, Die Verbreitung
der Anthropophagi* \ Schneider, Die Naturvolker, i. 121-200; Schaff-
hausen, Anthroiologische Studien, Internal. Archie iii. 69-73;
xii. 78; E. S. Hartland, Legend of Perseus, vol. ii.; Dictionnaire
des sci. mid. % s.v. " Anthropophagie "; Dr Seligmann in Reports of
the Cook-Daniels Expedition to New Guinea. (N. W. T.)
CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, Earl (181 2-1862), English states-
man, governor-general of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was
the youngest child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton,
near London, on the 14th of December 181 2. He was educated
at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1833, as
first class in classics and second class in mathematics. In 1836
he entered parliament, being returned as member for the town
of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not, however,
sit long in the House of Commons; for, on the death of his
mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage which had been
conferred on her with remainder to her only surviving son,
and as Viscount Canning took his seat in the House of Lords.
IDs first official appointment was that of under-secretary of
state for foreign affairs, in the administration formed by Sir
Robert Peel in 1841 — his chief being the earl of Aberdeen.
This post he held till January 1846; and from January to July
of that year, when the Peel administration was broken up,
1 86
CANNING, GEORGE
Lord Canning filled the post of commissioner of woods and
forests. He declined to accept office under the earl of Derby;
but on the formation of the coalition ministry under the earl
of Aberdeen in January 1853, he received the appointment of
postmaster-general. In this office he showed not only a large
capacity for hard work, but also general administrative ability
and much zeal for the improvement of the service. He retained
his post under Lord Palmerston's ministry until July 1855,
when, in consequence of the death of Lord Dalhousie and a
vacancy in the governor-generalship of India, he was selected
by Lord Palmerston to succeed to that great position. This
appointment appears to have been made rather on the ground
of his father's great services than from any proof as yet given
of special personal fitness on the part of Lord Canning. The new
governor sailed from England in December 1855, and entered
upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February
1856. His strong common sense and sound practical judgment
led him to adopt a policy of conciliation towards the native
princes, and to promote measures tending to the betterment
of the condition of the people.
In the year following his accession to office the deep-seated
discontent of the people broke out in the Indian Mutiny (q.v.).
Fears were entertained, and even the friends of the viceroy
to some extent shared them, that he was not equal to the crisis.
But the fears proved groundless. He had a clear eye for the
gravity of the situation, a calm judgment, and a prompt, swift
hand to do what was really necessary. By the union of great
moral qualities with high, though not the highest, intellectual
faculties, he carried the Indian empire safely through the stress
of the storm, and, what was perhaps a harder task still, he dealt
wisely with the enormous difficulties arising at the close of such
a war, established a more liberal policy and a sounder financial
system, and left the people more contented than they were
before. The name of " Clemency Canning," which was applied
to him during the heated animosities of the moment, has since
become a title of honour.
While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation
declaring the lands of the province forfeited; and this step
gave rise to much angry controversy. A " secret despatch,"
couched in arrogant and offensive terms, was addressed to
the viceroy by Lord Ellenborough, then a member of the Derby
administration, which would have justified the viceroy in
immediately resigning. But from a strong sense of duty he
continued at his post; and ere long the general condemnation
of the despatch was so strong that the writer felt it necessary
to retire from office. Lord Canning replied to the despatch,
calmly and in a statesman-like manner explaining and vindi-
cating his censured policy. In April 1859 he received the thanks
of both Houses of Parliament for his great services during the
mutiny. He was also made an extra civil grand cross of the
order of the Bath, and in May of the same year he was raised
to the dignity of an earl. By the strain of anxiety and hard
work his health and strength were seriously impaired, while
the death of his wife was also a great shock to him; in the
hope that rest in his native land might restore him, he left
India, reaching England in April 1862. But it was too late.
He died in London on the 17th of June following. About a
month before his death he was created K. G. As he died without
issue the title became extinct.
SeeSirH. S. Cunningham, Earl Canning ( u Rulers oi Iftdia" series),
1891 ; and A. J. C. Hare, The Story of Two Noble Lives (1893).
CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827), British statesman, was born
in London on the 1 1 th of April 1 7 70. The family was of English
origin and had been settled at Bishop's Canynge in Wiltshire.
In 1618 a George Canning, son of Richard Canning of Foxcote in
Warwickshire, received a grant of the manor of Garvagh in
Londonderry, Ireland, from King James I. The father of the
statesman, also named George, was the eldest son of Mr Stratford
Canning, of Garvagh. He quarrelled with and was disowned by
his family. He came to London and led a struggling life, partly
in trade and partly in literature. In May 1 768 he married Mary
Annie Costello, and he died on the nth of April 1771, exactly
one year after the birth of his son. Mrs Canning, who was left
destitute, received no help from her husband's family, and went
on the stage, where she was not successful. She married a dis-
solute and brutal actor of the name of Reddish. Her son owed
his escape from the miseries of her household to another member
of the company, Moody, who wrote to Mr Stratford Canning, a
merchant in London and younger brother of the elder George
Canning. Moody represented to Mr Stratford Canning that the
boy, although full of promise, was on the high road to the gallows
under the evil influence of Reddish. Mr Stratford Canning
exerted himself on behalf of his nephew. An estate of the value
of £200 a year was settled on the boy, and he was sent in succes-
sion to a private school at Hyde Abbey near Winchester, to
Eton in 1781, and to Christchurch, Oxford, in 1787. After
leaving Eton and before going to Oxford, he was entered as a
student at Lincoln's Inn. At Eton he edited the school magazine,
The Microcosm, and at Oxford he took the leading part in the
formation of a debating society. He made many friends, and his
reputation was already so high that Sheridan referred to him in
the House of Commons as a rising hope of the Whigs. According
to Lord Holland, he had been noted at Oxford as a furious
Jacobin and hater of the aristocracy. In 1 79 2 he came to London
to read for the bar. He had taken his B. A. in 1 79 1 and proceeded
M.A. on the 6th of July 1794.
Soon after coming to London he became acquainted with Pitt
in some uncertain way. The hatred of the aristocracy, for which
Lord Holland says he was noted at Oxford, would naturally
deter an ambitious young man with his way to make in the
world, and with no fixed principles, from attaching his fortune
to the Whigs. Canning had the glaring examples of Burke and
Sheridan himself to show him that the great "revolution
families " — Cavendishes, Russells, Bentincks — who controlled
the Whig party, would never allow any man, however able, who
did not belong to their connexion, to rise to the first rank. He
therefore took his place among the followers of Pitt. It is,
however, only fair to note that he always regarded Pitt with
strong personal affection, and that he may very naturally have
been influenced, as multitudes of other Englishmen were, by
the rapid development of the French Revolution from a reform-
ing to an aggressive and conquering force. In a letter to his
friend Lord Boringdon (John Parker, afterwards earl of Morley),
dated the 13th of December 1792, he explicitly states that this
was the case. Enlightened self-interest was doubtless combined
with honest conviction in ranking him among the followers of
Pitt. By the help of the prime minister he entered parliament
for the borough of Newtown in the Isle of Wight in July 1793.
His maiden speech, on the subvention to the king of Sardinia,
was made on the 31st of January 1794. It is by some said to
have been a failure, but he satisfied himself, and he soon estab-
lished his place as the most brilliant speaker on the ministerial
side. It may be most conveniently noted here, that his political
patrons exerted themselves to provide for his private as well
as his official prosperity. Their favour helped him to make a
lucrative marriage with Miss Joan Scott, who had a fortune of
£100,000, on the 8th of July 1800. The marriage was a very
happy one, though the bulk of the fortune was worn away in the
expenses of public and social life. Mrs Canning, who survived
her husband for ten years, was created a viscountess in 1828.
Four children were born of the marriage — a son who died in his
father's lifetime, and was lamented by him in very touching
verse; another a captain in the navy, drowned at Madeira in
1827; a third son, Charles (tf.v.), afterwards created Earl
Canning; and a daughter Harriet, who married the marquess of
Clanricarde in 1825.
The public life of Canning may be divided into four stages.
From 1793 to 1801 he was the devoted follower of Pitt, was in
minor though important office, and was the wittiest of the
defenders of the ministry in parliament and in the press. From
1 80 1 to 1809 he was partly in opposition, partly in office, fighting
for the foremost place. Between 1809 and 1822 there was a
period of comparative eclipse, during which he was indeed at
times in office, but in lesser places than he would have been
CANNING, GEORGE
187
prepared to accept between 1804 and 1809, and was regarded
with general distrust. From 1822 till his death in 1827 he was
the most powerful influence in English, and one of the most
powerful in European, politics.
In the spring of 1796 he was appointed under-secretary for
the foreign office, and in the election of that year he was
returned for Wendover. He was also appointed receiver-general
of the alienation office, a sinecure post which brought him
£700 a year. His position as under-secretary brought him into
close relations with Pitt and the foreign secretary, Lord Grenville
(q.v.) . During the negotiations for peace at Lille (1797), Canning
was actively concerned in the devices which were employed by
Pitt and Grenville to keep the real character of the discussion
secret from other members of the cabinet. Canning had a taste
for mystery and disguises, which he had shown at Oxford, and
which did much to gain him his unfortunate reputation for
trickery. From the 20th of November 1797, till the 9th of July
1798, he was one of the most active, and was certainly the most
witty of the contributors to the Anti-Jacobin, a weekly paper
started to ridicule the frothy philanthropic and eleutheromaniac
rant of the French republicans, and to denounce their brutal
rapacity and cruelty. But Canning's position as under-secretary
was not wholly pleasant to him. He disliked his immediate chief
Grenville, one of the Whigs who joined Pitt, and a man of
thoroughly Whiggish aristocratic insolence. In 1799 he left the
foreign office and was named one of the twelve commissioners
for India, and in 1800 joint paymaster of the forces, a post which
he held till the retirement of Pitt in 1801.
During these years of subordinate activity Canning had
established his position as an orator and a wit. His oratory
cannot be estimated with absolute confidence. Speeches were
then badly reported. The text of his own, published by Therry
(6 volumes, London, 1828), were revised by himself, and not for
the better. Though his favourite author was Dryden, whose
prose is uniformly manly and simple, and though he had a keen
eye for faults of taste in the style of others, Canning had himself
a leaning to preciosity and tinsel. His wit was, and remains,
above all question. In public life it did him some harm in the
opinion of serious people, who could not believe that so jocose
a politician had solid capacity. It exasperated opponents, some
of whom, notably Peter Pindar (see Wolcot, John), retaliated
by brutal personalities. Canning was constantly reminded that
his mother was a strolling actress, and was accused of foisting
his pauper family on the public funds. The accusation was
perfectly untrue, but this style of political controversy was
common, and was adopted by Canning. He put himself on a
level with Peter Pindar when he assailed Pitt's successor
Addington (see Sidmouth, Viscount) on the ground that he
was the son of a doctor.
While out of office with Pitt, Canning proved a somewhat
insubordinate follower. The snobbery and malignity of his
attacks on Addington roused considerable feeling against him,
and his attempts to act as a political go-between in ministerial
arrangements were unfortunate. On the formation of Pitt's
second ministry he took the post of treasurer of the navy on the
1 2th of May 1804. In office he continued to be insubordinate,
and committed mistakes which got him into bad odour as un-
trustworthy. He endeavoured to persuade Lord Hawkesbury
(see Liverpool, Earls of) to join in a scheme for turning an old
friend out of the India Office. Though his relations with Pitt
began to be somewhat strained towards the end, he left office on
the minister's death on the 21st of January 1806.
Canning, who delivered the eulogy of Pitt in the House of
Commons on the 3rd of February, refused to take office in Fox's
ministry of " all the talents." Attempts were made to secure
him, and he was offered the leadership of the House of Commons,
under the supervision of Fox, an absurd proposal which he had
the good sense to decline. After the death of Fox, and the
dismissal by the king of Lord Grenville's ministry, he joined the
administration of the duke of Portland as secretary of state for
foreign affairs. He held the office from the 25th of March 1807
till the 9th of September 1809. During these two years he had a
large share in the vigorous policy which defeated the secret
articles of the treaty of Tilsit by the seizure of the Danish fleet.
As foreign secretary it fell to him to defend the ministry when it
was attacked in parliament. He refused to tell how he be-
came aware of the secret articles, and the mystery has never
been fully solved. He threw himself eagerly into the prosecution
of the war in Spain, yet his tenure of office ended in resignation
in circumstances which left him under deep discredit. He be-
came entangled in what can only be called two intrigues. In
view of the failing health of the duke of Portland he told his
colleague, Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, that a
new prime minister must be found, that he must be in the House
of Commons, that the choice lay between them, adding that he
might not be prepared to serve as subordinate. In April of 1809
he had told the duke of Portland that Lord Castlereagh,
secretary for the colonies and war, was in his opinion unfit for his
post, and must be removed to another office. The duke, a
sickly and vacillating man, said nothing to Castlereagh, and
took no steps, and Canning did not enlighten his colleague.
When he found that no measures were being taken to make a
change of office, Canning resigned on the 7th of September.
Castlereagh then learnt the truth, and after resigning sent
Canning a challenge on the 19 th of September. In the duel on
Putney Heath which followed Canning was wounded in the
thigh. His apologists have endeavoured to defend him against
the charge of double dealing, but there can be no question that
Castlereagh had just ground to be angry. Public opinion was
strong against Canning, and in the House of Commons he was
looked upon with distrust. For twelve years he remained out of
office or in inferior places. His ability made it impossible that he
should be obscure. In 1810 he was a member of the Bullion
Committee, and his speeches on the report showed his mastery
of the subject. It was no doubt his reputation for economic
knowledge which chiefly recommended him to the electors of
Liverpool in 181 2. He had been elected for Tralee in 1803, for
Newtown (Hants) in 1806 and for Harwich in 1807. But in
parliament he had lost all influence, and is described as wandering
about neglected and avoided. In 181 2 he committed the serious
mistake of accepting a well-paid ornamental mission to Lisbon,
which he was about to visit for the health of his eldest son. He
remained abroad for eighteen months. In 1816 he submitted to
enter office as president of the Board of Control in Lord Liver-
pool's cabinet, in which Castlereagh, to whom he had now
become reconciled, was secretary of state for foreign affairs. In
1820 he resigned his post in order to avoid taking any part in the
proceedings against Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV.
Canning's return tQ great office and influence dates from the
suicide of Castlereagh in 1822. He had accepted the governor-
generalship of India, which would have implied his retirement
from public life at home, and refused to remain unless he was
promised " the whole inheritance " of Castlereagh, — the foreign
office and the leadership of the House of Commons. His terms
were accepted , and he took office in September 1822. He held the
office from that date till April 1827, when he became prime
minister in succession to Lord Liverpool, whose health had
broken down. Even before this he was the real director of the
policy of the cabinet — as Castlereagh had been from 181 2 to
1822. It may be noted that he resigned his seat for Liverpool in
1823, and was elected for Harwich, which he left for Newport in
1826. Few English public men have represented so many
constituencies.
His fame as a statesman is based mainly on the foreign policy
which he pursued in those years — the policy of non-intervention,
and of the patronage, if not the actual support, of national and
liberal movements in Europe (see the historical articles under
Europe, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Greece). To this policy
he may be said to have given his name, and he has enjoyed the
reputation of having introduced a generous spirit into British
politics, and of having undone the work of his predecessor at the
foreign office, who was constantly abused as the friend of
despotism and of despots. It may well be believed that Canning
followed his natural inclinations, and it can be asserted without
i88
CANNIZZARO— CANNON
the possibility of contradiction, if also without possibility of
proof, that he had influenced the mind of Castlereagh. Yet the
fact remains that when Canning came into office in September
1822, he found the instructions to be given to the representative
of the British government at the congress of Verona already
drawn up by his predecessor, who had meant to attend the
congress himself (see Londonderry, Robert Stewart, 2nd
Marquess of). These instructions were handed on without
change by Canning to the duke of Wellington, who went as
representative, and they contain all the principles which have
been said to have been peculiarly Canning's. Indeed this policy
was dictated by the character and position of the British govern-
ment, and had been followed in the main since the conference of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Canning was its orator and minister
rather than its originator. Yet his eloquence has associated with
his name the responsibility for British policy at the time. No
speech of his is perhaps more famous than that in which he
claimed the initiative in recognizing the independence of the
revolted Spanish colonies in South America in 1823 — " I resolved
that, if France had Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies.
I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of
the Old" (December 12, 1826).
When Lord Liverpool was struck down in a fit on the 17th of
February 1827, Canning was marked out by position as his only
possible successor. He was not indeed accepted by all the party
which had followed Liverpool. The duke of Wellington, Sir
Robert Peel and several other members of the ministry, moved
perhaps by personal animosity, and certainly by dislike of his
known and consistent advocacy of the claims of the Roman
Catholics, refused to serve with him. Canning succeeded in
constructing a ministry in April — but the hopes and the fears of
friends and enemies proved to be equally unfounded. His
health had already begun to give way, and broke down altogether
under the strain of the effort required to form his ministry. He
had caught cold in January at the funeral of the duke of York,
and never recovered. He died on the 8th of August 1827, at
Chiswick, in the house of the duke of Devonshire, where Fox had
died, and in the same room.
See Speeches, with a memoir by R. Therry (London, 1826); A.'G.
Stapleton, Political Life of Canning, 1822-1827 (2nd ed., London,
1 831); Canning and His Times (London, 1850); Lord Dalling and
Bulwer, Historical Characters (London, 1868); F. H. Hill, George
Canning (London, 1887); Some Political Correspondence of George
Canning, ed. E. J. Stapleton (2 vols., 1897); I. A. R. Marriott,
George Canning and His Times, a Political Study\(London, 1903) ;
W. Alison Phillips, George Canning (London, 1903), with repro-
ductions of contemporary portraits and caricatures; H. W. V.
Temperley, George Canning (London, 1905).
CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO (1826-1910), Italian chemist,
was born at Palermo on the 13th of July 1826. In 1841 he
entered the university of his native place with the intention of
making medicine his profession, but he soon turned to the study
of chemistry, and in 1845 and 1846 acted as assistant to Rafaelle
Piria (1815-1865), known for his work on salicin, who was then
professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied the
same position at Turin. During the Sicilian revolution he served
as an artillery officer at Messina and was also chosen deputy for
Francavilla in the Sicilian parliament; and after the fall of
Messina in September 1848 he was stationed at Taormina.
On the collapse of the insurgents he escaped to Marseilles, in
May 1849, and after visiting various French towns reached
Paris in October. There he gained an introduction to M. E.
ChevreuFs laboratory, and in conjunction with F. S. Cloez
(1817-1883) made his first contribution to chemical research
in 1 85 1 , when they prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia
on cyanogen chloride in ethereal solution. In the same year
he was appointed professor of physical chemistry at the National
College of Alexandria, where he discovered that aromatic
aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic potash into a mixture
of the corresponding acid and alcohol, e.g. benzaldehyde into
benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol (" Cannizzaro's reaction ").
In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at
Geneva university, and six years later, after declining professor-
ships at Pisa and Naples, accepted the chair of inorganic and
organic chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying
the aromatic compounds and continuing to work on the amines,
until in 18 71 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at
Rome university. Apart from his work on organic chemistry,
which includes also an investigation of santonin, he rendered
great service to the philosophy of chemistry when in his memoir
Sunto di un cor so di Filosofia chemica (1858) he insisted on the
distinction, till then imperfectly realized, between molecular
and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of
elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from
the molecular weights of those compounds, and how the atomic
weights of elements of whose compounds the vapour densities
are unknown can be ascertained from a knowledge of their
specific heats. For this achievement, of fundamental importance
for the atomic theory in chemistry, he was awarded the Copley
medal by the Royal Society in 1891. Cannizzaro's scientific
eminence in 187 1 secured him admission to the Italian senate,
of which he was vice-president, and as a member of the Council
of Public Instruction and in other ways he rendered important
services to the cause of scientific education in Italy.
CANNOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary
division of Staffordshire, England, in the district known as
Cannock Chase, 130 m. N.W. from London by the London and
North Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1891) 20,613;
( 1 901 ) 23 , 974. The church of St Luke is Perpendicular, enlarged
in modern times. The famous political preacher, Henry Sach-
everell, held the living early in the 18th century. Cannock has
tool, boiler, brick and tile works. Cannock Chase, a tract
generally exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis
from north-west to south-east over some 36,000 acres. It was
a royal preserve, and remains for the most part an uncultivated
waste, but it is also a rich coalfield, and there are mines in every
direction. Brownhills, Burntwood and Chase Town, Great
Wyrley, Hednesford, Hammerwich, and Pelsall are townships
or villages of the mining population.
CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the
Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative
termination -on, -one), a gun or piece of ordnance. The word,
first found about 1400 (there is an indenture of Henry IV. 1407
referring to " canones, seu inslrumenta Anglice gunnes vocata"),
is commonly applied to any form of firearm which is fired from
a carriage or fixed mounting, in contradistinction to " small-
arms," which are fired without a rest or support of any kind. 1
An exception must be made, however, in the case of machine
guns (q.v.), and the word as used in modern times may be defined
as follows: "a piece of ordnance mounted upon a fixed or
movable carriage and firing a projectile of greater calibre than
i§ in." In French, however, canon is the term applied to the
barrel of small arms, and also, as an alternative to mitrailleuse
or mitrailleur y to machine guns, as well as to ordnance properly
so-called. The Hotchkiss machine gun used in several navies is
officially called " revolving cannon." For details see Artillery,
Ordnance, Machine Guns, &c. Amongst the many derived
senses of the word may be mentioned " cannon curls," in which
the hair is arranged in horizontal tubular curls one above the
other. For " cannon " in billiards see Billiards.
In the 1 6th and 17th centuries the "cannon" in England
was distinctively a large piece, smaller natures of ordnance
being called by various special names such as culverin, saker,
falcon, demi-cannon, &c. We hear of Cromwell taking with
him to Ireland (1649) " two cannon of eight inches, two cannon
of seven, two demi-cannon, two twenty-four pounders," &c.
Sir James Turner, a distinguished professional soldier con-
temporary with Cromwell, says: " The cannon or battering
ordnance is divided by the English into Cannon Royal, Whole
Cannon and Demi-Cannon. The first is likewise called the
Double Cannon, she weighs 8000 pound of metal and shoots a
bullet of 60, 62 or 63 pound weight. The Whole Cannon weighs
7000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 38, 39 or 40 pound.
1 The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand
cannon.
CANNON-BALL TREE— CANOE
189
The Demi-Cannon weighs about 6000 pound and shoots a bullet
of 28 or 30 pound. . . . These three several guns are called
cannons of eight, cannons of seven and cannons of six. 1 ' The
generic sense of " cannon, " in which the word is now exclusively
used, is found along with the special sense above mentioned
as early as 1474. A warrant of that year issued by Edward IV.
of England to Richard Copcote orders him to provide "bumbardos,
canones, culverynes . . . et alios canones quoscumque, ac pulveres,
sulfer . . . pro eisdem canonibus necessarias." " Artillery " and
" ordnance/' however, were the more usual terms up to lie time
of Louis XIV. (c. 1670), about which time heavy ordnance
began to be classified according to the weight of its shot, and the
special sense of " cannon " disappears.
CANNON-BALL TREE (Couroupita guianensis), a native of
tropical South America (French Guiana), which bears large
spherical woody fruits, containing numerous seeds, as in the
allied genus BerthoUetia (Brazil nut).
CANNSTATT, or Kannstatt, a town of Germany in the
kingdom of Wurttemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley
on both banks of the Neckar, z\ m. from Stuttgart, with which
it has been incorporated since 1904. Pop. (1005) 26,497. It is
a railway centre, has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church, two bridges across the Neckar, handsome streets in the
modern quarter of the town and fine promenades and gardens.
There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway plant,
automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and
weaving are carried on; and there are chemical works and a
brewery here. Fruit and vines are largely cultivated in the
neighbourhood. A large population is temporarily attracted
to Cannstatt by the fame of its mineral springs, which are valu-
able for diseases of the throat and weaknesses of the nervous
system. These springs were known to the Romans. Besides
the usual bathing establishments there are several medical
institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the
palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-
1851) for King William of Wurttemberg in the Moorish style, is
surrounded by beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also
are immense caves in the limestone where numerous bones of
mammoths and other extinct animals have been found. On the
Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral castle of the
house of Wurttemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and his
wife.
Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as
the place where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the
trial of the rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians.
From the emperor Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights
and privileges as were enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and
until the middle of the 14th century it was the capital of the
county of Wurttemberg. Cannstatt was the scene of a victory
gained by the French over the Austrians on the 21st of July
1796.
See Veiel, Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen (Cann-
statt, 1875).
CANO, ALONZO (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and
sculptor, was born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very
great number of specimens of his genius, which display the
boldness of his design, the facility of his pencil, the purity of his
flesh-tints and his knowledge of chiaroscuro. He learned archi-
tecture from his father, Miguel Cano, painting from Pacheco
and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montanes. As a statuary,
his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church
of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo.
As an architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and
gave way too much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made
him royal architect and king's painter, and gave him the church
preferment of a canon. His more important pictures are at
Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable temper; and
it is said that once he risked his life by committing the then
capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when in
a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded.
His known passionateness also (according to another story)
caused him to be suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of
his wife, though all other circumstances pointed to his servant
as the culprit.
CANO, MELCHIOR (1525-1560), Spanish theologian, born at
Tarancon, in New Castile, joined the Dominican order at an
early age at Salamanca, where in 1546 he succeeded to the
theological chair in that university. A man of deep learning
and originality, proud and a victim to the odium theologicum,
he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time could
compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a
Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the uni-
versity the schools were divided between the partisans of the
two professors; but Cano pursued his rival with relentless
virulence, and took part in the condemnation for heresy of his
brother-friar. The new society of the Jesuits, as being the fore-
runners of Antichrist, also met with his violent opposition; and
he was not grateful to them when, after attending the council
of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence, in 1552, as
bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal influence
with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made pro-
vincial of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous
Considtatio theologica, in which he advised the king to resist the
temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch,
to defend his rights by bringing about a radical change in the
administration of ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain
less dependent on Rome. With this in his mind Paul IV. styled
him " a son of perdition." The reputation of Cano, however,
rests on a posthumous work, De Locis theologicis (Salamanca,
1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its own line. In this, a
genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to free
dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and,
by clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians,
to bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules,
method, co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific
treatment of theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of
September 1560. (E. Tn.)
CANOE (from Carib. candoa, the West Indian name found in
use by Columbus; the Fr. canot, boat, and Ger. Kahn y are
derived from the Lat. carina, reed, vessel), a sort of general term
for a boat sharp at both ends, originally designed for propulsion
by one or more paddles (not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum,
the paddler facing the bow. As the historical native name for
certain types of boat used by savages* it is applied in such cases
to those which, like other boats, are open within from end to end,
and the modern " Canadian canoe " preserves this sense; but
a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ
essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck,
except f or a " well " where the paddler sits. Modern develop-
ments are the cruising canoe, combining the use of paddle and
sails, and the racing canoe, equipped with sails only.
The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which
skins (as in the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the
North Americanlndians' birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched.
The modern painted canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was
a natural development of this idea. The Indian also used, and
the African still uses, the " dug-out," made from a tree hollowed
by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe. Many of these are
of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the New York
Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte's Island is 63 ft.
long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The
" war canoe " of paddling races is its modern successor. In the
islands of the Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by
the natives, who make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening
them by attaching another hull (see Catamaran).
In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a
" canoe " in England was the short covered-in craft, with a
" well " for the paddler to sit in, which was popularly used for
short river practice; and this type still survives. But the sport
of canoeing in any real sense dates from 1865, when John Mac-
Gregor (q.v.) designed the canoe "Rob Roy " for long journeys
by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light
enough (about 70 lb) to be carried over land. The general type
of this canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from
192
CANONESS— CANONIZATION
CAMOHB88 (Fr. ckanokusse, Ger. Kanonissin, Lat. canonica
or canonica virgo), a female beneficiary of a religious college. In
the 8th century chapters of canons were instituted in the Frankish
empire, and in imitation of these certain women took common
vows of obedience and chastity, though not of poverty. Like
nuns they had common table and dormitory, and recited the
breviary, but generally the rule was not so strict as in the case of
nuns. The canonesses often taught girls, and were also employed
in embroidering ecclesiastical vestments and transcribing
liturgical books. A distinction was drawn between regular and
secular canonesses, the latter being of noble family and not
practising any austerity. Some of their abbesses were notable
feudal princesses. In Germany several foundations of this
kind (e.g. Gandersheim, Herford and Quedlinburg), which were
practically secular institutions before the Reformation, adopted
the Protestant faith, and still exist, requiring of their members
the simple conditions of celibacy and obedience to their superior
during membership. These institutions (Stifter) are now practi-
cally almshouses for the unmarried daughters of noble families.
In some cases the right of presentation belongs to the head of the
family, sometimes admission is gained by purchase; but in
modern times a certain number of prebends have been created for
the daughters of deserving officials. The organization of the Stift
is collegiate, the head bearing the ancient titles of abbess, prioress
or provostess (Pr&bstin), and the canonesses (Stiftsdamen) meet
periodically in Konvenl for the discussion of the affairs of the
community. The ladies are not bound to residence. In many of
these Stifter quaint pre-Reformation customs and ceremonies
still survive; thus, at the convent of St John the Baptist at
Schleswig, on the day of the patron saint, the room in which the
Konvenl is held is draped in black and a realistic life-size wax
head of St John on a charger is placed in the centre of the table
round which the canonesses sit.
CANONIZATION* in its widest sense, an act by which in the
Christian Church the ecclesiastical authority grants to a deceased
believer the honour of public cultus. In the early Church there
was no formal canonization. The cultus applied at first to local
martyrs, and it was only in exceptional circumstances that a
kind of judiciary inquiry and express decision became necessary
to legitimate this cultus. The peculiar situation of the Church of
Africa explains the Vindicalio martyrum, which was early
practised there (Optatus Milevit., i. 1 6) . In the cultus rendered to
confessors, the authorization of the Church had long been merely
implicit. But when an express decision was given, it was the
bishop who gave it. Gradually the canonization of saints came
to be included in the centralizing movement which reserved to the
pope the most important acts of ecclesiastical power. The earliest
acknowledged instance of canonization by the pope is that of
Ulric of Augsburg, who was declared a saint by John XV. in a.d.
993. From that time the pontifical intervention became more
and more frequent, and, in practice, the right of the bishops in
the matter of canonization continued to grow more restricted.
In 1 1 70 the new right was sufficiently established for Pope
Alexander III. to affirm that the bishops could not institute the
cultus of a new saint without the authority of the Roman Church
(Cap. Audivimus, Deere t. De Rell. el ventral. Sanctorum, iii. 115).
The 1 2th and, especially, the 13th centuries furnish many
examples of canonizations pronounced by the popes, and the
procedure of this period is well ascertained. It was much more
summary than that practised in modern times. The evidence of
those who had known the holy personages was collected on the
spot. The inquiry was as rapid as the judgment, and both often
took place a short time after the death of the saint, as in the cases
of St Thomas of Canterbury (died 1 1 70, canonized 1 1 73) , St Peter
of Castelnau (died on the 15th of January 1208, canonized on the
1 2th of March of the same year), St Francis of Assisi (died on the
4th of October 1226, canonized on the 19th of July 1228), and St
Anthony of Padua (died on the 13th of June 1231, canonized on
the 3rd of June 1232).
At this period there was no marked difference between canon-
ization and beatification. In modern practice, as definitively
settled by the decrees of Pope Urban VIII. (1625 and 1634), the
two acts are totally distinct Canonization is the solemn and
definitive act by which the pope decrees the plenitude of pubhc
honours. Beatification consists in permitting a cultus, the
manifestations of which are restricted, and is merely a step
towards canonization.
The procedure at present followed at the Roman curia is either
exceptional or common. The approval of immemorial cultus comes
within the category of exceptional procedure. Urban VIII. ,
while forbidding the rendering of a public cultus without author-
ization from the Holy See, made an exception in favour of the
blessed who were at that time (1625) in possession of an im-
memorial cultus f i.e. dating back at least a century (1525). The
procedure per viam casus excepli consists in the legitimation of a
cultus which has been rendered to a saint for a very long time.
The causes of the martyrs (declarationis martyrU) also are
exceptional. Juridical proof is required of the fact of the martyr-
dom and of its cause, i.e. it must be established that the servant
of God was put to death through hatred of the faith. These are
the two cases which constitute exceptional procedure.
The common procedure is that in which the cause is prosecuted
per viam nan cultus. It is, in reality, a suit at law, pleaded before
the tribunal of the Congregation of Rites, which is a permanent
commission of cardinals, assisted by a certain number of sub-
ordinate officers and presided over by a cardinal. The supreme
judge in the matter is the pope himself. The postulator, who is
the mandatory of a diocese or ecclesiastical commonalty, is the
solicitor. He must furnish the proofs, which are collected
according to very stringent rules. The promoter of the faith,
popularly called the " devil's advocate " (advocatus diaboli), is
the defendant, whose official duty is to point out to the tribunal
the weak points of the case.
The procedure is loaded with many formalities, of which the
historical explanation lies in the tribunals of the ancient system,
and which considerably delay the progress of the causes. The
first decisive step is the introduction of the cause. If, by the advice
of the cardinals who have examined the documents, the pope
pronounce his approval, the servant of God receives the title of
" Venerable/' but is not entitled to any manifestation of cultus.
Only in the event of the claimant passing this test successfully
can the essential part of the procedure be begun, which will result
in conferring on the Venerable the title of " Blessed." This part
consists in three distinct proceedings: (1) to establish a reputation
for sanctity, (2) to establish the heroic quality of the virtues, (3)
to prove the working of miracles. A favourable judgment on all
three of these tests is called the decree de tuto, by which the pope
decides that they may safely proceed to the solemn beatification
of the servant of God (Tuto procedi potest ad solemnem V. S.D.N.
beatificationem). In the ceremony of beatification the essential
part consists in the reading of the pontifical brief, placing the
Venerable in the rank of the Blessed, which is done during a
solemn mass, celebrated with special rites in the great hall
above the vestibule of the basilica of St Peter.
The process of canonization, which follows that of beatification,
is usually less lengthy. It consists principally in the discussion of
the miracles (usually two in number) obtained by the intercession
of the Blessed since the decree of beatification. After a great
number of formalities and prayers, the pope pronounces the
sentence, and indicates eventually the day on which he will
proceed to the ceremony of canonization, which takes place with
great solemnity in the basilica of St Peter.
The extremely complicated procedure which is prescribed for
the conduct of the cases in order to ensure every opportunity for
exercising rigour and discretion, considerably retards the progress
of the causes, and necessitates a numerous staff. This circum-
stance, together with the custom of ornamenting the basilica of
St Peter very richly on the day of the ceremony, accounts for
the considerable cost which a canonization entails. To prevent
abuses, a minute tariff of expenses was drawn up during the
pontificate of Leo XIII.
The Greek Church, represented by the patriarch of Constanti-
nople, and the Russian Church, represented by the Holy Synod,
also canonize their saints after a preliminary examination of their
CANON LAW
193
titles to public cultus. Their procedure is less rigorous than
that of the Roman Church, and as yet has been but imperfectly
studied.
See J. Fontanini, Codex Constitutionum quas swnmi pontifices
ediderunt in salemni canonization* sanctorum (Rome, 1729, a collection
of original documents) ; Pr. Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.). De
servorum Dei beatificatione tt beatorum canonizatione (Bologna, 1734-
1738), several times reprinted, and more remarkable for erudition
and knowledge of canon law than for historical criticism ; Al. Latin,
Codex pro poshilatoribus cousarum beaiificationis et canonizationis,
recognovit Joseph Fornari (Romae, 1899); F. W. Faber, Essay on
Beatification, Canonization* &c. (London, 1848); A. Boudinhon,
Les Prods de beatification et de canonisation (Paris, 1905) ; E. Golu-
binskij, Istorija Kanonizacii sviatichvrusskoj cerkvi (Moscow, 1903).
(H. De.)
CANON LAW. Canon law, jus canonicum, is the sum of the
laws which regulate the ecclesiastical body; for this reason it is
also called ecclesiastical law, jus ecclesiasticum. It is also re-
ferred to under the name of canones, sacri canones, a title of
great antiquity, for the kclv6v&, regulae, were very early dis-
tinguished from the secular laws, the wj/xot, leges.
The word /cava>v, canon, has been employed in ecclesiastical
Kterature in several different senses (see Canon above). The
Word disciplinary decisions of the council of Nicaea, for
"canon." example (can. 1, 2, &c), employ it in the sense of an
DUknnt established rule, ecclesiastical in its origin and in it$
moMoiaga. object. But the expression is most frequently used to
designate disciplinary laws, in which case canons are distinguished
from dogmatic definitions. With regard taform, the decisions of
councils, even when dogmatic, are called canons; thus the
definitions of the council of Trent or of the Vatican, which
generally begin with the words " Si quis dixerit" and end with
the anathema, are canons; while the long chapters, even when
dealing with matters of discipline, retain the name of chapters or
decrees. Similarly, it has become customary to give the name of
canons to the texts inserted in certain canonical complications
such as the Decretum of Gratian, while the name of chapters is
given to the analogous quotations from the Books of the Decretals.
It is merely a question of words and of usage. As to the ex-
pression jus canonicum, it implies the systematic codification of
ecclesiastical legislation, and had no existence previous to the
labours which resulted in the Corpus juris canonici.
Canon law is divided into public law and private law; the
former is concerned with the constitution of the Church, and,
Divisions, consequently, with the relations between her and other
bodies, religious and civil; the latter has as its object
the internal discipline of the ecclesiastical body and its members.
This division, which has been found convenient for the study of
canon law, has no precedent in the collections of texts. With
regard to the texts now in force, the name of jus antiquum,
ancient law, has been given to the laws previous to the Corpus
juris canonici; the legislation of this Corpus has been called
jits novum, new law; and finally, the name of recent law, jus
novissimum, has been given to the law established by the council
of Trent and subsequent papal constitutions. There is a further
distinction between the written law, jus scriptum, laws made by
the councils or popes, which are to be found in the collections,
and the unwritten law, jus non scriptum, a body of practical
rules arising rather from natural equity and from custom than
from formal laws; with this is connected the customary law.
In the Church, as in other societies, it has happened that the
unwritten customary law has undergone a gradual diminution
in importance, as a consequence of centralization and the
accumulation of written laws; nowadays it need not be reckoned
with, save in cases where local customs are involved. The
common law is that which is intended to regulate the whole
body; special or local law is that which is concerned with
certain districts or certain categories of persons, by derogation
from or addition to the common law.
By the sources or authors of the canon law are meant the
authorities from which it is derived; they must obviously be of
Sobhi^ such a nature as to be binding upon the whole religious
body, or at least upon a specified portion of it. In tjie
highest rank must be placed Christ and the Apostles, whose
dispositions for the constitution and government of the Church
are contained in the New Testament, completed by tradition;
for the Church did not accept the disciplinary and ritual pro-
visions of the Old Testament as binding upon her (see Acts xi.,
xv.). To the apostles succeeded the episcopal body, with its
chief the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, whose
legislative and disciplinary power, by a process of centralization,
underwent a slow but uninterrupted development. It is then to
the episcopate, assembled in ecumenical council, and to its chief,
that the function of legislating for the whole Church belongs;
the inferior authorities, local councils or isolated bishops and
prelates, can only make special laws or statutes, valid only for
that part of the Church under their jurisdiction. Most of the
canons, however, which constitute the ancient law, and notably
those which appear in the Decretum of Gratian, emanate from
local councils, or even from individual bishops; they have
found a place in the common law because the collections of
canons, of which they formed the most notable part, have been
everywhere adopted.
Having made these general observations, we must now consider
the history of those texts and collections of canons which to-day
form the ecclesiastical law Of the Western Church: (1) up to the
Decretum of Gratian, (2) up to the council of Trent, (3 and 4) up to
the present day, including the codification ordered by Pius X.
1. From the Beginning to the Decretum of Gratian. — At no time,
and least of all during the earliest centuries, was there any
attempt to draw up a uniform system of legislation for the whole
of the Christian Church. The various communities ruled them-
selves principally according to their customs and traditions,
which, however, possessed a certain uniformity resulting from
their close connexion with natural and divine law. Strangely
enough, those documents which bear the greatest resemblance to
a small collection of canonical regulations, such as the Didache,
the Didascalia and the Canons of Hippolytus, have not been
retained, and find no place in the collections of canons, doubtless
for the reason that they were not official documents. Even the
Apostolical Constitutions {q.v.) } an expansion of the Didache and
the Didascalia, after exercising a certain amount of influence,
were rejected by the council in Trullo (602). Thus the only
pseudo-epigraphic document preserved in the law of the Greek
Church is the small collection of the eighty-five so-called " Apos-
tolic Canons " (q.v.). The compilers, in their several collections,
gathered only occasional decisions, the outcome of no pre^
determined plan, given by councils or by certain great bishops.
These compilations began in the East. It appears that in
several different districts canons made by the local assemblies 1
were added to those of the council of Nicaea which
were everywhere accepted and observed. The first
example seems to be that of the province of Pontus,
where after the twenty canons of Nicaea were placed the twenty-
five canons of the council of Ancyra (314), and the fifteen of that
of Neocaesarea (3 1 5-3 20) . These texts were adopted at Antloch,
where there were further added the twenty-five canons of the
so-called council in encaeniis of that city (341). Soon after-
wards, Paphlagonia contributed twenty canons passed at the
council of Gangra (held, according to the Synodicon orientale,
in 343) ,* and Phrygia fifty-nine canons Of the assembly of
Laodicea (345-381?), or rather of the compilation known as the
work of this council.* The collection was so well and so widely
known that all these canons were numbered in sequence, and,
thus at the council of Chalcedon (451) several of the canons of
Antioch were read out under the number assigned to them in
the collection of the whole. It was further increased by the
1 The councils which we are about to mention, up to the 9th
century, have been published several times, notably in the great
collections of Hardouin, Mansi, &c; they will be found brought
together in one small volume in Brans, Canones apostolorum et
conciliorum (Berlin, 1839).
'The date of this council was formerly unknown; it is ascribed
to 343 by the Syriac Nestorian collection recently published by
M. Chabot, Synodicon Orientate, p. 278, note a.
3 See Boudinhon, " Note sur le concile de Laodicee," in the
Cotnpte rendu du premier congres des savants catholiques & Paris,
1888 (Paris, 1889), vol. ii. p. 420.
V. 7
Orsok
194
CANON LAW
Hsflaal
JWin.
twenty-eight (thirty) canons of Chalcedon; about the same
time were added the four canons of the council of Constantinople
of 381, under the name of which also appeared three (or seven)
other canons of a later date. Towards the same date, also, the
so-called " Apostolic Canons " were placed at the head of the
group. Such was the condition of the Greek collection when
it was translated and introduced into the West.
In the course of the 6th century the collection was completed
by the addition of documents already in existence, but which
had hitherto remained isolated, notably the canonical letters of
several great bishops, Dionysius of Alexandria, St Basil and
others. It was at this time that the Latin collection of Dionysius
Exiguus became known; and just as he had given the Greek
councils a place in his collection, so from him were borrowed the
canons of councils which did not appear in the Greek collection —
the twenty canons of Sardica (343), in the Greek text, which
differs considerably from the Latin; and the council of Carthage
of 419, which itself included, more or less completely, in 105
canons, the decisions of the African councils. Soon after came
the council in Trullo (692), also called the Quinisextum, because
it was considered as complementary to the two councils (5 th
and 6th ecumenical) of Constantinople (553 and 680), which
had not made any disciplinary canons. This assembly elabor-
ated 102 canons, which did not become part of the Western law
till much later, on the initiative of Pope John VIII. (872-881).
Now, in the second of its canons, the council in Trullo recognized
and sanctioned the Greek collection above men-
tioned; it enumerates all its articles, insists on the
recognition of these canons, and at the same time pro-
hibits the addition of others. As thus defined, the collection
contains the following documents: firstly, the eighty-five
Apostolic Canons, the Constitutions having been put aside
as having suffered heretical alterations; secondly, the canons
of the councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch,
Laodicea, Constantinople (381), Ephesus (the disciplinary
canons of this council deal with the reception of the Nestorians,
and were not communicated to the West), Chalcedon, Sardica,
Carthage (that of 419, according to Dionysius), Constantinople
(394); thirdly, the series of canonical letters of the following
great bishops — Dionysius of- Alexandria, Peter of Alexandria
(the Martyr), Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, Basil,
Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, Amphilochus of
Iconium, Timotheus of Alexandria, Theophilus of Alexandria,
Cyril of Alexandria, Gennadius of Constantinople; the canon
of Cyprian of Carthage (the Martyr) is also mentioned, but with
the note that it is only valid for Africa. With the addition of
the twenty-two canons of the ecumenical council of Nicaea
(787), this will give us the whole contents of the official collection
of the Greek Church; since then it has remained unchanged.
The law of the Greek Church was in reality rather the work of
the Byzantine emperors* 1
The collection has had several commentators; we need only
mention the commentaries of Photius (883), Zonaras (11 20)
and Balsamon (1170). A collection in which the texts are
simply reproduced in their chronological order is obviously
inconvenient; towards 550, Johannes Scholasticus, patriarch
of Constantinople, drew up a methodical classification of them
under fifty heads. Finally should be mentioned yet another
kind of compilation still in use in the Greek Church, bearing
the name of nomocanon, because in them are inserted,
side by side with the ecclesiastical canons, the imperial
laws on each subject: the chief of them are the one
bearing the name of Johannes Scholasticus, which belongs,
however, to a later date, and that of Photius (883).
The canon law of the other Eastern Churches had no marked
influence on the collections of the Western Church, so we need
not speak of it here. While, from the 5th century onwards a
certain unification in the ecclesiastical law began to take place
1 For the further history of the law of the Greek Church and that
of the Eastern Churches, see Vering, Kirchenreckt, §§.14-183 (ed.
1 893 ) . The Russian Church , as we know, adopted the Greek ecclesir
astical law.
Nomo-
Africa.
within the sphere of the see of Constantinople, it was not till
later that a similar result was arrived at in the West. For
several centuries there is no mention of any but local
collections of canons, and even these are not found till WesL
the 5th century; we have to come down to the 8th
or even the 9th century before we find any trace of unification.
This process was uniformly the result of the passing on of the
various collections from one region to another.
The most remarkable, and the most homogeneous, as well as
without doubt the most ancient of these local collections is that
of the Church of Africa. It was formed, so to speak,
automatically, owing to the plenary assemblies of the
African episcopate held practically every year, at which it was
customary first of all to read out the canons oi the previous
councils. This gave to the collection an official character. At
the time of the Vandal invasion this collection comprised the
canons of the council of Carthage under Gratus (about 348)
and under Genethlius (390), the whole series of the twenty or
twenty-two plenary councils held during the episcopate of
Aurelius, and finally, those of the councils held at Byzacene.
Of the last-named we have only fragments, and the series of the
councils under Aurelius is very incomplete. The African collec-
tion has not come to us directly: we have two incomplete and
confused arrangements of it, in two collections, that of the
Hispana and that of Dionysius Exiguus. Dionysius knows
only the council of 419, in connexion with the affair of Apiarius;
but in this single text are reproduced, more or less fully, almost
all the synods of the collection; this was the celebrated Con-
cilium Africanum, so often quoted in the middle ages, which
was also recognized by the Greeks. The Spanish collection
divides the African canons among seven councils of Carthage
and one of Mileve; but in many cases it ascribes them to the
wrong source; for example, it gives under the title of the fourth
council of Carthage, the Statute Ecclesiae antique, an Arlesian
compilation of Saint Caesarius, which has led to a number of
incorrect references. Towards the middle of the 6th century
a Carthaginian deacon, Fulgentius Ferrandus, drew up a Brevia-
tio canonum* a methodical arrangement of the African collec*
tion, in the order of the subjects. From it we learn that the
canons of Nicaea and the other Greek councils, up to that of
Chalcedon, were also known in Africa.
The Roman Church, even more than the rest, governed itself
according to its own customs and traditions. Up to the end
of the 5th century the only canonical document of j^m*
non-Roman origin which it officially recognized was
the group of canons of Nicaea, under which name were also
included those of Sardica. A Latin version of the other Greek
councils (the one referred to by Dionysius as prisca) was known,
but no canonical use was made of it. The local law was founded
on usage and on the papal letters called decretals. The latter
were of two kinds: some were addressed to the bishops of the
ecclesiastical province immediately subject to the pope; the
others were issued in answer to questions submitted from various
quarters; but in both cases the doctrine is the same. At the
beginning of the 6th century the Roman Church adopted the
double collection, though of private origin, which was drawn
up at that time by the monk Dionysius, known by the Dbayfa
name of Dionysius Exiguus, which he himself had Bxigmu
assumed as a sign of humility. He was a Scythian "J?**
by birth, and did not come to Rome till after 406; QoaecUattm
his learning was considerable for his times, and to him we owe
the employment of the Christian era and a new way of reckoning
Easter. At the desire of Stephen, bishop of Salona, he undertook
the task of making a new translation, from the original Greek
text, of the canons of the Greek collection. The manuscript
which he used contained only the first fifty of the Apostolic
Canons; these he translated, and they thus became part of the
law of the West. This part of the work of Dionysius was not
added to latdr; it was otherwise with the second part. This
* Edited by Pierre Pithou (Paris, 1588), and later by Chiffiet,
Fulg. Ferrandi opera (Dijon, 1694); reproduced in Migne, Pair.
LaL vol. 67, coL 949.
CANON LAW
195
InQauL
embodied the documents containing the local law, namely 39
decretals of the popes from Siricius (384-398) to Anastasius II.
(496-498). As was natural this collection received successive
additions as further decretals appeared. The collection formed
by combining these two parts remained the only official code
of the Roman Church until the labours undertaken in consequence
of the reforming movement in the nth century. In 774 Pope
Adrian I. gave the twofold collection of the Scythian monk
to the future emperor Charlemagne as the canonical book of the
Roman Church; this is what is called the Dionysio-Hadriana.
This was an important stage in the history of the centralization
of canon law; the collection was officially received
Hadrian*, by ^ e Fran ki sn Church, imposed by the council of
Aix-la-Chapelle of 802, and from that time on was
recognized and quoted as the liber canonum. If we consider
that the Church of Africa, which had already suffered considerably
from the Vandal invasion, was at this period almost entirely
destroyed by the Arabs, while the fate of Spain was but little
better, it is easy to see why the collection of Dionysius became
the code of almost the whole of the Western Church, with the
exception of the Anglo-Saxon countries; though here too it
was known.
The other collections of canons, of Italian origin, compiled
before the 10th century, are of importance on account of the
documents which they have preserved for us, but as they have
not exercised any great influence on the development of canon
law, we may pass them over.
The Dionysio-Hadriana did not, when introduced into Gaul,
take the place of any other generally received collection of
canons. In this country the Church had not been
centralized round a principal see which would have
produced unity in canon law as in other things; even the
political territorial divisions had been very unstable. The only
canonical centre of much activity was the Church of Aries,
which exercised considerable influence over the surrounding
region in the 5th and 6th centuries. The chief collection known
throughout Gaul before the Dionysio-Hadriana was the so-
^^ called collection of Quesnel, named after its first
coitecUoa. editor. 1 It is a rich collection, though badly arranged,
and contains 98 documents — Eastern and African
canons and papal letters, but no Gallic councils; so that it is
not a collection of local law. We might expect to find such a
collection, in view of the numerous and important councils
held in Gaul; but their decisions remained scattered among
a great number of collections none of which had ever a wide
circulation or an official character.
It would be impossible to enumerate here all the Gallic councils
which contributed towards the canon law of that country; we
Councils. ^ mention only the following: — Aries (314), of great
importance; a number of councils in the district
of Aries, completed by the Statute Ecclesiae antiquaoi St
Caesarius; 2 the councils of the province of Tours; the assemblies
of the episcopate of the three kingdoms of the Visigoths at
Agde (506), of the Franks at Orleans (511), and of the Bur-
gundians at Epaone (517); several councils of the kingdoms
of the Franks, chiefly at Orleans; and finally, the synods of the
middle of the 8th century, under the influence of St Boniface.
Evidently the impulse towards unity had to come from without;
it began with the alliance between the Carolingians and the
Papacy, and was accentuated by the recognition of the liber
canonum.
In Spain the case, on the contrary, is that of a strong centraliza-
tion round the see of Toledo. Thus we find Spanish canon law
in Spain. em bodied in a collection which, though perhaps not
official, was circulated and received everywhere;
this was the Spanish collection, the Hispana* The collection
is well put together and includes almost all the important
1 Published by Quesnel in his edition of the works of St Leo,
vol. ii. (Paris, 1675); reproduced by the brothers Ballerini, with
repro-
duced in Migne, P.L. 84,
canonical documents. In the first part are contained the
councils, arranged according to the regions in which they were
held: Greek councils, following a translation of Italian origin,
but known by the name of Hispana; African councils,
Gallican councils and Spanish councils. The latter, wspana
which form the local section, are further divided into
several classes: firstly, the synods held under the Roman
empire, the chief being that of Elvira 4 (c. 300) ; next the texts
belonging to the kingdom of the Suevi, after the conversion of
these barbarians by St Martin of Braga: these are, the two
councils of Braga (563 and 572), and a sort of free translation or
adaptation of the canons of the Greek councils, made by Martin
of Braga; this is the document frequently quoted in later days
under the name of Capitula Martini papae; thirdly, the de-
cisions of the councils of the Visigothic Church, after its con-
version to Catholicism. Nearly all these councils were held at
Toledo, beginning with the great council of 589. The series
continued up to 694 and was only interrupted by the Mussulman
invasion. Finally, the second part of the Hispana contains
the papal decretals, as in the collection of Dionysius.
From the middle of the 9th century this collection was to
become even more celebrated; for, as we know, it served as
the basis for the famous collection of the False Decretals.
The Churches of Great Britain and Ireland remained still
longer outside the centralizing movement. Their contribution
towards the later system of canon law consisted in anat
two things: the Penitentials and the influence of the Britain
Irish collection, the other sources of local law not VLu\nm\
having been known to the predecessors of Gratian W*
nor to Gratian himself.
The Penitentials 8 are collections intended for the guidance
of confessors in estimating the penances to be imposed for various
sins, according to the discipline in force in the Anglo-
Saxon countries. They are all of Anglo-Saxon or Uml ^ *"
Irish origin, and although certain of them were com-
piled on the continent, under the influence of the island mis-
sionaries, it seems quite certain that a Roman Penitential has
never existed.* They are, however, of difficult and uncertain
ascription, since the collections have been largely amended and
remodelled as practice required. Among the most important
we may mention those bearing the names of Vinnianus (d. 589),
Gildas (d. 583), Theodore of Canterbury (d. 690), the Venerable
Bede (d. 735) and Egbert of York (732-767); the Penitentials
which are ascribed to St Columbanus, the founder of Luxeuil
and Bobbio (d. 615), and Cumean (Cumine Ailbha, abbot of
Iona); in the Frankish kingdom the most interesting work
is the Penitential of Halitgar, bishop of Cambrai 7 from 817 to
831. As penances had for a long time been lightened, and the
books used by confessors began to consist more and more of
instructions in the style of the later moral theology (and this
is already the case of the books of Halitgar and Rhabanus
Maurus), the canonical collections began to include a greater or
smaller number of the penitential canons.
The Irish collection, 8 though it introduced no important
documents into the law of the Western Church, at least set
canonists the example of quoting passages from the
Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers. This col- ^^^^^
lection seems to date from the 8th century; besides
the usual sources, the author has included several documents
of local origin, beginning with the pretended synod of St
Patrick.
4 L. Duchesne, " Le Concile d'Elvire " in the Mttanges Renter.
6 For the Penitentials, see Wasserschleben, Die Bussordnungen
der abendldndischen Kirche (Halle, 1851) ; Mgr.H.J.Schmitz, Die Busi-
bucher und die Bussdisciplin der Kirche (2 vols., Mainz, 1883, 1898).
• This is proved, in spite of the contrary opinions of Wasser-
schleben and Schmitz, by M, Paul Fournier, " Etude sur les Peni-
tentiels," in the Revue d'histoire et de liUerature religieuses, vol. vi.
(1901), pp. 289-317, and vol. vii., 1902, pp. 59-70 and 121-127.
7 In Migne, P.L. 105, col. 651.
8 Edited by Wasserschleben (Giessen, 18^4). See also P. Fournier,
" De l'influence de la collection irlandaise sur la formation des
collections canoniques," in Nouvelle Revue historique de droit fran-
cais et Stranger, vol. xxiii. note 1.
196
CANON LAW
In the very middle of the 9th century a much enlarged edition
of the Hispana began to be circulated in France. To this rich
collection the author, who assumes the name of Isidore,
decrvtsJs. tne saintly bishop of Seville, added a good number
of apocryphal documents already existing, as well as
a series of letters ascribed to the popes of the earliest centuries,
from Clement to Silvester and Damasus inclusive, thus filling
up the gap before the decretal of Siricius, which is the first
genuine one in the collection. The other papal letters only rarely
show signs of alteration or falsification, and the text of the
councils is entirely respected. 1 From the same source and at
the same date came two other forged documents — firstly, a
collection of Capitularies, in three books, ascribed to a certain
Benedict (Benedictus Levita), 2 a deacon of the church of Mainz;
this collection, in which authentic documents find very little
place, stands with regard to civil legislation exactly in the
position of the False Decretals with regard to canon law. The
other document, of more limited scope, is a group of Capitula
given under the name of Angilram, bishop of Metz. It is now-
adays admitted by all that these three collections come from the
same source. For a study of the historical questions connected
with the famous False Decretals, see the article Decretals
(False); here we have only to consider them with reference
to the place they occupy in the formation of ecclesiastical law.
In spite of some hesitation, with regard rather to the official
character than to the historical authenticity of the letters attri-
buted to the popes of the earlier centuries, the False Decretals
were accepted with confidence, together with the authentic
texts which served as a passport for them. All later collections
availed themselves indiscriminately of the contents of this vast
collection, whether authentic or forged, without the least
suspicion. The False Decretals did not greatly modify nor corrupt
the Canon Law, but they contributed much to accelerate its
progress towards unity. For they were the last of the chrono-
logical collections, i.e. those which give the texts in the order
in which they appeared.. From this time on, canonists began
Systf to exercise their individual judgment in arranging
made their collections according to some systematic order,
2*°" grouping their materials under divisions more or less
happy, according to the object they had in view.
This was the beginning of a codification of a common canon law,
in which the sources drawn upon lose, as it were, their local
character. . This is made even more noticeable by the fact that,
in a good number of the works extant, the author is not content
merely to set forth and classify the texts; but he proceeds. to
discuss the point, drawing conclusions and sometimes outlining
some controversy on the subject, just as Gratian was to do more
fully later on.
During this period, which extended from the end of the oth
century to the middle of the 12th, we can enumerate about forty
systematic collections, of varying value and circulation, which
all played a greater or lesser part in preparing the juridical
renaissance of the 12th century, and most of which were
utilized by Gratian. We need mention only the chief of them
— the CoUectio Anselmo dedicata, by an unknown author of the
Begin*. en( * °f tne 9^ century; the Libri duo de synodalibus
causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis? compiled about 906
by Regino, abbot of Priim, and dedicated to Hatto of Mainz,
relatively a very original treatise; the enormous compilation
ftwrrftg** * n * wentv books of Burchard, bishop of Worms (1 r 1 2-
1122), the Decretum or Collectarium* very widely
spread and known under the name of Brocardum, of which the
19th book, dealing with the process of confession, is specially
noteworthy. Towards the end of the nth century, under the
1 The collection of the False Decretals has been published with
a long critical introduction by P. Hinschius, Decretales Pseudo-
Isidortanae et capitula Angilramni (Leipzig, 1863). For the rest of
the bibliography, see Decretals (False).
* The latest edition is in Pertz, Monumenta Germaniae, vol. ii.
part ii.
1 Edited by Wasserschleben (Leipzig, 1840) ; reproduced by Migne,
P.L. 152.
4 Edited several times; in Migne, P.L. 140.
Aaselm
influence of Hildebrand, the reforming movement makes itself
felt in several collections of canons, intended to support the
rights of the Holy See and the Church against the pretensions
of the emperor. To this group belong an anonymous collec-
tion, described by M. P. Fournier as the first manual of the
Reform; 6 the collection of Anselm, bishop of Lucca, 6 in 13
books (1080-1086); that of Cardinal Deusdedit, 7
in 4 books, dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086-1087);
and lastly that of Bonizo, 8 bishop of Sutri, in 10 books
(1080). In the 1 2 th century, the canonical works of Ivo of
Chartres 9 are of great importance. His Panormia, compiled
about 1095 or 1096, is a handy and well-arranged
collection in 8 books; as to the Decretum, a weighty chwrtn*.
compilation in 17 books, there seems sufficient proof
that it is a collection of material made by Ivo in view of his
Panortnia. To the 12th century belong the collection in the
MS. of Saragossa (Caesaraugustana) to which attention was
drawn by Antonio Agustin; that of Cardinal Gregory, called
by him the Polycarpus, in 8 books (about 1115); and finally
the Liber de misericordia et justitia of Algerus, 10 scholasticus
of Liege, in 3 books, compiled at latest in n 23.
But all these works were to be superseded by the Decretum
of Gratian.
2. The Decretum of Gratian and the Corpus Juris Canonici. —
The work of Gratian, though prepared and made possible by
those of his predecessors, greatly surpasses them in
scientific value and in magnitude. It is certainly xj^^^u,
the work which had the greatest influence on the o/OnOia.
formation of canon law; it soon became the sole
manual, both for teaching and for practice, and even after the
publication of the Decretajs was the chief authority in the
universities. The work is not without its faults; Gratian is
lacking in historical and critical faculty; his theories are often
hesitating; but on the whole, his treatise is as complete and as
perfect as it could be; so much so that no other work of the
same kind has been compiled; just as there has never been
made another Book of the Sentences. These two works, which
were almost contemporary (Gratian is only about two years
earlier), 11 were destined to have the same fate; they were the
manuals, one for theology, the other for canon law, in use in
all the universities, taught, glossed and commented on by the
most illustrious masters. From this period dates the more
marked and definitive separation between theology and ecclesi-
astical law.
Of Gratian we know practically nothing* He was a Camaldu-
lensian monk of the convent of St Felix at Bologna, where he
taught canon law, and published, probably in 1148, his treatise
called at first Concordantia discordantium canonum, but soon
known under the name of the Decretum. Nowadays, and for
some time past, the only part of the Decretum considered is
the collection of texts; but it is actually a treatise, in which
the author endeavours to piece together a coherent juridical
system from the vast body of texts, of widely differing periods
and origin, which are furnished by the collections. These texts
he inserts bodily in the course of his dissertation;
where they do not agree, he divides them into opposite otatimaJ.
groups and endeavours to reconcile them; but the
really original part of his work are the Dicta Gratiani t inserted
between the texts, which are still read. Gratian drew his
materials from the existing collections, and especially from the
5 P. Fournier, " Le Premier Manuel canonique de la reforme du
XI s siecle," in Melanges de I'lZcoUfrancaise de Rome, xiv. (1894). •
6 Unpublished.
7 Edited by Mgr. Pio Martin ucci(Venice, 1869). On this collection
see Wolf von Glanvell, Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deus-
dedit (Paderborn, 1905).
• Unpublished.
9 Several times edited; in Migne. P.L. 161. See P, Fournier,
11 Les Collections canoniques attribuees a Yves de Chartres," Biblio-
theque de V&cole des Charles (1806 and 1897).
10 Printed in Martene, Nov. Thesaur. anecdot. vol. v. col. 10 10.
11 See P. Fournier, " Deux Controverses sur les origines du Decret
de Gratien," in the Revue d'histoire et de UtUrature reltgieuses vol. iii.
(1898), pp. n. 2 and 3.
CANON: 1/A'W
197
Mode of
richer of them; when necessary, he nas recourse to the Roman
laws, and he made an extensive use of the works of the Fathers
and the ecclesiastical writers; he further made use of the canons
of the recent councils, and the recently published decretals,
up to and including the Lateran council of 1139. His immense
Contents. work consists of three parts {partes). The first,
treating of the sources of canon law and of ecclesi-
astical persons and offices, is divided according to the method
of Paucapalea, Gratian's pupil, into 101 distinctiones, which
are subdivided into canones. The second part consists of 36
causae (cases proposed for solution), subdivided into quaestiones
(the several questions raised by the case), under each of which
are arranged the various canones (canons, decretals, &c.) bearing
on the question. But causa xxxiii. quaestio 3, headed Tractates
de Poenitentia, is divided like the main part into seven dis-
tinctiones, containing each several canones. The third part,
which is entitled De Consecratione, gives, in five distinctiones,
the law bearing on church ritual and the sacraments. The
following is the method of citation. A reference to
the first part indicates the initial words or number
of the canon and the number of the distinctio, e.g.
can. Propter ecclesiasticas, dist. xviii. or c. 15, d. xviii. The
second part is cited by the canon, causa and quaestio, e.g. can.
Si quis suadente, C. 1 7 , qu. 4, or c. 29, C. xvii., qu. 4. The treatise
De Poenitentia, forming the 3rd quaestio of the 33rd causa of the
second part, is referred to as if it were a separate work, e.g. c.
Principium, D. ii. de poenit. or c. 45, D. ii. de poenit. In quoting
a passage from the third part the canon and distinctio are given,
e.g. c. Missar. solenn. D. I. de consecrate, or c. 12, D. I. de
consecr.
Considered from the point of view of official authority, the
Decretum occupies an intermediate position very difficult to
Authority. <* cnne - It k-not and cannot he a really official code,
in which every text has the force of a law. It has never
been recognized as such, and the pretended endorsement of it
by Pope Eugenius III. is entirely apocryphaL Moreover, it
could not have become an official code; it would be impossible
to transform into so many laws either the discordant texts
which Gratian endeavoured to reconcile or his own Dicta; a
treatise on canon law is not a code. Further* there was as yet
no idea of demanding an official compilation. The Decretum
has thus remained a work of private authority, and the texts
embodied in it have only that legal value which they possess
in themselves* On the other hand, the Decretum actually
enjoys a certain public authority which is unique; for centuries
it has been the text on which has been founded the instruction
in canon law in all the universities; it has been glossed and
commented on by the most illustrious canonists; it has become,
without being a body of laws, the first part of the Corpus juris
canonici, and as such it has been cited, corrected and edited
by the popes. It has thus, by usage, obtained an authority
perfectly recognized and accepted by the Church. 1
Gratian's collection, for the very reason that it had for its aim
the creation of a systematic canon law, was a work of a transi-
tional character. Henceforth a significant differentia-
tion began to appear; the collections of texts, the
number of which continued to increase, were clearly
separated from the commentaries in which the canonists con-
tinued the formation and interpretation of the law. Thus the
way was prepared for official collections. The disciples of
Gratian, in glossing or commenting on the Decretum, turned to
the papal decretals, as they appeared, for information and the
determination of doubtful points. Their idea, then, was to
make collections of these points, to support their teaching;
this is the origin of those Compilations which were "soon to be
embodied in the collection of Gregory IX. But we must not
forget that these compilations were intended by their authors
to complete the Decretum of Gratian; in them were included
the decretals called extravagantes, i.e. quae vagabantur extra
Decretum. This is why we find in them hardly any documents
earlier than the time of Gratian, and also why canonists have
1 See Laurin, Introductio in corpus juris canonici, c. vii. p. 73. .
Attar
Qratlen.
continued to refer-to the decretals of Gregory IX* by the abbrevia-
tion X {Extra, i.e. extra Decretum) .
There were numerous collections of this kind, towards the end
of the 1 2th and at the beginning of the 13th century. Passing
over the first Additiones to the Decretum and the
Appendix concilii Lateranensis (council of 11 79), we ^m22£*
will speak only of the Quinque compilationes? which tiones."
served as a basis for the works of Raymond of Penna-
forte. The first and most important is the work of Bernard,
provost and afterwards bishop of Pavia, namely, the Breviarium
extravagantium, compiled about 1190; it included the decretals
from Alexander III. to Clement III., together with Bernard
certain " useful chapters " omitted by Gratian. The of Pnvia*
important feature of the book is the arrangement "5 / * w r,
of the decretals or sections of decretals in hvt books,
divided into titles {tituli) logically arranged. The five books
treat of (1) ecclesiastical persons and dignitaries or judges;
(2) procedure; (3) rights, duties and property of the clergy, i.e.
benefices, dues, sacraments, &c, with the exception of marriage,
which is the subject of book (4) ; (5) of penalties. There is a
well-known hexameter summing up this division:
Judex, judicium, citrus, connubio, crimen.
This is the division adopted in all the official collections of the
Corpus jurist By a bull of the 28th of December 12 10 Innocent
III. sent to the university of Bologna an authentic
collection of the decretals issued duriog the first, twelve puam
years of his pontificate; this collection he had caused . terUa."
to be drawn up by his notary, Petrus Collivacinus of
Benevento, his object being to supersede the collections in circu-
lation, which were incomplete and to a certain extent „
spurious. This was the Compilatio tertia; for soon cand*.-
after, Joannes Galensis (John of Wales) collected the
decretals published between the collection of Bernard of Pavia
and the pontificate of Innocent IIL; and this, though of later
date, became known as the Compilatio secunda. The •*Q UMr uw*
quartQy the. author of which is unknown, contained
the decretals of the last six, years of Innocent III., and the
important decrees of the Lateran council of 1215. ••Q U i a t tu n
Finally, in 1226, Honorius III. made an official pre-
sentation to Bologna of his own decretals, this forming the Com-
pilatiaquinta.
The result of all these supplements to Gratian's work, apart
from the inconvenience caused by their being so scattered, was
the accumulation of a mass of material almost as ^
considerable as the Decretum itself, from which they ot o^^^y
tended to split off and form an independent whole, ix.
embodying as they did the latest state of the law.
From 1230 Gregory IX. wished to remedy this condition of
affairs, and gave to his penitentionary, the Dominican Raymond
of Pennaforte, the task of condensing the five compilations in use
into a. single collection, freed from useless and redundant docu-
ments. The work was finished in 1234, and was at once sent by
the pope to Bologna with the bull Rex pacijicus, declaring it to be
official. Raymond adopts Bernard of Pavia 's division into five
books and into titles.; in each title he arranges the decretals in
chronological order, cutting out those which merely repeat one
another and the les6 germane parts of those which he preserve:,;
but these partes decisae, indicated by the words " et infra " or
" eij," are none the less very useful and have been printed in
recent editions. Raymond does not attempt any original
work ' f to the texts already included in the Quinque compilationes,
he adds only nine decretals of Innocent III. and 196 chapters of
Gregory IX. This first official code was the basis of the second
part of the Corpus juris canonici. The collection of Gregory IX.
is cited as follows; the opening words of the chapter are given,
or else its order or number, then the title to which it belongs;
earlier scholars added X {extra); nowadays, this indication is
omitted, and the order or number of the title in the boojt is given
1 By referring to the decretals of Gregory IX. for the texts in-
serted there, E. Friedberg has succeeded in giving a much abridged
edition of the Quinque compilationes (Leipzig, 1882).
198
CANON LAW
instead, e.g< Quum olim, de Consuetudine, X. ; or cap. 6, de consuet.
(I. iv.); that is to say, book I., tide iv., de consuetudine, chapter
6, beginning with the words Quum olim.
Though Gregory IX. wished to supersede the compilations, he
had no idea of superseding the Decretum of Gratian, still less of
Theh . codifying the whole of the canon law. Though his
relation to collection is still in theory the chief monument of
to*M**>eni ecclesiastical law, it only marked a certain stage and
Mw * was before long to receive further additions. The
reason for this is that in most cases the decretals did not formu-
late any law, but were merely solutions of particular cases,
given as models; to arrive at the abstract law it was necessary
to examine the solution in each case with regard to the circum-
stances and thus formulate a rule; this was the work of the
canonists. The " decretalists " commented on the new collec-
tion, as the " decretists " had done for that of Gratian; but the
canonists were not legislators: even the summaries which they
placed at the head of the chapters could not be adduced as
legislative texts. The abstract law was to be found rather in the
Summae of the canonists than in the decretals. Two important
results, however, were achieved: on the one hand, supple-
mentary collections on private authority ceased to be made, for
this Gregory IX. had forbidden; on the other hand, the collec-
tions were no longer indefinitely swelled by the addition of new
decisions in particular cases, those already existing being enough
to form a basis for the codification of the abstract law; and for
this reason subsequent collections contain as a rule only the
" constitutions " of popes or councils, i.e. rules laid down as of
general application. Hence arose a separation, which became
more and more marked, between legislation and jurisprudence.
This change was not produced suddenly, the old method being at
first adhered to. In 1 245 Innocent IV. sent to the universities a
collection of 45 decretals, with the order that they should
be inserted under their proper titles in the collection of
Gregory IX. In 1253 he sent a further list of the first words
(principia) of the complementary constitutions and decretals;
but the result was practically nil and the popes gave up
this system of successive additions. It was, however, found
expedient to publish a new official collection. At the instance of
the university of Bologna, Boniface VIII., himself an eminent
canonist, had this prepared by a committee of canonists and
published it in 1298. As it came as an addition to the five
books of Gregory IX., it was called the sixth book, the Liber
Sextus. It includes the constitutions subsequent to
"Liber I2 34» an< * notably the decrees of the two ecumenical
S*x*m." councils of Lyons, and is arranged in books and titles,
as above described; the last title, de regulis juris, con-
tains no less than eighty-eight legal axioms, mostly borrowed
from Roman law. The Liber Sextus is cited like the decretals of
Gregory IX., only with the addition of: in sexto (in VI .).
The same observations apply to the next collection, the
Clementinae. It was prepared under the care of Clement V., and
even promulgated by him in consistory in March 13 14 ;
"Clemen'' ^ ut ' m consequence of the death of the pope, which
tine*." took place almost immediately after, the publication
and despatch of the collection to the universities was
postponed till 131 7, under John XXII. It includes the consti*
tutions of Clement V., and above all, the decrees of the council of
Vienne of 131 1, and is divided, like preceding collections, into
books and titles; it is cited in the same way, with the additional
indication Clem~(entina).
At this point the official collections stop. The two last,
which have found a place in the editions of the Corpus, are
"Bxtrave- collections of private authority, but in which all the
games" of documents are authentic. Evidently the strict pro-
•j** 1 * hibition of the publishing of collections not approved
by the Holy See had been forgotten. The Extrava-
gantes (i.e. extra coUectiones publicas) of John XXII. number 20,
and are classified under fourteen titles. The Extra-
munees™ " vagantes communes (i.e. coming from several popes)
number 73, from Boniface VIII. to Sixtus IV. (1484),
and are classified in books and titles. These two collections
The
were included in the edition of Jean Chappuisin 1500; they
passed into the later editions, and are considered as forming part
of the Corpus juris canonici. As such, and without receiving any
complementary authority, they have been corrected and re-
edited, like the others, by the Correctores romanu They are cited,
like the decretals, with a further indication of the collection to
which they belong: Extrav. Jo. XXII., or Mter-comm-(unes).
Thus was closed, as the canonists say, the Corpus juris canonici;
but this expression, which is familiar to us nowadays, is only a
bibliographical term. Though we find in the 15th MCmw
century, for example, at the council of Basel the pf,*^,
expression corpus juris, obviously suggested by the cmaenkL"
Corpus juris civilis, not even the official edition of
Gregory XIII. has as its title the words Corpus juris canonici,
and we do not meet with this title till the Lyons edition of 167 1.
The history of the canonical collections forming the Corpus
juris would not be complete without an account of the labours
of which they were the object. We know that the ^^
universities of the middle ages contained a Faculty ot^^n
of Decrees, with or without a Faculty of Laws, i.e. lew.
civil law. The former made doctores decretorum, the
latter doctores legum. The teaching of the magistri consisted in
oral lessons (lecturae) directly based on the text. The short
remarks explanatory of words in the text, originally written
in the margin, became the gloss which, formed thus
by successive additions, took a permanent form and
was reproduced in the manuscripts of the Corpus, and
later in the various editions, especially in the official Roman
edition of 1582; it thus acquired by usage a kind of semi-official
authority. The chief of the glossator es of the Decretum of
Gratian were Paucapalea, the first disciple of the master, Rufinus
(n 60-1 1 70), John of Faenza (about 11 70), Joannes Teutonicus
(about 1 2 10), whose glossary, revised and completed by Bar-
tholomeus Brixensis (of Brescia) became the glossa ordinaria
decreti. For the decretals we may mention Vincent the Spaniard
and Bernard of Botone (Bernardus Parmensis, d. 1263), author of
the Glossa ordinaria. That on the Liber Sextus is due to the
famous Joannes Andreae (c. 1340) ; and the one which he began
for the Clementines was finished later by Cardinal Zabarella
(d. 1417). The commentaries not so entirely concerned with the
text were called Apparatus', and Summae was the name given to
general treatises. The first of these works are of capital
importance in the formation of a systematic canon
law. Such were the Summae of the first disciples of mme."
Gratian: Paucapalea (1150), 1 Rolando Bandinelli*
(afterwards Alexander III., c. 1150), Rufinus* (c. 1165), fitienne
of Tournai 4 (Stephanus Tornacensis, c. 11 68), John of Faenza
(c. 1 1 70), Sicard, bishop of Cremona (c. 11 80), and above all
Huguccio (c. 1180). For the Decretals we should mention:
Bernard of Pavia • (c. 1195), Sinibaldo Fieschi (Innocent IV.,
c. 1240), Henry of Susa (d. 1271), commonly called (cardinalis)
Hostiensis, whose Summa Hostiensis or Summa aurea is a work
of the very highest order; Wilhelmus Durantis or Durandus,
Joannes Andreae, Nicolas de Tudeschis (abbas siculus), &c.
The 15th century produced few original treatises; but after
the council of Trent the Corpus juris was again commented on
by distinguished canonists, e.g. the Jesuit Paul Laymann (1575-
1635), the Portuguese Agostinho Barbosa (1590-1649), Manuel
Gonzalez Tellez (d. 1649) and Prospero Fagnani (1 598-1687),
who, although blind, was secretary to the Congregation of the
Council. But as time goes on, the works gradually lose the
character of commentaries on the text, and develop into ex-
positions of the law as a whole.
1 Edited by Schulte, Die Summa des Paucapalea (Giessen, 1890).
* Edited by Thaner, Die Summa Magistri Rolandi (Innsbruck,
1874) ; later by Gietl, Die Sentenzen Rolands (Freiburg im B., 1891).
* Edited by H. Singer, Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus
(Paderborn, 1902).
4 Edited by Schulte, Die Summe des Stephanus Tornacensis
(Giessen, 1891).
6 He made a Summa of his own collection, ed. E. Laspeyres,
Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium (Mainz, i860). The com-
mentaries of Innocent IV. and Henry of Susa have been frequently
published.
The
CANON LAW
199
We can mention here only the chief editions of the Corpus.
The council of Trent, as we know, ordered that the official books
BdiiianMm of the Roman Church — sacred books, liturgical books,
&c. — should be issued in official and more correct
editions; the compilations of ecclesiastical law were also re-
vised. The commission of the Correctores romani, 1 established
about 1563 by Pius IV., ended its work under Gregory
TfZllfj?*' XIII., and the official edition, containing the text and
rwomaL" the glosses, appeared at Rome in 1582. Richter's
edition (2 vols., Leipzig, 1839) remains valuable, but
has been greatly surpassed by that of £. Friedberg (Leipzig,
"laMtitw 1879-188 1). Many editions contain also the Institu-
ttonea Hones composed at the command of Paul IV. (1555-
I 559) by Giovanni Paolo Lancelotti, a professor of
Bologna, on the model of the Institutes of Justinian.
The work has merits, but has never been officially
approved.
Though the collections of canon law were to receive no more
additions, the source of the laws was not dried up; decisions
of councils and popes continued to appear; but there was no
attempt made to collect them. Canonists obtained the recent
texts as they could. Moreover, it was an epoch of trouble: the
great Schism of the West, the profound divisions which were
its result, the abuses which were to issue in the Reforma-
tion, were conditions little favourable for a reorganization
of the ecclesiastical laws. Thus we are brought to the third
period.
3. After the Council of Trent. — The numerous important
decrees made by the council of Trent, in the second part of its
sessions, called de reformatione, are the starting-point of the
canon law in its latest stage, jus novissimum; it is this which is
still in force in the Roman Church. It has in no way undermined
the official status of the Corpus juris; but it has completed the
legislation of the latter in many important respects, and in some
cases reformed it.
The law during this period, as abstracted from the texts and
compilations, suggests the following remarks. The laws are
formulated in general terms, and the decisions in
2j£f o/ particular cases relegated to the sphere of juris-
the law. prudence; and the canonists have definitely lost the
function which fell to them in the 12th and 13th
centuries: they receive the law on authority and no longer have
to deduce it from the texts. The legislative power is powerfully
centralized in the hands of the pope: since the reforming decrees
of the council of Trent it is the pontifical constitutions alone
which have made the common law; the ecumenical council,
doubtless, has not lost its power, but none were held until that
of the Vatican (1870), and this latter was unable to occupy
itself with matters of discipline. Hence the separation, in-
creasingly marked, between the common law and the local
laws, which cannot derogate from the common law except
by concession of the Holy See, or by right of a lawfully
authorized custom. This centralization, in its turn, has greatly
increased the tendency towards unity and uniformity, which
have reached in the present practice of the Roman Church
a degree never known before, and considered by some to be
excessive.
If we now consider the laws in themselves, we shall find that
the dispersed condition of the legislative documents has not
been modified since the closure of the Corpus juris-,
*??£?*** on the contrary, the enormous number of pontifical
torts. constitutions, and of decrees emanating from the
Roman Congregations, has greatly aggravated the
situation; moreover, the attempts which have been made to
resume the interrupted process of codification have entirely
failed. As regards the texts, the canon law of to-day is in a very
similar position to that of English law, which gave rise to J. S.
Mill's saying: " All ages of English history have given one
1 The history of this commission and the rules which it followed
for editing the Decretum, will be found in Laurin, IntroducUo in
corpus juris canonici, p. 63, or in the Prolegomena to Friedberg's
edition of the Decretum.
another rendezvous in English law; their several products
may be seen all together, not interfused, but heaped one upon
another, as many different ages' of the earth may be read in some
perpendicular section of its surface." 2 Nothing has been
abrogated, except in so far as this has been implicitly demanded
by subsequent laws. From this result insoluble controversies
and serious uncertainties, both in the study and practice of the
law; and, finally, it has become impossible for most people to have
a first-hand knowledge of the actual laws.
For this third period, the most important and most consider-
able of the canonical texts is the body of disciplinary decrees
of the council of Trent (1 545-1 563). In consequence Decnea
of the prohibition issued by Pius IV., they have not of the
been published separately from the dogmatic texts Cm"^*'
and other acts, and have not been glossed; a but their nn
official interpretation has been reserved by the popes to the
" Congregation of the cardinal interpreters of the Council of
Trent," whose decisions form a vast collection of jurisprudence.
Next in importance come the pontifical constitutions, which
are collected together in the BuUarium; but this is iMemt
a collection of private authority, if we except the c^ 9 titif
BuUarium of Benedict XIV., officially published by Hon*.
him in 1747; further, the BuUarium is a compilation
arranged in chronological order, and its dimensions make it
rather unwieldy. In the third place come the decrees of the
Roman Congregations, which have the force of law. Several
of these organs of the papal authority have published
official collections, in which more place is devoted ^Se**
to jurisprudence than to laws; several others have carUu
only private compilations, or even none at all, among
others the most important, viz. the Holy Office (see Curia
Roman a). The resulting confusion and uncertainty may be
imagined.
These drawbacks were felt a long time back, and to this feeling
we owe two attempts at a supplementary codification which
were made in the 16th century, both of which are **uber
known under the name of Liber Septimus. The first aeptimaa"
was of private origin, and had as its author Pierre °* p *
Mathieu, the Lyons jurist (1563-1621); it appeared * *
in 1590 at Lyons. It is a continuation of the Extravagantes
communes, and includes a selection of papal constitutions,
from Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) to Sixtus V. (1 585-1 500) inclusive,
with the addition of a few earlier documents. It follows the
order of the decretals. This collection has been of some service,
and appears as an appendix in many editions of the Corpus juris;
the chief reason for its failure is that it has no official sanction.
The second attempt was official, but it came to nothing. It
was connected with the movement of reform and revision which
followed the council of Trent. Immediately after the publication
of the official edition of the Corpus juris, Gregory XIII. appointed
a committee of cardinals charged with the task of drawing up
a Liber Septimus. Sixtus V. hurried on its execution, which was
rapidly proceeded with, mainly owing to Cardinal
Pinelli, who submitted the draft of it to Clement VIII. \ UL me *
The pope had this Liber VII. printed as a basis for
further researches; but after long deliberations the volume was
suppressed, and the idea of a fresh codification. was abandoned.
The collection included the decrees of the council o£ Trent, and
a number of pontifical constitutions, arranged in the order of
the titles of the decretals. 4 But even had it been promulgated,
it is doubtful whether it would have improved the situation.
It would merely have added another collection to the previous
ones, which were already too voluminous, without resulting
in any useful abrogations.
1 Quoted by Hogan, Clerical Studies, p. 235.
* There are innumerable editions of the council of Trent. That
which is favoured by canonists is Richter's edition (Leipzig, 1863),
in which each chapter de reformatione is followed by a selection of
decisions of the S.C. of the council.
4 Republished by F. Sentis, from one of the few copies which have
escaped destruction: Clementis Papae VIII. Decretales, quae vulgo
nuncupantur Liber Septimus Decretalium Clementis VIIL (Freiburg
im B„ 1870).
200
CANON LAW
4. The Future Codification. — Neither Clement VIII. nor, at
a later date, Benedict XIV., could have dreamt of the radical
reform at present in course of execution. Instead of
%£?<£%. accumulating the texts of the laws in successive collec-
fication. tions, it is proposed entirely to recast the system of
editing them. This codification in a series of short
articles was suggested by the example of the French codes,
the history of which during the 19th century is well known.
From all quarters the Catholic episcopate had submitted to the
Vatican council petitions in this sense. " It is absolutely clear,"
said some French bishops, " and has for a long time past been
universally acknowledged and asserted, that a revision and
reform of the canon law is necessary and most urgent. As
matters now stand, in consequence of the many and grave changes
in human affairs and in society, many laws have become useless,
others difficult or impossible to obey. With regard to a great
number of canons, it is a matter of dispute whether they are
still in force or are abrogated. Finally, in the course of so many
centuries, the number of ecclesiastical laws has increased to such
an extent, and these laws have accumulated in such immense
collections, that in a certain sense we can well say: We are
crushed beneath the laws, obruimur It gibus. Hence arise
infinite and inextricable difficulties which obstruct the study
of canon law; an immense field for controversy and litigation;
a thousand perplexities of conscience; and finally contempt for
the laws." l We know how the Vatican council had to separate
without approaching the question of canonical reform; but this
general desire for a recasting of the ecclesiastical code was taken
up again on the initiative of Rome. On the 19th of March 1904*
Pius X. published a Motu proprio, " de ecclesiae legibus
ofPhtaX. * n unum redigcndis." After briefly reviewing the
present condition of the canonical texts and collec-
tions, he pointed out its inconvenience, referred to the many
requests from the episcopate, and decreed the preparation of
a general code of canon law. This immense undertaking in-
volved the codification of the entire canon law, drawing it up in
a clear, short and precise form, and introducing any expedient
modifications and reforms. For this purpose the pope appointed
a commission of cardinals, of which he himself became
president; also a commission of " consul tors "
resident at Rome, which asked for a certain amount of assistance
from canonists at various universities and seminaries. Further,
the assembled bishops of each province were invited to give
their opinion as to the points in which they considered the canon
law might profitably be modified or abrogated. Two consul tors
had the duty of separately drawing up a preliminary plan for each
title, these projects being twice submitted for the deliberation
of the commission (or sub-commission) of consultors, the version
adopted by them being next submitted to the commission of
cardinals, and the whole finally sent up for the papal sanction.
These commissions started work at the end of 1904.
Local Law. — The common law of the Roman Church cannot
by itself uniformly regulate all the churches of the different
nations; each of than has its own local law, which
we must briefly mention here. In theory, this law
has as its author the local ecclesiastical authorities, councils
or bishops; but this is true only for laws and regulations
*which are in harmony with the common law, merely completing
or defining it. But if it is a question of derogating from the
common law, the authority of the Holy See must intervene to
legalize these derogations. This intervention takes the form
either of " indults," i.c. graceful concessions granted at the
request of the episcopate, or of special approbation of conciliary
resolutions. It would, however, be impossible to mention any
compilations containing only local law. Whether in the case
of national or provincial councils, or of diocesan synods, the
chief object of the. decrees is to reinforce, define or apply the
law; the measures which constitute a derogation have only a
small place in them, It is, then, only in a limited sense that we
can see a local canon law in the councils of the various regional
1 Omnium concilii Vatican* . . . documentorum colkctio, per Con-
radum Martin (Paderborn, 1873), p. 152.
Method.
Local taw.
churches. Having made this remark, we must distinguish
between the countries which are still subject to the system of
concordats and other countries.
In the case of the former, the local law is chiefly founded
on the concordat (g.v.), including the derogations and privileges
resulting from it. The chief thing to note is the couatrle*
existence, for these countries, of a civil-ecclesiastical aubjtct to
law, that is to say, a body of regulations made by the
civil authority, with the consent, more or less explicit,
of the Church, about ecclesiastical matters, other than spiritual;
these dispositions are chiefly concerned with the nomination or
confirmation by the state of ecclesiastics to the most important
benefices, and with the administration of the property of the
Church; sometimes also with questions of jurisdiction, both
civil and criminal, concerning the persons or property of the
Church. It is plain that the agreements under the concordats
have a certain action upon a number of points in the canonical
laws; and all these points go to constitute the local concordatory
law. This is the case for Austria, Spain, Portugal, Bavaria,
the Prussian Rhine provinces, Alsace, Belgium, and, in America,
Peru. Up to 1905 it was also the case in France, where the ancient
local customs now continue, pending the reorganization of the
Church without the concordat.
We do not imply that in other countries the Church can always
find exemption from legislative measures imposed upon her by
the civil authorities, for example, in Italy, Prussia and Russia;
but here it is a situation de facto rather than de jure, which the
Church tolerates for the sake of convenience; and these regula-
tions only form part of the local canon law in a very irregular
sense.
In other countries the episcopal assemblies lay down the local
law. England has its council of Westminster (1852), the United
States their plenary councils of Baltimore (1852, 1866,
1884), without mentioning the diocesan synods; and cwMtrtoa*
the whole of Latin America is ruled by the special law
of its plenary council, held at Rome in 1899. The same is the
case with the Eastern Churches united to the Holy See; follow-
ing the example of the famous council of Lebanon for the Maron-
ites, held in 1730, and that of Zamosc for the Ruthenians, in
1720, these churches, at the suggestion of Leo XIII., have drawn
Up in plenary assembly their own local law: the Syrians at
Sciarfa in 1888; the Ruthenians at Leopol in 189 1; and a little
later, the Copts. The framing of local law will certainly be more
clear and more easy when the general code of canon law has been
published.
Bibliography. — For the texts and collections: the dissertations
of Dom Coustant, De antiquis canonum collectionibus % deque variis
epistolarum Rom, Pont, edttionibus (Paris, 1721); P. de Marca,
De vetertbus collectionibus canonum (Paris, 1 681); the brothers
Peter and Jerome Ballerini, De antiquis turn editis turn ineditis collec-
tionibus et collectoribus canonum ad Gratianum usque (Venice, 1757),
This is the best of all these works; it is reproduced in Migne, P.L.,
vok 56; C. Seb. Berardi, De variis sacrorum canonum collectionibus
ante Gratianum (Turin, 1752); P. Quesnel, De codice canonum
Ecclesiae Romanae; de varus fidei Itbellis in antiquo Rom. EccL
codice contentis; de primo usu codicis canonum Dionvsii Exigui in
Gallicanis regionibus (Paris, 1675; with the critical notes of the
brothers Ballerini, also in Migne, loc. cit.)\ and finally, Florent.
De methodo atque auctoritate collectionis Gratiani (Paris, 1679), and
Antonio Agustin, archbishop of Tarragona, De emendatione Gratiani
(Tarragona, 1586) ; these have all been brought together in Gallandi,
De vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge (Venice,
1778). The most complete work on the texts up to the 9th century
is F. Maassen, Geschichte der Quellen und der Literatur des canoniscken
Rechts im Abendlande, vol. i. (all that has yet appeared, Gratz, 1870)*
For the period between the False Decretals and Gratian, there is
no work of this sort, but the materials have been put together and
published in part by M. P. Fournier. After Gratian, the classic
work is Schulte, Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des xanonischen
Rechts von Gratian bis auf die Gegenwart (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1875 et
sea.). Manuals for the study of the sources: Ph. Schneider, Die
Lenre von den KirchenrechtsoueUen (Regensburg, 1892); F. Laurin,
Introductio in Corpus iurts canonici (Freiburg, 1889); Tardif,
Histoire des sources du droit canonique (Paris, 1887). Most of the
German manuals on canon law devote considerable space to the
history pf the sources: see Phillips, vol. ii (3rd ed.., 1857; French
translation by the abbG Crouzet) ; Vering, 3rd ed. (Freiburg, 1893) ;
Schulte, Das katholische Kirchenrecht, pt. i. (Giessen, i860), &c
CANON LAW
20I
For the Greek Church : Pitra, Juris eccUsiae graecorum kistoria et
monumenta (Rome, i86$); the later history of the Greek law:
Zachariae, Historiae juris graecorum delineatto (Heidelberg, 1839);
M or treuil, Histoire du droit byzantin (Paris, 1843-1846); the recent
texts in the Conciliorum CoUectio lacensis, vol. ii.; Acta et deer eta
s. conciliorum, quae ab episcopis rituum orientalium ab a. 1682 usque
ad a. 1789 indeaue ad a. z86g sunt celebrata (Freiburg, 1876). Short
manual of Institutions: Jos. Papp-Szilagyi, Enchiridion juris eccl.
orientalis catholicae (Magno-Varadini, 1862). For recent canonical
texts: Richter's edition of the council of Trent (Leipzig, 1863);
the Collectanea S.C de Propaganda Fide (Rome, 1893); the
BuUarium^ a collection of papal acts and constitutions; the editions
of Cocquelines (28 vols., Rome, 1 733-1 756), and of Chenibini (19 vols.,
Luxemburg, 1727-1758), which are better than the enlarged reprint
of Turin, which was unfinished (it goes up to 1730). The official
edition of the BuUarium of Benedict XIV. (4 vols., Rome, I754~
1758) has been reprinted several times and is of great importance;
the continuation of the BuUarium since Benedict XIV. has been
published by Barberi, BuUarii romani continuation in 20 vols., going
up to the fourth year of Gregory XVI. Every year, since 1854, has
been printed a collection of pontifical acts, Acta Pit IX,, Acta
Leonis XIIL, &c, which are the equivalents of the BuUarium.
Dictionaries: Durand de Maillane, Dictionnaire canonique (Paris,
1786), re-edited by Andre under the title, Cours alphaUtique et
-m&thodique de droit canonique, and by Wagner (Paris, 1894], has
Gallican tendencies; Ferraris, Prompta btbliotheca canomca, &c,
several new and enlarged editions; the best is that of Migne (1866),
completed by Father Bucceroni, Ferraris Supplementum (Rome,
1899). Articles on canon law in Wetzer und Welte's Kirchenlexicon
{2nd e&, Freiburg, 1 880 et seq.) ; Hauck, Realencyklobadic fur prot.
Theologie und Kirdu (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1 877-1 888); Vacant- Mange-
not's Dictionnaire de theologie catkmique, in course of publication
(Paris, 1899 et seq.)- Periodicals: Analecta juris pontificii, ed. by
Mgr. Chaillot (i«63-l«89) ; Analecta ecclesiastica (since 1893); Acta
JSanctae sedis (since 1865); Archie fur kathol. Kirckenrecht (since
1857); JLe CanonisSe contemporain {since 1878). (A. Bo.*)
Cam>n Law in England and in the Anglican Communion. —
There were matters in which the local English and Irish canon
law, even before the 16th century, differed from that obtaining
on the western port of the European continent. Thus (1), it has
been said that — whereas the continental canon law recognized
a quadripartite division of Church revenue of common right
between (a) the bishop, (b) the clergy, (c) the poor, (d) the fabric
— the English law maintained a tripartite division — (a) clergy,
(b) the poor, (c) the fabric. Lord Selborne (Ancient Facts and
Fictions concerning Churches and Tithes, and ed., 1892) denies
that there was. any division of tithe in England. (2) By the
general canon few the burden of repairing the nave, as well as
the chancel of the church, was upon the parson or rector who.
collected the whole tithe. But the custom of England trans-
ferred this burden to the parishioners, and some particular
local customs (as in the city of London) placed even the burden
of repair of the chancel on them. To meet this burden church
rates were levied (3) A church polluted by the shedding of
blood, as by suicide or murder, was reconsecrated on the
continent. In England the custom was (and is) simply to
" reconcile." (4) A much more important difference, if the
decision of the Irish court of exchequer chamber upheld in
the House of Lords, where the peers were equally divided,
correctly stated the English canon law (Reg. v. Millis, 10 CI.
& Fin., 534) was in regard to the essentials of marriage. By
the general Western canon law before the council of Trent,
the parties themselves were said to be the " ministers of the
Sacrament " in the case of holy matrimony. The declared
consent of the parties to take each other there and then con-
stituted at once (although irregularly) holy matrimony. The
presence of priest or witnesses was not necessary. In Reg, v.
Millis, however, it was held that in England it was always
otherwise and that here the presence of a priest was necessary.
High authorities, however, have doubted the historical accuracy
of this decision. (5) The addition of houses of priests to the pro-
vincial synods seems peculiar to England and Ireland.
The historical position of the general canon law of the Catholic
Church in the English provinces has, since the separation from
Rome, been the subject of much consideration by English
lawyers and ecclesiastics. The view taken by the king's courts,
and acquiesced in by the ecclesiastical courts, since Henry VIII.,
is that the Church of England was always an independent
national church, subject indeed to the general principles of the
jus commune ectlesiasticum (Whklock J. in Ever v. Owen, God-
bolt's Reports, 432), but unbound by any particular constitu-
tions of council or pope; unless those constitutions had been
" received " here by English councils, or so recognized by English
courts (secular or spiritual) as to become part of the ecclesiastical
custom of the realm. Foreign canon law never bound (so it has
been taught) proprio vigore.
The sources of English ecclesiastical law (purely ecclesiastical)
were therefore (1) the principles of the jus commune eccle-
siasticum; (2) foreign particular constitutions received here, as
just explained; (3) the constitutions and canons of English
synods (cf. PhiU. Ecc. Law, part i. ch. iv., and authorities there
cited).
1. On the existence of this jus commune ccclesiasticum and
that the Church of England, in whatever sense independent,
takes it over until she repeals it, see Escoto. v. Mastin, 4 Moo*
P.C.C. 119. Lord Brougham, in delivering the judgment,
speaks of the " common law prevailing for 1400 years over
Christian Europe," and (p. 137) says that " nothing but express
enactment can abrogate the common law of all Christendom
before the Reformation of the Anglican Church/ '
2. As to foreign particular constitutions in England, there are
a great number of them, of which it has been and is admitted,
that they have currency in England. However papal in their
origin, post-Reformation lawyers have regarded them as valid,
unless they can be shown to be contrary to the king's pre-
rogative, or to the common or statute law of the realm. To this
doctrine express statutory authority (as the events have
happened) has been given by 25 Hen. VTII. c. 19 « sect. 7. A
striking example of the doctrine is furnished by the decree of
Innocent III. in the Fourth Lateran Council against pluralities.
This decree was enforced in the court of Arches against a pluralist
clerk in 1848 (Burder v. Mavor, 1 Roberts, 614). The courts
of common law from Lord Coke's time downwards have recog-*
nized this " constitution of the pope " (as the queen's bench
called it in 1598). The exchequer chamber, in 1837, declared
it to have " become part of the common law of the land "
(Alstan v. Allay, 7 A, and 22. 289).
3. The particular constitutions of English synods are numer-r
ous and cover a large field. At least in legal theory, the only
distinction between pre-Reformation and post-Reformation
constitutions is in favour of the former — so long as they do not
contravene the royal prerogative or the law of the land (see
25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). The most important are collected to-
gether and digested (so far as regards England) in Lyndwood's
Provinciale, a work which remains of great authority in English
courts. These constitutions are again divided into two classes:
(a) provincial constitutions promulgated by provincial synods,
usually in the name of the presiding archbishop or bishop; and
(b) decrees of papal legates, Otho in 1236 and Othobon (Otto-
buono de* Fieschi, afterwards Pope Adrian V.) in 1269. Canons
passed since 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 have not the parliamentary
confirmation which that act has been held to give to previous
canons, and do not necessarily bind the laity, although made
under the king's licence and ratified by him. This doctrine
laid down by Lord Hardwicke in Middleton v. Croft (2 Stra.
1056) was approved in i860 in Marshall v. Bp. of Exeter (L.R. 3
H.L. 17) . Nevertheless, there are many provisions in these post-
Reformation canons which are declaratory of the ancient usage
and law of the Church, and the law which they thus record is bind-
ing on the laity. The chief body of English post-Reformation
canon law is to be found in the canons of 1603, amended in
1865 and 1888. The canons of 1640 are apparently upon the
same footing as those of 1603 ; notwithstanding objections made
at the time that they were void because convocation continued
to sit after the dissolution of parliament. The opinion of all
the judges taken at the time was in favour of the legality of this
procedure. 13 Car. ii. c. 12 simply provided that these canons
should not be given statutory force by the operation of that
act.
In addition to the enactment of canons (strictly so*called) the
English provincial synods since the Henrician changes have
v. 7 a
204
CANOSSA— CANOVA
is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert Guiscard,
who died in nil, constructed partly in Byzantine, partly in
the local style.' It has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions;
the exterior is entirely faced with cipollino (Carystian) marble.
The conception of this mortuary chapel, which is unique at this
period, was 'undoubtedly derived from the turbeh before a
mosque; these turbehs are square, domed-roofed tombs in
which the sultans and distinguished Mahommedans are buried
(E. Bertaux, L'Art dans V Italic meridional t, Paris, 1904, i. 312).
A medieval castle crowns the hill on the side of which the city
stands. (See Canusium.) (T. As.)
CANOSSA, a ruined castle, 1890 ft. above sea-level, in Emilia,
Italy, 12 m. S.W. of Reggio Emilia, commanding a fine view of
the Apennines. It belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany
(d. 1 115), and is famous as the scene of the penance performed
by the emperor Henry IV. before Pope Gregory VII. in 1077.
TTie castle was destroyed by the inhabitants of Reggio in 1255.
CANOVA, ANTONIO (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, was born
on the 1st of November 1757, at Passagno, an obscure village
situated amid the recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these
form the last undulations of the Venetian Alps, as they subside
into the plains of Treviso. At three years of age Canova was
deprived of both parents, his father dying and his mother re-
marrying. Their loss, however* was compensated by the tender
solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother,
the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest
personal attention from her grandson, who, when he had the
means, gave her an asylum in his house at Rome. His father
and grandfather followed the occupation of stone-cutters or
minor statuaries; and it is said that their family had for several
ages supplied Passagno with members of that calling. As soon
as Canova *s hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated into the
principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter
possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture,
designed well, and showed considerable taste in the execution
of ornamental works. He was greatly attached to his art;
and upon his young charge he looked as one who was to per-
petuate, not only the family name, but also the family profession.
The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of
his mind was to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the
gratification of this predilection in the workshop of his grand-
father were eagerly improved. In his ninth year he executed
two small shrines of Carrara marble, which are still extant.
Soon after this period he appears to have been constantly
employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized
the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by
this means young Canova was first introduced to the senator
of that name, who afterwards became his most zealous patron.
Between the younger son, Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a
friendship commenced which terminated only with life. The
senator Falier was induced to receive him under his immediate
protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since
repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to
a trivial circumstance — the moulding of a lion in butter — for
the warm interest which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote
may or may not be true. By his patron Canova was placed
under Bernardi, or,«as he is generally called by filiation, Torretto,
a sculptor of considerable eminence, who had taken up a
temporary residence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity of the
senator's mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his
thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two
years, making in many respects considerable progress. This
master returned to Venice, where he soon afterwards died ; but
by the high terms in which he spoke of his pupil to Falier, the
latter was induced to bring the young artist to Venice, whither
he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of Torretto.
With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with
the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement
he began to work on his own account, and received from his
patron an order for a group, " Orpheus and Eurydice." The
first figure, which represents Eurydice in flames and smoke,
in the act of leaving Hades, was completed towards the close
of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his patron
and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to appear
before a public tribunal. The kindness of some monks supplied
him with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a
monastery. Here for nearly four years he laboured with the
greatest perseverance and industry. He was also regular in
his attendance at the academy, where he carried off several
prizes. But he relied far more on the study and imitation of
nature. From his contemporaries he could learn nothing, for
their style was vicious. From their works, therefore, he re-
verted to living models, as exhibited in every variety of situation.
A large portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which
science was regarded by him as " the secret of the art." He
likewise frequented places of public amusement, where he care-
fully studied the expressions and attitudes of the performers*
He formed a resolution, which was faithfully adhered to for
several years, never to close his eyes at night without having
produced some design. Whatever was likely to forward his
advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On archaeo-
logical pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With
ancient and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted
and he also began to acquire some of the continental languages.
Three years had now elapsed without any production coming
from his chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for
his patron, and the Orpheus which followed evinced the great
advance he had made. The work was universally applauded,
and laid the foundation of his fame. Several groups succeeded
this performance, amongst which was that of " Daedalus and
Icarus," the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The
simplicity of style and the faithful imitation of nature which
characterized them called forth the warmest admiration. His
merits and reputation being now generally recognized, his
thoughts began to turn from the shores of the Adriatic to the
banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the commencement
of his twenty-fourth year.
Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the
Venetian senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies
without embarrassment. The application was ultimately suc-
cessful. The stipend amounted to three hundred ducats (about
£60 per annum), and was limited to three years. Canova had
obtained letters of introduction to the Venetian ambassador,
the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous protector of
the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner. His
arrival in Rome, on the 28th of December 1780, marks a new era
in his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the
most splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the
severest test by a competition with the living masters of the art.
The result was equal to the highest hopes cherished either by
himself or by his friends. The work which first established his
fame at Rome was " Theseus vanquishing the Minotaur." The
figures are of the heroic size. The victorious Theseus is repre-
sented as seated on the lifeless body of the monster. The
exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves the
terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged.
Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized
Canova 's style; with these were now united more exalted
conceptions of grandeur and of truth. The Theseus was
regarded with fervent admiration.
Canova's next undertaking was a monument in honour of
Clement XIV.; but before he proceeded with it he deemed it
necessary to request permission from the Venetian senate,
whose servant he considered himself to be, in consideration of the
pension. This he solicited in person, and it was granted. He
returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated
studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years
of unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the
models for the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed,
other two years were employed in finishing the monument, and
it was finally opened to public inspection in 1787. The work,
in the opinion of enthusiastic dilettanti, stamped the author as
the first artist of modern times. After five years of incessant
labour, he completed another cenotaph to the memory of Clement
CANOVA
205
XIII., which raised his fame still higher. Works now came
rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a butter-
fly, which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with
the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of
man's immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect
the most faultless and classical of Canova's works. In two
different groups, and with opposite expression, the sculptor has
represented Cupid with his bride; in the one they are standing,
in the other recumbent. These and other works raised his
reputation so high that the most flattering offers were sent him
from the Russian court to induce him to remove to St Petersburg,
but these were declined. " Italy," says he, in writing of the
occurrence to a friend, " Italy is my country — is the country and
native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was
nurtured here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other
land, they must be of some utility to Italy; and ought not her
claim to be preferred to all others ? "
Numerous works were produced in the years 1 795-1 797, of
which several were repetitions of previous productions. One
was the celebrated group representing the * Parting of Venus
and Adonis. " This famous production was sent to Naples. The
French Revolution was now extending its shocks over Italy;
and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native Passagno.
Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a
year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had
some knowledge. He executed upwards of twenty paintings
about this time. One of his productions is a picture representing
the dead body of the Saviour just removed from the cross,
surrounded by the three Marys, S. John, Joseph of Arimathea,
and, somewhat in the background, Nicodemus. Above appears
the Father, with the mystic dove in the centre of a glory, and
surrounded by a circle of cherubs. This composition, which was
greatly applauded, he presented to the parochial church of his
native place. Events in the political world having come to a
temporary lull, he returned to Rome; but his health being
impaired from arduous application, he took a journey through a
part of Germany, in company with his friend Prince Rezzonico.
He returned from his travels much improved, and again com-
menced his labours with vigour and enthusiasm.
Canova *s sculptures have been distributed under three heads:
— (1) Heroic compositions; (2) Compositions of grace and
elegance; and (3) Sepulchral monuments and relievos. In
noticing the works which fall under each of these divisions, it
will be impossible to maintain a strict chronological order, but
perhaps a better idea of his productions may thus be obtained.
Their vast number, however, prevents their being all enumerated.
(1) His " Perseus with the Head of Medusa " appeared soon
after his return. The moment of representation is when the
hero, flushed with conquest, displays the head of the " snaky
Gorgon," whilst the right hand grasps a sword of singular
device. By a public decree, this fine work was placed in one of
the stanze of the Vatican hitherto reserved for the most precious
works of antiquity; but it would be a mistake to say that it
wholly sustains this comparison, or that it rivals the earlier
realization of the same subject in Italian art, that by Cellini.
In 1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova repaired
to Paris to model a bust of the first consul. The artist was
entertained with munificence, and various honours were
conferred upon Mm. The statue, which is colossal, was not
finished till six years after. On the fall of the great Napoleon,
Louis XVIII. presented this statue to the British government,
by whom it was afterwards given to the duke of Wellington.
" Palamedes," " Creugas and Damoxenus," the " Combat of
Theseus and the Centaur," and "Hercules and Lichas" may
close the class of heroic compositions, although the catalogue
might be swelled by the enumeration of various others, such as
41 Hector and Ajax," and the statues of Washington, King
Ferdinand of Naples, and others. The group of " Hercules and
Lichas " is considered as the most terrible conception of Canova's
mind, and in its peculiar style as scarcely to be excelled.
(2) Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the
statue of Hebe takes the first place in' point t)f date. Four times
has the artist embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each
time with some variation. The only material improvement,
however, is the substitution of a support more suitable to the
simplicity of the art. Each of the statues is, in all its details, in
expression, attitude and delicacy of finish, strikingly elegant.
The " Dancing Nymphs " maintain a character similar to that of
the Hebe. The " Graces " and the " Venus " are more elevated.
The " Awakened Nymph " is another work of uncommon
beauty. The mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louisa
(as Concord), to model whom the author made a further journey
to Paris in 18 10, the princess Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia
(Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in this class, as do the ideal
heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura, Beatrice and Helen
of Troy.
(3) Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid
is the monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria,
consisting of nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman
pontiffs already mentioned, there is one for Alfieri, another for
Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a small model of a cenotaph for
Nelson, besides a great variety of monumental relievos.
The events which marked the life of the artist during the first
fifteen years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-
mentioned works scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely
absorbed in the labours of his studio, and, with the exception of
his journeys to Paris, one to Vienna, and a few short intervals of
absence in Florence and other parts of Italy, he never quitted
Rome. In his own words, " his statues were the sole proofs of
his civil existence." There was, however, another proof, which
modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence,
especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the
Pope to superintend the transmission from Paris of those works
of art which had formerly been conveyed thither under the
direction of Napoleon. By his zeal and exertions, for there
were many conflicting interests to reconcile, he adjusted the
affair in a manner at once creditable to his judgment and fortunate
for his country. In the autumn of this year he gratified a wish he
had long entertained of visiting London, where he received the
highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed
particular sympathy and regard in London was Haydon, who
might at the time be counted the sole representative of historical
painting there, and whom he especially honoured for his cham-
pionship of the Elgin marbles, then recently transported to
England, and ignorantly depreciated by polite connoisseurs.
Canova returned to Rome in the beginning of 18 16, with the
ransomed spoils of his country's genius. Immediately after,
he received several marks of distinction, — by the hand of the
Pope himself his name was inscribed in " the Golden Volume of
the Capitol," and he received the title of marquis of Ischia, with
an annual pension of 3000 crowns, about £625.
He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of
Religion. The model filled Italy with admiration; the marble
was procured, and the chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied
to it, when the jealousy of churchmen as to the site, or some other
cause, deprived the country of the projected work. The mind of
Canova was inspired with the warmest sense of devotion, and
though foiled in this instance he resolved to consecrate a shrine to
the cause. In his native village he began to make preparations
for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the above
statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were
to repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired
to Passagno in 18 19. At a sumptuous entertainment which he
gave to his workmen, there occurred an incident which marks
the kindliness of his character. When the festivities of the day
had terminated, he requested the shepherdesses and peasant-
girls of the adjacent hamlets to pass in review before him, and to
each he made a present, expending on the occasion about £400.
We need not, therefore, be surprised that a few years afterwards,
when the remains of the donor came to be deposited in their last
asylum; the grief which the surrounding peasantry evinced was
in natural expression so intense as to eclipse the studied solemnity
of more pompous mourning.
After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been -laid,
2o6
CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO
Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he
continued to visit Passagno, in order to direct the workmen, and
encourage them with pecuniary rewards and medals. In the
meantime the vast expenditure exhausted his resources, and
compelled him to labour with unceasing assiduity notwithstand-
ing age and disease. During the period which intervened between
commencing operations at Passagno and his decease, he executed
or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were
the group " Mars and Venus," the colossal figure of Pius VI., the
" Pieta," the " St John," the " recumbent Magdalen." The
last performance which issued from his hand was a colossal bust
of his friend, the Count Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to
Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an
equestrian statue of the perjured Bourbon king Ferdinand.
This journey materially injured his health, but he rallied again on
his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the year he paid
his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he experienced a
relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there on the
13th of October 1822, at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease
was one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the
continual use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs.
The most distinguished funeral honours were paid to his remains,
which were deposited in the temple at Passagno on the 25th of
the same month.
Canova, in a certain sense, renovated the art of sculpture in
Italy, and brought it back to that standard from which it had
declined when the sense both of classical beauty and moderation,
and of Titanic invention and human or superhuman energy as
embodied by the unexampled genius of Michelangelo, had
succumbed to the overloaded and flabby mannerisms of the 17th
and 18th centuries. His finishing was refined, and he had a special
method of giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble.
He formed his models of the same size as the work was intended
to be. The prominent defect of Canova's attractive and highly
trained art is that which may be summed up in the word artifici-
ality, — that quality, so characteristic of the modern mind, which
seizes upon certain properties of conception and execution in the
art of the past, and upon certain types of beauty or emotion in
life, and makes a compound of the two — regulating both by the
standard of taste prevalent in contemporary " high society," a
standard which, referring to cultivation and refinement as its
higher term, declines towards fashion as the lower. Of his moral
character a generous and unwearied benevolence formed the most
prominent feature. The greater part of the vast fortune realized
by his works was distributed in acts of this description. He
established prizes for artists and endowed all the academies of
Rome. The aged and unfortunate were also the objects of his
peculiar solicitude. His titles were numerous. He was enrolled
amongst thenobili ty of several states, decora ted with variousorders
of knighthood, and associated in the highest professional honours.
See the Life of Canova by Memes; that by Missirini ; the Biografia
by the Count Cicognara; Canova et ses ouvragcs, by Quatremere de
Quincy (1834) ; Opere scelte di Antonio Canova, by Anzelmi (Naples,
1842) ; Canova, by A. G. Meyer (1898) ; and La Relatione del Canova
con Napoli . . . memorie con document* inediti. by Angelo Borzelli
(1901). (W. M. R.)
CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO (1828-1897), Spanish
statesman, was born in Malaga on the 8th of February 1828.
Educated in his native town, he went to Madrid in 1845, bent
upon finding means to complete his literary and philosophical
studies. His uncle, Don Serafin Estebanez Calderon, found him
a situation as clerk in the Madrid-Aranjuez railway, but Canovas
soon took to journalism and literature, earning enough to support
himself and pay for his law studies at the Madrid University.
During this period he published his two best works — an historical
novel, Las Campanas de Huesca, and the history of the decay of
Spain from Philip III. to Charles II. under the house of Austria.
He became a politician through his Junius-like letters to the
" Murcielago " — The Bat, a satirical political journal — and by
drawing up the manifesto of Manzanares in 1854 for Marshal
O'Donnell, of whom he always remained a loyal adherent.
Canovas entered the Cortes in 1854; he was made governor of
Cadiz in 1857, sub-director of the state department in 1858,
Under-Secretary at the home office in i860, minister of the
interior in 1864, minister of the colonies in 1865, minister of
finance in 1866, and was exiled by Marshal Narvaez in the same
year, afterwards becoming a bitter opponent of all the reactionary
cabinets until the revolution of 1868. He took no part in
preparing that event. He sat in the Cortes Constituyentes of
1869 as a doctrinaire Conservative, combating all Radical and
democratic reforms, and defending the exiled Bourbons; but he
abstained from voting when the Cortes elected Amadeus king on
the 1 6th of November 1870. He did not object to some of his
political friends, like Silvela and Elduayen, entering the cabinets
of King Amadeus, and in 1872 declared that his attitude would
depend on the concessions which government would make to
Conservative principles. After the abdication of Amadeus and
the proclamation of the federal republic, Canovas took the lead
of the propaganda in favour of the restoration of the Bourbons,
and was their principal agent and adviser. He drew up the
manifesto issued in 1874 by the young king Alphonso XH., at
that time a cadet at Sandhurst; but he dissented from the
military men who were actively conspiring to organize an
Alphonsist pronunciamiento. Like Marshal Concha, marquis del
Duero, he would have preferred to let events develop enough to
allow of the dynasty being restored without force of arms, and he
severely blamed the conduct of the generals when he first heard
of the pronunciamiento of Marshal Campos at Sagunto. Sagasta
thereupon caused Canovas to be arrested (3©thof December 1874) ;
but the next day the Madrid garrison also proclaimed Alphonso
XII. king, and Canovas showed the full powers he had received
from the king to assume the direction of affairs. He formed a
regency ministry pending the arrival of his majesty, who con-
firmed his appointment, and for six years Canovas was premier
except during the short-lived cabinets of Marshal Jovellar in
1875 and Marshal Campos for a few months in 1879. Canovas
was, in fact, the soul of the Restoration. He had to reconstruct a
Conservative party out of the least reactionary parties of the days
of Queen Isabella and out of the more moderate elements of the
revolution. With such followers he made the constitution of
1876 and all the laws of the monarchy, putting a limited franchise
in the place of universal suffrage, curtailing liberty of conscience,
rights of association and of meeting, liberty of the press, checking
democracy, obliging the military to abstain from politics, con-
ciliating the Carlists and Catholics by his advances to the Vatican,
the Church and the religious orders, pandering to the protection-
ists by his tariff policy, and courting abroad the friendship of
Germany and Austria after contributing to the marriage of his
king to an Austrian princess. Canovas crowned his policy by
countenancing the formation of a Liberal party under Sagasta,
flanked by Marshal Serrano and other Liberal generals, which
took office in 1 88 1. He again became premier in 1883, and
remained in office until November 1885; but he grew very un-
popular, and nearly endangered the monarchy in 1885 by his
violent repression of popular and press demonstrations, and of
student riots in Madrid and the provinces. At the death of
Alphonso XII. he at once advised the queen regent to send for
Sagasta and the Liberals, and during five years he looked on
quietly whilst Sagasta re-established universal suffrage and most
of the liberties curtailed in 1876, and carried out a policy of free
trade on moderate lines. In 1890 Canovas took office under the
queen regent, and one of his first acts was to reverse the tariff
policy of the Liberals, denouncing all the treaties of commerce,
and passing in 1892 a highly protectionist tariff. This was the
starting-point of the decline in foreign trade, the advance of
foreign exchanges, the decay of railway traffic, and the monetary
and financial crisis which continued from 1892 to 1898. Splits in
the Conservative ranks forced Canovas to resign at the end of
1893, an d Sagasta came in for eighteen months. Canovas
resumed office in March 1895 immediately after the outbreak of
the Cuban insurrection, and devoted most of his time and efforts,
with characteristic determination, to the preparation of ways and
means for sending 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry out
his stern and unflinching policy of no surrender, no concessions
and no reforms. He was making up his mind for another effort
CANROBBRT^CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS
207
to enable General Weyler to enforce the reforms that had
been wrung from the Madrid government, more by American
diplomacy than from a sense of the inevitable, when the bullet of
an anarchist, in August 1897, at the baths of Santa Agueda, cut
short his career. On the whole, Canovas must be regarded as the
greatest Spanish statesman of the close of the 19th century. He
was not only a politician but also a man of the world, a writer of
considerable merit, a scholar well versed in social, economic
and philosophical questions, a great debater, a clever lecturer, a
member of all the Madrid academies and a patron of art and
letters. (A. E. H.)
CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN (1809-189 5), marshal of
France, was born at St Cere (Lot) on the 27th of June 1809 and
educated at St Cyr; he received a commission as sub-lieutenant
in 1828, becoming lieutenant in 1833. He went to Algeria in
i835> served in the expedition to Mascara, at the capture of
Tlemcen, and in 1837 became captain. In the same year he was
wounded in the storm of Constantine, receiving the Legion of
Honour for his conduct. In 1839 he was employed in organizing
a battalion of the Foreign Legion for the Carlist Wars. In 1841
he was again serving in Africa. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in
1846 and colonel of the 3rd regiment in 1847, he commanded the
expedition against Ahmed Sghir in 1848, and defeated the
Arabs at the Djerma Pass. Transferred to the Zouaves, he
defeated the Kabyles, and in 1849 displayed both courage and
energy in reinforcing the blockaded garrison of Bou Sada, and in
command of one of the attacking columns at Zaatcha (December
1849). For his valour on the latter occasion he received the
rank of general of brigade and the commandership of the Legion
of Honour. He led the expedition against Narah in 1850 and
destroyed the Arab stronghold. Summoned to Paris, he was
made aide-de-camp to the president, Louis Napoleon, and took
part in the coup d'Uat of the 2nd of December 1851. In the
Crimean War he commanded a division at the Alma, where he
was twice wounded. He held a dormant commission entitling
him to command in case of St Arnaud's death, and he thus
succeeded to the chief command of the French army a few days
after the battle. He was slightly wounded and had a horse
killed under him at Inkerman, when leading a charge of Zouaves.
Disagreements with the English commander-in-chief and, in
general, the disappointments due to the prolongation of the
siege of Sevastopol led to his resignation of the command, but he
did not return to France, preferring to serve as chief of his old
division almost up to the fall of Sevastopol. After his return to
France he was sent on diplomatic missions to Denmark and
Sweden, and made a marshal and senator of France (grand cross
Legion of Honour, and honorary G.C.B.). He commanded the
III. army corps in Lombardy in 1859, distinguishing himself at
Magenta and Solferino. He successively commanded the camp
at Chalons, the IV. army corps at Lyons and the army of Paris.
In the Franco-German War he commanded the VI. army corps,
which won the greatest distinction in the battle of Gravelotte,
where Canrobert commanded on the St Privat position. The
VI. corps was amongst those shut up in Metz and included in the
surrender of that fortress. After the war Canrobert was appoin ted
a member of the superior council of war, and was also active in
political life, being elected senator for Lot in 1876 and for
Charente in 1879 and again in 1885. He died at Paris on the
28th of January 1895 and his remains received a public funeral.
His Souvenirs were published in 1898 at Paris.
CANT, ANDREW (iS90?-i663), a leader of the Scottish
Covenanters. About 1 623 the people of Edinburgh called him to
be their minister, but he was rejected by James I. Ten years
. later he was minister of Pitsligo in Aberdeenshire, a charge
which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in Mid-Lothian. In
July of that year he went with other commissioners to Aberdeen
in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery
of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the
following November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow
which abolished episcopacy in Scotland. In 1 640 he was chaplain
to the Scottish army and then settled as minister at Aberdeen.
Though a stanch Covenanter, he was a zealous Royalist,
preaching before Charles I. in Edinburgh, and stoutly advocating
the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the Commonwealth.
Cant's frequent and bitter attacks on various members of his
congregation led in 1660 to complaints laid before the magis-
trates, in consequence of which he resigned his charge. His son
Andrew was principal of Edinburgh University (1675-1685).
CANT. ( 1 ) (Possibly through the Fr. from Lat. cantos, corner) ,
in architecture, a term used where the corner of a square is cut
off, octagonally or otherwise. Thus a bay window, the sides of
which are not parallel, or at right angles to the spectator, is said
to be canted. (2) (From the Lat. cantare, to sing, very early in
use, in a depreciatory sense, of religious services), a word appear-
ing in English in the 16th century for the whining speech of
beggars; hence it is applied to thieves' or gipsies' jargon, to the
peculiar language of any class or sect, to any current phrase or
turn of language, and particularly to the hypocritical use of
pious phraseology.
CANTABRI, an ancient tribe which inhabited the north coast
of Spain near Santander and Bilbao and the mountains behind —
a district hence known as Cantabria. Savage and untameable
mountaineers, they long defied the Roman arms and made them-
selves a name for wild freedom. They were first attacked by the
Romans' about 1 50 B.C. ; they were not subdued till Agrippa and
Augustus had carried out a series of campaigns (29-19 B.C.) which
ended in their partial annihilation. Thenceforward their land
was part of the province Hispania Tarracorlensis with some
measure of local self-government. They became} slowly Roman-
ized, but developed little town life and are rarely mentioned in
history. They provided recruits for the Roman auxilia, like
their neighbours the Astures, and their land contained lead mines,
of which, however, little is known.
CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS (Span. Cordillera Cantabrica),
a mountain chain which extends for more than 300 m. across
northern Spain, from the western limit of the Pyrenees to the
borders of Galicia, and on or near the coast of the Bay of Biscay.
The Cantabrians stretch from east to west, nearly parallel to the
sea, as far as the pass of Leitariegos, afterwards trending south-
ward between Leon and Galicia. Their western boundary is
marked by the valley of the river Mifto (Portuguese Minhb), by
the lower Sil, which flows into the Mifio, and by the Cabrera,
a small tributary of the Sil. Some geographers regard the
mountains of Galicia beyond the Mifio as an integral part of the
same system; others confine the name to the eastern half of the
highlands between Galicia and the Pyrenees, and call their
western half the Asturian Mountains. There are also many
local names for the subsidiary ranges within the chain. As a
whole, the Cantabrian Mountains are remarkable for their
intricate ramifications, but almost everywhere, and especially in
the east, it is possible to distinguish two principal ranges,
from which the lesser ridges and mountain masses radiate. One
range, or series of ranges, closely follows the outline of the coast;
the other, which is loftier, forms the northern limit of the great
tableland of Castile and Leon, and is sometimes regarded as a
continuation of the Pyrenees. The coastal range rises in some
parts sheer above the sea, and everywhere has so abrupt a
declivity that the streams which flow seaward are all short and
swift. The descent from the southern range to the high plateaus
of Castile is more gradual, and several large rivers, notably the
Ebro, rise here and flow to the south or west. The breadth of the
Cantabrian chain, with all its ramifications, increases from about
60 m. in the east to about 115 m. in the west. Many peaks are
upwards of 6000 ft. high, but the greatest altitudes are attained
in the central ridges on the borders of Leon, Oviedo, Palencia
and Santander. Here are the Pefia Vieja (8743 ft.), Prieta
(8304 ft.) and Espinguete (7898 ft.); an unnamed summit in
the Penas de Europa, to which range the Pefia Vieja also belongs,
rises on the right bank of the Sella to a height of 8045 ft. ; farther
west the peaks of Manipodre, Ubina, Rubia and Cuina all exceed
7000 ft. A conspicuous feature of the chain, as of the adjacent
tableland, is the number of its parameras, isolated plateaus shut
in by lofty mountains or even by precipitous walls of rock. At
the south-western extremity of the chain is el Vierzo, once a
208
CANTACUZINO— CANTARINI
lake -bed, now a valley drained by the upper Sil and enclosed by
mountains which bifurcate from the main range south of the
pass of Leitariegos — the Sierra de Justredo and Montanas de
Leon curving towards the east and south-west, the Sierra de
Picos, Sierra del Caurel and other ranges curving towards the
west and south-east. The Cantabrians are rich in coal and iron ;
an account of their geological structure is given under Spain.
They are crossed at many points by good roads and in their
eastern half by several railways. In the west, near the pass of
Pajares, the railway from Leon to Gij6n passes through the
Perruca tunnel, which is 2 m. long and 4200 ft. above sea-level;
the railway descends northward through fifty-eight smaller
tunnels. The line from Leon to Orense also traverses a remark-
able series of tunnels, bridges and deep cuttings.
CANTACUZINO, Cantacuzen or Cantacuzene, the name
of a family which traces its origin to the Byzantine emperors and
writers of the same name (see under John V., Cantacuzene),
The founder of the family, Andronik, migrated to Rumania in
1633, and from his two sons Constantine and Gheorge sprang the
two principal lines which afterwards branched into numerous
families of nobles and high dignitaries, including hospodars
(rulers) of Walachia and Moldavia. The Cantacuzinos were
represented in every branch of administration and in the world
of letters. Under their influence the Rumanian language and
literature in the 17th century reached their highest development.
Among the more prominent members of the family the following
may be mentioned. (1) Sherban Cantacuzino (1640-1688),
appointed hospodar of Walachia in 1679. He served under the
Turks in the siege of Vienna, and when they were defeated it is
alleged that he conceived the plan of marching on Constantinople
to drive the Turks out of Europe, the western powers having
promised him their moral support. In the midst of his prepara-
tions he died suddenly, poisoned, it is said, by the boyars who
were afraid of his vast plans. Far more important was his activity
in economic and literary directions. He introduced the maize
into Rumania; it is now the staple food of the country. He
founded the first Rumanian school in Bucharest; he assisted
liberally in the establishment of various printing offices; and
under his auspices the famous Rumanian Bible appeared in
Bucharest in 1688. Through his influence also the Slavonic
language was officially and finally abolished from the liturgy
and the Rumanian language substituted for it. (2) Stefan
Cantacuzino, son of Constantine, prince of Walachia, 17 14-17 16.
(3) Demetrius Cantacuzino, prince of Moldavia, 1 674-1 676.
He left an unsatisfactory record. Descendants of Demetrius and
Sherban have emigrated to Russia, and held high positions there
as governors of Bessarabia and in other responsible posts. (4)
Of the Moldavian Cantacuzinos, Theodore is well known as a
chronicler of his times (c. 1749). (5) Gheorge Cantacuzino
(b. 1837), son of Gregori (1800-1849). He was appointed in
1870 minister of public instruction in Rumania; in 1889, pre-
sident of the chamber; in 1892, president of the senate; from
1899 ne wa s head of the Conservative party, and from 1905
to 1907 prime minister (see also Rumania: History). (M. G.)
CANTAGALLO, an inland town of the state of Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, about 100 m. by rail N.E. of the port of Rio de Janeiro,
with which it is connected by the Cantagallo railway. Pop.
(1890) of the municipality, 26,067, of whom less than one-fourth
live in the town. Cantagallo is situated in the fertile Parahyba
valley and is the commercial centre of a rich coffee-producing
district. There are exhausted gold placer mines in its vicinity,
but they were not rich enough to cause any considerable develop-
ment in mining. Coffee production is the principal industry,
but sugar-cane is grown to a limited extent, and some attention
is given to the raising of cattle and swine. The district is an
excellent fruit region.
CANTAL, a department of central France, formed from
Haute-Auvergne, the southern portion of the old province of
Auvergne. It is bounded N. by the department of Puy-de-
D6me, E. by Haute-Loire, S.E. by Lozere, S. by Aveyron and
Lozere, and W. by CorrSze and Lot. Area 2231 sq. m. Pop.
(1006) 228,690. Cantal is situated in the middle of the central
plateau of France. It takes its name from the Monts du Cantal,
a volcanic group occupying its central region, and continued
towards the north and east by ranges of lower altitude. The
Plomb du Cantal, the culminating summit of the department,
attains a height of 6096 ft.; and its neighbours, the Puy Mary
and the Puy Chavaroche, attain a height of 5863 and 5722 ft.
respectively. Immediately to the east of this central mass lies
the lofty but fertile plateau of Planeze, which merges into the
Monts de la Margeride on the eastern border. The valley of the
Truyere skirts the Planeze on the south and divides it from the
Monts d'Aubrac, at the foot of which lies Chaudesaigues, noted
for its thermal springs, the most important in the department.
Northwards the Monts du Cantal are connected with the Monts
Dore by the volcanic range of Cezallier and the arid plateaus of
Artense. In the west of the department grassy plateaus and
beautiful river valleys slope gently down from the central
heights. Most of the streams of the department have their
sources in this central ridge and fall by a short and rapid course
into the rivers which traverse the extensive valleys on either side.
The principal rivers are the Alagnon, a tributary of the Allier;
the Celle and Truy&re, tributaries of the Lot; and the Cere and
Rue, tributaries of the Dordogne. The climate of the depart-
ment varies considerably in the different localities. In the
alluvial plain between Murat and St Flour, and in the south-
west in the arrondissement of Aurillac, it is generally mild and
dry; but in the northern and central portions the winters are
long and severe and the hurricanes peculiarly violent. The
cold and damp of the climate in these districts are great obstacles
to the cultivation of wheat, but rye and buckwheat are grown
in considerable quantities, and in natural pasture Cantal is
extremely rich. Cattle are accordingly reared with profit,
especially around Salers and in the Monts d'Aubrac, while butter
and Roquefort cheese are made in large quantities. Large flocks
of sheep pasture in the Monts d'Aubrac and elsewhere in the
department; goats are also reared. The inhabitants are simple
and primitive and accustomed to live on the scantiest fare.
Many of them migrate for part of the year to Paris and the pro-
vinces, where they engage in the humblest occupations. The
principal articles of food are rye, buckwheat and chestnuts.
The internal resources of the department are considerable; but
the difficulty of land-carriage prevents them being sufficiently
developed. The hills and valleys abound with game and the
streams with fish. Cantal produces a vast variety of aromatic
and medicinal plants; and its mineral products include coal,
antimony and lime. The department has no prominent manu-
factures. Live-stock, cheese, butter and coal are the principal
exports; coal, wine, cereals, flour and earthenware are im-
ported. Hie department is served by the railways of the Orleans
and Southern companies, the construction of which at some
points demanded considerable engineering skill, notably in the
case of the viaduct of Garabit spanning the gorge of the Truyere.
Cantal is divided into four arrondissements — Aurillac, Mauriac,
Murat and St Flour — 23 cantons and 267 communes. It belongs
to the region of the XIII. army corps and to the academic
(educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand. Its bishopric is
at St Flour and depends on the archbishopric of Bourges. Its
court of appeal is at Riom. The capital is Aurillac (q.v.) 9 and
St Flour (g.v.) is the other principal town.
CANTARINI, SIMONE (1612-1648), called Simons da Pesaro,
painter and etcher, was born at Oropezza near Pesaro in 161 2.
He was a disciple of Guido Reni and a fellow-student of Domeni-
chino and Albano. The irritability of his temper and his vanity
were extreme; and it is said that his death, which took place
at Verona in 1648, was occasioned by chagrin at his failure in
a portrait of the duke of Mantua. Others relate that he was
poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured. His
pictures, though masterly and spirited, are deficient in originality.
Some of his works have been mistaken for examples of Guido
Reni, to whom, indeed, he is by some considered superior in the
extremities of the figures. Among his principal paintings are
"St Anthony," at Cagli; the "Magdalene," at Pesaro; the
"Transfiguration," in the Brera Gallery, Milan; the "Portrait
CANTATA— CANTERBURY), VISCOUNT
209
of Guide/ 1 in the Bologna gallery; and " St Romuald," in the
Casa PaoluccL His most celebrated etching is " Jupiter,
Neptune and Pluto, honouring the arms of Cardinal Borghese."
CANTATA (Italian for a song or story set to music), a vocal
composition accompanied by instruments and generally con-
taining more than one movement. In the 16th century, when
all serious music was vocal, the term had no reason to exist, but
with the rise of instrumental music in the 17th century cantatas
began to exist under that name as soon as the instrumental art
was definite enough to be embodied in sonatas. From the middle
of the 17th till late in the 1 8th century a favourite form of Italian
chamber music was the cantata for one or two solo voices, with
accompaniment of harpsichord and perhaps a few other solo
instruments. It consisted at first of a declamatory narrative
or scene in recitative, held together by a primitive aria repeated
at intervals. Fine examples may be found in the church music
of Carissimi; and the English vocal solos of Purcell (such as
Mad Tom and Mad Bess) show the utmost that can be made of
this archaic form. With the rise of the Da Capo aria the cantata
became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative.
Handel's numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a
rather large scale. His Latin motet Silete Venii, for soprano
solo, shows the use of this form in church music.
The Italian solo cantata naturally tended, when on a large
scale, to become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera.
In the same way the church cantata* solo or choral, is indis-
tinguishable from a small oratorio or portion of an oratorio.
This is equally evident whether we examine the unparalleled
church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 are extant, or the
Chandos Anthems of Handel. In Bach's case many of the
larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the Christmas
Oratorio is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended
for performance on six different days, though together forming
as complete an artistic whole as any classical oratorio.
The essential point, however, in Bach's church cantatas is
that they formed part of a church service, and moreover of
a service in which the organization of the music was far more
coherent than is possible in the Anglican church. Many of
Bach's greatest cantatas begin with an elaborate chorus followed
bv a couple of arias and recitatives, and end with a plain chorale.
This has often been commented upon as an example of Bach's
indifference to artistic climax in the work as a whole. But no
one will maintain this who realizes the place which the church
cantata occupied in the Lutheran church service. The text was
carefully based upon the gospel or lessons for the day; unless
the cantata was short the sermon probably took place after the
first chorus or one of the arias, and the congregation joined in
the final chorale. Thus the unity of the service was the unity
of the music; and, in the cases where all the movements of the
cantata were founded on one and the same chorale-tune, this
unity has never been equalled, except by those 16th-century
masses and motets which are founded upon the Gregorian tones
of the festival for which they are written.
In modern times the term cantata is applied almost exclusively
to choral, as distinguished from solo vocal music. There has,
perhaps, been only one kind of cantata since Bach which can
be recognized as an art form and net as a mere title for works
otherwise impossible to classify. It is just possible to recognize
as a distinct artistic type that kind of early 19th-century cantata
in which the chorus is the vehicle for music more lyric and song-
like than the oratorio style, though at the same time not exclude
ing the possibility of a brilliant climax in the shape of a light
order of fugue. Beethoven's Glorreiche Augenblick is a brilliant
" pot-boiler " in this style; Weber's Jubel Cantata is a typical
specimen, and Mendelssohn's Walpurgisnacht is the classic.
Mendelssohn's " Symphony Cantata," the Lobgesang, is a hybrid
work, partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three sym-
phonic movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven's
ninth symphony; but the analogy is not accurate, as Beet-
hoven's work is a symphony of which the fourth movement is
a choral finale of essentially single design, whereas Mendelssohn's
" Symphony Cantata " is a cantata with three symphonic
preludes. The full lyric- possibilities of a string of choral
songs were realized at last by Brahms in his Rinaldo, set to a
text which Goethe wrote at the same time as he wrote that of
the Walpurgisnacht. The point of Brahms's work (his only
experiment in this genre) has naturally been lost by critics who
expected in so voluminous a composition the qualities of an
elaborate choral music with which it has nothing whatever
to do. Brahms has probably said the last word on this subject;
and the remaining types of. cantata (beginning with Beethoven's
Meeres-stille, and including most of Brahms's and many notable
English small choral works) are merely so many different ways
of setting to choral music a poem which is just too long to be
comprised in one movement. (D. F. T.)
CANTEEN (through the Fr. cantine, from Ital. cantina, a
cellar), a word chiefly used in a military sense for an official
sutler's shop, where provisions, &c, are sold to soldiers. The
word was formerly applied also to portable equipments for carry-
ing liquors and food, or for cooking in the field. Another sense
of the word, which has survived to the present day, is that of a.
soldier's water-bottle, or of a small wooden or metal can for
carving a workman's liquor, &c.
CANTEMIR, the name of a celebrated family of Tatar origin,
which came from the Crimea in the 17 th century and settled in
Moldavia.
Constantene Cantemebl became a prince of Moldavia, 1685-
1693. He was a good and conscientious ruler, who protected
the people from, the rapacity of the tax-gatherers and introduced
peace into his country. He was succeeded on the throne by his
son Antioch, who ruled twice,. 1 696-1 700 and 1 705-1707.
His youngest brother, Demetrius or Demeter Cantemir
(b. October 26, 1673), was made prince of Moldavia in 17 104 he
ruled only one year, 1.710-1711, when he joined Peter the Great
in his campaign against the Turks and placed Moldavia under
Russian suzerainty. Beaten by the Turks, Cantemir emigrated
to Russia, where he and his family finally settled. He died at
Kharkov in 1723. He was known as one of the greatest linguists
of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being
well versed in Oriental scholarship. He was a voluminous and
original writer of great sagacity and deep penetration, and his
writings range over many subjects. The best known is his
History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire. He also
wrote a history of oriental music, which is no longer extant; the
first critical history of Moldo-Walachia; the first geographical,
ethnographical and economic description of Moldavia, De-
scriptio Moldaviae, under the name of Historia Hieroglyphica, to
which he furnished a key, and in which the principal persons are
represented by animals; also the history of the two ruling
houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and a philosophical
treatise on the old theme of the disputation between soul and
body, written in Greek and Rumanian under the title Divanul
Lumii.
The fetter's son, Antioch Cantemir (born in Moldavia, 1700;
died in Paris, 1744), became in 1731 Russian minister in Great
Britain, and in 1736 minister plenipotentiary in Paris. He
brought to London the Latin MS. from whence the English
translation of his father's history of the Turkish empire was made
by N. Tindal, London, 1756, to which he added an exhaustive
biography and bibliography of the author (pp. 455-460). He
was a Russian poet and almost the first author of satires in
modern Russian literature.
Bibliography. — Operele Principelui D. Cantemir, ed. Academia
Romana, (1872 foil.); A. Philippide, Introducere in istoria limbei si
literat. romane (last, 1888) , pp. 192-202; O. G. Lecca, Familitle
boeresti romane (Bukarest, 1898), pp. 144-148; M.Gaster, Ckrestom.
rom&na, i. 322, 359 (in Cyrillic). (M. G.)
CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON, ist Vis-
count (1 780-1845), speaker of the House of Commons, was the
elder son of Charles Manners-Sutton (q.v.), afterwards archbishop
of Canterbury, and was born on the 29th of January 1780.
Educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he graduated
B.A. in 1802, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1806.
At the general election of this year he was returned to parliament
2IO
CANTERBURY
in the Tory interest as member for Scarborough, and in 1809
became judge-advocate-general in the ministry of Spencer
Perceval. He retained this position until June 1817, when he
was elected speaker in succession to Charles Abbot, created
Baron Colchester, refusing to exchange this office in 1827 for
that of home secretary. In 1832 he abandoned Scarborough and
was returned to parliament as one of the members for the
university of Cambridge. Before the general election of 1832
Manners-Sutton had intimated his * desire to retire from the
position of speaker and had been voted an annuity of £4000 a
year. The ministry of Earl Grey, however, reluctant to meet
the reformed House of Commons with a new and inexperienced
occupant of the chair, persuaded him to retain his office, and in
1833 he was elected speaker for the seventh time. Some feeling
had been shown against him on this occasion owing to his Tory
proclivities, and the Whigs frequently complained that outside
the House he was a decided partisan. The result was that when
a new parliament met in February 1835 a sharp contest ensued
for the speakership, and Manners-Sutton was defeated by James
Abercromby, afterwards Lord Dunfermline. In March 1835 the
retiring speaker was raised to the peerage as Baron Bottesford
and Viscount Canterbury. In 1835 he was appointed high
commissioner for Canada, but owing to domestic reasons he
never undertook the appointment. He died in London on the
21st of July 1845 and was buried at Addington. His first wife
was Lucy (d. 181 5), daughter of John Denison of Ossington, by
whom he had two sons and a daughter. Both his sons, Charles
John (1812-1869), and John Henry Thomas (1814-1877),
succeeded in turn to the viscounty. By his second wife, Ellen
(d. 1845), widow of John Home-Purves, he had a daughter.
CANTERBURY, a city and county of a city, the metropolis of
an archdiocese of the Church of England, and a municipal,
county and parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 62 m.
E.S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1901) 24,889. It lies on the river Stour, which here
debouches from a beautiful narrow valley of the North Downs,
the low but abrupt elevations of which command fine views of
the city from the west and south, while the river presently enters
upon the flat belt of land which separates the elevated Isle of
Thanet from the rest of Kent. This belt represents the existence,
in early historic times, of a sea-strait, and Fordwich, little more
than 2 m. north-east of Canterbury, was once accessible for ship-
ping. The city surrounds the precincts of the great cathedral.
The Cathedral. — It was to Canterbury, as the capital of
iEthelberht, the fourth Saxon king of Kent, that in 597 Augustine
and his feUow-missionaries came from Rome, and their settle-
ment by iEthelberht in his capital became the origin of its
position, held ever since, as the metropolis of the Church of
England. iEthelberht, whose queen, Bertha, was already a
Christian, gave the missionaries a church whose mythical founder
was King Lucius. Augustine was a Benedictine and established
the monastery of that order attached to the cathedral; this
foundation was set upon a firm basis after the Norman Conquest
by Archbishop Lanfranc, who placed its charge (as distinct from
that of the diocese) in the hands of a prior.
Preparatory to the description of the cathedral, the principal
epochs in the history of its erection may be noted. The Romano-
British church occupied by St Augustine, of basilica
of'the* f orm > remained long in use, though it was largely
building, rebuilt by Archbishop Odo, c. 950; after further
vicissitudes it was destroyed by fire in 1067. Arch-
bishop Lanfranc, taking up his office in 1070, undertook the
building of an entirely new church, but under Anselm (c. 1 100)
Prior Ernulf rebuilt the eastern part, and his successor Conrad
carried on the work. A fire destroyed much of this part of the
building in n 74, and from that year the architect, William of
Sens, took up the work of rebuilding until 11 78, when, on his
suffering serious injury by falling from a scaffold, another
William, commonly distinguished as the Englishman, carried on
the work and completed it in 1184. In 1376 Archbishop
Sudbury entered upon the construction of a new nave, and Prior
Chillenden continued this under Archbishop Courtenay. The
building of the central tower was undertaken c. 1495 by Prior
Goldstone, with the counsel of Selling, his predecessor, and
Archbishop Morton.
This Perpendicular tower is the most notable feature of the
exterior. It rises in two storeys to a height of 235 ft. from the
ground, and is known variously as Bell Harry tower Exterior
from the great bell it contains, or as the Angel steeple
from the gilded figure of an angel which formerly adorned the
summit. The Perpendicular nave is flanked at the west front
by towers, whose massive buttresses, rising in tiers, serve to
enhance by contrast the beautiful effect of the unbroken straight
lines of Bell Harry tower. The south-western of these towers
is an original Perpendicular structure by Prior Goldstone, while
the north-western was copied from it in 1 834-1 840, replacing a
Norman tower which had carried a spire until 1705 and had
become unsafe. The north-west and south-west transepts are
included in Chillenden 's Perpendicular reconstruction; but east
of these earlier work is met with. The south-east transept
exhibits Norman work; the projecting chapel east of this is
known as Anselm's tower. The cathedral terminates eastwa rd in
a graceful apsidal form, with the final addition of the circular
eastern chapel built by William the Englishman, and known as
the Corona or Becket's Crown. St Andrew's tower or chapel
on the north side, corresponding to Anselm's on the south, is
the work of Ernulf. From this point westward the various
monastic buildings adjoin the cathedral on the north side, so
that the south side is that from which the details of the exterior
must be examined.
When the nave of the cathedral is entered, the complete
separation of the interior into two main parts, not only owing
to the distinction between the two main periods of t B t er ior.
building, but by an actual structural arrangement,
is realized as an unusual and, as it happens, a most impressive
feature. In most English cathedrals the choir is separated from
the nave by a screen; at Canterbury not only is this the case,
but the separation is further marked by a broad flight of steps
leading up to the screen, the choir floor (but not its roof) being
much higher than that of the nave. Chillenden, in rebuilding
the nave, retained only the lower parts of some of the early
Norman walls of Lanfranc and the piers of the central tower
arches. These piers were encased or altered on Perpendicular
lines. In the choir, the late 12th-century work of the two
Williams, the notable features are its great length, the fine
ornamentation and the use of arches both round and pointed,
a remarkable illustration of the transition between the Norman
and Early English styles; the prolific use of dark marble in the
shafts and mouldings strongly contrasting with the light stone
which is the material principally used; and, finally, the graceful
incurve of the main arcades and walls at the eastern end of the
choir where it joins the chapel of the Trinity, an arrangement
necessitated by the preservation of the earlier flanking chapels
or towers of St Anselm and St Andrew. From the altar eastward
the floor of the church is raised again above that of the choir.
The choir screen was built by Prior de Estria, c. 1300. The
organ is not seen, being hidden in the triforium and played from
the choir. There are several tombs of archbishops in the choir.
The south-east transept serves as the chapel of the King's school
and exhibits the work of William of Sens in alteration of that
of Ernulf. Anselm's chapel or tower, already mentioned, may
be noticed again as containing a Decorated window ( 1 336) . This
style is not common in the cathedral.
Behind the altar is Trinity Chapel, in the centre of which
stood the celebrated shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The
priory owed its chief fame to the murder of Archbishop Beckefa
Becket (11 70) in the church, his canonization as St atria*.
Thomas of Canterbury, and the resort of the Christian Pttgrt—
world on pilgrimage to his shrine. Miracles were *****
almost immediately said to be worked at his grave in the crypt
and at the well in which his garments had been washed; and
from the time when Henry II. did his penance for the murder
in the church, and the battle of Alnwick was gained over the
Scots a few days afterwards — it was supposed as a result — the
CANTERBURY
fame of the martyr's power and the popularity of his worship
became established in England. On the rebuilding of the
cathedral after the fire of 1174, a magnificent shrine was erected
for him in Trinity Chapel, which was built for the purpose, and
became thronged for three centuries by pilgrims and worshippers
of all classes, from kings and emperors downward. Hence-
forward the interests of the city became bound up in those of
the cathedral, and were shown in the large number of hostels
for the accommodation of pilgrims, and of shops containing
wares especially suited to their tastes. A pilgrimage to Canter-
bury became not only a pious exercise, but a favourite summer
excursion; and the poet Chaucer, writing in the 14th century,
gives an admirable picture of such pilgrimages, with the manners
and behaviour of a party of pilgrims, leisurely enjoying the
journey and telling stories on the road. The English language
even preserved two words originating in these customs — a
" canterbury," or a " canterbury tale," a phrase used for a
fiction, and a " canter," which is a short form for a " canterbury
gallop," an allusion to the easy pace at which these pilgrimages
were performed. The shrine with its vast collected wealth was
destroyed, and every reminiscence connected with it as far as
possible effaced, by King Henry VIII.'s commissioners in 1538.
But some of the beautiful old windows of stained glass, illustrat-
ing the miracles wrought in connexion with the saint, are pre-
served. The north-west transept was the actual scene of Becket's
murder; the spot where he fell is shown on the floor, but this
part of the building is of later date than the tragedy.
Close to the site of the shrine is the fine tomb of Edward the
Black Prince, with a remarkable portrait effigy, and above it
his helmet, shield and other equipment. There is also in this
chapel the tomb of King Henry IV. The Corona, at the extreme
east of the church, contains the so-called St Augustine's chair
in which the archbishops are enthroned. It is of marble, but
its name is not deserved, as it dates probably from c. 1 200. The
western part of the crypt, beneath the choir, is the work of
Ernulf, and perhaps incorporates some of Lanfranc's work.
The chapel of St John or St Gabriel, beneath Anselm's tower,
js still used for service, in which the French language is used;
it was devoted to this purpose in 1561, on behalf of French
Protestant refugees, who were also permitted to carry on their
trade as weavers in the crypt. The eastern and loftier part of
the crypt, with its apsidal termination, is the work of William
the Englishman. Here for some time lay the body of Becket,
and here the celebrated penance of Henry II. was performed.
The chief entrance to the precincts is through an ornate gate-
way at the south-west, called Christchurch gateway, and built
-wiu b v P" 01 Goldstone in 15 17. Among the remains of
butidJngM. tne monastic buildings there may be mentioned the
Norman ruins of the infirmary, the fine two-storeyed
treasury and the lavatory tower, Norman in the lower part and
Perpendicular in the upper. The cloisters are of various dates,
containing a little rich Norman work, but were very largely
rebuilt by Prior Chillenden. The upper part of the chapter-
house is also his work, but the lower is by Prior de Estria. The
library is modern. The site of the New Hall of the monastery
is covered by modern buildings of King's school, but the Norman
entry-stair is preserved — a magnificent example of the style,
with highly ornate arcading.
The principal dimensions of the cathedral are: length (out-
side) 522 ft., nave 178 ft., choir 180 ft. The nave is 71 ft. in
breadth and 80 ft. in height.
The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England; the
ecclesiastical province of Canterbury covers England
ind*™* an( * Wales south of Cheshire and Yorkshire; and the
diocew*. diocese covers a great part of Kent with a small part
of Sussex. The following is a list of archbishops of
Canterbury: —
1. Augustine, 597 to 605. 6.
2. Lawrence (Laurentius), 605
to 619. 7.
3. Mellitus, 619 to 624. 8.
4. Justin, 624 to 627.
5. Honorius, 627 to 653. 9.
Deusdedit (Frithona), 655
to 664.
Theodore, 668 to 690.
Brethwald (Berhtuald), 693
Taetwine, 731 to 734.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33-
34.
35.
3°.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43-
44-
45-
46.
47.
48.
49-
50.
5i.
52.
53.
54-
55-
56.
57.
58.
Nothelm, 734 to 740.
Cuthbert, 740 to 758. .
Breogwine, 759 to 762.
Jaenberht, 763 to 790.
iEthelhard, 790 to 803.
Wulfred, 803 to 829.
Fleogild, 829 to 830.
Ceolnoth, 830 to 870.
iEthelred, 870 to 889.
Plegemund, 889 to 914.
iEthelm, 914 to 923.
Wulfelm, 923 to 942.
Odo, 942 to, 959.
/Elsine, 959.
Dunstan, 960 to 988.
iEthelgar, 988 to 989.
Sigeric, 990 to 994.
iEelfric, 995 to 1005.
Alphege (ifelfeah), 1005 to
1012.
Lyfing, 1013 to 1020.
iEthelnoth, 1020 to 1038.
Eadsige, 1038 to 1050.
Robert of Jumieges, 1051 to
1052.
Stigand, 1052 to 1070.
Lanfranc, 1070 to 1089.
Anselm, 1093 to. 1 109.
Ralph de Turbine, 11 14 to
II22k
William de Corbeuil (Cur-
bellio), 1 123 to 1 1 36.
Theobald, 1 139 to 1161.
Thomas Becket, 1 162 to 1 170.
Richard, 1 174 to n 84.
Baldwin, 11 85 to 1190.
Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn, 1 191.
Hubert Walter, 1193 to 1205.
Stephen Langton, 1207 to
1228.
Richard Wet her shed, 1229
to 1231.
Edmund Rich (deAbbendon)
1234 to 1240.
Boniface of Savoy, 1241 to
1270.
Robert Kilwardby, 1273 to
1278.
John Peckham, 1279 to 1292.
Robert Winchelsea, 1293 to
13I3-
Walter Reynolds, 13 13 to
1327-
Simon de Meopham, 1328 to
1333.
John Stratford, 1333 to 1348,
John de Ufford, 1348 to 1349.
Thomas Bradwardin, 1349.
Simon IsKp, 1349 to 1366.
Simon Langham, 1366 to
1368.
William Whittlesea, 1368
to 1374.
Bancroft, 1604 to
Hutton, 1757 to
Seeker, 1758 to
1768
Richard
1610.
George Abbot, 1 610 to 1633.
William Laud, 1633 to 1645.
William Juxon, 1660 to 1663.
Gilbert Sheldon, 1663 to
1677.
William Sancroft, 1678 to
1691.
John TiHotson, 1691 to 1694.
Thomas Tenison, 1694 to
1715.
William Wake, 1 716 to 1737.
John Potter, 1 737 to 1747.
Thomas Herring, 1747 to
Matthew
Thomas
1768.
Frederick Cornwallis,
to 1783.
John Moore, 1783 to 1805.
Charles Manners - Sutton,
1805 to 1828.
William Howley, 1828 to
1848.
John Bird Sumner, 1848 to
1862.
Charles Thomas Longley,
1862 to 186&
Archibald Campbell Tait,
1868 to 1882.
Edward White Benson, 1882
to 1896.
Frederick Temple, 1896 to
i9<>3-
Randall Thomas Davidson.
The archbishop has a seat at Lambeth Palace, London.
There are fragments in Palace Street of the old archbishop's
palace which have been incorporated with a modern palace.
Other Ecclesiastical Foundations, — Canterbury naturally
abounded in religious foundations. The most important, apart
from the cathedral, was the Benedictine abbey of St Augustine.
This was erected on a site granted by King iEthelberht outside
his capital, in a tract called Longport. Augustine dedicated
it to St Peter and St Paul, but Archbishop Dunstan added the
sainted name of the founder to the dedication, and in common
use it came to exclude those of the apostles. The site is now
occupied by St Augustine's Missionary College, founded in 1844
when the property was acquired by A. J. B. Beresford Hope.
Some ancient remnants are preserved, the principal being the
entrance gateway (1300), with the cemetery gate, dated a century
later, and the guest hall, now the refectory; but the scanty
ruins of St Pancras' chapel are of high interest, and embody
Roman material. The chapel is said to have received its dedica-
tion from St Augustine on account of the special association of
St Pancras with children, and in connexion with the famous
story of St Gregory, whose attention was first attracted to Britain
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75-
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93-
94-
95-
96.
211
Simon Sudbury, 1375 to
1381,
William Courtenay, 1381 to
1396.
Thomas Arundel, 1396 to
1414*
Henry Chicheley, 141 4 to
John Stafford, 1443 to 1452.
John Kemp, 1452 to 1454.
Thomas Bourchier, 1454 to
i486.
John Morton, i486 to 1500.
Henry Dean (Dene), 1501 to
1503.
/illia
William Warham, 1503 to
1532.
Thomas Cranmer, 1533 to
1556.
Reginald Pole, 1556 to 1558.
Matthew Parker, 1559 to
1575-
Edmund Grindal, 1575 to
1583.
John Whitgift, 1583 to 1604.
,i§8;
Toft,
012
CANTHARIDES
when be saw the fair-faced children of the Angles who had been
brought to Rome, and termed them " not Angles but angels."
There were lesser houses of many religious orders in Canterbury,
but only two, those of the, Dominicans near St Peter's church
in St Peter's Street, and the Franciscans, also in St Peter's
Street, have left notable remains. The Dominican refectory is
used as a chapel. Among the many churches, St Martin's,
Longport, is of the first interest. This was the scene of the
earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury, and had seen Christian
service before his arrival. Its walls contain Roman masonry,
but whether it is in part a genuine remnant of a Romano-British
Christian church is open to doubt. There are Norman, Early
English and later portions; and the font may be in part pre-
Norman, and is indeed associated by tradition with the baptism
of iEthelberht himself. St Mildred's church exhibits Early
English and Perpendicular work, and the use of Roman material
is again visible here. St Paul's is of Early English origin;
St Dunstan's, St Peter's and Holy Cross are mainly Decorated
and Perpendicular. The village of Harbledown, on the hill
west of Canterbury on the London road, from the neighbourhood
of which a beautiful view over the city is obtained, has many
associations with the ecclesiastical life of Canterbury. It is
mentioned by Chaucer in his pilgrimage under the name, appro-
priate to its site, of " Bob up and down." The almshouses,
which occupy the site of Lanfranc's hospital for lepers, include
an ancient hall and a chapel in which the west door and northern
nave arcade are Norman, and are doubtless part of Lanfranc's
buildings. The neighbouring parish church is in great part
rebuilt. Among the numerous charitable institutions in Canter-
bury there are several which may be called the descendants of
medieval ecclesiastical foundations.
City Buildings, 6*c. — The old city walls may be traced, and
the public walk called the Dane John (derived probably from
donjon) follows the summit of a high artificial mound within
the lines. The cathedral is finely seen from this point. Only
the massive turreted west gate, of the later part of the 14th
century, remains out of the former six city gates. The site of
the castle is not far from the Dane John, and enough remains of
the Norman keep to show its strength and great size. Among
other buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the
guildhall in High Street, of the early part of the 18th century;
the museum, which includes a fine collection of local, including
many Roman, relics; and the school of art, under municipal
management, but founded by the painter T. Sidney Cooper
(d. 1902), who was a resident at Harbledown. A modern statue
of a muse commemorates the poet Christopher Marlowe (1564-
I 593)> a native of the city; and a pillar indicates the place where
a number of persons were burnt at the stake in the reign of Mary.
The King's school, occupying buildings adjacent to the
cathedral, developed out of the early teaching furnished by the
monastery. It was refounded by Henry VIII. in 1541 (whence
its name), and is managed on the lines of ordinary public schools.
It has about 250 boys; and there is besides a junior or prepara-
tory school. The school is still connected with the ecclesiastical
foundation, the dean and chapter being its governors.
A noted occasion of festivity in Canterbury is the Canterbury
cricket-week, when the Kent county cricket eleven engages in
matches with other first-class teams, and many visitors arc
attracted to the city.
Canterbury has a considerable agriculture trade, breweries,
tanneries, brickworks and other manufactures. The parlia-
mentary borough returns one member. The city is governed by
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3955 acres.
History of the City. ^The existence of a Romano-British town
on the site of Canterbury has already been indicated. It was
named Durovernum, and was a flourishing county town on the
road from the Kentish ports to London. Mosaic pavements and
other remains have been found in considerable abundance. The
city, known by the Saxons as Cantwardburh, the town of the men
of Kent, was the metropolis of iEthelberht's kingdom. At the
time of the Domesday survey Canterbury formed part of the
royal .demesne and waa governed by a portreeve as it had been
before the Conquest. In the 13th and 14th centuries, two
bailiffs presided over the burghmote, assisted by a larger and
smaller council. Henry II., by an undated charter, confirmed
former privileges and granted to the citizens that no one should
implead them outside the city walls and that the pleas of the
crown should be decided according to the customs of the city.
In 1256 Henry III. granted them the city at an annual fee farm
of £60, also the right of electing their bailiffs. Confirmations
of former charters with additional liberties were granted by later
sovereigns, and Henry VI. incorporated Canterbury, which he
called " one of our most ancient cities," under the style of the
mayor and commonalty, the mayor to be elected by the burgesses.
James I. in 1609 confirmed these privileges, giving the burgesses
the right to be called a body corporate and to elect twelve alder-
men and a common council of twenty-four. Charles II., after
calling in the charters of corporations, granted a confirmation in
1684. Canterbury was first represented in parliament in 1283,
and it continued to return two members until 1885, when the
number was reduced to one. A fair was granted by Henry VI.
to the citizens to be held in the city or suburbs on the 4th of
August and the two days following; other fairs were in the
hands of the monasteries; the corn and cattle markets and a
general market have been held by prescription from time
immemorial. Canterbury was a great centre of the silk-weaving
trade in the 17th century, large numbers of Walloons, driven by
persecution to England, having settled there in the reign of
Elizabeth. In 1676 Charles II. granted a charter of incorporation
to the Walloon congregation under style of the master, wardens
and fellowship of weavers in the city of Canterbury. The market
for the sale of corn and hops was regulated by a local act in 1801.
See A. P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Canterbury (London,
1855); J. Brent, Canterbury in the Olden Time (Canterbury, 1879);
J. W. Legg and W. H. St J. Hope, Inventories of Christchurck,
Canterbury (London, 1902) ; Victoria County History, Kent*
CANTHARIDES, or Spanish Flies, the common blister-
beetles (Cantharis vesicatoria) of European pharmacy. They are
bright, iridescent, golden-green or bluish-coloured beetles (see
Coleoptera), with the breast finely punctured and pubescent,
head and thorax with a longitudinal channel, and elytra with two
slightly elevated lines. The insect is from half-an-inch to an inch
in length, and from one to two lines broad, the female being
broader in the abdomen and altogether larger than the male.
It is a native of the south of Europe, being found in Spain,
France, Germany, Italy, Hungary and the south of Russia, and
it is also obtained in Siberia. The Spanish fly is also occasionally
found in the south of England. The insects feed upon ash, lilac,
privet and jasmine leaves, and are found more rarely on elder,
rose, apple and poplar trees. Their presence is made known by
a powerful disagreeable odour, which penetrates to a considerable
distance. They are collected for use at late evening or early
morning, while in a dull bedewed condition, by shaking them off
the trees or shrubs into cloths spread on the ground; and they
are killed by dipping them into hot water or vinegar, or by expos-
ing them for some time over the vapour of vinegar. They are
then dried and put up for preservation in glass-stoppered
bottles; and they require to be very carefully guarded against
mites and various other minute insects, to the attacks of which
they are peculiarly liable. It has been shown by means of
spectroscopic observations that the green colour of the elytra,
&c, is due to the presence of chlorophyll; and that the varia-
tions of the spectral bands are sufficient, after the lapse of many
years, to indicate with some certainty the kind of leaves on which
the insects were feeding shortly before they were killed.
Cantharides owe their value to the presence of a peculiar
chemical principle, to which the name cantharidin has been given.
It is most abundant in large full-grown insects, while in very
young specimens no cantharidin at all has been found. From
about one-fourth to rather more than one-half per cent, of
cantharidin has been obtained from different samples; and it
has been ascertained that the elytra or wing-sheaths of the
insect, which alone are used in pharmacy, contain more of the
active principle than the soft parts taken together; bat
CANTICLES
213
apparently cantharidin is most abundant in the eggs and
generative organs.
Cantharidin constitutes from $ t6 1 % of cantharides. It has the
formula CioH J2 04, arid on hydrolysis is converted into cantharinic
acid, Q0H14O5. It crystallizes in colourless plates and is
readily soluble in alcohol, ether, &c, but not in water. The
British Pharmacopeia contains a large number of preparations of
cantharides, but the only one needing special mention is the tinc-
ture, which is meant for internal administration; the small dose is
noteworthy, five minims being probably the maximum for safety.
Tlie external action of cantharides or cantharidin is extremely
characteristic. When it is applied to the skin there are no
obvious consequences for some hours. Thereafter the part
becomes warm and painful, owing to marked local vascular
dilatation. This is the typical rubefacient action. Soon after-
wards there is an accumulation under the epidermis of a serum
derived from the dilated blood-vessels. The numerous small
blisters or vesicles thus derived coalesce, forming a large sac full
of " blister-fluid." The drug is described as a counter-irritant,
though the explanation of this action is very doubtful. Ap-
parently there is an influence on the afferent nerves of the part
which causes a reflex contraction — some authors say dilatation —
of the vessels in the internal organs that are under the control of
the same segment of the nervous system as that supplying the area
of skin from which the exciting impulse comes* When applied
in- this fashion a certain quantity of the cantharides is absorbed.
Taken internally in any but minute doses, the drug causes
the most severe gastro-intestinal irritation, the vomited and
evacuated matters containing blood, and the patient suffering
agonizing pain and extreme depression. The further character-
istic symptoms are displayed in the genito-urinary tract. The
drug circulates in the blood in the form of an albuminate and is
slowly excreted by the kidneys. The effect of large doses is to
cause great pain in the renal region and urgent wish to micturate.
The urine is nevertheless small in amount and contains albumen
and blood owing to the local inflammation produced in the
kidney by the passage of the poison through that organ. The
drug often has a marked aphrodisiac action, producing priapism,
or in the female sex the onset of the catamenia or abortion.
Cantharides is used externally for its counter-irritant action.
There are certain definite contra-indications to its use. It must
not be employed in cases of renal disease, owing to the risks
attendant upon absorption. It must always be employed with
caution in the case of elderly persons and children ; and it must
not be applied to a paralysed limb (in which the power of healing
is deficient), nor to parts upon which the patient lies, as other-
wise a bed-sore is likely to follow its use. The drug is admini-
stered internally in certain cases of impotence and occasionally
In other conditions. Its criminal employment is usually intended
to heighten sexual desire, and has frequently led to death.
The toxic symptoms have already been detailed, the patient
usually dying from arrest of the renal functions. The treatment
is far from satisfactory, and consists in keeping up the strength
and diluting the poison in the blood and in the urine by the
administration of bland fluids, such as soda-water, milk and plain
water, in quantities as large as possible. External warmth should
also be applied to the regions specially affected by the drug.
A very large number of other insects belonging to the same
family possess blistering properties, owing to their containing
cantharidin. Of these the most remarkable is the Telini " fly "
of India {Myldbris cichorii), the range of which extends from
Italy and Greece through Egypt and central Asia as far as China.
It is very rich in cantharidin, yielding fully twice as much as
ordinary cantharides. Several green-coloured beetles are, on
account of their colour, used as adulterants to cantharides, but
they are very easily detected by examination with the eye, or,
if powdered, with the microscope.
CANTICLES. The Old Testament book of Canticles, or the
Song of Solomon, is called in Hebrew The Song of Songs (that is,
the choicest of songs), or, according to the full title which stands as
the fiTSt verse of the book, The choicest of the songs of Solomon.
In the Western versions the book holds the third place among
5
the so-called Solomonic writings, following Proverbs and Ecclesi-
astes. In Hebrew Bibles it stands among the Megilloth, the &vc
books of the Hagiographa which have a prominent place in the
Synagogue service. In printed Bibles and in German MSS. it
is the first of these because it is read at the Passover, which is
the first great feast of the sacred year of the Jews,
No part of the Bible has called forth a greater diversity of
opinions than the Song of Solomon, and this for two reasons.
In the first place, the book holds so unique a position in the
Old Testament, that the general analogy of Hebrew literature
is a very inadequate key to the verbal difficulties, the artistic
structure, and the general conception and purpose of the poem.
In point of language the departures from ordinary Hebrew are
almost always in the direction of Aramaic. Many forms unique
in Biblical Hebrew are at once explained by the Aramaic dialects,
but not a few are still obscure. The philological difficulties
of the book are, however, less fundamental than those which
lie in the unique character of the Song of Solomon in point of
artistic form, and in the whole atmosphere of thought and feeling
in which it moves. Even in these respects it is not absolutely
isolated. Parallels to the peculiar imagery may be found in
the book of Hosea, in Ezekiel xvi. and xxiii. and above all in the
45th Psalm; but such links of union to the general mass of the
Old Testament literature are too slight to be of material assistance
in the solution of the literary problem of the book. Here, again,
as in the lexical difficulties already referred to, we are tempted
or compelled to argue from the distant and insecure analogy
of other Eastern literatures, or are thrown back upon traditions
of uncertain origin and ambiguous authority.
The power of tradition has been the second great source of
confusion of opinion about the Song of Solomon. To tradition
we owe the title, which apparently indicates Solomon as the
author and not merely as the subject of the book. The authority
of titles in the Old Testament is often questionable, and in the
present case it is certain on linguistic grounds that the title is
not from the hand that wrote the poem; while to admit that it
gives a correct account of the authorship is to cut away at one
stroke all the most certain threads of connexion between the
book and out historical knowledge of the Old Testament people
and literature.
To tradition, again, we owe the prejudice in favour of an
allegorical interpretation, that is, of the view that from vers*
to verse the Song sets forth the history of a spiritual and not
merely of an earthly love. To apply such an exegesis to Canticles
is to violate one of the first principles of reasonable interpretation..
True allegories are never without internal marks of their
allegorical design. The language of symbol is not so perfect
that a long chain of spiritual ideas can be developed without
the use of a single spiritual word or phrase; and even were this
possible it would be false art in the allegorist to hide away his
sacred thoughts behind a screen of sensuous and erotic imagery,
so complete and beautiful in itself as to give no suggestion that
it is only the vehicle of a deeper sense. Apart from tradition,
no one, in the present state of exegesis, would dream of allegoriz-
ing poetry which in its natural sense is so full of purpose and
meaning, so apt in sentiment, and so perfect in imagery as the
lyrics of Canticles. We are not at liberty to seek for allegory
except where the natural sense is incomplete. This is not the
case in the Song of Solomon. On the contrary, every form of
the allegorical interpretation which has been devised carries
its own condemnation in the fact that it takes away from the
artistic unity of the poem and breaks natural sequences of
thought. 1 The allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon
had its rise in the very same conditions which forced a deeper
1 An argument for the allegorical interpretation ha6 been often
drawn from Mahommedan mysticism — from the poems of Hafiz, and
the songs still sung by dervisnes. See Jones, Poeseos Asiaticae Com.
pt. iii, cap. 9 ; Rosenmuller's remarks on Lowth's Praelectio, xxxi., and
Lane's Modern Egyptians, ch. xxiv. But there is no true analogy
between the Old Testament and the pantheistic mysticism of Islam,
and there is every reason* to believe that, where the allegory takes a
form really analogous to Canticles, the original sense of these songs
was purely erotic.
214
CANTICLES
sense, now universally discarded, upon so many other parts
of scripture. Yet strangely enough there is no evidence that
the Jews of Alexandria extended to the book their favourite
methods of interpretation. The arguments which have been
adduced to prove that the Septuagint translation implies an
allegorical exegesis are inadequate; 1 and Philo does not mention
the book. Nor is there any allusion to Canticles in the New Testa-
ment. The first trace of an allegorical view identifying Israel
with the " spouse " appears to be in the Fourth Book of Ezra, near
the close of the ist Christian century (v. 24, 26; vii. 26). Up
to this time the canonicity of the Canticles was not unquestioned ;
and the final decision as to the sanctity of the book, so energetic-
ally carried through by R. Aqiba, when he declared that " the
whole world is not worth the day on which the Song of Songs
was given to Israel; for all the scriptures (or Hagiographa)
are holy, but the Canticles most holy," must be understood as
being at the same time a victory of the allegorical interpretation
over the last remains of a view which regarded the poem as
simply erotic. 8
The form in which the allegorical theory became fixed in the
synagogue is contained in the Midrash Chazita and in the Targum,
which is a commentary rather than a translation. The spouse
is Israel, her royal lover the divine king, and the poem is ex-
plained as tracing the great events of the people's history from
the Exodus to the Messianic glory and final restoration. 3
The authority of Origen, who, according to Jerome, surpassed
himself in his commentary of ten volumes on this book, estab-
lished the allegorical theory in the Christian church in the two
main forms in which it has since prevailed. The bridegroom is
Christ, the bride either the church or the believing soul. The
latter conception is, of course, that which lends itself most
readily to purposes of mystical edification, and which has
made Canticles the manual in ail ages of a wide-spread type of
religious contemplation. But the other view, which identifies
the bride with the church, must be regarded as the standard of
orthodox exegesis. Of course the allegorical principle admitted
of very various modifications, and readily adapted itself to new
religious developments, such as the rise of Mariolatry. Within
the limits of the orthodox traditions the allegory took various
colours, according as its mystical or its prophetical aspect was
insisted on. Among medieval commentators of the former class
S. Bernard holds a pre-eminent place; while the second class is
represented by Nicolaus de Lyra, who, himself a converted Jew,
modified the Jewish interpretation so as to find in the book an
account of the processus ecdesiae under the Old and New Testa-
ments. The prophetic exegesis reached its culminating point
in the post-Reformation period, when Cocceius found in the
Canticles a complete conspectus of church history. * But the
relaxation of traditional authority opened the door to still
stranger vagaries of interpretation. Luther was tempted to
understand the book of the political relations of Solomon and
his people. Others detected the loves of Solomon and Wisdom —
a view which found a supporter in Rosenmuller.
The history of the literal interpretation begins with the great
" commentator " of the Syrian Church, Theodorus of Mopsuestia
(died 429), who condemned equally the attempt to find in the
book a prophecy of the blessings given to the church, and the
idea even at that time expressed in some quarters that the book
is immoral. Theodorus regarded the Canticles as a poem
written by Solomon in answer to the complaints of his people
about his Egyptian marriage; and this was one of the heresies
charged upon him after his death, which led to his condemnation
1 Repeated recently by Scholz, Kommentar, pp. iii. and iv.
* The chief passages of Jewish writings referring to this dispute are
Mishna Jadaim, iii. 5 and Tosifta Sanhedrin, xii. For other passages
see Gratz's Commentary, p. 115, and in control of his criticism the
introduction to the commentary of Delitzsch.
•The text of the Targum in the Polyglots and in Buxtorf's
Rabbinic Bible is not complete. The complete text is piven in the
Venice editions, and in Lagarde's Hagiographa Chaldatce (Lipsiae,
l873)- The Polyglots add a Latin version. A German version is
SVen by Riedel in his very useful book, Die Auslegungdes Hohen-
fdes (1898), which also reviews the interpretation of Canticles by
Hippolytus, Origen and later Greek writers.
at the second council of Constantinople (553 aj>.). A literal
interpretation was not again attempted till in 1544 Chateillon
(Castellio or Castalion) lost his regency at Geneva for proposing
to expel the book from the canon as impure. Grotius (Annot.
in V.T. } 1644) took up a more moderate position. Without
denying the possibility of a secondary reference designed by
Solomon to give his poem a more permanent value, he regards
the Canticles as primarily an dapiarvs (conjugal prattle) between
Solomon and Pharaoh's daughter. The distinction of a primary
and secondary sense gradually became current not only among
the Remonstrants, but in England (Lightfoot, Lowth) and even
in Catholic circles (Bossuet, 1693). In the actual understanding
of the book in its literal sense no great progress was made.
Solomon was still viewed as the author, and for the most part
the idea that the poem is a dramatic epithalamium was borrowed
from Origen and the allegorists, and applied to the marriage
of Pharaoh's daughter.
From Grotius to Lowth the idea of a typical reference designed
by Solomon himself appears as a mere excrescence on the natural
interpretation, but as an excrescence which could not be removed
without perilling the place of Canticles in the canon, which,
indeed, was again assailed by Whiston in 1723. But in his notes
on Lowth 's lectures, J. D. Michaelis, who regarded the poem as a
description of the enduring happiness of true wedded love long
after marriage, proposed to drop the allegory altogether, and to
rest the canonicity of the book, as of those parts of Proverbs
which treat of conjugal affection, on the moral picture it presents
(1758).
Then came Herder's exquisite little treatise on Solomon's
Songs of Love, the Oldest and Sweetest of the East (1778). Herder,
possessing delicacy of taste and sympathetic poetical genius,
delighted in the Canticles as the transparently natural expression
of innocent and tender love. He expressed the idea that the
poem is simply a sequence of independent songs without inner
unity, grouped so as to display various phases and stages of love
in a natural order, culminating in the placid joys of wedded life.
The theory of Herder, which refuses to acknowledge any con-
tinuity in the book, was accepted by Eichhorn on the part of
scholars, and with some hesitation by Goethe on the part of the
poets. Commentaries based on this view are those of Dopke
(1829), Magnus (1842), Noyes (1846).
The prevalent view of the 19th century, however, recognizes
in the poem a more or less pronounced dramatic character, and
following Jacobi (1771) distinguishes the shepherd, the true love
of the Shulamite, from King Solomon, who is made to play an
ignominious part. Propounded by St&udlin (1792) and Ammon
(1795), this view was energetically carried out by Umbreit (1820),
and above all by Ewald, whose acuteness gave the theory a new
development, while his commanding influence among Hebrew
scholars acquired for it general recognition. Ewald assumed a
very simple dramatic structure, and did not in his first publica-
tion (1826) venture to suppose that the poem had ever been acted
on a stage. His less cautious followers have been generally
tempted to dispose of difficulties by introducing more complicated
action and additional interlocutors (so, for example, Hitzig,
1855; Ginsburg, 1857; Renan, i860); while Bottcher (1850)
did his best to reduce the dramatic exposition to absurdity by
introducing the complexities and stage effects of a modern
operetta. Another view is that of Delitzsch (1851 and 1875)
and his followers, who also plead for a dramatic form — though
without supposing that the piece was ever acted — but adhere
to the traditional notion that Solomon is the author, who cele-
brates his love to a peasant maiden, whom he made his wife, and
in whose company the proud monarch learned to appreciate the
sweetness of a true affection and a simple rustic life.
In view of the prevalence of the "dramatic" theory of
Canticles during the 19th century, and its retention by some
comparatively recent writers (Oettli, Driver, Adeney, Harper),
it seems desirable that this theory should be presented in some
detail. A convenient summary of the form it assumed in the
hands of Ewald (the shepherd-hypothesis) and of Delitzsch (the
king-hypothesis) is given by Driver (Literature of the Old
CANTICLES
215
Testament, ch. x. § 1). The following presentation of the theory,
on the general lines of Ewald, gives that form of it which
Robertson Smith was able to accept in 1876.
The centre of attraction is throughout a female figure, and the
unity of this figure is the chief test of the unity of the book. In
the long canto, i. i-ii. 7, the heroine appears in a royal palace
(i. 4) among the daughters of Jerusalem, who are thus presumably
ladies of the court of Zion. At i. 9, an additional interlocutor is
introduced, who is plainly a king, and apparently Solomon
(i. 9, 12). He has just risen from table, and praises the charms
of the heroine with the air of a judge of beauty, but without
warmth. He addresses her simply as "my friend" (not as
English version, "my love "). The heroine, on the contrary, is
passionately in love, but nothing can be plainer than that the
object of her affection is not the king. She is not at home in the
palace, for she explains (i. 6) that she has spent her life as a
peasant girl in the care of vineyards. Her beloved, whom she
knows not where to find (i. 7), but who lies constantly on her
heart and is cherished in her bosom like a spray of the sweet
henna flowers which Oriental ladies delight to wear (i. 13, 14), is
like herself a peasant — a shepherd lad (i. 7) — with whom she was
wont to sit in the fresh greenwood under the mighty boughs of
the cedars (i. 16, 17). Even before the king's entrance the ladies
of the court are impatient at so silly an affection, and advise her,
" if she is really so witless, " to begone and rejoin her plebeian
lover (i. 8). To them she appeals in ii. 5, 6, where her self-
control, strung to the highest pitch as she meets the compliments
of the king with reminiscences of her absent lover, breaks down
in a fit of half-delirious sickness. The only words directed to the
king are those of i. 12, which, if past tenses are substituted for the
presents of the English version, contain a pointed rebuff. Finally,
ii. 7 is, on the plainest translation, a charge not to arouse love till
it please. The moral of the scene is the spontaneity of true
affection.
Now, at viii. 5, a female figure advances leaning upon her
beloved, with whom she claims inseparable union, — "for love is
strong as death, its passion inflexible as the grave, its fire a
divine flame which no waters can quench or floods drown. Yea,
if a man would give all his wealth for love he would only be
contemned." This is obviously the sentiment of ii. 7, dnd the
suitor, whose wealth is despised, must almost of necessity be
identified with the king of chapter L, if, as seems reasonable, we
place viii. 11, 12 in the mouth of the same speaker — "King
Solomon has vineyards which bring him a princely revenue, and
enrich even the farmers. Let him and them keep their wealth;
my vineyard is before me" (i.e. I possess it in present fruition).
The last expression is plainly to be connected with i. 6. But this
happiness has not been reached without a struggle. The speaker
has proved herself an impregnable fortress (ver. 10), and, armed
only with her own beauty and innocence, has been in his eyes as
one that found peace. The sense is that, like a virgin fortress,
she has compelled her assailant to leave her in peace. To these
marks of identity with the heroine of ch. i. are to be added that
she appears here as dwelling in gardens, there as a keeper of
vineyards (i. 6, and viii. 13), and that as there it was her brethren
that prescribed her duties, so here she apparently quotes words in
which her brothers, while she was still a child, speculated as to her
future conduct and its reward (viii. 8, 9).
If this analysis of the commencement and close of the book is
correct, it is certain that the poem is in a sense dramatic, that is,
that it uses dialogue and monologue to develop a story. The
heroine appears in the opening scene in a difficult and painful
situation, from which in the last chapter she is happily ex-
tricated. But the dramatic progress which the poem exhibits
scarcely involves a plot in the usual sense of that word. The
words of viii. 9, 10 clearly indicate that the deliverance of the
heroine is due to no combination of favouring circumstances,
but to her own inflexible fidelity and virtue.
The constant direction of the maiden's mind to her true love is
partly expressed in dialogue with the ladies of the court (the
daughters of Jerusalem), who have no dramatic individuality,
and whose only function in the economy of the piece is to give
the heroine opportunity for a more varied expression of her
feelings. In i. 8 we found them contemptuous. In chapter iii.
they appear to be still indifferent; for when the heroine relates a
dream in which the dull pain of separation and the uneasy
consciousness of confinement and danger in the unsympathetic
city disappear for a moment in imagined reunion with her lover,
they are either altogether silent or reply only by taking up a
festal part song describing the marriage procession of King
Solomon (iii. 6-1 1), which stands in jarring contrast to the
feelings of the maiden. 1 A second dream (v. 2-8), more weird
and melancholy, and constructed with that singular psycho-
logical felicity which characterizes the dreams of the Old Testa-
ment, gains more sympathy, and the heroine is encouraged to
describe her beloved at large (v. 10-vi. 3). The structure of
these dialogues is so simple, and their purpose is so strictly
limited to the exhibition of the character and affection of the
maiden, that it is only natural to find them supplemented by a
free use of pure monologue, in which the heroine recalls the
happiness of past days, or expresses her rising hope of reunion
with her shepherd, and restoration to the simple joys of her
rustic life. The vivid reminiscence of ii. 8-1 7 takes the form of a
dialogue within the main dialogue of the poem, a picture within a
picture — the picture of her beloved as he stood at her window in
the early spring time, and of her own merry heart as she laugh-
ingly answered him in the song with which watchers of the
vineyards frighten away the foxes. It is, of course, a fault of
perspective that this reminiscence is as sharp in outline and as
strong in colour as the main action. But no one can expect
perspective in such early art, and recollection of the past is
clearly enough separated from present reality by ii. 16, 17. The
last monologue (vii. 10-viii. 3), in which the hope of immediate
return with her lover is tempered by maidenly shame, and a
maiden's desire for her mother's counsel, is of special value
for a right appreciation of the psychology of the love which
the poem celebrates, and completes a picture of this flower
of the northern valleys which is not only firm in outline, but
delicate in touch. The subordinate action which supports the
portraiture of the maiden of Galilee is by no means easy to
understand.
We come next to chapter vi., which again sings the praises
of the heroine, and takes occasion in this connexion to introduce,
with the same want of perspective as we observed in ch. ii.,
a dialogue descriptive of Solomon's first meeting with the maiden.
We learn that she was an inhabitant of Shulem or Shunem in
Issachar, whom the king and his train surprised in a garden on
the occasion of a royal progress through the north. Her beauty
drew from the ladies of the court a cry of admiration. The
maiden shrinks back with the reply — "I was gone down into
my garden to see its growth. ... I know not how my soul
hath brought me among the chariots of princes"; but she is
commanded to turn and let herself be seen in spite of her bashful
protest — " Why do ye gaze on the Shulamite as at a dance of
Mahanaim (a spectacle)?" Now the person in whose mouth
this relation is placed must be an eye-witness of the scene, and
so none other than the king. But in spite of the verbal repetition
of several of the figures of ch. iv. . . . the tone in which the
king now addresses the Shulamite is quite changed. She is
not only beautiful but terrible, her eyes trouble him, and he
cannot endure their gaze. She is unique among women, the choice
and only one of her mother. The unity of action can only be
maintained by ignoring vii. 1-9, and taking the words of Solomon
in chapter vi. in their obvious sense as implying that the king
at length recognizes in the maiden qualities of soul unknown in
the harem, a character which compels respect, as well as a beauty
that inflames desire. The change of feeling which was wrought
in the daughters of Jerusalem in the previous scene now extends
to Solomon himself, and thus the glad utterances of vii. 10, seq.,
1 Ewald and others make thi9 song a distinct scene in the action of
the poem, supposing that the author here exhibits the honourable
form of espousal by which Solomon thought to vanquish the scruples
of the damsel. This view, however, seems to introduce a com-
plication foreign to the plan of the book.
2l6
CANTICLES
have a sufficient motive, and the denouement is no longer violent
and unprepared.
The nodus of the action is fully given in chapter i., the final
issue in chapter viii. The solution lies entirely in the character
and constancy of the heroine, which prevail, in the simplest
possible way, first over the ladies of the court and then over
the king.
The attractiveness of the above theory cannot be denied;
but it may be asked whether the attraction does not lie in the
appeal to modern taste of a story which is largely the product
of modern imagination. It supposes a freedom of intercourse
between lovers inconceivable for the East. The initial situation
of the maiden in the harem of Solomon is left as a problem for
the reader to discover, until he comes to its supposed origin in
vi. n; the expedient might be granted in the case of one of
Browning's Men and Women, but seems very improbable in
the present case. The more elaborate dramatic theories can
find no parallel in Semitic literature to the " drama " of Canticles,
the book of Job being no exception to this statement; whilst
even the simpler theories ask us to believe that the essential
parts of the story — the rape of the Shulamite, the change in
Solomon's disposition, her release from the harem — are to .be
supplied by the reader from obscure and disputable references.
More serious still is the fact that any progress of action from
first to last is so difficult to prove. In the first chapter we listen
to a woman speaker desiring to be kissed by the man who has
brought her into his chambers, and speaking of " our bed ";
in the last we leave her " leaning upon her beloved." The
difficulties of detail are equally great. To suppose that all the
male love-making, by hypothesis unsuccessful, belongs to
Solomon, whilst the heroine addresses her passionate words to
the continuously absent shepherd, is obviously unconvincing;
yet, if this shepherd speaks in iv. 8-v. i, how are we to explain
his appearance in the royal harem? This and other difficulties
were acknowledged by Robertson Smith, notably the presence
of vii. 1-9, which he proposed to set aside as an interpolation,
because of its sensuality and of the difficulty of working it into
the dramatic scheme. The fact that this passage has subse-
quently become the central element in the new interpretation
of the book is, perhaps, a warning against violent measures with
difficulties.
Attention has already been drawn to Herder's proposal,
accepted by some later writers, including Diestel and Reuss, to
regard the book as a collection of detached songs. This received
new and striking confirmation from the anthropological data
supplied by J. G. Wetstein (1873), Prussian consul at Damascus.
His observations of the wedding customs of Syrian peasants led
him to believe that Canticles is substantially a collection of
songs originally sung at such festivities. Wetstein's contribution
was republished shortly afterwards by Delitzsch, in an appendix
to his Commentary) but it received little attention. The first
amongst Old Testament scholars to perceive its importance
seems to have been Stade, who accepted Wetstein's view in a
footnote to his History of the Jewish People (ii. p. 197), published
in 1888; to Budde, however, belongs the distinction of the
systematic and detailed use of Wetstein's suggestions, especially
in his Commentary (1898). This interpretation of the book is
accepted by Kautzsch (1896), Siegfried (1808), Cheyne (1899),
and other eminent scholars. The last-named states the theory
tersely as follows: " The book is an anthology of songs used at
marriage festivals in or near Jerusalem, revised and loosely
connected by an editor without regard to temporal sequence "
(Ency. Bibl. 691). The character of the evidence which has
contributed to the acceptance of this view may be indicated
in Wetstein's own statements: —
11 The finest time in the life of the Syrian peasant consists of the
first seven days after his wedding, in which he and his young wife
play the part of king (melik) and queen (melika), both being so
treated and served by their village and the invited communities of
the neighbourhood. The majority of the greater village weddings
fall in the month of March, the finest of the Syrian year. The
winter rains being over, and the sun still refreshing, not oppressive
as in the following months, the weddings are celebrated in the open
air on the village threshing-floor, which at this time of the year is
with few exceptions a flowery mead. . . . We pass over the wedding-
day itself with its displays, the sword-dance of the bride, and the
great feast. On the morrow, bridegroom and bride awake as king
and queen. Already before sunrise they receive the leader of the
bridesmen, as their vizier, and the bridesmen themselves ; the latter
thereupon fetch the threshing-board and bring it to the threshing-
floor, singing a rousing song of battle or love, generally both. There
it is erected as a throne, and after the royal couple have taken their
seats and the necessary formalities are gone through, a great dance
in honour of the young couple begins; the accompanying song is
concerned only with tnemselves, its principal element being the
inevitable was}, i.e. a description of the physical perfections of both
and their ornaments. The eulogy of the queen is more moderate,
and praises her visible, rather than veiled, charms; this is due to
the tact that she is to-day a married woman, and that the wasf
sung on the previous day during her sword-dance has left nothing
to desire. This wasf is the weak element in Syrian wedding-songs
according to our taste; its comparisons are to us frequently too
clumsy and reveal the stereotyped pattern. It is the same with the
little collection of charming wedding-songs and fragments of them
which has been received into the canon of .the Old Testament under
the name of Canticles; the wasf (iv.-vii.) is considerably below the
rest in poetical value. With this dance begin the sports, lasting
seven days, begun in the morning on the first, shortly before midday
on the other days, and continuing far into the night by the light of
the fires that are kindled ; on the last day alone all is over by sunset.
During the whole week both royalties are in marriage attire, must do
no work and have no cares; they have only to look down from the
merteba (throne) on the sports carried on before them, in which they
themselves take but a moderate part; the queen, however, occa-
sionally gives a short dance to attract attention to her bridal attire." *
For the general application of these and the related customs
to the interpretation of the book, reference should be made to
BudaVs Commentary , which recognizes four wasfs, viz. iv. 1-7
(describing the bride from head to breasts), v. 10-16 (the bride*
groom), vi. 4-7 (similar to and partly repeating iv. 1-7), and
vii. 1-9, belonging to the sword-dance of the bride, her physical
charms being sung from feet to head (cf. vii. 1: " Why look ye
on the Shulamite as (on) a dance of camps?" i.e. a war-dance).
This dance receives its name from the fact that she dances it
with a sword in her hand in the firelight on the evening of her
wedding-day, and amid a circle of men and women, whilst such
a wasf as this is sung by the leader of the choir. The passage
relating to the litter of Solomon (iii. 6-1 1) — an old difficulty
with the dramatizers — relates to the erection of the throne
on the threshing-floor. 2 The terms " Solomon " and " the
Shulamite " are explained as figurative references to the
famous king, and to Abishag the Shulamite, " fairest among
women," on the lines of the use of " king " and " queen " noted
above. Other songs of Canticles are referred by Budde to the
seven days of festivities. It need hardly be said that difficulties
still remain in the analysis of this book of wedding-songs;
whilst Budde detects 23 songs, besides fragments, Siegfried
divides the book into io. 8 Such differences are to be expected
in the case of a collection of songs, some admittedly in dialogue
form, all concerned with the common theme of the love of man
and woman, and without any external indication of the transition
from one song to the next.
Further, we must ask whether the task has been complicated
by any editorial rearrangement or interpolation; the collector
of these songs has certainly not reproduced them in the order
of their use at Syrian weddings. Can we trace any principle, or
even any dominant thought in this arrangement? In this
connexion we touch the reason for the reluctance of some scholars
to accept the above interpretation, viz. the alleged marks of
1 Wetstein, Zeitschrift f. Ethn., 1873, pp. 270-302; quoted and
condensed by Budde as above in Comm. p. xvii. ; for a fuller repro-
duction of Wetstein in English see Harper, The Song of Songs, pp. 74-
76.
* For the connexion of the threshing-floor with marriage through
the idea of sexual fertility, we may compare many primitive ideas
and customs, such as those described by Frazer (The Golden Bough,
ii. p. 181 f., 186).
3 Castelli (// Cantico dei Cantici, 1892) has written a very attractive
little book on Canticles (quite apart from the Wetstein development)
regarded as " poem formed by a number of dialogues mutually
related by a certain succession " ; they require for their under-
standing nothing but some indication of the speaker at each tran-
sition (such as we find in codex A of the Septuagint).
CANTILEVER— CANTILUF£, : T. £>E
2tJ
literary unity which the book contains (e.g. Driver, loc. cit.).
These are (i) general similarity of treatment, seen in the use
of imagery (the bride as a garden, iv. 12; vi. 2, 3), the frequent
references to nature and to particular places, and the recurrence
of descriptions of male and female beauty; (2) references to
" Solomon " or " the king," to " the Shulamite " and to " the
daughters of Jerusalem " (from which, indeed, the dramatic
theory has found its chief inspiration) ; (3) indications that the
same person is speaking in different places (cf . the two dreams
of a woman, and the vineyard references, i. 6; viii. 12); (4)
repetitions of words and phrases especially of the refrains,
"disturb not love" (ii. 7; Hi. 5; viii. 4), and "until the day
break " (ii. 17; iv. 6). But of these (1) is no more than should
be expected, since the songs all relate to the same subject, and
spring from a common world of life and thought of the same
group of people; (2) finds at least a partial parallel and explana-
tion in the use of " king " and " queen " noted above; whilst
(3) and (4) alone seem to require something more than the work
of a mere collector of the songs. It is, of course, true that, in
recurrent ceremonies, the same thought inevitably tends to
find expression in the same words. But this hardly meets the
case of the refrains, whilst the reference to the vineyard at be-
ginning and end does suggest some literary connexion. It is to
be noted that the three refrains " disturb not love " severally
follow passages relating to the consummation of the sexual
relation, whilst the two refrains " until the day break " appear
to form an invitation and an answer in the same connexion,
whilst the " Omnia vincit Amor " passage in the last chapter
forms a natural climax (cf. Haupt's translation). So far, then,
as this somewhat scanty evidence goes, it may point to some
one hand which has given its semblance of unity to the book by
underlining the joy of consummated love — to which the vineyard
and garden figures throughout allude — and by so arranging the
collection that the descriptions of this joy find their climax
in viii. 6-7. 1
Whatever conclusion, however, may be reached as to the
present arrangement of Canticles, the recognition of wedding-
songs as forming its nucleus marks an important stage in the
interpretation of the book; even Rothstein (1002), whilst
attempting to resuscitate a dramatic theory, " recognizes . . .
the possibility that older wedding-songs (as, for instance, the
wasfs) are worked up in the Song of Songs "' (Hastings' D.B.
p. 594b). The drama he endeavours to construct might, indeed,
be called " The Tokens of Virginity," since he makes it culminate
in the procedure of Deut. xxii. 13 f., which still forms part of
the Syrian ceremonies. But his reconstruction is open to the
same objection as all similar attempts, in that the vital moments
of the dramatic action have to be supplied from without. Thus
between v. 1 and v. 2, the baffled king is supposed to have dis-
appeared, and to have been replaced by the happy lover;
between viii. 7 and viii. 8, we are required to imagine " the
bridal night and its mysteries "; whilst between viii. 9 and viii.
10, we must suppose the evidence that the bride has been found
a virgin is exhibited. He also attempts, with considerable
ingenuity, to trace the legend involved in the supposed drama
to the fact that Abishag remained a virgin in regard to David
(1 Kings i. 4) whilst nothing is said of her marriage to Solomon. 1
On the view accepted above, Canticles describes in a number
1 On the erotic meaning of many of the figures employed see the
notes of Haupt in The American Journal of Semitic Languages (July
1902); alsO'G. Jacob, Das Hohelied (1902), who rightly protests
against the limitation in the Comm.oi Budde and Siegfried (p. 10)
of all the songs to the marriage relation. Haupt thinks that the songs
were not originally composed for weddings, though used there
(p. 207, op. cit.). Diestel had pointed out, in another connexion
(B.L. 125), that nothing is said in the book of the blessing of children,
the chief end of marriage from a Hebrew standpoint.
2 Rothstein's criticism of Budde turns chiefly on the latter's
admission of redactional elements, introducing " movement and
action," and may be summed up in the statement that "Budde
himself by the characteristics be assigns to the redactor points the
way again past his own hypothesis to the dramatical view of the
Song " (loc. cit. 594b). A- Harper, " The Song of Songs " (Cambridge
Bible), also criticizes Budde at length ill favour of the conventional
dramatical theory -(Appendix).
of separate poems the central passion of human life, and is
wholly without didactic tendencies. Of its earliest history as
a book we have no information. It is already included in the
Hebrew canon (though its right to be there is disputed) when
the first explicit mention of the book occurs. We have no
evidence, therefore, of the theory of interpretation prevalent
at the time of its incorporation with the other books of the
canon. It seems, however, fair to infer that it would hardly
have found acceptance but for a Solomonic theory of authorship
and a " religious " theory of meaning. The problem raised by
its present place in the canon occurs in relation to mistaken
Jewish theories about other books also; it suggests, at least,
that divine inspiration may belong to the life of a people rather
than to the letter of their literature. Of that life Canticles
portrays a central element — the passion of love— in striking
imagery and graceful language, however far its oriental standard
of taste differs from that of the modern West.
From the nature of the book, it is impossible to assign a
precise date for its origin; the wedding-songs of which it chiefly
consists must belong to the folklore of more than one century.
The only evidence we possess as to date is drawn from the char-
acter of the Hebrew in which the book is written, which shows
frequent points of contact with new Hebrew.' On this ground,
we may suppose the present form of the work t6 date from the
Greek period, i.e. after 332 B.C. This is the date accepted by
most recent writers, e.g. Kautzsch, Cheyne, Budde, Rothstein,
Jacob, Haupt. This late date finds some confirmation in the
fact that Canticles belongs to the third and latest part of the Old
Testament canon, and that its canonicity was still in dispute
at the end of the 1st century a.d. The evidence offered for a
north Israelite origin, on the ground of linguistic parallels and
topographical familiarity (Driver, loc. cit.) } does not seem very
convincing; Haupt, however, places the compilation of the book
in the neighbourhood of Damascus.
Literature. — Most of the older books of importance are named
above; Ginsburg, The Song of Songs (1857), gives much informa-
tion as to the history of the exegesis of Canticles;. Diestel' s
article, " Hohes Lied," in Schenlpel's Bibel Lexikon (1871), reviews
well the history of interpretation prior to Wetstein ; cf . also Riedel,
Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes in der judischen Gemeinde und def
griechischen Kirche (1898). The most important commentary is
that by Budde, in Marti's Kurzer Hand-Commentar (Die funf
Megilloth) (1898), where references to the literature of the 19th
century are given. To his list add Siegfried, " Prediger und Hohes-
lied," in Nowack's Handkommentat (1898); Cheyne's article
" Canticles," in the Encyclopaedia Biblica (1899); Dalman, Palas-
tinischer Diwan (1901), parallels to the songs; Rothstein's article,
11 Song of Songs, " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1902); G.
Jacob, Das Hohelied auf Grund arabischer und anderer Parallelen
von neuem Untersucht (1902) ; A. Harper, The Song of Songs (1902) ;
Haupt, " The Book of Canticles," in The American Journal of
Semitic Languages (July 1902); Scholz, Kommentar abet das
Hohelied und Psalm 45 (1904,) (written from the Roman Catholic
dogmatic standpoint of allegorical interpretation, with a vigorous
criticism of other positions). No commentator in English, except
Haupt, in the article named above, has yet worked on the lines of
the above anthology theory. Haupt gives valuable notes,, with a
translation and rearrangement of the separate songs.
(W. R.S.; H.W.R.*)
CANTILEVER (a word of doubtful origin, probably derived
from "lever," in its ordinary meaning, and "cant," an angle
or edge, or else from modern Lat. quanta libra, of what weight),
a building term for a stone, iron or wooden bracket, considerably
greater in length than depth, used to support a gallery, &c;
andtfor a system of bridge-building (see Bridges).
CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE (c. 12 18-1282), English saint and
prelate, was a son of William de Cantilupe, the 2nd baron (d. 1 251),
one of King John's ministers, and a nephew of Walter de Canti-
lupe, bishop of Worcester. He was educated at Paris and
Orleans, afterwards becoming a teacher of canon law at. Oxford
and chancellor of the university m 1262. During the Barons'
War Thomas favoured Simon de Montfort and the baronial
party. He represented the barons before St Louis of France
* E.g. the late form of the relative pronoun used throughout
except in title; foreign words, Persian and Greek; Aramaic words
and usages (details in the Comm. or in E.B. 693).
2l8
CANTILUPE, W. DE— CANTON
at Amiens in 1264; he was made chancellor of England in
February 1265, but was deprived of this office after Montfort's
death at Evesham, and lived out of England for some time.
Returning to England, he was again chancellor of Oxford Uni-
versity, lectured on theology, and held several ecclesiastical
appointments. In 1 2 74 he attended the second council of Lyons,
and in 1275 he was appointed bishop of Hereford. Cantilupe
was now a trusted adviser of Edward I. ; he attended the royal
councils, and even when differing from the king did not forfeit
his favour. The archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Kilwardby,
was also his friend; but after Kilwardby 's death in 1279 a series
of disputes arose between the bishop and the new archbishop,
John Peckham, and this was probably the cause which drove
Cantilupe to visit Italy. He died at Orvieto, on the 25th of
August 1282, and he was canonized in 1330. Cantilupe appears
to have been an exemplary bishop both in spiritual and secular
affairs. His charities were large and his private life blameless;
he was constantly visiting his diocese, correcting offenders and
discharging other episcopal duties; and he compelled neighbour-
ing landholders to restore estates which rightly belonged to the
see of Hereford. In 1905 the Cantilupe Society was founded to
publish the episcopal registers of Hereford, of which Cantilupe's
is the first in existence.
See the Acta Sanctorum, Boll., 1st October; and the Register of
Thomas de Cantilupe, with introduction by W. W. Capes (1906).
CANTILUPE, WALTER DE (d. 1265), bishop of Worcester,
came of a family which had risen by devoted service to the
crown. His father and his elder brother are named by Roger of
Wendover among the " evil counsellors " of John, apparently
for no better reason than that they were consistently loyal
to an unpopular master. Walter at first followed in his father's
footsteps, entering the service of the Exchequer and acting as an
itinerant justice in the early years of Henry III. But he also
took minor orders, and, in 1236, although not yet a deacon,
received the see of Worcester. As bishop, he identified himself
with the party of ecclesiastical reform, which was then led by
Edmund Rich and Robert Grosseteste. Like his leaders he was
sorely divided between his theoretical belief in the papacy as a
divine institution and his instinctive condemnation of the policy
which Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. pursued in their dealings
with the English church. At first a court favourite, the bishop
came at length to the belief that the evils of the time arose from
the unprincipled alliance of crown and papacy. He raised his
voice against papal demands for money, and after the death of
Grosseteste (1253) was the chief spokesman of the nationalist
clergy. At the parliament of Oxford (1258) he was elected by
the popular party as one of their representatives on the committee
of twenty-four which undertook to reform the administration;
from that time till the outbreak of civil war he was a man of
mark in the councils of the baronial party. During the war he
sided with Montfort and, through his nephew, Thomas, who was
then chancellor of Oxford, brought over the university to the
popular side. He was present at Lewes and blessed the Mont-
fortians before they joined battle with the army of the king;
he entertained Simon de Montfort on the night before the final
rout of Evesham. During Simon's dictatorship, the bishop
appeared only as a mediating influence; in the triumvirate of
" Electors " who controlled the administration, the clergy were
represented by the bishop of Chichester. Walter de Cantilupe
died in the year after Evesham (1266). He was respected by
all parties, and, though far inferior in versatility and force of
will to Grosseteste, fully merits the admiration which his moral
character inspired. He is one of the few constitutionalists of his
day whom it is impossible to accuse of interested motives.
See the Chronica Maiora of Matthew Paris (" Rolls " series, ed.
Luard) ; the Chronicon de BeUis (ed. Halliwell, Camden Society) ;
and the Annates Monastici (" Rolls " series, ed. Luard) ; also T. F.
Tout in the Political History of England, vol. iii. (1905).
CANTO (from the Lat. cantus, a song), one of the divisions of
a long poem, a convenient division when poetry was more usually
sung by the minstrel to his own accompaniment than read. In
music, the canto, in a concerted piece, is that part to which the
air is given. In modern music this is nearly always the soprano.
The old masters, however, more frequently allotted it to the tenor.
Canto fermo, or cantus firmus, is that part of the melody which
remains true to the original motive, while the other parts vary
with the counterpoint; also in Church music the simple straight-
forward melody of the old chants as opposed to canto figurato,
which is full of embellishments of a florid character (see Plain
Song).
CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772), English natural philosopher,
was born at Stroud, Gloucestershire, on the 31st of July 17 18.
At the age of nineteen, he was articled for five years as clerk to
the master of a school in Spital Square, London, with whom at
the end of that time he entered into partnership. In 1750 he
read a paper before the Royal Society on a method of making
artificial magnets, which procured him election as a fellow of the
society and the award of the Copley medal. He was the first
in England to verify Benjamin Franklin's hypothesis of the
identity of lightning and electricity, and he made several import-
ant electrical discoveries. In 1762 and 1764 he published
experiments in refutation of the decision of the Florentine
Academy, at that time generally accepted, that water is incom-
pressible; and in 1768 he described the preparation, by calcining
oyster-shell with sulphur, of the phosphorescent material known
as Canton's phosphorus. His investigations were carried on
without any intermission of his work as a schoolmaster. He
died in London on the 22nd of March 1772.
CANTON (more correctly Kwang-chow Fu), a large and
populous commercial city of China, in the province of Kwang-
tung, situated on the eastern bank of the Pearl river, which at
Canton is somewhat broader than the Thames at London Bridge,
and is navigable 300 m. into the interior. The Pearl river has an
additional course of 80 m. to the sea, the first part of which lies
through a rich alluvial plain. Beyond this rises a range of hills
terminating in abrupt escarpments along the course of the river.
The bold shore thus formed compresses the stream at this point
into a narrow pass, to which the Chinese have given the name of
Hu-mun, or Tiger's Gate. This the Portuguese translated into
Boca Tigre, whence the designation of " the Bogue," by which it
is commonly known among Europeans. When viewed from the
hills on the north, Canton appears to be little more than an
expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large trees, — two
pagodas shooting up within the walls, and a five-storeyed tower
near the northern gate, being the most conspicuous objects.
These hills rise 1200 ft. above the river. Little or no vegetation
is seen on them; and their acclivities, covered for miles with
graves and tombs, serve as the necropolis of this vast city.
Three or four forts are built on the points nearest the northern
walls. Facing the city on the opposite side of the river is the
suburb and island of Honan. The part of Canton enclosed by
walls is about 6 m. in circumference, and has a partition wall,
running east and west, and dividing the city into two unequal
parts. The northern and larger division is called the old, and the
southern the new city. Including the suburbs, the city has a
circuit of nearly 10 m. The houses stretch along tjie river for 4 m.,
and the banks are almost entirely concealed by boats and rafts.
The walls of the city are of brick, on a foundation of sandstone
and granite, are 20 ft. thick, and rise to an average height of 25 ft.
On the north side the wall rises to include a hill which it there
meets with, and on the other three sides the city is surrounded
by a ditch, which is filled by the rising tide, when, for a time, the
revolting mass of filth that lies in its bed is concealed from view.
There are twelve outer gates — four of which are in the partition
wall, and two water gates, through which boats pass from east to
west across the new city. The gates are all shut at night, and in
the daytime a guard is stationed at them to preserve order.
The streets, amounting in all to upwards of 600, are long, straight,
and very narrow. They are mostly paved dnd are not as dirty
as those of some of the other cities in the empire; in fact,
considering the habits of the people and the inattention of the
government to these matters, Canton may be said to be a well-
governed and comparatively cleanly city. The houses are in
general small, seldom consisting of more than two storeys, the
CANTON
219
ground floor serving as ft shop, and the rest of the house, with the
court behind, being used as a warehouse. Here are to be found
the productions of every quarter of the globe; and the merchants
are in general attentive, civil, expert men of business, and
generally assiduous.
The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but
none of them presents features worthy of special remark. There
are two pagodas near the west gate of the old city, and 124
temples, pavilions, halls and other religious edifices within the
city. One of the pagodas called the Kwangtah, or Plain Pagoda,
is a Mahommedan mosque, which was erected by the Arabian
voyagers who were in the habit of visiting Canton about ten
centuries ago. It rises in an angular tapering tower to the height
of 160 ft. The other is an octagonal pagoda of nine storeys, 1 70 ft.
in height, and was first erected more than thirteen centuries ago.
A Buddhist temple at Honan, opposite the foreign factories, and
named in Chinese Hai-ch % wang-sze y or the Temple of the Ocean
Banner, is one of the largest in Canton. Its grounds, which
cover about seven acres, are surrounded by a wall, and are
divided into courts, gardens and a burial-ground, where are
deposited the ashes of priests, whose bodies are burned. There
are about 175 priests connected with this establishment. Besides
the Hai-ch wang-sze the most noteworthy temples in and about
the city are those of the Five Hundred Gods and of Longevity,
both in the western suburbs; the Tatar City Temple and the
Temple of the Five Genii. The number of priests and nuns in
Canton is not exactly known, but they probably exceed 2000,
nine-tenths of whom are Buddhists. The temples are gloomy-
looking edifices. The areas in front of them are usually occupied
by hucksters, beggars and idlers, who are occasionally driven
off to make room for the mat-sheds in which the theatrical
performances got up by the wealthy inhabitants are acted. The
principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in
front, and the inner apartments are inhabited by a class of men
almost as senseless as the idols they serve.
The residences of the high officers of government are all
within the walls of the old city. The residence of the governor-
general used to be in the south-west corner of the new city, but it
was utterly destroyed by the bombardment in 1856. Hie site
remained desolate until i860, when it was taken possession of by
the French authorities, who erected a Roman Catholic cathedral
upon it. The residence of the commander-in-chief is in the old
city, and is said to be one of the best houses in Canton. There
are four prisons in the city, all large edifices. For the space of
4 or 5 m. opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged parallel to
each other in such close order as to resemble a floating city;
and these marine dwellings are occupied by numerous families,
who reside almost constantly on the water. In the middle of the
river lie the Chinese junks, some of them of from 600 to 1000 tons
buTden, which trade to the north and to the Strait Settlements.
Hie various gilds and associations among the people and the
merchants from other provinces have public halls each for its own
particular use. The number of these buildings is not less than
150. Canton was long the only seat of British trade with China,
and was no doubt fixed upon by the Chinese government for the
European trade, as being the most distant from the capital
Peking.
Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called the
hong or security merchants, were allowed to trade with foreigners.
They were commonly men of large property and were famed
for integrity in their transactions. All foreign cargoes passed
through the hands of these merchants, and by them also the
return cargoes were furnished. They became security for the
payment of customs duties, and it was criminal for any other
merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners.
Although it is in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, the
climate of Canton is much cooler, and is considered superior to
that of most places situated between the tropics. The extreme
range of the thermometer is from 38 to ioo° F., though these
extremes are rarely reached. In ordinary years the winter
minimum is about 42 and the maximum in summer 96 .
The hot season is considered to last from May to October;
during the rest of the year the weather is cool. In shallow
vessels ice sometimes forms at Canton; but so rarely is snow
seen that when in February 1835 a fall to the depth of 2 in.
occurred, the citizens hardly knew its proper name. Most of the
rain falls during May and June, but the amount is nothing in
comparison with that which falls during a rainy season in
Calcutta. July, August and September are the regular monsoon
months, the wind coming from the south-west with frequent
showers, which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the
northerly winds begin, with some interruptions at first, but from
October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear
and the air invigorating. Few large cities are more generally
healthy than Canton, and epidemics rarely prevail there.
Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant, and in
general are excellent in quality and moderate in price. It is
a singular fact that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in
its natural state or in the form of butter or cheese. Among the
delicacies of a Chinese market are to be seen horse-flesh,
dogs, cats, hawks, owls and edible birds'-nests. The business
between foreigners and natives at Canton is generally transacted
in a jargon known as "pidgin English," the Chinese being
extremely ready in acquiring a sufficient smattering of English
words to render themselves intelligible.
The intercourse between China and Europe by the way of
the Cape of Good Hope began in 1517, when Emanuel, king of
Portugal, sent an ambassador, accompanied by a fleet of eight
ships, to Peking, on which occasion the sanction of the emperor
to establish a trade at Canton was obtained. It was in 1506,
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the English first attempted
to open an intercourse with China, but ineffectually, for the
two ships which were despatched on this mission were lost on
the outward voyage, and it was not till about 1634 that English
ships visited Canton. Unfortunately at this time a misunder-
standing having occurred with the Chinese authorities owing to
the treachery of the Portuguese, a rupture and a battle took
place, and it was with difficulty that peace was again restored.
In 1673 China was again visited by an English ship which was
subsequently refused admission into Japan, and in 1677 a factory
was established at Amoy. But during an irruption of the
Tatars three years later this building was destroyed, and it was
not till 1685 that the emperor permitted any trade with Europeans
at that port. Upon the union of the two East India Companies
in London, an imperial edict was issued, restricting the foreign
commerce to the port of Canton.
Tea was first imported into England about the year 1667, and
in 1680 a customs duty of 5s. per ft> was for the first time imposed.
From this date to 1834 the East India Company held a monopoly
of the trade at Canton, and during this period the prosperity
of the port increased and multiplied, notwithstanding the ob-
structions which were constantly thrown in the way of the
" barbarians " by the Chinese government. The termination of
the Company's monopoly brought no alteration in the conduct
of the native authorities, whose oppressions became before long
so unbearable that in 1839 war was declared on the part of Great
Britain. In 1841, while the forces under Sir Hugh (afterwards
Lord) Gough were preparing to capture Canton, Captain Elliott
entered into negotiations with the Chinese, and consented to
receive a pecuniary ransom in lieu of occupying the city. Mean-
while the war was carried on in central China, and finally re-
sulted in the conclusion of the Nanking treaty in August 1842,
under the terms of which four additional ports, viz. Shanghai,
Ningpo, Fu-chow and Amoy, were thrown open to {greign trade,
and foreigners were granted permission to enter the city of
Canton, from which they had hitherto been excluded. This
latter provision of the treaty, however, the Chinese refused to
carry out; and after endless disputes about this and other
improper acts of the Chinese government, war was again declared
in 1856, the immediate cause of which was an insult offered to
the British flag by the capture of certain Chinese on board the
"Arrow," a small craft trading under English colours. The
outbreak of hostilities was followed by the pillage and destruction
of the foreign "factories" in December 1856 by a Chinese mob,
%2Q
CANTON
and twelve months later Canton was taken by assault by a force
under Sir Charles Straubenzee, which had been sent out from
England for the purpose. From this time until October 1861
the city was occupied by an English and French garrison, and
the administration of affairs was entrusted to an allied com-
mission, consisting of two English officers and one French officer,
acting under the English general. Since the withdrawal of this
garrison, the city of Canton has been freely open to foreigners
of all nationalities, and the English consul has his residence
in the Yamun formerly occupied by the allied commissioners,
within the city walls.
On the conclusion of peace it became necessary to provide
a foreign settlement for the merchants whose " factories " had
been destroyed, and after some consultation it was determined
to nil in and appropriate as the British settlement an extensive
mud flat lying to the westward of the old factory site, and
known as Sha-mien or " The Sand Flats." This site having
been leased, it was converted into an artificial island by building
a massive embankment of granite in an irregular oval form.
Between the northern face of the site and the Chinese suburb
a canal of 100 ft. in width was constructed, thus forming an island
of about 2850 ft. in length and 950 ft. in greatest breadth. The
expense of making this settlement was 325,000 Mexican dollars,
four-fifths of which were defrayed by the British government
and one-fifth by the French government. The British portion
of the new settlement was laid out in eighty-two lots; and so
bright appeared the prospect of trade at the time of their sale
that 0000 dollars and upwards was paid in more than one instance
for a lot with a river frontage, measuring 12,645 sq. ft. The
depression in trade, however, which soon followed acted as a
bar to building, and it was not until the British consulate was
erected in 1865 that the merchants began to occupy the settle-
ment in any numbers. The British consulate occupies six lots,
with an area of 75,870 sq. ft. in the centre of the site, overlooking
the river, and is enclosed with a substantial wall. A ground-rent
of 15,000 cash (about £3) per mow (a third of an acre) is annually
paid by the owners of lots to the Chinese government.
The Sha-mien settlement possesses many advantages. It is
close to the western suburb of Canton, where reside all the
wholesale dealers as well as the principal merchants and brokers;
it faces the broad channel known as the Macao Passage, up
which the cool breezes in summer are wafted almost uninter-
ruptedly, and the river opposite to it affords a safe and com-
modious anchorage for steamers up to 1000 tons burden.
Steamers only are allowed to come up to Canton, sailing vessels
being restricted to the anchorage at Whampoa. There is daily
communication by steamer with Hong-Kong, and with the
Portuguese colony of Macao which lies near the mouth of the
river. Inland communication by steam is now open by the west
river route to the cities of Wuchow and Nanking. The opening
of. these inland towns to foreign trade, which has been effected,
cannot but add considerably to the volume of Canton traffic.
The native population is variously, estimated at from 1,500,000
to 2,000,000, the former being probably nearer the truth. The
foreign residents number about 400. Canton is the headquarters
of the provincial government of Kwangtung and Kwangsi,
generally termed the two Kwang, at the head of which is a
governor-general or viceroy, an office which next to that of
Nanking is the most important in the empire. It possesses a
mint built in 1889 by the then viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and
equipped with a very complete plant supplied from England.
It turns out silver subsidiary coinage and copper cash. Con-
tracts have been entered into to connect Canton by railway
with Hong-Kong (Kowlun), and by a grand trunk line with
Hankow on the Yangtsze. It is connected by telegraph with
all parts. The value of the trade of Canton for the year 1904
was £13,749,582, £7,555,090 of which represented imports and
£6,194,490 exports. (R. K. D.)
CANTON, a city of Fulton county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W.
part of the state, 12 m. N. of the Illinois river, and 28 m. S.W.
of Peoria. Pop. (1890) 5604; (1900) 6564, of whom 424 were
foreign-born. Canton is served by the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, the Toledo, Peoria & Western, and the Illinois Central
Electric Interurban railways. About 1 m. from the centre of
the city are the Canton Chautauqua grounds. The city has a
public library. Canton is situated in a rich agricultural region,
for which it is a supply point, and there are large coal-mines in
the vicinity. Among the manufactures are agricultural imple-
ments (particularly ploughs), machine-shop and foundry products
(particularly mining-cars and equipment), flour, cigars, cigar-
boxes, brooms, and bricks and tile. The municipal water-works
are supplied from a deep artesian well. Canton was laid out in
1825; it was incorporated as a town in 1837 and as a village in
1849, and was chartered as a city in 1854.
CANTON, a village and the county-seat of St Lawrence county,
New York, U.S.A., 17 m. S.E. of Ogdensburg, on the Grasse
river. Pop. (1890) 2580; (1900) 2757; (1905, state census)
3083. The village is served by the Rome, Watertown & Ogdens-
burg division of the New York Central & Hudson River railway.
Canton is the seat of St Lawrence University (co-educational;
chartered in 1856; at first Universalist, afterwards unsectarian),
having a college of letters and science, which developed from an
academy, opened in 1859; a theological school (Universalist),
opened in 1858; a law school, established in 1869, discontinued
in 1872 and re-established in Brooklyn, New York, in 1903 as
the Brooklyn Law School of St Lawrence University; and a
state school of agriculture, established in 1906 by the state
legislature and opened in 1907. In 1907*1908 the university
had 52 instructors, 168 students in the college of letters and
science, 14 students in the theological school, 287 in the law
school and 13 in the agricultural school. The Clinton Liberal
Institute (Universalist, 1832), which was removed in 1879 from
Clinton to Fort Plain, New York, was established in Canton in
1 901. The Grasse river furnishes water-power, and the village
has saw-, planing- and flour-mills, and plant for the building of
small boats and launches. The village corporation owns a fine
water-supply system. Canton was first settled in 1800 by
Daniel Harrington of Connecticut and was incorporated in
1845. It was for many years the home of Silas Wright, who was
buried here.
CANTON, a city and the county-seat of Stark county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on Nimishillen Creek, 60 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop.
(1890) 26,189; (1900) 30,667, of whom 4018 were foreign-born;
and (1910) 50,217. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the
Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways, and
is connected by an interurban electric system with all the
important cities and towns within a radius of 50 m. It lies at an
elevation of about 1030 ft. above sea-level, in a wheat-growing
region, in which bituminous coal, limestone, and brick and
potter's clay abound. Meyer's Lake in the vicinity is a summer
attraction. The principal buildings are the post-office, court-
house, city hall, an auditorium with a seating capacity of 5000,
a Masonic building, an Oddfellows' temple, a Y.M.C.A. building
and several handsome churches. On Monument Hill, in West
Lawn Cemetery, in a park of 26 acres — a site which President
McKinley had suggested for a monument to the soldiers and
sailors of Stark county — there is a beautiful monument to the
memory of McKinley, who lived in Canton. This memorial is
built principally of Milford (Mass.) granite, with a bronze statue
of the president, and with sarcophagi containing the bodies of
the president and Mrs McKinley, and has a total height, from
the first step of the approaches to its top, of 163 ft. 6 in., the
mausoleum itself being 98 ft. 6 in. high and 78 ft. 9 in. in diameter;
it was dedicated on the 30th of September 1907, when an address
was delivered by President Roosevelt. Another monument
commemorates the American soldiers of the Spanish-American
War. Among the city's manufactures are agricultural imple-
ments, iron bridges and other structural iron work, watches and
watch-cases, steel, engines, safes, locks, cutlery, hardware,
wagons, carriages, paving-bricks, furniture, dental and surgical
chairs, paint and varnish, clay-working machinery and saw-mill
machinery. The value of the factory product in 1905 was
$10,591,143, being io-6 % more than the product value of 1900,
Canton was laid out as a town in 1805, became the county-seat
CANTON— CANUTE THE GREAT
321
in 1808, was incorporated as a village in 1822 and in 1854 was
chartered as a city.
CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. canton*, a corner or angle),
a word used for certain divisions of some European countries.
In France, the canton, which is a subdivision of the arrondisse-
ment, is a territorial, rather than an administrative, unit. The
canton, of which there are 2008, generally comprises, on an
average, about twelve communes, though very large communes
are sometimes divided into several cantons. It is the seat of
a justice of the peace, and returns a member to the canseil
d'arrondisscment (see France). In Switzerland, canton is the
name given to each of the twenty-two states comprising the
Swiss confederation (see Switzerland).
In heraldry, a " canton " is a corner or square division on a
shield, occupying the upper corner (usually the dexter). It is in
area two-thirds of the quarter (see Heraldry).
CANTONMENT (Fr. cantonncment, from canUmner, to quarter;
Ger. Ortsunterkunft or Quartier). When troops are distributed
in small parties amongst the houses of a town or village, they are
said to be in cantonments, which are also called quarters or
billets. Formerly this method of providing soldiers with shelter
was rarely employed on active service, though the normal
method in " winter quarters," or at seasons when active military
operations were not in progress. In the field, armies lived as a
rule in camp (q.v.) y and when the provision of canvas shelter was
impossible in bivouac At the present time, however, it is
unusual, in Europe at any rate, for troops on active service to
hamper themselves with the enormous trains of tent wagons that
would be required, and cantonments or bivouacs, or a combina-
tion of the two have therefore taken the place, in modern warfare,
of the old long rectilinear lines of tents that marked the resting-
place and generally, too, the order of battle of an 18th-century
army. The greater part of an army operating in Europe at
the present day is accommodated in widespread cantonments,
an artny corps occupying the villages and farms found within
an area of 4 m. by 5 or 6. This allowance of space has
been ascertained by experience to be sufficient, not only for
comfort, but also for subsistence for one day, provided that the
density of the ordinary civil population is not less than 200
persons to the square mile. Under modern conditions there is
little danger from such a dissemination of the forces, as each
fraction of each army corps is within less than two hours' march
of its concentration post. If the troops halt for several days, of
course they require either a more densely populated country from
which to requisition supplies, or a wider area of cantonments.
The difficulty of controlling the troops, when scattered in private
houses in parties of six or seven, is the principal objection to this
system of cantonments. But since Napoleon introduced the
" war of masses " the only alternative to cantoning the troops
is bivouacking, which if prolonged for several nights is more
injurious to the well-being of the troops than the slight relaxation
of discipline necessitated by the cantonment system, when the
latter is well arranged and policed. The troops nearest the
enemy, however, which have to be maintained in a state of
constant readiness for battle, cannot as a rule afford the time
either for dispersing into quarters or for rallying on an alarm, and
in western Europe at any rate they are required to bivouac.
In India, the term " cantonment " means more generally a
military station or standing camp. The troops live, not in
private houses, but in barracks, huts, forts or occasionally camps.
The large cantonments are situated in the neighbourhood of the
North-Western frontier, of the large cities and of the capitals of
important native states. Under Lord Kitchener's redistribution
of the Indian army in 1903, the chief cantonments are Rawalpindi,
Quetta, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Nowshera, Sialkot, Mian Mir,
Umballa, Muttra, Ferozepore, Meerut, Lucknow, Mhow, Jubbul-
pore, Bolarum, Poona, Secunderabad and Bangalore.
CANTU, CESARE (1804-1895), Italian historian, was born at
Brivio in Lombardy and began his career as a teacher. His first
liLerary essay (1828) was a romantic poem entitled Algiso, la
Lega Lombarda (new ed., Milan, 1876), and in the following year
he produced a Storia dp Como in two volumes (Como, 1829). The
death of his father then left him in charge pf a large family, and
he worked very hard both as a teacher and a writer to provide for
them. His prodigious literary activity led to his falling under
the suspicions of the Austrian police, and he was mixed up in a
political trial and arrested in 1833. While in prison writing
materials were denied him, but he managed to write on rags with
a tooth-pick and candle smoke, and thus composed the novel
Margkerita Pusterla (Milan, 1838). On his release a year later,
as he was interdicted from teaching, literature became his only
resource. In 1836 the Turinese publisher, Giuseppe Pomba,
commissioned him to write a universal history, which his vast
reading enabled him to do. In six years the work was completed
in seventy-two volumes, and immediately achieved a general
popularity; the publisher made a fortune out of it, and Cantu's
royalties amounted, it is said, to 300,000 lire (£12,000). Just
before the revolution of 1848, being warned that he would be
arrested, he fled to Turin, but after the " Five Days " he returned
to Milan and edited a paper called La Guardia Nazionale. .
Between 1849 and 1850 he published his Storia degli Italiani
(Turin, 1855) and many other works. In 1857 ^ e archduke
Maximilian tried to conciliate the Milanese by the promise of a
constitution, and Cantu was one of the few Liberals who accepted
the olive branch, and went about in company with the archduke.
This act was regarded as treason and caused Cantu much annoy-
ance in after years. He continued his literary activity after the
formation of the Italian kingdom, producing volume after
volume until his death. For a short time he was member of the
Italian parliament; he founded the Lombard historical society,
and was appointed superintendent of the Lombard archives*
He died in Mf» T ch 1895. His views are coloured by strong
religious and political prejudice, and by a moralizing tendency,
and his historical work has little critical value and is for the most
part pure book-making, although he collected a vast amount of
material which has been of use to other writers. In dealing with
modern Italian history he is reactionary and often wilfully
inaccurate. Besides the above-mentioned works he wrote GH
Eretici in Italia (Milan, 1873); CronUtoria dell 1 Indipendenza
italiana (Naples, 1872-1877); // Conciliatore e i Carbonari
(Milan, 1878), &c. (L.V.*)
CANUSIUM (Gr. Kovvolov, mod. Canosa), an an dent city of
Apulia, on the right bank of the Aufidus (Ofanto), about 12 m,
from its mouth, and situated upon the Via Traiana, 85 m. E.N.E.
of Beneventum. It was said to have been founded by Diomede,
and even at the time of Horace (Sat, i. xo. 30) both Greek and
Latin were spoken there. The legends on the coins are Greek,
and a very large number of Greek vases have been found in the
necropolis. The town came voluntarily under Roman sover-
eignty in 318 B.C., afforded a refuge to the Roman fugitives after
Cannae, and remained faithful for the rest of the war. It
revolted in the Social War, in which it would appear to have
suffered, inasmuch as Strabo (vi. 283) speaks of Canusium and
Arpi as having been, to judge from the extent of their walls, the
greatest towns in the plain of Apulia, but as having shrunk
considerably in his day. Its importance was maintained,
however, by its trade in agricultural products and in Apulian
wool (which was there dyed and cleaned), by its port (probably
Cannae) at the mouth of the Aufidus, and by its position on the
high-road. It was a municipium under the early empire, but was
converted into a colonia under Antoninus Pius by Herodes Atticus,
who provided it with a water-supply. In the 6th century it was
still the most important city of Apulia. Among the ancient
buildings which are still preserved, an amphitheatre, an aqueduct
and a city gate may be mentioned.
See N. Jacobone, Ricercke sulla storia e la topografia di Canosa
Antica (Canosa di Puglia, 1905). (T. As.)
CANUTE (Cnut), known as "the Great" (c. 995-1035), king
of Denmark and England, second son of King Sweyn Forkbeard
and his first wife, the daughter of the Polish prince, Mieszko,
was born c. 995. On the death of his father he was compelled
to quit England by a general rising of the Anglo-Saxons, on
which occasion in a fit of rage, for he was not naturally cruel,
he abandoned his hostages after cutting off their hands, ears
222
CANUTE VI.
and noses. In the following year, 1015, he returned with a
great fleet manned by a picked host, " not a thrall or a freedman
among them." He speedily succeeded in subduing all England
except London, now the last refuge of King iEthelred and his
heroic son, Edmund Ironside. On the death of jEthelred (23rd of
April 1 01 6) Canute was elected king by an assembly of notables
at Southampton; but London clung loyally to Edmund, who
more than once succeeded in raising the western shires against
Canute. Edmund indeed approved himself the better general
of the two, and would doubtless have prevailed, but for the
treachery of his own ealdormen. This was notably the case
at the great battle of Assandun, in which by the desertion of
Eadric an incipient Anglo-Saxon victory was converted into
a crushing defeat. Nevertheless, the antagonists were so evenly
matched that the great men on both sides, fearing that the
interminable war would utterly ruin the land, arranged a con-
ference between Canute and Edmund on an island in the Severn,
when they agreed to divide England between them, Canute
retaining Mercia and the north, while Edmund's territory com-
prised East Anglia and Wessex with London. On the death of
Edmund, a few months later (November 1016), Canute was
unanimously elected king of all England at the beginning of
1017. The young monarch at once showed himself equal to
his responsibilities. He did his utmost to deserve the confidence
of his Anglo-Saxon subjects, and the eighteen years of his reign
were of unspeakable benefit to his adopted country. He identi-
fied himself with the past history of England and its native
dynasty by wedding Emma, or iElgifu, to give her her Saxon
name (the Northmen called her Alfifa), who came over from
Normandy at his bidding, Canute previously repudiating his
first wife, another iElgifu, the daughter of the ealdorman
jElfhem of Deira, who, with her sons, was banished to Denmark.
In 1 01 8 Canute inherited the Danish throne, his elder brother
Harold having died without issue. He now withdrew most
of his army from England, so as to spare as much as possible
the susceptibilities of the Anglo-Saxons. For the same reason
he had previously dispersed all his warships but forty. On
his return from Denmark he went a step farther. In a remark-
able letter, addressed to the prelates, ealdormen and people,
he declared his intention of ruling England by the English,
and of upholding the laws of King Edgar, at the same time
threatening with his vengeance all those who did not judge
righteous judgment or who let malefactors go free. The tone
of this document, which is not merely Christian but sacerdotal,
shows that he had wisely resolved, in the interests of law and
order, to form a close alliance with the native clergy. Those
of his own fellow-countrymen who refused to co-operate with
him were summarily dismissed. Thus, in 102 1, the stiff necked
jarl Thorkil was banished the land, and his place taken by an
Anglo-Saxon, the subsequently famous Godwin, who became
one of Canute's chief counsellors. The humane and conciliatory
character of his government is also shown in his earnest efforts
to atone for Danish barbarities in the past. Thus he rebuilt
the church of St Edmundsbury in memory of the saintly king
who had perished there at the hands of the earlier Vikings, and
with great ceremony transferred the relics of St Alphege from
St Paul's church at London to a worthier resting-place at
Canterbury. His work of reform and reconciliation was in-
terrupted in 1026 by the attempt of Olaf Haraldson, king of
Norway, in conjunction with Anund Jakob, king of Sweden,
to conquer Denmark. Canute defeated the Swedish fleet at
Stangebjerg, and so seriously injured the combined squadrons
at the mouth of the Helgeaa in East Scania, that in 1028 he was
able to subdue the greater part of Norway " without hurling
a dart or swinging a sword." But the conquest was not per-
manent, the Norwegians ultimately rising successfully against
the tyranny of Alfifa, who misruled the country in the name
of her infant son Sweyn. Canute also succeeded in establishing
the dominion of Denmark over the southern shores of the Baltic,
in Witland and Samland, now forming part of the coast of
Prussia. Of the details of Canute's government in Denmark
proper we know but little. His most remarkable institution
was the Tinglid, a military brotherhood, originally 3000 in
number, composed of members of the richest and noblest families,
who not only formed the royal bodyguard, but did garrison duty
and defended the marches or borders. They were subject to
strict discipline, embodied in written rules called the Viderlog
or Vederlagy and were the nucleus not only of a standing army
but of a royal council. Canute is also said to have endeavoured
to found monasteries in Denmark, with but indifferent success,
and he was certainly the first Danish king who coined money,
with the assistance of Anglo-Saxon mint-masters. Of his
alliance with the clergy we have already spoken. Like the other
great contemporary kingdom-builder, Stephen of Hungary,
he clearly recognized that the church was the one civilizing
element in a world of anarchic barbarism, and his submission
to her guidance is a striking proof of his perspicacity. But it
was no slavish submission. When, in. 1027, he went to- Rome,
with Rudolf III. of Burgundy, to be present at the coronation
of the emperor Conrad II., it was quite as much to benefit his
subjects as to receive absolution for the sins of his youth. He
persuaded the pope to remit the excessive fees for granting the
pallium, which the English and Danish bishops had found such
a grievous burden, substituting therefor a moderate amount
of Peter's pence. He also induced the emperor and other
German princes to grant safe-conducts to those of his subjects
who desired to make the pilgrimage to Rome.
Canute died at Shaftesbury on the 12th of November 1035
in his 40th year, and was buried at Winchester. He was cut
off before he had had the opportunity of developing most of his
great plans; yet he lived long enough to obtain the title of
" Canute the Wealthy " (i.e. " Mighty "), and posterity, still
more appreciative, has well surnamed him " the Great." A
violent, irritable temper was his most salient defect, and more
than one homicide must be laid to his charge. But the fierce
Viking nature was gradually and completely subdued; for
Canute was a Christian by conviction and sincerely religious.
His humility is finely illustrated by the old Norman poem which
describes how he commanded the rising tide of the Thames at
Westminster to go back. The homily he preached to his courtiers
on that occasion was to prepare them for his subsequent journey
to Rome and his submission to the Holy See. Like his father
Sweyn, Canute loved poetry, and the great Icelandic skalder,
ThorarLovtiinge and Thormod Kolbrunarskjdid, were as welcome
visitors at his court as the learned bishops. As an administrator
Canute was excelled only by Alfred. He possessed in an eminent
degree the royal gift of recognizing greatness, and the still more
useful faculty of conciliating enemies. No English king before
him had levied such heavy taxes, yet never were taxes more
cheerfully paid; because the people felt that every penny of
the money was used for the benefit of the country. According
to the Knytlinga Saga King Canute was huge of limb, of great
strength, and a very goodly man to look upon, save for his nose,
which was narrow, lofty and hooked; he had also long fair
hair, and eyes brighter and keener than those of any man living.
See Danmarks Riges Historic Old Tiden og den aeldre Middelalder,
►.382-406 (Copenhagen, 1 897-1905); Freeman, Norman Conquest
bcford, 1 870-1875) ; Steenstrup, Normannerne (Copenhagen, 1876-
1882). (R.N.BO
CANUTE VI. (1163-1202), king of Denmark, eldest son of
Valdemar I., was crowned in his seventh year (11 70), as his
father's co-regent, so as to secure the succession. In 1182 he
succeeded to the throne. During his twenty years' reign Den-
mark advanced steadily along the path of greatness and pros-
perity marked out for her by Valdemar I., consolidating and
extending her dominion over the North Baltic coast and adopt-
ing a more and more independent attitude towards Germany.
The emperor Frederick I.'s claim of overiordship was haughtily
rejected at the very outset, and his attempt to stir up Duke
Bogislav of Pomerania against Denmark's vassal, Jaromir of
Rtigen, was defeated by Archbishop Absalon, who destroyed
465 of Bogislav's 500 ships in a naval action off Strela (Stralsund)
in 1 184. In the following year Bogislav did homage to Canute on
the deck of his long-ship, off Jomsborg in Pomerania, Canute
&£
CANVAS— CANYON
223
henceforth styling himself king of the Danes and Wends. This
victory led two years later to the voluntary submission of the two
Abodrite princes Niklot and Borwin to the Danish crown, where-
upon the bulk of the Abodrite dominions, which extended from
the Trave to the Warnow, including modern Mecklenburg, were
divided between them. The concluding years of Canute's reign
were peaceful, as became a prince who, though by no means a
coward, was not of an overwhelmingly martial temperament.
In 1197, however, German jealousy of Denmark's ambitions,
especially when Canute led a fleet against the pirates of Esthonia,
induced Otto, margrave of Brandenburg, to invade Pomerania,
while in the following year Otto, in conjunction with Duke
Adolf of Holstein, wasted the dominions of the Danophil
Abodrites. The war continued intermittently till 1201, when
Duke Valdemar, Canute's younger brother, conquered the whole
of Holstein, and Duke Adolf was subsequently captured at
Hamburg and sent in chains to Denmark. North Albingia, as
the district between the Eider and the Elbe was then called, now
became Danish territory. Canute died on the 1 2th of November
1202. Undoubtedly he owed the triumphs of his reign very
largely to the statesmanship of Absalon and the valour of
Valdemar. But he was certainly a prudent and circumspect
ruler of blameless life, possessing, as Arnold of Liibeck (c. 1 160-
12 1 2) expresses it, " the sober wisdom of old age even in his
tender youth."
See Danmarks Riges Historic Oidtiden og den aeldre Middelalder
(Copenhagen, 1897-1905), pp. 721-735- (R- N. B.)
CANVAS, a stout cloth which probably derives its name from
cannabis, the Latin word for hemp. This would appear to indi-
cate that canvas was originally made from yarns of the hemp
fibre, and there is some ground for the assumption. This fibre
and that of flax have certainly been used for ages for the produc-
tion of cloth for furnishing sails, and for certain classes of cloth
used for this purpose the terms " sailcloth " and " canvas " are
synonymous. Warden, in his Linen Trade, states that the
manufacture of sailcloth was established in England in 1500, as
appears by the preamble of James I., cap. 23: — " Whereas the
cloths called Milder nix and Towel Danes, whereof sails and other
furniture for the navy and shipping are made, were heretofore
altogether brought out of France and other parts beyond sea, and
the skill and art of making and weaving of the said sailcloths
never known or used in England until about the thirty-second
year of the late Queen Elizabeth, about what time and not before
the perfect art or skill of making or weaving of the said cloths was
attained to, and since practised and continued in this realm, to the
great benefit and commodity thereof." But this, or a similar
cloth of the same name had been used for centuries before this
time by the Egyptians and Phoenicians. Since the introduction
of the power loom the cloth has undergone several modifications,
and it is now made both from flax, hemp, tow, jute and cotton,
or a mixture of these, but the quality of sailcloth for the British
government is kept up to the original standard. All flax canvas
is essentially of double warp, for it is invariably intended to
withstand some pressure or rough usage.
In structure it is similar to jute tarpaulin; indeed, if it were
not for the difference in the fibre, it would be difficult to say
where one type stopped and the other began. " Bagging,"
" tarpaulin " and " canvas " form an ascending series of cloths
so far as fineness is concerned, although the finest tarpaulins are
finer than some of the lower canvases. The cloth may be
natural colour, bleached or dyed, a very common colour being
tan. It has an enormous number of different uses other than
naval.
Amongst other articles made from it are: — receptacles for
photographic and other apparatus; bags for fishing, shooting,
golf and other sporting implements; shoes for cricket and
other games, and for yachting; travelling cases and hold-alls,
letter-bags, school-bags and nose-bags for horses. Large
quantities of the various makes of flax and cotton canvases are
tarred, and then used for covering goods on railways, wharves,
docks, etc.
Sail canvas is, naturally, of a strong build, and is quite different
from the canvas cloth used for embroidery purposes, often called
" art canvas." The latter is similar in structure to cheese cloths
and strainers, the chief difference being that the yarns for art
canvas are, in general, of a superior nature. All kinds of
vegetable fibres are used in their production, chief among which
are cotton, flax and jute. The yarns are almost invariably two
or more ply, an arrangement which tends to obtain a uniform
thickness — a very desirable element in these open-built fabrics.
The plain weave A in the figure is extensively used for these
fabrics, but in many cases special weaves
ra
are used which leave the open spaces well 1 ,
denned. Thus weave B is often employed, [ 1
while the " imitation gauze " weaves, C Ql
and D, are also largely utilized in the
production of these embroidery cloths.
Weave B is known as the hopsack, and
probably owes its name to being originally
used for the making of bags for hops.
The cloth for this purpose is now called
" hop pocketing," and is of a structure
between bagging and tarpaulin. Another class of canvas,
single warp termed " artists' canvas," is used, as its name implies,
for paintings in oils. It is also much lighter than sail canvas,
but must, of necessity, be made of level yarns. The best qualities
are made of cream or bleached flax line, although it is not unusual
to find an admixture of tow, and even of cotton in the commoner
kinds. When the cloth comes from the loom, it undergoes a
special treatment to prepare the surface for the paint.
CANVASS (an older spelling of " canvas "), to sift by shaking
in a sheet of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly; as a political
term it means to examine carefully the chances of the votes in a
prospective election, and to solicit the support of the electors.
CANYNGES, Canynge, WILLIAM (c. 1399-1474), English
merchant, was born at Bristol in 1399 or 1400, a .member of a
wealthy family of merchants and cloth-manufacturers in that
city. He entered, and in due course greatly extended, the
family business, becoming one of the richest Englishmen of his
day. Canynges was five times mayor of, and twice member of
parliament for, Bristol. He owned a fleet of ten ships, the
largest hitherto known in England, and employed, it is said,
800 seamen. By special license from the king of Denmark he
enjoyed for some time a monopoly of the fish trade between
Iceland, Finland and England, and he also competed successfully
with the Flemish merchants in the Baltic, obtaining a large
share of their business. In 1456 he entertained Margaret of
Anjou at Bristol, and in 146 1 Edward IV. Canynges undertook at
his own expense the great work of rebuilding the famous Bristol
church of St Mary, Redcliffe, and for a long time had a hundred
workmen in his regular service for this purpose. In 1467 he
himself took holy orders, and in 1469 was made dean of
Westbury. He died in 1474. The statesman George Canning
and the first viscount Stratford de Redcliffe were descendants of
his family.
Sec Pryce, Memorials of the Canynges Family and their Times
(Bristol, 1854).
CANTON (Anglicized form of Span, cation, a tube, pipe or
cannon; the Spanish form being also frequently written), a
type of valley with huge precipitous sides, such as the Grand
Canyons of the Colorado and the Yellowstone rivers, and the gorge
of the Niagara river below the falls, due to rapid stream erosion
in a " young " land. A river saws its channel vertically down-
wards, and a swift stream erodes chiefly at the bottom. In
rainy regions the valleys, thus formed are widened out by slope-
wash and the resultant valley-slopes are gentle, but in arid
regions there is very little side-extension of the valleys and
the river cuts its way downwards, leaving almost vertical
cliffs above the stream. If the stream be swift as in the
western plateau of North America, the cutting action will be
rapid. . The ideal conditions for developing a canyon are: great
altitude and slope causing swift streams, arid conditions with
absence of side-wash, and hard rock horizontally bedded which
will hold the walls up.
224
CAN20NE— CAPE BRETON
CANZONE, a form of verse which has reached us from Italian
literature, where from the earliest times it has been assiduously
cultivated. The word is derived from the Provencal cansd,
a song, but it was in Italian first that the form became a literary
one, and was dedicated to the highest uses of poetry. The
canzone-strophe consists of two parts, the opening one being
distinguished by Dante as the fronte, the closing one as the
sir ma. These parts are connected by rhyme, it being usual
to make the rhyme of the last line of the fronte identical with
that of the first line of the sirma. In other respects the canzone
has great liberty, as regards number and length of lines, arrange-
ment of rhymes and conduct of structure. An examination
of the best Italian models, however, shows that the tendency
of the canzone-strophe is to possess 9, 10, 11, 13, 14 or 16 verses,
and that of these the strophe of 14 verses is so far the most
frequent that it may almost be taken as the type. In this form
it resembles an irregular sonnet. The Vita Nuova contains many
examples of the canzone, and these are accompanied by so
many explanations of their form as to lead us to believe that
the canzone was originally invented or adopted by Dante.
The following is the proemio or fronte of one of the most cele-
brated canzoni in the Vita Nuova (which may be studied in
English in Dante Gabriel Rossetti's translation): —
" Donna pietosa e di novella etate,
Adorna assai di gentilezza umane,
Era la ov' to chiamava spesso Morte.
Veggendo gli occhi mlei pien di pietate,
Ed ascoltando le parole vane,
Si mosse con paura a pianger forte;
Ed altro donne, che si furo accorte
Di me per quella che meco piangia,
Fecer lei partir via
Ed appriss&rsi per farmi sentire.
Quel aicea : ' Non dormire ' ;
E qual dicea: ' Perch& si te sconforte? '
Allor lasciai la nuova fantasia,
Chiamando il nome della donna mia»"
The Camoniere of Petrarch is of great authority as to the
form of this species of verse. In England the canzone was
introduced at the end of the sixteenth century by William
Drummond of Hawthornden, who has left some very beautiful
examples. In German poetry it was cultivated by A. W. von
Schlegel and other poets of the Romantic period It is doubtful,
however, whether it is in agreement with the genius of any
language but Italian, and whether the genuine " Canzone
toscana " is a form which can be reproduced elsewhere than
in Italy. (E. G.)
CAPE BRETON, the north-east portion of Nova Scotia,
Canada, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait, known
as the Gut of Canceau or Canso. Its extreme length from north
to south is about no m., greatest breadth about 87 m., and area
3120 sq. m. It juts out so far into the Atlantic that it has been
called " the long wharf of Canada," the distance to the west
coast of Ireland being less by a thousand miles than from New
York. A headland on the east coast is also known as Cape
Breton, and is said by some to be the first land made by Cabot
on his voyage in 1497-1498. The large, irregularly-shaped,
salt-water lakes of Bras d'Or communicate with the sea by two
channels on the north-east; a short ship canal connects them
with St Peter's bay on the south, thus dividing the island into
two parts. Except on the north-west, the coast-line is very
irregular, and indented with numerous bays, several of which
form excellent harbours. The most important are Aspy, St
Ann's, Sydney, Mira, Louisburg, Gabarus, St Peter's and Mabou;
of these, Sydney Harbour, on which are situated the towns of
Sydney and North Sydney, is one of the finest in North America.
There are numerous rivers, chiefly rapid hill streams not navigable
for any distance; the largest are the Denys, the Margaree,
the Baddeck and the Mira. Lake Ainslie in the west is the most
extensive of several fresh-water lakes. The surface of the island
is broken in several placesby ranges of hills of moderate elevation,
well wooded, and containing numerous picturesque glens and
gorges; the northern promontory consists of a plateau, rising
at Cape North to a height of 1800 ft. This northern projection
is formed of Laurentian gneiss, the only instance in Nova Scotia
of this formation, and is fringed by a narrow border of carboni-
ferous rocks. South of this extends a Cambrian belt, a continua-
tion of the same formation on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia.
On various portions of the west coast, and on the south side
of the island at Seacoal Bay and Little River (Richmond county),
valuable seams of coal are worked. Still more important is
the Sydney coal-field, which occupies the east coast from Mira
Bay to St Ann's. The outcrop is plainly visible at various
points along the coast, and coal has been mined in the neighbour-
hood from a very early period. Since 1893 the operations have
been greatly extended, and over 3,000,000 tons a year are now
shipped, chiefly to Montreal and Boston. The coal is bituminous,
of good quality and easily worked, most of the seams dipping
at a low angle. Several have been mined for some distance
beneath the ocean. Slate, marble, gypsum and limestone are
quarried, the latter, which is found in unlimited quantities,
being of great value as a flux in the blast-furnaces of Sydney.
Copper and iron are also found, though not in large quantities.
Its lumber, agricultural products and fisheries are also im-
portant. Nearly covered with forest at the time of its discovery,
it still exports pine, oak, beech, maple and ash. Oats, wheat,
turnips and potatoes are cultivated, chiefly for home consump-
tion; horses, cattle and sheep are reared in considerable numbers;
butter and cheese are exported. The Bras d'Or lakes and the
neighbouring seas supply an abundance of cod, mackerel, herring
and whitefish, and the fisheries employ over 7000 men. Salmon
are caught in several of the rivers, and trout in almost every
stream, so that it is visited by large numbers of tourists and
sportsmen from the other provinces and from the United States.
The Intercolonial railway has been extended to Sydney, and
crosses the Gut of Ganso on a powerful ferry. From the same
strait a railway runs up the west coast, and several shorter
lines are controlled by the mining companies. Of these the most
important is that connecting Sydney and Louisburg. Numerous
steamers, with Sydney as their headquarters, ply upon the
Bras d'Or lakes. The inhabitants are mainly of Highland
Scottish descent, and Gaelic is largely spoken in the country
districts. On the south and west coasts are found a number of
descendants of the original French settlers and of the Acadian
exiles (see Nova Scotia), and in the mining towns numbers of
Irish are employed. Several hundred Mic Mac Indians, for the
most part of mixed blood, are principally employed in making
baskets, fish-barrels and butter-firkins. Nearly the whole
population is divided between the Roman and Presbyterian
creeds, and the utmost cordiality marks the relations between
the two faiths. The population is steadily increasing, having
risen from 27,580 in 1851 to over 100,000 in 1006.
There is some evidence in favour of early Norse and Icelandic
voyages to Cape Breton, but they left no trace. It was probably
visited by the Cabots in 1497-1498, and its name may either
have been bestowed in remembrance of Cap Breton near
Bayonne, by the Basque sailors who early frequented the coast,
or may commemorate the hardy mariners of Brittany and
Normandy.
In 1629 James Stewart, fourth Lord Ochiltree, settled a small
colony at Baleine, on the east side of the island; but he was
soon after taken prisoner with all his party by Captain Daniell
of the French Company, who caused a fort to be erected at Great
Cibou (now St Ann's Harbour). By the peace of St Germain
in 1632, Cape Breton was formally assigned to France; and in
1654 it formed part of the territory granted by patent to Nicholas
Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, who made several small settlements
on the island, which, however, had only a very temporary success.
When by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the French were deprived
of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, they were still left in posses-
sion of Cape Breton, and their right to erect fortifications for
its defence was formally acknowledged. They accordingly
transferred the inhabitants of Plaisance in Newfoundland to
the settlement of Havre a l'Anglois, which soon after, under the
name of Louisburg, became the capital of Cape Breton (or He
Royale, as it was then called) , and an important military post.
CAPE COAST— CAPE COLONY
225
Cod-fishing formed the staple industry, and a large contraband
trade in French wines, brandy and sugar, was carried on with
the English colonies to the south. In 1745 it was captured by
a force of volunteers from New England, under Sir William
Pepperell (1696-1759) aided by a British fleet under Commodore
Warren (1703-1752). By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the town
was restored to France; but in 1758 was again captured by a
British force under General Sir Jeffrey Amherst and Admiral
Boscawen. On the conclusion of hostilities the island was ceded
to England by the treaty of Paris; and on the 7th of October
1763 it was united by royal proclamation to the government
of Nova Scotia. In 1784 it was separated from Nova Scotia,
and a new capital founded at the mouth of the Spanish river
by Governor Desbarres, which received the name of Sydney
in honour of Lord Sydney (Sir Thomas Townshend), then
secretary of state for the colonies. There was immediately
a considerable influx of settlers to the island, which received
another important accession by the immigration of Scottish
Highlanders from 1800 to 1828. In 1820, in spite of strong
opposition, it was again annexed to Nova Scotia. Since then,
its history has been uneventful, chiefly centring in the
development of the mining industry.
Bibliography. — Historical: Richard Brown, A History of the
Island of Cape Breton (1869), and Sir John Bourinot, Historical and
Descriptive Account of Cape Breton (1892), are both excellent. See
also Denys, Description gfogr. et hist, des cotes de VAmerique sep-
tentrionale (1672) ; richon, Lettres et memoir es du Cap Breton (1760).
General: Reports of Geological Survey, 1872 to 1 882-1 886, and
1895 to 1899 (by Robb, H. Fletcher and Faribault); H. Fletcher,
The Sydney Cool Fields, Cape Breton, N.S. (1900) ; Richard Brown,
The Coal Fields of Cape Breton (1871 ; reprinted, 1899).
CAPE COAST, a port on the Gold Coast, British West Africa,
i* 5° 5' N., i° 13' W., about 80 m. W. of Accra. Pop. (1901)
28,948, mostly Fantis. There are about 100 Europeans and a
colony of Krumen. The town is built on a low bank of gneiss
and micaceous slate which runs out into the sea and affords
some protection at the landing-place against the violence of
the surf. (This bank was the Cabo Corso of the Portuguese,
whence the English corruption of Cape Coast.) The castle faces
the sea and is of considerable size and has a somewhat imposing
appearance. Next to the castle, used as quarters for military
officers and as a prison, the principal buildings are the residence
of the district commissioner, the churches and schools of various
denominations, the government schools and the colonial hospital.
Many of the wealthy natives live in brick-built residences.
The streets are hilly, and the town is surrounded on the east and
north by high ground, whilst on the west is a lagoon. Fort
Victoria lies west of the town, and Fort William (used as a light-
house) on the east.
The first European settlement on the spot was that of the
Portuguese in 1610. In 1652 the Swedes established themselves
here and built the castle, which they named Carolusburg. In
1659 the Dutch obtained possession, but the castle was seized
in 1664 by the English under Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir)
Robert Holmes, and it has not since been captured in spite
of an attack by De Ruyter in 1665, a French attack in 1757,
and various assaults by the native tribes. Next to Elmina
it was considered the strongest fort on the Guinea Coast. Up
to 1876 the town was the capital of the British settlements on
the coast, the administration being then removed to Accra.
It is still one of the chief ports of the Gold Coast Colony, and
from it starts the direct road to Kumasi. In 1905 it was granted
municipal government. In the courtyard of the castle are
buried George Maclean (governor of the colony 1 830-1 843)
and his wife (Laetitia Elizabeth Landon). The graves are
marked by two stones bearing respectively the initials " L. E. L."
and " G. M." The land on the east side of the town is
studded with disused gold-diggers' pits. The natives are
divided into seven clans called companies, each under the rule
of recognized captains and possessing distinct customs and
fetish.
See A. Ffoulkes, " The Company System in Cape Coast Castle,"
in Jnl. African Soc. vol. vii. t 1908; and Gold Coast.
CAPE COLONY (officially, " Province of the Cape of Good
Hope "), the most southern part of Africa, a British possession
since 1806. It was named from the promontory on its south-
west coast discovered in 1488 by the Portuguese navigator Diaz,
and near which the first settlement of Europeans (Dutch) was
made in 1652. From 1872 to 1910 a self-governing colony, in
the last-named year it entered the Union of South Africa as an
original province. Cape Colony as such then ceased to exist.
In the present article, however, the word " colony " is retained.
The " provinces " referred to are the colonial" divisions existing
before the passing of the South Africa Act 1009, except in the
sections Constitution and Government and Law and Justice, where
the changes made by the establishment of the Union are set
forth. (See also South Africa.)
Boundaries and Area. — The coast-line extends from the mouth
of the Orange (28 38' S. 16 27' E.) on the W. to the mouth of
the Umtamvuna river (31 4' S. 30 12' E.) on the E., a distance
of over 1300 m. Inland the Cape is bounded E. and N.E. by
Natal, Basutoland, Orange Free State and the Transvaal; N.
by the Bechuanaland Protectorate and N. W. by Great Namaqua-
land (German S.W. Africa). From N.W. to S.E. the colony has a
breadth of 800 m., from S.W. to N.E. 750 m. Its area is 276,995
sq. m. — more than five times the size of England. Walfish Bay
(q.v.) on the west coast north of the Orange river is a detached
part of Cape Colony.
Physical Features. — The outstanding orographic feature of the
country is the terrace-formation of the land, which rises from
sea-level by well-marked steps to the immense plateau which
forms seven-eighths of South Africa. The coast region varies in
width from a few miles to as many as fifty, being narrowest on the
south-east side. The western coast line, from the mouth of the
Orange to the Cape peninsula, runs in a general south-east
direction with no deep indentations save just south of 33 S. *
where, in Saldanha Bay, is spacious and sheltered anchorage.
The shore is barren, consisting largely of stretches of white
sand or thin soil sparsely covered with scrub. The Cape
peninsula, which forms Table Bay on the north and False Bay on
the south, juts pendant beyond the normal coast line and consists
of an isolated range of hills. The scenery here becomes bold and
picturesque. Dominating Table Bay is the well-known Table
Mountain (3549 ft.), flat-topped and often covered with a " table-
cloth " of cloud. On its lower slopes and around Table Bay is
built Cape Town, capital of the colony. Rounding the storm-
vexed Cape of Good Hope the shore trends south-east in a series of
curves, forming shallow bays, until at the saw-edged reefs of Cape
Agulhas (Portuguese, Needles) in 34 51' 15* S. 20 E. the
southernmost point of the African continent is reached. Hence
the coast, now very slightly indented, runs north by east until at
Algoa Bay (25 45' E.) it takes a distinct north-east bend, and so
continues beyond the confines of the colony. Along the southern
and eastern shore the country is better watered, more fertile and
more picturesque than along the western seaboard. Cape Point
(Cape of Good Hope) stands 840 ft. above the sea ; Cape Agulhas
455 ft. Farther on the green-dad sides of the Uiteniquas
Mountains are plainly visible from the sea, and as the traveller
by boat proceeds eastward, stretches of forest are seen and
numbers of mountain streams carrying their waters to the ocean.
In this part of the coast the only good natural harbour is the
spacious estuary of the Knysna river in 23 5' E. The entrance,
which is over a bar with 14 ft. minimum depth of water, is
between two bold sandstone cliffs, called the Heads.
Off the coast are a few small islands, mainly mere rocks within
the bay. None is far from the mainland. The largest are
Dassen Island, 20 m. S. of Saldanha Bay, and Robben Island,
at the entrance to Table Bay. St Croix is a rock in Algoa Bay,
upon which Diaz is stated to have erected a cross. A number of
small islands off the coast of German South- West Africa, chiefly
valuable for their guano deposits, also belong to Cape Colony
(see Angra Pequena).
Ocean Currents. — Off the east and south shores of the colony
the Mozambique or Agulhas current sweeps south-westward
with force sufficient to set up a back drift. This back drift or
v.8
226
CAPE COLONY
[GEOGRAPHY
counter current flowing north-east is close in shore and is taken
advantage of by vessels going from Cape Town to Natal. On the
west coast the current runs northwards. It is a deflected stream
from the west drift of the " roaring forties " and coming from
Antarctic regions is much colder than the Agulhas current. Off
the southern point of the continent the Agulhas current meets the
west drift, giving rise to alternate streams of warm and cold water.
This part of the coast, subject alike to strong westerly and south-
easterly winds, is often tempestuous, as is witnessed by the name,
corruption of a Hottentot word meaning dry, arid. Having
crossed the Little Karroo, from which rise minor mountain chains,
a second high range has to be climbed. This done the traveller
finds himself on another tableland — the Great Karroo. It has an
average width of 80 m. and is about 350 m. long. Northwards
the Karroo (q.v.) is bounded by the ramparts of the great inner
tableland, of which only a comparatively small portion is in
Cape Colony. This sequence of hill and plain — namely (1) the
coast plain, (2) first range of hills, (3) first plateau (Little Karroo),
Longitude I'^ast 25 of Greenwich
Cabo Tormentoso, given to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the
many wrecks off the coast. The most famous was that of the
British troopship " Birkenhead," on the 26th of February 1852,
of! Danger Point, midway between Cape of Good Hope and Cape
Agulhas.
Mountains and Tablelands. — It has been stated that the land
rises by well-marked steps to a vast central plateau. Beyond the
coast plain, which here and there attains a height of 600 ft., are
mountain ranges running parallel to the shore. These mountains
are the supporting walls of successive terraces. When the steep
southern sides of the ranges nearest the sea are ascended the hills
are often found to be flat-topped with a gentle slope northward
giving on to a plateau rarely more than 40 m. wide. This
plateau is called the Southern or Little Karroo, Karroo being a
(4) second range of hills, (5) second plateau (the Great Karroo), (6)
main chain of mountains guarding, (7) the vast interior tableland
— is characteristic of the greater part of the colony but is not
clearly marked in the south-east and north-west borders. The
innermost, and most lofty, chain of mountains follows a curve
almost identical with that of the coast at a general distance of
120 m. from the ocean. It is known in different places under
different names, and the same name being also often given to one
or more of the coast ranges the nomenclature of the mountains is
confusing (see the map) . The most elevated portion of the inner*
most range, the Drakensberg (q.v.) follows the curve of the coast
from south to north-east. Only the southern slopes of the range
are in Cape Colony, the highest peaks — over 10,000 ft. — being in
Basutoland and Natal. Going westward from the Drakensberg
GEOGRAPHY]
CAPE COLONY
the rampart is known successively as the Stormberg, Zuurberg,
Sneeuwberg and Nieuwveld mountains. These four ranges face
directly south. In the Sneeuwberg range is Compass Berg,
8500 ft. above the sea, the highest point in the colony. In the
Nieuwveld are heights of over 6000 ft. The Komsberg range,
which joins the Nieuwveld on the east, sweeps from the south to
the north-west and is followed by the Roggeveld mountains,
which face the western seaboard. North of the Roggeveld the
interior plateau approaches closer to the sea than in southern
Cape Colony. The slope of the plateau being also westward, the
mountain rampart is less elevated, and north of 32 S. few points
attain 5000 ft. The coast ranges are here, in Namaqualand and
the district of Van Rhyns Dorp, but the outer edges of the inner
range. They attain their highest point in the Kamies Berg, 5511
ft. above the sea. Northward the Orange river, marking the
frontier of the colony, cuts its way through the hills to the
Atlantic.
From the Olifants river on the west to the Kei river on the
east the series of parallel ranges, which are the walls of the
terraces between the inner tableland and the sea, are clearly
traceable. Their general direction is always that of the coast,
and they are cut across by rugged gorges or kloofs, through
which the mountain streams make their way towards the sea.
The two chief chains, to distinguish them from the inner chain
already described, may be called the coast and central chains.
Each has many local names. West to east the central chain is
known as the Cedarberg, Groote Zwarteberg (highest point
6988 ft.), Groote river, Winterhoek (with Cockscomb mountain
5773 ft. high) and Zuurberg ranges. The Zuurberg, owing to the
north-east trend of the shore, becomes, east of Port Elizabeth, a
coast range, and the central chain is represented by a more
northerly line of hills, with a dozen different names, which are a
south-easterly spur of the Sneeuwberg. In this range the Great
Winter Berg attains a height of 7800 ft.
The coast chain is represented west to east by the Olifants
mountains (with Great Winterhoek, 6618 ft. high), Drakenstein,
Zonder Einde, Langeberg (highest point 5614 ft.), Attaquas,
Uiteniquas and various other ranges. In consequence of the
north-east trend of the coast, already noted, several of these
ranges end in the sea in bold bluffs. From the coast plain rise
many short ranges of considerable elevation, and on the east side
of False Bay parallel to Table Bay range is a mountain chain
with heights of 4000 and 5000 ft. East of the Kei river the whole
of the country within Cape Colony, save the narrow seaboard, is
mountainous. The southern part is largely occupied with spurs
of the Stormberg; the northern portion, Griqualand East and
Pondoland, with the flanks of the Drakensberg. Several peaks
exceed 7000 ft. in height. Zwart Berg, near the Basuto-Natal
frontier, rises 7615 ft. above the sea. Mount Currie, farther
south, is 7296 ft. high. The Witte Bergen (over 5000 ft. high)
are an inner spur of the Drakensberg running through the
Herschel district.
That part of the inner tableland of South Africa which is in the
colony has an average elevation of 3000 ft., being higher in the
eastern than in the western districts. It consists of wide rolling
treeless plains scarred by the beds of many rivers, often dry for a
great part of the year. The tableland is broken by the Orange
river, which traverses its whole length. North of the river the
plateau slopes northward to a level sometimes as low as 2000
ft. The country is of an even more desolate character than south
of the Orange (see Bechuanaland). Rising from the plains
are chains of isolated flat-topped hills such as the Karree
Bergen, the Asbestos mountains and Kuruman hills, compara-
tively unimportant ranges.
Although the mountains present bold and picturesque outlines
on their outward faces, the general aspect of the country north of
the coast-lands, except in its south-eastern corner, is bare and
monotonous. The flat and round- topped hills {kopjes) , which are
very numerous on the various plateaus, scarcely afford relief to the
eye, which searches the sun-scorched landscape, usually in vain,
for running water. The absence of water and of large trees is one
of the most abiding impressions of the traveller. Yet the vast
arid plains are covered with shallow beds of the richest soil,
which only require the fertilizing power of water to render them
available for pasture or agriculture. After the periodical rains,
the Karroo and the great plains of Bushmanland are converted
into vast fields of grass and flowering shrubs, but the summer sun
reduces them again to a barren and burnt-up aspect. The
pastoral lands or velds are distinguished according to the nature
of their herbage as " sweet " or " sour." Shallow sheets of water
termed vleis, usually brackish, accumulate after heavy rain at
many places in the plateaus; in the dry seasons these spots,
where the soil is not excessively saline, are covered with rich
grass and afford favourite grazing land for cattle. Only in the
southern coast-land of the colony is there a soil and moisture
supply suited to forest growth.
Rivers. — The inner chain of mountains forms the watershed of
the colony. North of this great rampart the country drains to the
Orange (q.v.), which flows from east to west nearly across the
continent. For a considerable distance, both in its upper and
lower courses, the river forms the northern frontier of Cape
Colony. In the middle section, where both banks are in the
colony, the Orange receives from the north-east its greatest
tributary, the Vaal (q.v*) . The Vaal, within the boundaries of the
colony, is increased by the Harts river from the north-east and
the Riet river from the south-east, whilst just within the colony
the Riet is joined by the Modder. All these tributaries of the
Orange flow, in their lower courses, through the eastern part of
Griqualand West, the only well-watered portion of the colony
north of the mountains. From the north, below the Vaal
confluence, the Nosob, Molopo and Kuruman, intermittent
streams which traverse Bechuanaland, send their occasional
surplus waters to the Orange. In general these rivers lose them-
selves in some vlei in the desert land. The Molopo and Nosob
mark the frontier between the Bechuanaland Protectorate and
the Cape; the Kuruman lies wholly within the colony. From
the south a number of streams, the Brak and Ongers, the Zak
and Olifants Vlei (the two last uniting to form the Hartebeest),
flow north towards the Orange in its middle course. Dry for a
great part of the year, these streams rarely add anything to the
volume of the Orange.
South of the inner chain the drainage is direct to the Atlantic
or Indian Oceans. Rising at considerable elevations, the coast
rivers fall thousands of feet in comparatively short courses, and
many are little else than mountain torrents. They make their
way down the mountain sides through great gorges, and are
noted in the eastern part of the country for their extremely
sinuous course. Impetuous and magnificent streams after heavy
rain, they become in the summer mere rivulets, or even dry up
altogether. In almost every instance the mouths of the rivers
are obstructed by sand bars. Thus, as is the case of the Orange
river also, they are, with rare exceptions, unnavigable.
Omitting small streams, the coast rivers running to the Atlantic
are the Buffalo, Olifants and Berg. It may be pointed out here
that the same name is repeatedly applied throughout South
Africa to different streams, Buffalo, Olifants (elephants') and
Groote (great) being favourite designations. They all occur
more than once in Cape Colony. Of the west coast rivers, the
Buffalo, about 125 m. long, the most northern and least important,
flows through Little Namaqualand. The Olifants (150 m.),
which generally contains a fair depth of water, rises in the
Winterhoek mountains and flows north between the Cedarberg
and Olifants ranges. The Doom, a stream with a somewhat
parallel but more easterly course, joins the Olifants about 50 m.
above its mouth, the Atlantic being reached by a semicircular
sweep to the south-west. The Berg river (125 m.) rises in the
district of French Hoek and flows through fertile country, in a
north-westerly direction, to the sea at St Helena Bay. It is
navigable for a few miles from its mouth.
On the south coast the most westerly stream of any size is the
Breede (about 165 m. long), so named from its low banks and
broad channel. Rising in the Warm Bokkeveld, it pierces the
mountains by Mitchell's Pass, flows by the picturesque towns of
Ceres and Worcester, and receives, beyond the last-named place,
228
CAPE COLONY
[CLIMATE
the waters which descend from the famous Hex River Pass.
The Breede thence follows the line of the Langeberg mountains as
far as Swellendam, where it turns south, and traversing the coast
plain, reaches the sea in St Sebastian Bay. From its mouth the
river is navigable by small vessels for from 30 to 40 m. East of
the Breede the following rivers, all having their rise on the inner
mountain chain, are passed in the order named: — Gouritz
(200 m.), 1 Gamtoos (290 m.), Sunday (190 m.), Great Salt (230 m.),
Kei (150 m.), Bashee (90 m.) and Umzimvuba or St John's
(140 m.).
The Gouritz is formed by the junction of two streams, the
Gamka and the Olifants. The Gamka rises in the Nieuwveld
not far from Beaufort West, traverses the Great Karroo from
north to south, and forces a passage through the Zwarteberg.
Crossing the Little Karroo, it is joined from the east by the
Olifants (115 m.), a stream which rises in the Great Karroo,
being known in its upper course as the Traka, and pierces the
Zwarteberg near its eastern end. Thence it flows west across the
Little Karroo past Oudtshoorn to its junction with the Gamka.
The united stream, which takes the name of Gouritz, flows south,
and receives from the west, a few miles above the point where it
breaks through the coast range, a tributary (125 m.) bearing the
common name Groote, but known in its upper course as the
Buffeis. Its headwaters are in the Komsberg. The Touws
(90 m.), which rises in the Great Karroo not far from the sources of
the Hex river, is a tributary of the Groote river. Below the
Groote the Gouritz receives no important tributaries and
enters the Indian Ocean at a point 20 m. south-west of Mossel
Bay.
The Gamtoos is also formed by the junction of two streams,
the Kouga, an unimportant river which rises in the coast hills,
and the Groote river. This, the Groote river of Cape Colony, has
its rise in the Nieuwveld near Nels Poort, being known in its upper
course as the Salt river. Flowing south-east, it is joined by the
Kariega on the left, and breaking through the escarpment of the
Great Karroo, on the lower level changes its name to the Groote,
the hills which overhang it to the north-east being known as
Groote River Heights. Bending south, the Groote river passes
through the coast chain by Cockscomb mountain, and being
joined by the Kouga, flows on as the Gamtoos to the sea at St
Francis Bay.
Sunday river does not, like so many of the Cape streams,
change its name on passing from the Great to the Little Karroo
and again on reaching the coast plain. It rises in the Sneeuwberg
north-west of Graaff Reinet, flows south-east through one of the
most fertile districts of the Great Karroo, which it pierces at the
western end of the Zuurberg (of the coast chain), and reaches the
ocean in Algoa Bay.
Great Salt river is formed by the junction of the Kat with
the Great Fish river, which is the main stream. Several small
streams rising in the Zuurberg (of the inner chain) unite to form
the Great Fish river which passes through Cradock, and crossing
the Karroo, changes its general direction from south to east, and
is joined by the Kooner (or Koonap) and Kat, both of which
rise in the Winterberg. Thence, as the Great Salt river, it winds
south to the sea. Great Fish river is distinguished for the sudden
and great rise of its waters after heavy rain and for its exceedingly
sinuous course. Thus near Cookhouse railway station it makes an
almost circular bend of 20 m., the ends being scarcely 2 m. apart,
in which distance it falls 200 ft. Although, like the other streams
which cross the Karroo, the river is sometimes dry in its upper
course, it has an estimated annual discharge of 51,724,000,000
cubic ft.
The head-streams of the Kei, often called the Great Kei, rise
in the Stormberg, and the river, which resembles the Great Fish
in its many twists, flows in a general south-east direction through
mountainous country until it reaches the coast plain. Its
mouth is 40 m. in a direct line north-east of East London. In
1 The distances given after the names of rivers indicate the length
of the river valleys, including those of the main upper branch. In
nearly all instances the rivers, owing to their sinuous course, are
much longer.
the history of the Cape the Kei plays an important part as long
marking the boundary between the colony and the independent
Kaffir tribes. (For the Umzimvuba and other Transkei rivers
see Kaffraria.)
Of the rivers rising in the coast chain the Knysna (30 m.),
Kowie (40 m.), Keiskama (75 m.) and Buffalo (45 m.) may be
mentioned. The Knysna rises in the Uiteniquas hills and is of
importance as a feeder of the lagoon or estuary of the same
name, one of the few good harbours on the coast. The banks
of the Knysna are very picturesque. Kowie river, which rises
in the Zuurberg mountains near Graham's Town, is also noted
for the beauty of its banks. At its mouth is Port Alfred. The
water over the bar permits the entrance of vessels of 10 to 12 ft.
draught. The Buffalo river rises in the hilly country north of
King William's Town, past which it flows. At the mouth of
the river, where the scenery is very fine, is East London, third
in importance of the ports of Cape Colony.
The frequency of " fontein " among the place names of the
colony bears evidence of the number of springs in the country.
They are often found on the flat-topped hills which dot the
Karroo. Besides the ordinary springs, mineral and thermal
springs are found in several places.
Lakes and Caves, — Cape Colony does not possess any lakes
properly so called. There are, however, numerous natural
basins which, filled after heavy rain, rapidly dry up, leaving an
incrustation of salt on the ground, whence their name of salt
pans. The largest, Commissioner's Salt Pan, in the arid north-
west district, is 18 to 20 m. in circumference. Besides these
pans there are in the interior plateaus many shallow pools or
vleis whose extent varies according to the dryness or moisture
of the climate. West of Knysna, and separated from the seashore
by a sandbank only, are a series of five vleis, turned in flood
times into one sheet of water and sending occasional spills to
the ocean. These vleis are known collectively as " the lakes."
In the Zwarteberg of the central chain are the Cango Caves,
a remarkable series of caverns containing many thousand of
stalactites and stalagmites. These caves, distant 20 m. from
Oudtshoorn, have been formed in a dolomite limestone bed
about 800 ft. thick. There are over 120 separate chambers,
the caverns extending nearly a mile in a straight line.
Climate. — The climate of Cape Colony is noted for its healthi-
ness. Its chief characteristics aire the dryness and clearness
of the atmosphere and the considerable daily range in tempera-
ture; whilst nevertheless the extremes of heat and cold are
rarely encountered. The mean annual temperature over the
greater part of the country is under 65° F. The chief agents
in determining the climate are the vast masses of water in the
southern hemisphere and the elevation of the land. The large
extent of ocean is primarily responsible for the lower temperature
of the air in places south of the tropics compared with that
experienced in countries in the same latitude north of the equator.
Thus Cape Town, about 34 S., has a mean temperature, 63 F.,
which corresponds with that of the French and Italian Riviera,
in 41 to 43 N. For the dryness of the atmosphere the elevation
of the country is responsible. The east and south-east winds,
which contain most moisture, dissipate their strength against
the Drakensberg and other mountain ranges which guard the
interior. Thus while the coast-lands, especially in the south-
east, enjoy an ample rainfall, the winds as they advance west
and north contain less and less moisture, so that over the larger
part of the country drought is common and severe. Along the
valley of the lower Orange rain does not fall for years together.
The drought is increased in intensity by the occasional hot
dry wind from the desert region in the north, though this wind
is usually followed by violent thunderstorms.
Whilst the general characteristics of the climate are as here
outlined, in a country of so large an area as Cape Colony there
are many variations in different districts. In the coast-lands
the daily range of the thermometer is less marked than in the
interior and the humidity of the atmosphere is much greater.
Nevertheless, the west coast north of the Olifants river is practic-
ally rainless and there is great difference between day and night
GEOLOGY]
CAPE COLONY
229
temperatures, this part of the coast sharing the characteristics
oi the interior plateau. The division of the year into four seasons
is not clearly marked save in the Cape peninsula, where excep-
tional conditions prevail In general the seasons are but two —
summer and winter, summer lasting from September to April
and winter filling up the rest of the year. The greatest heat is
experienced in December, January and February, whilst June and
July are the coldest months. In the western part of the colony
the winter is the rainy season, in the eastern part the chief rains
come is summer. A line drawn from Port Elizabeth north-west
across the Karroo in the direction of Walfish Bay roughly divides
the regions of the winter and summer rains. All the country
north of the central mountain chain and west of 23 £., including
the western part of the Great Karroo, has a mean annual rainfall
of under 12 in, East of the 23 E. the plateaus have a mean
annual rainfall ranging from 12 to 25 in. The western coast-
lands and the Little Karroo have a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in. ;
the Cape peninsula by exception having an average yearly
rainfall of 40 in. (see Cape Town). Along the south coast and
in the south-east the mean annual rainfall exceeds 25 in., and is
over 50 in. at some stations. The rain falls, generally, in heavy
and sudden storms, and frequently washes away the surface soil.
The mean annual temperature of the coast region, which, as stated,
is 63 F. at Cape Town, increases to the east, the coast not only
trending north towards the equator but feeling the effect of the
warm Mozambique or Agulhas current.
On the Karroo the mean maximum temperature is 77 F., the
mean minimum 49 , the mean daily range about 27°. In summer
the drought is severe, the heat during the day great, the nights
cool and clear. In winter frost at night is not uncommon. The
climate of the northern plains is similar to that of the Karroo,
but the extremes of cold and heat are greater. In the summer
the shade temperature reaches no° F., whilst in winter nights
12 of frost hive been registered. The hot westerly winds of
summer make the air oppressive, though violent thunderstorms,
in which form the northern districts receive most of their scanty
rainfall, occasionally clear the atmosphere. Mirages are occasion-
ally seen. The keen air, accompanied by the brilliant sunshine,
renders the winter climate very enjoyable. Snow seldom falls
in the coast region, but it lies on the higher mountains for three
or four months in the year, and for as many days on the Karroo.
Violent hailstorms, which do great damage, sometimes follow
periods of drought. The most disagreeable feature of the
climate of the colony is the abundance of dust, which seems
to be blown by every wind, and is especially prevalent in the
rainy season.
That white men can thrive and work in Cape Colony the
history of South Africa amply demonstrates. Ten generations
of settlers from northern Europe have been born, lived and died
there, and the race is as strong and vigorous as that from which
it sprang. Malarial fever is practically non-existent in Cape
Colony, and diseases of the chest are rare. (F. R. C.)
Geology. — The colony affords the typical development of the
geological succession south of the Zambezi. The following
general arrangement has been determined: —
Table of Formations.
Post- Cretaceous and Recent.
Cretaceous f Pondoland Cretaceous Series \ r«*»c*mi»
System ^Uitenhage Series J ^ fVUMXUm
(Stormberg Series 1
Beaufort Series I Carboniferous
Ecca Series f to Jurassic
Dwyka Series J
(Witteberc Series "|
8BH&2& Sandstone [ *—"■
Series J
f Includes several independent! A«4, a «,n +«
Pre-Cape Rocks^ unf ossiferous formations of > qSS^o?
L pre-Devonianage J Sl,unan(? >
The general structure of the colony is simple. It may be
regarded as a shallow basin occupied by the almost horizontal
rocks of the Karroo. These form the plains and plateaus of the
interior. Rocks of pre-Cape age rise from beneath them on the
north and west; on the south and east the Lower Karroo and
Cape systems are bent up into sharp folds, beneath which, but in
quite limited areas, the pre-Cape rocks emerge. In the folded
regions the strike conforms to the coastal outline on the south
and east.
Pre-Cape rocks occur in three regions, presenting a different
development in each: —
North.
West.
South.
Matsap Series
Nieuwerust Beds
Cango Beds
Ongeluk Volcanic Series
Gnquatown Series
Ibiquas Beds
Campbell Rand Series
Black Reef Series
Pniel Volcanic Series
Keis Series
Namaqualand Schists
Namaqualand Schists and
Malmesbury
Malmesbury Beds
Beds
The pre-Cape rocks are but little understood. They no doubt
represent formations of widely different ages, but all that can be
said is that they are greatly older than the Cape System. The
hope that they will yield fossils has been held out but not yet
fulfilled. Their total thickness amounts to several thousand feet.
The rocks have been greatly changed by pressure in most cases
and by the intrusion of great masses of igneous material, the
Namaqualand schists and Malmesbury beds being most altered.
The most prominent member of the Cango series is a coarse
conglomerate; the other rocks include slates, limestone and
porphyroids. The Ibiquas beds consist of conglomerates and
grits. Both the Cango and Ibiquas series have been invaded
by granite of older date than the Table Mountain series. The
Nieuwerust beds contain quartzite, arkose and shales. They
rest indifferently on the Ibiquas series or Malmesbury beds.
The pro-Cape rocks of the northern region occur in the Camp-
bell Rand, Asbestos mountains, Matsap and Langebergen, and in
the Schuf tebergen. They contain a great variety of sediments
and igneous rocks. The oldest, or Keis, series consists of quart-
zites, quartz-schists, phyllites and conglomerates. These are
overlain, perhaps unconformably, by a great thickness of lavas
and volcanic breccias (Pniel volcanic series, Beer Vley and
Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids), and these in turn by the quartzites,
grits and shales of the Black Reef series. The chief rocks of the
Campbell Rand series are limestones and dolomites, with some
interbedded quartzites. Among the Griquatown series of quart-
sites, limestones and shales are numerous bands of jasper and
large quantities of crocidolite (a fibrous amphibole); while
at Blink Klip a curious breccia, over 200 ft thick, is locally
developed. Evidences of one of the oldest known glaciations
have been found near the summit in the district of Hay. The
Ongehik volcanic series, consisting of lavas and breccias, conform-
ably overlies the Griquatown series; while the grits, quartzites
and conglomerates of the Matsap series rest on them with a great
discordance.
Rocks of the Cape System have only been met with in the
southern and eastern parts of South Africa. The lowest member
(Table Mountain Sandstone) consists of sandstones with sub-
ordinate bands of shale. It forms the upper part of Table
Mountain and enters largely into the formation of the southern
mountainous folded belt. It is unfossiliferous except for a few
obscure shells obtained near the base. A bed of conglomerate is
regarded as of glacial origin.
TTie Table Mountain Sandstone passes up conformably into
a sequence of sandstones and shales (Bokkeveld Beds), well
exposed in the Cold and Warm Bokkevelds. The lowest beds
contain many fossils, including Phacops, Homalonotus, Lepto-
coelia, Spirifer, Ckonetes, Orthothetes, Orthoceras, Bellerophon.
Many of the species are common to the Devonian rocks of the
Falkland Islands, North and South America and Europe, with
perhaps a closer resemblance to the Devonian fauna of South
America than to that of any other country.
The Bokkeveld beds are conformably succeeded by the sand-
stones, quartzites and shales of the Witteberg series. So far
2J0
CAPE COLONY
[FLORA AND FAUNA
Stormberg
Series
Beaufort
Series
Ecca
Series
Dwyka
Series
2000 I
I Trias
5000 |
• Permian
2600 '
Carboniferous
imperfect remains of plants (Spiropkyton) are the only fossils,
and these are not sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the
Devonian or Carboniferous System.
The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft.
The Karroo System is par excellence the geological formation of
South Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do
large tracts in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes
the following well-defined subdivisions: —
Feet.
f Volcanic Beds .... 4000 )
! Cave Sandstone .... 800 | Jurassic
I Red Beds 1400 .1
I Molteno Beds . .
( Burghersdorp Beds }
< Dicynodon Beds j
( Pareiasaurus Beds )
Shales and Sandstones )
Laingsburg Beds [
Shales )
Upper Shales 600
Conglomerates .... 1000
Lower Shales .... 700
In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape
System conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on
very much older rocks. The most remarkable deposits are
the conglomerates of the Dwyka series. These afford the
clearest evidences of glaciation on a great scale in early Carboni-
ferous times. The deposit strictly resembles a consolidated
modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks, and in
different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is
remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving south-
ward. The upper shales contain the small reptile Mesosaurus
tenuidens.
Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among
others they include Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, PhyUotheca*
The Beaufort series is noted for the numerous remains of remark-
able and often gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and
species are numerous, Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus
being the best known. Among plants Glossopteris occurs for the
last time. The Stormberg series occurs in the mountainous
regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno beds
contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable
feature of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an
extensive scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed
by lava streams of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets,
most of which end at the folded belt, are also numerous. The age
of the intrusive sheets met with in the Beaufort series is usually
attributed to the Stormberg period. They form the kopjes, or
characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great Karroo. The Storm-
berg series contains the remains of numerous reptiles. A true
crocodile, Notochampsa, has been discovered in the Red Beds
and Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, Tkinnfeldia and
Taeniopteris are common. Three genera of fossil fishes, Clei-
tkrolepis, Semionotus and Ceratodus, ascend from the Beaufort
series into the Cave Sandstone.
Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the
Uitenhage beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden.
The marine fauna of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age.
The chief genera are Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus
and certain Trigoniae.
The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are
widely spread. High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft.
above the sea. The remains of a gigantic ox, Bubalus Baini,
have been obtained from the alluvium near the Modder river.
The recent deposits indicate that the land has risen for a long
period. (W. G.*)
Fauna. — The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals
common in the early days of the colony have been exterminated
(e.g. quagga and blaauwbok), and others (e.g. the lion, rhinoceros,
giraffe) driven beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game
have been so reduced in numbers as to require special protection.
This class includes the elephant (now found only in the Knysna
and neighbouring forest regions), buffalo and zebra (strictly pre-
served, and confined to much the same regions as the elephant),
eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other kinds of antelope and
gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in the mountain-
ous districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare woolly
variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs
are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other
carnivora more or less common to the colony are the spotted
hyena, aard-wolf (or Proteles), silver jackal, the Otocyon or Cape
wild dog, and various kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a
few hundreds of rare varieties, there are the springbuck, of
which great herds still wander on the open veld, the steinbok, a
small and beautiful animal which is sometimes coursed like a
hare, the klipspringer or " chamois of South Africa/' common in
the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock rabbit.
There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of jerboa
and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been
introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the main-
land. The ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is
found on the Karroo, where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps
which dot the plain. There is also a scaly ant-eater and various
species of pangolins, of arboreal habit, which live on ants.
Baboons are found in the mountains and forests, otters in the
rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile, confined to the
Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the cobra di
capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises,
including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental
land forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some
regions. The great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft.
high. Other game birds include the francolin, quail, guinea-
fowl, sand-grouse, snipe, wild duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal,
plover and rail. Birds of prey include the bearded vulture,
aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks, falcons and owls.
Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in large variety.
Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong
to the order Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very
common, the Cape canary, long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and
wagtails are fairly numerous. The English starling is stated to
be the only European bird to have thoroughly established itself in
the colony. The Cape sparrow has completely acclimatised itself
to town life and prevented the English sparrowobtaining a footing.
Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions,
tarantula spiders, butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In
some districts the tsetse fly causes great havoc. The most
interesting of the endemic insectivora is the Chrysochloris or
" golden mole," so called from the brilliant yellow lustre of its
fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater fish, the
commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both
are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 lb. The
smallest variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the
vleis and streams in which the water is intermittent the fish
preserve life by burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been
introduced into several rivers and have become acclimatized.
Of sea fish there are more than forty edible varieties. The snock,
the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in the estuaries and
bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters of the
Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving.
Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed
by the natives when the country was discovered by Europeans.
The various farm animals introduced by the whites have thriven
well (see below, Agriculture).
Flora. — The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast
districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less
variety. In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted
in the colony, about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape.
The bush of the coast districts and lower hills consists largely
of heaths, of which there are over 400 species. The heaths and
the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a plant 1 to 2 ft. high
resembling heather, form the characteristic features of the
flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom is pink
coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry
season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the
flowers are the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group,
including many varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In
POPULATION]
CAPE COLONY
231
the eastern coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly sub-
tropical. Of pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty
genera: Cape " everlasting " flowers (generally species of
Helichrysum) are in great numbers. Several species of aloe
are indigenous to the Cape. The so-called American aloe has
also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant and many other
plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great abund-
ance. Among plants remarkable in their appearance and
structure may be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge
plants, the Stapelia or carrion flower, and the elephant's foot
or Hottentots' bread, a plant of the same order as the yam.
Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic of many South
African plants.
Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges
facing south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The
forests contain a great variety of useful woods, affording excellent
timber; among the commonest trees are the yellow wood,
which is also one of the largest, belonging to the yew species;
black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable stinkhout;
melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and
the assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed
30 ft. in height and scarcely any attain a greater height than
60 ft. A characteristic Cape tree is Leucadendron argentetm
or silver tree, so named from the silver-like lustre of stem and
leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the Cedarberg got its name,
exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the Dutch or
British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the Australian
blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle
grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands,
e.g. the Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more
rapidly and more luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few
indigenous fruits; the kei apple is the fruit of a small tree or
shrub found in Kaffraria and the eastern districts, where also
the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard pears, gourds,
water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon are also
native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been
introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of
dwarf mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the
spring rains are gorgeous in blossom (see Karroo). The grass
of the interior plains is of a coarse character and yellowish
colour, very different from the meadow grasses of England. The
" Indian " doab grass is also indigenous.
With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not
reach beyond about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered
with small heath, Bruniaceae, Rutaccae, &c. All plants with per-
manent foliage are thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over
seventy species of plants of Alpine character have been found.
Races and Population. — The first inhabitants of Cape Colony
of whom there is any record were Bushmen and Hottentots
(q.v.). The last-named were originally called Quaequaes, and
received the name Hottentots from the Dutch. They dwelt
chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of the country;
elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and to
them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was dis-
covered by Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was
very scanty and it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers
and a few Huguenot families in the 17 th century was followed
in the 19th century by that of English and German immigrants.
The Bushmen retreated before the white races and now few are
to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the districts
bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the
Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no pure bred
representatives of the race survive in the colony.
Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now
form the bulk of the native population west of the Great Fish
river. Of Kaffir tribes the most important living north of the
Orange river are the Bechuanas, whilst in the eastern province
and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus and Pondos. The
Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony proper.
The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot
half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country.
During the slavery period many thousands of negroes were
imported, chiefly from the Guinea coast. The negroes have been
largely assimilated by the Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the
native races see their separate articles.) Of the white races
in the Colony the French element has been completely absorbed
in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are mainly
pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased
form their own language, also engage largely in agriculture
and viticulture. Of fine physique and hardy constitution,
they are of strongly independent character; patriarchal in
their family life; shrewd, slim and courageous; in religion
Protestants of a somewhat austere type. Education is somewhat
neglected by them, and the percentage of illiteracy among adults
is high. They are firm believers in the inferiority of the black
races and regard servitude as their natural lot. The British
settlers have developed few characteristics differing from the
home type. The British element of the community is largely
resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in
professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk
of the farmers are English or German; the German farmers
being found in the district between King William's Town and
East London, and on the Cape Peninsula. Numbers of them
retain their own language. The term " Africander " is some-
times applied to all white residents in Cape Colony and
throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to
the Dutch-speaking colonists. " Boer," i.e. farmer, as a synonym
for " Dutch," is not in general use in Cape Colony.
Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of
Malays in Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the
Dutch as slaves. These people are largely leavened •with
foreign elements and, professing Mahommedanism, religion rather
than race is their bond of union. They add greatly by their
picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street scenes. They are
generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There are also
a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of
the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the tool
or vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites,
as it is of the natives in the western provinces.
The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the
colony, which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not
include the comparatively densely-populated Native Territories,
was 566,158. Of these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or
about 33 % of the whole. Of the coloured races the Hottentots
and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000, whilst the Kaffirs formed
about 50% of the population. Since 1865 censuses have been
taken — in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland formed
part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand
East, Griqualand West and Walnsh Bay had been incorporated,
and Basutoland had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland
and British Bechuanaland had been added. The following
table gives the area and population at each of the three periods.
1875-
1891.
1904.
Area,
sq. m.
Pop.
Area,
sq. m.
Pop.
Area,
sq. m.
Pop.
201,136
849,160
260,918
1,527,224
276,995
2,409,804
The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at
720,984, and that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is
officially divided into nine provinces, but is more conveniently
treated as consisting of three regions, to which may be added the
detached area of Walfish Bay and the islands along the coast of
Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows the distribution
of population in the various areas.
The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865
and 579,741 in 1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783
in 1875 and 376,987 in 1891. The proportion of Dutch descended
whites to those of British origin is about 3 to 2. No exact
comparison can be made showing the increase in the native
population owing to the varying areas of the colony, but the
natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites; the
increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in consider-
able measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 2 5 %
232
CAPE COLONY
[POPULATION
of the total population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the
colony proper. The great bulk of the people inhabit the coast
region. The population is densest in the south-west corner (which
includes Cape Town, the capital) where the white outnumbers
Population (1904).
Area in
sq. m.
White.
Coloured.
Total.
Per
sq. m.
Cape Colony Proper .
British Bechuanaland.
Native Territories
Walfish Bay and Islands .
Total
206,613
51.424
18,310
648
553.452
9.368
16,777
144
936,239
75,104
817,867
853
1489,691
84.472
834.644
997
7-21
1 64
45-50
1 -50
276,995
579.741
1,830,063
2,409,804
870
the coloured population. Here in an area of 171 1 sq. m. the
inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The urban
population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns
and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25 % of the
total population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabit-
ants at the 1904 census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as
Indians, 85,892 as Hottentots, 1 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as
Griquas. The Kaffir and Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067
individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes separately classified, while
279,662 persons were described as of mixed race. Divided by
sex (including white and black) the males numbered (1904)
1,218,040, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion
of 97-70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is: — whites,
82*16 females to every 100 males (a decrease of 10 % compared
with 1891); coloured, 103*22 females to every 100 males. Of
the total population over 14 years old — 1,409,975 — the number
married was 738,563 or over 50 %. Among the white population
this percentage was only reached in adults over 17.
The professional,commercial and industrialoccupationsemploy
about ith of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged
in such pursuits numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and
67,278, whereas 99,319 were engaged in domestic employment,
and 111,175 in agricultural employment, while 214,982 (mostly
children) were dependants. The natives follow domestic and
agricultural pursuits almost exclusively.
Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory
till 1895. Among the European population the birth-rate is
about 33*00 per thousand, and the death-rate 14-00 per thousand.
The birth-rate among the coloured inhabitants is about the same
as with the whites, but the death-rate is higher— about 25-00
per thousand.
Immigration and Emigration.— From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337
persons availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants
from England to the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped.
The total number of adult immigrants by sea, however, steadily
increased from 11,559 in 1891 to 38,669 in 1896, while during the
same period the number of departures by sea only increased from
£415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took place in the last
year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the political
position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants, while
the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900
there were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163
departures. Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the
immigration figures rose in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures
numbered 29,615. This great increase proved transitory; in
1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered 32,282 and 33,775
respectively, while in the same years the emigrants numbered
33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21-68 % of the Euro-
pean population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian
extraction constituting the strongest foreign element.
Provinces. — The first division of the colony for the purposes
of administration and election of members for the legislative
council was into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the
western being largely Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly
British. With the growth of the colony these provinces were
found to be inconveniently large, and by an act of government,
1 This is an overstatement. The director of the census estimated
the true number of Hottentots at about 56,000.
which became law in 1874, the country was portioned out into
seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were
formed within them by the reduction of those already existing.
The seven provinces are named from their geographical position:
western, north-western, south-western,
eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and
midland. In general usage the distinction
made is into western and eastern provinces,
according to the area of the primary division.
Griqualand West on its incorporation with
the colony in 1880 became a separate pro-
vince, and when the crown colony of British
Bechuanaland was taken over by the Cape
in 1895 it also became a separate province
(see Griqualand and Bechuanaland). For electoral purposes
the Native Territories (see Kapfraria) are included in the eastern
province.
Chief Towns. — With the exception of Kimberley the principal
towns (see separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape
Town, had a population (1904) of 77,668, or including the
suburbs, 169,641. The most important of these suburbs, which
form separate municipalities, are Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg
(18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley, the centre of the
diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape Town,
had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of
Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959
inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river,
25,220. Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London.
Uitenhage (pop. 12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth.
Of the other towns Somerset West (2613), Somerset West Strand
(3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl (11,293), Wellington (4881),
Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (381 1), Caledon (3508), Worcester
(7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are named
in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam
is distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony
are Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West
(5478), Victoria West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of
Mossel Bay (4206) and George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083),
Middleburg (6137), Cradock (7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steyns-
burg (2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more centrally situated,
while in the east are Graham's Town (13,887), King William's
Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molten© (2725), Burghersdorp
(2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North
(5566) , the largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset
East (5216). Simon's Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of
the British navy. Maf eking (2713), in the extreme north of the
colony near the Transvaal frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg
(2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad (2903) is the capital of
Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of Tembuland.
Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines,
whose headquarters are at O'okiep (2106). Knysna, Port
Alfred and Port St Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and
Barkly West are two widely separated towns, the first being
E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West in Griqualand West.
Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the middle course
of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on the
north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western
part of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-
mining region in the east of the colony. The general plan of the
small country towns is that of streets laid out at right angles, and
a large central market square near which are the chief church,
town hall and other public buildings. In several of the towns,
notably those founded by the early Dutch settlers, the streets are
tree-lined. Those towns for which no population figures are
given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000 inhabitants.
Agriculture and Allied Industires. — Owing to the scarcity of
water over a large part of the country the area of land under
cultivation is restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are
pastoralists, whose wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep
and goats, horses, and, in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of
adequate irrigation much fertile soil is left untouched.
The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000
INDUSTRY]
CAPE COLONY
233
bushels in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and
Kaffir corn (a kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing
districts are in the south-western and eastern provinces. The
yield per acre is fully up to the average of the world's yield,
computed at twelve bushels to the acre. The quality of Cape
wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives its name to the
Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower hills of
Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and
horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and
Kaffir corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider
area than any other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest
crop grown. They are often cut whilst still tender, dried and
used as forage being known as oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of
about 5 J lb each were produced in 1904). The principal vege-
tables cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold and beet, beans
and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small, whilst those
devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging from 3000
acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers
own the farms they occupy.
The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief
occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000
woolled and 3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There
were 2,775,000 angora and 4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000
cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000 asses. These figures showed
in most cases a large decrease compared with those obtained in
' 189 1 , the cause being largely the ravages of rinderpest. Lucerne
and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich farms are
maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country, young
birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres
supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated
ostriches in 1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over
200,000 since 1891. There are large mule-breeding establish-
ments on the veld.
Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony.
It is doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to
the Cape. The first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards,
while the cuttings of French vines introduced by the Huguenots
about 1 688 have given rise to an extensive culture in the south-
western districts of the colony. The grapes are among the finest
in the world, whilst the fruit is produced in almost unrivalled
abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of wine are
produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000,
and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides
1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those
known as Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot.
The high reputation which they had in the first half of the 19th
century was afterwards lost to a large extent. Owing to greater
care on the part of growers, and the introduction of French-
American resistant stocks to replace vines attacked by the
phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th century again
acquired 41 limited sale in England. By far the greater part
of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the
colony. The chief wine-producing districts are those of the
Paarl, Worcester, Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and
the Cape, all in the south-western regions. Beyond the
colony pnoper there are promising vine stocks in the Gor-
donia division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata district of
Tembuland.
Fruit culture has become an important industry with the
facilities afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in
Europe. The trees whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection
and yield the largest harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and
apple. Large quantities of table grapes are also grown. Many
millions of each of the fruits named are produced annually. The
pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees likewise flourish. Cherry
trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive was begun in the
western provinces, c. 1900. In the Oudtshoorn, Stockenstroom,
Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is grown.
The output for 1004 was 5,309,000 lb.
Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to
that of diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres
are Port Elizabeth and the Cape district. In 1904 the output
of the mills was valued at over £2,200,000, more than 7,000,000
bushels of wheat being ground.
Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown
property and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries
were little developed before 1897 when government experiments
were begun, which proved that large quantities of fish were
easily procurable by trawling. Large quantities of soles are
obtained from a trawling ground near Cape Agulhas. The collec-
tion of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is under govern-
ment control.
Mining. — The mineral wealth of the country is very great.
The most valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in
Griqualand West and also at Hopetown, and other districts along
the Orange river. The diamond-mining industry is almost
entirely under the control of the De Beers Mining Company.
From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come larger numbers
of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the world
combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years
1 896-1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and
a half million carats, of the average annual value of £4,250,000,
the average price per carat being £1 : 13 : 3. From the other
districts alluvial diamonds are obtained of the average annual
value of £25o,ooo-£40o,ooo. They are finer stones than the
Kimberley diamonds, having an average value of £3:2:7
per carat. r/» , - .
Next in importance among mineral products are coal and
copper. The collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of
considerable extent. The Indwe mines are the most productive.
The colonial output increased from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000
tons in 1904. The copper mines are in Namaqualand, an average
of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined yearly. Copper was
the first metal worked by white men in the colony, operations
beginning in 1852.
Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near
Mafeking — the outcrop extending about 30 m. — and, in small
quantities, from mines in the Knysna district. In the Cape
and Paarl districts are valuable stone and granite quarries.
Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which neighbourhood
there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several
districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown
and Uitenhage divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near
Cape Town. Many other minerals exist but are not put to
industrial purposes.
Trade. — The colony has not only a large trade in its own com*
modities, but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods
to and from the Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia.
The staple exports are diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand
mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich feathers, mohair, hides and
skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000 lb in i860, had
doubled by 187 1, and was over 63,473,000 tt> in 1905 when the
export was valued at £1,887,459. In the same year (1905)
471,024 lb of ostrich feathers were exported valued at £1,081,187.
The chief imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky,
timber, hardware and machinery. The value of the total imports
rose from £13,61 2,405 in 1895 to £33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped
to £20,000,913 in 1905. The exports in 1895 were valued at
£16,798,137 and rose to £23,247,258 in 1899. The dislocation
of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics brought
down the exports in 1900 to £7,646,682 (in which year the
value of the gold exported was only £336,795). They rose to
£10,000,000 and £16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and
in 1905 had reached £33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold
valued at £20,731,159.) About 75 % of the imports come from
the United Kingdom or British colonies, and nearly the whole of
the exports go to the United Kingdom. The tonnage of ships
entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from 10,175,903 in 1895
to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year ^ths of the tonnage was
British. It is interesting to compare the figures already given with
those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the colony
over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country
was under £1,000,000, in i860 it had risen to over £4,500,000,
in 1874 it exceeded £10,500,000. It remained at about this
v. 8 a
234
CAPE COLONY
[COMMUNICATIONS
figure until the development of the Witwatersrand gold mines.
The consequent great increase in the carrying trade with the
Transvaal led to some neglect of the internal resources of the
colony. Trade depression following the war of 1 899-1 902
turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory results.
The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was
£12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony
being £1 5,302,854. A " trade balance-sheet " for 1906 drawn up
for the Cape Town chamber of commerce by its president showed,
however, a debtor account of £18,751,000 compared with a credit
account of £17,931,000, figures representing with fair accuracy
the then economic condition of the country.
Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union.
The tariff, revised in 1906, is protective with a general ad
valorem rate of 15% on goods not specifically enumerated. On
machinery generally there is a 3% ad valorem duty. Books,
engravings, paintings, sculptures, &c. , are on the free list. There
is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United Kingdom,
machinery from Great Britain thus entering free.
Communications. — There is regular communication between
Europe and the colony by several lines of steamships. The
British mails are carried under contract with the colonial govern-
ment by packets of the Union-Castle Steamship Co., which
leave Southampton every Saturday and Cape Town every
Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m.,
according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the
distance in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers
sail once a week, or oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days)
East London (543 m., three days) and Durban (823 m., four
or five days); Mossel Bay being called at once a fortnight.
Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated intervals
for Port Nolloth.
Steamers of the D.O.A.L. {Deutsche Ost Afrika Link) starting
from Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three
chief Cape ports. The western route is via Dover to Cape Town,
the eastern route is via the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines
of steamers ply between Cape Town and Australian ports, and
others between Cape Colony and India.
There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers
crossing main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the
colony is that which spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is
1480 ft. long and cost £114,000. Of the roads in general it may
be said that they are merely tracks across the veld made at the
pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally used as a
draught animal in country districts remote from railways;
sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying
3 to 4 tons. Traction-engines have in some places sup-
planted the ox-wagon for bringing agricultural produce to
market. The " Scotch cart/' a light two-wheeled vehicle is also
much used.
Railways. — Railway construction began in 1859 when a private
company built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line,
64 m. long, was the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen
years. In 187 1 parliament resolved to build railways at the
public expense, and in 1873 (the year following the conferment
of responsible government on the colony) a beginning was made
with the work, £5,000,000 having been voted for the purpose. In
the same year the Cape Town-Wellington line was bought by
the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private
companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving
subsidies from the government, which owns and works the
greater part of the railways in the colony.
The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines
from the seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines
then begun determined the development of the whole system.
The standard gauge in South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways
mentioned are of that gauge unless otherwise stated.
The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classi-
fied under three great systems: — the Western, the Midland and
the Eastern.
The Western system — the southern section of the Cape to
Cairo route — starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley
(647 m.) to Vryburg (774 m.), whence it is continued by the
Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking (870 m.), Bulawayo (1360m.),
the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623 m.) and the Belgian
Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs via
Salisbury to Beira % ^2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen
Streams, a station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via
Klerksdorp to Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most
direct route between Cape Town and the Transvaal. (Distance
from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955 m.)
The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main
line runs by Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval's Pont on the
Orange river, whence it is continued through the Orange River
Colony and the Transvaal by Bloemfontein to Johannesburg
(714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria (741 m.). From
Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and Johannes-
burg, a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban,
and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and
Port Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line
(186 m.) runs by Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the
main line at Rosmead, from which a junction line (83 m.) runs
eastwards, connecting with the Eastern system at Stormberg.
From Naauwpoort another junction line (69 m.) runs north-west,
connecting the Midland with the Western system at De Aar,
and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from
Cape Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to
Johannesburg via Naauwpoort, 1012 m.)
The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal
line runs to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony,
where it joins the line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal.
(Distance from East London to Johannesburg, 665 m.) From
Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a branch, originally
the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.).
The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways
running for the most part parallel with the coast. Starting
from Worcester, 109 m. from Cape Town on the western main
line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via Swellendam and Rivers-
dale. From Mossel Bay another line runs by George, Oudt-
shoorn and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from
Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town
666 m.) From Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King
William's Town to Blaney junction on the eastern main line
and 31m. from East London. The Somerset East line crosses,
at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line from Port Elizabeth
to the north, and by this route the distance between Port Elizabeth
and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905 of
the Somerset East-King William's Town line, the nearest railway
connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and
Stormberg junction — a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom
junction on the eastern main line a branch railway goes through
the Transkei to connect at Riverside, the frontier station, with
the Natal railways. It runs via the Indwe coal-mines (66 m.
from Sterkstroom), Madear (173 m.) and Kokstad. From
Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also
connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele,
a station 51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata
(180 m. distant). Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns
(307 m. from East London), whence another line 142 m. long
goes to Kokstad.
Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all
the towns within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked
to it by railway. Longer branches run from the capital S.E.
to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via Malmesbury (47 m.), and
Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A line runs N.W.
across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line via
Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction,
a fine (m m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange
river* From Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahams-
town, whence another line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port
Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie river. Another line (179 m.)
on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port Elizabeth via Humans-
dorp to Avontuur.
A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from
GOVERNMENT!
CAPE COLONY
235
Fort Nolloth on the west coast to the O'okiep copper mines
(92 m.). It has a gauge of 2 ft. 6 in.
The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively
short distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the
Karroo. The steepest gradient is on the western main line.
Having entered the hilly district at Tulbagh Road, where the
railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the Hex River Pass is reached
soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above the sea. In the
next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that distance
being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is the
most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from
East London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m.
from its starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft.,
at Cathcart (109 m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cypher-
gat, where it pierces the Stormberg, 204 m. from East London,
the rails are 5450 ft. above the sea. From Sterkstroom to
Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The highest railway
station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the Zuurberg,
on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems.
The capital expended on government railways to the end of
1905 was £29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of £10,034. The
gross earnings in 1905 were £4,047,065 (as compared with
£3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses £3,076,920 (as compared with
£1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in 1905 numbered
20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000 lb).
Posts and Telegraphs. — Direct telegraphic communication
between London and Cape Town was established on Christmas
day 1879. Cables connect the colony with Europe (1) via
Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena, Ascension and
St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar
and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and
Cocas.
An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji,
on Lake Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other
lines connect Cape Town with all other South African states,
while within the colony there is a complete system of telegraphic
communication, over 8000 m. of lines being open in 1906.
The telephone service is largely developed in the chief towns.
The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely
built, at a cost up to 1906 of £865,670, by the government,
which in 1873 took over the then existing lines (782 m.).
The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the
reach of the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts
of Gordonia (Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails.
Since 1890 a yearly average of over 50,000,000 has passed
through the post. Of these about four-fifths are letters.
Constitution and Government. — Under the constitution estab-
lished in 1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legis-
lature consisted of two chambers, a Legislative Council and a
House of Assembly. Members of the Legislative Council or
Upper House represented the provinces into which the colony
was divided and were elected for seven years; members of the
House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for
five years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces.
At the head of the executive was a governor appointed by the
crown. By the South Africa Act 1909 this constitution was
abolished as from the establishment of the Union of South Africa
in 19 10. Cape Colony entered the Union as an original province,
being represented in the Union parliament by eight members in
the Senate and fifty-one in the House of Assembly. The qualifi-
cations of voters for the election of members of the House of
Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at the
establishment of the Union, and are as follows: — Voters must
be born or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape
province at least twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no
distinction being made as to race or colour), must be in possession
of property worth £75, or in receipt of salary or wages of not less
than £50 a year. !No one not an elector in 1892 can be registered
as a voter unless he can sign his name and write his address and
occupation, A share in tribal occupancy does not qualify for a
vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified for
election to parliament (see further South Atsica). The number
of registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000
were non-Europeans.
For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting
of the same number of members as are elected by the province
to the House of Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the
council are the same as for the House of Assembly. All voters,
European and non-European, are eKgible for seats on the
council, but any councillor who becomes a member of parliament
thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial council.
The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation
within the province for purely local purposes, and generally
controls all matters of a merely local or private nature in the
province. The council was also given, for five years following
the establishment of the Union, control of elementary education.
All ordinances passed by the council must have the sanction of
the Union government before coming into force. The council
is elected for three years and is not subject to dissolution save
by effluxion of time. TTxe chief executive officer is an official
appointed by the Union government and styled administrator
of the province. The administrator holds his post for a period
of five years. He is assisted by an executive committee consist-
ing of four persons elected by the provincial council but not
necessarily members of that body.
To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the
divisional and municipal councils of the province, but the powers
of such subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn
by the Union parliament acting directly. Divisional councils,
which are elected triennialry, were established in 1855. In
1908 they numbered eighty-one. The councils are presided
over by a civil commissioner who is also usually resident
magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the division;
can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money
on the security of the rates for public works; and return
three members yearly to the district licensing court. Their
receipts in 1908 were £269,000; their expenditure in the same
period was £283,000. The electors to the divisional councils are
the owners or occupiers of immovable property. Members of
the councils must be registered voters and owners of immovable
property in the division valued at not less than £500.
Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for
the most part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal
Act of 1882. Certain municipalities have, however, obtained
special acts for their governance. In 1907 there were 119
municipalities in the province. Under the act of 1882 the
municipalities were given power to levy annually an owner's
rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and
a tenant's rate assessed upon the annual value of such property.
No rate may exceed 2d. in the £ on the capital value or 8d. in
the £ on the annual value. The receipts of the municipalities
in 1907 amounted to £1,430,000. During the same period
the expenditure amounted to £1,539,000.
Law and Justice. — The basis of the judicial system is the
Roman-Dutch law, which has been, however, modified by
legislation of the Cape parliament. In each division of the
province there is a resident magistrate with primary jurisdiction
in civil and criminal matters. The South Africa Act 1909
created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the supreme court of
the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town, becoming a
provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over by a
judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony,
namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham's
Town, and the high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley,
became local divisions of the Supreme Court of South Africa.
Each of these courts consists of a judge-president and two
puisne judges. The provincial and local courts, besides their
original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which the
government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which
the validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into
question. From the decisions of these courts appeals may
be made to the appellate division of the Supreme Court. The
judges of the divisional courts go on circuit twice a year.
In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at
236
CAPE COLONY
[FINANCE
Kimberley for trying cases relating to illicit diamond
buying (" I.D.B."). This court consists of two judges of the
supreme court and one other member, hitherto the civil com-
missioner or the resident magistrate of Kimberley. The Trans-
keian territories, which fall under the jurisdiction of the eastern
district court, are subject to a Native Territories Penal Code,
which came into force in 1887. Besides the usual magistrates
in these territories, there is a chief magistrate, resident at Cape
Town, with two assistants in the territories.
Religion. — Up to the year 1876 government provided an
annual grant for ecclesiastical purposes which was divided
among the various churches, Congregationalists alone declining
to receive state aid. From that date, in accordance with the
provisions of the Voluntary Act of 1875, grants were only con-
tinued to the then holders of office. The Dutch Reformed
Church, as might be anticipated from the early history of the
country, is by far the most numerous community. Next in
number of adherents among the white community come the
Anglicans — Cape Colony forming part of the Province of South
Africa. In 1 847 a bishop of Cape Town was appointed to preside
over this church, whose diocese extended not only over Cape
Colony and Natal, but also over the Island of St Helena. Later,
however, separate bishops were appointed for the eastern
province (with the seat at Graham's Town) and for Natal.
Subsequently another bishopric, St John's, Kaff raria, was created
and the Cape Town diocesan raised to the rank of archbishop.
Of other Protestant bodies the Methodists outnumber the
Anglicans, eight-ninths of their members being coloured people.
The Roman Catholics have bishops in Cape Town and Graham's
Town, but are comparatively few. There are, besides, several
foreign missions in the colony, the most important being the
Moravian, London and Rhenish missionary societies. The
Moravians have been established since 1732.
The following figures are extracted from the census returns
of 1904: — Protestants, 1,305,453; Roman Catholics, 38,118;
Jews, 19,537; Mahommedans, 22,623; other sects, 4297; "no
religion," 1,016,255. In this last category are placed the pagan
natives. The figures for the chief Protestant sects were: —
Dutch Reformed Church, 399,487; Gereformeerde Kerk, 6209;
Lutherans, 80,902; Anglicans, 281,433; Presbyterians, 88,660;
Congregationalists, 112,202; Wesleyan and other Methodists,
290,264; Baptists, 14,105. Of the Hottentots 77%, of the
Fingoes 50%, of the mixed races 89%, and of the Kaffirs and
Bechuanas 26% were returned as Christians.
Education. — There is a state system of primary education
controlled by a superintendent-general of education and the
education department which administers the parliamentary
grants. As early as 1839 a scheme of public schools, drawn up
by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer, came into operation,
and was continued until 1865, when a more comprehensive
scheme was adopted. In 1905 an act was passed dividing the
colony into school districts under the control of popularly elected
school boards, which were established during 1905-1006. These
boards levy, through municipal or divisional councils, a rate
for school purposes and supervise all public and poor schools.
The schools are divided into public undenominational elementary
schools; day schools and industrial institutions for the natives;
mission schools to which government aid for secular instruction
is granted; private farm schools, district boarding schools,
training schools for teachers, industrial schools for poor whites,
&c. In 1905 2930 primary schools of various classes were open.
Education is not compulsory, but at the 1904 census 95% of
the white population over fourteen years old could read and write.
In the same year 186,000 natives could read and write, and
53,000 could read but not write. There are also numbers of
private schools receiving no government aid. These include
schools maintained by the German community, in which the
medium of instruction is German.
The university of the Cape of Good Hope, modelled on that of
London, stands at the head of the educational system of the
colony. It arose out of and superseded the board of public
examiners (which had been constituted in 1858), was established
in 1874 and was granted a royal charter in 1877. It is governed
by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor (who is chairman of the
university council) and a council consisting (1909) of 38 members,
including representa tives of Natal. The university is empowered
to grant degrees ranking equally with those of any university in
Great Britain. Originally only. B.A., M.A., LL.B., LL.D., M.B.,
and M.D. degrees were conferred, but degrees in literature,
science and music and (in 1908) in divinity were added. The
number of students who matriculated rose from 34 in 1875
to 118 in 1885, 242 in 1895 and 539 in 1005. The examina-
tions are open to candidates irrespective of where they
have studied, but under the Higher Education Act grants
are paid to seven colleges that specially devote themselves
to preparing students for the graduation courses. These
are the South African College at Cape Town (founded in
1829), the Victoria College at Stellenbosch, the Diocesan
College at Rondebosch, Rhodes University College, Graham's
Town, Gill College at Somerset East, the School of Mines
at Kimberley and the Huguenot Ladies' College at Welling-
ton. Several denominational colleges, receiving no govern-
ment aid, do the same work in a greater or less degree, the
best known being St Aidan's (Roman Catholic) College and
Kingswood (Wesleyan) College, both at Graham's Town.
Graaff Reinet College, Dale College, King William's Town, and
the Grey Institute, Port Elizabeth, occupy the place of high
schools under the education department. The Theological
Seminary at Stellenbosch prepares theological students for the
ministry of the Dutch Church. At Cape Town is a Royal Observa-
tory, founded in 1829, one of the most important institutions of
its kind in the world. It is under the control of a royal astro-
nomer and its expenses are defrayed by the British admiralty.
Defence. — The Cape peninsula is fortified with a view to
repelling attacks from the sea. Simon's Town, which is on the
east side of the peninsula, is the headquarters of the Cape and
West Coast naval squadron. It is strongly tatified, as is also
Table Bay. Port Elizabeth is likewise fortified against naval
attack. A strong garrison of the British army is stationed in the
colony, with headquarters at Cape Town. The cost of thi9
garrison is borne by the imperial government. For purposes of
local defence a force named the Frontier Armed and Mounted
Police was organized in 1853, and a permanent colonial force has
been maintained since that date. It is now known as the Cape
Mounted Riflemen and is about 700 strong. Its ordinary duty
is to preserve order in the Transkeian territories. The Cape
Mounted Police, over 1600 strong, are also available for the
defence of the colony and are fully armed. There are numerous
volunteer corps, which receive a capitation grant from the govern-
ment. By a law passed in 1878 every able-bodied man between
eighteen and fifty is liable to military service without as well as
within the limits of the state. There is also a volunteer naval force.
Revenue, Debt, 6*c. — The following table shows the total receipts
(including loans) and payments (including that under Loan Acts)
of the colony in various financial years, from 1880 to 1905: —
Year ending
30th June.
Receipts.
Loans
Payments.
Total.
(included in total).
1880
£3,556,6oi
£3,742,665
1885
£3,814,947
£496,795
4,211,832
1890
5,571,907
1,141,857
5,327,496
1895
5,416,611
26,441
5,388,157
1900
6,565,752
128,376
7.773,230
10,914,784
X905
13,856,247
5,214,290
The colony had a public debt of £42,109,561 on the 31st of
December 1005, including sums raised for corporate bodies,
harbour boards, &c, but guaranteed in the general revenue.
The greater part of the loans were issued at 3 J or 4% interest.
Nearly the whole of the loans raised have been spent on railways,
harbours, irrigation and other public works. The value of
assessed property for divisional council purposes was returned in
1 005 at £8 7 ,078, 268. The total revenue of the divisional councils
increased from £160,558 in 1001 to £273,543 in 1905, and the
HISTORY]
CAPE COLONY
237
expenditure from £170,892 in 1901 to £243,241 in 1905. The
receipts from municipal rates and taxes rose from £520,587 in
1901 to £700,103 in 1005; the total municipal receipts in the
same period from £978,867 to £1,752,105. At the end of 1905
the total indebtedness of the municipalities was £5,775>4 2 o, and
the value of assessed property within the municipal bounds
£53,948,224.
Banks. — The following table gives statistics of the banks under
trust laws: —
31st
December.
Including Head Offices.
Circulation,
Colony only.
Assets and
Liabilities,
Colony only.
Capital
Subscribed.
Capital
Paid up.
Reserve.
1890
1895
1900
1905
£5,780,610
7,189,090
12,166,800
11,510,900
£1,558,612
2,382,003
6,508,308
4.456,925
£850,489
1,008,837
1,810,621
2,948,428
£740,210
612,266
1,361,637
1,065,251
£9,221,661
11,864,152
20,537.343
20,749.988
Standard Time, Money, Weights and Measures. — Since 1903 a
standard time has been adopted throughout South Africa, being
that of 30 or two hours east of Greenwich. In other words
noon in South Africa corresponds to 10.0 a.m. in London. The
actual difference between the meridians of Greenwich and Cape
Town is one hour fourteen minutes. The monetary system is
that of Great Britain and the coins in circulation are exclusively
British. Though all the standard weights and measures are
British, the following old Dutch measures are still used: —
Liquid Measure: Leaguer = about 128 imperial gallons; half
aum = i5§ imperial gallons; anker =7$ imperial gallons. Cap-
acity: Muid=3 bushels. The general surface measure is the old
Amsterdam Mar gen, reckoned equal to 2-11654 acres; 1000
Cape lineal feet are equal to 1033 British imperial feet. The Cape
ton is 2000 lb.
The Press. — The first newspaper of the colony, written in
Dutch and English, was published in 1824, and its appearance
marked an era not only in the literary but in the political
history of the colony, since it drew to a crisis the disputes which
had arisen between the colonists and the governor, Lord Charles
Somerset, who had issued a decree prohibiting all persons from
convening or attending public meetings. Its criticisms on
public affairs soon led to its suppression by the governor, and a
memorial from the colonists to the king petitioning for a free
press was the result. This boon was secured to the colony in 1 8 28,
and the press soon became a powerful agent, characterized by
public spirit and literary ability. In politics the newspapers are
divided, principally on racial lines, appealing either to the
British or the Dutch section of the community, rarely to both
sides. There are about one hundred newspapers in English or
Dutch published in the colony.
The chief papers are the Cape Times, Cape Argus, South
African News (Bond), both daily and weekly; the Diamond
Fields Advertiser (Kimberley) and the Eastern Province Herald
(Port Elizabeth). Ons Land and Het Dagblad are Dutch papers
published at Cape Town. (F. R. C.)
History
Discovery and Settlement. — Bartholomew Diaz, the Portuguese
navigator, discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and
Vasco da Gama in 1497 sailed along the whole coast of South
Africa on his way to India. The Portuguese, attracted by the
riches of the East, made no permanent settlement at the Cape.
But the Dutch, who, on the decline of the Portuguese power,
established themselves in the East, early saw the importance of
the place as a station where their vessels might take in water and
provisions. They did not, however, establish any post at the
Cape until 1652, when a small garrison under Jan van Riebeek
were sent there by the Dutch East India Company. Riebeek
landed at Table Bay and founded Cape Town. In 167 1 the first
purchase of land from the Hottentots beyond the limits of the
fort built by Riebeek marked the beginning of the Colony proper.
The earliest colonists were for the most part people of low station
or indifferent character, but as the result of the investigations
of a commissioner sent out in 1685 a better class of immigrants
was introduced. About 1686 the European population was
increased by a number of the French refugees who left their
country on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The influence
of this small body of immigrants on the character of the Dutch
settlers was marked. The Huguenots, however, owing to the
policy of the Company, which in 1701 directed that Dutch only
should be taught in the schools, ceased by the middle of the 18th
century to be a distinct body, and the knowledge of French
disappeared. Advancing north and
east from their base at Cape Town
the colonists gradually acquired —
partly by so-called contracts, partly
by force — all the land of the Hot-
tentots, large numbers of whom they
slew. Besides those who died in
warfare, whole tribes of Hottentots
were destroyed by epidemics of
smallpox in 1 713 and in 1755. Straggling remnants still main-
tained their independence, but the mass of the Hottentots took
service with the colonists as herdsmen, while others became
hangers-on about the company's posts and grazing-farms or
roamed about the country. In 1 787 the Dutch government passed
a law subjecting these wanderers to certain restrictions. The
effect of this law was to place the Hottentots in more immediate
dependence upon the farmers, or to compel them to migrate
northward beyond the colonial border. Those who chose the
latter alternative had to encounter the hostility of their old foes,
the Bushmen, who were widely spread over the plains from the
Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg mountains to the Orange river.
The colonists also, pressing forward to those territories, came in
contact with these Ishmaelites — the farmers' cattle and sheep,
guarded only by a Hottentot herdsman, offering the strongest
temptation to the Bushman. Reprisals followed; and the
position became so desperate that the extermination of the
Bushmen appeared to the government the only safe alternative.
" Commandoes " or war-bands were sent out against them, and
they were hunted down like wild beasts. Within a period of six
years, it is said, upwards of 3000 were either killed or captured.
Out of the organization of these commandoes, with their field-
commandants and field-cornets, has grown the common system
of local government in the Dutch-settled districts of South Africa.
It was not to the hostility of the natives, nor to the hard
struggle with nature necessary to make agriculture profitable
on Karroo or veld, that the slow progress made by the colonists
was due, so much as to the narrow and tyrannical policy adopted
by the East India Company, which closed the colony against free
immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands,
combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in
one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they
were to grow, demanded from them a large part of their produce,
and harassed them with other exactions tending to discourage
industry and enterprise. (See further South Africa, where
the methods and results of Dutch colonial government are
considered in their broader aspects.) To this mischievous policy
is ascribed that dislike to orderly government, and that desire
to escape from its control, which characterized for many genera-
tions the " boer " or farmer class of Dutch settlers — qualities
utterly at variance with the character of the Dutch in their
native country. It was largely to escape oppression that the
farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government.
The company, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy
at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786.
The Gamtoos river had been declared, c. 1740, the eastern
frontier of the colony, but it was soon passed. In 1 780, however,
the Dutch, to avoid collision with the warlike Kaffir tribes
advancing south and west from east central Africa, agreed with
them to make the Great Fish river the common boundary. In
1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who
were afforded no protection against the Kaffirs, expelled the
officials of the East India Company, and set up independent
governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet. In the same
238
CAPE COLONY
[HISTORY
year, Holland having fallen under the revolutionary government
of France, a British force under General Sir James Craig was sent
to Cape Town to secure the colony for the prince of Orange — a
refugee in England — against the French. The governor of Cape
Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the prince,
but on the British proceeding to take forcible possession he
capitulated. 1 His action was hastened by the fact that the
Hottentots, deserting their former masters, flocked to the British
standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until
a force had been sent against them, while in 1799 and again in
1 80 1 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the
peace of Amiens, the colony was handed over to the Batavian
Republic, which introduced many needful reforms, as had the
British during their eight years' rule. (One of the first acts of
General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration
of justice.) War having again broken out, a British force was
once more sent to the Cape. After an engagement (Jan. 1806)
on the shores of Table Bay the Dutch garrison of Cape Castle sur-
rendered to the British under Sir David Baird, and in 18 14 the
colony was ceded outright by Holland to the British crown.
At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guard-
ing the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland, and had
an area of about 1 20,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000,
of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Hottentots and the rest
slaves. These slaves were mostly imported negroes and Malays.
Their introduction was the chief cause leading the white settlers
to despise manual labour.
The First and Second Kaffir Wars.— At the time of the
cession to Great Britain the first of several wars with the Kaffirs
had been fought. (The numerous minor conflicts which since
1789 had taken place between the colonists and the Kaffirs — the
latter sometimes aided by Hottentot allies — are not reckoned
in the usual enumeration of the Kaffir wars.) The Kaffirs, who
had crossed the colonial frontier, had been expelled from the
district between the Sunday and Great Fish rivers known as
the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some
time previous to 181 1 the Kaffirs, however, had taken possession
of the neutral ground and committed depredations on the
colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel
John Graham took the field with a mixed force in December 181 1,
and in the end the Kaffirs were driven beyond the Fish river.
On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town
which bears his name. In 181 7 further trouble arose with the
Kaffirs, the immediate cause of quarrel being an attempt by the
colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen
cattle. Routed in 1818 the Kaffirs rallied, and in the early part
of 1 8 19 poured into the colony in vast hordes. Led by a prophet-
chief named Makana, they attacked Graham's Town on the
22nd of April, then held by a handful of white troops. Help
arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then
arranged that the land between the Fish and Keiskamma rivers
should be neutral territory.
The British Settlers of 1820.— The war of 181 7-19 led to the
first introduction of English settlers on a considerable scale,
an event fraught with far-reaching consequences. The then
governor, Lord Charles Somerset, whose treaty arrangements
with the Kaffir chiefs had proved unfortunate, desired to erect
a barrier against the Kaffirs by settling white colonists in the
border district. In 1820, on the advice of Lord Charles, parlia-
ment voted £50,000 to promote emigration to the Cape, and
4000 British were sent out. These people formed what was
known as the Albany settlement, founding Port Elizabeth and
making Graham's Town their headquarters. Intended primarily
as a measure to secure the safety of the frontier, and regarded by
the British government chiefly as a better means of affording a
livelihood to a few thousands of the surplus population, this
emigration scheme accomplished a far greater work than its
authors contemplated. The new settlers, drawn from every part
of the British Isles and from almost every grade of society,
1 It is stated that Colonel R. J. Gordon (the explorer of the Orange
river), who commanded the Dutch forces at the Cape, chagrined
by the occupation of the country by the British, committed suicide.
retained, and their descendants retain, strong sympathy with
their native land. In course of time they formed a valuable
counterpoise to the Dutch colonists, and they now constitute the
most progressive element in the colony. The advent of these
immigrants was also the means of introducing the English
language at the Cape. In 1825, for the first time, ordinances
were issued in English, and in 1827 its use was extended to
the conduct of judicial proceedings. Dutch was not, however,
ousted, the colonists becoming to a large extent bilingual.
Dislike of British Rule. — Although the colony was fairly
prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied
with British rule as they had been with that of the Dutch East
India Company, though their ground of complaint was not the
same. In 1792 Moravian missions had been established for the
benefit of the Hottentots, 2 and in 1799 the London Missionary
Society began work among both Hottentots and Kaffirs. The
championship of Hottentot grievances by the missionaries caused
much dissatisfaction among the majority of the colonists, whose
views, it may be noted, temporarily prevailed, for in 181 2 an ordin-
ance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Hottentot
children as apprentices under conditions differing little from that
of slavery. Meantime, however, the movement for the abolition
of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries
at length appealed from the colonists to the mother country.
An incident which occurred UI1815-1816 did much to make
permanent the hostility of the frontiersmen to the British.
A farmer named Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued
on the complaint of a Hottentot, and firing on the party sent to
arrest him, was himself killed by the return fire. This caused a
miniature rebellion, and on its suppression five ringleaders were
publicly hanged at the spot — Slachters Nek — where they had
sworn to expel " the English tyrants." The feeling caused
by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances
of the execution — for the scaffold on which the rebels were
simultaneously swung, broke down from their united weight and
the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance
passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of landroost
and heemraden (resident magistrates being substituted) and
decreeing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be con-
ducted in English; the granting in 1828, as a result of the
representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with
whites to the Hottentots and other free coloured people; the
imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of
slaves, and finally the emancipation of the slaves in 1834,* — all
these things increased the dislike of the farmers to the government.
Moreover, the inadequate compensation awarded to slave-
owners, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment,
caused much resentment, and in 1835 the trekking of farmers
into unknown country in order to escape from an unloved govern-
ment, which had characterized the 18th century, recommenced.
Emigration beyond the colonial border had in fact been con-
tinuous for 150 years, but it now took on larger proportions.
The Third Kaffir War. — On the eastern border further trouble
arose with the Kaffirs, towards whom the policy of the Cape
government was marked by much vacillation. On the nth of
December 1834 a chief of high rank was killed while resisting
a commando party. This set the whole of the Kaffir tribes
in a blaze. A force of 10,000 fighting men, led by Macomo,
a brother of the chief who was killed, swept across the frontier,
pillaged and burned the homesteads and murdered all who
dared to resist. Among the worst sufferers were a colony of
freed Hottentots who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat
river valley by the British authorities. The fighting power
of the colony was scanty, but the governor, Sir Benjamin
D* Urban (q.v.) } acted with promptitude, and all available forces
were mustered under Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry) Smith,
who reached Graham's Town on the 6th of January 1835, si* day*
after news of the rising reached Cape Town. The enemy's
J From 1737 to 1744 George Schmidt, "The apostle to the
Hottentots/' had a mission at Genadendal — " The Vale of Grace."
1 Masters were allowed to keep their ex-slaves as " apprentices "
until the 1st of December 1838,
HISTORY]
CAPE COLONY
239
territory was invaded, and after nine months' fighting the Kaffirs
were completely subdued, and a new treaty of peace concluded
(on the 17th of September). By this treaty all the country
as far as the river Kei was acknowledged to be British, and its
inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of
government was selected and named King Wiliam's Town.
The Great Trek. — The action of Sir Benjamin D'Urban was not
approved by the home government, and on the instruction of
Lord Glenelg, secretary for the colonies, who declared that
" the great evil of the Cape Colony consists in its magnitude/'
the colonial boundary was moved back to the Great Fish
river, and eventually (in 1837) Sir Benjamin was dismissed from
office. " The Kaffirs," in the opinion of Lord Glenelg, " had
an ample justification for war; they had to resent, and endeav-
oured justly, though impotently, to avenge a series of encroach-
ments " (despatch of the 26th of December 1835). This attitude
towards the Kaffirs was one of the many reasons given by the
Trek Boers for leaving Cape Colony. The Great Trek, as it is
called, lasted from 1836 to 1840, the trekkers, who numbered
about 7000, founding communities with a republican form of
government beyond the Orange and Vaal rivers, and in Natal,
where they had been preceded, however, by British emigrants.
From this time Cape Colony ceased to be the only civilized com-
munity in South Africa, though for long it maintained its pre-
dominance. Up to 1856 Natal was, in fact, a dependency of
the Cape (see South Africa). Considerable trouble was
caused by the emigrant Boers on either side of the Orange
river, where the new comers, the Basutos and other Kaffir
tribes, Bushmen and Griquas contended for mastery. The Cape
government endeavoured to protect the rights of the natives.
On the advice of the missionaries, who exercised great influence
with all the non-Dutch races, a number of native states were
recognized and subsidized by the Cape government, with the
object — not realized — of obtaining peace on this northern
frontier. The first of these " Treaty States " recognized was
that of the Griquas of Griqualand West. Others were
recognized in 1843 and 1844 — in the last-named year a treaty
was made with the Pondoes on the eastern border. During
this period the condition of affairs on the eastern frontier was
deplorable, the government being unable or unwilling to afford
protection to the farmers from the depredations of the Kaffirs.
Elsewhere, however, the colony was making progress. The
change from slave to free labour proved to be advantageous to
the farmers in the western provinces; an efficient educational
system, which owed its initiation to Sir John Herschel, the
astronomer (who lived in Cape Colony from 1834 to 1838),
was adopted; Road Boards were established and did much
good work; to the staple industries — the growing of wheat, the
rearing of cattle and the making of wine — was added sheep-
raising; and by 1846 wool became the most valuable export
from file country. The creation, in 1835, of a legislative council,
on which unofficial members had seats, was the first step in
giving the colonists a share in the government.
The War of the Axe. — Another war with the Kaffirs broke out
in 1846 and was known as the War of the Axe, from the murder
of a Hottentot, to whom an old Kaffir thief was manacled, while
being conveyed to Graham's Town for trial for stealing an axe.
The escort was attacked by a party of Kaffirs and the Hottentot
killed. The surrender of the murderer was refused, and war was
declared in March 1 846. The Gaikas were the chief tribe engaged
in the war, assisted during the course of it by the Tambukies.
After some reverses the Kaffirs were signally defeated on the
7th of June by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles
from Fort Peddie. Still the war went on, till at length Sandili,
the chief of the Gaikas, surrendered, followed gradually by the
other chiefs; and by the beginning of 1848 the Kaffirs were again
subdued, after twenty-one months' fighting.
Extension of British Sovereignty. — In the last month of the
war (December 184.7) Sir Harry Smith reached Cape Town
as governor of the colony, and with his arrival the Glenelg
policy was reversed. By proclamation, on the 1 7th of December,
he extended the frontier of the colony northward to the Orange
river and eastward to the Keiskamma river, and on the 23rd,
at a meeting of the Kaffir chiefs, announced the annexation of
the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to the
British crown, thus reabsorbing the territory abandoned by
order of Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with
the Cape, but made a crown dependency under the name of
British Kaffraria. For a time the Kaffirs accepted quietly the
new order of things. The governor had other serious matters
to contend with, including the assertion of British authority
over the Boers beyond the Orange river, and the establishment
of amicable relations with the Transvaal Boers. In the colony
itself a crisis arose out of the proposal to make it a convict
station.
The Convict Agitation and Granting of a Constitution. — In 1848
a circular was sent by the 3rd Earl Grey, then colonial secretary,
to the governor of the Cape (and to other colonial governors),
asking him to ascertain the feelings of the colonists regarding the
reception of a certain class of convicts, the intention being to
send to South Africa Irish peasants who had been driven into
crime by the famine of 1845. Owing to some misunderstanding,
a vessel, the " Neptune, " was despatched to the Cape before the
opinion of the colonists had been received, having on board 289
convicts, among whom were John Mitchell, the Irish rebel, and
his colleagues. When the news reached the Cape that this
vessel was on her way, the people of the colony became violently
excited; and they established an anti-convict association, by
which they bound themselves to cease from all intercourse of
every kind with persons in any way connected " with the landing,
supplying or employing convicts." On the 19th of September
1849 the " Neptune " arrived in Simon's Bay. Sir Harry Smith,
confronted by a violent public agitation, agreed not to land the
convicts, but to keep them on board ship in Simon's Bay till he
received orders to send them elsewhere. When the home
government became aware of the state of affairs orders were sent
directing the " Neptune " to proceed to Tasmania, and it did so
after having been in Simon's Bay for five months. The agitation
did not, however, pass away without other important results,
since it led to another movement, the object of which was to
obtain a free representative government for the colony. This
concession, which had been previously promised by Lord Grey,
was granted by the British government, and, in 1854, a constitu-
tion was established of almost unprecedented liberality.
The Kaffir War of 1850-1853.— The anti-convict agitation had
scarcely ceased when the colony was once again involved in war.
The Kaffirs bitterly resented their loss of independence, and ever
since the last war had been secretly preparing to renew the
struggle. Sir Harry Smith, informed of the threatening attitude
of the natives, proceeded to the frontier, and summoned Sandili
and the other chiefs to an interview. Sandili refused obedience;
upon which, at an assembly of other chiefs (October 1850), the
governor declared him deposed from his chiefship, and appointed
an Englishman, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be temporary
chief of the Gaika tribe. The governor appears to have believed
that the measures he took would prevent a war and that Sandili
could be arrested without armed resistance. On the 24th of
December Col. Geo. Mackinnon, being sent with a small force with
the object of securing the chief, was attacked in a narrow defile
by a large body of Kaffirs, and compelled to retreat with some
loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the Gaika tribe.
The settlers in the military villages, which had been established
along the frontier, assembled in fancied security to celebrate
Christmas Day, were surprised, many of them murdered, and
their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed in
quick succession. A small patrol of military was cut off to a man.
The greater part of the Kaffir police deserted, many of them
carrying off their arms and accoutrements. Emboldened by
success, the enemy in immense force surrounded and attacked
Fort Cox, where the governor was stationed with an inconsider-
able force. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to
relieve Sir Harry; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the
occasion. At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accom-
panied by Colonel Mackinnon, he dashed out of the fort,
240
CAPE COLONY
[HISTORY
and, through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode to King William's
Town — a distance of 1 2 m. Meantime, a new enemy appeared.
Some 000 of the Kat river Hottentots, who had in former wars
been firm allies of the British, threw in their lot with their
hereditary enemies — the Kaffirs. They were not without
excuses. They complained that while doing burgher duty in
former wars — the Cape Mounted Rifles consisted largely of
Hottentot levies — they had not received the same treatment as
others serving in defence of the colony, that they got no com-
pensation for the losses they had sustained, and that they were
in various ways made to feel they were a wronged and injured
race. A secret combination was formed with the Kaffirs to take
up arms to sweep the Europeans away and establish a Hottentot
republic. Within a fortnight of the attack on Colonel Mackinnon
the Kat river Hottentots were also in arms. Their revolt was
followed by that of the Hottentots at other missionary stations;
and part of the Hottentots of the Cape Mounted Rifles followed
their example, including the very men who had escorted the
governor from Fort Cox. But numbers of Hottentots remained
loyal and the Fingo Kaffirs likewise sided with the British.
After the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had sub-
sided, and preparations had been made, Sir Harry Smith and his
gallant force turned the tide of war against the Kaffirs. The
Amatola mountains were stormed; and the paramount chief
Kreli, who all along covertly assisted the Gaikas, was severely
punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry Smith was recalled by Earl
Grey, who accused him — unjustly, in the opinion of the duke of
Wellington — of a want of energy and judgment in conducting the
war, and he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Cathcart.
Kreli was again attacked and reduced to submission. The
Amatolas were finally cleared of the Kaffirs, and small forts
erected among them to prevent their reoccupation. The British
commanders were hampered throughout by the insufficiency of
their forces, and it was not till March 1853 that this most
sanguinary of Kaffir wars was brought to a conclusion, after a
loss of many hundred British soldiers. Shortly afterwards,
British Kaffraria was made a crown colony. The Hottentot
settlement at Kat river remained, but the Hottentot power
within the colony was now finally crushed.
The Great Amaxosa Delusion. — From 1853 the Kaffir tribes
on the east gave little trouble to the colony. This was due, in
large measure, to an extraordinary delusion which arose among
the Amaxosa in 1856, and led in 1857 to the death of some 50,000
persons. This incident is one of the most remarkable instances
of misplaced faith recorded in history. The Amaxosa had not
accepted their defeat in 1853 as decisive and were preparing to
renew the struggle with the white men. At this juncture, May
1856, a girl named Nongkwase told her father that on going to
draw water from a stream she had met strangers of commanding
aspect. The father, Mhlakza, went to see the men, who told him
that they were spirits of the dead, who had come, if their behests
were obeyed, to aid the Kaffirs with their invincible power to
drive the white man from the land. Mhlakza repeated the
message to his chief, Sarili, one of the most powerful Kaffir rulers.
Sarili ordered the commands of the spirits to be obeyed. These
orders were, at first, that the Amaxosa were to destroy their fat
cattle. The girl Nongkwase, standing in the river where the
spirits had first appeared, heard unearthly noises, interpreted
by her father as orders to kill more and more cattle. At length
the spirits commanded that not an animal of all their herds was
to be left alive, and every grain of corn was to be destroyed.
If that were done, on a given date myriads of cattle more beautiful
than those destroyed would issue from the earth, while great
fields of corn, ripe and ready for harvest, would instantly appear.
The dead would rise, trouble and sickness vanish, and youth and
beauty come to all alike. Unbelievers and the hated white man
would on that day utterly perish. The people heard and obeyed.
Sarili is believed by many persons to have been the instigator
of the prophecies. Certainly some of the principal chiefs regarded
all that was done simply as the preparation for a last struggle
with the whites, their plan being to throw the whole Amaxosa
nation fully armed and in a famishing condition upon the colony.
There were those who neither believed the predictions nor looked
for success in war, but destroyed their last particle of food in
unquestioning obedience to their chief's command. Either in
faith that reached the sublime, or in obedience equally great,
vast numbers of the people acted. Great kraals were also
prepared for the promised cattle, and huge skin sacks to hold
the milk that was soon to be more plentiful than water. At
length the day dawned which, according to the prophecies, was
to usher in the terrestrial paradise. The sun rose and sank, but
the expected miracle did not come to pass. The chiefs who had
planned to hurl the famished warrior host upon the colony had
committed an incredible blunder in neglecting to call the nation
together under pretext of witnessing the resurrection. This
error they realized too late, and endeavoured by fixing the re-
surrection for another day to gather the clans, but blank despair
had taken the place of hope and faith, and it was only as starving
suppliants that the Amaxosa sought the British. The colonists
did what they could to save life, but thousands perished miserably.
In their extremity many of the Kaffirs turned cannibals, and one
instance of parents eating their own child is authenticated.
Among the survivors was the girl Nongkwase; her father
perished. A vivid narrative of the whole incident will be found
in G. M. Theal's History and Geography of South Africa (3rd ed.,
London, 1878), from which this account is condensed. The
country depopulated as the result of this delusion was afterwards
peopled by European settlers, among whom were members of the
German legion which had served with the British army in the
Crimea, and some 2000 industrious North German emigrants,
who proved a valuable acquisition to the colony.
Sir George Grey's Governorship. — In 1854 Sir George Grey
became governor of the Cape, and the colony owed much to his
wise administration. The policy, imposed by the home govern-
ment, of abandoning responsibility beyond the Orange river, was,
he perceived, a mistaken one, and the scheme he prepared in
1858 for a confederation of all South Africa (q.v.) was rejected by
Great Britain. By his energetic action, however, in support of
the missionaries Moffat and Livingstone, Sir George kept open
for the British the road through Bechuanalandtothefar interior.
To Sir George was also due the first attempt, missionary effort
apart, to educate the Kaffirs and to establish British authority
firmly among them, a result which the self-destruction of the
Amaxosa rendered easy. Beyond the Kei the natives were left to
their own devices. Sir George Grey left the Cape in 1861.
During his governorship the resources of the colony had been
increased by the opening up of the copper mines in Little Nama-
qualand, the mohair wool industry had been established and
Natal made a separate colony. The opening, in November 1863,
of the railway from Cape Town to Wellington, begun in 1859, and
the construction in i860 of the great breakwater in Table Bay,
long needed on that perilous coast, marked the beginning in the
colony of public works on a large scale. They were the more or
less direct result of the granting to the colony of a large share in
its own government. In 1865 the province of British Kaffraria
was incorporated with the colony, under the title of the Electoral
Divisions of King William's Town and East London. The
transfer was marked by the removal of the prohibition of the
sale of alcoholic liquors to the natives, and the free trade in
intoxicants which followed had most deplorable results among the
Kaffir tribes. A severe drought, affecting almost the entire
colony for several years, caused great depression of trade, and
many farmers suffered severely. It was at this period ( 1869) that
ostrich-farming was successfully established as a separate
industry.
Whether by or against the wish of the home government, the
limits of British authority continued to extend. The Basutos,
who dwelt in the upper valleys of the Orange river, had subsisted
under a semi-protectorate of the British government from 1843
to 1854; but having been left to their own resources on the
abandonment of the Orange sovereignty, they fell into a long
exhaustive warfare with the Boers of the Free State. On the
urgent petition of their chief Moshesh, they were proclaimed
British subjects in 1868, and their territory became part of the
HISTORY]
CAPE GOLONY
241
colony in 187 1 (see Basutoland). In the same year the south-
eastern part of Bechuanaland was annexed to Great Britain
under the title oi Griqualand West. This annexation was a con-
sequence of the discovery there of rich diamond mines, an event
which was destined to have far-reaching results. (F. R. C.)
Development of Modern Conditions. — The year 1870 marks the
dawn of a new era in South Africa. From that date the develop-
ment of modern South Africa may be said to have fairly started,
and in spite of political complications, arising from time to time,
the progress of Cape Colony down to the outbreak of the Transvaal
War of 1 899 was steadily forward. The discovery of diamonds on
the Orange river in 1867, followed immediately afterwards by the
discovery of diamonds on the Vaal river, led to the rapid occupa-
tion and development of a tract of country which had hitherto
been but sparsely inhabited. In 1870 Dutoitspan and Bult-
fontein diamond mines were discovered, and in 1871 the still
richer mines of Kimberley and De Beers. These four great
deposits of mineral wealth are still richly productive, and con-
stitute the greatest industrial asset which the colony possesses.
At the time of the beginning of the diamond industry, not only
the territory of Cape Colony and the Boer Republics, but all
South Africa, was in a very depressed condition. Ostrich-farm-
ing was in its infancy, and agriculture but little developed. The
Boers, except in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town, were a
primitive people. Their wants were few, they lacked enterprise,
and the trade of the colony was restricted. Even the British
colonists at that time were far from rich. The diamond industry
therefore offered considerable attractions, especially to colonists
of British origin. It was also the means at length of demonstrat-
ing the fact that South Africa, barren and poor on the surface,
was rich below the surface. It takes ten acres of Karroo to feed a
sheep, but it was now seen that a few square yards of diamond-
if erous blue ground would feed a dozen families. By the end of
187 1 a large population had already gathered at the diamond
fields, and immigration continued steadily, bringing new-comers
to the rich fields. Among the first to seek a fortune at the
diamond fields was Cecil Rhodes.
In 1858 the scheme of Sir George Grey for the federation of the
various colonies and states of South Africa had been rejected, as
has been stated, by the home authorities. In 1874 the 4th earl of
Carnarvon, secretary of state for the colonies, who had been
successful in aiding to bring about the federation of Canada,
turned his attention to a similar scheme for the confederation of
South Africa. The representative government in Cape Colony
had been replaced in 1872 by responsible, i.e. self-government,
and the new parliament at Cape Town resented the manner
in which Lord Carnarvon propounded his suggestions. A resolu-
tion was passed (June 11, 1875) stating that any scheme in favour
of confederation must in its opinion originate within South
Africa itself. James Anthony Froude, the distinguished historian,
was sent out by Lord Carnarvon to further his policy in South
Africa. As a diplomatist and a representative of the British
government, the general opinion in South Africa was that Froude
was not a success, and he entirely failed to induce the colonists to
adopt Lord Carnarvon's views. In 1876, Fingoland, the Idutywa
reserve, and Noman's-land, tracts of country on the Kaffir
frontier, were annexed by Great Britain, on the understanding
that the Cape government should provide for their government.
Lord Carnarvon, still bent on confederation, now appointed Sir
Bartle Frere governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner
of South Africa.
Frere had no sooner taken office as high commissioner
than he found himself confronted with serious native troubles in
Zululand and on the Kaffir frontier of Cape Colony. In 1877
there occurred an outbreak on the part of the Galekas and the
Gaikas. A considerable force of imperial and colonial troops was
employed to put down this rising, and the war was subsequently
known as the Ninth Kaffir war. It was in this war that the
famous Kaffir chief, Sandili, lost his life. At its conclusion the
Transkei, the territory of the Galeka tribe, under Kreli, was
annexed by the British. In the meantime Lord Carnarvon had
resigned his position in the British cabinet, and the scheme for
confederation which he had been pushing forward was abandoned.
As a matter of fact, at that time Cape Colony was too fully
occupied with native troubles to take into consideration very
seriously so great a question as confederation. A wave of feeling
spread amongst the different Kaffir tribes on the colonial frontier,
and after the Gaika-Galeka War there followed in 1879 a rising in
Basutoland under Moirosi, whose cattle-raiding had for some
timeSpast caused considerable trouble. His stronghold was taken
after very severe fighting by a colonial force, but, their defeat
notwithstanding, the Basutos remained in a restless and aggressive
condition for several years. In 1880 the colonial authorities
endeavoured to extend to Basutoland the Peace Preservation Act
of 1878, under which a general disarmament of the Basutos was
attempted. Further fighting followed on this proclamation,
which was by no means successful, and although peace was
declared in the country in December 1882, the colonial authorities
were very glad in 1884 to be relieved of the administration of a
country which had already cost them £3,000,000. The imperial
government then took over Basutoland as a crown colony, on the
understanding that Cape Colony should contribute for adminis-
trative purposes £18,000 annually. In 1880, Sir Bartle Frere,
who by his energetic and statesmanlike attitude on the relations
with the native states, as well as on all other questions, had won
the esteem and regard of loyal South African colonists, was
recalled by the 1st earl of Kimberley, the liberal secretary of state
for the colonies, and was succeeded by Sir Hercules Robinson.
Griqualand West, which included the diamond fields, was now
incorporated as a portion of Cape Colony.
Origin of the Afrikander Bond.— The Boer War of 1881, with
its disastrous termination, naturally reacted throughout South
Africa; and as one of the most important results, in the year
1882 the first Afrikander Bond congress was held at Graaff
Reinet. The organization of the Bond developed into one
embracing the Transvaal, the Orange Free State and Cape
Colony. Each country had a provincial committee with district
committees, and branches were distributed throughout the whole
of South Africa. At a later date the Bond in the Cape Colony
dissociated itself from its Republican branches. The general
lines of policy which this organization endeavoured to promote
may best be gathered from De Patriot, a paper published in the
colony, and an avowed supporter of the organization. The
following extracts from articles published in 1882 will illustrate,
better than anything else, the ambition entertained by some of
the promoters of this remarkable organization.
" The Afrikander Bond has for its object the establishment of a
South African nationality by spreading a true love for what is
really our fatherland. No better time could be found for establishing
the Bond than the present, when the consciousness of nationality
has been thoroughly aroused by the Transvaal war." . . .!' The
British government keep on talking about a confederation under the
British flag, but that will never be brought about. # They can be
quite certain of that. There is just one obstacle in the way of
confederation, and that is the British flag. Let them remove that,
and in less than a year the confederation would be established
under the Free Afrikander flag." " After a time the English will
realize that the advice given them by Froude was the best — they
must just have Simon's Bay as a naval and military station on the
way to India, and give over all the rest of South Africa to the
Afrikanders." . . . "Our principal weapon in the social war must
be the destruction of English trade by our establishing trading
companies for ourselves. ..." It is the duty of each true
Afrikander not to spend anything with the English that he can
avoid."
De Patriot afterwards became imperialist, but Ons Land,
another Bond organ, continued in much the same strain.
In addition to having its press organs, the Bond from time to
time published official utterances less frank in their tone than
the statements of its press. Some of the Articles of the Bond's
original manifesto are entirely praiseworthy, e.g. those referring
to the administration of justice, the honour of the people, &c;
such clauses as these, however, were meaningless in view of the
enlightened government which obtained in Cape Colony, and for
the true " inwardness " of this document it is necessary to note
Article 3, which distinctly speaks of the promotion of South
Africa's independence {Zelfstandigheid). If the Bond aroused
242
CAPE COLONY
[HISTORY
disloyalty and mistaken aspirations in one section of the Cape
inhabitants, it is equally certain that it caused a great wave of
loyal and patriotic enthusiasm to pass through another and more
enlightened section. A pamphlet written in 1885 f° r an associa-
tion called the Empire League by Mr Charles Leonard, who
afterwards consistently championed the cause of civil equality
and impartial justice in South Africa, maintained as follows: —
" (1) That the establishment of the English government here
was beneficial to all classes; and (2) that the withdrawal of that
government would be disastrous to every one having vested interests
in the colony. . . . England never can, never will, give up this
colony, and we colonists will never give up England. . . . Let us,
the inhabitants of the Cape Colony, be swift to recognize that we
are one people, cast together under a glorious flag of liberty, with
heads clear enough to appreciate the freedom we enjoy, and hearts
resolute to maintain our true privileges; let us desist from reproach-
ing and insulting one another, and, rejoicing that we have this
goodly land as a common heritage, remember that by united action
only can we realize its grand possibilities. We belong both of us to a
home-loving stock, and the peace and prosperity of every home in
the land is at stake. On our action now depends t be q uestion whether
our children shall curse or bless us; whether we shall live in their
memory as promoters of civil strife, with all its miserable conse-
quences, or as joint architects of a happy, prosperous and united
state. Each of us looks back to a noble past. United, we may
ensure to our descendants a not unworthy future. Disunited, we
can hope for nothing but stagnation, misery and ruin. Is this a
light thing ? "
It is probable that many Englishmen reading Mr Leonard's
manifesto at the time regarded it as unduly alarming, but sub-
sequent events proved the soundness of the views it expressed.
The fact is that, from 1881 onwards, two great rival ideas came
into being, each strongly opposed to the other. One was that of
Imperialism — full civil rights for every civilized man, whatever
his race might be, under the supremacy and protection of Great
Britain. The other was nominally republican, but in fact
exclusively oligarchical and Dutch. The policy of the extremists
of this last party was summed up in the appeal which President
Kruger made to the Free State in February 1881, when he bade
them ' ' Come and help us. God is with us. It is his will to unite
us as a people " — " to make a united South Africa free from
British authority." The two actual founders of the Bond party
were Mr Borckenhagen, a German who was residing in Bloem-
fontein,and Mr Reitz, afterwards state secretary of the Transvaal.
Two interviews have been recorded which show the true aims of
these two promoters of the Bond at the outset. One occurred
between Mr Borckenhagen and Cecil Rhodes, the other between
Mr Reitz and Mr T. Schreiner, whose brother became, at a later
date, prime minister of Cape Colony. In the first interview
Mr Borckenhagen remarked to Rhodes: " We want a united
Africa," and Rhodes replied: "So do I." Mr Borckenhagen
then continued: "There is nothing in the way; we will take
you as our leader. There is only one small thing: we must, of
course, be independent of the rest of the world." Rhodes re-
plied: " You take me either for a rogue or a fool. I should be
a rogue to forfeit all my history and my traditions; and I should
be a fool, because I should be hated by my own countrymen
and mistrusted by yours." But as Rhodes truly said at Cape
Town in 1898, " The only chance of a true union is the over-
shadowing protection of a supreme power, and any German,
Frenchman, or Russian would tell you that the best and most
liberal power is that over which Her Majesty reigns. ' ' The other
interview took place at the beginning of the Bond's existence.
Being approached by Mr Reitz, Mr T. Schreiner objected that
the Bond aimed ultimately at the overthrow of British rule and
the expulsion of the British flag from South Africa. To this
Mr Reitz replied: " Well, what if it is so?" Mr Schreiner
expostulated in the following terms: " You do not suppose
that that flag is going to disappear without a tremendous struggle
and hard fighting?" " Well, I suppose not, but even so, what
of that?" rejoined Mr Reitz. In the face of this testimony with
reference to two of the most prominent of the Bond's promoters,
it is impossible to deny that from its beginning the great under-
lying idea of the Bond was an independent South Africa.
Mr Hofmeyr's Policy. — In 1882 an act was passed in the
Cape legislative assembly, empowering members to speak in
the Dutch language on the floor of the House, if they so desired.
The intention of this act was a liberal one, but the moment
of its introduction was inopportune, and its effect was to give
an additional stimulus to the policy of the Bond. It was prob-
ably also the means of bringing into the House a number of
Dutchmen, by no means well educated, who would not have been
returned had they been obliged to speak English. By this act
an increase of influence was given to the Dutch leaders. The
head of the Afrikander Bond at this time in Cape Colony, and
the leader of Dutch opinion, was Mr J. H. Hofmeyr, a man of
undoubted ability and astuteness. Although he was recognized
leader of the Dutch party in Cape Colony, he consistently refused
to take office, preferring to direct the policy and the action of
others from an independent position. Mr Hofmeyr sat in the
house of assembly as member for Stellenbosch, a strong Dutch
constituency. His influence over the Dutch members was
supreme, and in addition to directing the policy of the Bond
within the Cape Colony, he supported and defended the aggressive
expansion policy of President Kruger and the Transvaal Boers.
In 1883, during a debate on the Basutoland Dis-annexation
Bill, Rhodes openly charged Mr Hofmeyr in the House with a
desire to see a " United States of South Africa under its own
flag." In 1884 Mr Hofmeyr led the Bond in strongly supporting
the Transvaal Boers who had invaded Bechuanaland (q.v.),
proclaiming that if the Bechuanaland freebooters were not per-
mitted to retain the territories they had seized, in total disregard
of the terms of the conventions of 1881 and 1884, there would
be rebellion among the Dutch of Cape Colony. Fortunately,
however, for the peace of Cape Colony at that time, Sir Charles
Warren, sent by the imperial government to maintain British
rights, removed the invading Boers from Stellaland and Goshen
— two so-called republics set up by the Boer freebooters — in
March 1885 and no rebellion occurred. Nevertheless the Bond
party was so strong in the House that they compelled the ministry
under Sir Thomas Scanlen to resign in 1884. The logical and
constitutional course for Mr Hofmeyr to have followed in these
circumstances would have been to accept office and himself form
a government. This he refused to do. He preferred to put in
a nominee of his own who should be entirely dependent on him.
Mr Upington, a clever Irish barrister, was the man he selected,
and under him was formed in 1884 what will always be known
in Cape history as the " Warming-pan " ministry. This action
was denounced by many British colonists, who were sufficiently
loyal, not only to Great Britain, but also to that constitution
which had been conferred by Great Britain upon Cape Colony,
to desire to see the man who really wielded political power also
acting as the responsible head of the party. It was Mr Hofmey r's
refusal to accept this responsibility, as well as the nature of his
Bond policy, which won for him the political sobriquet of the
" Mole." Open and responsible exercise of a power conferred
under the constitution of the country, Englishmen and English
colonists would have accepted and even welcomed. But that
subterranean method of Dutch policy which found its strongest
expression in Pretoria, and which operated from Pretoria to Cape
Town, could not but be resented by loyal colonists. From 1881
down to 1898, Mr Hofmeyr practically determined how Dutch
members should vote, and also what policy the Bond should
adopt at every juncture in its history. In 1895 be resigned his
seat in parliament — an action which made his political dictator-
ship still more remarkable. This influence on Cape politics
was a demoralizing one. Other well-known politicians at the
Cape subsequently found it convenient to adapt their views
a good deal too readily to those held by the Bond. In justice
to Mr Hofmeyr, however, it is only fair to say that after the
Warren expedition in 188 5, which was at least evidence that Great
Britain did not intend to renounce her supremacy in 'South
Africa altogether, he adopted a less hostile or anti-British
attitude. The views and attitude of Mr Hofmeyr between 1881
and 1884 — when even loyal British colonists, looking to the
events which followed Majuba, had almost come to believe that
Great Britain had little desire to maintain her supremacy — can
scarcely be wondered at.
HISTORY]
CAPE COLONY
243
Rhodes and Dutch Sentiment. — Recognizing the difficulties of
the position, Cecil Rhodes from the outset of his political career
showed his desire to conciliate Dutch sentiment by considerate
treatment and regard for Dutch prejudices. Rhodes was first
returned as member of the House of Assembly for Barkly West
in 1880, and in spite of all vicissitudes this constituency remained
loyal to him. He supported the bill permitting Dutch to be used
in the House of Assembly in 1882, and early in 1884 he first took
office, as treasurer-general, under Sir Thomas Scanlen. Rhodes
had only held this position for six weeks when Sir Thomas Scanlen
resigned, and in August of the same year he was sent by Sir
Hercules Robinson to British Bechuanaland as deputy-com-
missioner in succession to the Rev. John Mackenzie, the London
Missionary Society's representative at Kuruman, who in the
previous May had proclaimed the queen's authority over the
district. Rhodes's efforts to conciliate the Boers failed — hence
the necessity for the Warren mission. In 1885 the territories
of Cape Colony were farther extended, and Tembuland,Bomvana-
land and Galekaland were formally added to the colony. In
1886 Sir Gordon Sprigg succeeded Sir Thomas Upington as
prime minister.
South African Customs Union. — The period from 1878 to 1885
in Cape Colony had been one of considerable unrest. In this short
time, in addition to the chronic troubles with the Basutos —
which led the Cape to hand them over to the imperial authorities
— there occurred a series of native disturbances which were
followed by the Boer War of 1881, and the Bechuanaland dis-
turbances of 1884. In spite, however, of these drawbacks, the
development of the country proceeded. The diamond industry
was flourishing. In 1887 a conference was held in London
for " promoting a closer union between the various parts of the
British empire by means of an imperial tariff of customs."
At this conference it is worthy of note that Mr Hofmeyr pro-
pounded a sort of " Zollverein " scheme, in which imperial
customs were to be levied independently of the duties payable
on all goods entering the empire from abroad. In making the
proposition he stated that his objects were " to promote the
union of the empire, and at the same time to obtain revenue for
the purposes of general defence." The scheme was not at the
time found practicable. But its authorship, as well as the
sentiments accompanying it, created a favourable view of Mr
Hofmeyr's attitude. In the year 1888, in spite of the failure of
statesmen and high commissioners to bring about political
confederation, the members of the Cape parliament set about
the establishment of a South African Customs Union. A
Customs Union Bill was passed, and this in itself constituted
a considerable development of the idea of federation. Shortly
after the passing of the bill the Orange Free State entered the
union. An endeavour was also made then, and for many years
afterwards, to get the Transvaal to join. But President Kruger,
consistently pursuing his own policy, hoped through the Delagoa
Bay railway to make the South African Republic entirely in-
dependent of Cape Colony. The endeavour to bring about a
customs union which would embrace the Transvaal was also
little to the taste of President Kruger's Hollander advisers,
interested as they were in the schemes of the Netherlands
Railway Company, who owned the railways of the Transvaal.
Diamonds and Railways. — Another event of considerable
commercial importance to the Cape Colony, and indeed to
South Africa, was the amalgamation of the diamond-mining
companies, chiefly brought about by Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit
and " Barney " Barnato, in 1889. One of the principal and
most beneficent results of the discovery and development of
the diamond mines was the great impetus which it gave to
railway extension. Lines were opened up to Worcester and
Beaufort West, to Graham's Town, Graaff Reinet and Queens-
town. Kimberley was reached in 1885. In 1890 the line was
extended northwards on the western frontier of the Transvaal as
far as Vryburg in Bechuanaland. In 1889 the Free State entered
into an arrangement with the Cape Colony whereby the main
trunk railway was extended to Bloemfontein, the Free State
receiving half the profits. Subsequently the Free State bought
at cost price the portion of the railway in its own territory.
In 1891 the Free State railway was still farther extended to
Viljoen's Drift on the Vaal river, and in 1892 it reached Pretoria
and Johannesburg.
Rhodes as Prime Minister: Native Policy. — In 1889 Sir Henry
Loch was appointed high commissioner and governor of Cape
Colony in succession to Sir Hercules Robinson. In 1890 Sir
Gordon Sprigg, the premier of the colony, resigned, and a Rhodes
government was formed. Prior to the formation of this ministry
(see table at end of article), and while Sir Gordon Sprigg was
still in office, Mr Hofmeyr approached Rhodes and offered to put
him in office as a Bond nominee. This offer was declined. When,
however, Rhodes was invited to take office after the downfall of
the Sprigg ministry, he asked the Bond leaders to meet him
and discuss the situation. His policy of customs and railway
unions between the various states, added to the personal esteem
in which he was at this time held by many of the Dutchmen,
enabled him to undertake and to carry on successfully the
business of government.
The colonies of British Bechuanaland and Basutoland were
now taken into the customs union existing between the Orange
Free State and Cape Colony. Pondoland, another native terri-
tory, was added to the colony in 1894, and the year was marked
by the Glen Grey Act, a departure in native policy for which
Rhodes was chiefly responsible. It dealt with the natives resid-
ing in certain native reserves, and in addition to providing for
their interests and holdings, and in other ways protecting the
privileges accorded to them, the principle of the duty of some
degree of labour devolving upon every able-bodied native enjoy-
ing these privileges was asserted, and a small labour tax was
levied. 1 This is in many respects the most statesmanlike act
dealing with natives on the statute-book; and in the session of
1895 Rhodes was able to report to the Cape parliament that the
act then applied to 160,000 natives. In 1905 the labour clauses
of this act, which had fallen into desuetude, were repealed. The
clauses had, however, achieved success, in that they had caused
many thousands of natives to fulfil the conditions requisite to
claim exemption.
In other respects Rhodes's native policy was marked by com-
bined consideration and firmness. Ever since the granting of
self-government the natives had enjoyed the franchise. An act
passed in 1892, at the instance of Rhodes, imposed an educa-
tional test on applicants for registration, and made other pro-
visions, all tending to restrict the acquisition of the franchise
by " tribal " natives, the possible danger arising from a large
native vote being already obvious (see section Constitution).
Rhodes opposed the native liquor traffic, and at the risk of
offending some of his supporters among the brandy-farmers of
the western provinces, he suppressed it entirely on the diamond
mines, and restricted it as far as he was able in the native reserves
and territories. Nevertheless the continuance of this traffic on
colonial farms, as well as to some extent in the native territories
and reserves, is a black spot in the annals of the Cape Colony.
The Hottentots have been terribly demoralized, and even
partially destroyed by it in the western province.
Another and little-known instance of Rhodes's keen insight
in dealing with native affairs — an action which had lasting results
on the history of the colony — may be given. After the native
territories east of the Kei had been added to Cape Colony, a case
of claim to inheritance came up for trial, and in accordance with
the law of the colony, the court held that the eldest son of a
native was his heir. This decision created the strongest resent-
ment among the people of the territory, as it was in distinct
1 The act enjoined that " every male native residing in the district,
exclusive of natives in possession of lands under ordinary quit-rent
titles, or in freehold, who, in the judgment of the resident magistrate,
is fit for and capable of labour, shall pay to the public revenue a tax
of ten shillings per annum unless he can show to the satisfaction of
the magistrate that he has been in service beyond the borders of the
district for at least three months out of the previous twelve, when
he will be exempt from the tax for that year, or unless he can show
that he has been employed for a total period of three years, when he
will be exempt altogether."
244
CAPE COLONY
[HISTORY
contradiction to native tribal law, which recognized the great
son, or son of the chief wife, as heir. The government were
threatened with a native disturbance, when Rhodes tele-
graphed his assurance that compensation should be granted,
and that such a decision should never be given again. This assur-
ance was accepted and tranquillity restored. At the close of the
next session (that of 1894), after this incident had occurred,
Rhodes laid on the table a bill drafted by himself, the shortest
the House had ever seen. It provided that all civil cases were to
be tried by magistrates, an appeal to lie only to the chief magis-
trate of the territory with an assessor. Criminal cases were to
be tried before the judges of supreme court on circuit. The bill
was passed, and the effect of it was, inasmuch as the magistrates
administered according to native law, that native marriage
customs and laws (including polygamy) were legalized in these
territories. Rhodes had retrieved his promise, and no one who
has studied and lived amongst the Bantu will question that the
action taken was both beneficent and wise.
During 1895 Sir Hercules Robinson was reappointed governor
and high commissioner of South Africa in succession to Sir Henry
Loch, and in the same year Mr Chamberlain became secretary
of state for the colonies.
Movement for Commercial Federation.— -With the development
of railways, and the extension of trade between Cape Colony
and the Transvaal, there had grown up a closer relationship
on political questions. Whilst premier of Cape Colony, by means
of the customs union and in every other way, Rhodes en-
deavoured to bring about a friendly measure of at least com-
mercial federation among the states and colonies of South Africa.
He hoped to establish both a commercial and a railway union,
and a speech which he made in 1894 at Cape Town admirably
describes this policy: —
" With full affection for the flag which I have been born under,
and the flag I represent, I can understand the sentiment and feeling
of a republican who has created his independence, and values that
before all; but I can say fairly that I believe in the future that I
can assimilate the system, which I have been connected with,
with the Cape Colony, and it is not an impossible idea that the
neighbouring republics, retaining their independence, should share
with us as to certain general principles. If 1 might put it to you, I
would say the principles of tariffs, the principle of railway connexion,
the principle of appeal in law, the pnnciple of coinage, and in fact
all tnose principles which exist at the present moment in the United
States, irrespective of the local assembhes a which exist in each separate
state in that country."
To this policy President Kruger and the Transvaal govern-
ment offered every possible opposition. Their action in what
is known as the Vaal River Drift question will best illustrate the
line of action which the Transvaal government believed it ex-
pedient to adopt. A difficulty arose at the termination of the
agreement in 1894 between the Cape government railway and
the Netherlands railway. The Cape government, for the purposes
of carrying the railway from the Vaal river to Johannesburg,
had advanced the sum of £600,000 to the Netherlands railway
and the Transvaal government conjointly; at the same time it
was stipulated that the Cape government should have the right
to fix the traffic rate until the end of 1894, or until such time as
the Delagoa Bay-Pretoria line was completed. These rates were
fixed by the Cape government at 2d. per ton per mile, but at the
beginning of 1895 the rate for the 52 m. of railway from the Vaal
river to Johannesburg was raised by the Netherlands railway
to no less a sum than 8d. per ton per mile. It is quite evident
from the action which President Kruger subsequently took in
the matter that this charge was put on with his approval, and
with the object of compelling traffic to be brought to the Trans-
vaal by the Delagoa route, instead of as heretofore by the colonial
railway. In order to compete against this very high rate, the
merchants of Johannesburg began removing their goods
from the Vaal river by waggon. Thereupon President Kruger
arbitrarily closed the drifts (fords) on the Vaal river, and thus
prevented through waggon traffic, causing an enormous block
of waggons on the banks of the Vaal. A protest was then made
by the Cape government against the action of the Transvaal, on
the ground that it was a breach of the London Convention.
President Kruger took no notice of this remonstrance, and an
appeal was made to the imperial government; whereupon the
latter entered into an agreement with the Cape government,
to the effect that if the Cape would bear half the cost of any
expedition which should be necessary, assist with troops, and
give full use of the Cape railway for military purposes if required,
a protest should be sent to President Kruger on the subject
These terms were accepted by Rhodes and his colleagues, of
whom Mr W. P. Schreiner was one, and a protest was then sent
by Mr Chamberlain stating that the government would regard
the closing of the drifts as a breach of the London Convention,
and as an unfriendly action calling for the gravest remonstrance.
President Kruger at once reopened the drifts, and undertook
that he would issue no further proclamation on the subject
except after consultation with the imperial government.
On the 29th of December 1895 Dr Jameson (q.v.) made his
famous raid into the Transvaal, and Rhodes's complicity in this
movement compelled him to resign the premiership of Cape
Colony in January 1806, the vacant post being taken by Sir
Gordon Sprigg. As Rhodes's complicity in the raid became
known, there naturally arose a strong feeling of resentment and
astonishment among his colleagues in the Cape ministry, who
had been kept in complete ignorance of his connexion with any
such scheme. Mr Hofmeyr and the Bond were loud in their
denunciation of him, nor can it be denied that the circumstances
of the raid greatly embittered againstEngland the Dutch element
in Cape Colony, and influenced their subsequent attitude towards
the Transvaal Boers.
In 1897 a native rising occurred under Galeshwe, a Bantu
chief, in Griqualand West. Galeshwe was arrested and the
rebellion repressed. On cross-examination Galeshwe stated
that Bosman, a magistrate of the Transvaal, had supplied
ammunition to him, and urged him to rebel against the govern-
ment of Cape Colony. There is every reason to suppose that
this charge was true, and it is consistent with the intrigues which
the Boers from time to time practised among the natives.
In 1897 Sir Alfred Milner was appointed high commissioner
of South Africa and governor of Cape Colony, in succession to
Sir Hercules Robinson, who had been created a peer under the
title of Baron Rosmead in August 1896.
Mr Schreiner f s Policy. — In 1898 commercial federation in
South Africa advanced another stage, Natal entering the cus-
toms union. A fresh convention was drafted at this time, and
under it "a uniform tariff on all imported goods consumed
within such union, and an equitable distribution of the duties
collected on such goods amongst the parties to such union, and
free trade between the colonies and state in respect of all South
African products," was arranged. In the same year, too, the
Cape parliamentary election occurred, and the result was the
return to power of a Bond ministry under Mr W. P. Schreiner.
From this time, until June 1900, Mr Schreiner remained in office
as head of the Cape government. During the negotiations
(see Transvaal) which preceded the war in 1899, feeling at the
Cape ran very high, and Mr Schreiner's attitude was very freely
discussed. As head of a party, dependent for its position in
power on the Bond's support, his position was undoubtedly
a trying one. At the same time, as prime minister of a British
colony, it was strongly felt by loyal colonists that he should at
least have refrained from openly interfering between the Trans-
vaal and the imperial government during the course of most
difficult negotiations. His public expressions of opinion were
hostile in tone to the policy pursued by Mr Chamberlain and
Sir Alfred Milner. The effect of them, it was believed, might
conceivably be to encourage President Kruger in persisting in
his rejection of the British terms. Mr Schreiner, it is true, used
directly what influence he possessed to induce President Kruger
to adopt a reasonable course. But however excellent his in-
tentions, his publicly expressed disapproval of the Chamberlain-
Milner policy probably did more harm than his private influence
with Mr Kruger could possibly do good. On the nth of June
X899, shortly after the Bloemfontein conference, from which
Sir Alfred Milner had just returned, Mr Schreiner asked the high
HISTORY]
CAPE COLONY
24-5
commissioner to inform Mr Chamberlain that he and his col-
leagues agreed in regarding President Kruger's Bloemfontein
proposals as " practical, reasonable and a considerable step in
the right direction." Early in June, however, the Cape Dutch
politicians began to realize that President Kruger's attitude
was not so reasonable as they had endeavoured to persuade
themselves, and Mr Hofmeyr, accompanied by Mr Herholdt,
the Cape minister of agriculture, visited Pretoria. On arrival,
they found that the Transvaal Volksraad, in a spirit of defiance
and even levity, had just passed a resolution offering four new
seats in the Volksraad to the mining districts, and fifteen to
exclusively burgher districts. Mr Hofmeyr, on meeting the
executive, freely expressed indignation at these proceedings.
Unfortunately, Mr Hofmeyr's influence was more than counter-
balanced by an emissary from the Free State, Mr Abraham
Fischer, who, while purporting to be a peacemaker, practically
encouraged the Boer executive to take extreme measures.
Mr Hofmeyr's established reputation as an astute diplomatist,
and as the trusted leader for years of the Cape Dutch party,
made him as powerful a delegate as it was possible to find. If any
emissary could accomplish anything in the way of persuading
Mr Kroger, it was assuredly Mr Hofmeyr. Much was looked
for from his mission by moderate men of all parties, and by none
more so, it is fair to believe, than by Mr Schreiner. But Mr
Hofmeyr's mission, like every other mission to Mr Kruger to
induce him to take a reasonable and equitable course, proved
entirely fruitless. He returned to Cape Town disappointed, but
probably not altogether surprised at the failure of his mission.
Meanwhile a new proposal was drafted by the Boer executive,
which, before it was received in its entirety, or at least before
it was clearly understood, elicited from Mr Schreiner a letter
on the 7th of July to the South African News, in which, referring
to his government, he said: —
"While anxious and continually active with good hope in the
cause of securing reasonable modifications of the existing repre-
sentative system of the South African Republic, this government
is convinced that no ground whatever exists for active interference
in the internal affairs of that republic."
This letter was precipitate and unfortunate. On the nth of
July, after seeing Mr Hofmeyr on his return, Mr Schreiner made
a personal appeal to President Kruger to approach the imperial
government in a friendly spirit. At this time an incident
occurred which raised the feeling against Mr Schreiner to a very
high pitch. On the 7 th of July 500 rifles and 1 ,000,000 rounds of
ammunition were landed at Port Elizabeth, consigned to the
Free State government, and forwarded to Bloemfontein. Mr
Schreiner's attention was called to this consignment at the
time, but he refused to stop it, alleging as his reason that, inas-
much as Great Britain was at peace with the Free State, he had
no right to interdict the passage of arms through the Cape Colony.
The British colonist is as capable of a grim jest as the Transvaal
Boer, and this action of Mr Schreiner's won for him the nickname
" Ammunition Bill." At a later date he was accused of delay
in forwarding artillery and rifles for the defence of Kimberley,
Mafeking and other towns of the colony. The reason he gave
for delay was that he did not anticipate war; and that he did
not wish to excite unwarrantable suspicions in the minds of the
Free State. His conduct in both instances was perhaps
technically correct, but it was much resented by loyal colonists.
On the 28th of July Mr Chamberlain sent a conciliatory
despatch to President Kruger, suggesting a meeting of delegates
to consider and report on his last franchise proposals, which were
complex to a degree. Mr Schreiner, on the 3rd of August, tele-
graphed to Mr Fischer begging the Transvaal to welcome Mr
Chamberlain's proposal. At a later date, on receiving an inquiry
from the Free State as to the movements of British troops,
Mr Schreiner curtly refused any information, and referred
the Free State to the high commissioner. On the 28th of August
Sir Gordon Sprigg in the House of Assembly moved the adjourn-
ment of the debate, to discuss the removal of arms to the Free
State. Mr Schreiner, in reply, used expressions which called
down upon him the severest censure and indignation, both in
the colony and in Great Britain. He stated that, should the
storm burst, he would keep the colony aloof with regard both to
its forces and its people. In the course of the speech he also
read a telegram from President Steyn, in which the president
repudiated all contemplated aggressive action on the part
of the Free State as absurd. The speech created a great sensation
in the British press. It was probably forgotten at the time
(though Lord Kimberley afterwards publicly stated it) that one
of the chief reasons why the Gladstone government had granted
the retrocession of the Transvaal after Majuba, was the fear that
the Cape Colonial Dutch would join their kinsmen if the war
continued. What was a danger in 1881, Mr Schreiner knew to
be a still greater danger in 1890. At the same time it is quite
obvious, from a review of Mr Schreiner's conduct through the
latter half of 1809, that he took an entirely mistaken view of the
Transvaal situation. He evinced, as premier of the Cape Colony,
the same inability to understand the Uitlanders' grievances,
the same futile belief in the eventual fairness of President
Kruger, as he had shown when giving evidence before the British
South Africa Select Committee into the causes of the Jameson
Raid. Actual experience taught him that President Kruger
was beyond an appeal to reason, and that the protestations of
President Steyn were insincere. War had no sooner commenced
with the ultimatum of the Transvaal Republic on the 9th of
October 1899, than Mr Schreiner found himself called upon to
deal with the conduct of Cape rebels. The rebels joined the
invading forces of President Steyn, whose false assurances
Mr Schreiner had offered to an indignant House of Assembly
only a few weeks before. The war on the part of the Republics
was evidently not to be merely one of self-defence. It was one
of aggression and aggrandisement. Mr Schreiner ultimately
addressed, as prime minister, a sharp remonstrance to President
Steyn for allowing his burghers to invade the colony. He also
co-operated with Sir Alfred Milner, and used his influence to
restrain the Bond.
The War of i8qq-iqo2} — The first shot actually fired m the
war was at Kraipan, a small railway station within the colony,
40 m. south of Mafeking, a train being derailed, and ammuni-
tion intended for Colonel Baden-Powell seized. The effect
of this was entirely to cut off Mafeking, the northernmost town
in Cape Colony, and it remained in a state of siege for over seven
months. On the 16th of October Kimberley was also isolated.
Proclamations by the Transvaal and Free State annexing portions
of Cape Colony were actually issued on the 18th of October, and
included British Bechuanaland and Griqualand West, with the
diamond fields. On the 28th of October Mr Schreiner signed
a proclamation issued by Sir Alfred Milner as high commissioner,
declaring the Boer annexations of territory within Cape Colony
to be null and void.
Then came the British reverses at Magersfontein (on the nth
of December) and Stormberg (on the 10th of December). The
effect of these engagements at the very outset of the war, occur-
ring as they did within Cape Colony, was to offer every inducement
to a number of the frontier colonial Boers to join their kinsmen
of the republics. The Boers were prolific, and their families large.
Many younger sons from the colony, with nothing to lose, left
their homes with horse and rifle to join the republican forces.
Meanwhile the loyal Cape colonists were chafing at the tardy
manner in which they were enrolled by the imperial authorities.
It was not until after the arrival of Lord Roberts and Lord
Kitchener at Cape Town on the 10th of January 1900 that these
invaluable, and many of them experienced, men were freely
invited to come forward. So strongly did Lord Roberts feel on
the subject, that he at once made Colonel Brabant, a well-known
and respected colonial veteran and member of the House of
Assembly, a brigadier-general, and started recruiting loyal
colonists in earnest. On the 15 th of February Kimberley was
relieved by General French, and the Boer general, Cronje,
evacuated Magersfontein, and retreated towards Bloemfontein.
Cecil Rhodes was shut up in Kimberley during the whole of the
siege, and his presence there undoubtedly offered an additional
1 See also Transvaal.
246
CAPE COLONY
[HISTORY
incentive to the Boers to endeavour to capture the town, but
his unique position and influence with the De Beers workmen
enabled him to render yeoman service, and infused enthusiasm
and courage into the inhabitants. The manufacture of a big
gun, which was able to compete with the Boer " Long Tom,"
at the De Beers workshops, under Rhodes's orders, and by the
ingenuity of an American, Mr. Labram, who was killed a few days
after its completion, forms one of the most striking incidents of
the period.
With the relief of Mafeking on the 17th of May, the Cape
rebellion ended, and the colony was, at least for a time, delivered
of the presence of hostile forces.
On the 20th of March Mr (afterwards Sir James) Rose-Innes,
a prominent member of the House of Assembly, who for several
years had held aloof from either party, and who also had defended
Mr Schreiner's action with regard to the passage of arms to the
Free State, addressed his constituents at Claremont in support
of the annexation of both republics; and in the course of an
eloquent speech he stated that in Canada, in spite of rebellions,
loyalty had been secured from the French Canadians by free
institutions. In South Africa they might hope that a similar
policy would attain a similar result with the Boers. In June,
Mr Schreiner, whose recent support of Sir Alfred Milner had
incensed many of his Bond followers, resigned in consequence
of the refusal of some of his colleagues to support the disfranchise-
ment bill which he was prepared, in accordance with the views
of the home government, to introduce for the punishment of
Cape rebels. The bill certainly did not err on the side of severity,
but disfranchisement for their supporters in large numbers was
more distasteful to the Bond extremists than any stringency
towards individuals. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who after a political
crisis of considerable delicacy, succeeded Mr Schreiner and for
the fourth time became prime minister, was able to pass the
Bill with the co-operation of Mr Schreiner and his section.
Towards the end of the year 1900 the war entered on a new
phase, and took the form of guerilla skirmishes with scattered
forces of marauding Boers. In December some of these bands
entered the Cape Colony and endeavoured to induce colonial
Boers to join them. In this endeavour they met at first with
little or no success; but as the year 1901 progressed and the
Boers still managed to keep the various districts in a ferment, it
was deemed necessary by the authorities to proclaim martial
law over the whole colony, and this was done on the 9th of
October 1901.
On the 4th of January 1901 Sir Alfred Milner was gazetted
governor of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, being
shortly afterwards created a peer as Lord Milner, and Sir Walter
Hely-Hutchinson, governor of Natal, was appointed his successor
as governor of the Cape Colony. The office of high commissioner
in South Africa was now separated from the governorship of the
Cape and associated with that of the Transvaal — an indication
of the changed conditions in South Africa. The division of the
colonists into those who favoured the Boer states and those
firmly attached to the British connexion was reflected, to the
detriment of the public weal, in the parties in the Cape parliament.
Proposals were made to suspend the constitution, but this
drastic course was not adopted. The Progressive party, the
name taken by those who sought a permanent settlement under
the British flag, lost their leader, and South Africa its foremost
statesman by the death, in May 1902, of Cecil Rhodes, a few
weeks before the end of the war.
After the War. — The acknowledgment of defeat by the Boers
in the field, and the surrender of some 10,000 rebels, did not
weaken the endeavours of the Dutch to obtain political supremacy
in the colony. Moreover, in the autumn of 1902 Sir Gordon
Sprigg, the prime minister, nominally the leader of the Progres-
sives, sought to maintain his position by securing the support
of the Bond party in parliament. In the early part of 1903
Mr Chamberlain included Cape Town in his visit to South Africa,
and had conferences with the political leaders of all parties.
Reconciliation between the Bond and British elements in the
colony was, however, still impossible, and the two parties con-
centrated their efforts in a struggle for victory at the coming
election. Mr Hofmeyr, who had chosen to spend the greater
part of the war period in Europe, returned to the Cape to re-
organize the Bond. On the other side Dr Jameson came forward
as the leader of the Progressives. Parliament was dissolved in
September 1903. It had passed, since the war, two measures
of importance — one (1902) restricting alien immigration, the
other (1903) ratifying the first customs convention between all
the South African colonies. This convention was notable for its
grant of preferential treatment (in general, a rebate of 25% on
the customs already levied) to imports from the United Kingdom.
The election turned on the issue of British or Bond supremacy.
It was fought on a register purged of the rebel voters, many of
whom, besides being disfranchised, were in prison. The issue
was doubtful, and each side sought to secure the support of the
native voters, who in several constituencies held the balance of
power. The Bondsmen were more lavish than their opponents
in their promises to the natives and even invited a Kaffir journal-
ist (who declined) to stand for a seat in the Assembly. In view
of the agitation then proceeding for the introduction of Chinese
coolies to work the mines on the Rand, the Progressives declared
their intention, if returned, to exclude them from the colony,
and this declaration gained them some native votes. The polling
(in January and February 1904) resulted in a Progressive majority
of five in a house of 95 members. The rejected candidates
included prominent Bond supporters like Mr Merriman and Mr
Sauer, and also Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr A. Douglass, another
member of the cabinet. Mr W. P. Schreiner, the ex-premier,
who stood as an Independent, was also rejected.
The Jameson Ministry. — On the 18th of February Sir Gordon
Sprigg resigned and was succeeded by Dr L. S. Jameson, who
formed a ministry wholly British in character. The first task
of the new government was to introduce (on the 4th of March)
an Additional Representation Bill, to rectify — in part — the
disparity in electoral power of the rural and urban districts.
Twelve new seats in the House of Assembly were divided among
the larger towns, and three members were added to the legislative
council. The town voter being mainly British, the bill met with
the bitter opposition of the Bond members, who declared that
its object was the extinction of their parliamentary power.
In fact, the bill was called for by the glaring anomalies in the
distribution of seats by which a minority of voters in the country
districts returned a majority of members, and it left the towns
still inadequately represented. The bill was supported by two
or three Dutch members, who were the object of violent attack
by the Bondsmen. It became law, and the elections for the
additional seats were held in July, after the close of the session.
They resulted in strengthening the Progressive majority both in
the House of Assembly and in the legislative council — where
the Progressives previously had a majority of one only.
At the outset of its career the Jameson ministry had to face
a serious financial situation. During the war the supplying of the
army in the field had caused an artificial inflation of trade, and
the Sprigg ministry had pursued a policy of extravagant expendi-
ture not warranted by the finances of the colony. The slow
recovery of the gold-mining and other industries in the Transvaal
after the war was reflected in a great decline in trade in Cape
Colony during the last half of 1903, the distress being aggravated
by severe drought. When Dr Jameson assumed office he found
an empty treasury, and considerable temporary loans had to
be raised. Throughout 1904, moreover, revenue continued to
shrink — compared with 1903 receipts dropped from £11,701,000
to £9,913,000. The government, besides cutting down official
salaries and exercising strict economy, contracted (July 1904)
a loan for £3,000,000. It also passed a bill imposing a graduated
tax (6d. to is. in the £) on all incomes over £1000. A substantial
excise duty was placed on spirits and beer, measures of relief
for the brandy-farmers being taken at the same time. The
result was that while there was a deficit on the budget of 1904-
1905 of £731,000, the budget of 1 905-1 906 showed a surplus
of £5161. This small surplus was obtained notwithstanding
a further shrinkage in revenue.
HISTORY]
CAPE COLONY
247
Dr Jameson's programme was largely one of material develop-
ment. In the words of the speech opening the 1905 session of
parliament, " without a considerable development of our agri-
cultural and pastoral resources our position as a self-sustaining
colony cannot be assured." This reliance on its own resources
was the more necessary for the Cape because of the keen rivalry
of Natal and Delagoa Bay for the carrying trade of the Trans-
vaal The opening up of backward districts by railways was
vigorously pursued, and m other ways great efforts were made
to assist agriculture. These efforts to help the country
districts met with cordial recognition from the Dutch farmers,
and the release, in May 1904, of all rebel prisoners was
another step towards reconciliation. On the exclusion of
Chinese from the colony the Bond party were also in agreement
with the ministry. An education act passed in 1905 established
school boards on a popular franchise and provided for the gradual
introduction of compulsory education. The cultivation of
friendly relations with the neighbouring colonies was also one
of the leading objects of Dr Jameson's policy. The Bond, on its
side, sought to draw closer to Het Volk, the Boer organization
in the Transvaal, and similar bodies, and at its 1906 congress,
held in March that year at Ceres, a resolution with that aim
was passed, the design being to unify, in accordance with the
original conception of the Bond, Dutch sentiment and action
throughout South Africa.
Native affairs proved a source of considerable anxiety. In
January 1905 an inter-colonial native affairs commission re-
ported on the native question as it affected South Africa as a
whole, proposals being made for an alteration of the laws in
Cape Colony respecting the franchise exercised by natives. In
the opinion of the commission the possession of the franchise
by the Cape natives under existing conditions was sure to create
in time an intolerable situation, and was an unwise and dangerous
thing. (The registration of 1905 showed that there were over
23,000 coloured voters in the colony.) The commission proposed
separate voting by natives only for a fixed number of members
of the legislature — the plan adopted in New Zealand with the
Maori voters. The privileged position of the Cape native was
seen to be an obstacle to the federation of South Africa. The
discussion which followed, based partly on the reports that the
ministry contemplated disfranchising the natives, led, however,
to no immediate results.
Another disturbing factor in connexion with native affairs
was the revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros in German South-
West Africa (ig.f.). In 1904 and the following years large
numbers of refugees, including some of the most important
chiefs, fled into British territory, and charges were made in
Germany that sufficient control over these refugees was not
exercised by the Cape government. This trouble, however, came
to an end in September 1907, In that month Morenga, a chief
who had been interned by the colonial authorities, but had
escaped and recommenced hostilities against the Germans, was
once more on the British side of the frontier and, refusing to
surrender, was pursued by the Cape Mounted Police and killed
after a smart action. The revolt in the German protectorate
had been, nearly a year before the death of Morenga, the in-
direct occasion of a " Boer raid " into Cape Colony. In Novem-
ber 1906 a small party of Transvaal Boers, who had been em-
ployed by the Germans against the Hottentots, entered the
colony under the leadership of a man named Ferreira, and began
raiding farms and forcibly enrolling recruits. Within a week
the filibusters were all captured. Ferreira and four companions
were tried for murder and convicted, February 1907, the death
sentences being commuted to terms of penal servitude.
As the result of an inter-colonial conference held in Pieter-
maritzburg in the early months of 1906, a new customs con-
vention of a strongly protective character came into force on
the 1st of June of that year. At the same time the rebate on
goods from Great Britain and reciprocating colonies was in-
creased. The session of parliament which sanctioned this
change was notable for the attention devoted to irrigation and
railway schemes. But one important measure of a political
character was passed in 1906, namely an amnesty act. Under
its provisions over 7000 ex-rebels, who would otherwise have
had no vote at the ensuing general election, were readmitted to
the franchise in 1907.
While the efforts made to develop the agricultural and mineral
resources of the country proved successful, the towns continued
to suffer from the inflation — over-buying, over-building and
over-speculation — which marked the war period. As a conse-
quence, imports further declined during 1906-1907, and receipts
being largely dependent on customs the result was a consider-
ably diminished revenue. The accounts for the year ending
30th of June 1907 showed a deficit of £640,455. The decline in
revenue, £4,000,000 in four years, while not a true reflection
of the economic condition of the country — yearly becoming
more self-supporting by the increase in home produce — caused
general disquietude and injuriously affected the position of the
ministry. In the session of 1907 the Opposition in the legis-
lative council brought on a crisis by refusing to grant supplies
voted by the lower chamber. Dr Jameson contested the con-
stitutional right of the council so to act, and on his advice the
governor dissolved parliament in September. Before its dissolu-
tion parliament passed an act imposing a profit tax of 10% on
diamond- and copper-mining companies earning over £50,000 per
annum, and another act establishing an agricultural credit bank.
Mr Merriman, Premier, — The elections for the legislative
council were held in January 1908 and resulted in a Bond
victory. Its supporters, who called themselves the South
African party, the Progressives being renamed Unionists,
obtained 17 seats out of a total of 26. Dr Jameson thereupon
resigned (31st of January), and a ministry was formed with
Mr J. X. Merriman as premier and treasurer, and Mr J. W. Sauer
as minister of public works. Neither of these politicians was a
member of the Bond, and both had held office under Cecil Rhodes
and W. P. Schreiner. They had, however, been the leading
parliamentary exponents of Bond policy for a considerable time.
The elections for the legislative assembly followed in April and,
partly in consequence of the reinfranchisement of the ex-rebels,
resulted in a decisive majority for the Merriman ministry.
There were returned 69 members of the South African party,
33 Unionists and 5 Independents, among them the ex-premiers
Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr Schreiner. The change of ministry
was not accompanied by any relief in the financial situation.
While the country districts remained fairly prosperous (agri-
cultural and pastoral products increasing), the transit trade
and the urban industries continued to decline. The depression
was accentuated by the financial crisis in America, which affected
adversely the wool trade, and in a more marked degree the
diamond trade, leading to the partial stoppage of the Kimberley
mines. (The " slump " in the diamond trade is shown by a
comparison of the value of diamonds exported from the Cape
in the years 1907 and 1908; in 1907 they were valued at
£8,973,148, in 1908 at £4,796,655.) This seriously diminished
the revenue returns, and the public accounts for the year 1907-
1908 showed a deficit of £996,000, and a prospective deficit for
the ensuing year of an almost equal amount. To balance the
budget, Mr Merriman proposed drastic remedies, including the
suspension of the sinking fund, the reduction of salaries of all
civil servants, and taxes on incomes of £50 per annum. Partly
in consequence of the serious economic situation the renewed
movement for the closer union of the various South African
colonies, formally initiated by Dr Jameson in 1907, received
the support of the Cape parliament. During 1 907-1908 a national
convention decided upon unification, and in 191Q the Union of
South Africa was established (see South Africa: History).
Leading Personalities. — The public life of Cape Colony has
produced many men of singular ability and accomplishments.
The careers of Cecil Rhodes, of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr,
and of Dr L. S. Jameson have been sufficiently indicated (see
also their separate biographies). Sir Gordon Sprigg, four times
premier, was associated with the Cape parliament from 1873 to
1904, and was once more elected to that assembly in 1908. In
and out of office his zeal was unflagging, and if he lacked those
248
CAPEFIGUE— CAPEL
qualities which inspire enthusiasm and are requisite in a great
leader, he was at least a model of industry. Among other
prominent politicians were Sir James Rose-Innes, Mr J. X.
Merriman and Mr W. P. Schreiner. The two last named both
held the premiership; their attitude and views have been
indicated in the historical sketch. Sir James Rose-Innes, a
lawyer whose intellectual gifts and patriotism have never been
impugned, was not a " party man/' and this made him, on more
than one occasion, a somewhat difficult political ally. On the
native question he held a consistently strong attitude, defending
their rights, and uncompromisingly opposing the native liquor
traffic. In 1901 he went to the Transvaal as chief justice of that
colony. Sir Thomas Fuller, a Cape Town representative, though
he remained outside office, gave staunch support to every en-
lightened liberal and progressive measure which was brought
forward. A man of exceptional culture and eloquence, he made
his influence felt, not only in politics, but in journalism and the
best social life of the Cape peninsula. From 1902 to 1908 he
held the office of agent-general of the colony in London.
In literature, the colony has produced at least two authors
whose works have taken their place among those of the best
English writers of their day. The History of South Africa, by
Mr G. McCall Theal, will remain a classic work of reference.
The careful industry and the lucidity which characterize Mr
TheaTs work stamp him as a historian of whom South Africa
may well be proud. In fiction, Olive Schreiner (Mrs Cronwright-
Schreiner) produced, while still in her teens, the Story of an
African Farm, a work which gave great promise of original
literary genius. Unfortunately, she, in common with the rest
of South Africa, was subsequently swept into the seething
vortex of contemporary politics and controversy. In music
and painting there have been artists of talent in the Cape Colony,
but the country is still too young, and the conditions of life too
disturbed, to allow such a development as has already occurred
in Australia.
Governors at thb Cape since Introduction of Responsible
Government
1870. Sir Henry Barkly.
1877. Sir Bartie Frere.
1880. Sir Hercules Robinson.
1889. Sir Henry Loch.
1895. Sir Hercules Robinson (Lord Rosmead).
1897. Sir Alfred Milner.
1901. Sir Walter Hely- Hutchinson.
Prime Ministers.
Molteno. 1890. Mr C. J. Rhodes.
Gordon Sprigg. 1896. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.
'. C. Scanlen. 1898. Mr W. P. Schreiner.
1884. Mr Upington. 1900. Sir T. Gordon Sprigg.
1886. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg. 1904. Dr L. S. Jameson.
1908. Mr J. X. Merriman.
(A. P. H.; F. R. C.)
Bibliography — The majority of the books concerning Cape
Colony deal also with South Africa as a whole (see South Africa:
Bibliography) . The following list gives books specially relating to the
Cape. For ethnography see the works mentioned under Bushmen,
Hottentots, Kaffirs and Bechuana.
(a) Descriptive accounts, geography, commerce and economics:
— The best early accounts of the colony are found in de la Caille's
Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Esperance (Paris,
>7<>3) f the NouveUe Description du Cap de Bonne EspSrance (Amster-
dam, 1778); F. le Vaillant's Voyage dans Vinterteur de VAfrique
(Paris, 1790), and Second Voyage (Paris, an III. [I794-I795D ; C. P.
Thunberg's " Account of the Cape of Good Hope " in vol. xvi. of
Pinkerton's Travels (London, 18 id); A. Sparman's Voyage to the
Cape of Good Hope . . . 1772-1776 (translated into English from the
Swedish, London, 1785) — an excellent work; and W. Paterson's
A Narrative of Four Journeys . . . 1 777-1779 (London, 178Q).
P. Kolbe or Kolben's Present State of the Cape of Good Hope (English
translation from the German, London, 1731) is less trustworthy.
Sir J. Barrow's Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa
in 1797-1708 (2 vols., London, i8oi-i8oa); H. Lichtenstein's
Travels in Southern Africa in 1 803-1806 (translated from the German,
2 vols., London, 1812-1815), and W. T. Burchell's Travels in the
Interior of Southern Africa (2 vols., London, 1 822-1 824) are standard
works. BurcheH's book contains the best map of the Cape published
up to that time. W. P. Gresweira Geography of Africa south of the
Zambesi (Oxford, 1892) deals specially with Cape Colony; the
Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa (Cape Town,
1872. Mr J. C. 1
1878. Mr J. Gor
1881. MrT. C. !
1893) includes chapters on the zoology, flora, productions and
resources of the colony. A. R. E. Burton, Cape Colony To-day
(Cape Town, 1907), a useful guide to the country and its resources.
A Statistical Register is issued yearly by the Cape government. The
Census of the Colony, 1904: General Report (Cape Town, 1905) and
previous census reports contain much valuable matter.
(b) Special subjects: — For detailed information on special subjects
consult The Natives of South Africa (London, 1901); R. Wallace,
Farming Industries of Cape Colony (London, 1896) ; A. R. E. Burton,
Cape Colony for the Settler (London, 1903) ; The Agricultural Journal
of the Cape of Good Hope; Gardner F. Williams, The Diamond Mines
of South Africa, revised ed. (New York, 1905), an authoritative work
by a former manager of the De Beers mine; A. W. Rogers, An
Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony (London, 1905) and " The
Campbell Rand and Griauatown Series in Hay," Trans, Geol. Soc.
S. Africa, vol. ix. (1906) ; Retoorts, Geological Commission of the Cape
of Good Hope (1896 et seq.) ; Science tn South Africa (Cape Town,
1905); H. A. Bryden, Kloof and Karoo; sport, legend and natural
history in Cape Colony (London, 1889) ; South African Education
Yearbook (Cape Colony edition, Cape Town, 1906 et aeq.). For
books dealing with Roman-Dutch law, see South Africa.
(c) History: — H. C. V. Leibbrandt, PrScis of the Archives of the
Cape of Good Hope (15 vols., vols, v.-vii. contain van Riebeek's
Journal, Cape Town, 1896-1002) ; The Rebellion of 1815, generally
known as Slachter's Nek (Cape Town, 1902) ; G. M. Theal, Chronicles
of Cape Commanders . . . 1651-1601 . . . (Cape Town, 1882), and
Records of the Cape Colony from February 1793 to April 1831, from
MS. in the Record Office, London (36 vols., Cape Town, 1897-1905) ;
History of South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East
India Company, 1052 to 1705 (2 vols., London, 1897); History of
South Africa from 1705 to 1834 (London, 1891); E. B. Watermeyer,
Three Lectures on the Cape . . . under the . . . Dutch East India
Company (Cape Town, 1857) ; A. Wilmot and J. C. Chase, History of
the ... Cape . . . from its Discovery to . . . 1868 (Cape Town,
1869); Lady Anne Barnard, South Africa a Hundred Years Ago:
Letters written from the Cajx, 1707-1801 (London, 1901), a vivid
picture of social life, &c. ; Mrs A. F. Trotter, Old Cape Colony . . .
Her Men and Houses from 1652 to 1806 (London, 1903); C. T.
Campbell, British South Africa, 1795-1825 (London, 1897), the story
of the British settlers of 1820. Consult also J. Martineau's Life of
Sir Bartie Frere; the Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith; P. A.
Molteno's Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno (first premier of
Cape Colony) (2 vols., London, 1900); A Wilmot's Life of Sir
Richard Southey (London, 1904), and G. C. Henderson's Sir George
Grey (London, 1907). B. Worsfold's Lord Milner 1 s Work in South
Africa, 180J-1002 (London, 1906), is largely concerned with Cape
politics. For Blue-books, &c, relating to the colony published
by the British parliament, see the Colonial Office List (London,
yearly)." (F. R. C)
CAPEFIGUE, JEAN-BAPTISTE HONORS RAYMOND (1801-
1872), French historian and biographer, was born at Marseilles
in 1 80 1. At the age of twenty he went to Paris to study law;
but he soon deserted law for journalism. He became editor
of the Quolidienne, and was afterwards connected, either as
editor or leading contributor, with the Temps , the Messager dcs
ChambreSy the Revolution de 1848 and other papers. During
the ascendancy of the Bourbons he held a post in the foreign
office, to which is due the royalism of some of his newspaper
articles. Indeed all Capefigue's works receive their colour from
his legitimist politics; he preaches divine right and non-re-
sistance, and finds polite words even for the profligacy of Louis
XV. and the worthlessness of his mistresses. He wrote bio-
graphies of Catherine and Marie de' Medici, Anne and Maria
Theresa of Austria, Catherine II. of Russia, Elizabeth of England,
Diana of Poitiers and Agnes Sorel — for he delighted in passing
from " queens of the right hand " to " queens of the left."
His historical works, besides histories of the Jews from the fall
of the Maccabees to the author's time, of the first four centuries
of the Christian church, and of European diplomatists, extend
over the whole range of French history. He died at Paris in
December 1872.
The general catalogue of printed books for the Bibliotheque
Nationale contains no Fewer than seventy-seven works (145 volumes)
published by Capefigue during forty years. Of these only the
Histoire de Philippe-Auguste (4 vols., 1829) and the Histoire de la
reforme, de la ligue et du regne de Henri IV (8 vols., 1834.- 1835)
perhaps deserve still to be remembered. For Capefigue's style bears
evident marks of haste, and although he had access to an exception-
ally large number of sources of information, includingthestatepapers,
neither his accuracy nor his judgment was to be trusted.
CAPEL (op Hadham), ARTHUR CAPEL, Bason (fl. 1640-
1649), English royalist, son of Sir Henry Capel of Rayne Hall,
CAPEL CURIG— CAPE MAY
249
Essex, and of Theodosia, daughter of Sir Edward Montagu of
Broughton, Northamptonshire, was elected a member of the
Short and Long Parliaments in 1640 for Hertfordshire. He at
first supported the opposition to Charles's arbitrary government,
but soon allied himself with the king's cause, on which side his
sympathies were engaged, and was raised to the peerage by the
title of Baron Capel of Hadham on the 6th of August 1641. On
the outbreak of the war he was appointed lieutenant-general of
Shropshire, Cheshire and North Wales, where he rendered useful
military services, and later was made one of the prince of Wales's
councillors, and a commissioner at the negotiations at Uxbridge
in 1645. He attended the queen in her flight to France in 1646,
but disapproved of the prince's journey thither, and retired to
Jersey, subsequently aiding in the king's escape to the Isle of
Wight He was'one of the chief leaders in the second Civil War,
but met with no success, and on the 27th of August, together
with Lord Norwich, he surrendered to Fairfax at Colchester on
promise of quarter for life. 1 This assurance, however, was after-
wards interpreted as not binding the civil authorities, and his
fate for some time hung in the balance. He succeeded in escaping
from the Tower, but was again captured, was condemned to
death by the new " high court of justice " on the 8th of March
1649, and was beheaded together with the duke of Hamilton
and Lord Holland the next day. He married Elizabeth, daughter
and heir of Sir Charles Morrison of Cassiobury, Hertfordshire,
through whom that estate passed into his family, and by whom
besides four daughters he had five sons, the eldest Arthur being
created earl of Essex at the Restoration. Lord Capel, who was
much beloved, and who was a man of deep religious feeling and
exemplary life, wrote Daily Observations or Meditations: Divine,
Mar all, published with some of his letters in 1654, and reprinted,
with a short life of the author, under the title Excellent Con-
templations, in 1683,
CAPEL CURIG, a tourist resort in Carnarvonshire, North
Wales, 14} m. from Bangor. It is a collection of a few houses, too
scattered to form a village properly so called. At the Roberts hotel
is shown on a window pane the supposed signature of Wellington.
The road from Bettws y coed, past the Swallow Falls to Capel
Curig, and thence to Llanberis and Carnarvon, is very interesting,
grand and lonely. Excellent fishing is to be had here, chiefly
for trout. In summer, coaching tours discharge numbers of
visitors daily; the railway station is Bettws (London & North-
western railway). Capel Curig means " chapel of Curig," a
British saint mentioned in Welsh poetry. The place is a centre
for artists, geologists and botanists, for the ascent of Snowdon,
Moel Siabod, Glydyr Fawr, Glydyr Fach, Tryfan, &c, and
for visiting Llyn Ogwen, Llyn Idwal, Twll du (Devil's Kitchen),
Nant Ffrancon and the Penrhyn quarries.
CAPELL, EDWARD (1713-1781), English Shakespearian critic,
was born at Troston Hall in Suffolk on the nth of June 1713.
Through the influence of the duke of Grafton he was appointed
to the office of deputy-inspector of plays in 1737, with a salary
of £200 per annum, and in 1745 he was made groom of the privy
chamber through the same influence. In 1760 appeared his
Prolusions, or Select Pieces of Ancient Poetry, a collection which
included Edward III., placed by Capell among the doubtful
plays of Shakespeare. Shocked at the inaccuracies which had
crept into Sir Thomas Hanmer's edition of Shakespeare, he
projected an, entirely new edition, to be carefully collated with
the original copies. After spending three years in collecting,
and comparing scarce folio and quarto editions, he published
his own edition in 10 vols. 8vo (1768), with an introduction
written in a style of extraordinary quaintness, which was after-
wards appended to Johnson's and Steevens's editions. Capell
published the first part of his commentary, which included
notes on nine plays with a glossary, in 1774. This he afterwards
recalled, and the publication of the complete work, Notes and
Various Readings of Shakespeare (1 770-1 783), the third volume
of which bears the title of The School of Shakespeare, was com-
pleted, under the superintendence of John Collins, in 1783, two
1 Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War, iv. 206; cf. article on Fairfax
by C. H. Frith in the Diet, of Nat. Biog.
years after the author's death. It contains the results of his
unremitting labour for thirty years, and throws considerable
light on the history of the times of Shakespeare, as well as on
the sources from which he derived his plots. Collins asserted
that Steevens had stolen CapelPs notes for his own edition,
the story being that the printers had been bribed to show
Steevens the sheets of CapelPs edition while it was passing
through the press. Besides the works already specified, he
published an edition of Antony and Cleopatra, adapted for the
stage with the help of David Garrick in 1758. His edition of
Shakespeare passed through many editions (1768, 177 1, 1793,
1799, 1803, 1813). Capell died in the Temple on the 24th of
February 1781.
CAPELLA, MARTIANUS MINNEUS FELIX, Latin writer,
according to Cassiodorus a native of Madaura in Africa, flourished
during the 5th century, certainly before the year 439, He appears
to have practised as a lawyer at Carthage and to have been in
easy circumstances. His curious encyclopaedic work, entitled
Satyricon, or De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii et de septem
Artibus liberations libri novem, is an elaborate allegory in nine
books, written in a mixture of prose and verse, after the manner
of the Menippean satires of Varro. ' The style is heavy and
involved, loaded with metaphor and bizarre expressions, and
verbose to excess. The first two books contain the allegory
proper — the marriage of Mercury to a nymph named Philologia.
The remaining seven books contain expositions of the seven
liberal arts, which then comprehended all human knowledge.
Book iii. treats of grammar, iv. of dialectics, v. of rhetoric, vi. of
geometry, vii. of arithmetic, viii. of astronomy, ix. of music.
These abstract discussions are linked on to the original allegory by
the device of personifying each science as a courtier of Mercury
and Philologia: The work was a complete encyclopaedia of the
liberal culture of the time, and was in high repute during the
middle ages. The author's chief sources were Varro, Pliny,
Solinus, Aquila Romanus, and Aristides Quintilianus. His
prose resembles that of Apuleius (also a native of Madaura), but
is even more difficult. The verse portions, which are on the
whole correct and classically constructed, are in imitation of
Varro and are less tiresome.
A passage in hook viii. contains a very clear statement of the
heliocentric system of astronomy. It has been supposed that
Copernicus, who quotes Capella, may have received from this
work some hints towards his own new system.
Editio princeps, by F. Vitalis Bodianus, 1499; the best modern
edition is that of F. Eyssenhardt (1866) ; for the relation of Martianus
Capella to Aristides Quintilianus see H. Deiters, Studien zu den
griechischen Musikern (1881). In the nth century the German
monk Notker Labeo translated the first two books into Old High
German.
CAPE MAY, a city and watering-place of Cape May county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Atlantic coast, 2 m. E.N.E. of Cape
May, the S. extremity of the state, and about 80 m. S. by £. of
Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 2136; (1900) 2257; (1905, state
census) 3006. Cape May is served by the Maryland, Delaware
& Virginia (by ferry to Lewes, Delaware), the West Jersey &
Seashore (Pennsylvania system), and the Atlantic City (Reading
system) railways, and, during the summer season, by steamboat
to Philadelphia. The principal part of the city is on a peninsula
(formerly Cape Island) between the ocean and Cold Spring
inlet, which has been dredged and is protected by jetties to make
a suitable harbour. The further improvement of the inlet and the
harbour was authorized by Congress in 1907. On the ocean side,
along a hard sand beach 5 m. long, is the Esplanade. There are
numerous hotels and handsome cottages for summer visitors, who
come especially from Philadelphia, from New York, from the
South and from the West. Cape May offers good bathing,
yachting and fishing, with driving and hunting in the wooded
country inland from the coast. At Cape May Point is the Cape
May lighthouse, 145 ft. high, built in 1800 and rebuilt in 1859.
In the city are canneries of vegetables and fruit, glass-works and
a gold-beating establishment. Fish and oysters are exported.
Cape May was named by Cornells Jacobsen Mey, director of the
Prince Hendrick (Delaware) river for the West India Company of
250
CAPENA— CAPERCALLY
Holland, who took possession of the river in 1623, and planted
the short-lived colony of Fort Nassau 4 m. below Philadelphia,
near the present Gloucester City, NJ. Cape May was settled
about 1699, — a previous attempt to settle here made by Samuel
Blommaert in 163 1 was unsuccessful. It was an important
whaling port early in the 18th century, and became prominent as
a watering-place late in that century. It was incorporated as
the borough of Cape Island in 1848, and chartered as the city of
Cape Island in 1851 ; in 1869 the name was changed to Cape May.
CAPENA, an ancient city of southern Etmria, frequently
mentioned with Veii and Falerii. Its exact site is, however, un-
certain. According to Cato it was a colony of the former, and in
the wars between Veii and Romeitappears as dependent upon Veii,
after the fall of which town, however, it became subject to Rome.
Out of its territory the tribus Stellatina was formed in 367 B.C.
In later republican times the city itself is hardly mentioned,
but under the empire a municipium Capenatium foederatum is
frequently mentioned in inscriptions. Of these several were found
upon the hill known as Civitucola, about 4 m. north-east of the
post station of ad Vicesimum on the ancient Via Flaminia, a site
which is well adapted for an ancient city. It lies on the north
side of a dried-up lake, once no doubt a volcanic crater. Remains
of buildings of the Roman period also exist there, while, in the
sides of the hill of S. Martino which lies on the north-east, 1 rock-
cut tombs belonging to the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. but used in
Roman times for fresh burials, were excavated in 1850-1864, and
again in 1904. Inscriptions in early Latin and in local dialect
were also found (W. Henzen, Buttettino deW Istituto, 1864, 143;
R. Paribeni, Notizie degli Scan, 1905, 301). Similar tombs have
also been found on the hills south of Civitucola. G. B. de Rossi,
however, supposed that the games of which records (fragments of
the fasti ludorum) were also discovered at Civitucola, were those
which were celebrated from time immemorial at the Lucus
Feroniae, with which he therefore proposed to identify this site,
placing Capena itself at S. Oreste, on the south-eastern side of
Mount Soracte. But there are difficulties in the way of this
assumption, and it is more probable that the Lucus Feroniae is to
be sought at or near Nazzano, where, in the excavation of a
circular building which some conjecture to have been the actual
temple of Feronia, inscriptions relating to a municipality were
found. Others, however, propose to place Lucus Feroniae at
the church of S. Abbondio, 1 m. east of Rignano and 4 m. north-
north-west of Civitucola, which is built out of ancient materials.
On the Via Flaminia, 26 m. from Rome, near Rignano, is the
Christian cemetery of Theodora.
See R. Lanciani, Buttettino ddT Istituto, 1870, 32; G. B. de Rossi,
Annali dell* Istituto, 1883, 254; Buttettino Cristiano, 1883, 115;
G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), i. 131 ;
E. Bormann, Corpus Inscriptionum Lalinarum (Berlin, 1888), xi. 571 ;
H Nissen, Italische Landeskunde (Berlin, 1002), ii. 369; R. Paribeni,
in Monument* dei Lined, xvi. (1906), 277 seq. ^ (T. As.)
CAPER, FLAVIUS, Latin grammarian, flourished during the
2nd century. He devoted special attention to the early Latin
writers, and is highly spoken of by Priscian. Caper was the
author of two works — De Lingua Latina and De Dubiis Generibus.
These works in their original form are lost; but two short
treatises entitled De Orthographia and De Verbis Dubiis have
come down to us under his name, probably excerpts from the
original works, with later additions by an unknown writer.
See F. Osann, De Flavio Capro (1849), and review by W. Christ in
Pkilologus, xviii. 165-170 (1862), where several editions of other
important grammarians are noticed; G. Keil, " De Flavio Gram*
matico," in Dissertationes Halenses, x. (1889); text in H. Keil's
Grantmatici Latini, vii.
CAPERCALLY, or Capekkally,' a bird's name commonly
derived from the Gaelic capull, a horse (or, more properly, a
1 Some writers wrongly speak as though the two hills were identical.
8 This is the spelling of the old law-books, as given by Pennant,
the zoologist, wno, on something more than mere report, first in-
cluded this bird among the British fauna. The only one of the
" Scots Acts," however, in which the present writer has been able
to ascertain that the bird is named is No. 30 of James VI. (1621),
which was passed to protect " powties, partrikes, moore foulles,
blakcoks, gray hennis, termigantis, quailzies, capercailzies" &c.
mare), and coille, a wood, but with greater likelihood, according
to the opinion of Dr M'Lauchlan, from cabher, an old man (and,
by metaphor, an old bird), and coUle, the name of Teirao urogattus,
the largest of the grouse family ( Tetraonidae), and a species which
was formerly indigenous to Scotland and Ireland. The word is
frequently spelt otherwise, as capercake, capercailzie (the %,
a letter unknown in Gaelic, being pronounced like y), and caper-
caillie, and the English name of wood-grouse or cock-of-the-wood
has been often applied to the same bird. The earliest notice of
it as an inhabitant of North Britain seems to be by Hector
Boethius, whose works were published in 1526, and it can then
be traced through various Scottish writers, to whom, however,
it was evidently but little known, for about 200 years, or may be
more, and by one of them only, Bishop Lesley, in 1578, was a
definite habitat assigned to it: — " In Rossia quoque Louguhabria
[Lochaber], atque aliis montanis locis " {De Origine Moribus
de rebus gestis Scotorum. Romae: ed. 1675, P- M)- Pennant,
during one of his tours in Scotland, found that it was then (1769)
still to be met with in Glen Moriston and in The Chisholm's
country, whence he saw a cock-bird. We may infer that it
became extinct about that time, since Robert Gray (Birds of the
West of Scotland, p. 229) quotes the Rev. John Grant as writing
in 1794: " The last seen in Scotland was in the woods of Strath-
glass about thirty-two years ago." Of its existence in Ireland
we have scarcely more details. If we may credit the Pavones
sylvestres of Giraldus Cambrensis with being of this species,
it was once abundant there, and Willughby (1678) was told
that it was known in that kingdom as the "cock-of-the-wood."
A few other writers mention it by the same name,and John Rutty,
in 1772, says (Nat. Hist. Dublin, I p. 302) that " one was seen
in the county of Leitrim about the year 17 10, but they have
entirely disappeared of late, by reason of the destruction of our
woods." Pennant also states that about 1760 a few were to
be found about Thomastown in Tipperary, but no later evidence
is forthcoming, and thus it would seem that the species was
exterminated at nearly the same period in both Ireland and
Scotland.
When the practice of planting was introduced, the restoration
of this fine bird to both countries was attempted. In Ireland
the trial, of which some particulars are given by J. Vaughan
Thompson (Birds of Ireland, ii. 32), was made at Glengariff,
but it seems to have utterly failed, whereas in Scotland, where
it was begun at Taymouth, it finally succeeded, and the species
is now not only firmly established, but is increasing in numbers
and range. Mr L. Lloyd, the author of several excellent works on
the wild sports and natural history of Scandinavia, supplied
the stock from Sweden, but it must be always borne in mind
that the original British race was wholly extinct, and no remains
of it are known to exist in any museum.
This species is widely, though intermittently, distributed on
the continent of Europe, from Lapland to the northern parts
of Spain, Italy and Greece, but is always restricted to pine-
forests, which alone afford it food in winter. Its bones have been
found in the kitchen-middens of Denmark, proving that country
to have once been clothed with woods of that kind. Its remains
have also been recognized from the caves of Aquitaine. Its
eastern or southern limits in Asia cannot be precisely given,
but it certainly inhabits the forests of a great part of Siberia.
On the Stannovoi Mountains, however, it is replaced by a
distinct though nearly allied species, the T. urogalloides of
Dr von Middendorff, 3 which is smaller with a slenderer bill but
longer tail.
The cock-of-the-wood is remarkable for his large size and dark
plumage, with the breast metallic green. He is polygamous,
and in spring mounts to the topmost bough of a tall tree, whence
he challenges all comers by extraordinary sounds and gestures;
while the hens, which are much smaller and mottled in colour,
timidly abide below the result of the frequent duels, patiently
submitting themselves to the victor. While this is going on it
is the practice in many countries, though generally in defiance
8 Not to be confounded with the bird so named previously by Prof.
Nilsson, which is a hybrid.
CAPERN— CAPET
251
of the law, for the so-called sportsman stealthily to draw nigh,
and with well-aimed gun to murder the principal performer
in the scene. The hen makes an artless nest on the ground, and
lays therein from seven to nine or even more eggs. The young are
able to fly soon after they are hatched, and towards the end of
summer and beginning of autumn, from feeding on the fruit
and leaves of the bilberries and other similar plants, which form
the undercovert of the forests, get into excellent condition and
become good eating. With the first heavy falls of snow they
betake themselves to the trees, and then, feeding on the
pine-leaves, their flesh speedily acquires so strong a flavour of tur-
pentine as to be distasteful to most palates. The usual method of
pursuing this species on the continent of Europe is by encouraging
a trained dog to range the forest and spring the birds, which then
perch on the trees; while he is baying at the foot their attention
is so much attracted by him that they permit the near approach
of his master, who thus obtains a more or less easy shot. A
considerable number, however, are also snared. Hybrids are
very frequently produced between the capercally and the black
grouse (T. tetrix), and the offspring has been described by
some authors under the name of T. medius, as though a distinct
species. (A. N.)
' CAPERN, EDWARD (1819-1894), English poet, was born
at Tiverton, Devonshire, on the 21st of January 1810. From an
early age he worked in a lace factory, but owing to failing eyesight
he had to abandon this occupation in 1847 and he was in dire
distress until he secured an appointment to be " the Rural
Postman of Bideford," by which name he is usually known.
He occupied his leisure in writing occasional poetry which struck
the popular fancy. Collected in a volume and published by
subscription in 1856, it received the warm praise of the reviews
and many distinguished people. Poems, by Edward Capern,
was followed by Ballads and Songs (1858), The Devonshire
Melodist (a collection of the author's songs, some of them to his
own music) and Wayside Warbles (1865), and resulted in a civil
list pension being granted him by Lord Palmerston. He died
on the 5th ef June 1894.
CAPERNAUM (Kcurepvaobn; probably, "the village of
Nafrum ") , an ancient city of Galilee. More than any other place,
it was the home of Jesus after he began his mission; there he
preached, called several of his disciples, and did many works, but
without meeting with much response from the inhabitants, over
whom he pronounced the heavy denunciation: — " And thou,
Capernaum, which art exalted unto heaven, shalt be brought
down to hen." The site of the city has been a matter of much
dispute, — one party, headed by Dr E. Robinson, maintaining an
identification with Khan Minyeh at the north-west corner of the
Sea of Galilee, and another, represented especially by Sir C. W.
Wilson, supporting the claims of Tell Hum, midway between
Khan Minyeh and the mouth of the Jordan. Khan Minyeh is
beautifully situated in a " fertile plain formed by the retreat of
the mountains about the middle of the western shore " of the Sea
of Galilee. Its ruins are not very extensive, though they may
have been despoiled for building the great Saracenic Khan from
which they take their name. In the neighbourhood is a water-
source, Ain eUTdJbighahy an Arabic corruption of Heptapegon
or Seven Springs (referred to by Josephus as being near
Capernaum). Tell Hum lies about 3 m. north of Khan Minyeh,
and its ruins, covering an area of " half a mile long by a quarter
wide," prove it to have been the site of no small town. It must
be admitted that if it be not Capernaum it is impossible to say
what ancient place it represents. But it is doubtful whether
Tell Hum can be considered as a corruption of Kefr Nafrum, the
Semitic name which the Greek represents: and there is not here,
as at Khan Minyeh, any spring that can be equated to the
Heptapegon of Josephus. On the whole the probabilities of the
two sites seem to balance, and it is practically impossible without
further discoveries to decide between them. The sites of the
neighbouring cities of Bethsaida and Chorazin are probably to be
sought respectively at El-Bateiha, a grassy plain in the north-east
corner of the lake, and at Kerazeh, 2 m. north of Tell Hum.
According to the so-called Pseudo-Methodius there was a tradition
that Antichrist would be born at Chorazin, educated at Bethsaida
and rule at Capernaum — hence the curse of Jesus upon these
cities.
On the site of Capernaum see especially W. Sanday in Journal of
Theological Studies, vol. v. p. 42. (R. A. S. M.)
CAPERS, the unexpanded flower-buds of Capparis spinosa,
prepared with vinegar for use as a pickle. The caper plant is a
trailing shrub, belonging to the Mediterranean region, resembling
in habit the common bramble, and having handsome flowers of a
pinkish white, with four petals, and numerous long tassel-like
stamens. The leaves are simple and ovate, with spiny stipules.
The plant is cultivated in Sicily and the south of France; and in
commerce capers are valued according to the period at which
the buds are gathered and preserved. The finest are the young
tender buds called " nonpareil," after which, gradually increasing
in size and lessening in value, come " superfine," " fine,"
" capucin " and " capot." Other species of Capparis are
similarly employed in various localities, and in some cases the
fruit is pickled.
CAPET, the name of a family to which, for nearly nine centuries,
the kings of France, and many of the rulers of the most powerful
fiefs in that country, belonged, and which mingled with several
of the other royal races of Europe. The original significance of
the name remains in dispute, but the first of the family to whom
it was applied was Hugh, who was elected king of the Franks in
987. The real founder of the house, however, was Robert the
Strong (q.v.), who received from Charles the Bald, king of the
Franks, the countships of Anjou and Blois, and who is sometimes
called duke, as he exercised some military authority in the district
between the Seine and the Loire. According to Aimoin of Saint-
Germain-des-Pr6s, and the chronicler, Richer, he was a Saxon,
but historians question this statement. Robert's two sons, Odo
or Eudes, and Robert II., succeeded their father successively as
dukes, and, in 887, some of the Franks chose Odo as their king.
A similar step was taken, fn 922, in the case of Robert II., this
too marking the increasing irritation felt at the weakness of the
Carolingian kings. When Robert died in 923, he was succeeded
by his brother-in-law, Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, and not by
his son Hugh, who is known in history as Hugh the Great, duke of
France and Burgundy, and whose domain extended from the
Loire to the frontiers of Picardy. When Louis V., king of the
Franks, died in 987, the Franks, setting aside the Carolingians,
passed over his brother Charles, and elected Hugh Capet, son of
Hugh the Great, as their king, and crowned him at Reims.
Avoiding the pretensions which had been made by the Caro-
lingian kings, the Capetian kings were content, for a time, with a
more modest position, and the story of the growth of their power
belongs to the history of France. They had to combat the feudal
nobility, and later, the younger branches of the royal house
established in the great duchies, and the main reason for the
permanence of their power was, perhaps, the fact that there were
few minorities among them. The direct line ruled in France
from 987 to 1338, when, at the death of King Charles IV., it was
succeeded by the younger, or Valois, branch of the family.
Philip VI., the first of the Valois kings, was a son of Charles I.,
count of Valois and grandson of King Philip III. (see Valois).
The Capetian- Valois dynasty lasted until 1498, when Louis, duke
of Orleans, became king as Louis XII., on the death of King
Charles VIII. (see Orleans). Louis XII. dying childless, the
house of Valois-Angouleme followed from Francis I. to the death
of Henry III. in 1589 (see Angouleme), when the last great
Capetian family, the Bourbons (q.v.) mounted the throne.
Scarcely second to the royal house is the branch to which
belonged the dukes of Burgundy. In the 10th century the duchy
of Burgundy fell into the hands of Hugh the Great, father of
Hugh Capet, on whose death in 956 it passed to his son Otto, and,
in 965, to his son Henry. In 1032 Robert, the second son of
Robert the Pious, king of the Franks, and grandson of Hugh
Capet, founded the first ducal house, which ruled until 1361.
For two years the duchy was in the hands of the crown, but in
1363, the second ducal house, also Capetian, was founded by
Philip the Bold, son of John II., king of France. This branch
252
CAPE TOWN
of the Capetians is also distinguished by its union with the
Habsburgs, through the marriage of Mary, daughter of Charles
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, with Maximilian, afterwards the
emperor Maximilian I. Of great importance also was the house
of the counts of Anjou, which was founded in 1246, by Charles,
son of the French king Louis VIII., and which, in 1360, was
raised to the dignity of a dukedom (see Anjou). Members of
this family sat upon the thrones of two kingdoms. The counts
and dukes of Anjou were kings of Naples from 1265 to 1442.
In 1308 Charles Robert of Anjou was elected king of Hungary,
his claim being based on the marriage of his grandfather Charles
II., king of Naples and count of Anjou, with Maria, daughter of
Stephen V., king of Hungary. A third branch formed the house
of the counts of Artois, which was founded in 1238 by Robert,
son of King Louis VIII. This house merged in that of Valois
in 1383, by the marriage of Margaret, daughter of Louis, count
of Artois, with Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The throne
of Navarre was also filled by the Capetians. In 1284 Jeanne,
daughter and heiress of Henry I., king of Navarre, married
Philip IV., king of France, and the two kingdoms were united
until Philip of Valois became king of France as Philip VI. in
1328, when Jeanne, daughter of King Louis X., and heiress of
Navarre, married Philip, count of Evreux (see Navaebe).
In the 13th century the throne of Constantinople was occupied
by a branch of the Capetians. Peter, grandson of King Louis VI.,
obtained that dignity in 1217 as brother-in-law of the two
previous emperors, Baldwin, count of Flanders, and his brother
Henry. Peter was succeeded successively by his two sons,
Robert and Baldwin, from whom in 1261 the empire was re-
covered by the Greeks.
The counts of Dreux, for two centuries and a half (1 i32-i377)>
and the counts of Evreux, from 1307 to 1425, also belonged to the
family of the Capets, — other members of which worthy of mention
are the Dunois and the Longuevilles, illegitimate branches of the
house of Valois, which produced many famous warriors and
courtiers.
CAPE TOWN, the capital of the Cape Province, South Africa,
in 33° 56' S., 18 28' E. It is at the north-west extremity of
the Cape Peninsula on the south shore of Table Bay, is 61 81 m.
by sea from London and 957 by rail south-west of Johannesburg.
Few cities are more magnificently situated. Behind the bay
the massive wall of Table Mountain, 2 m. in length, rises to a
height of over 3500 ft., while on the east and west projecting
mountains enclose the plain in which the city lies. The mountain
to the east, 3300 ft. high, which projects but slightly seawards,
is the Devil's Peak, that to the west the Lion's Head (over
2000 ft. high), with a lesser height in front called the Lion's Rump
or Signal Hill. The city, at first confined to the land at the
head of the bay, has extended all round the shores of the bay
and to the lower spurs of Table Mountain.
The purely Dutch aspect which Cape Town preserved until
the middle of the 19th century has disappeared. Nearly all
the stucco-fronted brick houses, with flat roofs and cornices
and wide spreading stoeps, of the early Dutch settlers have been
replaced by shops, warehouses and offices in styles common to
English towns. Of the many fine public buildings which adorn the
city scarcely any date before i860. The mixture of races among
the inhabitants, especially the presence of numerous Malays,
who on all festive occasions appear in gorgeous raiment, gives
additional animation and colour to the street scenes. The
mosques with their cupolas and minarets, and houses built in
Eastern fashion contrast curiously with the Renaissance style
of most of the modern buildings, the medieval aspect of the
castle and the quaint appearance of the Dutch houses still
standing.
Chief Public Buildings. — The castle stands near the shore
at the head of the bay. Begun in 1666 its usefulness as a fortress
has long ceased, but it serves to link the city to its past. West
of the castle is a large oblong space, the Parade Ground. A
little farther west, at the foot of the central jetty is a statue
of Van Riebeek, the first governor of the Cape. In a line with
the jetty is Adderley Street, and its continuation Government
Avenue. Adderley Street and the avenue make one straight
road a mile long, and at its end are " the Gardens," as the suburbs
built on the rising ground leading to Table Mountain are called.
The avenue itself is fully half a mile long and is lined on either
side with fine oak trees. In Adderley Street are the customs
house and railway station, the Standard bank, the general post
and telegraph offices, with a tower 120 ft. high, and the Dutch
Reformed church. The church dates from 1699 and is the oldest
church in South Africa. Of the original building only the clock
tower (sent from Holland in 1727) remains. Government
Avenue contains, on the east side, the Houses of Parliament,
government house, a modernized Dutch building, and the Jewish
synagogue; on the west side are the Anglican cathedral and
grammar schools, the public library, botanic gardens, the museum
and South African college. Many of these buildings are of
considerable architectural merit, the material chiefly used in
their construction being granite from the Paarl and red brick.
The botanic gardens cover 14 acres, contain over 8000 varieties
of trees and plants, and afford a magnificent view of Table
Mountain and its companion heights. In the gardens, in front
of the library is a statue of Sir George Grey, governor of the Cape
from 1854 to 1 861. The most valuable portion of the library is
the 5000 volumes presented by Sir George Grey. In Queen
Victoria Street, which runs along the west side of the gardens,
are the Cape University buildings (begun in 1906), the law courts,
City club and Huguenot memorial hall. The Anglican cathedral,
begun in 1901 to replace an unpretentious building on the same
site, is dedicated to St George. It lies between the library and
St George's Street, in which are the chief newspaper offices,
and premises of the wholesale merchants. West of St George's
Street is Greenmarket Square, the centre of the town during
the Dutch period. From the balcony of the town house, which
overlooks the square, proclamations were read to the burghers,
summoned to the spot by the ringing of the bell in the small-
domed tower. Still farther west, in Riebeek Square, is the old
slave market, now used as a church and school for coloured people.
Facing the north side of the Parade Ground are the handsome
municipal buildings, completed in 1906. The most conspicuous
feature is the clock tower and belfry, 200 ft. high. The hall is
130 ft. by 62, and 55 ft. high. Opposite the main entrance is
a statue of Edward VII. by William Goscombe John, unveiled
in 1905. The opera house occupies the north-west corner of
the Parade Ground. Plein Street, which leads south from the
Parade Ground, is noted for its cheap shops, largely patronized
on Saturday nights by the coloured inhabitants. In Sir Lowry
Road, the chief eastern thoroughfare, is the large vegetable
and fruit market. Immediately west of the harbour are the con-
vict station and Somerset hospital. They are built at the town
end of Greenpoint Common, the open space at the foot of Signal
Hill. Cape Town is provided with an excellent water supply
and an efficient drainage system.
The Suburbs. — The suburbs of Cape Town, for natural beauty
of position, are among the finest in the world. On the west they
extend about 3 m., by Green Point to Sea Point, between the sea
and the foot of the Lion's Rump; on the east they run round the
foot of the Devil's Peak, by Woodstock, Mowbray, Rondebosch,
Newlands, Claremont, &c, to Wynberg, a distance of 7 m. Though
these are managed by various municipalities, there is practically no
break in the buildings for the whole distance. All the parts are
connected by the suburban railway service, and by an electric
tramway system. A tramway also runs from the town over the
Kloof, or pass between Table Mountain and the Lion's Head,
to Camp's Bay, on the west coast south of Sea Point, to which
place it is continued, the tramway thus completely circling the
Lion's Head and Signal Hill. Of the suburbs mentioned, Green
Point and Sea Point are seaside resorts, Woodstock being both
a business and residential quarter. Woodstock covers the ground
on which the British, in 1806, defeated the Dutch, and contains
the house in which the articles of capitulation were signed.
Another seaside suburb is Milnerton on the north-east shores
of Table Bay at the mouth of the Diep river. Near Maitland,
and 3 m. from the city, is the Cape Town observatory, built in
GAPE VERDE ISLANDS
^53
1820 and maintained by the British government. Rondebosch,
5 m. from the city, contains some of the finest of the Dutch
mansions in South Africa. Less than a mile from the station
is Groote Schuur, a typical specimen of the country houses built
by the Dutch settlers in the 17 th century. The house was the
property of Cecil Rhodes, and was bequeathed by him for the
use of the prime minister of Federated South Africa. The
grounds of the estate extend up the slopes of Table Mountain.
At Newlands is Bishop's Court, the home of the archbishop of
Cape Town. More distant suburbs to the south-east are Con-
stantia, with a famous Dutch farm-house and wine farm, and
Muizenberg and Kalk Bay, the two last villages on the shore
of False Bay. At Muizenberg Cecil Rhodes died, 1902. Facing
the Atlantic'is Hout's Bay, 10 m. south-south-west of Wynberg.
Most of the suburbs and the city itself are exposed to the south-
east winds which, passing over the flats which join the Cape
Peninsula to the mainland, reach the city sand-laden. From its
bracing qualities this wind, which blows in the summer, is known
as the " Cape Doctor." During its prevalence Table Mountain
is covered by a dense whitish-grey cloud, overlapping its side
like a tablecloth.
The Harbour. — Table Bay, 20 m. wide at its entrance, is fully
exposed to north and north-west gales. The harbour works,
begun in i860, afford sheltered accommodation for a large
number of vessels. From the west end of the bay a breakwater
extends north-east for some 4000 ft. East of the breakwater
and parallel to it for 2700 ft. is the South pier. From breakwater
and pier arms project laterally. In the area enclosed are the
Victoria basin, covering 64 acres, the (Alfred basin of 8$ acres,
a graving dock 529 ft. long and a patent slip for vessels up to
1500 tons. There is good anchorage outside the Victoria basin
under the lee of the breakwater, and since 1904 the foreshore
east of the south pier has been reclaimed and additional wharfage
provided. Altogether there are 2$ m. of quay walls, the wharfs
being provided with electrical cranage. Cargo can be transferred
direct from the ship into railway trucks. Vessels of the deepest
draught can enter into the Victoria basin, the depth of water
at low tide ranging from 24 to 36 ft.
Trade and Communication. — The port has a practical mono-
poly of the passenger traffic between the Cape and England.
Several lines of steamers — chiefly British and German — maintain
regular communication with Europe, the British mail boats
taking sixteen days on the journey. By its railway connexions
Cape Town affords the quickest means of reaching, from western
Europe, every other town in South Africa. In the import trade
Cape Town is closely rivalled by Port Elizabeth, but its export
trade, which includes diamonds and bar gold, is fully 70% of
that of the entire colony. In 1898, the year before the beginning
of the Anglo-Boer war, the volume of trade was: — Imports
£5,128,292, exports £15,881,952. In 1904, two years after the
conclusion of the war the figures were: — imports £9,070,757;
exports £17,471,760. In 1907 during a period of severe and
prolonged trade depression the imports had fallen to £5,263,930,
but the exports owing entirely to the increased output of gold
from the Rand mines had increased to £37,994,658; gold and
diamonds represented over £37,000,000 of this total. The
tonnage of ships entering the harbour in 1887 was 801,033. In
1904 it had risen to 4,846,012 and in 1907 was 4,671,146. The
trade of the port in tons was 1,276,350 in 1899 and 1,413,471 in
1904. In 1907 it had fallen to 658,721.
Defence. — Cape Town, being in the event of the closing of the
Suez Canal on the main route of ships from Europe to the East,
is of considerable strategic importance. It is defended by several
batteries armed with modern heavy guns. It is garrisoned by
Imperial and local troops, and is connected by railway with the
naval station at Simon's Town on the east of the Cape Peninsula.
Population. — The Cape electoral division, which includes
Cape Town, had in 1865 a population of 50,064, in 1875 57,319, in
1891 97,238, and in 1904 213,167, of whom 120,475 were whites.
Cape Town itself had a population in 1875 °* 33>°°°> in 189 1 of
51,251 and in 1904 of 77,668. Inclusive of the nearer suburbs
the population was 78,866 in 1891 and 170,083 in 1904. Of the
inhabitants of the city proper 44,203 were white (1904). Of the
coloured inhabitants 6561 were Malays; the remainder being
chiefly of mixed blood. The most populous suburbs in 1904 were
Woodstock with 28,990 inhabitants, and Wynberg with 18,477.
History and Local Government. — Cape Town was founded in
1652 by settlers sent from Holland by the Netherlands East
India Co., under Jan van Riebeek. It came definitely into the
possession of Great Britain in 1806. Its political history is
indistinguishable from that of Cape Colony (q.v.) . The town was
granted municipal institutions in 1836. (Among the councillors
returned at the election of 1904 was Dr Abdurrahman, a Mahom-
medan and a graduate of Edinburgh, this being, it is believed,
the first instance of the election of a man of colour to any Euro-
pean representative body in South Africa.) The municipality
owns the water and lighting services. The municipal rating
value was, in 1880 £2,054,204, in 1901 £9,475,260, in 1908 (when
the rate levied was 3d. in the £) £14,129,439. The total rateable
value of the suburbs, not included in the above figures, is over
£8,000,000. Rates are based on capital, not annual, value. The
control of the port is vested in the Harbour and Railway Board
of the Union.
Cape Town is the seat of the legislature of the Union of South
Africa, of the provincial government, of the provincial division
of the Supreme Court of South Africa, and of the Cape University;
also of an archbishop of the Anglican and a bishop of the Roman
Catholic churches.
GAPE VERDE ISLANDS (I I has do Cabo Verde), an archipelago
belonging to Portugal; off the West African coast, between
17 13' and 14° 47' N. and 22 40' and 25 22' W. Pop. (1905)
about 138,620; area, 1475 sq. m. The archipelago consists of
ten islands: — Santo Antao (commonly miswritten St Antonio),
Sao Vicente, Santa Luzia, Sao Nicolao, Sal, Boa Vista, Maio, Sao
Thiago (the St Jago of the English), Fogo, and Brava, besides
four uninhabited islets. It forms a sort of broken crescent, with
the concavity towards the west. The last four islands constitute
the leeward (Sotavento) group and the other six the windward
(Barlavento). The distance between the coast of Africa and the
nearest island (Boa Vista) is about 300 m. The islands derive
their name, frequently but erroneously written " Cape Verd,"
or " Cape de Verd " Islands, from the African promontory off
which they lie, known as Cape Verde, or the Green Cape. The
entire archipelago is of volcanic origin, and on the island of Fogo
there is an active volcano. No serious eruption has taken place
since 1680, and the craters from which the streams of basalt
issued have lost their outline.
254
CAPE VERDE ISLANDS
Climate. — The atmosphere of the islands is generally hazy,
especially in the direction of Africa. With occasional exceptions
during summer and autumn, the north-east trade is the prevailing
wind, blowing most strongly from November to May. The rainy
season is during August, September and October, when there is
thunder and a light variable wind from south-east or south-west.
The Harmattan, a very dry east wind from the African continent,
occasionally makes itself felt. The heat of summer is high, the
thermometer ranging from 8o° to 90 Fahr. near the sea. The
unhealthy season is the period during and following the rains,
when vegetation springs up with surprising rapidity, and there is
much stagnant water, poisoning the air on the lower grounds.
Remittent fevers are then common. The people of all the
islands are also subject in May to an endemic of a bilious nature
called locally kvadias, but the cases rarely assume a dangerous
form, and recovery is usually attained in three or four days
without medical aid. On some of the islands rain has occasionally
not fallen for three years. The immediate consequence is a
failure of the crops, and this is followed by the death of great
numbers from starvation, or the epidemics which usually break
out afterwards.
Flora. — Owing largely to the widespread destruction of
timber for fuel, and to the frequency of drought, the flora of the
islands is poor when compared with that of the Canaries, the
Azores or Madeira. It is markedly tropical in character; and
although some seventy wild-flowers, grasses, ferns, &c, are
peculiar to the archipelago, the majority of plants are those found
on the neighbouring African littoral. Systematic afforestation
has not been attempted, but the Portuguese have introduced
a few trees, such as the baobab, eucalyptus and dragon-tree,
besides many plants of economic value. Coffee-growing, an
industry dating from 1790, is the chief resource of the people of
Santo Antao, Fogo and Sao Thiago; maize, millet, sugar-cane,
manioc, excellent oranges, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, and, to a
less extent, tobacco and cotton are produced. On most of the
islands coco-nut and date palms, tamarinds and bananas may
be seen; orchil is gathered; and indigo and castor-oil are pro-
duced. Of considerable importance is the physic-nut (Jatropha
curcas), which is exported.
Fauna. — Quails are found in all the islands; rabbits in Boa
Vista, Sao Thiago and Fogo; wild boars in Sfio Thiago. Both
black and grey rats are common. Goats, horses and asses are
reared, and goatskins are exported. The neighbouring sea
abounds with fish, and coral fisheries are carried on by a colony of
Neapolitans in Sao Thiago. Turtles come from the African coast
to lay their eggs on the sandy shores. The Ilheu Branco, or
White Islet, between Sao Nicolao and Santa Luzia, is remarkable
as containing a variety of puffin unknown elsewhere, and a
species of large lizard (Macroscinctus coctei) which feeds on plants.
Inhabitants. — The first settlers on the islands imported negro
slaves from the African coast. Slavery continued in full force
until 1854, when the Portuguese government freed the public
slaves, and ameliorated the conditions of private ownership. In
1857 arrangements were made for the gradual abolition of slavery,
and by 1876 the last slave had been liberated. The transporta-
tion of convicts from Portugal, a much-dreaded punishment, was
continued until the closing years of the 19th century. It was the
coexistence of these two forms of servitude, even more than the
climate, which prevented any large influx of Portuguese colonists.
Hence the blacks and mulattoes far outnumber the white
inhabitants. They are, as a rule, taller than the Portuguese, and
are of fine physique, with regular features but woolly hair.
Slavery and the enervating climate have left their mark on the
habits of the people, whose indolence and fatalism are perhaps
their most obvious qualities. Their language is a bastard
Portuguese, known as the lingua creotda. Their religion is Roman
Catholicism, combined with a number of pagan beliefs and rites,
which are fostered by the curandeiros or medicine men. These
superstitions tend to disappear gradually before the advance of
education, which has progressed considerably since 1867, when
the first school, a lyceum, was opened in Ribeira Brava, the
capital of Sao Nicolao. On all the inhabited islands, except
Santa Luzia, there are churches and primary schools, conducted
by the government or the priests. The children of the wealthier
classes are sent to Lisbon for their education.
Government. — The archipelago forms one of the foreign
provinces of Portugal, and is under the command of a governor-
in-chief appointed by the crown. There are two principal judges,
one for the windward and another for the leeward group, the
former with his residence at Sao Nicolao, and the latter at Praia;
and each island has a military commandant, a few soldiers, and a
number of salaried officials, such as police, magistrates and
custom-house directors. There is also an ecclesiastical establish-
ment, with a bishop, dean and canons.
Industries. — The principal industries, apart from agriculture,
are the manufacture of sugar, spirits, salt, cottons and straw hats
and fish-curing. The average yearly value of the exports is
about £60,000; that of the imports (including £200,000 for coal),
about £350,000. The most important of the exports are coffee,
physic-nuts, millet, sugar, spirits, salt, live animals, skins and
fish. This trade is principally carried on with Lisbon and the
Portuguese possessions on the west coast of Africa, and with
passing vessels. The imports consist principally of coal, textiles,
food-stuffs, wine, metals, tobacco, machinery, pottery and
vegetables. Over 3000 vessels, with a total tonnage exceeding
3,500,000, annually enter the ports of the archipelago; the
majority call at Mindello, on Sao Vicente, for coal, and do not
receive or discharge any large quantities of cargo.
Santo Antfo (pop. 25,000), at the extreme north-west of the
archipelago, has an area of 265 sq. m. Its surface is very rugged
and mountainous, abounding in volcanic craters, oi which the chief
is the Topoda Coroa (7300 ft.) , also known as the Sugar-loaf. Mineral
springs exist in many places. The island is the most picturesque,
the healthiest, and, on its north-western slope, the best watered and
most fertile of the archipelago. The south-eastern slope, shut out
by lofty mountains from the fertilizing moisture of the trade-winds,
has an entirely different appearance, black rocks, white pumice
and red clay being its most characteristic features. Santo Antao
produces large quantities of excellent coffee, besides sugar and fruit.
It has several small ports, of which the chief are the sheltered and
spacious Tarrafal Bay, on the south-west coast, and the more
frequented Ponta do Sol, on the north-east, 8 m. from the capital,
Ribeira Grande, a town of 4500 inhabitants. Cinchona is cultivated
in the neighbourhood. In 1780 the slaves on Santo Antao were
declared free, but this decree was not carried out. About the same
time many white settlers, chiefly from the Canaries, entered the
island, and introduced the cultivation of wheat.
S&o Vicente, or St Vincent (8000), lies near Santo Antao, on the
south-east, and has an area of 75 sq. m. Its highest point is Monte
Verde (2400 ft.). The whole island is as arid and sterile as the
south-eastern half of Santo Antao, and for the same reason. It was
practically uninhabited until 1795; in 1829 its population numbered
about 100. Its harbour, an extinct crater on the north coast, with
an entrance eroded by the sea, affords complete shelter from every
wind. An English speculator founded a coaling station here in
1851, and the town of Mindello, also known as Porto Grande or St
Vincent, grew up rapidly, and became the commercial centre of the
archipelago. Most of the business is in English hands, and nine-
tenths of the inhabitants understand English. Foodstuffs, wood
and water are imported from Santo Antao, and the water is stored
in a large reservoir at Mindello. Sao Vicente has a station for the
submarine cable from Lisbon to Pernambuco in Brazil.
Santa Luzia, about 5 m. south-east, has an area of 18 sq. m.,
and forms a single estate, occupied only by the servants or the
family of the proprietor. Its highest point is 885 ft. above sea-level.
On the south-west it has a good harbour, visited by whaling and
fishing boats. Much orchil was formerly gathered, and there is
good pasturage for the numerous herds of cattle. A little to the
south arc the uninhabited islets of Branco and Razo.
S5o Nicolao, or Nicolau (12,000), a long, narrow, crescent-shaped
island with an area of 126 sq. m., lies farther east, near the middle
of the archipelago. Its climate is not very healthy. Maize, kidney-
beans, manioc, sugar-cane and vines are cultivated; and inordinary
years grain is exported to the other islands. The interior is moun-
tainous, and culminates in two peaks which can be seen for many
leagues; one has the shape of a sugar-loaf, and is near the middle of
the island ; the other, Monte Gordo, is near the west end, and has a
height of 4280 ft. b All the other islands of the group can be seen
from Sao Nicolao in clear weather. Vessels frequently enter Pre-
guica, or Freshwater Bay, near the south-east extremity of the
island, for water and fresh provisions; and the custom-house is here.
The island was one of the first colonized; in 1774 its inhabitants
numbered 13,500, but famine subsequently caused a great decrease.
The first capital, Lapa. at the end of a promontory on the south,
CAPGRAVE
255
was abandoned during the period of Spanish ascendancy over
Portugal ( 1 580-1640) in favour of Ribeira Brava (4000), on the
north coast, a town which now has a considerable trade.
Sal (7^o) t in the north-east of the archipelago, has an area of 75
sq. m. It was originally named Lana or Lhana (" plain ")> from the
flatness of the greater part of its surface. It derives its modern name
from a natural salt-spring, but most of the salt produced here is now
obtained from artificial salt-pans. Towards tine close of the 17th
century it was inhabited only by a few shepherds, and by slaves
employed in the salt-works. In 1705 it was entirely abandoned,
owing to drought and consequent famine; and only in 1808 was the
manufacture of salt resumed. A railway, the first built i n Portuguese
territory, was opened in 1835. The hostile Brazilian tariffs of 1880
for a time nearly destroyed the salt trade. Whales, turtles and fish
are abundant, and dairy-farming is a prosperous industry. There
are many small harbours, which render every part of the island
easily accessible.
Boa Vista (2600), the most easterly island of the archipelago,
has an area of 235 sq. m. It was named Sao Christovao by its
discoverers in the 15th century. Its modern name, meaning fair
view," is singularly inappropriate, for with the exception of a few
coco-nut trees there is no wood, and in the dry season the island
seems nothing but an arid waste. The little vegetation that then
exists is in the bottom of ravines, where corn, beans and cotton are
cultivated. The springs of good water are few. The coast is indented
by numerous shallow Days, the largest of which is the harbour of the
capital, Porto Sal-Rei, on the western side (pop. about 1000). A
chain of heights, flanked by inferior ranges, traverses the middle of
Boa Vista, culminating in Monte Gallego (1250 it.), towards the east.
In the north-western angle of the island there is a low tract of loose
sand, which is inundated with water during the rainy season; and
here are some extensive salt-pans, where the sea-water is evaporated
by the heat of the sun. Salt and orchil are exported. A good deal
of fish is taken on the coast and supplies the impoverished islanders
with much of their food.
Maio (1000) has an area of 70 sq. m., and resembles Sal and Boa
Vista in climate and configuration, although it belongs to the Sota-
vento group. Its best harbour is that of Nossa Senhora da Lu2,
on the south-west coast, and is commonly known as Porto Inglez
or English Road, from the fact that it was occupied until the end of
the 1 8th century by the British, who based their claim on the
marriage-treaty between Charles II. and Catherine of Braganza
(1662). The island is a barren, treeless waste, surrounded by rocks.
Its inhabitants, who live chiefly by the manufacture of salt, by
cattle-farming and by fishing, are compelled to import most of
their provisions from Sao Thiago, with which, for purposes of local
administration, Maio is included.
Sao Thiago (63,000) is the most populous and the largest of the
Cape Verde Islands, having an area of 350 sq. m. It is also one of
the most unhealthy, except among the mountains over 2000 ft. high.
The interior is a mass of volcanic heights, formed of basalt covered
with chalk and clay, and culminating in the central Pico da Antonia
(4500 ft), a sharply pointed cone. There are numerous ravines, fur-
rowed by perennial streams, and in these ravines are grown large
quantities of coffee, oranges, sugar-cane and physic-nuts, besides
a variety of tropical fruits and cereals. Spirits are distilled from
sugar-cane, and coarse sugar is manufactured. The first capital of
the islands was Ribeira Grande, to-day called Cidade Velha or the
Old City, a picturesque town with a cathedral and ruined fort. It
was built in the 15th century on the south coast, was made an
episcopal see in 1532, and became capital of the archipelago in 1592.
In 1 712 it was sacked by a French force, but despite its poverty
and unhealthy situation it continued to be the capital until 1770,
when its place was taken by Praia on the south-east. Praia (often
written Praya) has a fine harbour, a population of 21,000 and a
considerable trade. It contains the palace of the governor-general,
a small natural history museum, a meteorological observatory and
an important station for the cables between South America, Europe
and West Africa. It occupies a basalt plateau, overlooking the^bay
(Porto da Praia) , and has an attractive appearance, with its numerous
coco-nut trees and the peak of Antonia rising in the background
above successive steps of tableland. Its unhealthiness has been
mitigated by the partial drainage of a marsh lying to the east.
Fogo (17,600) is a mass of volcanic rock, almost circular in shape
and measuring about 190 sq. m. In the centre a still active volcano,
the Pico do Cano, rises to a height of about 10,000 ft. Its crater,
which stands within an older crater, measures 3 m. in circumference
and is visible at sea for nearly 100 m. It emits smoke and ashes at
intervals; and in 1680, 1785, 1709, 1816, 1846, 1852 and 1857 it was
in eruption. After the first and most serious of these outbreaks, the
island, which had previously been called Sao Felippe, was renamed
Fogo, i.e. " Fire." The ascent of the mountain was first made in
1 8 19 by two British naval officers, named Vidal and Mudge. The
island is divided, like Santo Antao, into a fertile and a sterile zone.
Its northern half produces fine coffee, beans, maize and sugar-cane;
the southern half is little better than a desert, with oases of cultivated
land near its few springs. Sao Felippe or Nossa Senhora da Luz
(jooo), on the west coast, is the capital. The islanders claim to be
the aristocracy of the archipelago, and trace their descent from the
original Portuguese settlers. The majority, however, are negroes or
mulattoes. Drought and famine, followed by severe epidemics, have
been especially frequent here, notably in the years 1 887-1 889.
Brava (9013), the most southerly of the islands, has an area of
23 sq. m. Though mountainous, and in some parts sterile, it is very
closely cultivated, and, unlike the other islands, is divided into a
multitude of small holdings. The desire to own land is almost uni-
versal, and as the population numbers upwards of 380 per sq. m.,
and the system of tenure gives rise to many disputes, the peasantry
are almost incessantly engaged in litigation. The women, who are
locally celebrated for their beauty, far outnumber the men, who
emigrate at an early age to America. These emigrants usually return
richer and better educated than the peasantry of the neighbouring
islands. To the north of Biava lie a group of reefs among which two
islets (Ilheus Seccos or Ilheus do Rombo) are conspicuous. These
are usually known as the Ilheu de Dentro (Inner Islet) and the Ilheu
de F6ra (Outer Islet). The first is used as a shelter for whaling and
fishing vessels, and as pasturage for cattle ; the second has supplied
much guano for export. * #
History. — The earliest known discovery of the islands was
made in 1456 by the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto (q.v.),,
who had entered the service of Prince Henry the Navigator.
The archipelago was granted by King Alphonso V. of Portugal
to his brother, Prince Ferdinand, whose agents completed the
work of discovery. Ferdinand was an absolute monarch,
exercising a commercial monopoly. In 1461 he sent an expedition
to recruit slaves on the coast of Guinea and thus to people the
islands, which were almost certainly uninhabited at the time.
On his death in 1470 his privileges reverted to the crown, and
were bestowed by John II. on Prince Emanuel, by whose acces-
sion to the throne in 1495 the archipelago finally became part of
the royal dominions. Its population and importance rapidly
increased; its first bishop was consecrated in 1532, its first
governor-general appointed about the end of the century. It
was enriched by the frequent visits of Portuguese fleets, on their
return to Europe laden with treasure from the East, and by the
presence of immigrants from Madeira, who introduced better
agricultural methods and several new industries, such as dyeing
and distillation of spirits. The failure to maintain an equal rate
of progress in the 18th and 19th centuries was due partly to
drought, famine and disease — in particular, to the famines of
1730-1733 and 1831-1833— and partly to gross misgovernment
by the Portuguese officials.
The best general account of the islands is given in vols, xxiii. and
xxvii. of the Boletim of the Lisbon Geographical Society (1905 and
1908), and in Madeira, Cabo Verde, e Guini, by J. A. Martins (Lisbon,
1 891 ) . Official statistics are published in Lisbon at irregular intervals.
See also Vber die Capverden (Leipzig, 1884) and Die Vulcane der
Capverden (Graz, 1882), both by C. Ddlter. A useful map, entitled
Ocean Atlantico Norte, Archipelago do Cabo Verde, was issued in
1900 by the Commissao de Cartographia, Lisbon.
CAPGRAVE, JOHN (1393-1464), English chronicler and
hagiologist, was born at Lynn in Norfolk on the 21st of April
1393* He became a priest, took the degree of D.D. at Oxford,
where he lectured on theology, and subsequently joined the order
of Augustinian hermits. Most of his life he spent in the house of
the order at Lynn, of which he probably became prior; he was
certainly provincial of his order in England, which involved
visits to other friaries, and he made at least one journey to Rome.
He died on the 12th of August 1464.
Capgrave was an indefatigable student, and was reputed one
of the most learned men of his age. The bulk of his works are
theological: sermons, commentaries and lives of saints. His
reputation as a hagiologist rests on his Nova legenda Angliae, or
Catalogus of the English saints, but thfc was no more than a
recension of the Sanctilogiutn which the chronicler John of
Tinmouth, a monk of St Albans, had completed in 1366, which
in its turn was largely borrowed from the Sanctilogiutn of Guido,
abbot of St Denis. The Nova legenda was printed by Wynkyn
de Worde in 1516 and again in 1527. Capgrave's historical
works are The Chronicle of England (from the Creation to 141 7),
written in English and unfinished at his death, and the Liber de
Ulustribus Henricis, completed between 1446 and 1453. Ths
latter is a collection of lives of German** emperors (918-1198),
English kings (1 100-1446) and other famous Henries in various
parts of the world (1031-1406). The portion devoted to Henry
VI. of England is a contemporary record, but consists mainly of
ejaculations in praise of the pious king. The accounts of the
256
CAP HAITIEN— CAPILLARY ACTION
other English Henries are transferred from various well-known
chroniclers. The Chronicle was edited for the " Rolls " Series
by Francis Charles Hingeston (London, 1858); the Liber de
illustribus Henricis was edited (London, 1858) for the same series
by F. C. Hingeston, who published an English translation the
same year. The editing of both the works is very uncritical
and bad.
See Potthast, Bibliotheka Med. Aev.; and U. Chevalier, Repertoire
des sources hist. Bio-bibliographic, s.v.
CAP HAITIEN, Cape HaItien or Haytien, a seaport of Haiti,
West Indies. Pop. about 15,000. It is situated on the north
coast, 00 m. N. of Port au Prince, in io° 46' N. and 72 14' W.
Its original Indian name was Guarico, and it has been known, at
various times, as Cabo Santo, Cap Francais and Cape Henri,
while throughout Haiti it is always called Le Cap. It is the most
picturesque town in the republic, and the second in importance.
On three sides it is hemmed in by lofty mountains, while on the
fourth it overlooks a safe and commodious harbour. Under the
French rule it was the capital of the colony, and its splendour,
wealth and luxury earned for it the title of the " Paris of Haiti."
It was then the see of an archbishop and possessed a large and
flourishing university. The last remains of its former glory were
destroyed by the earthquake of 1842 and the British bombard-
ment of 1865. Although now but a collection of squalid wooden
huts, with here and there a well-built warehouse, it is the centre
of a thriving district and does a large export trade. It was
founded by the Spaniards about the middle of the 17th century,
and in 1687 received a large French colony. In 1695 it was
taken and burned by the British, and in 1 791 it suffered the same
fate at the hands of Toussaint L'Ouverture. It then became the
capital of King Henri Christophe's dominions, but since his fall
has suffered severely in numerous revolutions.
CAPILLARY ACTION. 1 A tube, the bore of which is so small
that it will only admit a hair (Lat. capilla), is called a capillary
tube. When such a tube of glass, open at both ends, is placed
vertically with its lower end immersed in water, the water
is observed to rise in the tube, and to stand within the tube
at a higher level than the water outside. The action between
the capillary tube and the water has been called capillary action,
and the name has been extended to many other phenomena
which have been found to depend on properties of liquids and
solids similar to those which cause water to rise in capillary tubes.
The forces which are concerned in these phenomena are those
which act between neighbouring parts of the same substance,
and which are called forces of cohesion, and those which act
between portions of matter of different kinds, which are called
forces of adhesion. These forces are quite insensible between
two portions of matter separated by any distance which we can
directly measure. It is only when the distance becomes exceed-
ingly small that these forces become perceptible. G. H. Quincke
(Pogg. Ann. cxxxvii. p. 402) made experiments to determine the
greatest distance at which the effect of these forces is sensible,
and he found for various substances distances about the
twenty-thousandth part of a millimetre.
Historical. — According to J. C. Poggendorff (Pogg. Ann. ci.
p. 551), Leonardo da Vinci must be considered as the discoverer
of capillary phenomena, but the first accurate observations of
the capillary action of tubes and glass plates were made by
Francis Hawksbee (Physico-Mechanical Experiments, London,
*7°9> pp. 139-169 ; and Phil. Trans., 1711 and 1712), who
ascribed the action to an attraction between the glass and the
liquid. He observed that the effect was the same in thick tubes
as in thin, and concluded that only those particles of the glass
which are very near the surface have any influence on the
phenomenon. Dr James Jurin (Phil. Trans., 1718, p. 739, and
1 719, p. 1083) showed that the height at which the liquid is
suspended depends on the section of the tube at the surface of
the liquid, and is independent of the form of the lower part of
the tube. He considered that the suspension of the liquid is due
1 In this revision of James Clerk Maxwell's classical article in
the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, additions are
marked by square brackets.
to " the attraction of the periphery or section of the surface
of the tube to which the upper surface of the water is contiguous
and coheres." From this he showed that the rise of the liquid
in tubes of the same substance is inversely proportional to their
radii. Sir Isaac Newton devoted the 31st query in the last
edition of his Opticks to molecular forces, and instanced several
examples of the cohesion of liquids, such as the suspension of
mercury in a barometer tube at more than double the height
at which it usually stands. This arises from its adhesion to
the tube, and the upper part of the mercury sustains a consider-
able tension, or negative pressure, without the separation of its
parts. He considered the capillary phenomena to be of the same
kind, but his explanation is not sufficiently explicit with respect
to the nature and the limits of the action of the attractive force.
It is to be observed that, while these early speculators ascribe
the phenomena to attraction, they do not distinctly assert that
this attraction is sensible only at insensible distances, and that
for all distances which we can directly measure the force is alto-
gether insensible. The idea of such forces, however, had been
distinctly formed by Newton, who gave the first example of
the calculation of the effect of such forces in his theorem on the
alteration of the path of a light-corpuscle when it enters or
leaves a dense body.
Alexis Claude Clairault (Thtorie de la figure de la terre, Paris,
1808, pp. 105, 128) appears to have been the first to show the
necessity of taking account of the attraction between the parts
of the fluid itself in order to explain the phenomena. He did
not, however, recognize the fact that the distance at which the
attraction is sensible is not only small but altogether insensible.
J. A. von Segner (Comment. Soc. Reg. GotHng. i. (1751) p. 301)
introduced the very important idea of the surface-tension of
liquids, which he ascribed to attractive forces, the sphere of
whose action is so small " ut nullo adhuc sensu percipi potuerit"
In attempting to calculate the effect of this surface-tension in
determining the form of a drop of the liquid, Segner took account
of the curvature of a meridian section of the drop, but neglected
the effect of the curvature in a plane at right angles to this
section.
The idea of surface-tension introduced by Segner had a most
important effect on the subsequent development of the theory.
We may regard it as a physical fact established by experiment
in the same way as the laws of the elasticity of solid bodies.
We may investigate the forces which act between finite portions
of a liquid in the same way as we investigate the forces which
act between finite portions of a solid. The experiments on solids
lead to certain laws of elasticity expressed in terms of coefficients,
the values of which can be determined only by experiments
on each particular substance. Various attempts have also been
made to deduce these laws from particular hypotheses as to the
action between the molecules of the elastic substance. We may
therefore regard the theory of elasticity as consisting of two
parts. The first part establishes the laws of the elasticity of a
finite portion of the solid subjected to a homogeneous strain,
and deduces from these laws the equations of the equilibrium
and motion of a body subjected to any forces and displace-
ments. The second part endeavours to deduce the facts of
the elasticity of a finite portion of the substance from hypo-
theses as to the motion of its constituent molecules and the forces
acting between them. In like manner we may by experiment
ascertain the general fact that the surface of a liquid is in a state
of tension similar to that of a membrane stretched equally in
all directions, and prove that this tension depends only on the
nature and temperature of the liquid and not on its form, and
from this as a secondary physical principle we may deduce all
the phenomena of capillary action. This is one step of the
investigation. The next step is to deduce this surface-tension
from a hypothesis as to the molecular constitution of the liquid
and of the bodies that surround it. The scientific importance
of this step is to be measured by the degree of insight which it
affords or promises into the molecular constitution of real bodies
by the suggestion of experiments by which we may discriminate
between rival molecular theories.
CAPILLARY ACTION
257
In 1756 J. G. Leidenfrost (De aquae communis nonnuUis
qualitatibus tractatus, Duisburg) showed that a soap-bubble
tends to contract, so that if the tube with which it was blown
is left open the bubble will dimmish in size and will expel through
the tube the air which it contains. He attributed this force,
however, not to any general property of the surfaces of liquids,
but to the fatty part of the soap which he supposed to separate
itself from the other constituents of the solution, and to form
a thin skin on the outer face of the bubble.
In 1787 Gaspard Monge (Memoir es de VAcad. des Sciences,
1787, p. 506) asserted that " by supposing the adherence of the
particles of a fluid to have a sensible effect only at the surface
itself and in the direction of the surface it would be easy to deter-
mine the curvature of the surfaces of fluids in the neighbourhood
of the solid boundaries which contain them; that these surfaces
would be linteariae of which the tension, constant in all directions,
would be everywhere equal to the adherence of two particles,
and the phenomena of capillary tubes would then present nothing
which could not be determined by analysis." He applied this
principle of surface-tension to the explanation of the apparent
attractions and repulsions between bodies floating on a liquid.
In 1802 John Leslie {Phil. Mag., 1802, vol. xiv. p. 193) gave
the first correct explanation of the rise of a liquid in a tube by
considering the effect of the attraction of the solid on the very
thin stratum of the liquid in contact with it. He did not, like
the earlier speculators, suppose this attraction to act in an up-
ward direction so as to support the fluid directly. He showed
that the attraction is everywhere normal to the surface of the
solid. The direct effect of the attraction is to increase the
pressure of the stratum of the fluid in contact with the solid,
so as to make it greater than the pressure in the interior of the
fluid. The result of this pressure if unopposed is to cause this
stratum to spread itself over the surface of the solid as a drop
of water is observed to do when placed on a clean horizontal
glass plate, and this even when gravity opposes the action,
as when the drop is placed on the under surface of the plate.
Hence a glass tube plunged into water would become wet all
over were it not that the ascending liquid film carries up a
quantity of other liquid which coheres to it, so that when it has
ascended to a certain height the weight of the column balances
the force by which the film spreads itself over the glass. This
explanation of the action of the solid is equivalent to that by
which Gauss afterwards supplied the defect of the theory of
Laplace, except that, not being expressed in terms of mathe-
matical symbols, it does not indicate the mathematical relation
between the attraction of individual particles and the final
result. Leslie's theory was afterwards treated according to
Laplace's mathematical methods by James Ivory in the article
on capillary action, under "Fluids, Elevation of," in the supple-
ment to the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
published in 1810.
In 1804 Thomas Young (Essay on the " Cohesion of Fluids, "
Phil. Trans., 1805, p. 65) founded the theory of capillary pheno-
mena on the principle of surface-tension. He also observed the
constancy of the angle of contact of a liquid surface with a solid,
and showed how from these two principles to deduce the pheno-
mena of capillary action. His essay contains the solution of a
great number of cases, including most of those afterwards solved
by Laplace, but his methods of demonstration, though always
correct, and often extremely elegant, are sometimes rendered
obscure by his scrupulous avoidance of mathematical symbols.
Having applied the secondary principle of surface-tension to
the various particular cases of capillary action, Young proceeded
to deduce this surface-tension from ulterior principles. He
supposed the particles to act on one another with two different
kinds of forces, one of which, the attractive force of cohesion,
extends to particles at a greater distance than those to which
the repulsive force is confined. He further supposed that the
attractive force is constant throughout the minute distance to
which it extends, but that the repulsive force increases rapidly
as the distance diminishes. He thus showed that at a curved
part of the surface, a superficial particle would be urged towards
the centre of curvature of the surface, and he gave reasons for
concluding that this force is proportional to the sum of the
curvatures of the surface in two normal planes at right angles
to each other.
The subject was next taken up by Pierre Simon Laplace
(Micanique cSleste, supplement to the tenth book, pub. in 1806).
His results are in many respects identical with those of Young,
but his methods of arriving at them are very different, being
conducted entirely by mathematical calculations. The form
into which he threw his investigation seems to have deterred
many able physicists from the inquiry into the ulterior cause of
capillary phenomena, and induced them to rest content with
deriving them from the fact of surface-tension. But for
those who wish to study the molecular constitution of bodies
it is necessary to study the effect of forces which are sensible
only at insensible distances; and Laplace has furnished us with
an example of the method of this study which has never been
surpassed. Laplace investigated the force acting on the fluid
contained in an infinitely slender canal normal to the surface
of the fluid arising from the attraction of the parts of the fluid
outside the canal. He thus found for the pressure at a point
in the interior of the fluid an expression of the form
_ *=K+JH(i/R+i/R0,
where K is a constant pressure, probably very large, which,
however, does not influence capillary phenomena, and therefore
cannot be determined from observation of such phenomena;
H is another constant on which all capillary phenomena depend;
and R and R' are the radii of curvature of any two normal
sections of the surface at right angles to each other.
In the first part of our own investigation we shall adhere
to the symbols used by Laplace, as we shall find that an accurate
knowledge of the physical interpretation of these symbols is
necessary for the further investigation of the subject. In the
Supplement to the Theory of Capillary Action, Laplace deduced
the equation of the surface of the fluid from the condition that
the resultant force on a particle at the surface must be normal
to the surface. His explanation, however, of the rise of a liquid
in a tube is based on the assumption of the constancy of the angle
ofjcontact for the same solid and fluid, and of this he has nowhere
given a satisfactory proof. In this supplement Laplace gave
many important applications of the theory, and compared the
results with the experiments of Louis Joseph Gay Lussac.
The next great step in the treatment of the subject was made
by C. F. Gauss (Principia generalia Theoriae Figurae Fluidorum
in statu Aequilibrii, Gbttingen, 1830, or Werke, v. 29, Gottingen,
1867). The principle which he adopted is that of virtual velo-
cities, a principle which under his hands was gradually trans-
forming itself into what is now known as the principle of the
conservation of energy. Instead of calculating the direction
and magnitude of the resultant force on each particle arising
from the action of neighbouring particles, he formed a single
expression which is the aggregate of all the potentials arising
from the mutual action between pairs of particles. This ex-
pression has been called the force-function. With its sign
reversed it is now called the potential energy of the system. It
consists of three parts, the first depending on the action of
gravity, the second on the mutual action between the particles
of the fluid, and the third on the action between the particles
of the fluid and the particles of a solid or fluid in contact with it.
The condition of equilibrium is that this expression (which
we may for the sake of distinctness call the potential energy)
shall be a minimum. This condition when worked out gives
not only the equation of the free surface in the form already
established by Laplace, but the conditions of the angle of
contact of this surface with the surface of a solid.
Gauss thus supplied the principal defect in the great work of
Laplace. He also pointed out more distinctly the nature of the
assumptions which we must make with respect to the law of
action of the particles in order to be consistent with observed
phenomena. He did not, however, enter into the explanation
of particular phenomena*, as this had been done already by
Laplace, but he pointed out to physicists the advantages of the
v. 9
2 5 8
CAPILLARY ACTION
method of Segner and Gay Lussac, afterwards carried out by
Quincke, of measuring the dimensions of large drops of mercury
on a horizontal or slightly concave surface, and those of large
bubbles of air in transparent liquids resting against the under side
of a horizontal plate of a substance wetted by the liquid.
In 1 83 1 Simeon Denis Poisson published his Nouvelle Thiorie
de faction capillaire. He maintained that there is a rapid
variation of density near the surface of a liquid, and he gave
very strong reasons, which have been only strengthened by
subsequent discoveries, for believing that this is the case. He
proceeded to an investigation of the equilibrium of a fluid on the
hypothesis of uniform density, and arrived at the conclusion
that on this hypothesis none of the observed capillary phenomena
would take place, and that, therefore, Laplace's theory, in which
the density is supposed uniform, is not only insufficient but
erroneous. In particular he maintained that the constant
pressure K, which occurs in Laplace's theory, and which on that
theory is very large, must be in point of fact very small, but the
equation of equilibrium from which he concluded this is itself
defective. Laplace assumed that the liquid has uniform density,
and that the attraction of its molecules extends to a finite though
insensible distance. On these assumptions his results are cer-
tainly right, and are confirmed by the independent method of
Gauss, so that the objections raised against them by Poisson fall
to the ground. But whether the assumption of uniform density
be physically correct is a very different question, and Poisson
rendered good service to science in showing how to carry on
the investigation on the hypothesis that the density very near
the surface is different from that in the interior of the fluid.
The result, however, of Poisson's investigation is practically
equivalent to that already obtained by Laplace. In both
theories the equation of the liquid surface is the same, involving
a constant H, which can be determined only by experiment.
The only difference is in the manner in which this quantity H
depends on the law of the molecular forces and the law of density
near the surface of the fluid, and as these laws are unknown to
us we cannot obtain any test to discriminate between the two
theories.
We have now described the principal forms of the theory
of capillary action during its earlier development. In more
recent times the method of Gauss has been modified so as to
take account of the variation of density near the surface, and
its language has been translated in terms of the modern doctrine
of the conservation of energy. 1
J. A. F. Plateau (Statique expSrimentale et thiorique des
liquides), who made elaborate study of the phenomena of surface-
tension, adopted the following method of getting rid of the effects
of gravity. He formed a mixture of alcohol and water of the
same density as olive oil, and then introduced a quantity of oil
into the mixture. It assumes the form of a sphere under the
action of surface-tension alone. He then, by means of rings of
iron-wire, disks and other contrivances, altered the form of
certain parts of the surface of the oil. The free portions of the
surface then assume new forms depending on the equilibrium
of surface-tension. In this way he produced a great many of
the forms of equilibrium of a liquid under the action of surface-
tension alone, and compared them with the results of mathe-
matical investigation. He also greatly facilitated the study of
liquid films by showing how to form a liquid, the films of which
will last for twelve or even for twenty-four hours. The debt
which science owes to Plateau is not diminished by the fact
that, while investigating these beautiful phenomena, he never
himself saw them, having lost his sight in about 1840.
G. L. van der Mensbrugghe (Mem. de VAcad. Roy. de Belgique,
xxxvii., 1873) devised a great number of beautiful illustrations
'See Enrico Betti, Teoria della Capillarity : Nuovo Cimento
1867); a memoir by M. Stahl, " Ueber einige Punckte in der
Pheorie der Capillarerscheinungen, M Pogg. Ann. cxxxix. p. 239
(1870); and J. U. Van der Waal's Over de Continuiteit van den
uasen Vloeistof toe stand. A good account of the subject from a
mathematical point of view will be found in Tamea Challis's
'"Report on the Theory of Capillary Attraction," Brit. Ass. Report,
tv. p. 235 (1834).
ft
ln<
of the phenomena of surface-tension, and showed their connexion
with the experiments of Charles Tomlinson on the figures formed
by oils dropped on the clean surface of water.
Athanase Dupr6 in his 5th, 6th and 7th Memoirs on the
Mechanical Theory of Heat (Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, 1866-
1868) applied the principles of thermodynamics to capillary
phenomena, and the experiments of his son Paul were exceedingly
ingenious and well devised, tracing the influence of surface-
tension in a great number of very different circumstances, and
deducing from independent methods the numerical value of
the surface-tension. The experimental evidence which Dupr6
obtained bearing on the molecular structure of liquids must be
very valuable, even if our present opinions on this subject should
turn out to be erroneous.
F. H. R. Ludtge (Pogg. Ann. cxxxix. p. 620) experimented on
liquid films, and showed how a film of a liquid of high surface-
tension is replaced by a film of lower surface-tension. He also
experimented on the effects of the thickness of the film, and
came to the conclusion that the thinner a film is, the greater is
its tension. This result, however, was tested by Van der Mens-
brugghe, who found that the tension is the same for the same
liquid whatever be the thickness, as long as the film does not
burst. [The continued coexistence of various thicknesses, as
evidenced by the colours in the same film, affords an instan-
taneous proof of this conclusion.] The phenomena of very thin
liquid films deserve the most careful study, for it is in this way
that we are most likely to obtain evidence by which we may test
the theories of the molecular structure of liquids.
Sir W. Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) investigated the
effect of the curvature of the surface of a liquid on the thermal
equilibrium between the liquid and the vapour in contact with
it. He also calculated the effect of surface-tension on the pro-
pagation of waves on the surface of a liquid, and determined the
minimum velocity of a wave, and the velocity of the wind when
it is just sufficient to disturb the surface of still water.
Theory of Capillary Action
When two different fluids are placed in contact, they may
either diffuse into each other or remain separate. In some cases
diffusion takes place to a limited extent, after which the result-
ing mixtures do not mix with each other. The same substance
may be able to exist in two different states at the same tem-
perature and pressure, as when water and its saturated vapour are
contained in the same vessel. The conditions under which the
thermal and mechanical equilibrium of two fluids, two mixtures,
or the same substance in two physical states in contact with
each other, is possible belong to thermodynamics. All that we
have to observe at present is that, in the cases in which the fluids
do not mix of themselves, the potential energy of the system
must be greater when the fluids are mixed than when they are
separate.
It is found by experiment that it is only very close to the
bounding surface of a liquid that the forces arising from the
mutual action of its parts have any resultant effect on one of
its particles. The experiments of Quincke and others seem to
show that the extreme range of the forces which produce capillary
action lies between a thousandth and a twenty-thousandth part
of a millimetre.
We shall use the symbol € to denote this extreme range,
beyond which the action of these forces may be regarded as
insensible. If x denotes the potential energy of unit of mass
of the substance, we may treat x as sensibly constant except
within a distance e of the bounding surface of the fluid. In
the interior of the fluid it has the uniform value xo- In like
manner the density, p, is sensibly equal to the constant quantity
po, which is its value in the interior of the liquid, except within
a distance € of the bounding surface. Hence if V is the volume
of a mass M of liquid bounded by a surface whose area is S, the
integral
M=fffpdxdydz (1)
where the integration is to be extended throughout the volume
CAPILLARY ACTION
259
V, may be divided into two parts by considering separately the
thin shell or skin extending from the outer surface to a depth c,
within which the density and other properties of the liquid vary
with the depth, and the interior portion of the liquid within
which its properties are constant.
Since € is a line of insensible magnitude compared with the
dimensions of the mass of liquid and the principal radii of curva-
ture of its surface, the volume of the shell whose surface is S
and thickness € will be Se, and that of the interior space will
be V-Sc.
If we suppose a normal v less than c to be drawn from the surface
S into the liquid, we may divide the shell into elementary shells
whose thickness is dv, in each of which the density and other
properties of the liquid will be constant.
The volume of one of these shells will be Sdv. Its mass will be
Spdv. The mass of the whole shell will therefore be S\ pdv, and
that of the interior part of the liquid. (V— Se)po. We thus find for
the whole mass of the liquid
M=Vpo-S^(po-p)^ (2)
To find the potential energy we have to integrate
E=Jffxpdxdydz (3)
Substituting xp for p in the process we have just gone through,
we find
E=VxqPo— S|^(xopo— xp)dv (4)
Multiplying equation (2) by x* and subtracting it from (4),
E-Mxo = xoS/^(x-xo)^ (5)
In this expression M and xo are both constant, so that the varia-
tion of the right-hand side of the equation is the same as that of
the energy E, and expresses that part of the energy which depends
on the area of the bounding surface of the liquid. We may call this
the surface energy.
The symbol x expresses the energy of unit of mass of the liquid
at a depth v within the bounding surface. When the liquid is in
contact with a rare medium, such as its own vapour or any other
gas, x is greater than xoi and the surface energy is positive. By the
(mnciple of the conservation of energy, any displacement of the
iquid by which its energy is diminished will tend to take place of
itself. Hence if the energy is the greater, the greater the area of
the exposed surface, the liquid will tend to move in such a way as
to diminish the area of the exposed surface, or, in other words, the
exposed surface will tend to diminish if it can do so consistently
with the other conditions. This tendency of the surface to contract
itself is called the surface-tension of liquids.
Dupr6 has described an arrangement by which the surface-
tension of a liquid film may be illustrated. A piece of sheet metal
is cut out in the form AA (fig. 1).
A very fine slip of metal is laid
on it in the position BB, and the
whole is dipped into a solution
of soap, or M. Plateau's glycerine
mixture. When it is taken out the
rectangle AACC if filled up by a
liquid film. This film, however,
tends to contract on itself, and the
loose strip of metal BB will, if it
is let go, be drawn up towards AA, provided it is sufficiently light
and smooth.
Let T be the surface energy per unit of area ; then the energy of
a surface of area S will be ST. If, in the rectangle AACC, AA=a,
and AC —b t its area is S =a&, and its energy Tab. Hence if F is the
force by which the slip BB is pulled towards AA,
F=^Ta*=Ta (6)
or the force arising from the surface-tension acting on a length a
of the strip is Ta, so that T represents the surface-tension acting
transversely on every unit of length of the periphery of the liquid
surface. Hence if we write
T=f( x -x»)p<*», ._. . . . (7)
we may define T either as the surface-energy per unit of area, or as
the surface-tension per unit of contour, for the numerical values of
these two quantities are equal.
If the liquid is bounded by a dense substance, whether liquid or
solid, the value of x may be different from its value when the liquid
has a free surface. If the liquid is in contact with another liquid,
let us distinguish quantities belonging to the two liquids by suffixes.
We shall then have
. . (8)
. • (9)
Ei - Mixta = Sp (xi - xoi) Pidn,
E1-M2X02 -S^xi-xtf)****!.
Adding these expressions, and dividing the second member by S,
we obtain for the tension of the surface of contact of the two liquids
Ti. t ==^ l (xi— x&i)/n<fri+/^(xj— xu)p*dvi. . . (10)
If this quantity is positive, the surface of contact will tend to
contract, and the liquids will remain distinct. If, however, it were
negative, the displacement of the liquids which tends to enlarge the
surface of contact would be aided by the molecular forces, so that
the liquids, if not kept separate by gravity, would at length become
thoroughly mixed. No instance, however, of a phenomenon of this
kind has been discovered, for those liquids which mix of themselves
do so by the process of diffusion, which is a molecular motion, and
not by the spontaneous puckering and replication of the bounding
surface as would be the case if T were negative.
It is probable, however, that there are many cases in which the
integral belonging to the less dense fluid is negative. If the denser
body be solid we can often demonstrate this; for the liquid "tends
to spread itself over the surface of the solid, so as to increase the area
of the surface of contact, even although in so doing it is obliged to
increase the free surface in opposition to the surface-tension. Thus
water spreads itself out on a clean surface of glass. This shows
thatjcx — Xo)pdv must be negative for water in contact with glass.
On the Tension of Liquid FUms. — The method already given
for the investigation of the surface-tension of a liquid, all whose
dimensions are sensible, fails in the case of a liquid film such as a
soap-bubble. In such a film it is possible that no part of the
liquid may be so far from the surface as to have the potential
and density corresponding to what we have called the interior
of a liquid mass, and measurements of the tension of the film
when drawn out to different degrees of thinness may possibly
lead to an estimate of the range of the molecular forces, or at
least of the depth within a liquid mass, at which its properties
become sensibly uniform. We shall therefore indicate a method
of investigating the tension of such films.
Let S be the area of the film, M its mass, and E its energy; <r the
mass, and e the energy of unit of area ; then
M=S<r, (ii)
E=Se (12)
Let us now suppose that by some change in the form of the
boundary of the film its area is changed from S to S+JS. If its
tension is T the work required to effect this increase of surface will
be TrfS, and the energy of the film will be increased by this amount.
Hence
T<*S=</E=S<fe+«*S (13)
But since M is constant,
dM=Sdv+adS=o (14)
Eliminating dS from equations (13) and (14), and dividing by S,
we find
rr m de
(15)
In this expression <r denotes the mass of unit of area of the film,
and e the energy of unit of area.
If we take the axis of 2 normal to either surface of the film, the
radius of curvature of which we suppose to be very great compared
with its thickness c, and if p is the density, and x the energy of unit
of mass at depth z, then
and
9 = Cx/>dz t
J
(16)
(17)
Both p and x are functions of s, the value of which remains the
same when 2— c is substituted for z. If the thickness of the film is
greater than 2e, there will be a stratum of thickness c— 2« in the
middle of the film, within which the values of p and x will be po and
Xo* In the two strata on either side of this the law, according to
which p and x depend on the depth, will be the same as in a liquid
mass of large dimensions. Hence in this case
<r = (c-2€)p +2( € pdv, .
« /
e s (c — 2c) xopo +2) xpdv, .
(18)
(19)
da
de
de
'Xo,
Hence the tension of a thick film is equal to the sum of the tensions
of its two surfaces as already calculated (equation 7). On the
hypothesis of uniform density we shall find that this is true for films
whose thickness exceeds c
The symbol x is defined as the energy of unit of mass of the
substance. A knowledge of the absolute value of this energy is not
required, since in every expression in which it occurs it is under the
zbo
CAPILLARY ACTION
form x~ Xot that is to say, the difference between the energy in two
different states. The only cases, however, in which we have ex-
perimental values of this quantity are when the substance is either
liquid and surrounded by similar liquid, or gaseous and surrounded
by similar gas. It is impossible to make direct measurements of
the properties of particles of the substance within the insensible
distance c of the bounding surface.
When a liquid is in thermal and dynamical equilibrium with its
vapour, then if p' and x' are the values of p and x for the vapour,
and po and xo those for the liquid,
x'-X*-JL-i>(l/p'-l/po), .... (21)
where J is the dynamical equivalent of heat, L is the latent heat
of unit of mass of the vapour, and p is the pressure. At points in
the liquid very near its surface it is probable that x is greater than
Xo, and at points in the gas very near the surface of the liquid it
is probable that x is less than x', but this has not as yet been ascer-
tained experimentally. We shall therefore endeavour to apply to
this subject the methods used in Thermodynamics, and where these
fail us we shall have recourse to the hypotheses of molecular physics.
We have next to determine the value of x in terms of the action
between one particle and another. Let us suppose that the force
between two particles m and m' at the distance f is
F-mm'(*(/)+Cn (22)
being reckoned positive when the force is attractive. The actual
force between the particles arises in part from their mutual gravita-
tion, which is inversely as the square of the distance. This force is
expressed by m m' Cf*. It is easy to show that a force subject to
this law would not account for capillary action. We shall, therefore,
in what follows, consider only that part of the force which depends
on <£(/), where 4>{f) is a function of /which is insensible for all sensible
values of /, but which becomes sensible and even enormously great
when / is exceedingly small.
If we next introduce a new function of / and write
//*(/)#«"(/) (23)
then mm' 11(f) will represent — (1) The work done by the attractive
force on the particle m, while it is brought from an infinite distance
from m' to the distance /from m'; or (2) The attraction of a particle
m on a narrow straight rod resolved in the direction of the length
of the rod, one extremity of the rod being at a distance / from m,
and the other at an infinite distance, the mass of unit of length of
the rod being m'. The function 1 1 (ft is also insensible for sensible
values of/, but for insensible values of/ it may become sensible and
even very great.
If we next write
f'flUfW-*® (24)
then 2*m<nff(z) will represent — (1) The work done by the attractive
force while a particle m is brought from an infinite distance to a
distance s from an infinitely thin stratum of
v g the substance whose mass per unit of area is
\ <r; (2) The attraction of a particle m placed
*QP at a distance s from the plane surface of an
infinite solid whose density is a.
Let us examine the case in which the particle
m is placed at a distance s from a curved
stratum of the substance, whose principal
radii of curvature are Ri and Rj. Let P
(fig. 2) be the particle and PB a normal to
the surface. Let the plane of the paper be a
normal section of the surface of the stratum
at the point B, making an angle <•> with the
section whose radius of curvature is Ri.
Then if O is the centre of curvature in the
plane of the paper, and BO=«,
cos'w . sin'w
Fig. 2.
(25)
Let
BP=s,
POQ-0, PO-r, PQ=/,
/»»tt*+r*— 2ur cos 6 (26)
The element of the stratum at Q may be expressed by
<ru % sin $ dB dw,
or expressing dB in terms of df by (26),
*uf- l fdfd<a.
Multiplying this by m and by *■(/), we obtain for the work done
by the attraction of this element when m is brought from an infinite
distance to Pi,
maur+flUJWdu.
Integrating with respect to / from f-z to f—a, where a is a line
very great compared with the extreme range of the molecular force,
but very small compared with either of the radii of curvature, we
obtain tor the work
fm<rur- l {$(z) -iKa))<k»,
and since )fr{a) is an insensible quantity we may omit it. We may
also write
«f 1 «i+sir l +&a,
since s is very small compared with u t and expressing u in terms of
« by (25), we find
/>>« i '+-CtF +t?9 i*.-«*« 1 «+Hk+A) i •
This then expresses the work done by the attractive forces when
a particle m is brought from an infinite distance to the point P at a
distance z from a stratum whose surface-density is ?, and whose
principal radii of curvature are Ri and Rj.
To find the work done when m is brought to the point P in the
neighbourhood of a solid body, the density of which is a function
of the depth v below the surface, we have only to write instead of*
pdz, and to integrate
2wm[~ri,(z)dz+Tm (15+15) f s P*Ks)dz,
where, in general, we must suppose p a function of s. This expres-
sion, when integrated, gives (1) the work done on a particle m
while it is brought from an infinite distance to the point P, or (2)
the attraction on a long slender column normal to the surface and
terminating at P, the mass of unit of length of the column being m.
In the form of the theory given by Laplace, the density of the liquid
was supposed to be uniform. Hence if we write
K »2rj7*(z)<k f H -2rf "•*«*,
the pressure of a column of the fluid itself terminating at the surface
will be
p>{K+JH(i/Ri+i/R,)},
and the work done by the attractive forces when a particle m is
brought to the surface of the fluid from an infinite distance will be
mp{K+iH(i/Ri+i/R,)}.
If we write w
then 2irmp6(z) will express the work done by the attractive forces,
while a particle m is brought from an infinite distance to a distance
z from the plane surface of a mass of the substance of density p
and infinitely thick. The function ${z) is insensible for all sensible
values of s. For insensible values it may become sensible, but it
must remain finite even when s=o, in which case 9(6) = K.
If x' is the potential energy of unit of mass of the substance in
vapour, then at a distance z from the plane surface of the liquid
X = x'-2irp0(s).
At the surface
x = x'-2irp0(o).
At a distance s within the surface
X - X'-4*P*(0) +2»p0(s).
If the liquid forms a stratum of thickness c, then
x - x' -4*P*(o) +2*pB(z) +2rp$(£ -c).
The surface-density of this stratum is <r «■ cp. The energy per unit
of area is
e =/ o °XPrf« - cphd -4TpO(o))+2Ttfy(z)ds+2Tp*fy(c -z)dz.
Since the two sides of the stratum are similar the last two terms
are equal, and
e - cp(x' - 4»P*(o)) +4*P^0O<fe.
Differentiating with respect to c t we find
£-* 3^ s =p(x / -4^(o))+4t/^W.
Hence the surface-tension
Integrating the first term within brackets by parts, it becomes
cB(c) -o0(o) -fz^dz.
AA
Remembering that 0(o) is a finite quantity, and that jg- — ^(s),
we find
T-4*j*/V*(ti* (27)
When c is greater than « this is equivalent to 2H in the equation of
Laplace. Hence the tension is the same for all films thicker than c,
the range of the molecular forces. For thinner films
35— 4*pW(c)-
Hence if iftc) is positive, the tension and the thickness will increase
together. Now 2»i»p^(c) represents the attraction between a particle
m and the plane surface of an infinite mass of the liauid, when the
distance of the particle outside the surface is c. Now, the force
between the particle and the liquid is certainly, on the whole,
attractive; but if between any two small values of c it should be
repulsive, then for films whose thickness lies between these values
the tension will increase as the thickness diminishes, but for all
other cases the tension will diminish as the thickness diminishes.
We have given several examples in which the density is as-
sumed to be uniform, because Poisson has asserted that capillary
CAPILLARY ACTION
261
phenomena would not take place unless the density varied rapidly
near the surface. In this assertion we think he was mathematically
wrong, though in his own hypothesis that the density does actually
vary, he was probably right. In fact, the quantity 4*-p*K, which
we may call with van der Waals the molecular pressure, is so great
for most liquids (5000 atmospheres for water), that in the parts near
the surface, where the molecular pressure varies rapidly, we may
expect considerable variation of density, even when we take into
account the smallness of the compressibility of liquids.
The pressure at any point of the liquid arises from two causes,
the external pressure P to which the liquid is subjected, and the
pressure arising from the mutual attraction of its molecules. If we
suppose that the number of molecules within the range of the
attraction of a given molecule is very large, the part of the pressure
arising from attraction will be proportional to the square of the
number of molecules in unit of volume, that is, to the square of the
density. Hence we may write
p = P+Ap«,
where A is a constant [equal to Laplace's intrinsic pressure K. But
this equation is applicable only at points in the interior, where p
is not varying.]
[The intrinsic pressure and the surface-tension of a uniform mass
are perhaps more easily found by the following process. The former
can be found at once by calculating the mutual attraction of the
parts of a large mass which lie on opposite sides of an imaginary
plane interface. If the density be <r, the attraction between the
whole of one side and a layer upon the other distant z from the plane
and of thickness dz is 2xohft(z)dz, reckoned per unit of area. The
expression for the intrinsic pressure is thus simply
K-awjOw* (28)
In Laplace's investigation <r is supposed to be unity. We may call
the value which (28) then assumes Ko, so that as above
Ko«2*/>(£)<fe (29)
The expression for the superficial tension is most readily found with
the aid of the idea of superficial energy, introduced into the subject
by Gauss. Since the tension is constant, the work that must be
done to extend the surface by one unit of area measures the tension,
and the work required for the generation of any surface is the product
of the tension and the area. From this consideration we may derive
Laplace's expression, as has been done by Dupre (ThSorie mecanique
de la chaleur, Paris, 1869), and Kelvin (" Capillary Attraction,"
Proc. Roy. Inst., January 1886. Reprinted, Popular Lectures and
Addresses, 1889). For imagine a small cavity to be formed in the
interior of the mass and to be gradually expanded in such a shape
that the walls consist almost entirely of two parallel planes. The
distance between the planes is supposed to be very small compared
with their ultimate diameters, but at the same time large enough to
exceed the range of the attractive forces. The work required to
produce this crevasse is twice the product of the tension and the area
of one of the faces. If we now suppose the crevasse produced by
direct separation of its walls, the work necessary must be the same
as before, the initial and final configurations being identical; and
we recognize that the tension may be measured by half the work
that must be done per unit of area against the mutual attraction
in order to separate the two portions which lie upon opposite sides
of an ideal plane to a distance from one another which is outside
the range of the forces. It only remains to calculate this work.
If <n, <r« represent the densities of the two infinite solids, their
mutual attraction at distance z is per unit of area
2t<xi<t^" *(«)<&, (30)
or 2T<ri<rs0(2), if we write
J>(s)<fc«*(s) (31)
The work required to produce the separation in question is thus
2wi^" 6(z)dz; (32)
and for the tension of a liquid of density <r we have
(33)
T=irtf" $(z)dz.
>n may be modifie
fe(z)dz^e(z).z-fz^^=e(z).z^fz^(z)dz.
The form of this expression may be modified by integration by parts.
For
Since 0(o) is finite, proportional to K, the integrated term vanishes
at both limits, and we have simply
j;e(z)dz=f~*Kz)dz (34)
and
T-w£W(r)*fc (35)
In Laplace's notation the second member of (34), multiplied by 2»,
is represented by H.
As Laplace has shown, the values for K and T may also be ex-
pressed in terms of the function «£, with which we started. Integrating
By parts, we get
/^( 2 )ds«}«V(s)+is*II(«)+i/sV«rf«.
In all cases to which it is necessary to have regard the integrated
terms vanish at both limits, and we may write
so that
ftlM*-\fc*HW+ /;^(f)d»-i/7«V(*)&; (36)
Ko=~-fi**<t>(*)dz, To=lftz*4>(z)ds. .... (37)
A few examples of these formulae will promote an intelligent
comprehension of the subject. One of the simplest suppositions
open to us is that
From this we obtain (
11(f) -£-**-*>, *W-F*G*+iX"*, . . (39)
Ko-4'0- 4 , T.-frF* (40)
The ranee of the attractive force is mathematically infinite, but
practically of the order fi~\ and we see that T is of higher order in
this small quantity than K. That K is in all cases of the fourth order
and T of the fifth order in the range of the forces is obvious from (37)
without integration.
An apparently simple example would be to suppose ^(»)«a".
We get
n««~, *<s)
Ko -
fi + l' rw ~»+3.»+i'
2TZ***
(41)
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
tf+4.n+3.n+i|o '
The intrinsic pressure will thus be infinite whatever n may be. If
n+A be positive, the attraction of infinitely distant parts contributes
to the result; while if n+4 be negative, the parts in immediate
contiguity act with infinite power. For the transition case, discussed
by William Sutherland (Phil. Mag. xxiv. p. 113, 1887), of n+4=0,
Ko is also infinite. It seems therefore that nothing satisfactory can
be arrived at under this head.
As a third example, we will take the law proposed by Young, viz.
4>(z) = 1 from «»otox=a, >
0(s) =0 from s«=a to s = ao; J
and corresponding therewith,
II(s) =a—z from ««o to «=a,
Il(s)=o from z—a to s = oo, '
+{z) - la(a* -s») - J(a* -*»)
from s=o to*=a,
iK«) «o from s «a to s = 00,
Equations (37) now give
*-?/>-* • •
T.=!j>-£ • • •
The numerical results differ from those of Young, who finds that
14 the contractile force is one-third of the whole cohesive force of a stratum
of particles, equal in thickness to the interval to which the primitive
equable cohesion extends," viz. T = JoK; whereas according to the
above calculation T = ftaK. The discrepancy seems to depend upon
Young having treated the attractive force as operative in one
direction only. For further calculations on Laplace's principles, see
Rayleigh, Pnil. Mag., Oct. Dec. 1890, or Scientific Papers, vol. iii.
P. 397J.
On Suepace-Tension
Definition. — The tension of a liquid surface across any line
drawn on the surface is normal to the line, and is the same for all
directions of the line, and is measured by the force across an element
of the line divided by the length of that element.
Experimental Laws of Surf ace-Tension. — 1. For any given
liquid surface, as the surface which separates water from air,
or oil from water, the surface-tension is the same at every point
of the surface and in every direction. It is also practically inde-
pendent of the curvature of the surface, although it appears
from the mathematical theory that there is a slight increase of
tension where the mean curvature of the surface is concave,
and a slight diminution where it is convex. The amount of this
increase and diminution is too small to be directly measured,
though it has a certain theoretical importance in the explanation
of the equilibrium of the superficial layer of the liquid where it
is inclined to the horizon.
2. The surface-tension diminishes as the temperature rises,
and when the temperature reaches that of the critical point at
which the distinction between the liquid and its vapour ceases,
it has been observed by Andrews that the capillary action also
vanishes. The early writers on capillary action supposed that
the diminution of capillary action was due simply to the change
of density corresponding to the rise of temperature, and, there-
fore, assuming the surface-tension to vary as the square of the
262
CAPILLARY ACTION
density, they deduced its variations from the observed dilatation
of the liquid by heat. This assumption, however, does not
appear to be verified by the experiments of B runner and Wolff
on the rise of water in tubes at different temperatures.
3. The tension of the surface separating two liquids which
do not miY cannot be deduced by any known method from the
tensions of the surfaces of the liquids when separately in contact
with air.
,• When the surface is curved, the effect of the surface-tension
is to make the pressure on the concave side exceed the pressure
on the convex side by T (1/R1 + 1/R2), where T is the intensity
of the surface-tension and Ri, R2 are the radii of curvature
of any two sections normal to the surface and to each other.
If three fluids which do not mix are in contact with each other,
the three surfaces of separation meet in a line, straight or curved.
Let (fig. 3) be a point in this line, and let the plane of the paper
be supposed to be normal to the
line at the point O. The three
angles between the tangent planes
to the three surfaces of separation
at the point O are completely
determined by the tensions of the
three surfaces. For if in the
triangle abc the side ab is taken
so as to represent on a given
scale the tension of the surface of
contact of the fluids a and b, and if
the other sides be and ca are taken
so as to represent on the same scale
Fig. 3.
the tensions of the surfaces between b and c and between c and
a respectively, then the condition of equilibrium at O for the
corresponding tensions R, P and Q is that the angle ROP shall
be the supplement of abc, POQ of bca, and, therefore, QOR of
cab. Thus the angles at which the surfaces of separation meet
are the same at all parts of the line of concourse of the three
fluids. When three films of the same liquid meet, their tensions
are equal, and, therefore, they make angles of 120 with each
other. The froth of soap-suds or beaten-up eggs consists of a
multitude of small films which meet each other at angles of 120 .
If four fluids, a, b, c, d, meet in a point O, and if a tetrahedron
ABCD is formed so that its edge AB represents the tension of
the surface of contact of the liquids a and b, BC that of b and c>
and so on; then if we place this tetrahedron so that the face
ABC is normal to the tangent at O to the line of concourse of the
fluids abc, and turn it so that the edge AB is normal to the tangent
plane at O to the surface of contact of the fluids a and b, then
the other three faces of the tetrahedron will be normal to the
tangents at O to the other three lines of concourse of the liquids,
and the other five edges of the tetrahedron will be normal to
the tangent planes at O to the other five surfaces of contact.
If six films of the same liquid meet in a point the corresponding
tetrahedron is a regular tetrahedron, and each film, where it
meets the others, has an angle whose cosine is— J. Hence if
we take two nets of wire with hexagonal meshes, and place one
on the other so that the point of concourse of three hexagons
of one net coincides with the middle of a hexagon of the other,
and if we then, after dipping them in Plateau's liquid, place them
horizontally, and gently raise the upper one, we shall develop
a system of plane laminae arranged as the walls and floors of
the cells are arranged in a honeycomb. We must not, however,
raise the upper net too much, or the system of films will become
unstable.
When a drop of one liquid, B, is placed on the surface of
another, A, the phenomena which take place depend on the re-
lative magnitude of the three surface-tensions corresponding
to the surface between A and air, between B and air, and between
A and B. If no one of these tensions is greater than the sum
of the other two, the drop will assume the form of a lens, the
angles which the upper and lower surfaces of the lens make
with the free surface of A and with each other being equal to
the external angles of the triangle of forces. Such lenses are
often seen formed by drops of fat floating on the surface of hot
water, soup or gravy. But when the surface-tension of A exceeds
the sum of the tensions of the surfaces of contact of B with air
and with A, it is impossible to construct the triangle of forces,
so that equilibrium becomes impossible. The edge of the drop
is drawn out by the surface-tension of A with a force greater
than the sum of the tensions of the two surfaces of the drop.
The drop, therefore, spreads itself out, with great velocity,
over the surface of A till it covers an enormous area, and is
reduced to such extreme tenuity that it is not probable that it
retains the same properties of surface-tension which it has in
a large mass. Thus a drop of train oil will spread itself over the
surface of the sea till it shows the colours of thin plates. These
rapidly descend in Newton's scale and at last disappear, showing
that the thickness of the film is less than the tenth part of the
length of a wave of light. But even when thus attenuated,
the film may be proved to be present, since the surface-tension
of the liquid is considerably less than that of pure water. This
may be shown by placing another drop of oil on the surface.
This drop will not spread out like the first drop, but will take
the form of a flat lens with a distinct circular edge, showing that
the surface-tension of what is still apparently pure water is
now less than the sum of the tensions of the surfaces separating
oil from air and water.
The spreading of drops on the surface of a liquid has formed
the subject of a very extensive series of experiments by Charles
Tomlinson; van der Mensbrugghe has also written a very
complete memoir on this subject (Sur la tension superficielle
des liquides, Bruxelles, 1873).
When a solid body is in contact with two fluids, the surface
of the solid cannot alter its form, but the angle at which the
surface of contact of the two fluids meets the surface of
the solid depends on the values of the three surface-tensions.
If a and b are the two fluids and c the solid then the equi-
librium of the tensions at the point O depends only
on that of thin components parallel to the surface,
because the surface-tensions normal to the surface
are balanced by the resistance of the solid. Hence
if the angle ROQ (fig. 4) at which the surface of
contact OP meets the solid is denoted by a,
Tie — Tea ~ T a ft COS a — O,
Whence
cos a » (Tic — T«»)/Ta&. Q
As an experiment on the angle of contact only gives Fig. 4.
us the difference of the surface-tensions at the solid
surface, we cannot determine their actual value. It is theoretic-
ally probable that they are often negative, and may be called
surface-pressures.
The constancy of the angle of contact between the surface
of a fluid and a solid was first pointed out by Dr Young, who
states that the angle of contact between mercury and glass is
about 140 . Quincke makes it 128 52'.
If the tension of the surface between the solid and one of the
fluids exceeds the sum of the other two tensions, the point of
contact will not be in equilibrium, but will be dragged towards
the side on which the tension is greatest. If the quantity of the
first fluid is small it will stand in a drop on the surface of the solid
without wetting it. If the quantity of the second fluid is small
it will spread itself over the surface and wet the solid. The angle
of contact of the first fluid is 180 and that of the second is
zero.
If a drop of alcohol be made to touch one side of a drop of oil
on a glass plate, the alcohol will appear to chase the oil over the
plate, and if a drop of water and a drop of bisulphide of carbon
be placed in contact in a horizontal capillary tube, the bisulphide
of carbon will chase the water along the tube. In both cases
the liquids move in the direction in which the surface-pressure
at the solid is least.
[In order to express the dependence of the tension at the inter-
face of two bodies in terms of the forces exercised by the bodies
upon themselves and upon one another, we cannot do better
than follow the method of Dupr6. If Tu denote the interfacial
tension, the energy corresponding to unit of area of the interface
b QC
A
CAPILLARY ACTION
263
is also T12, as we see by considering the introduction (through a
fine tube) of one body into the interior of the other. A com-
parison with another method of generating the interface, similar
to that previously employed when but one body was in question,
will now allow us to evaluate Ti 2 .
The work required to cleave asunder the parts of the first
fluid which lie on the two sides of an ideal plane passing through
the interior, is per unit of area 2T1, and the free surface produced
is two units in area. So for the second fluid the corresponding
work is 2T2. This having been effected, let us now suppose that
each of the units of area of free surface of fluid (1) is allowed
to approach normally a unit area of (2) until contact is estab-
lished. In this process work is gained which we may denote
by 4T'i2, 2T'« for each pair. On the whole, then, the work
expended in producing two units of interface is 2T1+2T2— 4T'i 2 ,
and this, as we have seen, may be equated to 2T12. Hence
T 1J =T 1 +T 2 -2T' ll (47)
If the two bodies are similar,
T^Ti-T'a;
and Ti2=o, as it should do.
Laplace does not treat systematically the question of inter-
facial tension, but he gives incidentally in terms of his quantity
H a relation analogous to (47).
If 2T / i2>Ti+T 2 , T12 would be negative, so that the interface
would of itself tend to increase. In this case the fluids must
mix. Conversely, if two fluids mix, it would seem that T'i 2
must exceed the mean of Ti and T2; otherwise work would
have to be expended to effect a close alternate stratification of
the two bodies, such as we may suppose to constitute a first
step in the process of mixture (Dupr6, Thiorie micanique de la
chaleur, p. 372; Kelvin, Popular Lectures, p. 53).
The value of T'i* has already been calculated (32). We may
write
T'u=T<ri<rtf* 0(z)dz = lr<ri<Ttf™z 4 <t>(z)dz; . . (48)
and in general the functions 0, or 0, must be regarded as capable
of assuming different forms. Under these circumstances there
is no limitation upon the values of the interfacial tensions for
three fluids, which we may denote by T12, T 2 «, T M . If the three
fluids can remain in contact with one
*"*** another, the sum of any two of the
3 _y^ quantities must exceed the third, and
by Neumann's rule the directions of
the interfaces at the common edge
Ti7 must be parallel to the sides of a
Fig. 5. triangle, taken proportional to T12,
Ta, T31. If the above-mentioned condition be not satisfied, the
triangle is imaginary, and the three fluids cannot rest in con-
tact, the two weaker tensions, even if acting in full concert,
being incapable of balancing the strongest. For instance, if
T«>Ti2+T2s, the second fluid spreads itself indefinitely upon
the interface of the first and third fluids.
The experimenters who have dealt with this question,
C. G. M. Marangoni, van der Mensbrugghe, Quincke, have all
arrived at results inconsistent with the reality of Neumann's
triangle. Thus Marangoni says (Pogg. Annalen, cxliii. p. 348,
1 871) : — " Die gemeinschaftliche Oberflache zweier Flussig-
keiten hat eine geringere Oberflachenspannung als die Differenz
der Oberflachenspannung der Flussigkeiten selbst (mit Aus-
nahme des Quecksilbers)." Three pure bodies (of which one
may be air) cannot accordingly remain in contact. If a drop
of oil stands in lenticular form upon a surface of water, it
is because the water-surface is already contaminated with a
greasy film.
On the theoretical side the question is open until we intro-
duce some limitation upon the generality of the functions.
By far the simplest supposition open to us is that the functions
are the same in all cases, the attractions differing merely by
coefficients analogous to densities in the theory of gravitation.
This hypothesis was suggested by Laplace, and may conveni-
ently be named after him. It was also tacitly adopted by
Young, in connexion with the still more special hypothesis
which Young probably had in view, namely that the force in
each case was constant within a limited range, the same in all
cases, and vanished outside that range.
As an immediate consequence of this hypothesis we have
from (28)
K=Ko^, . f U 9 )
T=T o* (50)
where K 0j T are the same for all bodies.
But the most interesting results are those which Young
(Works, vol. i. p. 463) deduced relative to the interfacial tensions
of three bodies. By (37), (48),
T'u^iaiTo; (51)
so that by (47), (50),
Tii = (<n-<r2) , To (52)
According to (52), the interfacial tension between any two
bodies is proportional to the square of the difference of their
densities. The densities <x h <r s , 0s being in descending order of
magnitude, we may write
T si — (<ri — <r 2 -h <r» — <r j)*T
=Ti2-fT2a-f2(<ri— a) (<T2— «-*)To;
so that T 8 i necessarily exceeds the sum of the other two inter-
facial tensions. We are thus led to the important conclusion
that according to this hypothesis Neumann's triangle is neces-
sarily imaginary, that one of three fluids will always spread
upon the interface of the other two.
Another point of importance may be easily illustrated by
this theory, viz. the dependency of capillarity upon abruptness
of transition. " The reason why the capillary force should
disappear when the transition between two liquids is sufficiently
gradual will now be evident. Suppose that the transition from
o to a is made in two equal steps, the thickness of the inter-
mediate layer of density \c being large compared to the range
of the molecular forces, but small in comparison with the radius
of curvature. At each step the difference of capillary pressure
is only one-quarter of that due to the sudden transition from o
to <r, and thus altogether half the effect is lost by the inter-
position of the layer. If there were three equal steps, the effect
would be reduced to one-third, and so on. When the number of
steps is infinite, the capillary pressure disappears altogether."
(" Laplace's Theory of Capillarity," Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., 1883,
P- 315.)
According to Laplace's hypothesis the whole energy of any
number of contiguous strata of liquids is least when they are
arranged in order of density, so that this is the disposition
favoured by the attractive forces. The problem is to make
the sum of the interfacial tensions a minimum, each tension
being proportional to the square of the difference of densities
of the two contiguous liquids in question. If the order of
stratification differ from that of densities, we can show that
each step of approximation to this order lowers the sum of
tensions. To this end consider the effect of the abolition of
a stratum ow+i, contiguous to <r« and <r„ +2 . Before the change
we have (<r»— <r w+ i) 2 +(cr» + i— <Tn+2) 2 , and afterwards (<r«— <r*+t) % .
The second minus the first, or the increase in the sum of
tensions, is thus
Hence, if <Tn+i be intermediate in magnitude between <r n and
On+2, the sum of tensions is increased by the abolition of the
stratum; but, if <r»+i be not intermediate, the sum is decreased.
We see, then, that the removal of a stratum from between neigh-
bours where it is out of order and its introduction between
neighbours where it will be in order is doubly favourable to
the reduction of the sum of tensions; and since by a succession
of such steps we may arrive at the order of magnitude through-
out, we conclude that this is the disposition of minimum tensions
and energy.
So far the results of Laplace's hypothesis are in marked
accordance with experiment; but if we follow it out further,
discordances begin to manifest themselves. According to (52)
VT«,-VTi,+VT,« (53)
a relation not verified by experiment. What is more, (52)
shows that according to the hypothesis T12 is necessarily positive;
264
CAPILLARY ACTION
so that, if the preceding argument be correct, no such thing as
mixture of two liquids could ever take place.
There are two apparent exceptions to Marangoni's rule which
call for a word of explanation. According to the rule, water,
which has the lower surface-tension, should spread upon the
surface of mercury; whereas the universal experience of the
laboratory is that drops of water standing upon mercury retain
their compact form without the least tendency to spread. To
Quincke belongs the credit of dissipating the apparent exception.
He found that mercury specially prepared behaves quite
differently from ordinary mercury, and that a drop of water
deposited thereon spreads over the entire surface. The ordinary
behaviour is evidently the result of a film of grease, which
adheres with great obstinacy.
The process described by Quincke is somewhat elaborate;
but there is little difficulty in repeating the experiment if the
mistake be avoided of using a free surface already contaminated,
as almost inevitably happens when the mercury is poured from
an ordinary bottle. The mercury should be drawn from under-
neath, for which purpose an arrangement similar to a chemical
wash bottle is suitable, and it may be poured into watch-glasses,
previously dipped into strong sulphuric acid, rinsed in distilled
water, and dried over a Bunsen flame. When the glasses are
cool, they may be charged with mercury, of which the first part
is rejected. Operating in this way there is no difficulty in obtain-
ing surfaces upon which a drop of water spreads, although from
causes that cannot always be traced, a certain proportion of
failures is met with. As might be expected, the grease which
produces these effects is largely volatile. In many cases a very
moderate preliminary warming of the watch-glasses makes all
the difference in the behaviour of the drop.
The behaviour of a drop of carbon bisulphide placed upon
clean water is also, at first sight, an exception to Marangoni's
rule. So far from spreading over the surface, as according to
its lower surface-tension it ought to do, it remains suspended
in the form of a lens. Any dust that may be lying upon the
surface is not driven away to the edge of the drop, as would
happen in the case of oil. A simple modification of the experi-
ment suffices, however, to clear up the difficulty. If after the
deposition of the drop, a little lycopodium be scattered over the
surface, it is seen that a circular space surrounding the drop, of
about the size of a shilling, remains bare, and this, however
often the dusting be repeated, so long as any of the carbon
bisulphide remains. The interpretation can hardly be doubtful.
The carbon bisulphide is really spreading all the while, but on
account of its volatility is unable to reach any considerable
distance. Immediately surrounding the drop there is a film
moving outwards at a high speed, and this carries away almost
instantaneously any dust that may fall upon it. The pheno-
menon above described requires that the water-surface be clean.
If a very little grease be present, there is no outward flow and
dust remains undisturbed in the immediate neighbourhood of
the drop.]
On the Rise of a Liquid in a Tube. — Let a tube (fig. 6) whose
internal radius is r, made of a solid substance c, be dipped into
a liquid a. Let us suppose
that the angle of contact
for this liquid with the
solid c is an acute angle.
This implies that the ten-
sion of the free surface of
the solid c is greater than
that of the surface of
contact of the solid with
the liquid o. Now con-
sider the tension of the
free surface of the liquid
o. All round its edge
there is a tension T acting
The circumference of the
Fig. 6.
at an angle a with the vertical,
edge is 2*r, so that the resultant of this tension is a force
2*rT cos a acting vertically upwards on the liquid. Hence
the liquid will rise in the tube till the weight of the vertical
column between the free surface and the level of the liquid
in the vessel balances the resultant of the surface-tension. The
upper surface of this column is not level, so that the height
of the column cannot be directly measured, but let us assume
that h is the mean height of the column, that is to say, the
height of a column of equal weight, but with a flat top. Then if
r is the radius of the tube at the top of the column, the volume
of the suspended column is xrVt, and its weight is rpgr*h y when
p is its density and g the intensity of gravity. Equating this
force with the resultant of the tension
Tpgr*h = 2vt T cos a,
or
A=2T cos a/pgr.
Hence the mean height to which the fluid rises is inversely as
the radius of the tube. For water in a clean glass tube the angle
of contact is zero, and
h=2T/ P gr.
For mercury in a glass tube the angle of contact is 128 52',
the cosine of which is negative. Hence when a glass tube is
dipped into a vessel of mercury, the mercury within the tube
stands at a lower level than outside it.
Rise of a Liquid between Two Plates. — When two parallel
plates are placed vertically in a liquid the liquid rises between
them. If we now suppose fig. 6 to represent a vertical section
perpendicular to the plates, we may calculate the rise of the
liquid. Let / be the breadth of the plates measured perpen-
dicularly to the plane of the paper, then the length of the line
which bounds the wet and the dry parts of the plates inside is /
for each surface, and on this the tension T acts at an angle a to the
vertical. Hence the resultant of the surface-tension is 2/ T cos a.
If the distance between the inner surfaces of the plates is a,
and if the mean height of the film of fluid which rises between
them is h, the weight of fluid raised is pghla. Equating the
forces —
pghla = 2lT cos a,
whence
h=2T cos a/pga.
This expression is the same as that for the rise of a liquid in a
tube, except that instead of r, the radius of the tube, we have
a the distance of the plates.
Form of the Capillary Surface. — The form of the surface of a
liquid acted on by gravity is easily determined if we assume
that near the part considered the line of contact of the surface
of the liquid with that of the solid bounding it is straight and
horizontal, as it is when the solids which constrain the liquid
are bounded by surfaces formed by horizontal and parallel
generating lines. This will be the case, for instance, near a flat
plate dipped into the liquid. If we suppose these generating
lines to be normal to the plane of the paper, then all sections
of the solids parallel to this plane will be equal and similar to
each other, and the section of the surface of the liquid will be
of the same form for all such sections.
Let us consider the portion of the liquid between two parallel
sections distant one unit of length. Let Pi, P 2 (fig. 7) be two
points of the surface; B h $ 2
the inclination of the surface
to the horizon at Pi and P 2 ;
y h y 2 the heights of P x and
P 2 above the level of the
liquid at a distance from all
solid bodies. The pressure at
any point of the liquid which
is above this level is negative t,«
unless another fluid as, for in-
stance, the air, presses on the
upper surface, but it is only
the difference of pressures with which we have to do, because
two equal pressures on opposite sides of the surface produce
no effect.
We may, therefore, write for the pressure at a height y
p=-Pgy,
Fig. 7.
CAPILLARY ACTION
265
where p is the density of the liquid, or if there are two fluids
the excess of the density of the lower fluid over that of the upper
one.
The forces acting on the portion of liquid PiP»A»Ai are-
first, the horizontal pressures, — Jpgyf and \f>gy\\ second, the
surface-tension T acting at Pi and P* in directions inclined $1
and $t to the horizon. Resolving horizontally we find —
T(coeft-•co6*l)+fcp(^tf-yi , ) -o,
whence
«*-«*+ifpC-K5&
or If we suppose Pi fixed and Pj variable, we may write
coe $ = constant — JgpyVT.
This equation gives a relation between the inclination of the
curve to the horizon and the height above the level of the liquid.
Resolving vertically we find that the weight of the liquid
raised above the level must be equal to T(sin 2 -sin 00, and
this is therefore equal to the area P1P1A1A1 multiplied' by gp.
The form of the capillary surface is identical with that of the
" elastic curve," or the curve formed by a uniform spring
originally straight, when its ends are acted on by equal and
opposite forces applied either
to the ends themselves or to
solid pieces attached to them.
Drawings of the different forms
of the curve may be found in
Thomson and Tait's Natural
Philosophy, vol. i. p. 455.
We shall next consider the
rise of a liquid between two
plates of different materials
for which the angles of contact are ai and as, the distance
between the plates being a, a small quantity. Since the plates
are very near one another we may use the following equation of
the surface as an approximation: —
y-h+Ax+Bx*, k-fe+Afl+Ba",
whence
cot ai» — A, cot a»=A-f 2Ba
T(cos ai+cos atJ-psa^i+iAa+iBa*),
whence we obtain
T a
hi m — (cos ai+cosai)+;f(2 cot ai— cot 01)
p*a 6
fa« — (cos ai+eosai)+ z (2 cot 01— cot ai).
pga 6
Let X be the force which must be applied in a horizontal direction
to either plate to keep it from approaching the other, then the
forces acting on the first plate are T+X in the negative direction,
and T sin ai+^gphi* in the positive direction. Hence
X - ifph 1 -T(i - sin ai).
For the second plate
X=fc P W-T(i-sino,).
Hence
X = fcp(V+W)-T{i-J(sin ai+sin «,)},
or, substituting the values of hi and h 2f
x-l
r(C0S tti+COS Oi) 1
2 pja* ^ - ■ --- -
— T { 1 — J (sin ai +sin ai) — i 3 * (cos en +cos aj) (cot ai +cot aj) ) ,
the remaining terms being negligible when a is small. The
force, therefore, with which the two plates are drawn together
consists first of a positive part, or in other words an attraction,
varying inversely as the square of the distance, and second, of
a negative part of repulsion independent of the distance. Hence
in all cases except that in which the angles en and a s are
supplementary to each other, the force is attractive when a is
small enough, but when cos a x and cos a% are of different signs,
as when the liquid is raised by one plate, and depressed by the
other, the first term may be so small that the repulsion indi-
cated by the second term comes into play. The fact that a
pair of plates which repel one another at a certain distance may
attract one another at a smaller distance was deduced by
Laplace from theory, and verified by the observations of the
abb6 Hatty.
A Drop between Two Plates. — If a small quantity of a liquid
which wets glass be introduced between two glass plates slightly
inclined to each other, it will run towards that part where the
glass plates are nearest together. When the liquid is in equi-
librium it forms a thin film, the outer edge of which is all of the
same thickness. If d is the distance between the plates at the
edge of the film and II the atmospheric pressure, the pressure
of the liquid in the film is II 3 , and if A is the area of the
film between the plates and B its circumference, the plates will
be pressed together with a force
^ATcoSa.Tjrp •
1 -f-B 1 sin a,
and this, whether the atmosphere exerts any pressure or not.
The force thus produced by the introduction of a drop of water
between two plates is enormous, and is often sufficient to press
certain parts of the plates together so powerfully as to bruise
them or break them. When two blocks of ice are placed loosely
together so that the superfluous water which melts from them
may drain away, the remaining water draws the blocks together
with a force sufficient to cause the blocks to adhere by the
process called Regelation.
[An effect of an opposite character may be observed when the
fluid is mercury in place of water. When two pieces of flat
glass are pressed together under mercury with moderate force
they cohere, the mercury leaving the narrow crevasses, even
although the alternative is a vacuum. The course of events
is more easily followed if one of the pieces of glass constitutes
the bottom, or a side, of the vessel containing the mercury.]
In many experiments bodies are floated on the surface of
water in order that they may be free to move under the action
of slight horizontal forces. Thus Sir Isaac Newton placed a
magnet in a floating vessel and a piece of iron in another in order
to observe their mutual action, and A. M. Ampere floated a voltaic
battery with a coil of wire in its circuit in order to observe the
effects of the earth's magnetism on the electric circuit. When
such floating bodies come near the edge of the vessel they are
drawn up to it, and are apt to stick fast to it. There are two
ways of avoiding this inconvenience. One is to grease the float
round its water-line so that the water is depressed round it.
This, however, often produces a worse disturbing effect, because
a thin film of grease spreads over the water and increases its
surface-viscosity. The other method is to fill the vessel with
water till the level of the water stands a little higher than the
rim of the vessel. The float will then be repelled from the edge
of the vessel. Such floats, however, should always be made
so that the section taken at the level of the water is as small as
possible.
[The Size of Drops. — The relation between the diameter of a
tube and the weight of the drop which it delivers appears to
have been first investigated by Thomas Tate (Phil. Mag. vol.
xxvii. p. 176, 1864), whose experiments led him to the conclusion
that " other things being the same, the weight of a drop of liquid
is proportional to the diameter of the tube in which it is formed/ 1
Sufficient time must of course be allowed for the formation of the
drops; otherwise no simple results can be expected. In Tate's
experiments the period was never less than 40 seconds.
The magnitude of a drop delivered from a tube, even when
the formation up to the phase of instability is infinitely slow,
cannot be calculated a priori. The weight is sometimes equated
to the product of the capillary tension (T) and the circumference
of the tube (2ira), but with little justification. Even if the
tension at the circumference of the tube acted vertically, and
the whole of the liquid below this level passed into the drop,
the calculation would still be vitiated by the assumption that
the internal pressure at the level in question is atmospheric.
It would be necessary to consider the curvatures of the fluid
surface at the edge of attachment. If the surface could be
treated as a cylindrical prolongation of the tube (radius a), the
pressure would be T/a, and the resulting force acting downwards
upon the drop would amount to one-half (xaT) of the direct
upward pull of the tension along the circumference. At this
v. 90
266
CAPILLARY ACTION
rate the drop would be but one-half of that above reckoned.
But the truth is that a complete solution of the statical problem
for all forms up to that at which instability sets in, would not
suffice for the present purpose. The detachment of the drop
is a dynamical effect, and it is influenced by collateral circum-
stances. For example, the bore of the tube is no longer a matter
of indifference, even though the attachment of the drop occurs
entirely at the outer edge. It appears that when the external
diameter exceeds a certain value, the weight of a drop of water
is sensibly different in the two extreme cases of a very small
and of a very large bore.
But although a complete solution of the dynamical problem
is impracticable, much interesting information may be obtained
from the principle of dynamical similarity. The argument has
already been applied by Dupr6 ( Thtorie mScanique de la chaleur,
Paris, 1869, p. 328), but his presentation of it is rather obscure.
We will assume that when, as in most cases, viscosity maybe
neglected, the mass (M) of a drop depends only upon the density
(<r), the capillary tension (T), the acceleration of gravity (g), and
the linear dimension of the tube (a). In order to justify this
assumption, the formation of the drop must be sufficiently slow,
and certain restrictions must be imposed upon the shape of the
tube. For example, in the case of water delivered from a glass
tube, which is cut off square and held vertically, a will be the
external radius; and it will be necessary to suppose that the
ratio of the internal radius to a is constant, the cases of a ratio
infinitely small, or infinitely near unity, being included. But if
the fluid be mercury, the flat end of the tube remains unwetted,
and the formation of the drop depends upon the internal diameter
only.
The " dimensions " of the quantities on which M depends
<r = (Mass) 1 (Length)"*,
T= (Force) 1 (Length)- 1 = (Mass) 1 (Time)-*,
g — Acceleration = (Length) 1 (Time) -1 ,
of which M, a mass, is to be expressed as a function. If we
assume
M*T*.p.o».a* t
we have, considering in turn length, time and mass,
y— 3«+tt=o, 2x+2y=o, *+« = i;
so that
y=— x, « = i -x, «=3-2#.
Accordingly
»«?(£)"•
Since x is undetermined, all that we can conclude is that M
is of the form
-KS) <"
where F denotes an arbitrary function.
Dynamical similarity requires that T/gcra* be constant; or,
if g be supposed to be so, that a 2 varies as T/<r. If this condition
be satisfied, the mass (or weight) of the drop is proportional to T
and to a.
If Tate's law be true, that ceteris paribus M varies as a, it
follows from (1) that F is constant. For all fluids and for all
similar tubes similarly wetted, the weight of a drop would then
be proportional not only to the diameter of the tube, but also
to the superficial tension, and it would be independent of the
density.
Careful observations with special precautions to ensure the
cleanliness of the water have shown that over a considerable
range, the departure from Tate's law is not great. The results
give material for the determination of the function Fin(i).
T/9«ra*
gM/Ta
258
4-13
i-x6
397
0-708
3-80
0441
3'73
0277
378
0-220
390
0-I69
4-06
In the preceding table, applicable to thin-walled tubes, the first
column gives the values of T/g<ra 2 , and the second column those
of gM/Ta, all the quantities concerned being in C.G.S. measure,
or other consistent system. From this the weight of a drop
of any liquid of which the density and surface tension are known,
can be calculated. For many purposes it may suffice to treat
F as a constant, say 3-8. The formula for the weight of a drop
is then simply
M*=3-8Ta (2)
in which 38 replaces the 2ir of the faulty theory alluded to
earlier (see Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., Oct. 1899).]
Phenomena arising from the Variation of the Surface-tension. —
Pure water has a higher surface-tension than that of any other
substance liquid at ordinary temperatures except mercury.
Hence any other liquid if mixed with water diminishes its
surface-tension. For example, if a drop of alcohol be placed on
the surface of water, the surface-tension will be diminished from
80, the* value for pure water, to 25, the value for pure alcohol.
The surface of the liquid will therefore no longer be in equilibrium,
and a current will be formed at and near the surface from the
alcohol to the surrounding water, and this current will go on as
long as there is more alcohol at one part of the surface than at
another. If the vessel is deep, these currents will be balanced
by counter currents below them, but if the depth of the water
is only two or three millimetres, the surface-current will sweep
away the whole of the water, leaving a dry spot where the
alcohol was dropped in. This phenomenon was first described
and explained by James Thomson, who also explained a pheno-
menon, the converse of this, called the " tears of strong wine."
If a wine-glass be half-filled with port wine the liquid rises a
little up the side of the glass as other liquids do. The wine,
however, contains alcohol and water, both of which evaporate,
but the alcohol faster than the water, so that the superficial layer
becomes more watery. In the middle of the vessel the superficial
layer recovers its strength by diffusion from below, but the film
adhering to the side of the glass becomes more watery, and
therefore has a higher surface-tension than the surface of the
stronger wine. It therefore creeps up the side of the glass
dragging the strong wine after it, and this goes on till the quantity
of fluid dragged up collects into a drop and runs down the side
of the glass.
The motion of small pieces of camphor floating on water arises
from the gradual solution of the camphor. If this takes place
more rapidly on one side of the piece of camphor than on the
other side, the surface-tension becomes weaker where there is
most camphor in solution, and the lump, being pulled unequally
by the surface-tensions, moves off in the direction of the strongest
tension, namely, towards the side on which least camphor is
dissolved.
If a drop of ether is held near the surface of water the vapour
of ether condenses on the surface of the water, and surface-
currents are formed flowing in every direction away from under
the drop of ether.
If we place a small floating body in a shallow vessel of water
and wet one side of it with alcohol or ether, it will move off with
great velocity and skim about on the surface of the water, the
part wet with alcohol being always the stern.
The surface-tension of mercury is greatly altered by slight
changes in the state of the surface. The surface-tension of pure
mercury is so great that it is very difficult to keep it clean, for
every kind of oil or grease spreads over it at once.
But the most remarkable effects of change of surface-tension
are those produced by what is called the electric polarization
of the surface. The tension of the surface of contact of mercury
and dilute sulphuric acid depends on the electromotive force
acting between the mercury and the acid. If the electromotive
force is from the acid to the mercury the surface-tension increases;
if it is from the mercury to the acid, it diminishes. Faraday
observed that a large drop of mercury, resting on the flat bottom
of a vessel containing dilute acid, changes its form in a remarkable
way when connected with one of the electrodes of a battery,
the other electrode being placed in the acid. When the mercury
CAPILLARY ACTIO.
-269
is made positive it becomes dull and spreads itself out; when it
is made negative it gathers itself together and becomes bright
again. G» Lippmann, who has made a careful investigation
of the subject, finds that exceedingly small variations of the
electromotive force produce sensible changes in the surface-
tension. The effect of one of a DanielTs cell is to increase the
tension from 30-4 to 40-6. He has constructed a capillary
electrometer by which differences of electric potential less than
o-oi of that of a DanielTs cell can be detected by the difference
of the pressure required to force the mercury to a given point
of a fine capillary tube. He has also constructed an apparatus
in which this variation in the surface-tension is made to do work
and drive a machine. He has also found that this action is
reversible, for when the area of the surface of contact of the acid
and mercury is made to increase, an electric current passes
from the mercury to the acid, the amount of electricity which
passes while the surface increases by one square centimetre
being sufficient to decompose -000013 gramme of water.
[The movements of camphor scrapings referred to above afford
a useful test of the condition of a water surface. If the contamina-
tion exceed a certain limit, the scrapings remain quite dead. In
a striking form of the experiment, the water is contained, to
the depth of perhaps one inch, in a large flat dish, and the
operative part of the surface is limited by a flexible hoop of thin
sheet brass lying in the dish and rising above the water-level.
If the hoop enclose an area of (say) one-third of the maximum,
and if the water be clean, camphor fragments floating on the
interior enter with vigorous movements. A touch of the finger
will then often reduce them to quiet; but if the hoop be ex-
panded, the included grease is so far attenuated as to lose its
effect. Another method of removing grease is to immerse and
remove strips of paper by which the surface available for the
contamination is in effect increased.
The thickness of the film of oil adequate to check the camphor
movements can be determined with fair accuracy by depositing
a weighed amount of oil (such as -8 mg.) upon the surface of water
in a large bath. Calculated as if the density were the same
as in a normal state, the thickness of the film is found to be
about two millionths of a millimetre.
Small as is the above amount of oil, the camphor test is a
comparatively coarse one. Conditions of a contaminated surface
may easily be distinguished, upon all of which camphor fragments
spin vigorously. Thus, a shallow tin vessel, such as the lid of a
biscuit box, may be levelled and filled with tap-water through
a rubber hose. Upon the surface of the water a little sulphur
is dusted. An application of the finger for 20 or 30 seconds
to the under surface of the vessel will then generate enough
heat to lower appreciably the surface-tension, as is evidenced
by the opening out of the dust and the formation of a bare spot
perhaps ij in. in diameter. When, however, the surface is but
very slightly greased, a spot can no longer be cleared by the
warmth of the finger, or even of a spirit lamp, held underneath.
And yet the greasing may be so slight that camphor fragments
move with apparently unabated vigour.
The varying degrees of contamination to which a water surface
is subject are the cause of many curious phenomena. Among
these is the superficial viscosity of Plateau. In his experiments
a long compass needle is mounted so as to swing in the surface
of the liquid under investigation. The cases of ordinary clean
water and alcohol are strongly contrasted, the motion of the
needle upon the former being comparatively sluggish. Moreover,
a different behaviour is observed when the surfaces are slightly
dusted over. In the case of water the whole, of the surface in
front of the needle moves with it, while on the other hand the
dust floating on alcohol is scarcely disturbed until the needle actu-
ally strikes it. Plateau attributed these differences to a special
quality of the liquids, named by him " superficial viscosity."
It has been proved, however, that the question is one of con-
tamination, and that a water surface may be prepared so as to
behave in the same manner as alcohol.
Another consequence of the tendency of a moderate con-
tamination to distribute itself uniformly is the calming effect
f C is therefore stable. 1^
'<*>*
1 iced in any other positi°*ij enCe
Ad have been stable. j t is
tuidinal displacements- ^ or
^ transverse to the a3Cl r 5 1 ent
any lateral display*** to
ultant force tendi* 1 *^ Q f
Hence if the len# tJ V 1
film is greater
vCtobepI^ c f a
-vardsA, ** c
' ^n the si<ie
tend to
k C is
film
ich
icnce
nee
' r ic
Spberkal
moap*
of oil, investigt!**. ->* t
gation of waves -*<n\* +
and contractions of •ju* >** ^
O. Reynolds, arc rests**: v-C
Indeed the possibility </. ^«
as constitute foam, depetrtt
consideration. If, as is sometr^t .-> *.
film were absolutely the same tt^Z^
would of necessity fall with the a#^ '
reality, the tension adjusts itself a*,v«^
to be supported at the various levels.
Although throughout a certain rang* ^
varies rapidly with the degree of contaminate*] ''. * "
that, as was first fully indicated by Miss PockeU.v^/
of contamination have little or no effect upon "wlri
Lord Rayleigh has shown that the fall of surf ace-tina^ " '
when the quantity of oil is about the half of that rtr?. X '"'
stop the camphor movements, and he suggests that thu * '
may correspond with a complete coating of the surface wiu^
single layer of molecules.] ' *
On the Forms of Liquid Films which are Figures of Revolution
A soap bubble is simply a small quantity of soap-suds spread
out so as to expose a large surface to the air. The
bubble, in fact, has two surfaces, an outer and an inner
surface, both exposed to air. It has, therefore, a
certain amount of surface-energy depending on the area "
of these two surfaces. Since in the case of thin films the outer and
inner surfaces are approximately equal, we shall consider the
area of the film as representing either of them, and shall use
the symbol T to denote the energy of unit of area of the fihn,
both surfaces being taken together. If V is the energy of a single
surface of the liquid, T the energy of the film is 2T'. When by
means of a tube we blow air into the inside of the bubble we in-
crease its volume and therefore its surface, and at the same
time we do work in forcing air into it, and thus increase the
energy of the bubble.
That the bubble has energy may be shown by leaving the end
of the tube open. The bubble will contract, forcing the air
out, and the current of air blown through the tube may be made
to deflect the flame of a candle. If the bubble is in the form of
a sphere of radius r this material surface will have an area
S=4*** (1)
If T be the energy corresponding to unit of area of the film the
surface-energy of the whole bubble will be
ST=4»HT (2)
The increment of this energy corresponding to an increase of
the radius from r to r+dr is therefore
TdS=SxrTdr (3)
Now this increase of energy was obtained by forcing in air at
a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure, and thus
increasing the volume of the bubble.
Let II be the atmospheric pressure and 11+ £ the pressure of
the air within the bubble. The volume of the sphere is
V-t**, (4)
and the increment of volume is
dV=4Tr*dr (5)
Now if we suppose a quantity of air already at the pressure
H+pj the work done in forcing it into the bubble is^cfV.
Hence the equation of work and energy is
pdV=Tds (6)
or
4*pr*dr = &TrdrT (7)
or
P=2T/r (8)
This, therefore, is the excess of the pressure of the air within
the bubble over that of the external air, and it is due to the
action of the inner and outer surfaces of the bubble. We may
conceive this pressure to arise from the tendency which the
bubble has to contract, or in other words from the surface-tension
of the bubble.
If to increase the area of the surface requires the expenditure
is easy
than
268
CAPILLARY ACTION
of work, the surface must resist extension, and if the bubble in
contracting can do work, the surface must tend to contract.
The surface must therefore act like a sheet of india-rubber when
extended both in length and breadth, that is, it must exert
surface-tension. The tension of the sheet of india-rubber,
however, depends on the extent to which it is stretched,
and may be different in different directions, whereas the tension
of the surface of a liquid remains the same however much the
film is extended, and the tension at any point is the same in all
directions.
The intensity of this surface-tension is measured by the
stress which it exerts across a line of unit length. Let us
measure it in the case of the spherical soap-bubble by consider-
ing the stress exerted by one hemisphere of the bubble on the
other, across the circumference of a great circle. This stress is
balanced by the pressure p acting over the area of the same great
circle: it is therefore equal to irr*p. To determine the intensity
of the surface-tension we have to divide this quantity by the
length of the line across which it acts, which is in this case the
circumference of a great circle 2nr. Dividing irfip by this length
we obtain \pr as the value of the intensity of the surface-tension,
and it is plain from equation 8 that this is equal to T. Hence
the numerical value of the intensity of the surface-tension is
equal to the numerical value of the surface-energy per unit of
surface. We must remember that since the film has two surfaces
the surface-tension of the film is double the
tension of the surface of the liquid of which it
is formed.
To determine the relation between the sur-
face-tension and the pressure which balances
it when the form of the surface is not spherical,
let us consider the following case: —
Let fig. 9 represent a section through the
axis Cc of a soap-bubble in the form of a
No«- figure of revolution bounded by two
MpheriaU circular disks AB and ab, and having
•wip- the meridian section APa. Let PQ
bubble. ^ an i ma gi nar y section normal to the
axis. Let the radius of this section PR by y,
and let PT, the tangent at P, make an angle a
with the axis.
Let us consider the stresses which are
exerted across this imaginary section by the
lower part on the upper part. If the internal
pressure exceeds the external pressure by P,
there is in the first place a force irfp acting upwards arising
from the pressure p over the area of the section. In the next
place, there is the surface-tension acting downwards, but at an
angle a with the vertical, across the circular section of the bubble
itself, whose circumference is 2xy, and the downward force is
therefore ncyl cos a.
Now these forces are balanced by the external force which
acts on the disk ACB, which we may call F. Hence equating
the forces which act on the portion included between ACB and
PRQ
iOty-2iryTcOSa=*-F (9).
If we make CR=«, and suppose % to vary, the shape of the
bubble of course remaining the same, the values of y and of a
will change, but the other quantities will be constant. In
studying these variations we may if we please take as our inde-
pendent variable the length s of the meridian section AP reckoned
from A. Differentiating equation 9 with respect to s we obtain,
after dividing by 21c as a common factor,
Fig. 9.
Now
^yg-Tcosa^+Tysi
d<
. da
Z"
(10).
(II).
The radius of curvature of the meridian section is
(12).
Ihe radius of curvature of a normal section of the surface at
right angles to the meridian section is equal to the part of the
normal cut off by the axis, which is
R, = PN»y/co8tt (13).
Hence dividing equation 10 by y sin a, we find
p-TO/Ri+i/R.) (14).
This equation, which gives the pressure in terms of the principal
radii of curvature, though here proved only in the case of a
surface of revolution, must be true of all surfaces. For the
curvature of any surface at a given point may be completely
defined in terms of the positions of its principal normal sections
and their radii of curvature.
Before going further we may deduce from equation 9 the
nature of all the figures of revolution which a liquid film can
assume. Let us first determine the nature of a curve, such that
if it is rolled on the axis its origin will trace out the meridian
section of the bubble. Since at any instant the rolling curve is
rotating about the point of contact with the axis, the line drawn
from this point of contact to the tracing point must be normal
to the direction of motion of the tracing point. Hence if N is
the point of contact, NP must be normal to the traced curve.
Also, since the axis is a tangent to the rolling curve, the ordinate
PR is the perpendicular from the tracing point P on the tangent.
Hence the relation between the radius vector and the perpen-
dicular on the tangent of the rolling curve must be identical with
the relation between the normal PN and the ordinate PR of the
traced curve. If we write r for PN, then y = r cos a, and equation
9 becomes
This relation between y and r is identical with the relation
between the perpendicular from the focus of a conic section on
the tangent at a given point and the focal distance of that point,
provided the transverse and conjugate axes of the conic are
2a and 2b respectively, where
a-£,andP«iL
P • *P
Hence the meridian section of the film may be traced by the
focus of such a conic, if the conic is made to roll on the axis.
On the different Forms of the Meridian Line.—i. When the
conic is an ellipse the meridian line is in the form of a series of
waves, and the film itself has a series of alternate swellings and
contractions as represented in figs. 9 and 10. This form of the
film is called the unduloid.
1 a. When the ellipse becomes a circle, the meridian line
becomes a straight line parallel to the axis, and the film passes
into the form of a cylinder of revolution.
ib. As the ellipse degenerates into the straight line joining
its foci, the contracted parts of the unduloid become narrower,
till at last the figure becomes a series of spheres in contact.
In all these cases the internal pressure exceeds the external
by aT/a where a is the semi-transverse axis of the conic. The
resultant of the internal pressure and the surface-tension is
equivalent to a tension along the axis, and the numerical value
of this tension is equal to the force due to the action of this
pressure on a circle whose diameter is equal to the conjugate
axis of the ellipse.
2. When the conic is a parabola the meridian line is a cate-
nary (fig. 11); the internal pressure is equal to the external
pressure, and the tension along the axis is equal to 2irTm where
m is the distance of the vertex from the focus.
3. When the conic is a hyperbola the meridian line is in the
form of a looped curve (fig. 12). The corresponding figure of the
film is called the nodoid. The resultant of the internal pressure
and the surface-tension is equivalent to a pressure along the
axis equal to that due to a pressure p acting on a circle whose
diameter is the conjugate axis of the hyperbola.
When the conjugate axis of the hyperbola is made smaller
and smaller, the nodoid approximates more and more to the
series of spheres touching each other along the axis. When the
conjugate axis of the hyperbola increases without limit, the
loops of the nodoid are crowded on one another, and each becomes
more nearly a ring of circular section, without, however, ever
CAPILLARY ACTION
269
reaching this form. The only closed surface belonging to the
series is the sphere.
These figures of revolution have been studied mathematically
by C. W. B. Poisson, 1 Goldschmidt, 2 L. L. Lindelof and F. M. N.
Moigno,' C. E. Delaunay, 4 A. H. E. Lamarle, 6 A. Beer, 6 and
V. M, A. Mannheim, 7 and have been produced experimentally
by Plateau 8 in the two different ways already described.
S1QQ&.
Fig. 10. — Unduloid. Fig. ii. — Catenoid. Fig. 12. — Nodoid.
The limiting conditions of the stability of these figures have
been studied both mathematically and experimentally. We
shall notice only two of them, the cylinder and the catenoid.
Stability of the Cylinder. — The cylinder is the limiting form
of the unduloid when the rolling ellipse becomes a circle. When
the ellipse differs infinitely little from a circle, the equation of
the meridian line becomes approximately y=a+c sin (x/a)
where c is small. This is a simple harmonic wave-line, whose
mean distance from the axis is o, whose wave-length is 2ra,
and whose amplitude is c. The internal pressure corresponding
to this unduloid is as before p=T/a. Now consider a portion
of a cylindric film of length x terminated by two equal disks
of radius r and containing a certain volume of air. Let one of
these disks be made to approach the other by a small quantity
dx. The film will swell out into the convex part of an unduloid,
having its largest section midway between the disks, and we
have to determine whether the internal pressure will be greater
or less than before. If A and C (fig. 13) are the disks, and if
* the distance between the
disks is equal to irr half
the wave-length of the
aJa a, c, c c«| bJ b[* harmonic curve, the disks
will be at the points where
the curve is at its mean
* IG# x 3* distance from the axis,
and the pressure will therefore be T/r as before. If Ai, Ci are the
disks, so that the distance between them is less than tit, the curve
must be produced beyond the disks before it is at its mean dis-
tance from the axis. Hence in this case the mean distance is less
than r, and the pressure will be greater than T/r . If, on the other
hand, the disks are at A 2 and Cs, so that the distance between
them is greater than xr, the curve will reach its mean distance
from the axis before it reaches the disks. The mean distance
will therefore be greater than r , and the pressure will be less than
T/r . Hence if one of the disks be made to approach the other,
the internal pressure will be increased if the distance between
the disks is less than half the circumference of either, and the
pressure will be diminished if the distance is greater than this
quantity. In the same way we may show that if the distance
between the disks is increased, the pressure will be diminished
or increased according as the distance is less or more than half
the circumference of either.
Now let us consider a cylindric film contained between two
equal fixed disks A and B, and let a third disk, C, be placed
midway between. Let C be slightly displaced towards A. If
AC and CB are each less than half the circumference of a disk
the pressure on C will increase on the side of A and diminish on
the side of B. The resultant force on C will therefore tend to
oppose the displacement and to bring C back to its original
1 NouveUe Marie de V action capillaire (1831).
• Determinate superficiei tninimae rotatione curvae data duo puncta
jungentis circa datum axem ortae (Gottingen, 1831).
' LcQons de calcul des variations (Paris, 1861).
4 " Sur la surface de revolution dont la courbure moyenne est
constante," LiouvUWs Journal, vi.
• " Throne geometrique des rayons et centres de courbure," Bullet,
de VAcad. de Belgwue, 1857.
• Tractatus de Theoria Mathematica Phaenomenorum in Liquidis
actioni gravitatis detractis observatorum (Bonn, 1857).
7 Journal de I'Institut, No. 1260.
8 Statique expSrimentale et thiorique des liquides, 1873.
position. The equilibrium of C is therefore stable. It is easy
to show that if C had been placed in any other position than
the middle, its equilibrium would have been stable. Hence
the film is stable as regards longitudinal displacements. It is
also stable as regards displacements transverse to the axis, for
the film is in a state of tension, and any lateral displacement
of its middle parts would produce a resultant force tending to
restore the film to its original position. Hence if the length of
the cylindric film is less than its circumference, it is in stable
equilibrium. But if the length of the cylindric film is greater
than its circumference, and if we suppose the disk C to be placed
midway between A and B, and to be moved towards A, the
pressure on the side next A will diminish, and that on the side
next B will increase, so that the resultant force will tend to
increase the displacement, and the equilibrium of the disk C is
therefore unstable. Hence the equilibrium of a cylindric film
whose length is greater than its circumference is unstable. Such,
a film, if ever so little disturbed, will begin to contract at one
secton and to expand at another, till its form ceases to resemble
a cylinder, if it does not break up into two parts which become
ultimately portions of spheres.
Instability of a Jet of Liquid. — When a liquid flows out of a
vessel through a circular opening in the bottom of the vessel,
the form of the stream is at first nearly cylindrical though its
diameter gradually diminishes from the orifice downwards on
account of the increasing velocity of the liquid. But the liquid
after it leaves the vessel is subject to no forces except gravity,
the pressure of the air, and its own surface-tension. Of these
gravity has no effect on the form of the stream except in drawing
asunder its parts in a vertical direction, because the lower parts
are moving faster than the upper parts. The resistance of the
air produces little disturbance until the velocity becomes very
great. But the surface-tension, acting on a cylindric column
of liquid whose length exceeds the limit of stability, begins to
produce enlargements and contractions in the stream as soon
as the liquid has left the orifice, and these inequalities in the
figure of the column go on increasing till it is broken up into
elongated fragments. These fragments as they are falling
through the air continue to be acted on by surface-tension.
They therefore shorten themselves, and after a series of oscilla-
tions in which they become alternately elongated and flattened,
settle down into the form of spherical drops.
This process, which we have followed as it takes place on
an individual portion of the falling liquid, goes through its
several phases at different distances from the orifice, so that
if we examine different portions of the stream as it descends,
we shall find next the orifice the unbroken column, then a series
of contractions and enlargements, then elongated drops, then
flattened drops, and so on till the drops become spherical.
[The circumstances attending the resolution of a cylindrical
jet into drops were admirably examined and described by
F. Savart (" M6moire sur la constitution des veines liquides
lancees par des orifices circulaires en minces parois," Ann. d.
Ckitn. t. liii., 1833) and for the most part explained with great
sagacity by Plateau. Let us conceive an infinitely long circular
cylinder of liquid, at rest (a motion common to every part of the
fluid is necessarily without influence upon the stability, and
may therefore be left out of account for convenience of concep-
tion and expression), and inquire under what circumstances
it is stable or unstable, for small displacements, symmetrical
about the axis of figure.
Whatever the deformation of the originally straight boundary
of the axial section may be, it can be resolved by Fourier's
theorem into deformations of the harmonic type. These com-
ponent deformations are in general infinite in number, of very
wave-length and of arbitrary phase; but in the first stages of
the motion, with which alone we are at present concerned,
each produces its effect independently of every other, and may
be considered by itself. Suppose, therefore, that the equation
of the boundary is
r«a+a cos &s, (1)
where a is a small quantity, the axis of z being that of symmetry/
270
CAPILLARY ACTION
The wave-length of the disturbance may be called X, and is
connected with k by the equation k—2v/\. The capillary
tension endeavours to contract the surface of the fluid; so that
the stability, or instability, of the cylindrical form of equilibrium
depends upon whether the surface (enclosing a given volume)
be greater or less respectively after the displacement than before.
It has been proved by Plateau (vide supra) that the surface is
greater than before displacement if ka>i, that is, if X<27ra;
but less if ka<i, or \>2wa. Accordingly, the equilibrium is
stable if X be less than the circumference; but unstable if X be
greater than the circumference of the cylinder. Disturbances
of the former kind lead to vibrations of harmonic type, whose
amplitudes always remain small; but disturbances, whose
wave-length exceeds the circumference, result in a greater and
greater departure from the cylindrical figure. The analytical
expression for the motion in the latter case involves exponential
terms, one of which (except in case of a particular relation be-
tween the initial displacements and velocities) increases rapidly,
being equally multiplied in equal times. The coefficient (q) of
the time in the exponential term (e qt ) may be considered to
measure the degree of dynamical instability; its reciprocal
i/q is the time in which die disturbance is multiplied in the
ratio 1 : c.
The degree of instability, as measured by q, is not to be deter-
mined from statical considerations only; otherwise there would
be no limit to the increasing efficiency of the longer wave-
lengths. The joint operation of superficial tension and inertia
in fixing the wave-length of maximum instability was first con-
sidered by Lord Rayleigh in a paper (Math. Soc. Proc, November
1878) on the " Instability of Jets." It appears that the value
of q may be expressed in the form
fl-v^y-FCto), ...... (2)
where, as before, T is the superficial tension, p the density, and
F is given by the following table: —
VaK
?(ka).
&a*.
F(ka).
•05
•1536
•4
•3382
•I
•2108
•5
•3432
•2
•2794
•6
•3344
•3
•3182
•8
•2701
•9
•2015
The greatest value of F thus corresponds, not to a zero value
of &a*, but approximately to &V—-4858, or to X= 4- 508X20.
Hence the maximum instability occurs when the wave-length
of disturbance is about half as great again as that at which
instability first commences.
Taking for water, in C.G.S. units, T=8i, p= 1, we get for the
case of maximum instability
r l -
*%
: — 115^
(3),
"81 X -343
if d be the diameter of the cylinder. Thus, if d=i f q~ 1 = -ii$;
or for a diameter of one centimetre the disturbance is multiplied
2*7 times in about one-ninth of a second. If the disturbance
be multiplied 1000 fold in time, t, g*=3log„ 10=6-9, so that
<='79<#. For example, if the diameter be one millimetre, the
disturbance is multiplied 1000 fold in about one-fortieth of a
second. In view of these estimates the rapid disintegration of
a fine jet of water will not cause surprise.
The relative importance of two harmonic disturbances de-
pends upon their initial magnitudes, and upon the rate at which
they grow. When the initial values are very small, the latter
consideration is much the more important; for, if the disturb-
ances be represented by a^*, atffl**, in which qi exceeds q*,
their ratio is (o*/ai) £"<«»-?»>'; and this ratio decreases without
limit with the time, whatever be the initial (finite) ratio a 2 : ai.
If the initial disturbances are small enough, that one is ultimately
preponderant for which the measure of instability is greatest.
The smaller the causes by which the original equilibrium is
upset, the more will the cylindrical mass tend to divide itself
regularly into portions whose length is equal to 4*5 times the
diameter. But a disturbance of less favourable wave-length
may gain the preponderance in case its magnitude be sufficient
to produce disintegration in a less time than that required by
the other disturbances present.
The application of these results to actual jets presents no great
difficulty. The disturbances by which equilibrium is upset are
impressed upon the fluid as it leaves the aperture, and the con-
tinuous portion of the jet represents the distance travelled during
the time necessary to produce disintegration. Thus the length
of the continuous portion necessarily depends upon the character
of the disturbances in respect of amplitude and wave-length.
It may be increased considerably, as F. Savart showed, by a suit-
able isolation of the reservoir from tremors, whether due to
external sources or to the impact of the jet itself in the vessel
placed to receive it. Nevertheless it does not appear to be
possible to carry the prolongation very far. Whether the
residuary disturbances are of external origin, or are due to
friction, or to some peculiarity of the fluid motion within the
reservoir, has not been satisfactorily determined. On this point
Plateau's explanations are not very clear, and he sometimes
expresses himself as if the time of disintegration depended only
upon the capillary tension, without reference to initial disturb-
ances at all.
Two laws were formulated by Savart with respect to the
length of the continuous portion of a jet, and have been to a
certain extent explained by Plateau. For a given fluid and a
given orifice the length is approximately proportional to the
square root of the head. This follows at once from theory, if it
can be assumed that the disturbances remain always of the same
character, so that the time of disintegration is constant. When
the head is given, Savart found the length to be proportional
to the diameter of the orifice. From (3) it appears that the time
in which a disturbance is multiplied in a given ratio varies, not
as d, but as d*. Again, when the fluid is changed, the time
varies as p*T~*. But it may be doubted whether the length
of the continuous portion obeys any very simple laws, even when
external disturbances are avoided as far as possible.
When the circumstances of the experiment are such that the
reservoir is influenced by the shocks due to the impact of the jet,
the disintegration usually establishes itself with complete regu-
larity, and is attended by a musical note (Savart). The impact
of the regular series of drops which is at any moment striking
the sink (or vessel receiving the water), determines the rupture
into similar drops of the portion of the jet at the same moment
passing the orifice. The pitch of the note, though not absolutely
definite, cannot differ much from that which corresponds to the
division of the jet into wave-lengths of maximum instability;
and, in fact, Savart found that the frequency was directly as
the square root of the head, inversely as the diameter of the
orifice, and independent of the nature of the fluid — laws which
follow immediately from Plateau's theory.
From the pitch of the note due to a jet of given diameter,
and issuing under a given head, the wave-length of the nascent
divisions can be at once deduced. Reasoning from some ob-
servations of Savart, Plateau finds in this way 4-38 as the
ratio of the length of a division to the diameter of the jet. The
diameter of the orifice was 3 millims., from which that of the
jet is deduced by the introduction of the coefficient -8. Now
that the length of a division has been estimated a priori, it is
perhaps preferable to reverse Plateau's calculation, and to
exhibit the frequency of vibration in terms of the other data of
the problem. Thus
frequency =^|§ (4)
But the most certain method of obtaining complete regularity
of resolution is to bring the reservoir under the influence of an
external vibrator, whose pitch is approximately the same as
that proper to the jet. H. G. Magnus (Pogg. Ann. cvi., 1859)
employed a Neef's hammer, attached to the wooden frame
which supported the reservoir. Perhaps an electrically main-
tained tuning-fork is still better. Magnus showed that the most
important part of the effect is due to the forced vibration of that
side of the vessel which contains the orifice, and that but little
CAPILLARY ACTION
271
of it is propagated through the air. With respect to the limits
of pitch, Savart found that the note might be a fifth above,
and more than an octave below, that proper to the jet. Accord-
ing to theory, there would be no well-defined lower limit; on
the other side, the external vibration cannot be efficient if it
tends to produce divisions whose length is less than the circum-
ference of the jet. This would give for the interval defining
the upper limit ir: 4-508, which is very nearly a fifth. In the
case of Plateau's numbers Or. 4*38) the discrepancy is a little
greater.
The detached masses into which a jet is resolved do not at
once assume and retain a spherical form, but execute a series
of vibrations, being alternately compressed and elongated in
the direction of the axis of symmetry. When the resolution
is effected in a perfectly periodic manner, each drop is in the
same phase of its vibration as it passes through a given point
of space; and thence arises the remarkable appearance of alter-
nate swellings and contractions described by Savart. The
interval from one swelling to the next is the space described by
the drop during one complete vibration,and is therefore(as Plateau
shows) proportional ceteris paribus to the square root of the head.
The time of vibration is of course itself a function of the nature
of the fluid and of the size of the drop. By the method of dimen-
sions alone it may be seen that the time of infinitely small
vibrations varies directly as the square root of the mass of the
sphere and inversely as the square root of the capillary tension;
and it may be proved that its expression is
-<(*$) (5)
V being the volume of the vibrating mass.
In consequence of the rapidity of the motion some optical
device is necessary to render apparent the phenomena attending
the disintegration of a jet. Magnus employed a rotating mirror,
and also a rotating disk from which a fine slit was cut out. The
readiest method of obtaining instantaneous illumination is the
electric spark, but with this Magnus was not successful. The
electric spark had, however, been used successfully for this
purpose some years before by H. Buff (Liebigs Ann. lxxviii.
185 1), who observed the shadow of the jet on a white screen.
Preferable to an opaque screen is a piece of ground glass,
which allows the shadow to be examined from the farther side
(Lord Rayleigh). Further, the jet may be very well observed
directly, if the illumination is properly managed. For this
purpose it is necessary to place it between the source of light
and the eye. The best effect is obtained when the light of the
spark is somewhat diffused by being passed (for example) through
a piece of ground glass.
The spark may be obtained from the secondary of an induction
coil, whose terminals are in connexion with the coatings of a
Leyden jar. By adjustment of the contact breaker the series
of sparks may be made to fit more or less perfectly with the forma-
tion of the drops. A still greater improvement may be effected
by using an electrically maintained fork, which performs the
double office of controlling the resolution of the jet and of
interrupting the primary current of the induction coil. In this
form the experiment is one of remarkable beauty. The jet,
illuminated only in one phase of transformation, appears almost
perfectly steady, and may be examined at leisure. In one
experiment the jet issued horizontally from an orifice of about
half a centimetre in diameter, and almost immediately assumed
a rippled outline. The gradually increasing amplitude of the
disturbance, the formation of the elongated ligament, and the
subsequent transformation of the ligament into a spherule,
could be examined with ease. In consequence of the trans-
formation being in a more advanced stage at the forward than
at the hinder end, the ligament remains for a moment connected
with the mass behind, when it has freed itself from the mass in
front, and thus the resulting spherule acquires a backwards
relative velocity, which of necessity leads to a collision. Under
ordinary circumstances the spherule rebounds, and may be thus
reflected backwards and forwards several times between the
adjacent masses. Magnus showed that the stream of spherules
may be diverted into another path by the attraction of a
powerfully electrified rod, held a little below the place of
resolution.
Very interesting modifications of these phenomena are observed
when a jet from an orifice in a thin plate (Tyndall has shown
that a pinhole gas burner may also be used with advantage)
is directed obliquely upwards. In this case drops which break
away with different velocities are carried under the action of
gravity into different paths; and thus under ordinary circum-
stances a jet is apparently resolved into a " sheaf," or bundle
of jets all lying in one vertical plane. Under the action of a
vibrator of suitable periodic time the resolution is regularized,
and then each drop, breaking away under like conditions, is
projected with the same velocity, and therefore follows the
same path. The apparent gathering together of the sheaf into
a fine and well-defined stream is an effect of singular beauty.
In certain cases where the tremor to which the jet is subjected
is compound, the single path is replaced by two, three or even
more paths, which the drops follow in a regular cycle. The
explanation has been given with remarkable insight by Plateau.
If, for example, besides the principal disturbance, which determines
the size of the drops, there be another of twice the period, it
is clear that the alternate drops break away under different
conditions and therefore with different velocities. Complete
periodicity is only attained after the passage of a pair of drops;
and thus the odd series of drops pursues one path, and the even
series another.
Electricity, as has long been known, has an extraordinary
influence upon the appearance of a fine jet of water ascending
in a nearly perpendicular direction. In its normal state the jet
resolves itself into drops, which even before passing the summit,
and still more after passing it, are scattered through a consider-
able width. When a feebly electrified body (such as a stick of
sealing-wax gently rubbed upon the coat sleeve) is brought into
its neighbourhood, the jet undergoes a remarkable transforma-
tion and appears to become coherent; but under more powerful
electrical action the scattering becomes even greater than at first.
The second effect is readily attributed to the mutual repulsion
of the electrified drops, but the action of feeble electricity in
producing apparent coherence was long unexplained.
It was shown by W. von Beetz that the coherence is apparent
only, and that the place where the jet breaks into drops is not
perceptibly shifted by the electricity. By screening the various
parts with metallic plates in connexion with earth, Beetz further
proved that, contrary to the opinion of earlier observers, the
seat of sensitiveness is not at the root of the jet where it leaves
the orifice, but at the place of resolution into drops. An easy
way of testing this conclusion is to excite the extreme tip of a
glass rod, which is then held in succession to the root of the jet,
and to the place of resolution. An effect is observed in the
latter, and not in the former position.
The normal scattering of a nearly vertical jet is due to the
rebound of the drops when they come into collision with one
another. Such collisions are inevitable in consequence of the
different velocities acquired by the drops under the action of the
capillary force, as they break away irregularly from the con-
tinuous portion of the jet. Even when the resolution is regular-
ized by the action of external vibrations of suitable frequency,
as in the beautiful experiments of Savart and Plateau, the drops
must still come into contact before they reach the summit of
their parabolic path. In the case of a continuous jet, the
equation of continuity shows that as the jet loses velocity
in ascending, it must increase in section. When the stream
consists of drops following one another in single file, no such
increase of section is possible; and then the constancy of the
total stream requires a gradual approximation of the drops,
which in the case of a nearly vertical direction of motion cannot
stop short of actual contact. Regular vibration has, however, the
effect of postponing the collisions and consequent scattering of
the drops, and in the case of a direction of motion less nearly
vertical, may prevent them altogether.
Under moderate electrical influence there is no material
272
CAPILLARY ACTION
change in the resolution into drops, nor in the subsequent
motion of the drops up to the moment of collision. The differ-
ence begins here. Instead of rebounding after collision, as the
unelectrified drops of clean water generally, or always, do, the
electrified drops coalesce, and then the jet is no longer scattered
about. When the electrical influence is more powerful, the repul-
sion between the drops is sufficient to prevent actual contact,
and then, of course, there is no opportunity for amalgamation.
These experiments may be repeated with extreme ease, and
with hardly any apparatus. The diameter of the jet may be
about -fa in., and it may issue from a glass nozzle. The pressure
may be such as to give a fountain about 2 ft. high. The change
in the sound due to the falling drops as they strike the bottom
of the sink should be noticed, as well as that in the appearance of
the jet.
The actual behaviour of the colliding drops becomes apparent
under instantaneous illumination, e.g. by sparks from a Leyden
jar. The jet should be situated between the sparks and the eye,
and the observation is facilitated by a piece of ground glass held
a little beyond the jet, so as to diffuse the light; or the shadow
of the jet may be received on the ground glass, which is then held
as close as possible on the side towards the observer.
In another form of the experiment, which, though perhaps less
striking to the eye, lends itself better to investigation, the collision
takes place between two still unresolved jets issuing horizontally
from glass nozzles in communication with reservoirs containing
water. One at least of the reservoirs must be insulated. In
the absence of dust and greasy contamination, the obliquely
colliding jets may rebound from one another without coalescence
for a considerable time. In this condition there is complete
electrical insulation between the jets, as may be proved by the
inclusion in the circuit of a delicate galvanometer, and a low
electro-motive force. But if the difference of potential exceed
a small amount (1 or 2 volts), the jets instantaneously coalesce.
There is no reason to doubt that in the case of the fountain also,
coalescence is due to differences of potential between colliding
drops.
If the water be soapy, and especially if it contain a small
proportion of milk, coalescence ensues without the help of elec-
tricity. In the case of the fountain the experiment may be made
by leading tap-water through a Woulfe's bottle in which a little
milk has been placed. As the milk is cleared out, the scattering
of the drops is gradually re-established.
In attempting to explain these curious phenomena, it is well
to consider what occurs during a collision. As the liquid masses
approach one another, the intervening air has to be squeezed
out. In the earlier stages of approximation the obstacle thus
arising may not be important; but when the thickness of the
layer of air is reduced to the point at which the colours of thin
plates are visible, the approximation must be sensibly resisted
by the viscosity of the air which still remains to be got rid of.
No change in the capillary conditions can arise until the interval
is reduced to a small fraction of a wave-length of light; but
such a reduction, unless extremely local, is strongly opposed by
the remaining air. It is true that this opposition is temporary.
The question is whether the air can everywhere be squeezed out
during the short time over which the collision extends.
It would seem that the forces of electrical attraction act with
peculiar advantage. If we suppose that upon the whole the
air cannot be removed, so that the mean distance between
the opposed surfaces remains constant, the electric attractions
tend to produce an instability whereby the smaller intervals
are diminished while the larger are increased. Extremely local
contacts of the liquids, while opposed by capillary tension which
tends to keep the surfaces flat, are thus favoured by the elec-
trical forces, which moreover at the small distances in question
act with exaggerated power.
A question arises as to the mode of action of milk or soap
turbidity. The observation that it is possible for soap to be
in excess may here have significance. It would seem that the
surfaces, coming into collision within a fraction of a second of their
birth, would still be subject to further contamination from the
interior. A particle of soap rising accidentally to the surface
would spread itself with rapidity. Now such an outward move-
ment of the liquid is just what is required to hasten the removal
of intervening air. It is obvious that the effect would fail if
the contamination of the surface had proceeded too far previously
to the collision.
This view is confirmed by experiments in which other gases axe
substituted for air as the environment of colliding jets. Oxygen
and coal-gas were found to be without effect. On the other hand,
the more soluble gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, sulphur
dioxide, and steam, at once caused union.]
Stability of the Catenoid. — When the internal pressure is equal
to the external, the film forms a surface of which the mean
curvature at every point is zero. The only surface of revolution
having this property is the catenoid formed by the revolution of a
catenary about its directrix. This catenoid, however, is^in stable
equilibrium only when the portion considered is such that the
tangents to the catenary at its extremities intersect before they
reach the directrix.
To prove this, let us consider the catenary as the form of
equilibrium of a chain suspended between two fixed points A and
B. Suppose the chain hanging between A and B to be of very
great length, then the tension at A or B will be very great. Let
the chain be hauled in over a peg at A. At first the tension will
diminish, but if the process be continued the tension will reach a
minimum value and will afterwards increase to infinity as the
chain between A and B approaches to the form of a straight line.
Hence for every tension greater than the minimum tension there
are two catenaries passing through A and B. Since the tension is
measured by the height above the directrix these two catenaries
have the same directrix. Every catenary lying between them
has its directrix higher, and every catenary lying beyond them
has its directrix lower than that of the two catenaries.
Now let us consider the surfaces of revolution formed by this
system of catenaries revolving about the directrix of the two
catenaries of equal tension. We know that the radius of curva-
ture of a surface of revolution in the plane normal to the meridian
plane is the portion of the normal intercepted by the axis of
revolution.
The radius of curvature of a catenary is equal and opposite to
the portion of the normal intercepted by the directrix of the
catenary. Hence a catenoid whose directrix coincides with the
axis of revolution has at every point its principal radii of curva-
ture equal and opposite, so that the mean curvature of the
surface is zero.
The catenaries which lie between the two whose direction
coincides with the axis of revolution generate surfaces whose
radius of curvature convex towards the axis in the meridian
plane is less than the radius of concave curvature. The mean
curvature of these surfaces is therefore convex towards the axis.
The catenaries which lie beyond the two generate surfaces whose
radius of curvature convex towards the axis in the meridian plane
is greater than the radius of concave curvature. The mean cur-
vature of these surfaces is, therefore, concave towards the axis.
Now if the pressure is equal on both sides of a liquid film, and if
its mean curvature is zero, it will be in equilibrium. This is the
case with the two catenoids. If the mean curvature is convex
towards the axis the film will move from the axis. Hence if a
film in the form of the catenoid which is nearest the axis is ever
so slightly displaced from the axis it will move farther from the
axis till it reaches the other catenoid.
If the mean curvature is concave towards the axis the film will
tend to approach the axis. Hence if a film in the form of the
catenoid which is nearest the axis be displaced towards the axis,
it will tend to move farther towards the axis and will collapse.
Hence the film in the form of the catenoid which is nearest the
axis is in unstable equilibrium under the condition that it is
exposed to equal pressures within and without. If, however,
the circular ends of the catenoid are closed with solid disks, so
that the volume of air contained between these disks and the
film is determinate, the film will be in stable equilibrium however
large a portion of the catenary it may consist of.
CAPILLARY ACTION
273
Fig. 14.
The criterion as to whether any given catenoid is stable or not
may be obtained as follows: —
Let PABQ and ApqB (fig. 14) be two catenaries having the
same directrix and intersecting in A and B. Draw Fp and Qq
touching both catenaries, Vp and Qq will intersect at T, a point in
the directrix; for since any catenary with its directrix is a
similar figure to any other catenary with its directrix, if the
directrix of the one coincides with that of the other the centre of
, / Q similitude must lie on the
' common directrix. Also,
since the curves at P and
p are equally inclined to
the directrix, P and p are
corresponding points and
the line P p must pass
through the centre of
similitude. Similarly Qq
must pass through the
centre of similitude.
Hence T, the point of
intersection of Fp and
Qq, must be the centre
of similitude and must be on the common directrix. Hence
the tangents at A and B to the upper catenary must intersect
above the directrix, and the tangents at A and B to the lower
catenary must intersect below the directrix. The condition
of stability of a catenoid is therefore that the tangents at the
extremities of its generating catenary must intersect before they
reach the directrix.
Stability of a Plane Surface, — We shall next consider the limit-
ing conditions of stability of the horizontal surface which
separates a heavier fluid above from a lighter fluid below. Thus,
in an experiment of F. Duprez (" Sur un cas particulier de T6qui-
libre des liquides," Nouveaux Mem. del' Acad, de Belgique, 1851 et
i&53)> a vessel containing olive oil is placed with its mouth down-
wards in a vessel containing a mixture of alcohol and water, the
mixture being denser than the oil. The surface of separation is in
this case horizontal and stable, so that the equilibrium is estab-
lished of itself. Alcohol is then added very gradually to the
mixture till it becomes lighter than the oil. The equilibrium of
the fluids would now be unstable if it were not for the tension of
the surface which separates them, and which, when the orifice of
the vessel is not too large, continues to preserve the stability of
the equilibrium.
When the equilibrium at last becomes unstable, the destruc-
tion of equilibrium takes place by the lighter fluid ascending in
one part of the orifice and the heavier descending in the other.
Hence the displacement of the surface to which we must direct
our attention is one which does not alter the volume of the liquid
in the vessel, and which therefore is upward in one part of the
surface and downward in another. The simplest case is that of a
rectangular orifice in a horizontal plane, the sides being a and b.
Let the surface of separation be originally in the plane of the
orifice, and let the co-ordinates x and y be measured from one corner
parallel to the sides a and b respectively, and let s be measured
upwards. Then if p be the density of the upper liquid, and <r that of
the lower liquid, and P the original pressure at the surface of separa-
tion, then when the surface receives an upward displacement s, the
pressure above it will be P— pgz, and that below it will be P— <rgz,
so that the surface will be acted on by an upward pressure (p— <r)gz.
Now if the displacement z be everywhere very small, the curvature in
the planes parallel to xz and yz will be cPz/dx* and (Pz/d? respectively,
and if T is the surface-tension the whole upward force will be
If this quantity is of the same sign as s, the displacement will be
increased, and the equilibrium will be unstable. If it is of the
opposite sign from s, the equilibrium will be stable. The limiting
condition may be found by putting it equal to zero. One form of
the solution of the equation, and that which is applicable to the
case of a rectangular orifice, is
z = C sin px sin qy.
Substituting in the equation we find the condition
( +•• stable.
(^4-fi 1 ) T - (p-a)g ■■ ) o neutral.
( — •• unstable.
That the surface may coincide with the edge of the orifice, which
is a rectangle, whose sides are a and 6, we must have
pa^mx , qb*=mr t
when m and n are integral numbers. Also, if m and n are both
unity, the displacement will be entirely positive, and the volume of
the liquid will not be constant. That the volume may be constant,
either n or m must be an even number. We have, therefore, to
consider the conditions under which
»*(£+$ t-<p-*)«
cannot be made negative. Under these conditions the equilibrium
is stable for all small displacements of the surface. The smallest
admissible value of tf+jj is ;3~h3» where a is the longer side of
the rectangle. Hence the condition of stability is that
■ i ft+p) T -^-^
is a positive quantity. When the breadth b is less than
the length a may be unlimited.
When the orifice is circular of radius a, the limiting value of
a is ■%/— s, where z is the least root of the equation
a T / \ z* . z A z* . «
The least root of this equation is
If A is the height to which the liquid will rise in a capillary tube of
unit radius, then the diameter of th e largest orifice is
2a - 3-8317 V(2E}~ 5-4188 VTR.
Duprez found from his experiments
2a«5-485V(XJ.
[The above theory may be well illustrated by a lecture ex-
periment. A thin-walled glass tube of internal diameter equal
to 14$ mm. is ground true at the lower end. The upper end
is contracted and is fitted with a rubber tube under the control
of a pinch-cock. Water is sucked up from a vessel of moderate
size, the rubber is nipped, and by a quick motion the tube
and vessel are separated, preferably by a downward movement
of the latter. The inverted tube, with its suspended water,
being held in a clamp, a beaker containing a few drops of ether
is brought up from below until the free surface of the water is
in contact with ether vapour. The lowering of tension, which
follows the condensation of the vapour, is then strikingly shown
by the sudden precipitation of the water.]
Effect of Surface-tension on the Velocity of Waves.— When a
series of waves is propagated on the surface of a liquid, the sur-
face-tension has the effect of increasing the pressure at the
crests of the waves and diminishing it in the troughs. If the
wave-length is X, the equation of the surface is
The pressure due to the surface tension T is
This pressure must be added to the pressure due to gravity
gpy. Hence the waves will be propagated as if the intensity
of gravity had been
instead of g. Now it is shown in hydrodynamics that the
velocity of propagation of waves in deep water is that acquired
by a heavy body falling through half the radius of the circle
whose circumference is the wave-length, or
? = & = &+*** (!)
r 2ir 2t^ pX N '
This velocity is a minimum when
and the minimum value is
For waves whose length from crest to crest is greater than X,
the principal force concerned in the motion is that of gravitation.
274
CAPILLARY ACTION
For waves whose length is less than X the principal force
concerned is that of surface-tension. Lord Kelvin proposed to
distinguish the latter kind of waves by the name of ripples.
When a small body is partly immersed in a liquid originally
at rest, and moves horizontally with constant velocity V, waves
are propagated through the liquid with various velocities
according to their respective wave-lengths. In front of the
body the relative velocity of the fluid and the body varies from
V where the fluid is at rest, to zero at the cutwater on the
front surface of the body. The waves produced by the body
will travel forwards faster than the body till they reach a distance
from it at which the relative velocity of the body and the fluid
is equal to the velocity of propagation corresponding to the
wave-length. The waves then travel along with the body at
a constant distance in front of it. Hence at a certain distance
in front of the body there is a series of waves which are stationary
with respect to the body. Of these, the waves of minimum velo-
city form a stationary wave nearest to the front of the body.
Between the body and this first wave the surface is comparatively
smooth. Then comes the Stationary wave of minimum velocity,
which is the most marked of the series. In front of this is a
double series of stationary waves, the gravitation waves forming
a series increasing in wave-length with their distance in front
of the body, and the surface-tension waves or ripples diminishing
in wave-length with their distance from the body, and both sets
of waves rapidly diminishing in amplitude with their distance
from the body.
If the current-function of the water referred to the body
considered as origin is ^, then the equation of the form of the
crest of a wave of velocity w, the crest of which travels along
with the body, is
d^=w ds
where ds is an element of the length of the crest. To integrate
this equation for a solid of given form is probably difficult,
but it is easy to see that at some distance on either side of the
body, where the liquid is sensibly at rest, the crest of the wave
will approximate to an asymptote inclined to the path of the
body at an angle whose sine is w/V, where w is the velocity of
the wave and V is that of the body.
The crests of the different kinds of waves will therefore appear
to diverge as they get farther from the body, and the waves
themselves will be less and less perceptible. But those whose
wave-length is near to that of the wave of minimum velocity
will diverge less than any of the others, so that the most marked
feature at a distance from the body will be the two long lines
of ripples of minimum velocity. If the angle between these
is 20, the velocity of the body is w sec 0, where w for water is
about 23 centimetres per second.
[Lord Kelvin's formula (1) may be applied to find the surface-
tension of a clean or contaminated liquid from observations
upon the length of waves of known periodic time, travelling
over the surface. If t>=X/r we have
T-^coth^^f (2)
2TT* X 4t* v '
h denoting the depth of the liquid. In observations upon ripples
the factor involving h may usually be omitted, and thus in the
case of water (p= 1)
T= T7?-4? &)
simply. The method has the advantage of independence of
what may occur at places where the liquid is in contact with
solid bodies.
The waves may be generated by electrically maintained
tuning-forks from which dippers touch the surface; but special
arrangements are needed for rendering them visible. The
obstacles are (1) the smallness of the waves, and (2) the changes
which occur at speeds too rapid for the eye to follow. The second
obstacle is surmounted by the aid of the stroboscopic method
of observation, the light being intermittent in the period of
vibration, so that practically only one phase is seen. In order
to render visible the small waves employed, and which we may
regard as deviations of a plane surface from its true figure, the ■
method by which Foucault tested reflectors is suitable. The
following results have been obtained
Clean •...,... 74 -o
Greasy to the point where camphor motions nearly cease . 53 *o
Saturated with olive oil 41-0
Saturated with sodium oleate 25*0
{Phil. Mag. November 1890) for the tensions of various water-
surfaces at 1 8° C, reckoned in C. G. S. measure.
The tension for clean water thus found is considerably lower
than that (81) adopted by Quincke, but it seems to be entitled
to confidence, and at any rate the deficiency is not due to con-
tamination of the surface.
A calculation analogous to that of Lord Kelvin may be applied
to find the frequency of small transverse vibrations of a cylinder
of liquid under the action of the capillary force. Taking the case
where the motion is strictly in two dimensions, we may write
as the polar equation of the surface at time /
r=a+a» cosndcospt (4)
where p is given by
r=w~ n ^ (5)
If «= 1, the section remains circular, there is no force of restitu-
tion, and £ = 0. The principal vibration, in which the section
becomes elliptical, corresponds to n=2.
Vibrations of this kind are observed whenever liquid issues
from an elliptical or other non-circular hole, or even when it is
poured from the lip of an ordinary jug; and they are super-
posed upon the general progressive motion. Since the phase
of vibration depends upon the time elapsed, it is always the same
at the same point in space, and thus the motion is steady in the
hydrodynamical sense, and the boundary of the jet is a fixed
surface. In so far as the vibrations may be regarded as iso-
chronous, the distance between consecutive corresponding
points of the recurrent figure, or, as it may be called, the wave-
length of the figure, is directly proportional to the velocity of
the jet, i.e. to the square root of the head. But as the head in-
creases, so do the lateral velocities which go to form the transverse
vibrations. A departure from the law of isochronism may then
be expected to develop itself.
The transverse vibrations of non-circular jets allow us to solve
a problem which at first sight would appear to be of great
difficulty. According to Marangoni the diminished surface-
tension of soapy water is due to the formation of a film. The
formation cannot be instantaneous, and if we could measure
the tension of a surface not more than xhs of a second old, we
might expect to find it undisturbed, or nearly so, from that
proper to pure water. In order to carry out the experiment
the jet is caused to issue from an elliptical orifice in a thin plate,
about 2 mm. by 1 mm., under a head of 15 cm. A comparison
under similar circumstances shows that there is hardly any
difference in the wave-lengths of the patterns obtained with
pure and with soapy water, from which we conclude that at this
initial stage, the surface-tensions are the same. As early as
1869 Dupre* had arrived at a similar conclusion from experi-
ments upon the vertical rise of fine jets.
A formula, similar to (5), may be given for the frequencies
of vibration of a spherical mass of liquid under capillary force.
If, as before, the frequency be pfaU, and a the radius of the
sphere, we have
^-*(*-i)(n+a)^ W
n denoting the order of the spherical harmonic by which the
deviation from a spherical figure is expressed. To find the
radius of the sphere of water which vibrates seconds, put
/>=2ll, T=8i, p=i, »=2. Thus = 2.54 cms., or one inch
very nearly.]
Tables of Surface-Tension
In the following tables the units of length, mass and time arc
the centimetre, the gramme and the second, and the unit of
force is that which if it acted on one gramme for one second
would communicate to it a velocity of one centimetre per
second: —
CAPISTRANO— CAPITAL
275
Table of Surface-Tension at 20° C. (Quincke).
Liquid.
Specific
Gravity.
Tension of surface
separating the liquid from
Angle of contact with
glass in presence of
Air.
Water.
Mercury.
Air.
Water.
Mercury.
Water ....
Mercury
Bisulphide of Carbon
Chloroform ....
Alcohol
Olive Oil
Turpentine ....
Petroleum
Hydrochloric Acid
Solution of Hyposul- )
phite of Soda . . . )
1
13-5432
1-2687
1-4878
0-7906
09136
0-8867
07977
i-i
1-1248
81
540
321
30-6
25-5
36-9
29-7
3i-7
701
77-5
418
41-75
29-5
2056
n-55
278
418
372-5
399
399
335
2505
284
377
442-5
2 K 3?'
51° 8'
32 16'
25°'i2 /
21° 50'
36° 20'
23° 20'
26 V 8'
I3 8'
I7 V
37° 44;
42° 46'
26° 8'
47° 2'
io° 42'
Olive Oil and Alcohol, 12-2.
Olive oil and aqueous alcohol (sp. g.
25-5), 6-8, angle 87° 48'.
9231, tension of free surface
Quincke has determined the surface-tension of a great many
substances near their point of fusion or solidification. His
method was that of observing the form of a large drop standing
on a plane surface. If K is the height of the flat surface
of the drop, and k that of the point where its tangent plane is
vertical, then
T = J(K-*)*£P.
Quincke finds that for several series of substances the surface-
tension is nearly proportional to the density, so that if we call
Surface-Tensions of Liquids at their Point of Solidification.
From Quincke.
Substance.
Temperature of
Solidification.
Surface-
Tension.
Platinum
2000°C.
1200
360
230
-4°:
330^
1000
26 K
58°
432"
1000
1000
o°
2i 7 ° o
111°
<
68°
1658
983
860
587
577
448
419
382
364
253
244
212
206
114
86-2
70-4
4i-3
41- 1
33-4
Gold
Zinc
Tin
Mercury
Lead
Silver
Bismuth
Potassium
Sodium
Antimony
Borax
Carbonate of Soda
Chloride of Sodium
Water
Selenium
Sulphur
Phosphorus
Wax
(K-k) f —2T I gp the specific cohesion, we may state the general
results of his experiments as follows: —
The bromides and iodides have a specific cohesion about
half that of mercury. The nitrates, chlorides, sugars and fats,
as also the metals lead, bismuth and antimony, have a specific
cohesion nearly equal to that of mercury. Water, the carbonates
and sulphates, and probably phosphates, and the metals
platinum, gold, silver, cadmium, tin and copper have a specific
cohesion double that of mercury. Zinc, iron and palladium,
three times that of mercury, and sodium, six times that of
mercury.
Relation of Surface-tension to Temperature
It appears from the experiments of B runner and of Wolf on the
ascent of water in tubes that at the temperature f centigrade
T =75-20 (1-0-001870 (Brunner);
= 7608 (1 — 0-002/ 4-0-00000415/*), for a tube -02346 cm. diameter
(Wolf) ;
= 77*34( I -o-ooi8i/) f for a tube -03098 cm. diameter (Wolf).
Lord Kelvin has applied the principles of Thermodynamics
to determine the thermal effects of increasing or diminishing
the area of the free surface of a liquid, and has shown that in
order to keep the temperature constant while the area of the
surface increases by unity, an amount of heat must be supplied
to the liquid which is dynamically
equivalent to the product of the
absolute temperature into the de-
crement of the surface-tension per
degree of temperature. We may
call this the latent heat of surface*
extension.
It appears from the experiments
of C. Brunner and C. J. E. Wolf
that at ordinary temperatures the
latent heat of extension of the
surface of water is dynamically
equivalent to about half the
mechanical work done in producing
the surface-extension.
References. — Further information on some of the matters dis-
cussed above will be found in Lord Rayleigh's Collected Scientific
Papers (1901). In its full extension the subject of capillarity is
very wide. Reference may be made to A. W. Reinold and Sir A. W.
Rucker (Phil. Trans. 1886, p. 627); Sir W. Ramsay and J. Shields
(Zeitschr. physik. Chem. 1893, 12, p. 433) ; and on the theoretical side,
see papers by Josiah Willard Gibbs; R. Eotvos (Wied.Ann., 1886,
27, p. 452) ; J. D. Van der Waals, G. Bakker and other writers of the
Dutch school. (J. C. M.; R.)
CAPISTRANO, GIOVANNI DI (1386-1456), Italian friar,
theologian and inquisitor, was born in the little village of Capis-
trano in the Abruzzi, of a family which had come to Italy with
the Angevins. He lived at first a wholly secular life, married,
and became a successful magistrate; he took part in the con-
tinual struggles of the small Italian states in such a way as to
compromise himself. During his captivity he was practically
ruined and lost his young wife. He then in despair entered the
Franciscan order and at once gave himself up to the most
rigorous asceticism, violently defending the ideal of strict
observance. He was charged with various missions by the popes
Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V., in which he acquitted himself with
implacable violence. As legate or inquisitor he persecuted the
last Fraticelli of Ferrara, the Jesuati of Venice, the Jews of Sicily,
Moldavia and Poland, and, above all, the Hussites of Germany,
Hungary and Bohemia; his aim in the last case was to make
conferences impossible between the representatives of Rome and
the Bohemians, for every attempt at conciliation seemed to him
to be conniving at heresy. Finally, after the taking of Con-
stantinople, he succeeded in gathering troops together for a
crusade against the Turks (1455), which at least helped to raise
the siege of Belgrade, which was being blockaded by Mahommed
II. He died shortly afterwards (October 23, 1456), and was
canonized in 1690. Capistrano, in spite of this restless life,
found time to work both in the lifetime of his master St
Bernardino of Siena and after, at the reform of the order of the
minor Franciscans, and to uphold both in his writings and his
speeches the most advanced theories upon the papal supremacy
as opposed to that of the councils.
See E. Jacob, Johannes von Capistrano, vol. i. : " Das Leben und
Wirken Capistrans; " vol. ii.: Die handschriftlichen Aufzeich-
nungen von Reden und Tractaten Capistrans," (ist series, Breslau,
1903-1905). (P. A.)
CAPITAL (Lat. caput y head), in architecture, the crowning
member of the column, which projects on each side as it rises, in
order to support the abacus and unite the square form of the latter
with the circular shaft. The bulk of the capital may either be
convex, as in the Doric capital; concave, as in the bell of the
Corinthian capital; or bracketed out, as in the Ionic capital.
These are the three principal types on which all capitals are
based. The capitals of Greek, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders
are given in the article Order.
From the prominent position it occupies in all monumental
buildings, it has always been the favourite feature selected for
ornamentation, and consequently it has become the clearest
indicator of any style.
The two earliest capitals of importance are those which are
based on the lotus (fig. 1) and papyrus (fig. 2) plants respectively,
and these, with the palm tree capital, were the chief types em-
ployed by the Egyptians down to the 3rd century B.C., when,
276
CAPITAL
under the Ptolemaic dynasties, various river plants were
employed decoratively and the lotus capital goes through
Fig. 1. — Lo-
tus Capital
from Karnak.
Fig. 2. — Papyrus Capital from Karnak.
various modifications (fig. 3). Some kind of volute capital is
shown in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, but no Assyrian capital has
ever been found; those exhibited as such in the British Museum
are bases.
The Persian capital belongs to the third class above mentioned,
the brackets are carved with the lion (fig. 4) or the griffin pro-
jecting right and left to support and lessen the bearing of the
architrave, and on their backs carry other brackets at right
angles to support the cross timbers. The profuse decoration
underneath the bracket capital in the palace of Xerxes and
Fig. 3. — Modified Lotus
Capital from Philae.
Fig. 4. — Persian Capital
from Persepolis.
elsewhere, serves no structural function, but gives some variety
to the extenuated shaft.
The earliest Greek capital is that shown in the Temple-fresco
at Cnossus in Crete (1600 B.C.) ; it was of the first type — convex,
and was probably moulded in stucco: the second is represented
by the richly carved example of the columns (fig. 5) flanking the
tomb of Agamemnon in Mycenae (c. 1100 B.C.), also convex,
carved with the chevron device, and with an apophyge on which
the buds of some flowers are sculptured. The Doric capital of the
temple of Apollo at Syracuse (c. 700 B.C.) follows, in which the
echinus moulding has become a more definite form: this in the
Parthenon reaches its culmination, where the convexity is at the
top and bottom with a delicate uniting curve. The sloping side of
Fig. 5.— Early Greek Capital from the Tomb of Agamemnon,
Mycenae.
the echinus becomes flatter in the later examples, and in the
Colosseum at Rome forms a quarter round.
In the Ionic capital of the Archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus
(560 B.C.) the width of the abacus is twice that of its depth,
consequently the earliest Ionic capital known was virtually a
Fig. 6. — Corinthian Capital from the Tholos of Epidaurus.
bracket capital. A century later, in the temple on the Ilissus,
published in Stuart and Revet t, the abacus has become square.
One of the most beautiful Corinthian capitals is that from the
Tholos of Epidaurus (400 B.C.) (fig. 6) ; it illustrates the transition
between the earlier
Greek capital of Bassae
and the Roman version
of the temple of Mars
Ultor (fig. 7).
The foliage of the
Greek Corinthian capital
was based on the Acan-
thus spinosus, that of
the Roman on the Acan-
thus mollis; the capital
of the temple of Vesta
and other examples at
Pompeii are carved with \\ \ |PX ll
foliage of a different FlG# 7 _R om an Capital from the Temple
type. of Mars Ultor, Rome.
Byzantine capitals
are of endless variety; the Roman composite capital would
seem to have been the favourite type they followed at first:
subsequently, the block of stone was left rough as it came
from the quarry, and the sculptor, set to carve it, evolved
CAPITAL
277
new types of design to his own fancy, so that one rarely
Fig. 8.— Byzantine Capitals from the central portal of St Mark's,
Venice.
meets with
many repetitions of the same design. One of
the most remarkable is the
capital in which the leaves
are carved as if Mown by the
wind; the finest example
being in Sta Sophia, Thessa-
lonica; those in St Mark's,
Venice (fig. S) specially
attracted Ruskin's fancy.
Others are found in St A poll i-
nare-in-dasse, Ravenna, The
Thistle and Pine capital is
Fig. 9. — Byzantine Capital
trom the Church of S. Vitale,
Ravenna.
Fig. 11. — Cushion
Capital.
Fig. 10. — Byzantine Capital from
the Church of S. Vitale, Ravenna.
found in St Mark's, Venice; St Luke's, Delphi; the mosques
of Kairawan and of Ibn TulQn, Cairo, in the two latter cases
Fig. 12. — Romanesque Capitals from the Cloister of Monreale,
near Palermo, Sicily.
being taken from Byzantine churches. The illustration of the
capital in S. Vitale, Ravenna (figs. 9 and 10) shows above it the
dosseret required to carry the arch, the springing of which was
much wider than the abacus of the capital.
The Romanesque and Gothic capitals throughout Europe
present the same variety as in the Byzantine and for the same
Fig. 14. — Gothic Capitals from Amiens
Cathedral.
Fig. 13.— Gothic Capitals from Wells Cathedral.
reason, that the artist evolved his conception oi the design from
the block he was carving, but in these styles it goes further on
account of the clustering of columns and piers.
The earliest type of capital in Lombardy and Germany is that
which is known as thd, cushion-cap, in which the lower portion
of the cube block has been cut away to meet the circular shaft
(fig. n). These early types were generally painted at first with
various geometrical designs, afterwards carved.
In Byzantine capitals, the eagle, the lion and the lamb are
occasionally carved, but
treated conventionally.
In the Romanesque and
Gothic styles, in addition
to birds and beasts, figures
are frequently introduced
into capitals, those in the
Lombard work being
rudely carved and verging
on the grotesque; later,
the sculpture reaches a
higher standard; in the
cloisters of Monreale
(fig. 12) the birds being
wonderfully true to
nature. In England and
France (figs. 13 and 14), the figures introduced into the capitals
are sometimes full of character. These capitals, however, are
not equal to those
of theEarly English
school, in which the
foliage is conven-
tionally treated as
if it had been
copied from metal
work, and is of
infinite variety,
being found in
small village
churches as well as
in cathedrals.
Reference has
only been made
to the leading
examples of the
Roman capitals;
in the Renaissance
period (fig. 15) the
feature became of
the greatest importance and its variety almost as great as
in the Byzantine and Gothic styles. The pilaster, which
Fig. 15.—
15. — Italian Renaissance Capital from
5. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice.
278
CAPITAL
was employed so extensively in the Revival, called for new
combinations in the designs for its capitals. Most of the
ornament can be traced to Roman sources, and although less
vigorous, shows much more delicacy and refinement in its
carving. (R. P. S.)
CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund), in economics, generally,
the accumulated wealth either of a man or a community, that
is available for earning interest and producing fresh wealth. In
social discussion it is sometimes treated as antithetical to labour,
but it is in reality the accumulated savings of labour and of the
profits accruing from the savings of labour. It is that portion
of the annual produce reserved from consumption to supply
future wants, to extend the sphere of production, to improve
industrial instruments and processes, to carry out works of public
utility, and, in short, to secure and enlarge the various means of
progress necessary to an increasing community. It is the
increment of wealth or means of subsistence analogous to the
increment of population and of the wants of civilized man.
Hence J. S. Mill and other economists, when seeking a graphic
expression of the service of capital, have called it " abstinence."
The labourer serves by giving physical and mental effort in
order to supply his means of consumption. The capitalist, or
labourer-capitalist, serves by abstaining from consumption, by
denying himself the present enjoyment of more or less of his
means of consumption, in the prospect of a future profit. This
quality, apparent enough in the beginnings of capital, applies
equally to all its forms and stages; because whether a capitalist
stocks his warehouse with goods and produce, improves land,
lends on mortgage or other security, builds a factory, opens a
mine, or orders the construction of machines or ships, there is
the element of self-deprival for the present, with the risk of
ultimate loss of what is his own, and what, instead of saving and
embodying in 4 some productive form, he might choose to consume.
On this ground rests the justification of the claims of capital to
its industrial rewards, whether in the form of rent, interest or
profits of trade and investment.
To any advance in the arts of industry or the comforts of life,
a rate of production exceeding the rate of consumption, with
consequent accumulation of resources, or in other words, the
formation of capital, is indispensable. The primitive cultivators
of the soil, whether those of ancient times or the pioneers who
formed settlements in the forests of the New World, soon dis-
covered that their labour would be rendered more effective by
implements and auxiliary powers of various kinds, and that until
the produce from existing means of cultivation exceeded what
was necessary for their subsistence, there could be neither labour
on their part to produce such implements and auxiliaries, nor
means to purchase them. Every branch of industry has thus
had a demand for capital within its own circles from the earliest
times. The flint arrow-heads, the stone and bronze utensils of
f ossiferous origin, and the rude implements of agriculture, war
and navigation, of which we read in Homer, were the forerunners
of that rich and wonderful display of tools, machines, engines,
furnaces and countless ingenious and costly appliances, which
represent so large a portion of the capital of civilized countries,
and without the pre-existing capital could not have been
developed. Nor in the cultivation of land, or the production
simply of food, is the need of implements, and of other auxiliary
power, whether animal or mechanical, the only need immediately
experienced. The demands on the surplus of produce over con-
sumption are various and incessant. Near the space of reclaimed
ground, from which the cultivator derives but a bare livelihood,
are some marshy acres that, if drained and enclosed, would add
considerably in two or three years to the produce; the forest
and other natural obstructions might also be driven farther back
with the result, in a few more years, of profit; fences are necessary
to allow of pasture and field crops, roads have to be made and
farm buildings to be erected; as the work proceeds more artificial
investments follow, and by these successive outlays of past
savings in improvements, renewed and enhanced from generation
to generation, the land, of little value in its natural state either
to the owner and cultivator or the community, is at length
brought into a highly productive condition. The history of
capital in the soil is substantially the history of capital in all
other spheres. No progress can be made in any sphere, small or
large, without reserved funds possessed by few or more persons,
in small or large amounts, and the progress in all cases is adven-
tured under self-deprival in the meanwhile of acquired value,
and more or less risk as to the final result.
Capital is necessarily to be distinguished from money, with
which in ordinary nomenclature it is almost identical. Wealth
may be in other things than money; oxen, wives, tools, have
at different stages of civilization represented the recognized
form of capital; and modern usage only treats capital as meaning
the command of money because money is the ordinary form of it
nowadays. The capital of a country can scarce be said to be
less than the whole sum of its investments in a productive form,
and possessing a recognized productive value.
Adam Smith's distinction of " fixed " and " circulating "
capital in the Wealth of Nations (book ii. c. i.) cannot fail to be
always useful in exhibiting the various forms and conditions
under which capital is employed. Yet the principal pheno-
mena of capital are found to be the same, whether the form of
investment be more or less permanent or circulable. The
machinery in which capital is " fixed," and which yields a profit
without apparently changing hands, is in reality passing away
day by day, until it is worn out, and has to be replaced. So
also of drainage and other land improvements. When the
natural forests have been consumed and the landowners begin
to plant trees on the bare places, the plantations while growing
are a source of health, shelter and embellishment — they are not
without a material profit throughout their various stages to
maturity — and when, at the lapse of twenty or more years, they
are ready to be cut down, and the timber is sold for useful
purposes, there is a harvest of the original capital expended
as essentially as in the case of the more rapid yearly crops of
wheat or oats. The chief distinction would appear to rest in the
element of time elapsing between the outlay of capital and its
return. Capital may be employed in short loans or bills of
exchange at two or three months, in paying wages of labour
for which there may be return in a day or not in less than a year
or more, or in operations involving within themselves every form
of capital expenditure, and requiring a few years or ninety-nine
years for the promised fructification on which they proceed.
But the common characteristic of capital is that of a fund yield-
ing a return and reproducing itself whether the time to this end
be long or short. The division of expenditure or labour (all
expenditure having a destination to labour of one kind or
another) into " productive " and " unproductive " by the same
authority (book ii. c. 3) is also apposite both for purposes of
political economy and practical guidance, though economists
have found it difficult to define where " productive expenditure "
ends and " unproductive expenditure " begins. Adam Smith
includes in his enumeration of the " fixed capital " of a country
" the acquired and useful abilities of all the inhabitants ";
and in this sense expenditure on education, arts and sciences
might be deemed expenditure of the most productive value,
and yet be wanting in strict commercial account of the profit
and loss. It must be admitted that there is a personal expendi-
ture among all ranks of society, which, though not in any sense
a capital expenditure, may become capital and receive a pro-
ductive application, always to be preferred to the grossly un-
productive form, in the interest both of the possessors and of
the community.
The subject in its details is full of controversies, and a discussion
of it at any length would embrace the whole field of economics. The
subject will be found fully dealt with in every important economic
work, but the following may be specially consulted: — J. S. Mill,
Principles of Political Economy, J. E. Cairns, Some Leading
Principles of Political Economy; F. A. Walker, Political Economy;
A. Marshall, Principles of Economics; E. V. Bohm-Bawerk, Capital
and Interest; K. Marx, Capital; J. B. Clark, Capital and its Earn-
ings; see also the economic works of W. H. Mallock (Critical Ex-
amination of Socialism, 1908, &c.) for an insistence on the importance
of " ability," or brain-work, as against much of modern socialist
theorizing against " capitalism."
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
279
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. By this term is now meant the
infliction of the penalty of death for crime under the sentence of
some properly constituted authority, as distinguished from
killing the offender as a matter of self-defence or private ven-
geance, or under the order of some self-constituted or irregular
tribunal unknown to the law, such as that of the Vigilantes of
California, or of lynch law (q.v.). In the early stages of society
a man-slayer was killed by the " avenger of blood " on behalf
of the family of the man killed, and not as representing
the authority of the state (Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng.
Law, ii. 447 .) This mode of dealing with homicide survives in the
vendetta of Corsica and of the Mainotes in Greece, and in certain
of the southern states of North America. The obligation or
inclination to take vengeance depends on the fact of homicide,
and not on the circumstances in which it was committed, i.e.
it is a part of the lex talionis. The mischief of this system was
alleviated under the Levitical law by the creation of cities of
refuge, and in Greece and Italy, both in Pagan and Christian
times, by the recognition of the right of sanctuary in temples
and churches. A second mode of dealing with homicide was that
known to early Teutonic and early Celtic law, where the relatives
of the deceased, instead of the life of the slayer, received the
wer of the deceased, i.e. a payment in proportion to the rank
of the slain, and the king received the blood-wite for the loss
of his man. But even under this system certain crimes were
in Anglo-Saxon law bot-less, i.e. no compensation could
be paid, and the offender must suffer the penalty of death.
In the laws of Khammurabi, king of Babylon (2285-2242
B.C.), the death penalty is imposed for many offences. The
modes for executing it specially named are burning, drowning
and impalement (Oldest Code of Laws, by C. H. W. Johns, 1903).
Under the Roman law, " capital " punishment also included
punishments which deprived the offender of the status of
Roman citizen (capitis deminutio, capitis amissio) , e.g. condemna-
tion to servitude in the mines or to deportation to an island
(Dig. 48. 19).
United Kingdom. — The modes of capital punishment in
England under the Saxon and Danish kings were various:
British and hanging, beheading, burning, drowning, stoning, and
foreign precipitation from rocks. The principle on which this
taw* and variety depended was that where an offence was
m9 * such as to entitle the king to outlaw the offender,
he forfeited all, life and limb, lands and goods, and that the
king might take his life and choose the mode of death. William
the Conqueror would not allow judgment of death to be exe-
cuted by hanging and substituted mutilation; but his successors
varied somewhat in their policy as to capital punishment, and
by the 13 th century the penalty of death became by usage (with-
out legislation) the usual punishment for high and petty treason
and for all felonies (except mayhem and petty larceny, i.e. theft
of property worth less than is.); see Stephen, Hist. Cr. Law,
vol. i. 458; Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, vol. ii. 459.
It therefore included all the more serious forms of crime against
person or property, such as murder, manslaughter, arson, high-
way robbery, burglary (or hamesucken) and larceny; and when
statutory felonies were created they were also punishable by
death unless the statute otherwise provided. The death penalty
was also extended to heretics under the writ de heretico corn-
bur endo, which was lawfully issuable under statute from 1382
(5 Ric. II. stat. 5) until 1677 (29 Chas. II. c. 9). For this purpose
the legislature had adopted the civil law of the Roman Empire,
which was not a part of the English common law (Stephen,
Hist. Cr. Law, vol. ii. 438-469).
The methods of execution by crucifixion (as under the Roman
law), or breaking on the wheel (as under the Roman Dutch law
and the Holy Roman Empire), were never recognized by the
common law, and would fall within the term " cruel and unusual
punishments " in the English Bill of Rights, and in the United
States would seem to be unconstitutional (see Wilkinson v. Utah,
1889, 136 U.S. 436, 446).
The severity of barbarian and feudal laws was mitigated, so
far as common-law offences were concerned, by the influence of
the Church as the inheritor of Christian traditions and Roman
jurisprudence. The Roman law under the empire did not allow
the execution of citizens except under the Lex Porcia. But the
right of the emperors to legislate per rescriptum principis enabled
them to disregard the ordinary law when so disposed. The 83rd
novel of Justinian provided that criminal causes against clerics
should be tried by the judges, and that the convicted cleric
should be degraded by his bishop before his condemnation by
the secular power, and other novels gave the bishops considerable
influence, if not authority, over the lay judiciary. In western
Europe the right given by imperial legislation in the Eastern
Empire was utilized by the Papacy to claim privilege of clergy,
i.e. that clerks must be remitted to the bishop for canonical
punishment, and not subjected to civil condemnation at all.
The history of benefit of clergy is given in Pollock and Maitland,
Hist. English Law, vol. i. pp. 424-440, and Stephen, Hist. Cr.
Law, vol. ill. 459, 463. By degrees the privilege was extended
not only to persons who could prove ordination or show a genuine
tonsure, but all persons who had sufficient learning to be able
to read the neck- verse (Ps. Ii. v. 1). Before the Reformation
the ecclesiastical courts had ceased to take any effective action
with respect to clerks accused of offences against the king's laws;
and by the time of Henry VII. burning on the hand under the
order of the king's judges was substituted for the old process
of compurgation in use in the spiritual courts.
The effect of the claim of benefit of clergy is said to have been
to increase the number of convictions, though it mitigated the
punishment; and it became, in fact, a means of showing mercy
to certain classes of individuals convicted of crime as a kind
of privilege to the educated, i.e. to all clerks whether secular
or religious (25 Edw. III. stat. 3); and it was allowed only
in case of a first conviction, except in the case of clerks who could
produce their letters of orders or fa certificate of ordination.
To prevent a second claim it was the practice to brand murderers
with the letter M, and other felons with the Tyburn T, and Ben
Jonson was in 1598 so marked for manslaughter.
The reign of Henry VIII. was marked by extreme severity
in the execution of criminals — as during this time 72,000 persons
are said to have been hanged. After the formation of English
settlements in America the severity of the law was mitigated
by the practice of reprieving persons sentenced to death on
condition of their consenting to be transported to the American
colonies, and to enter into bond service there. The practice
seems to have been borrowed from Spain, and to have been begun
in 1597 (39 Eliz. c. 4). It was applied by Cromwell after his
campaign in Ireland, and was in full force immediately after
the Restoration, and is recognized in the Habeas Corpus Act
1677, and was used for the Cameronians during Claverhouse's
campaign in south-west Scotland. In the 1 8th century the courts
were empowered to sentence felons to transportation (see
Deportation) instead of to execution, and this state of the law
continued until 1857 (6 Law Quarterly Review, p. 388). This
power to sentence to transportation at first applied only to
felonies with benefit of clergy; but in 1705, on the abolition
of the necessity of proving capacity to read, all criminals alike
became entitled to the benefit previously reserved to clerks.
Benefit of clergy was finally abolished in 1827 as to all
persons not having privilege of peerage, and in 1841 as
to peers and peeresses. Its beneficial effect had now been
exhausted, since no clergyable offences remained capital crimes.
At the end of the 18th century the criminal law of all Europe
was ferocious and indiscriminate in its administration of capital
punishment for almost all forms of grave crime; and yet owing
to poverty, social conditions, and the inefficiency of the police,
such forms of crime were far more numerous than they now are.
The policy and righteousness of the English law were questioned
as early as 1766 by Goldsmith through the mouth of the vicar
of Wakefield: " Nor can I avoid even questioning the validity
of that right which social combinations have assumed of capitally
punishing offences of a slight nature. In cases of murder their
right is obvious, as it is the duty of us all from the law of self-
defence to cut off that man who has shown a disregard for the
28o
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
life of another. Against such all nature rises in arms; but it
is not so against him who steals my property." He adds later:
" When by indiscriminate penal laws the nation beholds the same
punishment affixed to dissimilar degrees of guilt, the people
are led to lose all sense of distinction in the crime, and this
distinction is the bulwark of all morality."
The opinion expressed by Goldsmith was strongly supported
by Bentham, Romilly , Basil Montagu and Mackintoshin England,
and resulted in considerable mitigation of the severity of the law.
In 1800 over 200 and in 1819 about 180 crimes were capital.
As the result of the labour of these eminent men and their
disciples, and of Sir Robert Peel, there are now only four crimes
(other than offences against military law or naval discipline)
capitally punishable in England — high treason, murder, piracy
with violence, and destruction of public arsenals and dockyards
(The Dockyards, &c, Protection Act 1772). An attempt to
abolish the death penalty for this last offence was made in 1837,
but failed, and has not since been renewed. In the case
of the last two offences sentence of death need not be pro-
nounced, but may be recorded (4 Geo. IV. c. 48). Since 1838
it has in practice been executed only for murder; the method
being by hanging.
The change in the severity of the law is best illustrated by the
following statistics: —
Years.
Death Sentences.
Sentences Executed.
For all
Crimes.
For
Murder.
For all
Crimes.
For
Murder.
1831
1833 l
1838 »
1862 1
1 601
931
116
29
14
9
28
52
15
12
6
5
15
During the twelve years from 1893 to 1904, 788 persons were
committed for trial for murder, being an average of 65. The
highest number was in 1893 (82) and the lowest in 1900 (51). Of
those tried in 1904, 28 (26 males and 2 females) were convicted
of murder, 16 (all males) were executed; 9 males and 2 females
had their sentences commuted to penal servitude for life.
In Scotland capital punishment can be imposed only for
treason, murder and offences against 10 Geo. IV. c. 38, i.e.
wilful shooting, stabbing, strangling or throwing corrosives with
intent to murder, maim, disfigure, disable, or do grievous bodily
harm, in all cases where if death had ensued the offence would
have been murder. Prior to 1887 rape, robbery, wilful fire-raising
and incest, and many other crimes,
were also capital offences; but in
practice the pains of law were re-
stricted at the instance of the prose-
cution. The method is by hanging.
In Ireland capital punishment
may be inflicted for the same
offences as in England, except
offences under the Dockyards Pro-
tection Act 1772, and it is carried
out in the same manner.
Offences under Military Law. — Thus far only crimes against
the ordinary law of the land have been dealt with. But both
the Naval Discipline Act of 1866 and the Army Act empower
courts-martial to pass sentence for a number of offences against
military and naval laws. Such sentences are rarely if ever
passed where an ordinary court is within reach, or except in time
of war. The offences extend from traitorous communication
with the enemy and cowardice on the field to falling asleep while
acting as a sentinel on active service. It is for the authority
confirming a sentence of death by court-martial to direct the
mode of execution, which both in the British and United States
armies is usually by shooting or hanging. During the Indian
Mutiny some mutineers were executed by being blown from the
mouth of cannon. As to the history of military punishments
see Clode, Military and Martial Law.
1 Each of these years followed upon legislation mitigating severity
of punishment.
British Colonies and Possessions. — Under the Indian Penal
Code sentence of death may be passed for waging war against
the king (s. 121) and for murder (s. 302). If the murder is com-
mitted by a man under sentence of transportation for life the
death penalty must be imposed (s. 303). In other cases it is
alternative. This code has been in substance adopted in Ceylon,
in Straits Settlements and Hong-Kong, and in the Sudan.
In most of the British colonies and possessions the death penalty
may be imposed only in the case of high treason, wilful murder
and piracy with violence. But in New South Wales and Victoria
sentence of death may be passed for rape and criminal abuse of
girls under ten. In Queensland the law was the same until the
passing of the Criminal Code of 1899.
Under the Canadian Criminal Code of 1892 the death sentence
may be imposed for treason (s. 657), murder (s. 231), rape (s. 267),
piracy with violence (s. 127), and upon subjects of a friendly
power who levy war on the king in Canada (s. 68) . But the judge
is bound by statute to report on all death sentences, and the date
of execution is fixed so as to give time for considering the report
The sentence is executed by hanging. In South Africa the
criminal law is based on the Roman-Dutch law, under which
capital punishment is liable for treason (crimen perdueUionis or
laesae majts talis) , murder and rape (van Leeuwen, c. 36) . In the
Cape Colony rape is still capital (R. v. Nonosi, 1885; 1 Buchanan,
1898). In Natal rape may be punished by hanging (act no. 22,
1898). Though the Roman-Dutch modes of executing the
sentence by decapitation or breaking on the wheel have not been
formally abolished, in practice the sentence in the Cape Colony is
executed by hanging. In the Transvaal hanging is now the sole
mode of executing capital punishment (Criminal Procedure
Code, 1903, s. 244). The Roman-Dutch law as to crime and
punishments has been superseded in Ceylon and British Guiana
by ordinance.
Austria-Hungary. — In Austria capital punishment was in 1787
for a time abolished, but was reintroduced in 1795 for high
treason, and in 1803 for certain other crimes. Under the
penal code still in force in 1906 it might be inflicted for
the offences in the table given below, but not on offenders
who were under twenty when they committed the offence.
The annexed table indicates that the full sentence was
sparingly executed. Under a Penal Code drafted in 1906,
however, only two offences were made capital, viz. high treason
against the person of the emperor and the graver cases of
murder. The sentence is executed by hanging.
Crimes Punishable by
Death.
1853 to 1873.
1875 to 1900.
1901 to 1903.
Con-
demned.
Executed.
Con-
demned.
Executed.
Con-
demned.
Executed.
High treason
Murder, s. 136 ....
Killing by robbers, s. idi .
Public violence, 88. 85,07 .
Incendiarism, s. 167 . .
Criminal use of explosives
(explosives law, s. 4).
4
880
12
5
102
3
1
2085
35
1
81
1
180
3
9
Belgium. — Under the Belgian Penal Code of 1867 the death
penalty is retained for certain forms of high treason, and for
assassination and parricide by poisoning. It may not be
pronounced on a person under eighteen. The sentence is
executed publicly by the guillotine. No execution seems to
have taken place since 1863.
Denmark. — Sentence of death may be imposed for most forms
of high treason, aggravated cases of murder, rape and piracy.
It is executed publicly by the axe. Offenders under eighteen are
not liable.
Finland. — In Finland the death penalty is alleged not to have
been inflicted since 1824. It may be imposed for the assassina-
tion of the grand duke or grand duchess of the head of a friendly
state, and wilful murder of other persons.
France. — Under the ancien rigime in France, 115 crimes had
become capital in 1789. The mode of execution varied, but in
some cases it was effected by breaking on the wheel or burning,
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
281
and was coupled with mutilation. Under the Penal Code of
1810, as amended in or after 1832, even so late as 187 1, thirty
offences were capital, one being perjury against a prisoner
resulting in his condemnation to death (art. 361). At present it
may be imposed for wounding a public official with intent to
murder (art. 233), assassination, parricide, poisoning, killing to
commit a crime or escape from justice (arts. 302, 304). But
juries freely exercise the power of acquitting in capital cases, or
of defeating the capital sentence by finding extenuating circum-
stances in more than seven-eighths of the cases, which compels
the court to reduce the punishment by one or more degrees, i.e.
below the penalty of death. And in recent times the prerogative
of mercy has been continually exercised by the president, even in
gross cases where public opinion demanded the extreme penalty.
The sentence is executed in public by the guillotine.
Germany. — In many of the states of Germany capital punish-
ment had been abolished (Brunswick, Coburg, Nassau, Olden-
burg in 1849; Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Weimar, 1862; Baden,
1863; Saxony, 1868). But it has been restored by the Imperial
Criminal Code of 1872, in the case of attempts on the life of the
emperor, or of the sovereign of any federal state in which the
offender happens to be (s. 80), and for deliberate homicide (s. 211)
— as opposed to intentional homicide without deliberation — and
for certain treasonable acts committed when a state of siege has
been proclaimed. The sentence is executed by beheading (s. 13).
Holland. — In Holland there have been no executions since
i860. Capital punishment (by hanging) was abolished in 1870,
and was not reintroduced in the Penal Code of 1886.
Italy. — Capital punishment was abolished in Tuscany as far
back as 1786, and from Italy has come the chief opposition to
the death penalty, originated by Beccaria, and supported by
many eminent jurists. Under the Penal Code of 1888 the death
penalty was abrogated for all crimes, even for regicide. The
cases of homicide in Italy are very numerous compared with
those in England, amounting in 1905 to 105 per million as com-
pared with 27 per million in the United Kingdom.
Japan. — The penalty of death is executed by hanging within a
prison. It may be imposed for executing or contriving acts
of violence against the mikado or certain of his family, and for
seditious violence with the object of seizing the territory or
subverting the government or laws of Japan, or conspiring
with foreign powers to commence hostilities against Japan. It
is inflicted for certain forms of homicide, substantially wilful
murder in the first degree.
Norway. — Under Norwegian law, up to 1905, sentence of death
might be passed for murder with premeditation, but the court
might as an alternative decree penal servitude for life. Sentence
of death had also to be passed in cases where a person under
sentence of penal servitude for life committed murder or culpable
homicide, or caused bodily injuries in circumstances warranting
a sentence of penal servitude for life, or committed robbery or
the graver forms of wilful fire-raising. The sentence was
carried out by decapitation (see Beheading); but there had
been no execution since 1876. The new Norwegian Code,
which came into force on the 6th of January 1905, abolished
capital punishment.
Portugal. — There has been considerable objection in Portugal
to capital punishment, and it was abolished in 1867.
Rumania. — Capital punishment was abolished in 1864.
Russia. — In 1 7 50, under the empress Elizabeth, capital punish-
ment was abolished; but it was restored later and was freely
inflicted, the sentence being executed by shooting, beheading
or hanging. According to a Home Office Return in England
in 1907 the death penalty is abolished, except in cases where the
lives of the emperor, empress or heir to the throne are concerned,
Spain. — Under the Spanish Penal Code of 1870 the following
crimes are capital: — inducing a foreign power to declare war
against Spain, killing the sovereign, parricide and assassination.
The method employed is execution in public by the garrote.
But the death sentence is rarely imposed, the customary penalty
for murder being penal servitude in chains for life, while a parri-
cide is imprisoned in chains " in perpetuity until death."
Sweden. — The severity of the law in Sweden was greatly miti-
gated so far back as 1777. Under the Penal Code of 1864 the
penalty of death may be imposed for certain forms of treason, in-
cluding attempts on the life of the sovereign or on the independence
of Sweden, and for premeditated homicide (assassinat), and in
certain cases for offences committed by persons under sentence
of imprisonment for life. In 1901 a bill to abolish capital
punishment was rejected by both houses of the Swedish
parliament.
Switzerland. — Capital punishment was abolished in Switzer-
land in 1874 by Federal legislation; but in 1879, ^ consequence
of a plebiscite, each canton was empowered to restore the
death penalty for offences in its territory. The Federal govern-
ment was unwilling to take this course, but was impelled to it
by the fact that, between 1874 and 1879, cases of premeditated
murder had considerably increased. Seven of the cantons out
of twenty-two have exercised the power given to restore capital
punishment. But there do not seem to have been any cases
in which the death penalty has been inflicted; and on the
assassination of the empress of Austria at Geneva in 1898 it
was found that the laws of the canton did not permit the execu-
tion of the assassin. The canton of Zug imposes the lowest
minimum penalty known, i.e. three years' imprisonment for
wilful homicide, the maximum being imprisonment for life.
United States of America. — Under the Federal laws sentence
of death may be passed for treason against the United States
and for piracy and for murder within the Federal jurisdiction.
But for the most part the punishment of crime is regulated by
the laws of the constituent states of the Union.
The death penalty was abolished in Michigan in 1846 except
for treason, and wholly in Wisconsin in 1853. In Maine it was
abolished in 1876, re-enacted in 1883, and again abolished
in 1887. In Rhode Island it was abolished in 1852, but restored
in 1882, only in case of murder committed by a person under
sentence of imprisonment for life (Laws, 1896, c. 277, s. 2).
In all the other states the death penalty may still be inflicted:
in Alabama, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, and West Virginia,
for treason, murder, arson and rape; in Alaska, Arizona,
Kansas, New Jersey, Mississippi, Montana, New York, North
Dakota, Oregon, and South Dakota, for treason and murder;
in Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota,
Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Nevada, Ohio, Okla-
homa, Pennsylvania, Utah and Wyoming, for murder only;
in Kentucky and Virginia, for treason, murder and rape ;
in Vermont, for treason, murder and arson; in Indiana, for
treason, murder, and for arson if death result; in California,
for treason, murder and train- wrecking; in North Carolina,
for murder, rape, arson and burglary; in Florida, Missouri,
South Carolina, Tennessee and Texas, for murder and rape;
in Arkansas and Louisiana, for treason, murder, rape, and
administering poison or use of dangerous weapons with intent
to murder. Louisiana is cited by Girardin (le droit de punir)
as a state in which the death penalty was abolished in 1830.
Under the influence of the eminent jurist, E. Livingston, who
framed the state codes, the legislature certainly passed a resolu-
tion against capital punishment. But since as early as 1846
it has been there lawful, subject to a power given to the jury,
to bring in a verdict of guilty, " but no capital punishment,"
which had the effect of imposing a sentence of hard labour for
life. In certain states the jury has, under local legislation, the
right to award the sentence. The constitutionality of such
legislation has been doubted, but has been recognized by the
courts of Illinois and Iowa. Sentence of death is executed
by hanging, except in seven of the states, where it is carried
out by " electrocution " (q.v.).
With the mitigation of the law as to punishment, agitation
against the theory of capital punishment has lost much of its
force. But many European and American writers, and
some English writers and associations, advocate the ^o/**"
total abolition of the death punishment. The ultimate mboUHaa.
argument of the opponents of capital punishment is that
society has no right to take the life of any one of its members on
282
CAPITO— CAPITULARY
any ground. But they also object to capital punishment: (i) on
religious grounds, because it may deprive the sinner of his full time
for repentance; (2) on medical grounds, because homicide is
usually if not always evidence of mental disease or irresponsi-
bility; (3) on utilitarian grounds, because capital punishment is
not really deterrent, and is actually inflicted in so few instances
that criminals discount the risks of undergoing it; (4) on legal
grounds, i.e. that the sentence being irrevocable and the evidence
often circumstantial only, there is great risk of gross injustice
in executing a person convicted of murder; (5) on moral grounds,
that the punishment does not fit the case nor effect the refor-
mation of the offender. It is to be noted that the English
Children Act 1008 expressly forbids the pronouncing or recording
the sentence of death against any person under the age of
sixteen (s. 103).
The punishment is probably retained, partly from ingrained
habit, partly from a sense of its appropriateness for certain
crimes, but also that the ultima ratio may be available in cases
of sufficient gravity to the commonweal. The apparent dis-
crepancy between the number of trials and convictions for
murder is not in England any evidence of hostility on the part
of juries to capital punishment, which has on the whole lessened
rather than increased since the middle of the 19th century. It
is rarely if ever necessary in England, though common in America,
to question the jurors as to their views on capital punishment.
The reasons for the comparatively small number of convictions
for murder seem to be: (1) that court and jury in a capital case
lean in favoretn vitae, and if the offence falls short of the full
gravity of murder, conviction for manslaughter only results;
(2) that in the absence of a statutory classification of the degrees
of murder, the prerogative of mercy is exercised in cases falling
short of the highest degree of gravity recognized by lawyers and
by public opinion; (3) that where the conviction rests on cir-
cumstantial evidence the sentence is not executed unless the
circumstantial evidence is conclusive; (4) that charges of in-
fanticide against the mothers of illegitimate children are treated
mercifully by judge and jury, and usually terminate in acquittal,
or in a conviction of concealment of birth; (5) that many persons
tried as murderers are obviously insane; (6) that coroners 1
juries are somewhat recklessly free in returning inquisitions
of murder without any evidence which would warrant the
conviction of the person accused.
The medical doctrine, and that of Lombroso with respect
to criminal atavism and irresponsibility, have probably tended
to incline the public mind in favour of capital punishment, and
Sir James Stephen and other eminent jurists have even been
thereby tempted to advocate the execution of habitual criminals.
It certainly seems strange that the community should feel bound
carefully to preserve and tend a class of dangerous lunatics, and
to give them, as Charles Kingsley says, " the finest air in England
and the right to kill two gaolers a week."
The whole question of capital punishment in the United
Kingdom was considered by a royal commission appointed in
1864, which reported in 1866 (Pari. Pap., 1866, 10,438). The
commission took the opinions of all the judges of the supreme
courts in the United Kingdom and of many other eminent
persons, and collected the laws of other countries so far as this
was ascertainable. The commissioners differed on the question
of the expediency of abolishing or retaining capital punishment,
and did not report thereon. But they recommended: (1) that
it should be restricted throughout the United Kingdom to high
treason and murder; (2) alteration of the law of homicide so
as to classify homicides according to their gravity, and to confine
capital punishment to murder in the first degree; (3) modifica-
tion of the law as to child murder so as to punish certain cases
of infanticide as misdemeanours; (4) authorizing judges to
direct sentence of death to be recorded; (5) the abolition —
since carried out — of public executions.
Authorities. — Beccaria, Dei DelitteedellePene (1700) ; Bentham,
Rationale of Punishment; Lammasch, Grundris aes Strafrechts
(Leipzig, 1902); Olivecrona, De la peine de mort; Mittermaier,
Capital Punishment; Report of the Royal Commission on Capital
Punishment (Pari. Pap., 1866, No. 10,438); Oldfield, The Penalty of
Death (1001); Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law; Pike,
History of Crime; Sir J. F. Stephen, History of Crime in England;
S. Walpole, History of England, vol. i. p. 191; vol. iv. p. 74;
Andrews' Old Time Punishments; A Century of Law Reform
(London, 1901) ; Lecture ii. by Sir H. B. Poland ; Howard Association
Publications. (W. F. C.)
CAPITO (or KSpfel), WOLFGANG [Fabmctus] (1478-1541),
German reformer, was born of humble parentage at Hagenau in
Alsace. He was educated for the medical profession, but also
studied law, and applied himself so earnestly to theology that
he received the doctorate in that faculty also, and, having
joined the Benedictines, taught for some time at Freiburg. He
acted for three years as pastor in Bruchsal, and was then called
to the cathedral church of Basel (151 5). Here he made the
acquaintance of Zwingli and began to correspond with Luther.
In 1519 he removed to Mainz at the request of Albrecht, arch-
bishop of that city, who soon made him his chancellor. In 1523
he settled at Strassburg, where he remained till his death in
November 1541. He had found it increasingly difficult to
reconcile the new religion with the old, and from 1524 was one
of the leaders of the reformed faith in Strassburg. He took a
prominent part in the earlier ecclesiastical transactions of the
1 6th century, was present at the second conference of Zurich
and at the conference of Marburg, and along with Martin Bucer
drew up the Confessio Tetrapolitana. Capito was always more
concerned for the " unity of the spirit " than for dogmatic
formularies, and from his endeavours to conciliate the Lutheran
and Zwinglian parties in regard to the sacraments, he seems to
have incurred the suspicions of his own friends; while from his
intimacy with Martin Cellarius and other divines of the Socinian
school he drew on himself the charge of Arianism. His principal
works were: — Institutionum Hebraicarutn libri duo; Enarrationes
in Habacuc et Hoseam Prophetas; a life of Oecolampadius and
an account of the synod of Berne (1532).
CAPITULARY (Med. Lat. capitularium), a series of legislative
or administrative acts emanating from the Merovingian and
Carolingian kings, so called as being divided into sections or
chapters (capitula). With regard to these capitularies two
questions arise: (1) as to the means by which they have been
handed down to us; (2) as to their true character and scope.
(1) As soon as the capitulary was composed, it was sent to the
various functionaries of the Frankish empire, archbishops,
bishops, missi and counts, a copy being kept by the chancellor
in the archives of the palace. At the present day we do not
possess a single capitulary in its original form; but very
frequently copies of these isolated capitularies were included in
various scattered manuscripts, among pieces of a very different
nature, ecclesiastical or secular. We find, therefore, a fair number
of them in books which go back as far as the 9th or 10th centuries.
In recent editions in the case of each capitulary it is carefully
indicated from what manuscripts it has been collated.
These capitularies make provisions of a most varied nature;
it was therefore found necessary at quite an early date to classify
them into chapters according to the subject. In 827 Ansegisus,
abbot of St Wandrille at Fontenelle, made such a collection.
He embodied them in four books: one of the ecclesiastical
capitularies of Charlemagne, one of the ecclesiastical capitularies
of Louis the Pious, one of the secular capitularies of Charlemagne,
and one of the secular capitularies of Louis, bringing together
similar provisions and suppressing duplicates. This collection
soon gained an official authority, and after 829 Louis the Pious
refers to it, citing book and section.
After 827 new capitularies were naturally promulgated, and
before 858 there appeared a second collection in three books,
by an author calling himself Benedictus Levita. His aim was,
he said, to complete the work of Ansegisus, and bring it up to
date by continuing it from 827 to his own day; but the author
has not only borrowed prescriptions from the capitularies; he
has introduced other documents into his collection, fragments of
Roman laws, canons of the councils and especially spurious
provisions very similar in character to those of the same date
found in the False Decretals. His contemporaries did not notice
these spurious documents, but accepted the whole collection as
CAPITULATION— CAPITULATIONS
283
authentic, and incorporated the four books of Ansegisus and
the three of Benedictus Levita into a single collection in seven
books. The serious historian of to-day, however, is careful not
to use books v., vi. and vii. for purposes of reference.
Early editors chose to republish this collection of Ansegisus
and Benedictus as they found it. It was a distinguished French
scholar, Etienne Baluze, who led the way to a fresh classification.
In 1677 he brought out the Capitularia regum francorum, in two
folio volumes, in which he published first the capitularies of the
Merovingian kings, then those of Pippin, of Charles and of
Louis the Pious, which he had found complete in various manu-
scripts. After the date of 840, he published as supplements the
unreliable collection of Ansegisus and Benedictus Levita, with
the warning that the latter was quite untrustworthy. He then
gave the capitularies of Charles the Bald, and of other Carolingian
kings, either contemporaries or successors of Charles, which he
had discovered in various places. A second edition of Baluze
was published in 1780 in 2 volumes folio by Pierre de Chiniac.
The edition of the Capitularies made in 1835 by George Pertz,
in the Monumenta Germaniae (folio edition, vol. i., of the Leges)
was not much advance on that of Baluze. A fresh revision was
required, and the editors of the Monumenta decided to reissue
it in their quarto series, entrusting the work to Dr Alfred Boretius.
In 1883 Boretius published his first volume, containing all the
detached capitularies up to 827, together with various appendices
bearing on them, and the collection of Ansegisus. Boretius,
whose health had been ruined by overwork, was unable to finish
his work; it was continued by Victor Krause, who collected
in vol. ii. the scattered capitularies of a date posterior to 828.
Karl Zeumer and Albrecht Werminghoff drew up a detailed
index of both volumes, in which all the essential words are noted.
A third volume, prepared by Emil Seckel, was to include the
collection of Benedictus Levita.
(2) Among the capitularies are to be found documents of a very
varied kind. Boretius has divided them into several classes: —
(a) The Capitula legibus addenda. — These are additions made
by the king of the Franks to the barbarian laws promulgated
under the Merovingians, the Salic law, the Ripuarian or the
Bavarian. These capitularies have the same weight as the law
which they complete; they are particular in their application,
applying, that is to say, only to the men subject to that law.
Like the laws, they consist chiefly of scales of compensation,
rules of procedure and points of civil law. They were solemnly
promulgated in the local assemblies where the consent of the
people was asked. Charlemagne and Louis the Pious seem to
have made efforts to bring the other laws into harmony with the
Salic law. It is also to be noted that by certain of the capitularies
of this class, the king adds provisions affecting, not only a single
law, but all the laws in use throughout the kingdom.
(6) The Capitula ecclesiastica. — These capitularies were
elaborated in the councils of the bishops; the kings of the
Franks sanctioned the canon of the councils, and made them
obligatory on all the Christians in the kingdom.
(c) The Capitula per se scribenda. — These embodied political
decrees which all subjects of the kingdom were bound to observe.
They often bore the name of edictum or of constitutio, and the
provisions made in them were permanent. These capitularies
were generally elaborated by the king of the Franks in the
autumn assemblies or in the committees of the spring assemblies.
Frequently we have only the proposition made by the king to
the committee, capitula tractanda cum comitibus, episcopis, et
abbatibus, and not the final form which was adopted.
(d) The Capitula missorum, which are the instructions given
by Charlemagne and his successors to the missi sent into the
various parts of the empire. They are sometimes drawn up in
common for all the missi of a certain year — capitula missorum
generalia; sometimes for the missi sent only on a given circuit —
capitula missorum specialia. These instructions sometimes hold
good only for the circuit of the missus; they have no general
application and are merely temporary.
(e) With the capitularies have been incorporated various
documents; for instance, the rules to be observed in administer-
ing the king's private domain (the celebrated capitulary de villis }
which is doubtless a collection of the instructions sent at various
times to the agents of these domains); the partitions of the
kingdom among the king's sons, as, the Divisio regnorum of 806,
or the Ordinaiio imperii of 817; the oaths of peace and brother-
hood which were taken on various occasions by the sons of Louis
the Pious, &c.
The merit of clearly establishing these distinctions belongs to
Boretius. He has doubtless exaggerated the difference between
the Capitula missorum and the Capitula per se scribenda; among
the first are to be found provisions of a general and permanent
nature, and among the second temporary measures are often
included. But the idea of Boretius is none the less fruitful. In
the capitularies there are usually permanent provisions and
temporary provisions intermingled; and the observation of
this fact has made it possible more clearly to understand certain
institutions of Charlemagne, e.g. military service.
After the reign of Louis the Pious the capitularies became
long and diffuse. Soon, from the 10th century onwards, no
provision of general application emanates from the kings. Hence-
forth the kings only regulated private interests by charters; it
was not until the reign of Philip Augustus that general provisions
again appeared; but when they did so, they bore the name of
ordinances (prdonnances).
There were also capitularies of the Lombards. These capitu-
laries formed a continuation of the Lombard laws, and are
printed as an appendix to these laws by Boretius in the folio
edition of the Monumenta Germaniae, Leges, vol. iv.
Authorities. — Boretius, Die Capitularien im Lonqobardenreich
(Halle, 1864) ; and Beitrage zur Caiitularienkritik (Leipzig, 1874) ;
G. Seeliger, Die^ Kapitularien der Karolinger (Munich, 1893). See
also the histories of institutions or of Taw by Waitz, firunner,
Fustel de Coulanges, Viollet, Esmein. (C. Pf.)
CAPITULATION (Lat. capitulum, a little head or division;
capitular e, to treat upon terms), an agreement in time of war for
the surrender to a hostile armed force of a particular body of
troops, a town or a territory. It is an ordinary incident of war,
and therefore no previous instructions from the captor's govern-
ment are required before finally settling the conditions of capitu-
lation. The most usual of such conditions are freedom of religion
and security of private property on the one hand, and a promise
not to bear arms within a certain period on the other. Such
agreements may be rashly concluded with an inferior officer, on
whose authority the enemy are not in the actual position of the
war entitled to place reliance. When an agreement is made by
an officer who has not the proper authority or who has exceeded
the limits of his authority, it is termed a sponsion, and, to be
binding, must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification.
Article 35 of the Hague Convention (1899) on the laws and the
customs of war lays down that " capitulations agreed on between
the contracting parties must be in accordance with the rules of
military honour. When once settled they must be observed by
both the parties."
In another sense, capitulation is the name given to an arrange-
ment by which foreigners are withdrawn, for most civil and
criminal purposes, from the jurisdiction of the state making the
capitulation. Thus in Turkey arrangements termed capitula-
tions (q.v.), and treaties confirmatory of them, have been made
between the Porte and other states by which foreigners resident
in Turkey are subject to the laws of their respective countries.
The term is also applied by French writers to the oath which on
his election the Holy Roman emperor used to make to the
college of electors; this related chiefly to such matters as regalian
rights, appeals from local jurisdictions, the rights of the pope, &c.
CAPITULATIONS (from Lat. caput, or its Low-Latin diminutive
capitulum, as indicating the form in which these acts were set
down in " chapters "; the Gr. equivalent cephaleosis, Jcc^aXaiaws,
is occasionally used in works of the 17th century), treaties
granted by a state and conferring the privilege of extra-territorial
jurisdiction within its boundaries on the subjects of another
state. Thus, in the 9th century, the caliph Harun-al-Rashid
engaged to grant guarantees and commercial facilities to such
284
CAPIZ
Franks, subjects of the emperor Charlemagne, as should visit
the East with the authorization of their emperor. After the
break-up of the Frank empire, similar concessions were made to
some of the practically independent Italian city states that grew
up on its ruins. Thus, in 1098, the prince of Antioch granted a
charter of this nature to the city of Genoa; the king of Jerusalem
extended the same privilege to Venice in 11 23 and to Marseilles
in 1 136. Salah-ud-din (Saladin), sultan of Babylon (Cairo),
granted a charter to the town of Pisa in 1173. The Byzantine
emperors followed this example, and Genoa, Pisa and Venice
all obtained capitulations. The explanation of the practice is
to be found in the fact that the sovereignty of the state was held
in those ages to apply only to its subjects; foreigners were
excluded from its rights and obligations. The privilege of
citizenship was considered too precious to be extended to the
alien, who was long practically an outlaw. But when the
numbers, wealth and power of foreigners residing within the
state became too great, it was found to be politic to subject them
to some law, and it was held that this law should be their own.
When the Turkish rule was substituted for that of the Byzantine
emperors, the system already in existence was continued; the
various non-Moslem peoples were allowed their semi-autonomy
in matters affecting their personal status, and the Genoese of
Galata were confirmed in their privileges. But the first capitula-
tion concluded with a foreign state was that of 1535 granted to
the French. Lest it should be imagined that this was a concession
wrested by the victorious Christian monarch from the decadent
Turk, it should be borne in mind that Turkey was then at the
height of her power, and that Francis I. had shortly before
sustained a disastrous defeat at Pavia. His only hope of assist-
ance lay in Suleiman I., whose attack on Vienna had been checked
by the victorious Charles V, The appeal to Suleiman on the
ground of the common interest of France and Turkey in over-
coming Charles Ws overweening power was successful; the
secret mission of Frangipani, an unofficial envoy who could be
disowned in case of failure, paved the way for De la Forest's
embassy in 1534, and in 1536 the capitulations were signed. 1
They amounted to a treaty of commerce and a treaty allowing
the establishment of Frenchmen in Turkey and fixing the
jurisdiction to be exercised over them: individual and religious
liberty is guaranteed to them, the king of France is empowered
to appoint consuls in Turkey, the consuls are recognized as
competent to judge the civil and criminal affairs of French
subjects in Turkey according to French law, and the consuls may
appeal to the officers of the sultan for their aid in the execution
of their sentences. This, the first of the capitulations, is practi-
cally the prototype of its successors. Five years later, similar
capitulations were concluded with Venice. The capitulations
were at first held to be in force only during the lifetime of the
sultan by whom they were granted; thus in 1569 Sultan Selim II.
renewed the French capitulations granted by his predecessor.
In 1583 England obtained her first capitulation, until which time
France had been the official protector of all Europeans estab-
lished in Turkey. Later on, England claimed to protect the
subjects of other nations, a claim which is rejected in the French
capitulations of 1597, 1604 and 1607, the last-named of which
explicitly lays down that the subjects of all nations not repre-
sented at Constantinople by an ambassador shall be under
French protection. In 1613 Holland obtained her first capitula-
tion, with the assistance of the French ambassador, anxious
to help a commercial rival of England. In 1673 the French,
represented by the marquis de Nointel, succeeded in obtaining
the renewal of the capitulations which, for various reasons, had
remained unconfirmed since 1607. Louis XIV. had been anxious
to secure the protectorate of all Catholics in Turkey, but was
obliged to content himself with the recognition of his right to
protect all Latins of non-Turkish nationality; his claims for the
restoration to the Catholics of the Holy Places usurped by the
Greeks was also rejected, the sultan only undertaking to promise
to restore their churches to the Jesuit Capuchins. An important
1 La Forest, a knight of St John of Jerusalem, was the first resident
ambassador of France at Constantinople. He died in 1537.
commercial gain was the reduction of the import duties from
5 to 3 %; and all suits the value of which exceeded 4000 aspres
in which French subjects sued, or were sued by, an Ottoman
subject, were to be heard not by the ordinary tribunals but at the
Porte itself. Later, France's friendship secured for Turkey a
successful negotiation of the peace of Belgrade in 1739, and the
result was the capitulation of 1740; this is no longer limited in
duration to the sultan's lifetime but is made perpetual, and,
moreover, declares that it cannot be modified without the assent
of the French. It conferred on the French ambassador pre-
cedence over his colleagues. Austria had obtained capitulations
in 1718, modified in 1784; Russia secured similar privileges in
1784. In the course of the 18th century nearly every European
power had obtained these, and such newly-established countries
as the United States of America, Belgium and Greece followed
in the 19th century.
The chief privileges granted under the capitulations to
foreigners resident in Turkey are the following: liberty of
residence, inviolability of domicile, liberty to travel by land
and sea, freedom of commerce, freedom of religion, immunity
from local jurisdiction save under certain safeguards, ex-
clusive extra-territorial jurisdiction over foreigners of the same
nationality, and competence of the forum of the defendant in
cases in which two foreigners are concerned (though the Sublime
Porte has long claimed to exercise jurisdiction in criminal cases
in which two foreigners of different nationality are concerned —
the capitulations are silent on the point and the claim is resisted
by the powers).
The same system has been followed by such countries as Persia,
China, Japan and Siam.
The practical result of the capitulations in Turkey is to form
each separate foreign colony into a sort of imperium in imperio,
and to hamper the local jurisdiction very considerably. As the
state granting the capitulations progresses in civilization it
chafes under these restraints in its sovereignty. Turkey's
former vassals, Rumania and Servia, though theoretically bound
to respect the capitulations so long as they formed part of
Turkey, had practically abrogated them long before securing
their independence through the treaty of Berlin in 1878. The
same may be said of Bulgaria. Japan was liberated from the
burden of the capitulations some years ago.
The extra-territorial jurisdiction exercised by the foreign
powers over their subjects in Turkey and other countries where
capitulations exist is regulated by special legislative enactments;
in the case of the United Kingdom by orders in council.
In Turkey the capitulations are practically the only treaties
in force with the powers, since the expiration about 1889 of the
commercial treaties concluded in 1861-1862. As they all con-
tain the " most-favoured nation " clause, the privileges in any
one apply to all the powers, though not always claimed. Thus
America and Belgium claim under their treaties with Turkey
the right to try all their subjects, even if accused of offences
against Ottoman subjects — a claim recently made by Belgium
in the case of the Belgian subject Joris, accused of participation
in the bomb outrage of 1905 at Yildiz. One peculiar privilege
granted in the capitulations of 1675 (Art. 74) authorizes the
king of England to buy in Turkey with his own money two
cargoes of figs and raisins, in fertile and abundant years and not
in times of dearth or scarcity, and provides that after a duty
of 3 % has been paid thereon no obstacle or hindrance shall be
given thereto. !
CAPIZ, a town and the capital of the province of Capiz, Panay,
Philippine Islands, on the Capiz or Panay river, about 4 m. from
its mouth on the N. coast. Pop. (1903) 18,525. Capiz has
a large and beautiful Roman Catholic church (of stone), a
Protestant church (with a hospital) and good government
buildings, and is the seat of the provincial high school. Alcohol
of a superior quality is manufactured in large quantities from
the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows plentifully
in the neighbouring swamps. Fishing and the weaving of fabrics
of cotton, hemp and pineapple fibre are important industries.
Rice and sugar are raised in abundance. Tobacco, Indian corn
CAPMANY— CAPO D'ISTRIA
285
and cacao are produced to a limited extent; and rice, alcohol,
sugar and copra are exported. Coasting vessels ascend the
river to the town. The language is Visayan.
CAPMANY Y MONTPALAU, ANTONIO DE (1742-1813),
Spanish polygraph, was born at Barcelona on the 24th of Novem-
ber 1742. He retired from the army in 1770, and was subse-
quently elected secretary of the Royal Academy of History at
Madrid. His principal works are — Metnorias hisMricas sobre la
marina, commercio, y artesde la antigua ciudad de Barcelona
(4 vols. 1 7 70-1 792); Teatro histdrico-crttico de la elocuencia
Espanola (1786); Filiosofia de la elocuencia (1776), and
Cuestiones criticas sobre varios puntos de historia ccondtnica,
politica, y tnilitar (1807). Capmany died at Barcelona on the
14th of November 1813. His monograph on the history of his
birthplace still preserves much of its original value.
CAPO D'ISTRIA, GIOVANNI ANTONIO [Joannes], 1 Count
(1776-183 1), Russian statesman and president of the Greek
republic, was born at Corfu on the nth of February 1776. He
belonged to an ancient Corfiot family which had immigrated
from Istria in 1373, the title of count being granted' to it by
Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, in 1689. The father of
Giovanni, Antonio Maria Capo d'Istria, was a man of consider-
able importance in the island, a stiff aristocrat of the old school,
who in 1708, after the treaty of Campo Formio had placed the
Ionian Islands under French rule, was imprisoned for his oppo-
sition to the new r6gime, his release next year being the earliest
triumph of his son's diplomacy. On the establishment in 1800,
under Turkish suzerainty, of the septinsular republic — a settle-
ment negotiated at Constantinople by the elder Capo d'Istria —
Giovanni, who had meanwhile studied medicine at Padua, entered
the government service as secretary to the legislative council,
and in one capacity or another exercised for the next seven years
a determining voice in the affairs of the republic. At the begin-
ning of 1807 he was appointed "extraordinary military
governor " to organize the defence of Santa Maura against Ali
Pasha of Iannina, an enterprise which brought him into contact
with Theodoras Kolokotrones and other future chiefs of the war
of Greek independence, and awoke in him that wider Hellenic
patriotism which was so largely to influence his career.
Throughout the period of his official connexion with the
Ionian government, Capo d'Istria had been a consistent upholder
of Russian influence in the islands; and when the treaty of
Tilsit (1807) dashed his hopes by handing over the Ionian republic
to Napoleon, he did not relinquish his belief in Russia as the most
reliable ally of the Greek cause. He accordingly refused the
offers made to him by the French government, and accepted the
invitation of the Russian chancellor Romanzov to enter the tsar's
service. He went to St Petersburg in 1809, and was appointed
to the honorary post of attache to the foreign office, but it was
not till two years after, in 181 1, that he was actually employed
in diplomatic work as attach^ to Baron Stackelberg, the Russian
ambassador at Vienna. His knowledge of the near East was here
of great service, and in the following year he was attached, as chief
of his diplomatic bureau, to Admiral Chichagov, on his mission
to the Danubian principalities to stir up trouble in the Balkan
peninsula as a diversion on the flank of Austria, and to attempt
to supplement the treaty of Bucharest by an offensive and
defensive alliance with the Ottoman empire. The Moscow
campaign of 181 2 intervened; Chichagov was disgraced in con-
sequence of his failure to destroy Napoleon at the passage of the
Beresina; but Capo d'Istria was not involved, was made a
councillor of state and continued in his diplomatic functions.
During the campaign of 1813 he was attached to the staff of
Barclay de Tolly and was present at the battles of Ltitzen,
Bautzen, Dresden and Leipzig. With the advance of the allies
he was sent to Switzerland to secure the withdrawal of the
republic from the French alliance. Here, in spite of his instruc-
tions to guarantee the neutrality of Switzerland, he signed on his
1 After his election to the Greek presidency in 1827, Capo d'Istria,
whose baptismal names were Giovanni Antonio, signed himself
Joannes Capodistrias, the form by which he is very commonly
known.
own responsibility the proclamation issued by Prince Schwarzen-
berg, stating the intention of the allied troops to march through
the country. His motive was to prevent any appearance of dis-
agreement among the allies. The emperor Alexander, to whom he
hastened to make an explanation in person, endorsed his action.
Capo d'Istria was present with the allies in Paris, and after the
signing of the first peace of Paris he was rewarded by the tsar
with the order of St Vladimir and his full confidence. At the
congress of Vienna his influence was conspicuous; he represented
the tsar on the Swiss committee, was associated with Rasumovsky
in negotiating the tangled Polish and Saxon questions, and was
the Russian plenipotentiary in the discussions with the Baron
vom Stein on the affairs of Germany. His Memoir e sur V empire
germanique, of the 9th of February 1815, presented to the tsar,
was based on the policy of keeping Germany weak in order to
secure Russian preponderance in its councils. It was perhaps
from a similar motive that, after the Waterloo campaign, he
strenuously opposed the proposals for the dismemberment of
France. It was on his advice that the due de Richelieu persuaded
Louis XVIII. to write the autograph letter in which he declared
his intention of resigning rather than submit to any diminution
of the territories handed down to him by his ancestors.* The
treaty of the 20th of November 181 5, which formed for years the
basis of the effective concert of Europe, was also largely his work.
On the 26th of September 181 5, after the proclamation of the
Holy Alliance at the great review on the plain of Vertus, Capo
d'Istria was named a secretary of state. On his return to St
Petersburg, he shared the ministry of foreign affairs with Count
Nesselrode, though the latter as senior signed all documents.
Capo d'Istria, however, had sole charge of the newly acquired
province of Bessarabia, which he governed conspicuously well.
In 1 81 8 he attended the emperor Alexander at the congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle, and in the following year obtained leave to visit
his home. He travelled by way of Venice, Rome and Naples,
his progress exciting the liveliest apprehensions of the powers,
notably of Austria. The " Jacobin " pose of the tsar waa
notorious, his all-embracing ambition hardly less so; and Russian
travellers in Italy, notably the emperor's former tutor, Cesar de
Laharpe, were little careful in the expression of their sympathy
for the ideals of the Carbonari. In Metternich's eyes Capo
d'Istria, " the coryphaeus of liberalism," was responsible for the
tsar's vagaries, the fount of all the ills of which the times were
sick; and, for all the count's diplomatic reticence, the Austrian
spies who dogged his footsteps earned their salaries by reporting
sayings that set the reactionary courts in a flutter. For
Metternich the overthrow of Capo dTstria's influence became a
necessity of political salvation. At Corfu Capo d'Istria became
the repository of all the grievances of his countrymen against
the robust administration of Sir Thomas Maitland. At the
congress of Vienna the count had supported the British pro-
tectorate over the Ionian Islands, the advantages of which from
the point of view of trade and security were obvious; but
the drastic methods of " King Tom's " government, symbolized
by a gallows for pirates and other evil-doers in every popular
gathering place, offended bis local patriotism. He submitted a
memorandum on the subject to the tsar, and before returning to
Russia travelled via Paris to England to lay the grievances of the
Ionians before the British government. His reception was a cold
one, mainly due to his own disingenuousness, for he refused to
show British ministers the memorandum which he had already
submitted to the Russian emperor, on the ground that it was
intended only for his own private use. The whole thing seemed,
rightly or wrongly, an excuse for the intervention of Russia in
affairs which were by treaty wholly British.
On his return to St Petersburg in the autumn of 1810, Capo
d'Istria resumed his influence in the intimate counsels of the tsar.
The murder of the Russian agent, Kotzebue, in March, had
shaken but not destroyed Alexander's liberalism, and it was
Capo d'Istria who drew up the emperor's protest against the
Carlsbad decrees and the declaration of his adherence to con-
stitutional views (see Alexander I.). In October 1820 Capo
* The letter was written by Michael Stourdza and copied by Louis.
288
CAPPEL^- CAPPELLO
joined Armenia Minor to it and made the combined province
a frontier bulwark. It remained, under various provincial
redistributions, part of the Eastern Empire till late in the
nth century, though often ravaged both by Persians and
Arabs. But before it passed into Seljuk hands (1074), and from
them ultimately to the Osmanlis, it had already become largely
Armenian in religion and speech; and thus we find the southern
part referred to as " Hermeniorum terra " by crusading chroni-
clers. At this day the north-east and east parts of the province
are largely inhabited by Armenians. The native kings had done
much to Hellenize Cappadocia, which had previously received
a strong Iranian colour; but it was left to Christianity to com-
plete their work. Though pre-Hellenic usages long survived in
the local cults and habits, a part of the people has remained more
or less Hellenic to this day, in spite of its envelopment by Moslem
conquerors and converts. The tradition of its early church,
illuminated by the names of the two Gregories and Basil of
Caesarea, has been perpetuated by the survival of a native
Orthodox element throughout the west and north-west of the
province; and in the remoter valleys Greek speech has never
wholly died out. Its use has once more become general under
Greek propagandist influence, and the Cappadocian " Greeks "
are now a flourishing community.
Bibliography.— W. Wright, Empire of the HiUites (1884);
G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Hist, de Vart dans Vantiquiti, vol. iv.
(1886); A. H. Sayce, HiUiUs (1892) (see also Pteria); J. G.
Droysen, Gesch. des HeUenismus (3rd ea., 1878); A. Holm, Gesch.
Griech. (Eng. trans., 1886) ; Th. Reinach, Mithridate Eupator (1890) ;
E. R. Bevan, House of Seleucus (1002); Th. Mommsen, Provinces of
the Roman Empire (Eng. trans., 1886) ; J. Marquardt, Rom. Staatsver-
waltung, i. (1874) ; W - M - Ramsey, Hist. Geog. of Asia Miner (1890) ;
C. Ritter, Erdkunde, xviii. xix. (1 858-1 859); D. G. Hogarth and
~ Munro, Mod. and Anc. Roads in E. Asia Minor (R. G. S.
pers, iii. 189*); G. Perrot, Souvenirs oVun voyage dans VA.
(1864); H. J. v. Lennep, Travels in Asia Minor (1870);
re, Mission en Cappadocie (1808); H. F. Tozer, Turkish
Supp. Papers, iii. 1893); G. Perrot, Souvenirs oVun voyage dans VA,
Mtneure (if*- x - " Y T -~— .- • - - <**-- —
Armenia (1881); H. C. Barfcfey, Ride Through A. M. and Armenia
(1891); Lord Warkworth, Notes of a Diary in As. Turkey (1898);
M. Sykes, Dar ul-Islam (1904). (E. H. B. ; D. G. H.)
CAPPEL, a French family which produced some distinguished
jurists and theologians in the 15th and 16th centimes. In 1491,
Guillaume Cappel, as rector of the university of Paris, protested
against a tithe which Innocent VIII. claimed from that body.
His nephew, Jacques Cappel (d. 1541), the real founder of the
family, was himself advocate-general at the parlement of Paris,
and in a celebrated address delivered before the court in 1537,
against the emperor Charles V., claimed for Francis I. the
counties of Artois, Flanders and Charolais. He left nine chil-
dren, of whom three became Protestants. The eldest, Jacques
(1520-1586), sieur du Tilloy, wrote several treatises on juris-
prudence. Louis (1 534-1 586), sieur de Moriambert, the fifth
son, was a most ardent Protestant. In 1570 he presented a
confession of faith to Charles IX. in the name of his co-re-
ligionists. He disputed at Sedan before the due de Bouillon
with the Jesuit, Jean Maldonat (1 534-1 583), and wrote in de-
fence of Protestantism. The seventh son, Ange (1537-1623),
seigneur du Luat, was secretary to Henry IV., and enjoyed the
esteem of Sully. Among those who remained Catholic should be
mentioned Guillaume, the translator of Machiavelli. The eldest
son Jacques also left two sons, famous in the history of Pro-
testantism: — Jacques (1 570-1624), pastor of the church founded
by himself on his fief of le Tilloy and afterwards at Sedan, where
he became professor of Hebrew, distinguished as historian,
philologist and exegetical scholar; and Louis (see below).
On the protest of Guillaume Cappel, see Du Bellay, Historia
Universitatts Parisiensis, vol. v. On the family, see the sketch by
another Jacques Cappel, " De Capellorum gente," in the Com-
tnentarii et notae criticae in Vetus Testamentum of Louis Cappel, his
father (Amsterdam, 1689). Consult Eugene and £mile Haag, La
France protestante, vol. iii. (new edition, 1881).
CAPPEL, LOUIS (1585-1658), French Protestant divine and
scholar, a Huguenot whose descent is traced above, was
born at St Elier, near Sedan, in 1585. He studied theology
at Sedan and Saumur; and Arabic at Oxford, where he spent
two years. At the age of twenty-eight he accepted the chair of
Hebrew at Saumur, and twenty years afterwards was appointed
professor of theology. Amongst his fellow lecturers were Moses
Amyraut and Josu6 de la Place. As a Hebrew scholar he made
a special study of the history of the Hebrew text, which led
him to the conclusion that the vowel points and accents are
not an original part of the Hebrew language, but were inserted
by the Massorete Jews of Tiberias, not earlier than the 5th
century A.D., and that the primitive Hebrew characters are those
now known as the Samaritan, while the square characters are
Aramaic and were substituted for the more ancient at the time
of the captivity. These conclusions were hotly contested by
Johannes Buxtorf, being in conflict with the views of his father,
Johannes Buxtorf senior, notwithstanding the fact that Elias
Levita had already disputed the antiquity of the vowel points
and that neither Jerome nor the Talmud shows any acquaintance
with them. His second important work, Critica Sacra, was
distasteful from a theological point of view. He had completed
it in 1634; but owing to the fierce opposition with which he had
to contend, he was only able to print it at Paris in 1650, by aid
of a son, who had turned Catholic. The various readings in the
Old Testament text and the differences between the ancient
versions and the Massoretic text convinced him that the idea
of the integrity of the Hebrew text, as commonly held by Pro-
testants, was untenable. This amounted to an attack on the
verbal inspiration of Scripture. Bitter, however, as was the
opposition to his views, it was not long before his results were
accepted by scholars.
Cappel was also the author of Annotationes et Commentarii in
Vetus Testamentum, Chronohgia Sacra, and other biblical works,
as well as of several other treatises on Hebrew, among which are the
Arcanum Punctuationis revelatum (1624) and the Diatriba de veris et
antiquis Ebraeorum Uteris (1645). His Commentarius de Capellorum
gente, giving an account of the family to which he belonged, was
published by his nephew James Cappel (1 639-1 722), who, at the age
of eighteen, became professor of Hebrew at Saumur, but, on the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, fled to England, where he died in
1722. See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie.
CAPPELLO, BIANCA (1 548-1 587), grand duchess of Tuscany,
was the daughter of Bartolommeo Cappello, a member of one
of the richest and noblest Venetian families, and was famed for
her great beauty. At the age of fifteen she fell in love with
Pietro Bonaventuri, a young Florentine clerk in the firm of
Salviati, and on the 28th of November 1563 escaped with him
to Florence, where they were married and she had a daughter
named Pellegrina. The Venetian government made every effort
to have Bianca arrested and brought back, but the grand duke
Cosimo de 1 Medici intervened in her favour and she was left
unmolested. However she did not get on well with her husband's
family, who were very poor and made her do menial work, until
at last her beauty attracted Francesco, the grand duke's son,
a vicious and unprincipled rake. Although already married to
the virtuous and charming Archduchess Giovanna of Austria,
he seduced the fair Venetian and loaded her with jewels, money
and other presents. Bianca's accommodating husband was given
court employment, and consoled himself with other ladies;
in 1 572 he was murdered in the streets of Florence in consequence
of some amorous intrigue, though possibly Bianca and Francesco
were privy to the deed. On the death of Cosimo in 1 574 Francesco
succeeded to the grand duchy; he now installed Bianca in a
fine palace close to his own and outraged his wife by flaunting
his mistress before her. As Giovanna had borne Francesco
no sons, Bianca was very anxious to present him with an heir,
for otherwise her position would remain very insecure. But
although she resorted to all sorts of expedients, even to that of
trying to pass off a changeling as the grand duke's child, she was
not successful. In 1578 Giovanna died; a few days later
Francesco secretly married Bianca, and on the 10th of June,
1579, the marriage was publicly announced. The Venetian
government now put aside its resentment and was officially
represented at the magnificent wedding festivities, for it saw
in Bianca Cappello an instrument for cementing good relations
with Tuscany. But the long expected heir failed to come,
and Bianca realized that if her husband were to die before her
she was lost, for his family, especially his brother Cardinal
CAPPERONNIER— CAPPONI
289
Ferdinand, hated her bitterly, as an adventuress and interloper.
In October 1587 both the grand duke and his wife died of colic
within a couple of days of each other. At the time poison was
suspected, but documentary evidence has proved the suspicion
to be unfounded.
See S. Romanin, Lezioni di storia Veneta, vol. ii. (Florence, 1875) ;
G. £. Saltini, Tragedie Mtdicee domestiche (Florence, 1898).
(L.V.*)
CAPPERONNIER, CLAUDE (1671-1744), French classical
scholar, the son of a tanner, was born at Montdidier on the 1st of
May 1 67 1 . He studied at Amiens and Paris, and took orders in the
Church of Rome, but devoted himself almost entirely to classical
studies. He declined a professorship in the university of Bale,
and was afterwards appointed (1722) to the Greek chair in the
College de France. He published an edition of Quintilian (1725)
and left behind him at his death an edition of the ancient Latin
Rhetoricians, which was published in 1756. He furnished much
material for Robert Estienne's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae.
His nephew, Jean Capperonnier (1716-1775), his successor
in the chair of Greek at the College de France, was also a distin-
guished scholar, and published valuable editions of classical
authors — Caesar, Anacreon, Plautus, Sophocles.
CAPPONI, GINO, Marquis (1792-1876), Italian statesman
and historian, was born on the 13th of September 1792. The
Capponi family is one of the most illustrious Florentine houses,
and is mentioned as early as 1250; it acquired great wealth
as a mercantile and banking firm, and many of its members
distinguished themselves in the service of the republic and the
Medicis (see Capponi, Piero), and later in that of the house of
Lorraine. Gino was the son of the Marquis Pier Roberto
Capponi, a nobleman greatly attached to the reigning grand
duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III. When that prince was deposed
by the French in 1799 the Capponi family followed him into
exile at Vienna, where they remained until he exchanged his
rights to the grand duchy for a German principality (1803).
The Capponi then returned to Florence, and in 181 1 Gino married
the marchesina Giulia Riccardi. Although the family were
very anti-French Gino was chosen with other notables to pay
homage to Napoleon in Paris in 1813. On the fall of Napoleon
Ferdinand returned to Tuscany (September i8i4),but the restora-
tion proved less reactionary there than in any other part of
Italy. Young Capponi was well received at court, but not being
satisfied with the life of a mere man of fashion, ho devoted himself
to serious study and foreign travel. After sundry journeys in
Italy he again visited Paris in 18 18, and then went to England.
He became deeply interested in English institutions, and care-
fully studied the constitution, the electoral system, university
life, industrial organization, &c. At Edinburgh he met Francis
Jeffrey, the editor of the Edinburgh Review, and conceived a
desire to found a similar review in Italy. Besides knowing
Jeffrey he made the acquaintance of many prominent statesmen
and men of letters, including Lord John Russell, the duke of
Bedford, Dugald Stewart, Ugo Foscolo, &c. This visit had a
great effect in forming his character, and while it made him
an ardent Anglophil, he realized more and more the distressing
conditions of his own country. He returned to Italy in 1820,
and on reaching Florence he set to work to found a review on
the lines of the Edinburgh, which should attract the best literary
talent. This he achieved with the help of the Swiss G. P.
Vieusseux, and the result was the Antotogia, He contributed
largely to its columns, as well as to those of the Archivio Storico,
another of Vieusseux's ventures. Capponi began to take a
more active interest in polities, and entered into communication
with the Liberals of all parts of Italy. He had discussed the
possibility of liberating Italy with Prince Charles Albert of
Savoy-Carignano, to whom he had introduced the Milanese
revolutionist Count Confalonieri (q.v.). But the collapse of the
rising of 182 1 and the imprisonment of Confalonieri made
Capponi despair of achieving anything by revolution, and he
devoted himself to the economic development of Tuscany and
to study. At his beautiful villa of Varramista he collected
materials for a history of the Church; his work was interrupted
by family troubles and by increasing blindness, but although
by 1844 he had completely lost his sight he continued to work by
means of amanuenses. In 1847 ne again plunged into politics
and discussed plans for an Italian alliance against Austria.
When the grand duke Leopold II. decided in 1848 to grant his
people a constitution, Capponi was made a member of the
commission to draw it up, and he eventually became prime
minister. During his short tenure of office he conducted foreign
affairs with great skill, and made every effort to save the Italian
situation after the defeat of Charles Albert on the Mincio. In
October 1848 he resigned; soon afterwards the grand duke
fled, anarchy followed, and then in 1849 he returned, but with
an escort of Austrian soldiery. The blind statesman thanked
God that he could not see the hated white uniforms in Florence.
He returned to his studies and commenced his great Storia
delta Repubblica di Firenze; but he followed political affairs
with great interest, and helped to convince Lord John Russell,
who stayed with him in 1859, of the hopelessness of the grand
duke's position. On Leopold's second flight (27th of April
1859) a Tuscan assembly was summoned, and Capponi elected
member of it. He voted for the grand duke's deposition and
for the union of Tuscany with Piedmont King Victor Emmanuel
made him senator in i860. His last years were devoted almost
exclusively to his Florentine history, which was published in
1875 and achieved an immediate success. This was Capponi's
swan song, for on the 3rd of February 1876 he died at the age of
eighty-four.
Capponi was one of the best specimens of the Tuscan landlord
class. "He represents," wrote his biographer Tabarrini,
" one of the most striking personalities of a generation, now
wholly passed away, which did not resign itself to the beatitudes
of 181 5, but wished to raise Italy from the humble state to which
the European peace of that year had condemned her; and he
succeeded by first raising the character of the Italians in the
opinion of foreigners, so as to deserve their esteem and respect."
He knew nearly all the most interesting people in Italy, besides
many distinguished foreigners: Giuseppe Giusti, the poet,
A. Manzoni, the novelist, Niccolo Tommaseo, Richard Cobden,
A. von Reumont, the historian, wore among those vrhvi±± u%>
entertained at his palace or Ms villas, and many were the strug-
gling students and revolutionists to whom he gave assistance.
As a historian his reputation rests on his Storia delta Repubblica
di Firenze (Florence, 1875); it was the first comprehensive
Italian book on the subject based on documents and written
in a modern critical spirit, and if the chapters on the early
history of the city are now obsolete in view of recent discoveries,
yet, as a whole, it remains a standard work. Besides his history
a large number of essays and pamphlets have been published
in his Scritti Inediti.
See M. Tabarrini, Gino Capponi (Florence, 1879); and A. von
Reumont, Gino Capponi (Gotha, 1880). (L. V.*)
CAPPONI, PIERO (1447-1496), Florentine statesman and
warrior. He was at first intended for a business career, but
Lorenzo de' Medici, appreciating his ability, sent him as am-
bassador to various courts, where he acquitted himself with
distinction. On the death of Lorenzo (1492) , who was succeeded
by his son, the weak and incapable Piero, Capponi became one of
the leaders of the anti-Medicean faction which two years later
expelled him from Florence. Capponi was then made chief of
the republic and conducted public affairs with great skill, notably
in the difficult negotiations with Charles VIII. of France, who
had invaded Italy in 1494 and in whose camp the exiled Medici
had taken refuge. In November Charles, on his way to Naples,
entered Florence with his army, and immediately began to
behave as though he were the conqueror of the city, because he
had entered it lance in rest. The signory was anxious to be on
good terms with him, but when he spoke in favour of the Medici
their temper changed at once, and the citizens were ordered
to arm and be prepared for all emergencies. Tumults broke
out between French soldiers and Florentine citizens, barricades
were erected and stones began to fly from the windows. This
alarmed Charles, who lowered his tone and said nothing more
v. 10
290
CAPRAIA— CAPRIFOLIACEAE
about conquered cities or the Medici. The Florentines were
willing to pay him a large sum of money, but in settling the
amount further disagreements arose. Charles, who was full of
the Medici's promises, made exorbitant demands, and finally
presented an ultimatum to the signory, who rejected it.
" Then we shall sound our trumpets," said the king, to which
Capponi replied " And we shall toll our bells," and tore up the
ultimatum in the king's face. Charles, who did not relish the
idea of house-to-house fighting, was forced to moderate his claims,
and concluded a more equitable treaty with the republic. On
the 28th of November he departed, and Capponi was appointed
to reform the government of Florence. But being more at home
in the camp than in the council chamber, he was glad of the
opportunity of leading the armies of the republic against the
Pisan rebels. He proved a most capable general, but while
besieging the castle of Soiana, he was killed on the 25th of
September 1496. His death was greatly regretted, for the
Florentines recognized in him their ablest statesman and
warrior.
See under Savonarola, Florence, Medici, Charles VIII. The
" Vita di Piero di Gino Capponi," by V. Acciaiuoli (published in the
Archivio Storico Italiano, series I, vol. iv. part 2°, 1853), is the chief
contemporary authority; see also P. Villari, Savonarola, vol. i.
(Florence, 1887) , and Gino Capponi, Storia della Repubblica di Firenze,
vol. ii. (Florence, 1875). ( L - v -*)
CAPRAIA (anc. Capraria, from Lat. capra, wild-goat), an
island of Italy, off the N.W. coast (the highest point 1466 ft.
above sea-level), belonging to the province of Genoa, 42 m. S.S.E.
of Leghorn by sea. Pop. (1001) 547. It is of volcanic origin,
and is partly occupied by a penal agricultural colony. It pro-
duces wine, and is a centre of the anchovy fishery. It became
Genoese in 1527 and was strongly fortified. In 1796 it was
occupied for a short time by Nelson. About 20 m. to the north
is the island of Gorgona (highest point 836 ft.), also famous for
its anchovies.
CAPRERA, an island off the N.E. coast of Sardinia, about
1 m. in length. It is connected by a bridge with La Madda-
lena. Its chief interest lies in its connexion with Garibaldi,
who first established himself there in 1854, and died there on
thft o.rxd of J\it>«* 1882. His tomb is visited on this anniversary by
Italians from all parts. Roman remains, including a bust of
Maximian, have been found upon the island.
CAPRI (anc. Capreae), an island on the S. side of the Bay of
Naples, of which it commands a fine view; it forms part of the
province of Naples, and is distant about 20 m. S. of the town of
Naples, Pop. ( 1901 ) of the commune of Capri, 3890, of Anacapri,
2316. It divides the exits from the bay into two, the Bocca
Grande, about 16 m. wide, between Capri and Ischia, and the
Bocca Piccola, 3 m. wide between Capri and the extreme south-
west point of the peninsula of Sorrento. It is 4 m. in length and
the greatest width is 1 J m., the total area being 5$ sq. m. The
highest point is the Monte Solaro (1920 ft.) on the west, while at
the east end the cliffs rise to a height of 900 ft. sheer from the
sea. The only safe landing-place is on the north side. There are
two small towns, Capri (450 ft) and Anacapri (980 ft.), which
until the construction of a carriage road in 1874 were connected
only by a flight of 784 steps (the substructures of which at least
are ancient). The island lacks water, and is dusty during
drought, but is fertile, producing fruit, wine and olive oil; the
indigenous flora comprises 800 species. The fishing industry
also is important. But the prosperity of the island depends
mainly upon foreign visitors (some 30,000 annually), who are
attracted by the remarkable beauty of the scenery (that of the
coast being especially fine), the views of the sea and of the Bay of
Naples, and the purity of the air. The famous Blue Grotto, the
most celebrated of the many caves in the rocky shores of the
island, was known in Roman times, but lost until 1826, when it
was rediscovered. Another beautiful grotto has green instead of
blue refractions; the effect in both cases is due to the light
entering by a small entrance.
The high land in the west of the island and the somewhat less
elevated region in the east are formed of Upper Tithonian and
Lower Cretaceous limestones, the latter containing Rudistes.
The intervening depression, which seems to be bounded on the
west by a fault, is filled to a large extent by sandstones and marls
of Eocene age. A superficial layer of recent volcanic tuffs
occurs in several parts of the island. The Blue Grotto is in the
Tithonian limestones; it shows indications of recent changes of
level.
The earliest mythical inhabitants (though some have localized
the Sirens here) are the Teleboi from Acarnania under their king
Telon. Neolithic remains were found in 1882 in the Grotta delle
Felci, a cave on the south coast. In historical times we find the
island occupied by Greeks. It subsequently fell into the hands of
Neapolis, and remained so until the time of Augustus, who took
it in exchange for Aenaria (Ischia) and often resided there.
Tiberius, who spent the last ten years of his life at Capri, built no
fewer than twelve villas there; to these the great majority of the
numerous and considerable ancient remains on the island belong.
All these villas can be identified with more or less certainty, the
best preserved being those on the east extremity, consisting of
a large number of vaulted substructures and the foundations
perhaps of a pharos (lighthouse). One was known as Villa Jovis,
and the other eleven were probably named after other deities.
The existence of numerous ancient cisterns shows that in Roman
as in modern times rain-water was largely used for lack of springs.
After Tiberius's death the island seems to have been little
visited by the emperors, and we hear of it only as a place of
banishment for the wife and sister of Commodus. The island,
having been at first the property of Neapolis, and later of the
emperors, never had upon it any community with civic rights.
Even in imperial times Greek was largely spoken there, for about
as many Greek as Latin inscriptions have been found. The
medieval town was on the north side at the chief landing-place
(Marina Grande) , and to it belonged the church of S. Costanzo, an
early Christian building. It was abandoned in the 15th century
on account of the inroads of pirates, and the inhabitants took
refuge higher up at the two towns of Capri and Anacapri.
In 1806 the island was taken by the English fleet under Sir
Sidney Smith, and strongly fortified, but in 1808 it was retaken
by the French under Lamarque. In 1813 it was restored to
Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (Breslau, 1890), 278 seq.; G. Feola,
Rapporto sullo stato dei ruderi Augusto-Tiberiani — MS. inedito,
publicato dal Dott. Ignazio Cerio (Naples, 1894) ; F. Furchheira,
Bibliografia dell* I sola di Capri e della provincia Sorrentina (Naples,
1899); C. Weichhardt, Das Schloss des Tiherius und andere Romer-
bauten auf Capri (Leipzig, 1900). (T. As.)
CAPRICCIO, or Caprice (Ital. for a sudden motion or fancy),
a musical term for a lively composition of an original and fan-
tastic nature, not following a set musical form, although
the first known, written for the harpsichord, partook of the
nature of a fugue. The word is also used for pieces of a
fanciful type, in the nature of transcriptions and variations.
CAPRICORNUS ("The Goat"), in astronomy, the tenth
sign of the zodiac (q.v.), represented by the symbol 1?° intended
to denote the crooked horns of this animal. The word is derived
from Lat. caper y a goat, and cornu, a horn. It is also a constella-
tion of the southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th
century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.) ; Ptolemy and Tycho
Brahe catalogued 28 stars, Hevelius gave 29. It was represented
by the ancients as a creature having the forepart a goat, and the
hindpart a fish, or sometimes simply as a goat. An interesting
member of this constellation is a-Capricorni, a pair of stars of 3rd
and 4th magnitudes, each of which has a companion of the 9th
magnitude.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE, a natural order of plants belonging to
the sympetalous or higher division of Dicotyledons, that namely
which is characterized by having the petals of the flower united.
The plants are mainly shrubs and trees; British representatives
are Sambucus (elder) , Viburnum (guelder-rose and wayfaring tree) ,
Lonicera (honeysuckle) (see fig.); Adoxa (moschatel), a small
herb with a creeping stem and small yellowish-green flowers, is
occasionally found on damp hedge-banks; IAnnaea, a slender
creeping evergreen with a thread-like stem and pink bell-shaped
CAPRIVI DE CAPRERA DE MQNTECUCCOLI
291
flower, a northern plant, occurs in fir-forests and plantations in
the north of England and Scotland. The leaves are opposite,
simple as in honeysuckle, or compound as in elder; they have
usually no stipules. The flowers are regular as in Viburnum
Flowering shoot of Lonicera Caprifolium, slightly reduced, i, Fruit
slightly reduced; 2, horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.
and Sambucus, more rarely two-lipped as in Lonicera; the sepals
and petals are usually five in number and placed above the ovary,
the five stamens are attached to the corolla-tube, there are three
to five carpels, and the fruit is a berry as in honeysuckle or
snowberry (Symphoricarpus), or a stone fruit, with several,
usually three, stones, as in Sambucus.
In Sambucus and Viburnum the small white flowers are
massed in heads; honey is secreted at the base of the styles
and, the tube of the flower being very short, is exposed to the
visits of flies and insects with short probosces. The flowers of
Lonicera, which have a long tube, open in the evening, when they
are sweet-scented and are visited by hawk-moths. The order
contains about 250 species, chiefly natives of the north temperate
zone and the mountains of the tropics. Several genera afford
ornamental plants; such are Lonicera, erect shrubs or twiners
with long-tubed white, yellow or red flowers; Symphoricarpus,
a North American shrub, with small whitish pendulous flowers
and white berries; Diervilla (also known as Weigelia), and
Viburnum, including V. Opulus, guelder rose, in the cultivated
forms of which the corolla has become enlarged at the expense
of the essential organs and the flowers are neuter.
CAPRIVI DE CAPRERA DE MONTECUCCOLI, GEORG LEO
VON, Count (1 831-1899), German soldier and statesman, was
born on the 24th of February 1831 at Charlottenburg. The
family springs from Carniola, and the name was originally
written Kopriva; in the 18th century one branch settled in
Wernigerode, and several members entered the Prussian service;
the father of the chancellor held a high judicial post, and was
made a life member of the Prussian House of Lords. Caprivi
was educated in Berlin, and entered the army in 1849; he took
part in the campaign of 1866, being attached to the staff of the
1st army. In 1 870 he served as chief of the staff to the 10th army
corps, which formed part of the 2nd army, and took part in the
battles before Metz as well as in those round Orleans, in which
he highly distinguished himself. One of the most delicate
strategical problems of the whole war was the question of
whether to change the direction of the 10th corps on the morning of
the 1 6th of August before Vionville, and in this, as well as in the
actual manoeuvres of the corps on that day, Caprivi, as repre-
sentative of, and counsellor to, his chief, General v. Voigts-;
Rhetz, took a leading part. At the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande,
the turning-point of the Orleans campaign, the 10th corps bore
the brunt of the fighting. After the peace he held several
important military offices, and in 1883 was made chief of the
admiralty, in which post he had to command the fleet and to
organize and represent the department in the Reichstag. He
resigned in 1888, when the command was separated from the
representation in parliament, and was appointed commander of
the 10th army corps. Bismarck had already referred to him as
a possible successor to himself, for Caprivi had shown great
administrative ability, and was unconnected with any political
party; and in March 1890 he was appointed chancellor, Prussian
minister president and foreign minister. He was quite unknown
to the public, and the choice caused some surprise, but it was
fully justified. The chief events of his administration, which
lasted for four years, are narrated elsewhere, in the article on
Germany. He showed great ability in quickly mastering the
business, with which he was hitherto quite unacquainted, as he
himself acknowledged; his speeches in the Reichstag were
admirably clear, dignified and to the point. His first achieve-
ment was the conclusion in July 1890 of a general agreement with
Great Britain regarding the spheres of influence of the two
countries in Africa. Bismarck had supported the colonial
parties in Germany in pretensions to which it was impossible
for Great Britain to give her consent, and the relations between
the two powers were in consequence somewhat strained. Caprivi
adopted a conciliatory attitude, and succeeded in negotiating
terms with Lord Salisbury which gave to Germany all she could
reasonably expect. But the abandonment of an aggressive
policy in East Africa and in Nigeria, and in the withdrawal of
German claims to Zanzibar (in exchange for Heligoland) aroused
the hostility of the colonial parties, who bitterly attacked the
new chancellor. Caprivi had, however, by making the frontiers
of the Congo Free State and German East Africa meet, " cut "
the Cape to Cairo connexion of the British, an achievement
which caused much dismay in British colonial circles, regular
treaties having been obtained from native chiefs over large
areas which the chancellor secured for Germany. In Nigeria
also Caprivi by the 1890 agreement, and by another concluded
in 1893, made an excellent bargain for his country, while in
South-West Africa he obtained a long but narrow extension
eastward to the Zambezi of the German protectorate (this strip
of territory being known as " Caprivi's Finger "). In his African
policy the chancellor proved far-sighted, and gained for the new
protectorates a period for internal development and consolida-
tion. The Anglo-German agreement of 1890 was followed by
commercial treaties with Austria, Rumania, &c. ; by concluding
them he earned the express commendation of the emperor and
the title of count, but he was from this time relentlessly attacked
by the Agrarians, who made it a ground for their distrust that
he was not himself a landed proprietor; and from this time he
had to depend much on the support of the Liberals and other
parties-who had been formerly in opposition. The reorganization
of the army caused a parliamentary crisis, but he carried it
through successfully, only, however, to earn the enmity of the
more old-fashioned soldiers, who would not forgive him for
shortening the period of service. His position was seriously
compromised by the failure in 1892 to carry an education bill
which he had defended by saying that the question at issue was
Christianity or Atheism, and he resigned the presidency of the
Prussian ministry, which was then given to Count Eulenburg.
In 1894, a difference arose between Eulenburg and Caprivi
concerning the bill for an amendment of the criminal code (the
Umsturz Vorlage), and in October the emperor dismissed both.
Caprivi's fall was probably the work of the Agrarians, but it was
also due to the fact that, while he showed very high ability in
conducting the business of the country, he made no attempt to
secure his personal position by forming a party either in parlia-
ment or at court. He interpreted his position rather as a soldier;
he did his duty, but did not think of defending himself. He
292
CAPRONNIER— CAPSTAN
suffered much from the attacks made on him by the followers of
Bismarck, and he was closely associated with the social ostracism
of that statesman; we do not know, however, in regard either to
this or to the other events of his administration, to what extent
Caprivi was really the author of the policy he carried out, and to
what extent he was obeying the orders of the emperor. With a
loyalty which cannot be too highly praised, he always refused,
even after his abrupt dismissal, to justify himself, and he could
not be persuaded even to write memoirs for later publication.
The last years of his life were spent in absolute retirement, for
he could not return even to the military duties which he had
left with great reluctance at the orders of the emperor. He died
unmarried on the 6th of February 1899, at the age of sixty-eight.
See R. Arndt, Die Reden des Graf en v. Caprivi (Berlin, 1894), with
a biography. (J. W. He.)
CAPRONNIER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1814-1891), Belgian
stained-glass painter, was born in Brussels in 1814, and died
there in 1891. He had much to do with the modern revival of
glass-painting, and first made his reputation by his study of
the old methods of workmanship, and his clever restorations of
old examples, and copies made for the Brussels archaeological
museum. He carried out windows for various churches in
Brussels, Bruges, Amsterdam and elsewhere, and his work was
commissioned also for France, Italy and England. At the
Paris Exhibition of 1855 he won the only medal given for glass-
painting.
CAPSICUM, a genus of plants, the fruits of which are used
as peppers (see Cayenne Pepper for botany, &c). As
used in medicine, the ripe fruit of the capsicum mimutn (or
frutescans), containing the active principle capsaicin (cap-
sacutin), first isolated by Thresh in 1876, has remarkable
physiological properties. Applied locally to the skin or mucous
membrane, it causes redness and later vesication. Internally in
small doses it stimulates gastric secretions and causes dilatation
of the vessels; but if used internally in excess for a long period it
will cause subacute gastritis. In single doses in excess it causes
renal irritation and inflammation and strangury. The adminis-
tration of capsicum is valuable in atony of the stomach due to
chronic alcoholism, its hot stimulating effect not only increasing
the appetite but to a certain degree satisfying the craving for
alcohol. It is also useful in the flatulency of the aged, where it
prevents the development of gas, and has a marked effect on
anorexia. It has been used in functional torpidity of the kidney.
Externally capsicum plaster placed over the affected muscles is
useful in rheumatism and lumbago. Capsicum wool, known as
calorific wool, made by dissolving the oleoresin of capsicum in
ether and pouring it on to absorbent cotton-wool, is useful in
rheumatic affections.
CAPSTAN (also spelt in other forms, or as " capstock " and
" cable stock," connected with the O. Fr. capestan or cabestan,
from Lat. capistrum, a halter, capere, to take hold of; the
conjecture that it came from the Span, cobra, goat, and estanio,
standing, is untenable), an appliance used on board ship and on
dock walls, for heaving-in or veering cables and hawsers, whether
of iron, steel or hemp. It differs from a windlass, which is used
for the same purposes, in having the axis on which the rope is
wound vertical instead of horizontal. The word seems to have
come into English (14th century) from French or Spanish ship-
men at the time of the Crusades. The earlier forms were of a
comparatively simple character, made of wood with an iron
spindle and worked by manual labour with wooden capstan bars.
As heavier cables were supplied to ships, difficulty was found,
when riding at anchor, in holding, checking and veering cable.
A cable-holder (W. H. Harfield's) was tested in H.M.S. " New-
castle " (wooden frigate) in 1870 and proved effective; its first
development in 1876 was the application in the form of a
windlass secured to the deck, driven by a messenger chain from
the capstan, fitted in H.M.S. " Inflexible " (fig. 1).
The capstans and engine are*hown at A,A,A, and the windlass
B is driven by messenger chains C, C. The four cables (dotted
line D, D) lead to their respective cable-holders, fitted with a
brake, and by these means each cable-holder can be connected
to the main driving shaft, and any cable hove-in or veered
independently of the other; by using steam power instead of
manual, the previous slow motion
was obviated. In H.M.S. " Col-
lingwood " steam power was
used to work the windlass'"
directly by means of worm
gearing; the windlass was
divided into two parts, so that <
the one on the port side could
be worked independently of that
on the starboard, and vice
versa. An independent capstan
in both ships, arranged to take
either of the cables, could be
worked by hand or steam. In
the " Collingwood's " windlass the cables remained on their
holders, and could be hove-in or veered without being touched.
Napier's patent windlass for merchant ships (1906) resembles
an appliance fitted in the earlier second-class cruisers of the
British navy (1890 to 1000). Two cable wheels or cable-holders
are mounted loose on a horizontal axle, one on each side of a
worm wheel which is tightly keyed on the middle part of the axle.
A vertical steam engine with two cylinders, placed one on each
side of the framing, drives a second horizontal axle which is
connected by a set of bevel gears to an upright worm shaft,
which works the worm wheel. This worm wheel can be con-
nected by means of sliding bolts to one or both of the cable
wheels, enabling one or both cables to be hove-in or veered
as necessary. A brake, of Napier's self-holding differential
type, is fitted to each cable wheel, and is controlled by hand
wheels on the aft side of the windlass. For warping pur-
poses, warping drums are fitted (made portable if required).
A third central capstan, fitted forward of the windlass, is con-
nected to the upright worm shaft by a horizontal shaft and
bevel wheels. It can also be worked by manual labour with
capstan bars. Fig. 2 represents the arrangement of the capstans
on the forecastle of a battleship, fitted by Napier B rothers. Deep-
A
e
Fig. 2. — Elevation looking aft.
bodied capstans have been superseded by low drum-headed ones,
over which the guns may be fired. The three capstans or cable-
holders of cast steel, capable of taking 2f$- in. cables, are fitted
on vertical spindles, which pass down through the main and
armoured decks to the platform one, where the steam engine and
gearing are placed. The gearing consists of worm and wheel
gears, so arranged that the three capstans can be worked singly or
in conjunction, when heaving-in or veering, and the brakes (of
the type previously mentioned) are controlled by a portable
hand wheel fitted on the aft side of each. The cable-holders
can be used for riding at anchor (see Cable). The middle line
capstan E is keyed to vertical spindles and can be coupled up to
the capstan engine, by clutch and drop bolts in the capstan
engine room; it is fitted with a cable-holder, to take either the
port or starboard cables, and in addition is provided with
portable whelps, enabling it to be used for warping. It can also
be worked by manual labour with capstan bars, a drum-head E',
fitted on the spindle on the main deck, enabling additional
capstan bars to be used if required.
To avoid carrying steam pipes aft, the after capstan is worked
CAPSULE— CAPTIVE
293
Fig. 3. — Napier Brothers'
capstan.
by an electric motor which is kept below the water-line. Napier
Brothers' capstan (fig. 3) is for warping purposes, for working the
stern anchor with wire hawser and for coaling. It is placed on the
tipper deck, and is fitted with a drum-head for capstan bars, with
pawls and pawl rim on the deck plate, the pawls A being lifted and
placed on their rests B when working with the motor. The upper
portion of the capstan, together with its drum-head, is portable,
being fixed to the centre boss with keys and gun-metal screws.
The centre boss is keyed to the spindle, which passes through the
deck and carries at its lower end a coupling for connecting to
the worm wheel gear. For working by motor, the additional
security of two drop bolts is provided. The gearing consists
of a single worm and worm wheel, working in an oil-bath, the
worm shaft being coupled direct to the motor spindle. The
motor is of the semi-enclosed type, the working and live parts
being protected by a perforated metallic covering; it is worked
off a 100-volt circuit, at a speed under full load conditions of 300
revolutions per minute. The motor is of a 4-pole type and
compound wound, the shunt
winding limiting the speed on
light load to not more than
1000 revolutions per minute.
A frictional break is provided,
pulled off by means of a shunt-
excited magnet. The controller
is of the reversing drum type,
with not less than four steps
in either direction, and is fitted
with a magnetic blow-out. The
control is effected by a remov-
able hand wheel on a portable
pedestal, fitted on top with a
circular dial plate and indi-
cating pointer; the hand wheel
reverses the current as well as
graduates the speed in either direction. All capstans of the
British navy, after being fitted on board ship, are tested for
lifting power and speed; with foremost (steam) capstans, the
steam being at 150 ft) pressure, the anchor is usually let go in
16 to 25 fathoms water, and the speed ascertained by observing
the time taken to heave-in not less than a length of cable, 75 ft. ;
the length must be hove-in in three minutes, or at the rate of
25 ft. per minute. With the after capstan (motor) of first-class
battleships and cruisers, a weight is used instead of an anchor,
the test being to lift 9 tons at the rate of 25 ft. per minute.
Capstans on dock walls in British government dockyards are
usually driven by hydraulic or air pressure, conveyed through
pipes to small engines underneath the capstans. (J. W. D.)
CAPSULB (from the Lat. capsula, a small box), a term in
botany for a dry seed vessel, as in the poppy, iris, foxglove, &c,
containing one or more cells. When ripe the capsule opens and
scatters the seed (see Botany). The word is used also for a
small gelatinous case enclosing a dose of medicine, and for a
metal cap or cover on bottles and jars. In anatomy the term
is used to denote a cover or envelope partly or wholly surrounding
a structure. Every diarthrodial joint possesses a fibrous or
ligamentous capsule, lined with synovial membrane, attached
to the adjacent ends of the articulating bones. The term is
particularly applied to the sac which encloses the crystalline
lens of the eye; to Glisson's capsule, a thin areolar coat of fibrous
tissue lying inside the tunica serosa of the liver; to the glomerular
capsules in the kidney substance; to the suprarenal capsules,
two small flattened organs in the epigastric region; and to the
internal and external capsules of the brain (see Brain, fig. 14
and explanation).
CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. caput, head, through the Low
Lat. capitanus), a chief or leader, in various connexions, but
particularly a grade officer in the army or navy.
At sea the name of captain is given to all who command ships
whether they belong to the military navy of their country or
not, or whether they hold the substantive rank or not. Thus a
lieutenant when in command of a vessel is addressed as captain.
In France a naval lieutenant is addressed as tnon capitaine,
because he has that comparative rank in the army. The master
of a merchant ship is known as her captain. But the name is
also used in the strict sense of foreman, or head man, to describe
many of the minor or " petty " officers of a British or American
man-of-war — the captain of a top, of the forecastle, or of a gun.
The title " post captain " in the British navy means simply
full captain, and is the equivalent of the French capitaine de
vaisseau. It had its origin in the fact that captains appointed
to a ship of twenty guns and upwards were included in, or
" posted " on, the permanent list of captains from among whom
the admirals were chosen. The captain of the fleet is an officer
who acts as chief of the staff to an admiral commanding a large
force. The position is equivalent to flag rank, but is held by
a captain. Staff captain is the highest grade of the officers
entrusted with the navigation of a ship or fleet.
The military rank of captain (Fr. capitaine, Ger. Hauptmann,
or in the cavalry, RUtmeister), which was formerly the title of an
officer of high rank corresponding to the modern general officer
or colonel, has with the gradual subdivision and articulation
of armies, come to be applied to the commanders of companies
or squadrons, and in general to officers of the grade equivalent
to this command (see Officers).
The title of " captain-general " was formerly used in the
general sense of a military commander-in-chief, and is still
similarly used in Spain. In the Spanish army there are eight
captains-general, each of whom has command of a " region "
corresponding to an army corps district. The same title was
formerly given to the Spanish governors of the colonial provinces
in the New World. The official title of the governor of Jamaica
is " captain-general and governor-in-chief."
CAPTAL (Lat. capitalis, " first," " chief "), a medieval feudal
title in Gascony. According to Du Cange the designation captal
{capital, captau, capitau) was applied loosely to the more illus-
trious nobles of Aquitaine, counts, viscounts, &c, probably
as capitales dotnini, " principal lords," though he quotes more
fanciful explanations. As an actual title the word was used
only by the lords of Trene, Puychagut, Epernon and Buch.
It is best known in connexion with the famous soldier, Jean de
Grailly, captal of Bush (d. 1376), the " captal de Buch" par
excellence, immortalized by Froissart as the confidant of the
Black Prince and the champion of the English cause against
France. His active part in the war began in 1364, when he
ravaged the country between Paris and Rouen, but was beaten
by Bertrand du Guesclin at Cocherel and taken prisoner. Re-
leased next year, he received the seigniory of Nemours and took
the oath of fealty to the French king, Charles V., but soon resigned
his new fief and returned to his allegiance to the English king.
In 1367 he took part in the battle of Navarette, in which Du
Guesclin was taken prisoner, the captal being entrusted with his
safe-keeping. In 13 71 Jean de Grailly was appointed constable
of Aquitaine, but was taken prisoner next year and interned in
the Temple at Paris where, resisting all the tempting offers of
the French king, he remained till his death five years later.
CAPTION (Lat. captio, a taking or catching), a term still
used in law, especially Scots, for arrest or apprehension. From
the obsolete sense of a catching at any possible plea or objection
comes the adjective " captious," i.e. sophistical or fault-finding.
The term also has an old legal use, to signify the part of an
indictment, &c., which shows where, when and by what authority
it is taken, found or executed; so its opening or heading. From
this is derived the modern sense of the heading of an article in
a book or newspaper.
CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take), one who is captured in
warfare. As a term of International Law, it has been displaced by
that of " prisoner of war." The position and treatment of cap-
tives or prisoners of war is now dealt with fully in chapter ii. of
the regulations annexed to the Hague Convention respecting the
Laws and Customs of War on Land, of the 18th of October 1907.
See Peace Conference and War; also Sir T.Barclay, supplement
to Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy, for comparison
of texts of 1899 and 1907.
294
CAPTURE—CAPUA
CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime;
Ger. Wegnohme), in international law, the taking possession
by a belligerent vessel of an enemy or neutral merchant or non-
fighting ship. If an enemy ship is captured she becomes forth-
with lawful prize (q.v.); when a neutral ship, the belligerent
commander, in case her papers are not conclusive, has a right
to search her. If he finds contraband on board or the
papers or cargo or circumstances excite any serious suspicion
in his mind, which the master of the ship has been unable to
dispel, he places an officer and a few of his crew on board and
sends her to the nearest port where there is a prize court for
trial. The word is also used for the vessel thus captured (see
Blockade, Contraband). (T. Ba.)
CAPUA (anc. Casilinum), a town and archiepiscopal see of
Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 7 m. W. by rail from
the town of Caserta. Pop. (1901) 14,285. It was erected in
856 by Bishop Landulf on the site of Casilinum (q.v.) after the
destruction of the ancient Capua by the Saracens in 840, but
it only occupies the site of the original pre- Roman town on the
left (south) bank of the river.
The cathedral of S. Stefano, erected in 856, has a handsome
atrium and a lofty Lombard campanile, and a (modernized)
interior with three aisles; both it and the atrium have ancient
granite columns. The Romanesque crypt, with ancient columns,
has also been restored. It has a fine paschal candlestick, and
the fragments of a pulpit with marble mosaic of the 13th century.
There are also preserved in the cathedral a fine Exultet roll and
an evangelorium of the end of the 12th century, bound in bronze
decorated with gold filigree and enamels. The mosaics of the
beginning of the 1 2th century in the apses of the cathedral and
of S. Benedetto, were destroyed about 17 20 and 1620 respectively.
The small church of S. Marcello was also built in 856. In 1 23 2-
1240 Frederick II. erected a castle to guard the Roman bridge
over the Volturno, composed of a triumphal arch with two
towers. This was demolished in 1557. The statues with which
it was decorated were contemporary imitations of classical
sculptures. Some of them are still preserved in the Museo
Campano (E. Bertaux, UArt dans V Italic mtridionale, Paris,
1904, i. 707). The Museo Campano also contains a considerable
collection of antiquities from the ancient Capua.
Capua changed hands frequently during the middle ages.
One of the most memorable facts in its history is the terrible
attack made on it in 1501 by Caesar Borgia, who had entered
the town by treachery, in which 5000 lives were sacrificed. It
remained a part of the kingdom of Naples until the 2nd of
November i860, when, a month after the battle of the Volturno,
it surrendered to the Italian troops. (T. As.)
CAPUA (mod. S. Maria di Capua Vetere), the chief ancient
city of Campania, and one of the most important towns of
ancient Italy, situated 16 m. N. of Neapolis, on the N.E. edge
of the Campanian plain. Its site in a position not naturally
defensible, together with the regularity of its plan, indicates that
it is not a very ancient town, though it very likely occupies the
site of an early Oscan settlement. Its foundation is attributed
by Cato to the Etruscans, and the date given as about 260 years
before it was " taken " by Rome (Veil. i. 7). If this be referred,
not to its capture in the second Punic War (211 B.C.) but to its
submission to Rome in 338 B.C., we get about 600 B.C. as the date
of its foundation, a period at which the Etruscan power was at
its highest, and which may perhaps, therefore, be accepted. 1
The origin of the name is probably Campus, a plain, 2 as the
adjective Campanus shows, Capuanus being a later form stig-
matized as incorrect by Varro (De L. L. x. 16). The derivation
from k&wvs (a vulture, Latinized into Volturnum by some
authorities who tell us that this was the original name), and that
from caput (as though the name had been given it as the " head "
of the twelve Etruscan cities of Campania), must be rejected.
1 G. Patroni, in Atti del Congresso Internationale di Scienze Storiche
(Rome, 1904), v. 217, is inclined to place it considerably earlier.
* Livy iv. 37, " Vulturnum Etruscorum urbem quae nunc Capua
est, ab Samnitibus captam (425 B.C.) Capuamque ab duce eorum
Capye, vel, quod propius vero est, a campestri agro appellatam."
The Etruscan supremacy in Campania came to an end with the
Samnite invasion in the latter half of the 5th century B.C. (see
Campania); these conquerors, however, entered into alliance
with Rome for protection against the Samnite mountain tribes,
and with Capua came the dependent communities Casilinum,
Calatia, Atella, so that the greater part of Campania now fell
under Roman supremacy. The citizens received the civitas sine
suffragio. In the second Samnite War they proved untrustworthy,
so that the Ager Falernus on the right bank of the Volturnus
was taken from them and distributed among citizens of Rome,
the tribus Falerna being thus formed ; and in 318 the powers of the
native officials (meddices) were limited by the appointment of
officials with the title praefecti Capuam Cumas (taking their
name from the most important towns of Campania); these were
at first mere deputies of the praetor urbanus, but after 123 B.C.
were elected Roman magistrates, four in number; they governed
the whole of Campania until the time of Augustus, when they
were abolished. In 312 B.C. Capua was connected with Rome
by the construction of the Via Appia, the most important of the
military highways of Italy. The gate by which it left the
Servian walls of Rome bore the name Poita Capena — perhaps
the only case in which a gate in this enceinte bears the name of
the place to which it led. At what time the Via Latina was
prolonged to Casilinum is doubtful (it is quite possible that it was
done when Capua fell under Roman supremacy, i.e. before the
construction of the Via Appia); it afforded a route only 6 m.
longer, and the difficulties in connexion with its construction
were much less; it also avoided the troublesome journey through
the Pomptine Marshes (see T. Ashby in Papers of the British
School at Rome, i. 2 1 7 , London, 1 902 ) . The importance of Capua
increased steadily during the 3rd century, and at the beginning
of the second Punic War it was considered to be only slightly
behind Rome and Carthage themselves, and was able to furnish
30,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry. Until after the defeat of
Cannae it remained faithful to Rome, but, after a vain demand
that one of the consuls should always be selected from it, it
transferred its allegiance to Hannibal, who made it his winter-
quarters, with bad results to the morale of his troops (see Punic
Wars) . After a long siege it was taken by the Romans in 2 11 B.C.
and severely punished; its magistrates and communal organiza-
tion were abolished, the inhabitants losing their civic rights, and
its territory became Roman state domain. Parts of it were sold
in 205 and 199 B.C., another part was divided among the citizens
of the new colonies of Volturnum and Liternum established
near the coast in 194 B.C., but the greater portion of it was
reserved to be let by the state. Considerable difficulties occurred
in preventing illegal encroachments by private persons, and it
became necessary to buy a number of them out in 162 B.C. It
was, after that period, let, not to large but to small proprietors.
Frequent attempts were made by the democratic leaders to
divide the land among new settlers. Brutus in 83 B.C. actually
succeeded in establishing a colony, but it was soon dissolved; and
Cicero's speeches De Lege Agraria were directed against a
similar attempt by Servilius Rullus in 63 B.C. In the meantime
the necessary organization of the inhabitants of this thickly-
populated district was in a measure supplied by grouping them
round important shrines, especially that of Diana Tifatina, in
connexion with which a pagus Dianae existed, as we learn from
many inscriptions; a pagus Herculaneus is also known. The
town of Capua belonged to none of these organizations, and was
entirely dependent on the praefecti. It enjoyed great prosperity,
however, owing to its spelt, which was worked into groats, wine,
roses, spices, unguents, &c, and also owing to its manufactures,
especially of bronze objects, of which both the elder Cato and
the elder Pliny speak in the highest terms (De agr. 135; Hist.
Nat. xxiv. 95). Its luxury remained proverbial; and Campania
is especially spoken of as the home of gladiatorial combats.
From the gladiatorial schools of Campania came Spartacus and
his followers in 73 B.C. Julius Caesar as consul in 59 B.C. succeeded
in carrying out the establishment of a colony in connexion with
his agrarian law, and 20,000 Roman citizens were settled in this
territory. The number of colonists was increased by Mark
CAPUCHIN MONKEY
295
Antony, Augustus (who constructed *n aqueduct from the Mans
Tifata, and gave the town of Capua estates in the district of
Cnossus in Crete to the value of 12 million sesterces — £120,000),
and Nero. In the war of aj>. 69 it took the side of Vitellius.
Under the later empire it is not often mentioned; but in the
4th century it was the seat of the consularis Campaniae and its
chief town, though Ausonius puts it behind Mediolanum (Milan)
and Aquileia in his ordo nobilium urbium. Under Constantine
we hear of the foundation of a Christian church in Capua* In
a.d. 456 it was taken and destroyed by Genseric, but must have
been soon rebuilt: it was, however, finally destroyed by the
Saracens in 840 and the church of S. Maria Maggiore, founded
about 497, alone remained. It contains 52 ancient marble
columns, but was modernized in 1766. The site was only
occupied in the late middle ages by a village which has, however,
outgrown the medieval Capua in modern days.
Remains. — No pre-Roman remains have been found within
the town of Capua itself, but important cemeteries have been
discovered on all sides of it, the earliest of which go back to the
7th or 6th century B.C. The tombs are of various forms, partly
chambers with frescoes on the walls, partly cubical blocks of
peperino, hollowed out, with grooved lids. The objects found
within them consist mainly of vases of bronze (many of them
without feet, and with incised designs of Etruscan style) and of
clay, some of Greek, some of local manufacture, and of paintings.
On the east of the town, in the Patturelli property, a temple has
been discovered with Oscan votive inscriptions, some of them
inscribed upon terra-cotta tablets, others on cippi, while of a
group of 150 tufa statuettes (representing a matron holding one
or more children in her lap) three bore Latin inscriptions of the
early imperial period. The site of the town being in a perfectly
flat plain, without natural defences, it was possible to lay it out
regularly. Its length from east to west is accurately determined
by the fact that the Via Appia, which runs from north-west to
south-east from Casilinum to Calatia, turns due east very soon
after passing the so-called Arco Campano (a triumphal arch of
good brickwork, once faced with marble, with three openings,
erected in honour of some emperor unknown), and continues to
run in this direction for 54 13I English feet (= 6000 ancient
Oscan feet). The west gate was the Porta Romana; remains
of the east gate (the name of which we do not know) have been
found. This fact shows that the main street of the town was
perfectly orientated, and that before the Via Appia was con-
structed, i.e. in all probability in pre-Roman times. The width
of the town from north to south cannot be so accurately deter-
mined as the line of the north and south walls is not known,
though it can be approximately fixed by the absence of tombs
(Beloch fixes it at 4000 Oscan feet = 3609 English feet), nor is it
absolutely certain (though it is in the highest degree probable,
for Cicero praises its regular arrangement and fine streets) that
the plan of the town was rectangular. Within the town are
remains of thermae on the north of the Via Appia and of a theatre
opposite, on the south. The former consisted of a large crypto-
porticus round three sides of a court, the south side being open
to the road; it now lies under the prisons. Beloch (see below)
attributes this to the Oscan period; but the construction as
shown in Labruzzi's drawing (v. 17) l is partly of brick-work and
opus reticulatum, which may, of course, belong to a restoration.
The stage of the theatre had its back to the road; Labruzzi
(v. 18) gives an interesting view of the cavea. It appears from
inscriptions that it was erected after the time of Augustus.
Other inscriptions, however, prove the existence of a theatre as
early as 94 B.C., so that the existence of another elsewhere must
be assumed. We know that the Roman colony was divided into
regions and possessed a capitolium, with a temple of Jupiter,
within the town, and that the market-place, for unguents
especially, was called Seplasia; we also hear of an aedes alba,
probably the original senate house, which stood in an open space
known as alb ana. But the sites of all these are quite uncertain.
Outside the town on the north is the amphitheatre, built in the
1 For these drawings see T. Ashby, " Dessins inGdits de Carlo
Labruzzi," in Melanges de FEcole frangaise, 1903, 414.
time of Augustus, restored by Hadrian and dedicated by
Antoninus Pius, as the inscription over the main entrance
recorded. The exterior was formed by 80 Doric arcades of four
storeys each, but only two arches now remain. The keystones
were adorned with heads of divinities. The interior is better
preserved; beneath the arena are subterranean passages like
those in the amphitheatre at Puteoli. It is one of the largest in
existence; the longer diameter is 185 yds., the shorter 152, and
the arena measures 83 by 49 yds., the corresponding dimensions
in the colosseum at Rome being 205, 170, 93 and 58 yds. To
the east are considerable remains of baths — a large octagonal
building, an apse against which the church of S. Maria deile
Grazie is built, and several heaps of d6bris. On the Via Appia,
to the south-east of the east gate of the town, are two large and
well-preserved tombs of the Roman period, known as le Carceri
vecchie and la Conocchia. To the east of the amphitheatre an
ancient road, the Via Dianae, leads north to the Pagus Dianae,
on the west slopes of the Mons Tifata, a community which sprang
up round the famous and ancient temple of Diana, and probably
received an independent organization after the abolition of that
of Capua in 2 1 1 B.C. The place often served as a base for attacks
on the latter, and Sulla, after his defeat of C. Norbanus, gave the
whole of the mountain to the temple. Within the territory of
the pagus were several other temples with their magistri. After
the restoration of the community of Capua, we find magistri of
the temple of Diana still existing, but they were probably
officials of Capua itself. The site is occupied by the Benedictine
church of S. Angelo in Formis 2 which dates from 944, and
was reconstructed by the abbot Desiderius (afterwards Pope
Victor III.) of Monte Cassino in 1073, with interesting paintings,
dating from the end of the nth century to the middle of the 1 2th,
in which five different styles may be distinguished. They form a
complete representation of all the chief episodes of the New
Testament (see F. X. Kraus, Jahrbuch d. k. preuss. Kunst-
sammlungen, xiv.). Deposits of votive objects (favissae),
removed from the ancient temple from time to time as new ones
came in and occupied all the available space, have been found,
and considerable remains of buildings belonging to the Vicus
Dianae (among them a triumphal arch and some baths, also a
hall with frescoes, representing the goddess herself ready for the
chase) still exist.
The ancient road from Capua went on beyond the Vicus
Dianae to the Volturnus (remains of the bridge still exist) and
then turned east along the river valley to Caiatia and Telesia.
Other roads ran to Puteoli and Cumae (the so-called Via
Campana) and to Neapolis, and as we have seen the Via Appia
passed through Capua, which was thus the most important road
centre of Campania (q.v.).
See Th. Mommsen in Corpus Inscrip. Lot. x. (Berlin, 1883), p. 365
seq.; J. Beloch, Canitanien (Breslau, 1890), 295 seq.; Ch. Hiilsen in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclop&die (Stuttgart, 1899), »"• 1555. (T. As.)
CAPUCHIN MONKEY, the English name of a tropical
American monkey scientifically known as Cebus capucinus; the
plural, capuchins, is extended to embrace all the numerous
species of the same genus, whose range extends from Nicaragua
to Paraguay. These monkeys, whose native name is sapajou,
are the typical representatives of the family Cebidae, and belong
to a sub-family in which the tail is generally prehensile. From
the other genera of that group (Cebinae) with prehensile tails
capuchins are distinguished by the comparative shortness of
that appendage, and the absence of a naked area on the under
surface of its extremity. The hair is not woolly, the general
build is rather stout, and the limbs are of moderate length and
slenderness. The name capuchin is derived from the somewhat
cowl-like form assumed by the thick hair on the crown of the
head of the sapajous. In their native haunts these monkeys
go about in troops of considerable size, frequenting the summits
of the tall forest-trees, from which they seldom, if ever, descend.
In addition to fruits of various kinds, they consume tender
shoots and buds, insects, eggs and young birds. Many of the
* The name comes from the aqueduct (forma) erected by Augustus
for the supply of Capua, remains of which still exist.
296
CAPUCHINS— CAPYBARA
spedes are difficult to distinguish, and very little is known of their
habits in a wild state, although several members of the group
are common in captivity (see Psdiates). (R. L.*)
CAPUCHINS, an order of friars in the Roman Catholic Church,
the chief and only permanent offshoot from the Franciscans.
It arose about the year 1520, when Matteo di Bassi, an " Obser-
vant " Franciscan, became possessed of the idea that the habit
worn by the Franciscans was not the one that St Francis had
worn; accordingly he made himself a pointed or pyramidal
hood and also allowed his beard to grow and went about bare-
footed. His superiors tried to suppress these innovations, but
in 1528 he obtained the sanction of Clement VII. and also the
permission to live as a hermit and to go about everywhere
preaching to the poor; and these permissions were not only for
himself, but for all such as might join him in the attempt to
restore the most literal observance possible of St Francis's rule.
Matteo was soon joined by others. The Observants opposed
the movement, but the Conventuals supported it, and so Matteo
and his companions were formed into a congregation, called
the Hermit Friars Minor, as a branch of the Conventual Fran-
ciscans, but with a vicar of their own, subject to the jurisdiction
of the general of the Conventuals. From their hood (capuche)
they received the popular name of Capuchins. In 1529 they
had four houses and held their first general chapter, at which
their special rules were drawn up. The eremitical idea was
abandoned, but the life was to be one of extreme austerity,
simplicity and poverty — in all things as near an approach to
St Francis's idea as was practicable. Neither the monasteries
nor the congregation should possess anything, nor were any
devices to be resorted to for evading this law; no large provision
against temporal wants should be made, and the supplies in the
house should never exceed what was necessary for a few days.
Everything was to be obtained by begging, and the friars were
not allowed even to touch money. The communities were to be
small, eight being fixed as the normal number and twelve as the
limit. In furniture and clothing extreme simplicity was enjoined
and the friars were to go bare-footed without even sandals.
Besides the choral canonical office, a portion of which was recited
at midnight, there were two hours of private prayer daily. The
fasts and disciplines were rigorous and frequent. The great ex-
ternal work was preaching and spiritual ministrations among
the poor. In theology the Capuchins abandoned the later
Franciscan school of Scotus, and returned to the earlier school
of Bona ventura (q.v.). The new congregation at the outset
of its history underwent a series of severe blows. The two
founders left it, Matteo di Bassi to return to the Observants,
while his first companion, on being superseded in the office of
vicar, became so insubordinate that he had to be expelled.
The case of the third vicar, Bernardino Ochino (q.v.), who became
a Calvinist, 1543, and married, was even more disastrous.
This mishap brought the whole congregation under the suspicion
of heretical tendencies and the pope resolved to suppress it;
he was with difficulty induced to allow it to continue, but the
Capuchins were forbidden to preach. In a couple of years the
authorities were satisfied as to the soundness of the general body
of Capuchin friars, and the permission to preach was restored.
The congregation at once began to multiply with extraordinary
rapidity, and by the end of the 16th century the Capuchins had
spread all over the Catholic parts of Europe, so that in 16 19
they were freed from their dependence on the Conventual
Franciscans and became an independent order, with a general
of their own. They are said to have had at that time 1 500 houses
divided into fifty provinces. They were one of the chief factors
in the Catholic Counter-reformation, working assiduously
among the poor, preaching, catechizing, confessing in all parts,
and impressing the minds of the common people by the great
poverty and austerity of their life. By these means they were
also extraordinarily successful in making converts from Pro-
testantism to Catholicism. Nor were the activities of the
Capuchins confined to Europe. From an early date they under-
took missions to the heathen in America, Asia and Africa, and
at the middle of the 17th century a Capuchin missionary college
was founded in Rome for the purpose of preparing their subjects
for foreign missions. A large number of Capuchins have suffered
martyrdom for the Gospel. This activity in Europe and else-
where continued until the close of the 18th century, when the
number of Capuchin friars was estimated at 31,000.
Like all other orders, the Capuchins suffered severely from
the secularizations and revolutions of the end of the 18th century
and the first half of the 19th; but they survived the strain,
and during the latter part of the 19th century rapidly recovered
ground. At the beginning of the present century there were
fifty provinces with some 500 monasteries and 300 hospices or
lesser houses; and the number of Capuchin friars, including
lay-brothers, was reckoned at 9500. In England there are ten
or twelve Capuchin monasteries, and in Ireland three. The
Capuchins no w| possess the church of the Portiuncula at Assisi.
The Capuchins still keep up their missionary work and have some
200 missionary stations in all parts of the world — notably India,
Abyssinia and the Turkish empire. Though " the poorest of all
orders/' it has attracted into its ranks an extraordinary number
of the highest nobility and even of royalty. The celebrated
Father Mathew, the apostle of Temperance in Ireland, was a
Capuchin friar. Like the Franciscans the Capuchins wear a
brown habit.
The Capuchines are Capuchin nuns. They were founded
in 1538 in Naples. They lived according to the rules and regu-
lations of the Capuchin friars, and so austere was the life that
they were called " Sisters of Suffering." The order spread to
France and Spain, and a few convents still exist.
In order fully to grasp the meaning of the Capuchin reform, it is
necessary to know tne outlines of Franciscan history (see Francis-
cans). There does not appear to be any modern general history of
the Capuchin order as a whole, though there are histories of various
provinces and of the foreign missions. The references to all this
literature will be found in the article " Kapuzinerorden " in Wetzer
und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.), which is the best general sketch
on the subject. Shorter sketches, with the needful references, are
given in Max Heimbucher, Orden und KongregaUonen (1806), i. $ 44,
and in Herzog-Hauck, Reaiencyklopddie (3rd ed.), art. " Kapuziner. '
Helyot's Hist, des ordres religieux (1792), vii. c. 24 and c. 27,
gives an account of the Capuchins up to the end of the 1 7th
century. (E. C. B.)
CAPUS, ALFRED (1858- ), French author, was born at
Aix, in Provence, on the 25th of November 1858. In 1878 he
published, in collaboration with L. Vonoven, a volume of short
stories, and in the next year the two produced a one-act piece,
Le Mart malgrS lui, at the Theatre Cluny. He had been educated
as an engineer, but became a journalist, and joined the staff
of the Figaro in 1894. His novels, Qui perd gagne (1890), Faux
Dfpart (1891), Annies d'aventures (1895), which belong to this
period, describe the struggles of three young men at the beginning
of their career. From the first of these he took his first comedy,
Brignol et sa fitte (Vaudeville, 23rd November 1894). Among
his later plays are Innocent (1896), written with Alphonse AUais;
Petites folks (1897); Rosine (1897); Mortage bourgeois (1898);
Les Maris de lAontine (1900); La Bourse ou la vie (1900); La
Veine (1901); La Petite Fonctionnaire (1901); Les Deux Ecoles
(1902) ; La Chdtelaine(i 902) ; UAdversaire (1903), with Emmanuel
Arene, which was produced in London by Mr George Alexander
as The Man of the Moment, and Notre Jeunesse (1904), the first
of his plays to be represented at the Theatre Francais; Monsieur
PiSgois (1905); and, in collaboration with Lucien Descaves,
V Attentat (1906).
See fidouard Quet, Alfred Capus (1904), with appreciations by
various authors, in the series of CiUbrius d'aujourd'nui.
CAPYBARA, or Carpincho (Hydrochaerus capybara), the
largest living rodent mammal, characterized by its moderately
long limbs, partially-webbed toes, of which there are four in
front and three behind, hoof-like nails, sparse hair, short ears,
cleft upper lip and the absence of a tail. The dentition is
peculiar on account of the great size and complexity of the last
upper molar, which is composed of about twelve plates, and
exceeds in length the three teeth in front. The front surface
of the incisors has a broad, shallow groove. Capybaras are
aquatic rodents, frequenting the banks of lakes and rivers, and
CAR— CARACAL
297
being sometimes found where the water is brackish. They
generally associate in herds, and spend most of the day in covert
on the banks, feeding in the evening and morning. When dis-
turbed they make for the water, in which they swim and dive
with expertness, often remaining below the surface for several
minutes. Their usual food consists of water-plants and bark,
but in cultivated districts they do much harm to crops. Their
cry is a low, abrupt grunt. From five to eight is the usual
number in a Utter, of which there appears to be only one in the
year; and the young are carried on their parent's back when
in the water. Extinct species of capybara occur in the tertiary
deposits of Argentina, some of which were considerably larger
than the living form. Capybaras belong to the family Caviidae,
the leading characteristics of which are given in Rodentia.
When full-grown the entire length of the animal is about 4 ft.,
and the girth 3 ft. Their geographical range extends from
Guiana to the river Plate. Capybaras can be easily tamed;
numbers are killed on land by jaguars and in the water by
caimans — the alligators of South America.
CAR (Late Lat. carta), a term originally applied to a small
two- wheeled vehicle for transport (see Carriage), but also to
almost anything in the nature of a carriage, chariot, &c, and
to the carrying-part of a balloon. With some specific qualifica-
tion (tram-car, street-car, railway-car, sleeping-car, motor-car,
&c.) it is combined to serve as a general word instead of carriage
or vehicle. From Ireland comes the " jaunting-car," which is
in general use, both in the towns, where it is the commonest
public carriage for hire, and in the country districts, where it is
employed to carry the mails and for the use of tourists. The
gentry and more well-to-do farmers also use it as a private
carriage in all parts of Ireland. The genuine Irish jaunting-car
is a two-wheeled vehicle constructed to carry four persons
besides the driver. In the centre, at right angles to the axle,
is a " well " about 18 in. deep, used for carrying parcels or small
luggage, and covered with a lid which is usually furnished with
a cushion. The " well " provides a low back to each of the two
seats, which are in the form of wings placed over each wheel,
with foot boards hanging outside the wheel on hinges, so that
when not in use they can be turned up over the seats, thus
reducing the width of the car (sometimes very necessary in the
narrow country roads) and protecting the seats from the
weather. The passengers on each side sit with their backs to
each other, witi the " well " between them. The driver sits
on a movable box-seat, or " dicky," a few inches high, placed
across the head of the " well," with a footboard to which there
is usually no splash-board attached. A more modern form of
jaunting-car, known as a " long car," chiefly used for tourists,
is a four-wheeled vehicle constructed on the same plan, which
accommodates as many as eight or ten passengers on each side,
and two in addition on a high box-seat beside the driver. In the
city of Cork a carriage known as an " inside car " is in common
use. It is a two-wheeled covered carriage in which the pas-
sengers sit face to face as in a wagonette. In remote country
districts the poorer peasants still sometimes use a primitive
form of vehicle, called a " low-backed car," a simple square
shallow box or shelf of wood fastened to an axle without springs.
The two wheels are solid wooden disks of the rudest construction,
generally without the protection of metal tires, and so small in
diameter that the body of the car is raised only a few inches from
the ground.
CARABINIHRS, originally mounted troops of the French
army, armed with the carabine (carbine). In 1690 one company
of carabiniers was maintained in each regiment of cavalry.
Their duties were analogous to those of grenadiers in infantry
regiments — scouting, detached work, and, in general, all duties
requiring special activity and address. They fought mounted
and dismounted alike, and even took part in siege warfare in
the trenches. At the battle of Neerwinden in 1693 all the cara-
binier companies present were united in one body, and after
the action Louis XIV. consolidated them into a permanent
regiment with the name Royal Carabiniers. This was one of
the old regiments which survived the French Revolution, at
which time the title was changed to " horse grenadiers "; it is
represented in the French army of to-day by the nth Cuirassiers.
The carabiniers (6th Dragoon Guards) of the British army date
from 1685, and received the title from being armed with the
carabine in 1692. Regimen tally therefore they were one year
senior to the French regiment of Royal Carabiniers, and as a
matter of fact they took part as a regiment in the battle of
Neerwinden. Up to 1745 their title was " The King's Cara-
biniers "; from 1745 to 1788 they were called the 3rd Irish Horse,
and from 1788 they have borne their present title. In the
German army, one carabinier regiment alone (2nd Saxon Reiter
regiment) remains of the cavalry corps which formerly in various
states bore the title. In Italy the gendarmerie are called cara-
binieri.
CARABOBO, the smallest of the thirteen states of Venezuela,
bounded N. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by the state of Aragua, S.
by Zamora and W. by Lara. Its area is 2985 sq. m., and its
population, according to an official estimate of 1905, is 221,891.
The greater part of its surface is mountainous with moderately
elevated valleys of great fertility and productiveness, but south
of the Cordillera there are extensive grassy plains conterminous
with those of Gudrico and Zamora, on which large herds of cattle
are pastured. The principal products of the state are cattle,
hides and cheese from the southern plains, coffee and cereals from
the higher valleys, sugar and aguardiente from the lower valleys
about Lake Valencia, and cacao, coco-nuts and coco-nut fibre
from the coast. Various minerals are also found in its south-west
districts, about Nirgua. The capital is Valencia, and its princi-
pal towns are Puerto Cabello, Montalb&n (estimated pop. in 1904
7500), 30 m. W.S.W. of Valencia; Nirgua (pop. in 1891 8394),
an important commercial and mining town 36} m. S.W. of
Valencia, 2500 ft. above sea level; and Ocumare (pop. in 1891
7493), near the coast i8£ m. E. of Puerto Cabello, celebrated
for the fine quality of its cacao. Carabobo is best known for the
battle fought on the 24th of June 182 1 on a plain at the southern
exit from the passes through the Cordillera in this state, between
the revolutionists under Bolivar and the Spanish forces under
La Torre. It was one of the four decisive battles of the war,
though the forces engaged were only a part of the two armies
and numbered 2400 revolutionists (composed of 1500 mounted
llaneros known as the "Apure legion," and 900 British), and
3000 Spaniards. The day was won by the British, who drove
the Spaniards from the field at the point of the bayonet, although
at a terrible loss of life. The British legion was afterwards
acclaimed by Bolivar as "Salvadores de mi Patria." The
Spanish forces continued the war until near the end of 1823, but
their operations were restricted to the districts on the coast.
CARACAL, the capital of the department of Romanatzi,
Rumania; situated in the plains between the lower reaches of
the Jiu and OH rivers, and on the railway from Corabia, beside
the Danube, to Hermannstadt in Transylvania. Pop. (1900)
12,055. Caracal has little trade, except in grain. Its chief
buildings are the prefecture, school of arts and crafts and several
churches. There are some ruins of a tower, built in a.d. 217 by
the Roman emperor Caracalla, after whom the place is named.
In 1596 Michael the Brave of Walachia defeated the Turks near
Caracal.
CARACAL {Lynx caracal), sometimes called Persian lynx, an
animal widely distributed throughout south-western Asia, and
over a large portion of Africa. It is somewhat larger than a fox,
of a uniform reddish brown colour above, and whitish beneath,
with two white spots above each of the eyes, and a tuft of long
black hair at the tip of the ears; to these it owes its name, which
is derived from Turkish words signifying " black-ear." There
is little information as to the habits of this animal in a wild
state. Dr W. T. Blanford considers that it dwells among grass
and bushes rather than in forests. Its prey is said to consist
largely of gazelles, small deer, hares and peafowl and other birds.
The caracal is easily tamed, and in some parts of India is trained
to capture the smaller antelopes and deer and such birds as the
crane and pelican. According to Blyth, it is a favourite amuse-
ment among the natives to let loose a couple of tame caracals
v. xo a
298
CARACALLA— CARACCI
among a flock of pigeons feeding on the ground, when each will
strike down a number of birds before the flock can escape.
Frequent reference is made in Greek and Roman literature to
the lynx, and from such descriptions as are given of it there is
little doubt that the caracal, and not the European lynx, was
referred to. In South Africa, where the caracal abounds, its
hide is made by the Zulus into skin-cloaks, known as karosses.
According to W. L. Sclater, these when used as blankets are said
to be beneficial in cases of rheumatism; an ointment prepared
from the fat of the animal being employed for the same purpose.
The North African caracal has been separated as Lynx, or
Caracal, berberorutn, but it is best regarded as a local race.
CARACALLA (or Caracallus), MARCUS AURELIUS
ANTONINUS (186-217), Roman emperor, eldest son of the
emperor Septimius Severus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on
the 4th of April 186. His original name was Bassianus; his
nickname Caracalla was derived from the long Gallic tunic which
he wore and introduced into the army. He further received the
imperial title of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus at the time when
his father declared himself the adopted son of M. Aurelius. After
the death of Severus (211) at Eboracum (York) in Britain,
Caracalla and his brother Geta, who had accompanied their
father, returned to Rome as colleagues in the supreme power.
In order to secure the sole authority, Caracalla barbarously
murdered his brother in his mother's arms, and at the same time
put to death some 20,000 persons, who were suspected of favour-
ing him, amongst them the jurist Papinianus. An important
act of his reign (212) was the bestowal of the rights of Roman
citizenship upon all free inhabitants of the empire, although the
main object of Caracalla was doubtless to increase the amount
of revenue derived from the tax on inheritances or legacies to
which only Roman citizens were liable. His own extravagances
and the demands of the soldiery were a perpetual drain upon his
resources, to meet which he resorted to taxes and extortion of
every description. He spent the remainder of his reign wandering
from place to place, a mode of life to which he was said to have
been driven by the pangs of remorse. Handing over the reins
of government to his mother, he set out in 213 for Raetia, where
he carried on war against the Alamanni; in 214 he attacked the
Goths in Dacia, whence he proceeded by way of Thrace to Asia
Minor, and in 2 1 5 crossed to Alexandria. Here he took vengeance
for the bitter sarcasms of the inhabitants against himself and his
mother by ordering a general massacre of the youths capable of
bearing arms. In 216 he ravaged Mesopotamia because Arta-
banus, the Parthian king, refused to give him his daughter in
marriage. He spent the winter at Edessa, and in 217, when he
recommenced his campaign, he was murdered between Edessa
and Carrhae on the 8th of April at the instigation of Opellius
(Opilius) Macrinus, praefect of the praetorian guard, who
succeeded him. Amongst the numerous buildings with which
Caracalla adorned the city, the most famous are the thermae,
and the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus in the forum.
Authorities. — Dio Cassius Ixxvii., lxxviii.; Herodian iii. 10,
iv. 14; lives of Caracalla, Severus and Geta, in Scriptores Historiae
Augustae; Eutropius viii. 19-22; Aurelius Victor, De Cacsaribus,
20-23; EpU. 20-23; Zosimus i. 9-10 ; H. Schiller, Geschichte der
romischen Kaiseneit (1883), 738 ff. ; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie,
ii. 2434 ff. (von Rohden).
CARACAS, the principal city and the capital of the United
States of Venezuela, situated at the western extremity of an
elevated valley of the Venezuelan Coast Range known as the
plain of Chacao, 6J m. S.S.E. of La Guaira, its port on the
Caribbean coast, in lat. io° 30' N., long. 67 4' W. The plain
is about 11 m. long by 3 m. wide, and is separated from the
coast by a part of the mountain chain which extends along
almost the entire water front of the republic. It is covered with
well-cultivated plantations. The Guaira river, a branch of the
Tuy, traverses the plain from west to east, and flows past the
dty on the south. Among its many small tributaries are the
Catuche, Caroata and Anauco, which flow down through the city
from the north and give it a natural surface drainage. The city
is built at the narrow end of the valley and at the foot of the
Cerro de Avila, and stands from 2887 to 3442 ft. above Sea level,
the elevation of the Plaza de Bolivar, its topographical centre,
being 3025 ft. Two miles north-east is the famous Silla de
Car&cas, whose twin summits, like a gigantic old-fashioned
saddle {silla), rise to an elevation of 8622 ft.; and the Naiguet6,
still farther eastward, overlooks the valley from a height of
9186 ft. The climate of Car&cas is often described as that of
perpetual spring. It is subject, however, to extreme and rapid
variations in temperature, to alternations of dry and humid
winds (the latter, called calias, being irritating and oppressive),
to chilling night mists brought up from the coast by the westerly
winds, and to other influences productive of malaria, catarrh,,
fevers, bilious disorders and rheumatism. The maximum and
minimum temperatures range from 84 to 48 F., the annual
mean being about 66°, and the daily variation is often as much
as 1 5 . The city is built with its streets running between the
cardinal points of the compass and crossing each other at right
angles. Two intersecting central streets also divide the city
into four sections, in each of which the streets are methodically
named and numbered, as North 3rd, 5 th, 7th, &c, or West 2nd,
4th, 6th, &c, according to direction and location. This method
of numeration dates from the time of Guzman Blanco, but the
common people adhere to the names bestowed upon the city
squares in earlier times. The streets are narrow, but are clean
and well-paved, and are lighted by electricity and gas. There
are several handsome squares and public gardens, adorned with
statues, trees and shrubbery. The principal square is the Plaza
de Bolivar, the conventional centre of the city, in which stands
a bronze equestrian statue of Bolivar, and on which face the
cathedral, archbishop's residence, Casa Amarilla, national
library, general post office and other public offices. The Inde-
pendencia Park, formerly called Calvario Park, which occupies
a hill on the west side of the city, is the largest and most attractive
of the public gardens. Among the public edifices are the capitol,
which occupies a whole square, the university, of nearly equal
size, the cathedral, pantheon, masonic temple (built by the
state in the spendthrift days of Guzman Blanco), national
library, opera-house, and a number of large churches. The city
is generously provided with all the modern public services,
including two street car lines, local and long distance telephone
lines, electric power and light, and waterworks. The principal
water supply is derived from the Macarao river, 15 m. distant.
Railway connexion with the port of La Guaira was opened in 1883
by means of a line 23 m. long. Another line (the Gran Ferro-
carril de Venezuela) passes through the mountains to Valencia,
in m. distant, and two short lines run to neighbouring villages,
one to Petare and Santa Lucia, and the other to El Vaile. The
archbishop of Venezuela resides in Car&cas and has ecclesiastical
jurisdiction over the dioceses of Ciudad Bolivar, Calabozo,
Barquisimeto, Merida and Maracaibo. There are no manu-
factures of note.
Car&cas was founded in 1567 by Diego de Losada under
the pious title of Santiago de Le6n de Car&cas, and has been
successively capital of the province of Car&cas, of the captaincy-
general of Car&cas and Venezuela, and of the republic of
Venezuela. It is also one of the two chief cities, or capitals, of the
Federal district. It was the birthplace of Sim6n Bolivar, and
claims the distinction of being the first colony in South America
to overthrow Spanish colonial authority. The city was almost
totally destroyed by the great earthquake of 181 2. In the war
of independence it was repeatedly subjected to pillage and
slaughter by both parties in the strife, and did not recover its
losses for many years. In 1810 its population was estimated at
50,000; seventy-one years later the census of 1881 gave it only
55,638. In 1891 its urban population was computed to be
72,429, which in 1904 was estimated to have increased to about
90,000.
CARACCI, LODOVICO, AGOSTINO, and ANNIBALE, three
celebrated Italian painters, were born at Bologna in 1555, 1557,
and 1560 respectively. Lodovico, the eldest, son of a butcher,
was uncle to the two younger, Agostino and Annibale, sons of a
tailor, and had nearly finished his professional studies before the
CARACCIOLO
299
other s tad Vegun their education. From being a reputed dunce,
while studying under Tintoretto in Venice, he gradually rose, by
an attentive observation of nature and a careful- examination of
the works of the great masters preserved at Bologna, Venice,
Florence and Parma, to measure himself with the teachers of his
day, and ultimately projected the opening of a rival school in his
native place. Finding himself unable to accomplish his design
without assistance, he sent for his two nephews, and induced
them to abandon their handicrafts (Agostino being a goldsmith,
and Annibale a tailor) for the profession of painting. Agostino
he first placed under the care of Fontana, retaining Annibale in
his own studio; but he afterwards sent both to Venice and Parma
to copy the works of Titian, Tintoretto and Correggio, on which
his own taste had been formed. On their return, the three
relatives, assisted by an eminent anatomist, Anthony de la Tour,
opened, in 1589, an academy of painting under the name of the
Incamminati (or, as we might paraphrase it, the Right Road),
provided with numerous casts, books and bassi-rilievi, which
Lodovico had collected in his travels. From the affability and
kindness of the Caracci, and their zeal for the scientific education
of the students, their academy rose rapidly in popular estimation,
and soon every other school of art in Bologna was deserted and
closed. They continued together till, at the invitation of Cardinal
Farnese, Annibale and Agostino went to Rome in 1600 to paint
the gallery of the cardinal's palace. The superior praises awarded
to Agostino inflamed the jealousy of Annibale, already kindled
by the brilliant reception given by the pupils of the Incamminati
to Agostino's still highly celebrated picture of the " Communion
of St Jerome," and the latter was dismissed to Parma to paint
the great saloon of the Casino. Here he died in 1602, when on
the eve of finishing his renowned painting of "Celestial, Terrestrial
and Venal Love." Annibale continued to work alone at the
Farnese gallery till the designs were completed; but, dis-
appointed at the miserable remuneration offered by the cardinal,
he retired to Naples, where an unsuccessful contest for a great
work in the church of the Jesuits threw him into a fever, of
which he died in 1 609. Lodovico always remained at his academy
in Bologna (excepting for a short visit to his cousin at Rome),
though invited to execute paintings in all parts of the country.
He died in 16 19, and was interred in the church of Santa Maria
Maddalena. The works of Lodovico are numerous in the chapels
of Bologna. The most famous are — The " Madonna standing on
the moon, with St Francis and St Jerome beside her, attended by
a retinue of angels"; "John the Baptist," "St Jerome," "St
Benedict " and " St Cecilia"; and the "Limbo of the Fathers."
He was by far the most amiable of the three painters, rising
superior to all feelings of jealousy towards his rivals, and though
he received large sums for his productions, yet, from his almost
unparalleled liberality to the students of the academy, he died
poor. With skill in painting Agostino combined the greatest
proficiency in engraving (which he had studied under Cornelius
de Cort) and high accomplishments as a scholar. He died not
untroubled by remorse for the indecencies which, in accordance
with the corruption of the time, he had introduced into some
of his engravings. The works of Annibale are more diversified
in style than those of the others, and comprise specimens of
painting after the manner of Correggio, Titian, Paolo Veronese,
Raphael and Michelangelo. The most distinguished are the
" Dead Christ in the lap of the Madonna "; the " Infant and
St John"; "St Catherine"; "St Roch distributing alms"
(now in the Dresden gallery) ; and the " Saviour wailed over by
the Maries," at present in possession of the earl of Carlisle. He
frequently gave great importance to the landscape in his com-
positions. The reputation of Annibale is tarnished by his
jealousy and vindictiveness towards his brother, and the licen-
tiousness of his disposition, which contributed to bring him to a
comparatively early grave.
The three Caracci were the founders of the so-called Eclectic
school of painting, — the principle of which was to study in the
works of the great masters the several excellences for which they
had been respectively pre-eminent, and to combine these in the
productions of the school itself; for instance, there was to be the
design of Raphael, the power of Michelangelo, the colour of
Titian, and so on.
See A. Venturi, J Caracci e la loro scuola, 1895. (W. M. R.)
CARACCIOLO, FRANCESCO, Prince (1732-1799), Neapolitan
admiral and revolutionist, was born on the 18th of January
1732, of a noble Neapolitan family. He entered the navy and
learned his seamanship under Rodney. He fought with
distinction in the British service in the American War of Inde-
pendence, against the Barbary pirates, and against the French
at Toulon under Lord Hotham. The Bourbons placed the
greatest confidence in his skill. When on the approach of the
French to Naples King Ferdinand IV. and Queen Mary Caroline
fled to Sicily on board Nelson's ship the " Vanguard " (December
1798), Caracciolo escorted them on the frigate " Sannita." He
was the only prominent Neapolitan trusted by the king, but
even the admiral's loyalty was shaken by Ferdinand's cowardly
flight. On reaching Palermo Caracciolo asked permission to
return to Naples to look after his own private affairs (January
1799). This was granted, but when he arrived at Naples he
found all the aristocracy and educated middle classes infatuated
with the French revolutionary ideas, and he himself was received
with great enthusiasm. He seems at first to have intended to
live a retired life; but, finding that he must either join the
Republican party or escape to Procida, then in the hands of the
English, in which case even his intimates would regard him as
a traitor and his property would have been confiscated, he was
induced to adhere to the new order of things and took command
of the republic's naval forces. Once at sea, he fought actively
against the British and Neapolitan squadrons and prevented
the landing of some Royalist bands, A few days later all the
French troops in Naples, except 500 men, were recalled to the
north of Italy. * i
Caracciolo then attacked Admiral Thurn, who from the
" Minerva " commanded the Royalist fleet, and did some damage
to that vessel. But the British fleet on the one hand and Cardinal
Fabrizio Ruffo's army on the other made resistance impossible.
The Republicans and the 500 French had retired to the castles,
and Caracciolo landed and tried to escape in disguise. But
he was betrayed and arrested by a Royalist officer, who on the
29th of June brought him in chains on board Nelson's flagship
the " Foudroyant." It is doubtful whether Caracciolo should
have been included in the capitulation concluded with the
Republicans in the castles, as that document promised life and
liberty to those who surrendered before the blockade of the forts,
whereas he was arrested afterwards, but as the whole capitulation
was violated the point is immaterial. Moreover, the admiral's
fate was decided even before his capture, because on the 27th
of June the British minister, Sir W. Hamilton, had communicated
to Nelson Queen Mary Caroline's wish that Caracciolo should
be hanged. As soon as he was brought on board, Nelson ordered
Thurn to summon a court martial composed of Caracciolo 's
former officers, Thurn himself being a personal enemy of the
accused. The court was held on board the " Foudroyant,"
which was British territory — a most indefensible proceeding.
Caracciolo was charged with high treason; he had asked to be
judged by British officers, which was refused, nor was he allowed
to summon witnesses in his defence. He was condemned to
death by three votes to two, and as soon as the sentence was
communicated to Nelson the latter ordered that he should be
hanged at the yard-arm of the " Minerva " the next morning,
and his body thrown into the sea at sundown. Even the cus-
tomary twenty-four hours' respite for confession was denied
him, and his request to be shot instead of hanged refused. The
sentence was duly carried out on the 30th of June 1799.
Caracciolo was technically a traitor to the king whose uniform
he had worn, but apart from the wave of revolutionary
enthusiasm which had spread all over the educated classes of
Italy, and the fact that treason to a government like that of the
Neapolitan Bourbons could hardly be regarded as a crime,
there was no necessity for Nelson to make himself the executor
of the revenge of Ferdinand and Mary Caroline. His greatest
offence, as Captain Mahan remarks (Life of Nelson, i. 440), was
300
CARACOLE— CARALES
committed against his own country by sacrificing his inalienable
character as the representative of the king of Great Britain
to his secondary and artificial character as delegate of the king
of Naples. The only explanation of Nelson's conduct is to be
found in his infatuation for Lady Hamilton, whose low ambition
made her use her influence over him in the interest of Queen
Mary Caroline's malignant spite.
Authorities. — Besides the general works on Nelson and Naples,
such as P. Colletta's Siaria del Reame di Napoli (Florence, 1848),
there is a large amount of special literature on the subject. Nelson
and the Neapolitan Jacobins (Navy Records Society, 1903) contains
all the documents on the episode, including those incorrectly tran-
scribed by A. Dumas in his Borboni di Napoli (Naples, 1862-1863),
with an introduction defending Nelson by H. C. Gutteridge; the
work contains a bibliography. The case against Nelson is set forth
by Professor P. Villari in his article " Nelson, Caracciolo, e la Repub-
blica Napolitana " (Nuova Antologia, 16th February 1899) ; Captain
A. T. Mahan has replied in " The Neapolitan Republic and Nelson's
Accusers" (Entlisk Historical Review, July 1899), "Nelson at
Naples " (ibid., October 1000), and "Nelson at Naples" {Athenaeum,
8th July 1899); see also F. Lemmi, Nelson e Caracciolo (Florence,
1898); C. Giglioli, Naples in 1799 (London, 1903); Freiherr von
Helfert, Fabrtzio Ruffo (Vienna, 1882); H. Httffer, Die neapoli-
tanische Republik des Jahres 1799 (Leipzig, 1884). (L. V.*)
CARACOLE (a Fr. word, the origin of which is doubtful, mean-
ing the wheeling about of a horse; in Spanish and Portuguese
caracol means a snail with a spiral shell), a turn or wheeling
in horsemanship to the left or right, or to both alternately, so
that the movements of the horse describe a zig-zag course.
The term has been used loosely and erroneously to describe any
display of fancy riding. It is also used for a spiral staircase in
a tower.
CARACTACUS, strictly Cakatactjs, the Latin form of a Celtic
name, Vhich survives in Caradoc and other proper names. The
most famous bearer of the name was the British chieftain who
led the native resistance to the Roman invaders in a.d. 48-51,
and was finally captured and sent to Rome (Tac. Ann. xii. 33,
Dio. lx.). Two old camps on the Welsh border are now called
Caer Caradoc, but the names seem to be the invention of anti-
quaries and not genuinely ancient memorials of the Celtic hero.
CARADOC SERIES, in geology, the name introduced by
R. I. Murchison in 1839 for the sandstone series of Caer Caradoc
in Shropshire, England. The limits of Murchison's Caradoc
series have since been somewhat modified, and through the
labours of C. Lapworth the several members of the series have
been precisely defined by means of graptolitic zones. These
zones are identical with those found in the rocks of the same
age in North Wales, the Bala series (q.v.) y and the terms Bala
or Caradoc series are used indifferently by geologists when
referring to the uppermost substage of the Ordovician System.
The Ordovician rocks of the Caradoc district have been sub-
divided into the following beds, in descending order: the
Trinucleus shales, Acton Scott beds, Longville flags, Chatwell
and Soudley sandstones, Harnage shales and Hoar Edge grits
and limestone. In the Corndon district in the same county the
Caradoc series is represented by the Marrington group of ashes
and shales and the Spy Wood group beneath them; these two
groups of strata are sometimes spoken of as the Chirbury series.
In the Breidden district are the barren Criggeon shales with
ashes and flows of andesite.
In the Lake district the Coniston limestone series represents the
Upper Caradocian, the lower portion being taken up by part of the
great Borrowdale volcanic series of rocks. The Coniston limestone
series contains the following subdivisions : —
Ashgill group (Ashgill shales and Staurocephalus limestone).
Kiesley limestone.
Sleddale group (Applethwaite beds = Upper Coniston limestone
conglomerate; Yarlside rhyolite; stye end beds = Lower
Coniston limestone.
Roman Fell group (Corona beds).
The Dufton shales and Drygill shales are equivalents of the
Sleddale group.
Rocks of Caradoc age are well developed in southern Scotland ; in
the Girvan district they have been described as the Ardmillan series
with the Drum mock group and Barren Flagstone group in the upper
portion, and the Whitehouse, Ardwell and Balclatchie groups in the
lower part. Similarly, two divisions, known as the Upper and Lower
Hartfell series, are recognized in the southern and central area, in
Peeblesshire, Ayrshire and Dumfriesshire.
In Ireland the Caradoc or Bala series is represented by the lime-
stones of Portraine near Dublin and of the Chair of Kildare; by the
Ballymoney series of Wexford and Carnalea shales of Co. Down.
In the Lough Mask district beds of this age are found, as in Wales,
interstratified with volcanic lavas and tuffs. Other localities are
known in counties Tyrone, Meath and Louth, also in Lambay Island.
See Ordovician System; also C. Lapworth, Ann. and Ma*
Nat. Hist., 5th series, vol. vi., 1880; Geol. Mag., 1889; C. Lapworth
and W. W. Watts, Proc. Geol. Assoc., xiii., 1894; J- E. Marr, Geol.
Mag., 1892; J. E. Marr and T. Roberts, Q. J. G. S. t 1885; B. N.
Peach and J. Home, " Silurian Rocks of Great Britain," vol. i., 1899
(Mem. Geol. Survey). (J. A. H.)
CARALES (Gr. K&paXis, mod. Cagliari, q.v.), the most
important ancient city of Sardinia, situated on the south coast
of the island. Its foundation is generally attributed to the
Carthaginians, and Punic tombs exist in considerable numbers
near the present cemetery on the east and still more on the rocky
plateau to the north-west of the town. It first appears in Roman
history in the Second Punic War, and probably obtained full
Roman civic rights from Julius Caesar. In imperial times it was
the most important town in the island, mainly owing to its fine
sheltered harbour, where a detachment of theclassis Misenas
was stationed. In the 4th and 5th centuries it was probably the
seat of the praeses Sardiniae. It is mentioned as an important
harbour in the Gothic and Gildonic wars. It was also the chief
point of the road system of Sardinia. Roads ran hence to Olbia
by the east coast, and through the centre of the island, to Othoca
(Oristano) direct, and thence to Olbia (probably the most
frequented route), through the mining district to Sulci and
along the south and west coasts to Othoca. The hill occupied
by the Pisan fortifications and the medieval town within them
must have been the acropolis of the Carthaginian settlement;
it is impossible to suppose that a citadel presenting such natural
advantages was not occupied. The Romans, too, probably
made use of it, though the lower quarters were mainly occupied
in imperial times. A. Taramelli (Notizie degli Scavi, 1905,
41 seq.) rightly points out that the nucleus of the Roman muni-
cipium is probably represented by the present quarter of the
Marina, in which the streets intersect at right angles and Roman
remains are frequently found in the subsoil. An inscription
found some way to the north towards the amphitheatre speaks
of paving in the squares and streets, and of drains constructed
under Domitian in a. d. 83 (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli Scavi,
1897, 279). The amphitheatre occupies a natural depression in
the rock just below the acropolis, and open towards the sea with
a fine view. Its axes are 95 J and 79 yds., and it is in the main cut
in the rock, though some parts of it are built with concrete.
Below it, to the south, are considerable remains of ancient
reservoirs for rain-water, upon which the city entirely depended.
This nucleus extended both to the east and to the west; in the
former direction it ran some way inland, on the east of the castle
hill. Here were the ambulationes or public promenades con-
structed by the pro-consul Q. Caecilius Metellus before a.d. 6
(Corp. Inscrip. Lot. x., Berlin, x883,No. 7581). Here also, not far
from the shore, the remains of Roman baths, with a fine coloured
mosaic pavement, representing deities riding on marine monsters,
were found in 1907. To the east was the necropolis of Bonaria,
where both Punic and Roman tombs exist, and where, on the
site of the present cemetery, Christian catacombs have been
discovered (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli Scavi, 1892, 183 seq.;
G. Pinza in Nuovo Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana, 1901,
61 seq.). But the western quarter seems to have been far more
important; it extended along the lagoon of S. Gilla (which lies
to the north-west of the town, and which until the middle ages
was an open bay) and on the lower slopes of the hill which rises
above it. The chief discoveries which have been made are noted
by Taramelli (loc. cit.) and include some important buildings, of
which a large Roman house (or group of houses) is the only one
now visible (G. Spano in Notizie degli Scavi, 1876, 148, 173;
1877, 285; 1880, 105, 405). Beyond this quarter begins an
extensive Roman necropolis extending along the edge of the hill
north-east of the high road leading to the north-west; the most
CARAN D'ACHE— CARAVAGGIO, M. A. DA
301
important tomb is the so-called Grotta delle Vipere, the rock-
hewn tomb of Cassius Philippus and Atilia Pomptilla, the sides
of which are covered with inscriptions {Carpus Inscr. Lot. x.,
Berlin, 1883, Nos. 7563-7578). Other tombs are also to be found
on the high ground near the Punic tombs already mentioned.
The latter are hewn perpendicularly in the rock, while the Roman
tombs are chambers excavated horizontally.. In the lagoon
itself were found a large number of terra cottas, made of local
clay, some being masks of both divinities and men (among them
grotesques) others representing hands and feet, others "various
animals, and of amphorae of various sizes and other vases.
Some of the amphorae contained animals' bones, possibly the
remains of sacrifices.. These objects are of the Punic period;
they were all found in groups, and had apparently been arranged
on a platform of piles in what was then a bay, in readiness for
shipment (F. Vivanet in Noturie degli Scavi, 1893, 255). It is
probable that the acropolis of Carales was occupied even in
prehistoric times; but more abundant traces of prehistoric
settlements (pottery and fragments of obsidian, also kitchen
middens, containing bones of animals and shells of molluscs
used for human food) have been found on the Capo S. Etia
to the south-east of the modern town (see A. Taramelli in
Notizie degli Scavi, 1004, 19 seq.). An inscription records the
existence of a temple of Venus Erycina on this promontory in
Roman times. The museum contains an interesting collection
of objects from many of the sites mentioned, and also from other
parts of the island; it is in fact the most important in Sardinia,
and is especially strong in prehistoric bronzes (see Sardinia).
For the Roman inscriptions see C. /. L. cit., Nos. 755 2 "78o7. (T. As.)
CARAN D'ACHE, the pseudonym (meaning " lead-pencil ") of
Emmanuel Poire* (1858-1909), French artist and illustrator, who
was born and educated at Moscow, being the grandson of one of
Napoleon's officers who had settled in Russia. He determined
to be a military painter, and when he arrived in Paris from
Russia he found an artistic adviser in Detaille. He served five
years in the army, where the principal work allotted to him was
the drawing of uniforms for the ministry of war. He embellished
a short-lived journal, La Vie militaire, with a series of illustra-
tions, among them being some good-tempered caricatures of the
German army, which showed how accurately he was acquainted
with military detail. His special gift lay in pictorial anecdote,
the story being represented at its different stages with irresistible
effect, in the artist's own mannered simplicity. Much of his
work was contributed to La Vie parisienne, Le Figaro illustrt,
La Caricature, Le Chat noir, and he also issued various albums of
sketches, the Cornet de cheques, illustrating the Panama scandals,
Album de croquis militaires et d'histoire sans Ugendes, Histoire
de Marlborough, &c, besides illustrating a good many books,
notably the Prince Kozakokof of Bemadaky. He died on the
26th of February 1909.
A collection of his work was exhibited at the Fine Art Society's
rooms in London in 1898. The catalogue contained a prefatory note
by M. H. Spielmann.
CARAPACE (a Fr. word, from the Span, carapacho, a shield
or armour), the upper shell of a crustacean, tortoise or turtle.
The covering of the armadillo is called a carapace, as is also the
hard case in which certain of the Infusoria are enclosed.
CARAPEGUA, an interior town of Paraguay, 37 m. S.E.
of Asund6n on the old route between that city and the missions.
Pop. (est.) 13,000 (probably the population of the large rural
district about the town is included in this estimate). The town
(founded in 1725) is situated in a fertile country producing
cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, sugar-cane and mandioca. It has
two schools, a church and modern public buildings.
CARAT (Arab. QircU, weight of four grains; Gr. ttpdrtop,
little horn, the fruit of the carob or locust tree), a small weight
(originally in the form of a seed) used for diamonds and precious
stones, and a measure for determining the fineness of gold.
The exact weight of the carat, in practice, now varies slightly in
different places. In 1877 a syndicate of London, Paris and
Amsterdam jewellers fixed the weight at 205 milligrammes
(3*163 troy grains). The South African carat, according to
Gardner Williams (general manager of the De Beers mines), is
equal to 3- 1 74 grains ( The Diamond Mines of South Africa, 1902).
The fineness of gold is measured by a ratio with 24 carats as a
standard; thus 2 parts of alloy make it 22-carat gold, and so on.
CARAUSIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, tyrant or usurper in
Britain, a.d. 286-293, was a Menapian from Belgic Gaul, a man
of humble origin, who in his early days had been a pilot. Having
entered the Roman army, he rapidly obtained promotion, and
was stationed by the emperor Maximian at Gessoriacum
(Bononia, Boulogne) to protect the coasts and channel from
Frankish and Saxon pirates. He at first acted energetically, but
was subsequently accused of having entered into partnership with
the barbarians and was sentenced to death by the emperor.
Carausius thereupon crossed over to Britain and proclaimed
himself an independent ruler. The legions at once joined him;
numbers of Franks enlisted in his service; an increased and
well-equipped fleet secured him the command of the neighbouring
seas. In 289 Maximian attempted to recover the island, but
his fleet was damaged by a storm and he was defeated. Maxi-
mian and Diocletian were compelled to acknowledge the rule
of Carausius in Britain; numerous coins are extant with the
heads of Carausius, Diocletian and Maximian, bearing the
legend " Carausius et fratres sui." In 292 Constantius Chlorus
besieged and captured Gessoriacum (hitherto in possession of
Carausius), together with part of his fleet and naval stores.
Constantius then made extensive preparations to ensure the
reconquest of Britain, but before they were completed Carausius
was murdered by Allectus, his praefect of the guards (Aurelius
Victor, Caesares, 39; Eutropius ix. 21, 22; Eumenius, Pane-
gyrici ii. 12, v. 12). A Roman mile-stone found near Carlisle
(1895) bears the inscription IMP. C[aes] M. AURfelius] MAUS.
The meaning of MAUS is doubtful, but it may be an anticipation
of ARAUS (see F. J. Haverfield in Cumberland and Westmoreland
Antiquarian Soc. Transactions, 1895, p. 437).
A copper coin found at Richborough, inscribed Domino
Carausio Ces., must be ascribed to a Carausius of later date,
since the type of the reverse is not found until the middle of the
4th century at the earliest. Nothing is known of this Carausius
(A. J. Evans in Numismatic Chronicle, 1887, " On a coin of a
second Carausius Caesar in Britain in the Fifth Century").
See J. Watts de Peyster, The History of Carausius, the Dutch
Augustus (1858); P. H. Webb, The Reign and Coinage of Carausius
(1908).
CARAVACA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province
of Murcia; near the left bank of the river Caravaca, a tributary
of the Segura. Pop. (1900) 15,846. Caravaca is dominated by
the medieval castle of Santa Cruz, and contains several convents
and a fine parish church, with a miraculous cross celebrated
for its healing power, in honour of which a yearly festival is
held on the 3rd of May. The hills which extend to the north
are rich in marble and iron. Despite the lack of railway com-
munication, the town is a considerable industrial centre,
with large iron-works, tanneries and manufactories of paper,
chocolate and oil.
CARAVAGGIO, MICHELANGELO AMERIGHI (or Merigi)
DA ( 1 569-1 609), Italian painter, was born in the village of
Caravaggio, in Lombardy, from which he received his name.
He was originally a mason's labourer, but his powerful genius
directed him to painting, at which he worked with immitigable
energy and amazing force. He despised every sort of idealism
whether noble or emasculate, became the head of the Naturalisti
(unmodified imitators of ordinary nature) in painting, and
adopted a style of potent contrasts of light and shadow, laid on
with a sort of fury, indicative of that fierce temper which led the
artist to commit a homicide in a gambling quarrel at Rome.
To avoid the consequences of his crime he fled to Naples and to
Malta, where he was imprisoned for another attempt to avenge
a quarrel. Escaping to Sicily, he was attacked by a party sent
in pursuit of him, and severely wounded. Being pardoned, he
set out for Rome; but having been arrested by mistake before
his arrival, and afterwards released, and left to shift for himself
in excessive heat, and still suffering from wounds and hardships,
302
CARAVAGGIO, P. C. DA— CARAVAN
he died of fever on the beach at Pontercole in 1609. His best
pictures are the " Entombment of Christ," now in the Vatican;
" St Sebastian/' in the Roman Capitol; a magnificent whole-
length portrait of a grand-master of the Knights of Malta,
Alof de Vignacourt, and his page, in the Louvre; and the
Borghese " Supper at Emmaus."
CARAVAGGIO, POLIDORO CALDARA DA (1495 or 1402-
1543), a celebrated painter of frieze and other decorations in the
Vatican. His merits were such that, while a mere mortar-carrier
to the artists engaged in that work, he attracted the admiration
of Raphael, then employed on his great pictures in the Loggie of
the palace. Polidoro's works, as well as those of his master,
Maturino of Florence, have mostly perished, but are well known
by the fine etchings of P. S. Bartoli, C. Alberti, &c. On the
sack of Rome by the army of the Constable de Bourbon in 1527,
Polidoro fled to Naples. Thence he went to Messina, where he
was much employed, and gained a considerable fortune, with
which he was about to return to the mainland of Italy when he
was robbed and murdered by an assistant, Tonno Calabrese, in
1543. Two of his principal paintings are a Crucifixion, painted
in Messina, and " Christ bearing the Cross " in the Naples
gallery.
CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan), a Persian word, adopted
into the later Arabic vocabulary, and denoting, throughout
Asiatic Turkey and Persia, 1 a body of traders travelling together
for greater security against robbers (and in particular against
Bedouins, Kurds, Tatars and the like, whose grazing-grounds the
proposed route may traverse) and for mutual assistance in the
matter of provisions, water and so forth. These precautions are
due to the absence of settled government, inns and roads.
These conditions having existed from time immemorial in the
major part of western Asia, and still existing, caravans always
have been the principal means for the transfer of merchandise.
In these companies camels are generally employed for the trans-
port of heavy goods, especially where the track, like that between
Damascus and Bagdad, for example, lies across level, sandy
and arid districts. The camels are harnessed in strings of fifty
or more at a time, a hair-rope connecting the rear of one beast
with the head of another; the leader is gaily decorated with
parti-coloured trappings, tassels and bells; an unladen ass
precedes the file, for luck, say some, for guidance, say others.
Where the route is rocky and steep, as that between Damascus
and Aleppo, mules, or even asses, are used for burdens. The
wealthier members ride, where possible, on horseback. Every
man carries arms; but these are in truth more for show than for
use, and are commonly flung away in the presence of any serious
robber attack. Should greater peril than ordinary be antici-
pated, the protection of a company of soldiers is habitually
pre-engaged, — an expensive, and ordinarily a useless adjunct. A
leader or director, called Karawan-Bashi (headman), or, out of
compliment, Karawan-Seraskier (general), but most often
simply designated Rals (chief), is before starting appointed by
common consent. His duties are those of general manager,
spokesman, arbitrator and so forth; his remuneration is
indefinite. But in the matter of sales or purchases, either on the
way or at the destination, each member of the caravan acts for
himself.
The number of camels or mules in a single caravan varies from
forty or so up to six hundred and more; sometimes, as on the
reopening of a long-closed route, it reaches a thousand. The
ordinary caravan seasons are the months of spring, early summer
and later autumn. Friday, in accordance with a recommenda-
tion made in the Koran itself, is the favourite day for setting out,
the most auspicious hour being that immediately following
noonday prayer. The first day's march never does more than
just clear the starting-point. Subsequently each day's route is
divided into two stages, — from 3 or 4 a.m. to about 10 in the
forenoon, and from between 2 and 3 p.m. till 6 or even 8 in the
evening. Thus the time passed daily on the road averages from
1 In Arabia proper it is rarely employed in speech and never in
writing, strictly Arabic words such as Rtkb (" assembled riders ") or
(Mfila ( M wayfaring band ") being in ordinary use.
ten to twelve hours, and, as the ordinary pace of a laden camel
does not exceed 2 m. an hour, that of a mule being 2}, a distance
varying from 23 to 28 m. is gone over every marching day.
But prolonged halts of two, three, four and even more days often
occur. The hours of halt, start and movement, the precise lines
of route, and the selection or avoidance of particular localities are
determined by common consent. But if, as sometimes happens,
the services of a professional guide, or those of a military officer
have been engaged, his decisions are final. While the caravan is
on its way, the five stated daily prayers are, within certain
limits, anticipated, deferred or curtailed, so as the better to
coincide with the regular and necessary halts, — a practice
authorized by orthodox Mahommedan custom and tradition.
Two caravans are mentioned in Genesis xxxvii.; the route
on which they were passing seems to have coincided with that
nowadays travelled by Syrian caravans on their way to Egypt.
Other allusions to caravans may be found in Job, in Isaiah and
in the Psalms. Eastern literature is full of such references.
The yearly pilgrim-bands, bound from various quarters of the
Mahommedan world to their common destination, Mecca, are
sometimes, but inaccurately, styled by European writers cara-
vans; their proper designation is Hajj, a collective word for
pilgrimages and pilgrims. The two principal pilgrim-caravans
start yearly, the one from Damascus, or, to speak more exactly,
from Mozarib, a village station three days' journey to the south of
the Syrian capital, the other from Cairo in Egypt. 2 This latter
was formerly joined on its route, near Akaba of the Red Sea, by
the North African Hajj, which, however, now goes from Egypt by
sea from Suez; the former gathers up bands from Anatolia,
Kurdistan, Mesopotamia and Syria. Besides these a third, but
smaller Hajj of Persians, chiefly sets out from Suk-esh-Sheiukh,
in the neighbourhood of Meshed Ali, on the lower Euphrates; a
fourth of negroes, Nubians, etc., unites at Yambu on the Hejaz
coast, whither they have crossed from Kosseir in Upper Egypt;
a fifth of Indians and Malays, centres at Jidda; a sixth and
seventh, of southern or eastern Arabs arrive, the former from
Yemen, the latter from Nejd.
The Syrian Hajj is headed by the pasha of Damascus, either in
person or by a vicarious official of high rank, and is further
accompanied by the Sorrah Amir or " Guardian of the Purse," a
Turkish officer from Constantinople. The Egyptian company is
commanded by an amir or ruler, appointed by the Cairene
government, and is accompanied by the famous " Mammal," or
sacred pavilion. The other bands above mentioned have each
their own amir, besides their mekowwams or agents, whose
business it is to see after provisions, water and the like, and are
not seldom encumbered with a numerous retinue of servants and
other attendants. Lastly, a considerable force of soldiery ac-
companies both the Syrian and the Egyptian Hajj.
No guides properly so-called attend these pilgrim-caravans,
the routes followed being invariably the same, and well known.
But Bedouin bands generally offer themselves by way of escort,
and not seldom designedly lead their clients into the dangers
from which they bargain to keep them safe. This they are the
readier to do because, in addition to the personal luxuries with
which many of the pilgrims provide themselves for the journey, a
large amount of wealth, both in merchandise and coins, is habitu-
ally to be found among the travellers, who, in accordance with
Mahommedan tradition, consider it not merely lawful but praise-
worthy to unite mercantile speculation with religious duty.
Nor has any one, the pasha himself or the amir and the military,
when present, excepted, any acknowledged authority or
general control in the pilgrim-caravans; nor is there any orderly
subdivision of management or service. The pilgrims do, indeed,
often coalesce in companies among themselves for mutual help,
but necessity, circumstance or caprice governs all details, and
thus it happens that numbers, sometimes as many as a third of
the entire Hajj, yearly perish by their own negligence or by
misfortune, — dying, some of thirst, others of fatigue and sickness,
others at the hand of robbers on the way. In fact the principal
• The Syrian and Egyptian hajj have been able, since 1908, to
travel by the railway from Damascus to the Hejaz.
CARAVANSERAI— CARBAZOL
303
routes are in many places lined for miles together with the bones
of camels and men.
The numbers which compose these pilgrim caravans are much
exaggerated by popular rumour; yet it is certain that the
Syrian and Egyptian sometimes amount to 5000 each, with
25,000 or 30,000 camels in train. Large supplies of food and
water have to be carried, the more so at times that the pilgrim
season, following as it does the Mahommedan calendar, which is
lunar, falls for years together in the very hottest season. Hence,
too, the journey is usually accomplished by night marches, the
hours being from 3 to 4 p.m. to 6 or 7 a.m. of the following day.
Torches are lighted on the road, the pace is slower than that of
an ordinary caravan, and does not exceed 2 m. an hour.
See Mecca and Mahommedan Religion.
CARAVANSERAI, a public building, for the shelter of a
caravan (q.v.) and of wayfarers generally in Asiatic Turkey. It
is commonly constructed in the neighbourhood, but not within
the walls, of a town or village. It is quadrangular in form,
with a dead wall outside; this wall has small windows high up,
but in the lower parts merely a few narrow air-holes. Inside a
cloister-like arcade, surrounded by cellular store-rooms, forms
the ground floor, and a somewhat lighter arcade, giving access to
little dwelling-rooms, runs round it above. Broad open flights of
stone steps connect the storeys. The central court is open to the
sky, and generally has in its centre a well with a fountain-basin
beside it. A spacious gateway, high and wide enough to admit
the passage of a loaded camel, forms the sole entrance, which is
furnished with heavy doors, and is further guarded within by
massive iron chains, drawn across at night. The entry is paved
with flagstones, and there are stone seats on each side. The court
itself is generally paved, and large enough to admit of three or
four hundred crouching camels or tethered mules; the bales of
merchandise are piled away under the lower arcade, or stored up
in the cellars behind it. The upstairs apartments are for human
lodging; cooking is usually carried on in one or more corners
of the quadrangle below. Should the caravanserai be a small one,
the merchants and their goods alone And place within, the beasts
of burden being left outside. A porter, appointed by the muni-
cipal authority of the place, is always present, lodged just
within the gate, and sometimes one or more assistants. These
form a guard of the building and of the goods and persons in it,
and have the right to maintain order and, within certain limits,
decorum; but they have no further control over the temporary
occupants of the place, which is always kept open for all arrivals
from prayer-time at early dawn till late in the evening. A small
gratuity is expected by the porter, but he has no legal claim for
payment, his maintenance being provided for out of the funds of
the institu tion. Neither food nor provender is supplied.
Many caravanserais in Syria, Mesopotamia and Anatolia have
considerable architectural merit; their style of construction is in
general that known as Saracenic; their massive walls are of hewn
stone; their proportions apt and grand. The portals especially
are often decorated with intricate carving; so also is the prayer-
niche within. These buildings, with their belongings, are works
of charity, and are supported, repaired and so forth out of funds
derived from pious legacies, most often of land or rentals. Some-
times a municipality takes on itself to construct and maintain a
caravanserai; but in any case the institution is tax-free, and its
revenues are inalienable. When, as sometimes happens, those
revenues have been dissipated by peculation, neglect or change
of times, the caravanserai passes through downward stages of
dilapidation to total ruin (of which only too many examples
may be seen) unless some new charity intervene to repair and
renew it.
Khans, i.e. places analogous to inns and hotels, where not
lodging only, but often food and other necessaries or comforts
may be had for payment, are sometimes by inaccurate writers
confounded with caravanserais. They are generally to be found
within the town or village precincts, and are of much smaller
dimensions than caravanserais. The khan of Asad Pasha at
Damascus is a model of constructive skill and architectural
beauty.
CARAVEL, or Carvel (from the Gr. K&pafkn, a light ship,
through the Ital. carabella and the Span, cat abas) , a name applied
at different times and in different countries to ships of very
varying appearance and build, as in Turkey to a ship of war, and
in France to a small boat used in the herring fishery. In the 1 5th
and 1 6th centuries, caravels were much used by the Portuguese
and Spanish for long voyages. They were roundish ships, with a
double tower at the stern, and a single one in the bows, and were
galley rigged. Two out of the three vessels in which Columbus
sailed on his voyage of discovery to America Were " caravels."
Carvel, the older English form, is now used only in the term
" carvel-built," for a boat in which the planking is flush with
the edges laid side to side, in distinction from " clinker-built,"
where the edges overlap.
CARAVELLAS, a small seaport of southern Bahia, Brazil, on
the Caravellas river a few miles above its mouth, which is
dangerously obstructed by sandbars. Pop. (1890) of the muni-
cipality 5482, about one-half of whom lived in the town. Cara-
vellas was once the centre of a flourishing whale fishery, but has
since fallen into decay. It is the port of the Bahia & Minas
railway, whose traffic is comparatively unimportant.
CARAWAY, the fruit, or so-called seed, of Carum Carui, an
umbelliferous plant growing throughout the northern and
central parts of Europe and Asia, and naturalized in waste places
in England. The plant has finely-cut leaves and compound
umbels of small white flowers. The fruits are laterally com-
pressed and ovate, the mericarps (the two portions into which the
ripe fruit splits) being subcylindrical, slightly arched, and marked
with five distinct pale ridges. Caraways evolve a pleasant
aromatic odour when bruised, and they have an agreeable spicy
taste. They yield from 3 to 6 % of a volatile oil, the chief
constituent of which is cymene aldehyde. Cymene itself is
present, having the formula CHaCeHUCI^CHj)*; also carvone
C10H14O, and limonene, a terpene. The dose of the oil is -^-3
minims. The plant is cultivated in north and central Europe,
and Morocco, as well as in the south of England, the produce of
more northerly latitudes being richer in essential oil than that
grown in southern regions. The essential oil is largely obtained
by distillation for use in medicine as an aromatic stimulant and
carminative, and as a flavouring material in cookery and in
liqueurs for drinking. Caraways are, however, more extensively
consumed entire in certain kinds of cheese, cakes and bread,
and they form the basis of a popular article of confectionery
known as caraway comfits.
CARBALLO, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of
Corunna; on the right bank of the river Allones, 20 m. S.W. of
the city of Corunna. Pop. (1900) 13,032. Carballois the central
market of a thriving agricultural district. At San Juan de
Carballo, on the opposite bank of the Allones, there are hot
sulphurous springs.
CARBAZOL, C11H9N, a chemical constituent of coal-tar and
crude anthracene. From the latter it may be obtained by fusion
with caustic potash when it is converted into carbazol-potassium,
which can be easily separated by distilling off the anthracene.
It may be prepared synthetically by passing the vapours of
diphenylamine or aniline through a red-hot tube; by heating
diorthodiaminodiphenyl with 25 % sulphuric acid to 200 C. for
15 hours; by heating orthoaminodiphenyl with lime; or by
heating thiodiphenylamine with copper powder. It is also
obtained as a decomposition product of brucine or strychnine,
when these alkaloids are distilled with zinc dust. It is easily
soluble in the common organic solvents, and crystallizes in plates
or tables melting at 238° C. It is a very stable compound,
possessing feebly basic properties and characterized by its
ready sublimation. It distils unchanged, even when the opera-
tion is carried out in the presence of zinc dust. On being heated
with caustic potash in a current of carbonic acid, it gives carbazol
carbonic acid GJBaN'COOH; melted with oxalic acid it gives
carbazol blue. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid to a
clear yellow solution. The potassium salt reacts with the alkyl
iodides to give N-substituted alkyl derivatives. It gives the
pine-shaving reaction, in this respect resembling pyrrol (q.v.)-
3<H
CARBIDE— CARBOLIC ACID
CARBIDB, in chemistry, a compound of carbon with another
element. The introduction of the electric furnace into practical
chemistry was followed by the preparation of many metallic
carbides previously unknown, some of which, especially calcium
carbide, are now of great commercial importance. Carbides of
the following general formulae have been obtained by H. Moissan
(M denotes an atom of metal and C of carbon) : —
M»C = manganese, iron ; MjC »= molybdenum ; M»C2 3 = chro-
mium ; MC = zirconium ; M*Cj = beryllium, aluminium ;
M2C3 = uranium; MC 2 = barium, calcium, strontium, lithium,
thorium, &c; MC 4 = chromium.
Tbe principal methods for the preparation of carbides may be
classified as follows: — (1) direct union at a high temperature,
e.g. lithium, iron, chromium, tungsten, &c; (2) by the reduc-
tion of oxides with carbon at high temperatures, e.g. calcium,
barium, strontium, manganese, chromium, &c; (3) by the
reduction of carbonates with magnesium in the presence of carbon,
e.g. calcium, lithium; (4) by the action of metals on acetylene or
metallic derivatives of acetylene, e.g., sodium, potassium. The
metallic carbides are crystalline solids, the greater number being
decomposed by water into a metallic hydrate and a hydro-
carbon; sometimes hydrogen is also evolved. Calcium carbide
owes its industrial importance to its decomposition into acetylene;
lithium carbide behaves similarly. Methane is yielded by alum-
inium and beryllium carbides, and, mixed with hydrogen, by
manganese carbide. The important carbides are mentioned in
the separate articles on the various metals. The commercial
aspect of calcium carbide is treated in the article Acetylene.
CARBINE (Fr. carabine, Ger. Karabiner), a word which came
into use towards the end of the 16th century to denote a form of
small fire-arm, shorter than the musket and chiefly used by
mounted men. It has retained this significance, through all
subsequent modifications of small-arm design, to the present
day, and is now as a rule a shortened and otherwise slightly
modified form of the ordinary rifle (q.v.).
CARBO, the name of a Roman plebeian family of the gens
Papiria. The following are the most important members in
Roman history: —
x. Gaius Papirius Carbo, statesman and orator. He was
associated with C. Gracchus in carrying out the provisions of the
agrarian law of Tiberius Gracchus (see Gracchus). When
tribune of the people (131 B.C.) he carried a law extending voting
by ballot to the enactment and repeal of laws; another proposal,
that the tribunes should be allowed to become candidates for the
same office in the year immediately following, was defeated by
the younger Scipio Africanus. Carbo was suspected of having
been concerned in the sudden death of Scipio (129), if not his
actual murderer. He subsequently went over to the optimates,
and (when consul in 120) successfully defended Lucius Opimius,
the murderer of Gaius Gracchus, when he was impeached for the
murder of citizens without a trial, and even went so far as to say
that Gracchus had been justly slain. But the optimates did not
trust Carbo. He was impeached by Lidnius Crassus on a
similar charge, and, feeling that he had nothing to hope for from
the optimates and that his condemnation was certain, he com-
mitted suicide.
See Livy, Epit. 59; Appian, Bell. Cw. i. 18; Veil. Pat. ii. 4;
Val. Max. iii. 7. 6; A. H. J. Greenidge, History of Rome (1904).
2. His son, Gaius Papirius Carbo, surnamed Arvina, was a
staunch supporter of the aristocracy, and was put to death by
the Marian party in 82. He is known chiefly for the law (Plautia
Papiria) carried by him and M. Plautius Silvanus when tribunes
of the people in 90 (or 89), whereby the Roman franchise was
offered to every Italian ally domiciled in Italy at the time when
the law was enacted, provided he made application personally
within sixty days to the praetor at Rome (see Rome: History,
H. " The Republic," Period C). The object of the law was to
conciliate the states at war with Rome and to secure the loyalty
of the federate states. Like his father, Carbo was an orator of
distinction.
See Cicero, Pro Archia, 4; Veil. Pat. ii. 26; Appian, Bell. Civ.
LBS.
3. Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (c. 130-82 B.C.), nephew of (1).
He was a strong supporter of the Marian party, and took part in
the blockade of Rome (87). In 85 he was chosen by Cinna as
his colleague in the consulship, and extensive preparations were
made for carrying on war in Greece against Sulla, who had
announced his intention of returning to Italy. Cinna and Carbo
declared themselves consuls for the following year, and large
bodies of troops were transported across the Adriatic; but when
Cinna was murdered by his own soldiers, who refused to engage
in civil war, Carbo was obliged to bring them back. In 82
Carbo, then consul for the third time with the younger Marius,
fought an indecisive engagement with Sulla near Clusium, but
was defeated with great loss in an attack on the camp of Sulla's
general, Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius [see under Metellus (6)]
near Faventia. Although he still had a large army and the
Samnites remained faithful to him, Carbo was so disheartened by
his failure to relieve Praeneste, where the younger Marius had
taken refuge, that he decided to leave Italy. He first fled to
Africa, thence to the island of Cossyra (PenteUaria), where he was
arrested, taken in chains before Pompey at Lilybaeum and put
to death.
See Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 67-98; Livy, Epit. 79, 84, 98, 89;
Plutarch, Pompey, 5, 6, 10, and Sulla, 28; Cicero, ad Fam. ix. 21;
Eutropius, v. 8, 9; Orosius, v. 20; Valerius Maximus, v. 3. 5, ix.
13. 2; art. Sulla, L. Cornelius.
CARBOHYDRATE, in chemistry, the generic name for
compounds empirically represented by the formula C x (H 2 0) y .
They are essentially vegetable products, and include the sugars,
starches, gums and celluloses (q.v.).
CARBOLIC ACID or Phenol (hydroxy-benzene), CeH 6 OH, an
acid found in the urine of the herbivorae, and in small quantity
in castoreum (F. W5hler, Ann., 1848, 67, p. 360). Its principal
commercial source is the fraction of coal-tar which distils between
150 and 200 C, in which it was discovered in 1834 by F. Runge.
In order to obtain the phenol from this distillate, it is treated
with caustic soda, which dissolves the phenol and its homologues
tegether with a certain quantity of naphthalene and other
hydrocarbons. The solution is diluted with water, and the
hydrocarbons are thereby precipitated and separated. The
solution is then acidified, and the phenols arejiberated and form
an oily layer on the surface of the acid. This layer is separated,
and the phenol recovered by a process of fractional distillation.
It may be synthetically prepared by fusing potassium benzene
sulphonate with caustic alkalis (A. Kekule", A. Wurtz) ; by the
action of nitrous acid on aniline; by passing oxygen into boiling
benzene containing aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M.
Crafts, Ann.Chim. Phys., 1888 (6) 14, p. 435); by heating phenol
carboxylic acids with baryta; and, in small quantities by the
oxidation of benzene with hydrogen peroxide or nascent ozone
(A. R. Leeds, Ber., 1881, 14, p. 976).
It crystallizes in rhombic needles, which melt at 42-5-43° C,
and boil at 18 2-1 83° C; its specific gravity is 1*0906 (o° C).
It has a characteristic smell, and a biting taste; it is poisonous,
and acts as a powerful antiseptic. It dissolves in water, 15 parts
of water dissolving about one part of phenol at 16-1 7 C, but it is
miscible in all proportions at about 70° C; it is volatile in steam,
and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, benzene, carbon bisul-
phide, chloroform and glacial acetic acid. It is also readily
soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, slightly soluble in
aqueous ammonia solution, and almost insoluble in sodium
carbonate solution. When exposed in the moist condition to the
air it gradually acquires a red colour. With ferric chloride it
gives a violet coloration, and with bromine water a white
precipitate of tribromphenol.
When phenol is passed through a red-hot tube a complex decom-
position takes place, resulting in the formation of benzene, toluene,
naphthalene, &c. (J. G. Kramers, Ann., 1877, 189, p. 129). Chromium
oxychloride reacts violently on phenol, producing hydroquinone
ether, CKQhUOH)*; chromic acid gives pnenoquinone, and potas-
sium permanganate gives paradiphenol, oxalic acid, and some
salicylic acid (R. Henriques, Ber., 1888, 21, p. 1620). In alkaline
solution, potassium permanganate oxidizes it to inactive tartaric
acid and carbon dioxide (O. Doebner, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1755). When
distilled over lead oxide, it forms diphenylene oxide, (QHuJiO ; and
CARBON
305
when heated with oxalic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, it
forms aurin, Ci»H u 8 . It condenses with aceto-acetic ester, in the
presence of sulphuric acid, to £- methyl coumarin (H. v. Pechmann
and J. B. Cohen, Ber. % 1884, 17, p. 2188).
The hydrogen of the hydroxyl group in phenol can be replaced by
metals, by alkyl groups and by acia radicals. The metallic deri-
vatives (phenoLates, phenates or carbolates) of the alkali metals are
obtained by dissolving phenol in a solution of a caustic alkali, in the
absence of air. Potassium phenolate, QHsOK, crystallizes in fine
needles, is very hygroscopic and oxidizes rapidly on exposure.
Other phenolates may be obtained from potassium phenolate by
precipitation. The alkyl derivatives may be obtained by heating
phenol with one molecular proportion of a caustic alkali and of an
alkyl iodide. They are compounds which greatly resemble the
mixed ethers of the aliphatic series. They are not decomposed by
boiling alkalis, but on heating with hydnodic acid they split into
their components. Anisol, phenyl methyl ether, CeHs*0-CH», is
prepared either by the above method or by the action of diazo-
methane on phenol, CH»OH-hCH,N, = N,+QH i O-CH, (H. v.
Pechmann, Ber. t 189K, 28, p. 857); by distilling anisic acid (para-
methoxy benzoic acid) with baryta or by boiling phenyl diazonium
chloride with methyl alcohol. It is a colourless pleasant-smelling
liquid which boils at 154-3° C. Phenetol, phenyl ethyl ether,
Cer^'O-CjH*, a liquid boiling at 172° C, may be obtained by similar
methods. A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1901 , 34, p. 3537) has shown that in the
action of alcohols on diazonium salts an increase in the molecular
weight of the alcohol and an accumulation of negative group in the
aromatic nucleus lead to a diminution in the yield of the ether
produced and to the production of a secondary reaction, resulting
in the formation of a certain amount of an aromatic hydrocarbon. <
The acid esters of phenol are best obtained by the action of acid
chlorides or anhydrides on phenol or its sodium or potassium salt,
or by digesting phenol with an acid in the presence of phosphorus
oxychlonde (F. Kasinski, Jour. f. prak. Chem., 1882 J2], 26, p. 62).
Phenyl acetate, QHrOCOCHs, a colourless liquid of boiling point
193 ° C., may be prepared by heating phenol with acetamide. When
heated with aniline it yields phenol and acetanilide. Phenyl
benzoate, CeHj-OCOCeH* prepared from phenol and benzoyl
chloride, crystallizes in monoclinic prisms, which melt at 68-69° C.
and boil at 314° C.
Phenol is characterized by the readiness with which it forms sub-
stitution products; chlorine and bromine, for example, react readily
with phenol, forming ortho- and para- chlor- and -bromphenol, and,
by further action, trichlor- and tribrom-phenol. I od phenol is
obtained by the action of iodine and iodic acid on phenol dissolved
in a dilute solution of caustic potash. Nitro-phenols are readily
obtained by the action of nitric acid on phenol. By the action of
dilute nitric acid, ortho- and para-nitrophenols are obtained, the
ortho-compound being separated from the para-compound by distil-
lation in a current of steam. Ortho-nitrophenol, CeH4-OH-NOt(i -2),
crystallizes in yellow needles which melt at 45° C. and boil at 2I4°C.
Para-nitrophenol, CeHrOH-NOj(i-4), crystallizes in long colourless
needles which melt at 1 1 4°C. Meta-nitrophenol, C«HrOH • NOj- ( 1 -3) ,
is prepared from meta-nitraniline by diazotizing the base and boiling
the resulting diazonium salt with water. By nitrating phenol with
concentrated nitric acid, no care being taken to keep the temperature
of reaction down, trinitrophenol (picric acid) is obtained (see Picric
Acid). By the reduction of nitro-phenols, the corresponding
aminophenols are obtained, and of these, the meta- and para-deriva-
tives are the most important. Para-aminophenol, QH4*OH'NHj(i -4)
melts at 148° C, with decomposition. Its most important derivative
is phenacetin. Meta-aminophenol, CeH 4 -OH-NH*(i-3),and dimethyl
meta-aminophenol.QHrOH-N (CH 3 )i(i*3), are extensively employed
in the manufacture of the important dyestuffs known as the rhoda-
mines. The aminophenols also find application as developers in
photography, the more important of these developers being amidol,
the hydrochloride of diaminophenol, ortol, the hydrochloride of
para-methylaminophenol,CeH4-0HNHCH,«HCl(i'A), rodinal, para-
aminophenol, and metol, the sulphate of a metnylaminophenol
sulphonic acid. Meta-aminophenol is prepared by reducing meta-
nitrophenol, or by heating resorcin with ammonium chloride and
ammonia to 200° C. Dimethyl-meta-aminophenol is prepared by
heating meta-aminophenol with methyl alcohol and hydrochloric
acid in an autoclave; by sulphonation of dimethylaniline, the sul-
phonic acid formed being finally fused with potash ; or by nitrating
dimethylaniline, in the presence of sulphuric acid at o° C. In the
latter case a mixture of nitrocompounds is obtained which can be
separated by the addition of sodium carbonate. The meta-nitro-
compound, which is precipitated last, is then reduced, and the
amino group so formea is replaced by the hydroxyl group by means
of the Sandmeyer reaction. Dimethyl-meta-aminophenol crystallizes
in small prisms which melt at 87° C. It condenses with phthalic
anhydride to form rhodamine, and with succinic anhydride to
rhodamine S.
Phenol dissolves readily in concentrated sulphuric acid, a mixture
of phenol-ortho- and -para-sulphonic acids being formed. These
acids may be separated by conversion into their potassium salts,
which are then fractionally crystallized, the potassium salt of the
para-acid separating first. The ortho-acid, in the form of its aqueous
solution, is sometimes used as an antiseptic, under the name of
aseptol. A (kiophenol, CcH B SH, is known, and is prepared by the
action of phosphorus pentasulphide on phenol, or by distilling a
mixture of sodium benzene sulphonate and potassium sulphydrate.
It is a colourless liquid, which possesses a very disagreeable smell,
and boils at 168° C.
Various methods have been devised for the quantitative determina-
tion of phenol. J. Messinger and G. Vortmann (Ber., 1890, 23,
L2753) dissolve phenol in caustic alkali, make the solution up to
own volume, take an aliquot part, warm it to 6o° C, and add
decinormal iodine solution until the liquid is of a deep yellow colour.
The mixture is then cooled, acidified by means of sulphuric acid,
and titrated with decinormal sodium thiosulphate solution. S. B.
Schryver (Jour, of Soc. Chem. Industry, 1899, 18, p. 55 %) adds excess
of sodamide to a solution of the phenol in a suitable solvent, absorbs
the liberated ammonia in an excess of acid, and titrates the excess
of acid. See also C. E. Smith, Amer. Jour. Pharm., 1898, 369.
Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — Carbolic acid is an efficient
parasiticide, and is largely used in destroying the fungus of
ringworm and of the skin disease known as pityriasis versicolor.
When a solution of the strength of about 1 in 20 is applied to
the skin it produces a local anaesthesia which lasts for many
hours. If concentrated, however, it acts as a caustic. It
never produces vesication. The drug is absorbed through the
unbroken skin — a very valuable property in the treatment of
such conditions as an incipient whitlow. A piece of cotton wool
soaked in strong carbolic acid will relieve the pain of dental
caries, but is useless in other forms of toothache. Taken inter-
nally, in doses of from one to three grains, carbolic acid will
often relieve obstinate cases of vomiting and has some value as
a gastric antiseptic.
Toxicology. — Carbolic acid is distinguished from all other
acids so-called — except oxalic acid and hydrocyanic acid — in
that it is a neurotic poison, having a marked action directly upon
the nervous system. In all cases of carbolic acid poisoning
the nervous influence is seen. If it be absorbed from a surgical
dressing there are no irritant symptoms, but when the acid is
swallowed in concentrated form, symptoms of gastro-intestinal
irritation occur. The patient becomes collapsed, and the skin
is cold and clammy. The breathing becomes shallow, the drug
killing, like nearly all neurotic poisons (alcohol, morphia, prussic
acid, &c), by paralysis of the respiratory centre, and the patient
dying in a state of coma. The condition of the urine is of the
utmost importance, as it is often a clue to the diagnosis, and in
surgical cases may be the first warning that absorption is occur-
ring to an undue degree. The urine becomes dark green in
colour owing to the formation of various oxidation products
such as pyrocatechin. Fifteen grains constitute an exceedingly
dangerous dose for an adult male of average weight. Other
symptoms of undue absorption are vertigo, deafness, sounds
in the ears, stupefaction, a subnormal temperature, nausea,
vomiting and a weak pulse (Sir Thomas Fraser).
The antidote in cases of carbolic acid poisoning is any soluble
sulphate. Carbolic acid and sulphates combine in the blood to
form sulpho-carbolates, which are innocuous. The symptoms
of nerve-poisoning are due to the carbolic acid (or its salts)
which circulate in the blood after all the sulphates in the blood
have been used up in the formation of sulpho-carbolates (hence,
during administration of carbolic acid, the urine should frequently
be tested for the presence of free sulphates; as long as these
occur in the urine, they are present in the blood and there
is no danger) . The treatment is therefore to administer an ounce
of sodium sulphate in water by the mouth, or to inject a similar
quantity of the salt in solution directly into a vein or into the
subcutaneous tissues. Magnesium sulphate may be given by
the mouth, but is poisonous if injected intravenously. If the
acid has been swallowed, wash out the stomach and give chalk,
the carbolate of calcium being insoluble. Alkalis which form
soluble carbolates are useless. Give ether and brandy sub-
cutaneously and apply hot water-bottles and blankets if there
are signs of collapse.
CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12), one of the chemical
non-metallic elements. It is found native as the diamond
(q.v.) f graphite (q.v.), as a constituent of all animal and vegetable
tissues and of coal and petroleum. It also enters (as carbonates)
into the composition of many minerals, such as chalk, dolomite,
306
CARBON
calcite, witherite, calamine and spathic iron ore. In combina-
tion with oxygen (as carbon dioxide) it is also found to a small
extent in the atmosphere. It is a solid substance which occurs
in several modifications, differing very much in their physical
properties. Amorphous carbon is obtained by the destructive
distillation of many carbon compounds, the various kinds differ-
ing very greatly as regards physical characters and purity,
according to the substance used for their preparation. The
most common varieties met with are lampblack, gas carbon,
wood charcoal, animal charcoal and coke. Lampblack is prepared
by burning tar, resin, turpentine and other substances rich in
carbon, with a limited supply of air; the products of combustion
being conducted into condensing chambers in which cloths are
suspended, on which the carbon collects. It is further purified
by heating in closed vessels, but even then it still contains a
certain amount of mineral matter and more or less hydrocarbons.
It is used in the manufacture of printer's ink, in the preparation
of black paint and in calico printing. Gas carbon is produced
by the destructive distillation of coal in the manufacture of
illuminating gas (see Gas: Manufacture), being probably
formed by the decomposition of gaseous hydrocarbons. It is
a very dense form of carbon, and is a good conductor of heat
and electricity. It is used in the manufacture of carbon rods
for arc lights, and for the negative element in the Bunsen
battery.
Charcoal is a porous form of carbon; several varieties exist.
Sugar charcoal is obtained by the carbonization of sugar. It is
purified by boiling with acids, to remove any mineral matter,
and is then ignited for a long time in a current of chlorine in
order to remove the last traces of hydrogen. Animal charcoal
(bone black) is prepared by charring bones in iron retorts. It
is a very impure form of carbon, containing on the average about
80% of calcium phosphate. It possesses a much greater
decolorizing and absorbing power than wood charcoal. A
variety of animal charcoal is sometimes prepared by calcining
fresh blood with potassium carbonate in large cylinders, the
mass being purified by boiling out with dilute hydrochloric
acid and subsequent reheating. Wood charcoal is a hard and
brittle black substance, which retains the external structure
of the wood from which it is made. It is prepared (where wood
is plentiful) by stacking the wood in heaps, which are covered
with earth or with brushwood and turf, and then burning the
heap slowly in a limited supply of air. The combustion of the
wood is conducted from the top downwards, and from the ex-
terior towards the centre; great care has to be taken that the
process is carried out slowly. The disadvantage in this process
is that the by-products, such as pyroligneous acid, acetone,
wood spirit, &c, are lost; as an alternative method, wood is
frequently carbonized in ovens or retorts and the volatile
products arc condensed and utilized.
Charcoal varies considerably in its properties, depending upon the
particular variety of wood from which it is prepared, and also upon
the process used in its manufacture. It can be made at a temperature
as low as 300 ° C, and is then a soft, very friable material possessing
a low ignition point. When made at higher temperatures it is much
more dense, and its ignition point is considerably higher. Charcoal
burns when heated in air, usually without the formation of flame,
although a flame is apparent if the temperature be raised. It is
characterized by its power of absorbing Rases; thus, according to
J. Hunter [Phil. Mag., 1863 (4), 25, p. 363], one volume of charcoal
absorbs (at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure) 171*7 ccs. of ammonia,
86*3 ccs. of nitrous oxide, 67*7 ccs. of carbon monoxide, 21*2 ccs. of
carbon dioxide, 17*9 ccs. of oxygen, 15-2 ccs. of nitrogen, and 4-4 ccs.
of hydrogen [see also J. Dewar, Ann. Chim. Phys., 1904 (8), 3, p. 5 J.
It also has the power of absorbing colouring matters from solution.
Charcoal is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in metallurgical
processes.
The element carbon unites directly with hydrogen to form acetylene
when an electric arc is passed between carbon poles in an atmosphere
of hydrogen (M. Berthelot); it also unites directly with fluorine,
producing, chiefly, carbon tetrafluoride CF4. It burns when heated
in an atmosphere of oxygen, forming carbon dioxide, and when
heated in sulphur vapour it forms carbon bisulphide (q.v.). When
heated with nitrogenous substances, in the presence of carbonated or
caustic alkali, it forms cyanides. ^ It combines directly with silicon,
at the temperature of the electric furnace, yielding carborundum,
SiC; and H. Moissan has also shown that it will combine with
many metals at the temperature of the electric furnace, to form
carbides (q.v.).
The specific heat of carbon varies with the temperature, the
following values having been obtained by H. F. Weber (Jahres-
berichte, 1874, p. 63) : —
Diamond.
Graphite.
Porous wood carbon.
t°.
Sp. Ht.
t°.
Sp. Ht.
t°.
Sp. Ht.
-50-5
0-0635
-50-3
0-1138
0-23
0*1653
— io*6
00955
0-1128
— 10-7
OI437
0-99
o-i935
+ 107
+ io-8
0*1604
0—223
0-2385
85-5
01765
6i-3
0*1990
206'I
o«2733
201 -6
0-2966
606-7
0-4408
641-9
0-4454
9850
04589
977-0
0-4670
The atomic weight of carbon has been determined by J. B. A. Dumas
and by J. S. Stas [Ann. Chim. Phys., 1841 (3), 1, p. 1: Jahresb.,
1849, 223] by estimating the amount of carbon dioxide formed on
burning graphite or diamond in a current of oxygen, the value
obtained being 12-0 (0 = 16). Confirmatory evidence has also been
obtained by O. L. Erdmann and R. F. Marcnand (Jour. Prak. Chetn.,
1841, 23, p. 159; see also F. W. Clarke, Jahresb., 1881, p. 7).
Compounds. — Three oxides of carbon are known, namely, carbon
suboxide, CsOs, carbon monoxide, CO, and carbon dioxide, C0|.
Carbon suboxide, CsOj, is formed by the action of phosphorus pent-
oxide on ethyl malonate (O. Dielsand B. Wolf, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 689),
CH,(COOC 2 H 6 )j =2C,H4+2HiO+CiOj. At ordinary temperatures
it is a colourless gas, possessing a penetrating and suffocating smell.
It liquefies at 7 C. It is an exceedingly reactive compound, com-
bining with water to form malonic acid, with hydrogen chloride to
form malonyl chloride, and with ammonia to form malonamide.
When kept for some time in sealed tubes it changes to a yellowish
liquid, from which a yellow floccuJent substance gradually separates,
and finally it suddenly solidifies to a dark red mass, which appears
to be a polymeric form. I ts vapour density agrees with the molecular
formula C3O1, and this formula is also confirmed by exploding the
gas with oxygen and measuring the amount of carbon dioxide
produced (see Ketenes).
Carbon monoxide, CO, is found to some extent in volcanic gases.
It was first prepared in 1776 by J. M. F. Lassone {Mem. Acad. Paris)
by heating zinc oxide with carbon, and was for some time considered
to be identical with hydrogen. Cruikshank concluded that it was
an oxide of carbon, a fact which was confirmed by Clement and
J. B. Desormes {Ann. Chim. Phys., 1801, 38, p. 28O. It may be
prepared by passing carbon dioxide over red-hot carbon, or red-hot
iron ; by heating carbonates (magnesite, chalk, &c.) with zinc dust
or iron; or by heating many metallic oxides with carbon. It may
also be prepared by heating formic and oxalic acids (or their salts)
with concentrated sulphuric acid (in the case of oxalic acid, an equal
volume of carbon dioxide is produced) ; and by heating potassium
ferrocyanide with a large excess of concentrated sulphuric acid,
K4Fe(CN)«+6H,S04+6H 8 0»2K,S04+FeS04+3(NH4)«S04+6CO.
It is a colourless, odourless gas of specific gravity 0-967 (air «= 1). It
is one of the most difficultly liquefiable gases, its critical temperature
being — 139*5° C. f and its critical pressure 35-5 atmos. The liquid
boilsat -I90°C, and solidifies at -2ii°C. (L. P. Cailletet, Compies
rendus, 1884, 99, p. 706). It is only very slightly soluble in water.
It burns with a characteristic pale blue flame to form carbon dioxide.
It is very poisonous, uniting with the haemoglobin of the blood to
form carbonyl-haemoglobin. It is a powerful reducing agent,
especially at high temperatures. It is rapidly absorbed by an
ammoniacal or acid (hydrochloric acid) solution of cuprous chloride.
It unites directly with chlorine, forming carbonyl chloride or phosgene
(see below), and with nickel and iron to form nickel and iron car-
bonyls (see Nickel and Iron). It also combines directly with
¥>tassium hydride to form potassium formate (see Formic Acid).
he volume composition of carbon monoxide is established by
exploding a mixture of the gas with oxygen, two volumes of the gas
combining with one volume of oxygen to form two volumes of carbon
dioxide. This fact, coupled with the determination of the vapour
density of the jgas, establishes the molecular formula CO.
Carbon dioxide, COs, is a gas first distinguished from air by van
Helmont (1 577-1 644), who observed that it was formed in fermenta-
tion processes and during combustion, and gave to it the name gas
sylvestre. J. Black (Edin. Phys. and Lit. Essays, 1755) showed that
it was a constituent of the carbonated alkalis and called it " fixed
air." T. O. Bergman, in 1774, pointed out its acid character, and
A. L. Lavoisier (1 781-1788) first proved it to be an oxide of carbon
by burning carbon in the oxygen obtained from the decomposition
of mercuric oxide. It is a regular constituent of the atmosphere,
and is found in many spring waters and in volcanic gases; it also
occurs in the uncombined condition at the Grotto del Cane (Naples)
and in the Poison Valley (Java). It is a constituent of the minerals
cerussite, malachite, azurite, spathic iron ore, calamine, strontianite,
witherite, calcite aragonite, limestone, &c. It may be prepared by
burning carbon in excess of air or oxygen, by the direct decomposition
of many carbonates by heat, and by the decomposition of carbonates
CARBONADO— CARBONARI
307
with mineral acids, M,C0i+2HCl*=2MCl+H,0+C0t. It is also
formed in ordinary fermentation processes, in the combustion of all
carbon compounds (oil, gas, candles, coal, &c.)> and in the process of
respiration.
It is a colourless gas, possessing a faint pungent smell and a
slightly acid taste. It does not burn, and does not support ordinary
combustion, but the alkali metals and magnesium, if strongly
heated, will continue to burn in the gas with formation of oxides and
liberation of carbon. Its specific gravity is 1*529 (air=i). It is
readily condensed, passing into the liquid condition at o° C. under a
pressure of 35 atmospheres. Its critical temperature is 31-35° C,
and its critical pressure is 72*9 atmos. The liquid boils at —^8-2° C.
(1 atmo.), and by rapid evaporation can be made to solidify to a
snow-white solid which melts at — 65 ° C . (see Liquid Gases) . Carbon
dioxide is moderately soluble in water, its coefficient of solubility
at o° C. being 1*7077 (R. Bunsen). It is still more soluble in alcohol.
The solution of the gas in water shows a faintly acid reaction and is
supposed to contain carbonic acid, H2CO1. The gas is rapidly
absorbed by solutions of the caustic alkalis, with the production of
alkaline carbonates (q.v.), and it combines readily with potassium
hydride to form potassium formate. It unites directly with ammonia
gas to form ammonium carbamate, NHjCOONH4. It may be readily
recognized by the white precipitate which it forms when passed
through lime or baryta water. Carbon dioxide dissociates, when
strongly heated, into carbon monoxide and oxygen, the reaction
being a balanced action; the extent of dissociation for varying
temperatures and pressures has been calculated by H. Le Chatelier
(Zeti. Pkys. Chem., 1888, 2, p. 782; see H. Sainte-Claire Deville,
Comptes rendus, 1863, 56, p. 195 et seq.). The volume composition
of carbon dioxide is determined by burning carbon in oxygen, when
it is found that the volume of carbon dioxide formed is the same
as that of the oxygen required for its production, hence carbon
dioxide contains its own volume of oxygen. Carbon dioxide finds
industrial application in the preparation of soda by the Solvay
process, in the sugar industry, in the manufacture of mineral waters,
and in the artificial production of ice.
Carbonyl chloride (phosgene), COClj, was first obtained by John
Davy (Phil. Trans., 1812, 40, p. 220). It may be prepared by
the direct union of carbon monoxide and chlorine in sunlight (Th.
Wilm and G. Wischin, Ann., 1868, 14, p. 150); by the action of
ride at
phosphorus pentoxide on carbon tetrachlorid
200-2 io° C.
(G. Gustavson, Ber., 1872, 5, p. 30), 4CCI4+P4O10 =2CO,+4POCL+
2COCI1 ; by the oxidation of chloroform with chromic acid mixture
(A. EmmerWand B. Lengyel, Ber., 1869, 2, p. 54), 4CHCl,+30»«
4COCli-f-2HjO-f-2CU; or most conveniently by heating carbon
tetrachloride with fuming sulphuric acid (H. Eramann, Ber., 1893,
26, p. 1993), 2SOs+CCl 4 =Si<5»Cl*+COCU.
It is a colourless gas, possessing an unpleasant pungent smell.
Its vapour density is 3*46 (air =» 1). It may be condensed to a liquid,
which boils at 8° C. It is readily soluble in benzene, glacial acetic
acid, and in many hydrocarbons. Water decomposes it violently,
with formation of carbon dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It reacts
with alcohol to form chlorcarbonic ester and ultimately diethyl
carbonate (see Carbonates), and with ammonia it yields urea (q.v?).
It is employed commercially in the production of colouring matters
(see Benzophenone), and for various synthetic processes.
Carbon oxy sulphide, COS, was first prepared by C. Than in 1867
(Ann. Suppl., 5, p. 236) by passing carbon monoxide and sulphur
vapour through a tube at a moderate heat. It is also formed by
the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on the isocyanic esters,
2CONC,H,+HiS = COS+CO(NHC 2 H») 2 , by the action of concen-
trated sulphuric acid on the isothiocyanfc esters, RNCS+H»0 =
COS -f- RNHi, or of dilute sulphuric acid on the thtocyanates. I n the
latter reaction various other compounds, such as carbon dioxide,
carbon bisulphide and hydrocyanic acid, are produced. They are
removed by passing the vapours in succession through concentrated
solutions of the caustic alkalis, concentrated sulphuric acid, and
triethyl phosphine; the residual gas is then purified by liquefaction
(W. Hempel, Zeit. angew. Chemie, 1901, 14, p. 865). It is also
formed when sulphur trioxide reacts with carbon bisulphide at
ioo° C, CS»+3SOi=COS+4S02, and by the decomposition of ethyl
potassium thiocarbonate with hydrochloric acid, CO(OCsHt)SK+
HC1 — COS +KC1 +CjH«OH. It is a colourless, odourless gas, which
burns with a blue flame and is decomposed by heat. Its vapour
density is 2*1046 (air = 1). The liquefied gas boils at — 47 ° C. under
atmospheric pressure. It is soluble in water; the aqueous solution
gradually decomposes on standing, forming carbon dioxide and
sulphuretted hydrogen. It is easily soluble in solutions of the caustic
alkalis, provided they are not too concentrated, forming solutions
of alkaline carbonates and sulphides, C0S-j-4KH0 = K t C0a +
K,S+2H,0.
CARBONADO, a name given in Brazil to a dark massive form
of impure diamond, known also as " carbonate " and in trade
simply as carbon. It is sometimes called black diamond.
Generally it is found in small masses of irregular polyhedral
form, black, brown or dark-grey in colour/with a dull resinoid
lustre; and breaking with a granular fracture, paler in colour,
and in some cases much resembling that of fine-grained steel
Being slightly cellular, its specific gravity is rather less than that
of crystallized diamond. It is found almost exclusively in the
state of Bahia in Brazil, where it occurs in the cascalho or
diamond-bearing gravel. Borneo also yields it in small quantity.
Formerly of little or no value, it came into use on the introduc-
tion of Leschot's diamond-drills, and is now extremely valuable
for mounting in the steel crowns used for diamond-boring.
Having no cleavage, the carbon is less liable to fracture on the
rotation of the drill than is crystallized diamond. The largest
piece of carbonado ever recorded was found in Bahia in 1895,
and weighed 3150 carats. Pieces of large size are, however,
relatively less valuable than those of moderate dimensions,
since they require the expenditure of much labour in reducing
them to fragments of a suitable size for mounting in the drill-
heads. Ilmenite has sometimes been mistaken in the South
African mines for carbonado. (F. W. R.*)
CARBONARI (an Italian word meaning " charcoal-burners "),
the name of certain secret societies of a revolutionary tendency
which played an active part in the history of Italy and France
early in the 19th century. Societies of a similar nature had
existed in other countries and epochs, but the stories of the
derivation of the Carbonari from mysterious brotherhoods of
the middle ages are purely fantastic The Carbonari were
probably an offshoot of the Freemasons, from whom they
differed in important particulars, and first began to assume
importance in southern Italy during the Napoleonic wars. In
the reign (1808-1815) of Joachim Murat a number of secret
societies arose in various parts of the country with the object
of freeing it from foreign rule and obtaining constitutional
liberties; they were ready to support the Neapolitan Bourbons
or Murat, if either had fulfilled these aspirations. Their watch-
words were freedom and independence, but they were not agreed
as to any particular form of government to be afterwards
established. Murat's minister of police was a certain Malghella
(a Genoese), who favoured the Carbonari movement, and was
indeed the instigator of all that was Italian in the king's policy.
Murat himself had at first protected the sectarians, especially
when he was quarrelling with Napoleon, but later, Lord William
Bentinck entered into negotiations with them from Sicily
where he represented Great Britain, through their leader Vin-
cenzo Federici (known as Capobianco), holding out promises of
a constitution for Naples similar to that which had been
established in Sicily under British auspices in 181 2. Some
Carbonarist disorders having broken out in Calabria, Murat sent
General Manhes against the rebels; the movement was ruth-
lessly quelled and Capobianco hanged in September 1813 (see
Greco, Intorno al teniaHvo dei Carbonari di Citeriore Calabria
nel 1813). But Malghella continued secretly to protect the
Carbonari and even to organize them, so that on the return of
the Bourbons in 1815 King Ferdinand IV. found his kingdom
swarming with them. The society comprised nobles, officers
of the army, small landlords, government officials, peasants and
even priests. Its organization was both curious and mysterious,
and had a fantastic ritual full of symbols taken from the
Christian religion, as well as from the trade of charcoal-burning,
which was extensively practised in the mountains of the
Abruzzi and Calabria. A lodge was called a vendita (sale),
members saluted each other as buoni cugini (good cousins),
God was the " Grand Master of the Universe," Christ the
" Honorary Grand Master," also known as " the Lamb," and
every Carbonaro was pledged to deliver the Lamb from the Wolf,
i.e. tyranny. Its red, blue and black flag was the standard of
revolution in Italy until substituted by the red, white and
green in 183 1.
When King Ferdinand felt himself securely re-established at
Naples he determined to exterminate the Carbonari, and to this
end his minister of police, the prince of Canosa, set up another
secret society called the C alder ai del Contrappeso (braziers of the
counterpoise), recruited from the brigands and the dregs of the
people, who committed hideous excesses against supposed
Liberals, but failed to exterminate the movement. On the
3o3
CARBONATES
contrary, Carbonarism flourished and spread to other parts of
Italy, and countless lodges sprang up, their adherents comprising
persons in all ranks of society, including, it is said, some of royal
blood, who had patriotic sentiments and desired to see Italy
free from foreigners. In Romagna the movement was taken
up with enthusiasm, but it also led to a certain number of
murders owing to the fiery character of the Romagnols, although
its criminal record is on the whole a very small one. Among the
foreigners who joined it for love of Italy was Lord Byron. The
first rising actively promoted by the Carbonari was the Nea-
politan revolution of 1820. Several regiments were composed
entirely of persons affiliated to the society, and on the 1st of
July a military mutiny broke out at Monteforte, led by two
officers named Morelli and Silvati, to the cry of " God, the King
and the Constitution." The troops sent against them, under
General Pepe, himself a Carbonaro, sympathized with the
mutineers, and the king, being powerless to resist, granted the
constitution (13th of July), which he swore on the altar to
observe. But the Carbonari were unable to carry on the govern-
ment, and after the separatist revolt of Sicily had broken out the
king went to the congress of Laibach, and obtained from the
emperor of Austria the loan of an army with which to restore
the autocracy. He returned to Naples early in 182 1 with 50,000
Austrians, defeated the constitutionalists under Pepe, dismissed
parliament, and set to work to persecute all who had been in
any way connected with the movement.
A similar movement broke out in Piedmont in March 182 1.
Here as in Naples the Carbonari comprised many men of rank,
such as Santorre di Santarosa, Count San Marzano, Giacinto
di Collegno, and Count Moffa di Lisio, all officers in the army,
and they were more or less encouraged by Charles Albert,
the heir-presumptive to the throne. The rising was crushed,
and a number of the leaders were condemned to death or long
terms of imprisonment, but most of them escaped. At Milan
there was only the vaguest attempt at conspiracy; but Silvio
Pellico, Maroncelli and Count Confalonieri were implicated
as having invited the Piedmontese to invade Lombardy, and
were condemned to pass many years in the dungeons of the
Spielberg.
The French revolution of 1830 had its echo in Italy, and Car-
bonarism raised its head in Parma, Modena and Romagna the
following year. In the papal states a society called the San-
fedisti or Bande della Santa Fede had been formed to checkmate
the Carbonari, and their behaviour and character resembled
those of the Calderai of Naples. In 1831 Romagna and the
Marches rose in rebellion and shook off the papal yoke with
astonishing ease. At Parma the duchess, having rejected the
demand for a constitution, left the city and returned under
Austrian protection. At Modena, Duke Francis IV., the worst
of all Italian tyrants, was expelled by a Carbonarist rising, and
a dictatorship was established under Biagio Nardi on the 5th
of February. Francis returned with an Austrian force and
hanged the conspirators, including Ciro Menotti. The Austrians
occupied Romagna and restored the province to the pope, but
though many arrests of Carbonari were made there were no
executions. Among those implicated in the Carbonarist
movement was Louis Napoleon, who even in after years, when he
was ruling France as Napoleon III., never quite forgot that he
had once been a conspirator, a fact which influenced his Italian
policy. The Austrians retired from Romagna and the Marches
in July 1 83 1, but Carbonarism and anarchy having broken out
again, they returned, while the French occupied Ancona. The
Carbonari after these events ceased to have much importance,
their place being taken by the more energetic Giovane Italia
Society presided over by Mazzini.
In France, Carbonarism began to take root about 1820, and
was more thoroughly organized than in Italy. The example
of the Spanish and Italian revolutions incited the French Car-
bonari, and risings occurred at Belfort, Thouars, La Rochelle and
other towns in 1821, which though easily quelled revealed the
nature and organization of the movement. The Carbonarist
lodges proved active centres of discontent until 1830, when, after
contributing to the July revolution of that year, most of their
members adhered to Louis Philippe's government.
The Carbonarist movement undoubtedly played an important
part in the Italian Risorgimento, and if it did not actively
contribute to the wars and revolutions of 1848-49, 1850-60 and
1866, it prepared the way for those events. One of its chief
merits was that it brought Italians of different classes and
provinces together, and taught them to work in harmony for
the overthrow of tyranny and foreign rule.
Bibliography. — Much information on the Carbonari will be
found in R. M. Johnston's Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy
(2 vols., London, 1904), which contains a full bibliography; D.
Spadoni's Sette, cospirazioni, e cospiratori (Turin, 1904) is an excellent
monograph; Memoirs of the Secret Societies of Southern Italy, said
to be by one Bertoldi or Bartholdy (London, 1821, Ital. transl. by
A. M. Cavallotti, Rome, 1904) ; Saint-Edme, Constitution et organisa-
tion des Carbonari', P. Colletta, Storia del Reame di Napoli (Florence,
1848); B. King, A History of Italian Unity (London, 1809), with
bibliography. (L. V.*)
CARBONATES. (1) The metallic carbonates are the salts of
carbonic acid, H 2 CQj. Many are found as minerals, the more
important of such naturally occurring carbonates being cerussite
(lead carbonate, PbCOs), malachite and azurite (both basic
copper carbonates), calamine (zinc carbonate, ZnCQs), witherite
(barium carbonate, BaCQs), strontianite (strontium carbonate,
SrCOs), calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCOi), dolomite (calcium
magnesium carbonate, CaCOs-MgCOs), and sodium carbonate,
NajCOs- Most metals form carbonates (aluminium and
chromium are exceptions), the alkali metals yielding both acid
and normal carbonates of the types MHCOj and M»COj(M =one
atom of a monovalent metal); whilst bismuth, copper and
magnesium appear only to form, basic carbonates. The acid
carbonates of the alkali metals can be prepared by saturating
an aqueous solution of the alkaline hydroxide with carbon dioxide,
M-OH+COj= MHCOj, and frorr these acid salts the normal salts
may be obtained by gentle heating, carbon dioxide and water
being produced at the same time, 2MHCOj = M 2 CO a + H0 2 + COj.
Most other carbonates are formed by precipitation of salts of
the metals by means of alkaline carbonates. All carbonates,
except those of the alkali metals and of thallium, are insoluble
in water; and the majority decompose when heated strongly,
carbon dioxide being liberated and a residue of an oxide of the
metal left. The alkaline carbonates undergo only a very slight
decomposition, even at a very bright red heat. The carbonates
are decomposed by mineral acids, with formation of the corre-
sponding salt of the acid, and liberation of carbon dioxide.
Many carbonates which are insoluble in water dissolve in water
containing carbon dioxide. The individual carbonates are
described under the various metals.
(2) The organic carbonates are the esters of carbonic acid,
H 2 CO», and of the unknown ortho-carbonic acid, C(OH) 4 . The
acid esters of carbonic acid of the type HOCO-OR are not
known in the free state, but J. B. Dumas obtained barium
methyl carbonate by the action of carbon dioxide on baryta
dissolved in methyl alcohol (Ann., 1840, 35, p. 283).
Potassium ethyl carbonate, KO-CO-OQHt, is obtained in the form
of pearly scales when carbon dioxide is passed into an alcoholic
solution of potassium ethylate, COi+KOCiH«»KO-CO-OCaH 6 . It
is not very stable, water decomposing it into alcohol and the alkaline
carbonate. The normal esters may be prepared by the action of
silver carbonate on the alkyl iodides, or by the action of alcohols on
the chlorcarbonic esters. These normal esters are colourless, pleasant-
smelling liquids, which are readily soluble in water. They show all
the reactions of esters, being readily hydrolysed by caustic alkalis,
and reacting with ammonia to produce carbamic esters and urea.
By heating with phosphorus pentachloride an alkyl group is
eliminated and a chlorcarbonic ester formed. Dimethylcarbonate,
CO(OCHj) 2 , is a colourless liquid, which boils at oo-6° C, and is
prepared by heating the methyl ester of chlorcarbonic acid with lead
oxide. Diet hylcar bonate, CO(OCjH»)i, is a colourless liquid, which
boils at 125-8° C; its specific gravity is 0-978 (20°) [H. Kopp].
When it is heated to 1 20° C. with sodium etnvlate it decomposes
into ethyl ether and sodium ethyl carbonate (A. Geuther, Zeit. J.
Chemie t 1868).
Ortho-carbonic ester, C(OCjH*)4, is formed by the action of
sodium ethylate on chlorpicrin (H. Basset t, Ann., 1864, 132, p. 54),
CCl,NO,+4C t H»ONa*C(OC a H 6 )4+NaNO,+3NaCl.Itisanethereal-
smelling liquid, which boils at 158-159 ° C, and has a specific
CARBON BISULPHIDE—CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM
309
gravity of 0*925. When heated with ammonia it yields guanidine,
and on boiling with alcoholic potash it yields potassium carbonate.
Chlorcarbonic ester, Cl-CO'OCtH*, is formed by the addition of
well-cooled absolute alcohol to phosgene (carbonyl chloride). It is a
pungent-smelling liquid, which fumes strongly on exposure to air.
It boils at 93- 1 ° C, and has a specific gravity of 1 • 144 (15 C). When
heated with ammonia it yields urethane. Sodium amalgam converts
it into formic acid; whilst with alcohol it yields the normal carbonic
ester. It is easily broken down by many substances (aluminium
chloride, zinc chloride, &c.) into ethyl chloride and carbon dioxide.
Per carbonates. — Barium percarbonate, BaCOi, is obtained by
passing an excess of carbon dioxide into water containing barium
peroxide in suspension; it is fairly stable, and yields hydrogen
peroxide when treated with acids (E. Merck, Abs. J.C.S., 1907, ii.
p. 859). Sodium percarbonates of the formulae NajCO^ NajCjOb,
Na»COj, NaHC04 (two isomers) are obtained by the action of caseous
or solid carbon dioxide on the peroxides NaiOt, Na s O«, NaHOj (two
isomers)in the presence of water at a low temperature (R.Wolffenstein
and E.Peltner, Be r./ioo8, 41 , pp. 275, 280). Potassium percarbonate,
KjCiOj, is obtained in the electrolysis of potassium carbonate at
— 10 to -15 .
CARBON BISULPHIDE, CS t , a chemical product first dis-
covered in 1796 by W. A. Lampadius, who obtained it by heating
a mixture of charcoal and pyrites. It may be more conveniently
prepared by passing the vapour of sulphur over red hot char-
coal, the uncondensed gases so produced being led into a tower
containing plates over which a vegetable oil is allowed to flow
in order to absorb any carbon bisulphide vapour, and then into
a second tower containing lime, which absorbs any sulphuretted
hydrogen. The crude product is very impure and possesses
an offensive smell; it may be purified by forcing a fine spray of
lime water through the liquid until the escaping water is quite
clear, the washed bisulphide being then mixed with a little
colourless oil and distilled at a low temperature. For further
methods of purification see J. Singer (Journ. of Soc. Chem. Ind.,
1889, p. 93), Th. Sidot (Jahresb., 1869, p. 243), E. Allary (Bull,
de la Soc. Ckim., 1881, 35, p. 491), E. Obach (Jour. prak. Chem.,
1882 (2), 26, p. 282).
When perfectly pure, carbon bisulphide is a colourless, some-
what pleasant smelling, highly refractive liquid, of specific
gravity 1-2661 (18%°) (J. W. Brtihl) or 1-29215 (0%°) (T. E.
Thorpe). It boils at 46-04° C. (T. E. Thorpe, Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1880, 37, p. 364). Its critical temperature is 277-7° C., and its
critical pressure is 78*1 atmos. (J. Dewar, Chem. News, 1885,
51, P* 27). It solidifies at about - 1 16° C, and liquefies again at
about - 1 io° C. (K. Olszewski, Jakresb. , 1 883 , p. 7 5) . It is a mono-
molecular liquid (W. Ramsay and J. Shields, Jour. Chem. Soc. y
1893, 63, p. 1089). It is very volatile, the vapour being heavy
and very inflammable. It burns with a pale blue flame to form
carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. It is almost insoluble in
water, but mixes in all proportions with absolute alcohol, ether,
benzene and various oils. It is a good solvent for sulphur,
phosphorus, wax, iodine, &c. It dissociates when heated to
a sufficiently high temperature. A mixture of carbon bisulphide
vapour and nitric oxide burns with a very intense blue-coloured
flame, which is very rich in the violet or actinic rays. When
heated with water in a sealed tube to 150° C. it yields carbon
dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen. Zinc and hydrochloric
acid reduce it to tri-thioformaldehyde (CH 2 S)j (A. Girard,
Comptes renins, 1856, 43, p. 396). When passed through a
red-hot tube with chlorine it yields carbon tetrachloride and
sulphur chloride (H. Kolbe). Potassium, when heated, burns
in the vapour of carbon bisulphide, forming potassium sulphide
and liberating carbon. In contact with chlorine monoxide it
forms carbonyl chloride and thionyl^chloride (P. Schutzen-
berger, Ber., 1869, 2, p. 219). When passed with carbon dioxide
through a red-hot tube it yields carbon oxysulphide, COS
(C. Winkler), and when passed over sodamide it yields am-
monium thiocyanate. A mixture of carbon bisulphide vapour
and sulphuretted hydrogen, when passed over heated copper,
gives, amongst other products, some methane.
Carbon bisulphide slowly oxidizes on exposure to air, but by the
action of potassium permanganate or chromic acid it is readily
oxidized to carbon dioxide and sulphuric acid. By the action of
aqueous alkalis, carbon bisulphide is converted into a mixture of
an alkaline carbonate and an alkaline thiocarbonate (J. Berzelius,
Pogg.Ann., 1825, 6, P- 444), 6KHO+3CS* = K,CO,+2K,CS,+3H*0 .
on the other hand, an alcoholic solution of a caustic alkali converts
it into a xanthate (A. Vogel, Jahresb. t 1853, p. 643),
CSj+KHO+R-OH -HjO+RO-CSSK.
Aaueous and alcoholic solutions of ammonia convert carbon bi-
sulphide into ammonium dithiocarbamate, which readily breaks
down into ammonium thiocyanate and sulphuretted hydrogen
(A. W. Hofmann),
CS,+2NH,-»NH,.CSS-NH4-»H,S+NH4CNS.
Carbon bisulphide combines with primary amines to form alkyl
dithiocarbamates, which when heated lose sulphuretted hydrogen
and leave a residue of a dialkyl thio-urea,
CS,+2R-NH,->R-NH.CSS-NH,R->CS(NHR)»+H^;
or if the aaueous solution of the dithiocarbamate be boiled with
mercuric chloride or silver nitrate solution, a mustard oil (q.v.) is
formed,
R-NH.CSS-NH,R+HgClr>Hg(R.NH-CSS)r^2RNCS+HgS+H,S.
Carbon bisulphide is used as a solvent for caoutchouc, for extracting
essential oils, as a germicide, and as an insecticide.
Carbon monosulpnide y CS, is formed when a silent electric discharge
is passed through a mixture of carbon bisulphide vapour and hydrogen
or carbon monoxide (S. M. Losanitsch and M. Z. Jovitschitsch, Ber.,
1897, 30. P- 135).
CARBONDALE, a city of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania,
U.S. A., on the Lackawanna river, 16 m. N.E. of Scran ton.
Pop. (1890) 10,833; (1900) 13,536, of whom 2553 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 17,040. Carbondale is served by the
Erie, the Delaware & Hudson (which has machine shops here),
and the New York, Ontario & Western railways. The city lies
near the upper end of the Lackawanna valley, and the scenery
of the surrounding mountains makes it a summer resort of some
importance. It has a public library, a small park, an emergency
hospital and the Carbondale city private hospital Carbondale
is situated in one of the richest anthracite coal regions of the
state, and its principal interest is in coaL Among its manu-
factures are foundry and machine shop products, sheet-iron,
silk, glass, thermometers and hydrometers, bobbins and re-
frigerating machines. The value of the city's factory products
increased from $1,146,181 in 1900 to $2,315,695 in 1905, or
102%. The settlement of the place began in 1824 with the
opening of the coal mines, and Carbondale was chartered as a
city in 185 1.
CARBONIC ACID, in chemistry, properly H 2 COs, the acid
assumed to be formed when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water;
its salts are termed carbonates. The name is also given to the
neutral carbon dioxide from its power of forming salts with
oxides, and on account of the acid nature of its solution; and,
although not systematic, this use is very common.
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM, in geology, the whole of the great
series of stratified rocks and associated volcanic rocks which
occur above the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone and below
the Permian or Triassic systems, belonging to the Carboniferous
period. The name was first applied by W. D. Conybeare in
1 82 1 to the coal-bearing strata of England and Wales, including
the related grits and limestones immediately beneath them.
The term is a relic of that early period in the history of strati-
graphy when each group of strata was supposed to be distin-
guished by some peculiar lithological character. In this case
the carbonaceous beds — coal-seams — naturally appealed most
strongly to the imagination, and the name is a good one, not-
withstanding the fact that coal-seams occupy but a small fraction
of the total thickness of the Carboniferous system; and although
subsequent investigations have demonstrated the existence of
coal in other geological formations, in none of these does it play
so prominent a part. The stratified rocks of this system include
marine limestones, shales and sandstones; estuarine, lagoonal
and fresh-water shales, sandstones and marls with beds of coal,
oil-bearing rocks, gypsum and salt.
In many parts of the world there is no sharp line of demar-
cation between the Devonian and the Carboniferous rocks;
neither can the fossil faunas and floras be clearly separated at
any well-defined line; this is true in Britain, Belgium, Russia,
Westphalia and parts of North America. Again, at the summit
of the Carboniferous series, both the rocks and their fossil
I contents merge gradually into those of the succeeding Permian
3io
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM
system, as in Russia, Bohemia, the Saar region and Texas.
This has led certain geologists to classify the Devonian, Car-
boniferous and Permian into one grand system; £. Renevier
in 1874 proposed to include these three into a single " Carbon-
ique" system, later he retained only the two latter groups.
Distribution of
Carboniferous Rocks #
(tfH*rm*4*tt tlaoet art mot it***.)
There seems to be sufficient reason, however, to maintain each of
these groups as a separate system and limit the term Carboni-
ferous (corboniferien) in the manner indicated above. At the
same time it must be remembered that there is in India, South
Africa, the Urals, in Australasia and parts of North America
an important series of rocks, with a " Permo-Carboniferous "
fauna, which constitutes a passage formation between the Car-
boniferous, sensu strict o, and Jurassic rocks.
Stratigraphy. — No assemblage of stratified rocks has received such
careful and detailed examination as the Carboniferous system;
consequently our knowledge of the stratigraphical sequence in
isolated local areas, where the coals have been exploited, is very full.
In Europe, the system is very completely developed in the British
Isles, where was made the first successful attempt at a classification
of its various members, although at a somewhat earlier date Omalius
d'Hallov had recognized a terrain bituminifere or coal-bearing series
in the Belgian region.
The area within which the Carboniferous rocks of Britain occur is
sufficiently extensive to contain more than one type of the system,
and thus to cast much light on the varied geographical conditions
under which these rocks were accumulated. In prosecuting the
study of this part of British geology it is soon discovered, and it is
essential to bear in mind, that, during the Carboniferous period,
the land whence the chief supplies of sediment were derived rose
mainly to the north and north-west, as it seems to have done from
very early geological time. While therefore the centre and south
of England lay under clear water of moderate depth, the north of
the country and the south of Scotland were covered by shallow
water, which was continually receiving sand and mud from the
adjacent northern land. Hence vertical sections of the Carboniferous
formations of Britain differ greatly according to the districts in
which they are taken.
The Coal- Measures and Millstone Grit are usually grouped together
in the Upper Carboniferous, the Carboniferous Limestone series
constituting the Lower Carboniferous.
In addition to the above broad subdivisions, Murchison and
Sedgwick, when working upon the rocks of Devonshire and Cornwall,
recognized, with the assistance of W. Lonsdale, another phase of
sedimentation. This comprised dark shales, with grits and thin
type on the European continent, where it is widely developed in the
western centre.
Besides the considerable exposed area of Carboniferous rocks in
Great Britain, there is as much or more that is covered by younger
formations; this is true particularly of the eastern side of England
and the south-eastern counties, where the coal-measures have already
been found at Dover.
From England, Carboniferous rocks can be followed across
northern and central France, into Germany, Bohemia, the Alps,
Italy and Spain. In Russia this system occupies some 30,000 so. m.,
and it extends northward at least as far as Spitzbergen. Carboni-
ferous rocks are present in North and South Africa, and in India and
Australasia; in China they cover thousands of square miles, and in
Coal
Measures.
Millstone
Grit.
the United States and British North America they occupy no less
than 200,000 sq. m. ; they are known also in South America.
The subjoined table expresses the typical subdivisions which can
be recognized, with modifications, in the United Kingdom.
Upper: Red and grey sandstones, marls and clays
with occasional breccias, thin coals and limestones
with Spirorbis, workable coals in the South Wales,
Bristol, Somerset and Forest of Dean coalfields.
Middle: Sandstones, marls, shales and the most
important of the British coals.
Lower: Flaggy hard sandstones (ganister), shales
and thin coal seams.
Grits (coarse and fine), shales, thin coal seams and
occasional thin limestones. The fossil plants connect
this group with the coal-measures; the marine fossils
have, to some extent, a Carboniferous limestone
aspect.
Upper black shales with thin limestones (Pendleside
group) connecting this series with the Millstone grit
above.
The thick, main or scaur limestone (mountain lime-
stone) of the centre and south of England, Wales and
Ireland, which splits up in the Yorkshire dales
(Yoredale group) into a succession of stout limestone
beds between beds of sandstone and shale, and
becomes increasingly detrital in character as it is
traced northwards.
Lower limestone shales of the south and centre of
England with marine fossils, and the Calciferous
Sandstone gjroup of Scotland with marine, estuarine
and terrestrial fossils.
(See Bernician, Tuedian and Avonian.)
At an early period, owing to the immense commercial importance
of the coal seams, it became the practice to distinguish a produc-
tive " (flotzfuhrend, terrain houiller) and an "unproductive," barren
(flotdeerer) Lower Carboniferous; these two groups correspond in
North America to the " Carboniferous "and n Sub-Carboniferous "
respectively, or, as they are now sometimes styled, the " Pennsyl-
vanian " and " Mississippian." But it was soon discovered that the
11 productive " beds were not regularly restricted to the upper or
younger division, and, as E. Kayser points out, the real state of the
matter is more accurately represented by the subjoined tabular
scheme. ,. '
Carboniferous
Limestone .
Series.
Continental Type of
Deposit.
Marine Type of
Formation.
Upper
Carboni-
ferous
Upper Productive Carboni-
ferous
Younger Carboniferous
limestone and the Fusu-
Una limestone of Russia
and Western North
America
Lower
Carboni-
ferous
Lower Productive Carboni-
ferous
Culm
(in part)
Lower Carboni-
ferous lime-
stone series
While the continental type of deposit, with its coal beds, was the
earliest to be formed in certain areas, and the marine series came on
later, in other regions this order was reversed. It should be observed,
however, that the repeated intercalation of marine deposits within
the continental series and the frequent occurrence of thin coaly
layers in the marine series makes any hard and fast distinction of
this kind impossible.
The so-called " unproductive " or barren strata, that is, those
without workable coals, are not always limestones; quite as often
they are shales, red sandstones and red marls.
In subdividing the strata of the Carboniferous system and correlat-
ing the major divisions in different areas, just as in other great
systems, use has to be made of the fossil contents of the rocks;
stratigraphical units, based on lithology, are useless for this purpose.
The groups of organisms utilized for zoning and correlation by differ-
ent workers include brachiopods, pelecypods, cephalopods, corals,
fishes and plants; and the results of the comparison of the faunas
and floras of different areas where Carboniferous rocks occur are
generalized in the table below.
The relative value of any group of animals or plants for the
correlation of distant areas must vary greatly with the varying
conditions of sedimentation and with the precise definition of the
zonal species and with many other factors. It is found that the sub-
divisions in this system demanded by palaeobotanists do not always
coincide with those acknowledged by palaeozoologists ; nevertheless
there is general agreement as to the main divisional lines.
Breaks in the Stratigraphic Sequence. — The sequence of Carboni-
ferous strata is not everywhere one of unbroken continuity. From
central France eastward towards the Carpathians only later portions
of the system are found. These generally rest upon crystalline rocks,
but in places they contain evidence of the denuded surfaces of Lower
Carboniferous, as in the basin of Charleroi, where the equivalent of
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM
3"
the Millstone Grit contains fragments of chert which can only have
come from the waste of the earlier limestones. This unconformity
is generally found about the same horizon in the continental Culm
areas, and it occurs again in the western part of the English Culm.
In the eastern border of the Rhenish Schiefergebirge the Permian
rests unconformably upon Lower Carboniferous rocks. In the
Tabular Statement of the Principal Subdivisions of the Carboniferous System
CO
3
S
'3
•§
u
Si
a
en S
si
g 3
J*
So
IS
European Development.
America.
Predominant
Plant Types.
Ouralien and Stephanien
(marine type) (continental type)
c
2
'c
$
0-
Ferns and
Annularias
Moscovien and Westphalien
(marine type) (continental type)
Sigillarias
and
Calamites
O
1
$4
b
B
u
If
Dmantien and Culm
II II
(marine pelagic, (marine littoral)
including con-
tinental de-
posits in some
areas)
c
"E
s
1
1
Lycopods
United States, in Missouri, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky,
Ohio and elsewhere, there is an unconformable junction between the
Lower and Upper Carboniferous, representing an interval of time
during which the lower member was strongly eroded; it has even
been proposed to regard the Mississippian (Lower Carboniferous) as
a distinct geological period, mainly on account of this break in the
succession.
Thickness of Carboniferous Rocks. — The great variety of conditions
under which the sediments and limestones were formed naturally
g reduced corresponding inequalities in the thickness. In the
Eurasian land area the greatest thickness of Carboniferous rocks is
in the west; in North America it is in the east. In Britain the
Carboniferous limestone series is 2000-3500 ft. thick; in the Ural
mountains it is over 4500 ft. ; the Culm in Moravia is credited with
the enormous thickness of over 42,000 ft. The Upper Carboniferous
in Lancashire is from 12,000 to 13,000 ft.; elsewhere in Britain it is
thinner. In western Germany this portion attains a thickness of
10,000 ft. In Pennsylvania the sandstone and shale, at its maximum,
reaches 4400 ft., but even within the limits of the state this formation
has thinned out to no more than 300 ft. in places. In Colorado the
Lower Carboniferous is only 400-500 ft. thick ; while the limestones
of the Mississippi basin amount to 1500 ft. and in Virginia are 2000 ft.
thick.
Life of the Carboniferous Period. — We have seen that in the
Carboniferous rocks there are two phases of sedimentation, the one
marine, the other continental ; corresponding with these there are
two distinct faunal fades.
(1) Fauna of the Marine Strata. — Numerically, the most important
inhabitants of the clear Carboniferous seas were the crinoids, corals,
Foraminifera and brachiopods. Each of these groups contributed
at one place or another towards the upbuilding of great masses of
limestone. For the first time in the earth's history we find Foramini-
fera taking a prominent part in the marine faunas; the genus
Fusulina was abundant in what is now Russia, China, Japan, North
America; Valvulina had a wide range, as also had Endothyra and
Archaediscus ; Saccammina is a form well known in Britain and
Belgium, and many others have been described ; some Carboniferous
genera are still extant. Radiolaria are found in cherts in the Culm
of Devonshire and Cornwall, in Russia, Germany and elsewhere.
Sponges are represented by spicules and anchor ropes. Corals, both
reef-builders and others, flourished in the clearer waters; rugose
forms are represented by Amplexoid, Zaphrentid and Cyathophyllid
types, and by Lilhostrotion and Phillipsastraea; common tabulate
forms are Cnaetetes, Chladochonus % michelinia, &c. Amongst the
echinoderms crinoids were the most numerous individually, dense
submarine thickets of the long-stemmed kinds appear to have
flourished in many places where- their remains consolidated into thick
beds of rock; prominent genera are Cyathocrinus, Woodocrinus,
Actinocrinus; sea-urchins, Archaeocidaris, Palaeechinus, &c, were
present; while the curious extinct Blastoids, which included the
groups of Pentremitidae and Codasteridae, attained their maximum
development.
Annelids (Spirorbis, Serpulites, &c.) are common fossils on certain
horizons. The Bryozoa were also abundant insome regions (Po/y/wra,
Fenestella), including the remarkable form known as Archimedes.
Brachiopods occupied an important place ; most typical were the
Productids, some of which reached a great size and had very thick
shells. Other common genera are Spirifer t Chonetes, Athyris,
Rhynchonellids and Terebratulids, Discina and Crania. Some
species had an almost world-wide range with only minor variations;
such are Productus semiretieulatus, P. cora, P. pustulosus; Orthotetes
(Streptorhynchus) crenistria t Dielasma hastata, and many others.
Pelecypods among the true mollusca were increasing in numbers
and importance (Avicuhpecten, Posidonomya) ; Nucula, Carboni-
cola, Edmondia, Conocardium, Modiola, Gasteropods also were
numerous (Murchisonia t Euomphalus, Naticopsis). The
Pteropods were well represented by Conularia and Belle-
rophon. Amongst the Cephalopods, the most striking
feature is the rise and development of the Goniatites
(Glyphioceras t Gastrioceras, &c); straight-shelled forms
still lived on in some variety (Orthoceras, Actinoceras) t along
with numerous nautiloids.
Trilobites during this period sank to a very subordinate
position, but Ostracods (Cythere t Kirkbya, Beyrichia) were
abundant.
Many fish inhabited the Carboniferous seas and most of
these were Elasmobranchs, sharks with crushing pavement
teeth (Psammodus), adapted for grinding the shells of
brachiopods, crustaceans, &c. Other sharks had piercing
teeth (Cladoselache and Cladodus) ; some, the petalodonts,
had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. The Arthrodirans, so
prominent during the Devonian period, disappeared before
the close of the Carboniferous. Most of the sharks lived
in the sea continuously, but the ganoids frequenting the
coastal waters appear to have migrated inland. About 700
species of Carboniferous fish have been described largely
from teeth, spines and dermal ossicles.
(2) Flora and Fauna of the Lagoonal or Continental Facies.-
The strata deposited during this period are the earliest in
which the remains of plants take a prominent place. The
fossil plants which are found in the upper beds of the preceding
Devonian system are so closely related to those in the Lower
Carboniferous, that from a palaeobotanical standpoint the two form
one indivisible period.
In the Lower Carboniferous the flora was composed of six great
groups of plants, viz. the Equisetales (Horse-tails), the Lycopodiales
(Club mosses), the Filicales ^Ferns) and Cycadofilices, the Spheno-
phyllales and Cordaitales. These six groups were the dominant
types throughout the period, but during Upper Carboniferous time
three other groups arose, the Coniferales, the Cycadophyta, and the
Ginkgoales (of which Ginkgo biloba is the only modern representa-
tive). Algae and fungi also were present, but there were no flowering
plants. The true ferns, including tree ferns with a height of upwards
of 60 ft., were associated with many plants possessing a fern-like
habit (Cycadofilices) and others whose affinities have not yet been
definitely determined. The fronds of some of these Carboniferous
ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably
many of the ferns were epiphytic. Pecopteris, Cyclopteris, Neuro-
pteris, Alethopteris, Sphenopteris are common genera; Megaphyton
and Caulopteris were tree ferns. Our modern diminutive " horse-
tails " with scaly leaves were represented in the Carboniferous period
by gigantic calamites, often with a diameter of 1 to 2 ft. and a neight
of 50 to 90 ft. The Carboniferous forerunners of the tiny club-moss
were then great trees with dichotomously branching stems and
crowded linear leaves, such as Lepidodendron (with its fruit cone
called Lepidostrobus), Halonia, Lepidophloios and Sigillaria, the
largest plants of the period, with trunks sometimes 5 ft. in diameter
ana 100 ft. high. The roots of several of these forms are known
as Stigmaria. SphenophyUum was a slender climbing plant with
whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites
and the lycopods. Cordaites, a tall plant (20-30 ft.) with yucca- like
leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the catkin-like
inflorescence, which bore yew-like berries, is called Cardiocarpus.
Many large trees which have been looked upon as conifers on account
of their wood structure may perhaps belong more properly to the
Cordaitales. True coniferous trees (Walchia) do appear at the top
of the coal measures.
The animals preserved in the continental type of Carboniferous
deposit naturally differ markedly from the fossil remains of the purely
marine portions of the system. The inhabitants of the waters of
this geographical phase include mollusca, which are supposed to have
lived in brackish or fresh water, such as Anthracomya % Naiadites,
Carbonicola, and many forms of Crustacea, e.g. (Bairdia Carbonia),
phyllopods (Estheria), phyllocarids (Acanthocaris, Dithyrocaris) ,
schizopods (Anthrapalaemon), Eurypterids (Eurypterus, Glypto-
scorpius). Fishes were abundant, many of the smaller ganoids are
beautifully preserved in an entire condition, other larger forms are
represented by fin spines, teeth and bones; Ctenodus t Uronemus,
AcanthodeSy Cheirodus, Gyracanthus are characteristic genera.
Frequently a temporary return of marine conditions permitted
the entombment of such salt water genera as Lingula, Oroiculoides,
Productus in the thin beds known as " marine bands."
Remains of air-breathing insects, myriapods and arachnids show
that these forms of life were both well developed and individually
numerous. Among the insects we find the Ortnoptera, Neuroptera,
Hemiptera and Coleoptera represented ; cockroaches were particu-
larly abundant; crickets, beetles, locusts, walking-stick insects,
mayflies and bugs are found, but there were neither flies, moths,
butterflies nor bees, which is no more than we should expect from
312
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM
the conditions of plant life. Many insects, &c, have been obtained
from the coalfields of Saarbrilck and Commentry, and from the
hollow trunks of fossil trees in Nova Scotia. Certain British coal-
fields have yielded good specimens: ArchaeoptUus, from the Derby-
shire coalfield, had a spread of wing extending to more than 14 in. ;
some specimens (Brodia) still exhibit traces of brilliant wing colours.
In the Nova Scotian tree trunks land snails (Archaeozonites, Dendro-
pupa) have been found.
In the later Carboniferous rocks the earliest amphibians make
their appearance in considerable numbers; they were all Stego
cephalians (Labyrinthodonts) with long bodies, a head covered with
bony plates and weak or undeveloped limbs. The largest were
about 7 or 8 ft. long, the smallest only a few inches. Some were
probably flu via tile in habit (Loxomma,Anthracosaurus,Ophiderpeton) ;
others may have been terrestrial (Dendrerpeton, Hylerpeton). Certain
footprints in the coal measures of Kansas have been supposed to
belong to lacertilian or dinosaurian forms.
The Physical Conditions during the Period. — In western Europe
the advent of the Carboniferous period was accompanied by the
production of a series of synclines which permitted the formation of
organic limestones, free from the sediments which generally char-
acterized the concluding phases of the preceding Devonian deposition.
The old land area still existed to the north, but doubtless much
reduced in height; against this land, detrital deposits still continued
to be formed, as in Scotland ; while over central Ireland and central
and northern England the clearer waters of the sea furnished a
suitable home for countless corals, brachiopods and foraminifera
and great beds of sea lilies; sponges flourished in many parts of the
sea, and their remains contributed largely to the formation of the
beds of chert. This clearer water extended from Ireland across
north-central England and through South Wales and Somerset into
Belgium and Westphalia; but a narrow ridge of elevated older
rocks ran across the centre of England towards Belgium at this time.
Traced eastward into north Germany, Thuringia and Silesia, the
limestones pass into the detrital culm formations, which owe their
existence to a southern uplifted massif, the complement of the
synclines already mentioned. Sediments approaching to the culm
type, with similar flora and fauna, were deposited in synclinal hollows
in parts of France and Spain.
'Thus western Europe in early Carboniferous time was occupied by
a series of constricted:, gulf-like seas; and on account of the steady
progress of intermittent warping movements of the crust, we find
that the areas of clearer water, in which the limestone-building
organisms could exist, were repeatedly able to spread, thus forming
those thin limestones found interbedded with shale and sandstone
which occur typically in the Yoredale district of Yorkshire and in
the region to the north, and also in the culm deposits of central
Europe. The spread of these limestones was repeatedly checked by
the steady influx of detritus from the land during the pauses in
movements of depression. Looking eastward, towards central and
northern Russia, we find a wider and much more open sea ; but the
continental type of deposit prevailed in the northern portion,
and here, as in Scotland, we find coal-beds amongst the sediments
(Moscow basin). Farther south in the Donetz basin the coals only
appear at the close of the Lower Carboniferous.
In North America, the crustal movements at the beginning of the
period are less evident than in Europe, but a marked parallelism
exists; for in the east, in the Appalachian tract, we find detrital
sediments prevailing, while the open sea, with great deposits of lime-
stone, lay out towards the west in the direction of that similar open
sea which lay towards the east of Europe and extended through Asia.
The close of the early Carboniferous period was marked by an
augmentation of the orojgenic movements. The gentler synclines
and anticlines of the earlier part of the period became accentuated,
giving rise to pronounced mountain ridges, right across Europe.
This movement commenced in the central and western part of
the continent and continued throughout the whole Carboniferous
period. The mountains then formed have been called the " Palaeozoic
Alps " by E. Kayser, the " Hercynian Mountains " by M. Bertrand.
The most western range extended from Ireland through Wales and
the south of England to the central plateau of France; this was the
" Armorican range " of E. Suess. The eastern part of the chain
passed from South France through the Vosges, the Black Forest,
Thuringia, Harz, the Fichtelgebirge, Bohemia, the Sudetes, and
possibly farther east; this constitutes the " Varischen Alps" of
Suess.
The sea had gained somewhat at the beginning of the Carboniferous
period in western Europe, but the effect of these movements, com-
bined with the rapid formation of detrital deposits from the rising
land areas, was to drive the sea steadily from the north towards the
south, until the open sea (with limestones) was relegated to what is
now the Mediterranean and to Russia and thence eastward. Similar
events were meanwhile happening in North America, for the seas
were steadily filled with sediments which drove them from the north-
east towards the south-west, and doubtless those movements which
at the close of this period uplifted the Appalachian mountains were
already operative in the same direction.
The folding of the Ural mountains began in the earlier part of this
period and was continued, after its close, into the Permian; and
there are traces of uplifts in central Asia and Armenia.
None of these movements appears to have affected the southern
hemisphere.
The net result of the orogenk movements was, that at the close
of the period there existed a great northern continental mass,
embracing Europe, North Asia and North America; and a great
southern continental mass, including South America, Africa, Australia
and India. Between these land masses lay a great Mediterranean
sea— the " Tethys " of Suess.
The conditions under which the beds of coal were formed will be
found described under that head ; it will be sufficient to notice here
that some coal seams were undoubtedly formed by jungle or swamp-
like growths on the site of the deposit, and it is equally true that
others were formed by the transport and deposition 01 vegetable
detritus. The main point to observe in this connexion is that large
tracts of land in many parts of the world were at a critical level as
regards the sea, a condition highly favourable to frequent extensive
incursions of marine waters over the low-lying areas in a period of
extreme crustal instability.
Vulcanicity. — In intimate relationship with the mountain-building
orogenic crustal movements was the prevalence of volcanic activity
dunng the earlier part of this period. In the Lower Carboniferous
rocks of Scotland intercalated volcanic rocks are strikingly abundant,
and now form an important feature in the geology of the southern
portion of that country. Of these rocks Sir Archibald Geikie says:
Two great phases or types of volcanic action during Carboniferous
time may be recognized — (1) Plateaus, where the volcanic materials
discharged copiously from many scattered openings now form broad
tablelands or ranges of hills, sometimes many hundreds of square
miles in extent and 1500 ft. or more in thickness; (2) Puys, where
the ejections were often confined to the discharge of a small amount
of fragmentary materials from a single independent vent." The
plateau type was most extensively developed during the formation
of the Calciferous Sandstone ; the puy type was of somewhat later
date. Basic lavas, with andesites, trachytes, tuffs and agglomerates
are the most common Scottish rocks of this period. Similar erup-
tions, but on a much smaller scale, took place in other parts of
Great Britain.
Granites, porphyries and porphyrites belonging to this period
occur in the Saxon Erzgebirge, the Harz, Thuringerwald, Vosges,
Brittany, Cornwall and Christiania. Porphyrites and tuffs are
known in the French Carboniferous. In China, at the close of the
period, there were enormous eruptions of melaphyre, porphyrite
and quartz-porphyry. In North America, the principal region of
volcanic activity lay in the west ; great thicknesses of igneous rocks
occur in the Lower Carboniferous rocks of British Columbia, and
from the middle of the period until near its close volcanoes were
active from Alaska to California. Igneous rocks of this period are
found also in Australasia.
Climate. — That the vegetation during this period was unusually
exuberant there can be no doubt, and that a general uniformity of
climatic conditions prevailed is shown not only by the wide distribu-
tion of coal measures, but by the uniformity of plant types over the
whole earth. It is well, however, to guard against an over-estima-
tion of this exuberance ; it must be borne in mind that the physio-
graphic conditions were peculiarly favourable to the preservation
of plant remains, conditions that do not appear to have obtained so
completely in any other period. The climate, we may assume from
the distribution of land and water, was generally moist, and it was
probably mild if not warm; conditions favourable to the growth
of certain types of plants. But there is no good evidence for an
excess of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere — an assumption founded
on the luxuriance of the vegetation, coupled with the fact that
vuicanicity was active and wide-ranging. Carbon dioxide may have
been present in the air in greater abundance in earlier periods than
it is at present, but there is no reason to suppose that the percentage
was appreciably higher in the Carboniferous period than it is now.
The occurrence of red deposits in western Australia, Scotland, the
Ural mountains, in Michigan, Montana and Nova Scotia, &c,
associated in some instances with the formation of gypsum and salt,
clearly points to the existence of areas of excessive evaporation,
such as are found in land-locked waters in regions where something
like desert conditions prevail. The xerophytic structures found in
some of the plants might seem to corroborate this view; but similar
structures are assumed by many plants when dwelling in brackish
marshes and morasses.
The abundance of corals in some of the Carboniferous seas and
possibly also the large size of some of the Productids and foraminifera
may be taken as evidence of warm or temperate waters.
In spite of the bulk of the evidence being in favour of geniality
of climate, it is necessary to observe that certain deposits have been
recognized as glacial ; in the culm of the Frankenwald, in the coal
basins of central France, and in central England, certain con-
glomeratic beds have bsen assigned, somewhat doubtfully, to this
origin. They have also been regarded as the result of torrential
action. Glacial deposits certainly do exist in the Permo-carboni-
ferous formations, which are described under that head, but in the
true Carboniferous system glaciation may be taken as not proven.
The foreign boulders of granite, gneiss, &c, found in the coal-
measures of some districts, are quite as likely to have been dropped
by rafts of vegetation as to have been carried by floating icebergs.
CARBORUNDUM— CARCAR
313
Economic Products. — Foremost among the useful products of the
Carboniferous rocks is the coal (q.v.) itself; but associated with
the coal seams in Great Britain, North America and elsewhere, are
very important beds of ironstone, fire-clay, terra-cotta clay, and
occasionally oil shale and alum shale. Oil and gas are of importance
in the Lower Carboniferous Pocono sandstone of West Virginia
and in the Berea grit of Ohio, where brine also occurs.
In the Carboniferous Limestone series, the purer kinds of limestone
are used for the manufacture of lime, bleaching powder and similar
products, also as a flux in the smelting of iron ; some of the less pure
varieties are used in making cement. The beds of chert are utilized
in the pottery industry, and some of the harder and more crystalline
limestones are beautiful marbles, capable of taking a high polish.
The sandstones are used for building, and for millstones and grind-
stones. Within the Carboniferous rocks, but due to the action of
various agencies long after their deposition, are important ore
formations; such are the Rio Tinto ores of Spain, the lead and zinc
ores and some haematite of the Pennine and Mendip hills and other
British localities, and many ore regions in the United States.
References. — For a good general account of the Carboniferous
system, see A. Geikie, Text Book of Geology, vol. ii. (4th ed., 1903);
and for the American development see T. C. Chamberlin and R. D.
Salisbury, Geology, vol. ii. (1906). These two works give abundant
references to the literature of the subject. See also, Recent Additions
to Geological Literature, published annually by the Geological Society
of London since 1893; and Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralorte
(Stuttgart). (J. A. H.)
CARBORUNDUM, a silicide of carbon formed by the action
of carbon on sand (silica) at high temperatures, which on account
of its great hardness is an important abrasive, and also has
possible applications in the metallurgy of iron and steel. Its
name was derived from carbon and corundum (a form of alumina),
from a mistaken view as to its composition. It was first ob-
tained accidentally in 1891 by Acheson in America, when he
was experimenting with the electric furnace in the hope of pro-
ducing artificial diamonds. The experiments were followed
up in an incandescence furnace, which on a larger scale is now
employed for the industrial manufacture of the product. A full
description of the process has been given in the Journ. Soc. Ckem.
Industry, 1897, vol. xvi. p. 863. The furnace is rectangular,
about 16 ft. long and 5 ft. wide by 5 ft. high, with massive
brick end walls 2 ft. thick, through which are built the carbon
poles, consisting of bundles of 60 parallel 3-in. carbon rods, each
3 ft. in length, with a copper rod let into the outer end to connect
it with a copper cap, which in turn is connected with one of the
terminals of the generating dynamo. The spaces between the
carbons of the electrode are packed tightly with graphite. In
preparing the furnace for use, transverse iron screens are placed
temporarily across each end, the space between these and the
end walls being rammed with fine coke, and that in the interior
is filled to the level of the centre of the carbon poles with the
charge, consisting of 34 parts of coke, with 54 of sand, 10 of
sawdust and 2 of salt. A longitudinal trench is then formed
in the middle, and in this is arranged a cylindrical pile of frag-
ments of coke about \ in. or more in diameter, so that they form
a core, about 21 in. in diameter, connecting the carbon poles in
the end walls. Temporary side walls are then built up, the iron
screens are removed, and a further quantity of charge is heaped
up about 3 ft. above the top of the furnace. An alternating
current of about 1700 amperes at 190 volts is now switched on;
as the mass becomes heated by the passage of the current the
resistance diminishes, and the current is regulated until after
about 2 hours or less from starting it is maintained constant at
about 6000 amperes and 125 volts. Carbon monoxide is given
off and burns freely around the sides and top of the furnace, tinged
yellow after a time by the sodium in the salt mixed with the
charge. Meanwhile a shrinkage takes place, which is made good
by the addition of a further quantity of charge until the operation
is complete, usually in about 36 hours from the commencement.
The current is then switched off, and the side walls, after cooling
for a day, are taken down, the comparatively unaltered charge
from the top is removed, and the products are carefully extracted.
These consist of the inner carbon core, which at the temperature
of the furnace will have been for the most part converted into
graphite, then a thin black crust of graphite mixed with car-
borundum, next a layer of nearly pure crystallized carborundum
about a foot in thickness, then grey amorphous carbide of silicon
mixed with increasing proportions of unaltered charge, and
lastly, on the outside, the portion of the charge which had never
reached the temperature necessary for reaction, and which is
altered only by the intrusion of salt from the inner part of the
furnace. Special precautions are taken in making and breaking
the intense current here used (amounting at the end to about
750 kilowatts, or 1000 E.H.P.), a water-regulator consisting of
removable iron plates dipped in salt water being used for the
purpose. In such a furnace as that above described the charge
weighs about 14 tons, the yield of carborundum is about 3 tons,
and the expenditure of energy about 39 kilowatt-hours (5*2
H.P.-hours) per pound of finished product. The carborundum
thus produced is crystalline, greenish, bluish or brownish in
colour, sometimes opaque, but often translucent, resisting the
action of even the strongest acids, and the action of air or of
sulphur at high temperatures. The crude product can therefore
be treated with hot sulphuric acid to purify it. In hardness it
nearly equals the diamond, and it is used for tool-grinding in the
form of vitrified wheels (mixed with powdered porcelain and
iron, pressed into shape and fired in a kiln). Carborundum
paper, made like emery paper, is now largely used in place of
garnet paper in American shoe factories, and finds a market
in other directions. The amorphous carbide, which was at
first a waste product, has been tried, it is reported, with success
as a lining for steel furnaces, as it is said not to be affected by
iron or iron oxide at a white heat. (W. G. M.)
CARBOY (from the Pers. qar&bah, a flagon), a large globular
glass vessel or bottle, encased in wicker or iron-work for pro-
tection, used chiefly for holding vitriol, nitric acid and other
corrosive liquids.
CARBUNCLE (Lat. carbunculus, diminutive of carbo, a glowing
coal), in mineralogy, a garnet {q.v.) cut with a convex surface.
In medicine the name given to an acute local inflammation of
the deeper layers of the skin, followed by sloughing. It is
accompanied by great local tension and by constitutional dis-
turbance, and in the early stages the pain is often extremely
acute. A hard flattened swelling of a deep-red colour is noticed
on the back, face or extremities. This gradually extends until
in some instances it may become as large as a dinner-plate.
Towards the centre of the mass numerous small openings form
on the surface, from which blood and matter escape. Through
these openings a yellow slough or " core " of leathery consistence
can be seen. Carbuncle is an intense local inflammation caused
by septic germs which have in some manner found their way
to the part. It is particularly apt to occur in persons whose
health is depressed by mental worries, or by such troubles as
chronic disease of the kidneys or blood-vessels, or by diabetes.
The attack ends in mortification of the affected tissue, and,
after much suffering, the core or mortified part slowly comes
away. The modern treatment consists in cutting into the in-
flamed area, scraping out the germ-laden core at the earliest
possible moment, and applying germicides. This method
relieves the pain at once, materially diminishes the risk of blood-
poisoning, and hastens convalescence. (E. O.*)
CARCAG&NTE, or Carcaj£nte, a town of eastern Spain, in
the province of Valencia; near the right bank of the river Jucar,
at the junction between the Valencia-Murcia and Carcagente-
Denia railways. Pop. (1900) 12,262. Carcagente is a pictur-
esque town, of considerable antiquity. Various Roman remains
have been found in its neighbourhood. It is surrounded by
groves of orange, palm and mulberry trees, and contains many
Moorish houses, whose old-fashioned blue-tiled cupolas contrast
with the chimneys of the silk mills and linen factories opened
in modern times. An important local industry is the cultivation
of rice, for which the moist and warm climate of the low-lying
Jucar valley is well suited.
CARCAR, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu,
Philippine Islands, on the Carcar river near its mouth at the head
of Carcar Bay, 23 m. S.W. of Cebu, the capital. It is connected
with Cebu by a railway, and a branch of this railway extending
across the island to Barili and Dumanjug was projected in
1908. Carcar has some coast trade. The surrounding country
3H
CARCASS— CARDAN
is rugged, and produces Indian corn and sugar in considerable
quantity. The language is Cebu-Visayan. Carcar was founded
in 1624.
CARCASS* the dead body of an animal. As a butcher's term,
the word means the body of an animal without the head, ex-
tremities and offal. It is also used of a hollow iron case filled
with combustibles, and fired from a howitzer to set fire to
buildings, ships, &c, the flames issuing through holes pierced
in the sides. The word is common in various forms to Romanic
languages, but the ultimate origin is obscure. Possible deriva-
tions are from the Lat. caro, flesh, and Ital. casso or cassa, chest,
or from a Med. Gr. rap*c&aioj>, a quiver, for which the Fr. is
carquois, and Port, carcaz.
CARCASSONNE* a city of south-western France, capital of the
department of Aude, 57 m. S.E. of Toulouse, on the Southern
railway between that city and Narbonne. Pop. (1906) 25,346.
Carcassonne is divided by the river Aude into two distinct towns,
the Ville Basse and the Cit6, which are connected by two bridges,
one modern, the other dating from the 13th century. The Cit6
occupies the summit of an abrupt and isolated hill on the right
bank of the river. Its dirty and irregular streets are inhabited
by a scanty population of workpeople, and its interest lies
mainly in its ancient fortifications (see Fortification and
Siegecraft) which, for completeness and strength, are unique
in France and probably in Europe. They consist of a double
line of ramparts, of which the outer measures more than 1600 yds.
in circumference. These are protected at frequent intervals by
towers, and can be entered only by two gates, one to the east,
the other to the west, both of which are themselves elaborately
fortified (see Gate). In the interior, and to the north of the
western gate, a citadel adjoins the fortifications. A portion of
the inner line is attributed to the Visigoths of the 6th century;
the rest, including the castle, seems to belong to the nth or 12th
century, while the outer circuit has been referred mainly to
the end of the 13th. The old cathedral of St Nazaire dates from
the nth to the 14th centuries. The nave was begun in 1096
and is Romanesque in style; the transept and choir, which
contain magnificent stained glass of the Renaissance period,
are of Gothic architecture. Both the fortifications and the
church were restored by Viollet-le-Duc between 1850 and 1880.
On the left bank of the Aude, between it and the Canal du Midi,
lies the new town, clean, well-built and flourishing, with streets
intersecting each other at right angles. It is surrounded by
boulevards occupying the site of its ramparts, and is well
provided with fountains, public squares and gardens planted
with fine plane-trees. The most interesting buildings are the
cathedral of St Michel, dating from the 13th century but restored
in modern times, and St Vincent, a church of the 14th century,
remarkable for the width of its nave.
Carcassonne is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of
assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
It also has a lycee for boys, training-colleges, theological semi-
naries, a library and a museum rich in paintings. The old cloth
industry is almost extinct. The town is, however, an important
wine-market, and the vineyards of the vicinity are the chief
source of its prosperity, which is enhanced by its port on the
Canal du Midi. Tanning and leather-dressing, distilling, the
manufacture of agricultural implements, furniture and corks,
cooperage and the preparation of preserved fruits, are prominent
industries.
Carcassonne occupies the site of Carcaso, an ancient city of
Gallia Narbonensis, which belonged to the Volcae Tectosages.
It was a place of some importance at the time of Caesar's in-
vasion, but makes almost no appearance in Roman history.
On the disintegration of the empire, it fell into the hands of the
Visigoths, who, in spite of the attacks of the Franks, especially
in 585, retained possession till 724, when they were expelled
by the Arabs, destined in turn to yield before long to Pippin
the Short. From about 819 to 1082 Carcassonne formed a
separate countship, and from the latter date till 1247 a viscount-
ship. Towards the end of the nth century the viscounts of
Carcassonne assumed the style of viscounts of Beziers, which
town and its lords they had dominated since the fall of the
Carolingian empire. The viscounty of Carcassonne, together
with that of B6ziers, was confiscated to the crown in 1247, as
a result of the part played by the viscount Raymond Roger
against Simon de Montfort in the Albigensian crusade, during
which in 1209 the city was taken by the Crusaders (see Albi-
genses). A revolt of the city against the royal authority was
severely punished in 1262 by the expulsion of its principal
inhabitants, who were, however, permitted to take up their
quarters on the other side of the river. This was the origin of
the new town, which was fortified in 1347. During the religious
wars, Carcassonne several times changed hands, and it did not
recognize Henry IV. till 1596.
See E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, La Citi de Carcassonne (Paris, 1858);
L. F6die\ Histoire de Carcassonne (Carcassonne, 1887).
CARDAMOM, the fruit of several plants of the genera Elettaria
and Amomum, belonging to the natural order Zingiberaceae, the
principal of which is Elettaria Cardamomum, from which the
true officinal or Malabar cardamom is derived. The Malabar
cardamom plant is a large perennial herb with a thick fleshy
root-stock, which sends up flowering stems, 6 to 1 2 ft. high. The
large leaves are arranged in two rows, have very long sheaths
enveloping the stem and a lanceolate spreading blade 1 to 2 J ft.
long. The fruit is an ovate-triangular, three-celled, three-valved
capsule (about \ in. long, of a dirty yellow colour) enclosing
numerous angular seeds, which form the valuable part of the
plant. It is a native of the mountainous parts of the Malabar
coast of India, and the fruits are procured either from wild
plants or by cultivation throughout Travancore, western Mysore,
and along the western Ghauts. A cardamom of much larger
size found growing in Ceylon was formerly regarded as belonging
to a distinct species, and described as such under the name of
Elettaria major; but it is now known to be only a variety of the
Malabar cardamom. In commerce, several varieties are distin-
guished according to their size and flavour. The most esteemed
are known as " shorts," a name given to such capsules as are
from a quarter to half an inch long and about a quarter broad.
Following these come " short-longs " and " long-longs," also
distinguished by their size, the largest reaching to about an inch
in length. The Ceylon cardamom attains a length of an inch and
a half and is about a third of an inch broad, with a brownish
pericarp and a distinct aromatic odour. Among the other plants,
the fruits of which pass in commerce as cardamoms, are the
round or cluster cardamom, Amomum Cardamomum, a native
of Siam and Java; the bastard cardamom of Siam, A, xan-
thioides — the Bengal cardamom, which is the fruit of A. subu-
latum, a native of Nepal; the Java cardamom, produced by
A. maximum; and the Korarima cardamom of Somaliland. The
last-named is the product of a plant which is unknown botani-
cally. Cardamoms generally are possessed of a pleasant aromatic
odour, and an agreeable, spicy taste. On account of their flavour
they are much used with other medicines, and they form a
principal ingredient in curries and compounded spices. In the
north of Europe they are much used as a spice and flavouring
material for cakes and liqueurs; and they are very extensively
employed in the East for chewing with betel, &c.
CARDAN [Ital. Cardano], GIROLAMO [Geronymo or
Hieronimo] ( 1 501-15 7 6), Italian mathematician, physician
and astrologer, born at Pa via on the 24th of September 1501, was
the illegitimate son of Facio Cardano (1444-1524), a learned
jurist of Milan, himself distinguished by a taste for mathematics.
He was educated at the university of Pavia, and subsequently
at that of Padua, where he graduated in medicine. He was,
however, excluded from the College of Physicians at Milan on
account of his illegitimate birth, and it is not surprising that his
first book should have been an exposure of the fallacies of the
faculty. A fortunate cure of the child of the Milanese senator
Sfondrato now brought him into notice, and the interest of his
patron procured him admission into the medical body. About
this time (1539) he obtained additional celebrity by the publica-
tion of his Practica arithmeticae generalis, a work of great merit
CARDAN
3i5
for the time, and he became engaged in a correspondence with
Niccolo Tartaglia, who had discovered a solution of cubic
equations. This discovery Tartaglia had kept to himself, but
he was ultimately induced to communicate it to Cardan under a
solemn promise that it should never be divulged. Cardan,
however, published it in his comprehensive treatise on algebra
(Artis magnae sive de regulis Algebrae liber unus) which appeared
at Nuremberg in 1545 (see Algebra: History). Two years
previously he had published a work even more highly regarded
by his contemporaries, his celebrated treatise on astrology. As
a believer in astrology Cardan was on a level with the best minds
of his age; the distinction consisted in the comparatively
cautious spirit of his inquiries and his disposition to confirm his
assertions by an appeal to facts, or what he believed to be such.
A very considerable part of his treatise is based upon observations
carefully collected by himself, and seemingly well calculated to
support his theories so far as they extend. Numerous instances
of his belief in dreams and omens may be collected from his
writings, and he especially valued himself on being one of the
five or six celebrated men to whom, as to Socrates, had been
vouchsafed the assistance of a guardian daemon.
In 1547 he was appointed professor of medicine at Pavia.
The publication of his works on algebra and astrology at this
juncture had gained for him a European renown, and procured
him flattering offers from Pope Paul III. and the king of Denmark,
both of which he declined. In 1 551 his reputation was crowned
by the publication of his great work, De SuUilitate Return, which
embodied the soundest physical learning of his time and simul-
taneously represented its most advanced spirit of speculation.
It was followed some years later by a similar treatise, De Varietate
Rerum (1557), the two making in effect but one book. A great
portion of this is occupied by endeavours, commonly futile, to
explain ordinary natural phenomena, but its chief interest for
us consists in the hints and glimpses it affords of principles beyond
the full comprehension of the writer himself, and which the world
was then by no means ready to entertain. The inorganic realm
of Nature he asserts to be animated no less than the organic;
all creation is progressive development; all animals were origin-
ally worms; the inferior metals must be regarded as conatus
naturae towards the production of gold. The indefinite varia-
bility of species is implied in the remark that Nature is seldom
content with a single variation from a customary type. The
oviparous habits of birds are explained by their tendency to
favour the perpetuation of the species, precisely in the manner
of modern naturalists. Animals were not created for the use
of man, but exist for their own sakes. The origin of life depends
upon cosmic laws, which Cardan naturally connects with his
favourite study of astrology. The physical divergencies of man-
kind arise from the effects of climate and the variety of human
circumstances in general. Cardan's views on the dissimilarity of
languages are much more philosophical than usual at his time;
and his treatise altogether, though weak in particular details,
is strong in its pervading sense of the unity and omnipotence of
natural law, which renders it in some degree an adumbration of
the course of science since the author's day. It was attacked
by J. C. Scaliger, whom Cardan refuted without difficulty.
The celebrity which Cardan had acquired led in the same
year (1551) to his journey to Scotland as the medical adviser
of Archbishop Hamilton of St Andrews. The archbishop was
supposed to be suffering from consumption, a complaint which
Cardan, under a false impression, as he frankly admits, had
represented himself as competent to cure. He was of great
service to the archbishop, whose complaint proved to be asth-
ma tical; but the principal interest attaching to his expedition is
derived from his account of the disputes of the medical faculty at
Paris, and of the court of Edward VI. of England. The Parisian
doctors were disturbed by the heresies of Vesalius, who was
beginning to introduce anatomical study from the human subject.
Cardan's liberality of temper led him to sympathize with the
innovator. His account of Edward VI. 's disposition and
understanding is extremely favourable, and is entitled to credit
as that of a competent observer without bias towards either side
of the religious question. He cast the king's nativity, and
indulged in a number of predictions which were effectually
confuted by the royal youth's death in the following year.
Cardan had now attained the summit of his prosperity, and the
rest of his life was little but a series of disasters. His principal
misfortunes arose from the crimes and calamities of his sons, one
of whom was an utter reprobate, while the tragic fate of the other
overwhelmed the father with anguish. This son, Giovanni
Battista, also a physician, had contracted an imprudent marriage
with a girl of indifferent character, Brandonia Seroni, who
subsequently proved unfaithful to him. The injured husband
revenged himself with poison; the deed was detected, and the
exceptional severity of the punishment seems to justify Cardan in
attributing it to the rancour of his medical rivals, with whom he
had never at any time been on good terms. The blow all but
crushed him; his reputation and his practice waned; he addicted
himself to gaming, a vice to which he had always been prone;
his mind became unhinged and filled with distempered imagina-
tions. He was ultimately banished from Milan on some accusa-
tion not specified, and although the decree was ultimately
rescinded, he found it advisable to accept a professorship at
Bologna (1562). While residing there in moderate comfort, and
mainly occupied with the composition of supplements to his
former works, he was suddenly arrested on a charge not stated,
but in all probability heresy. Though he had always been
careful to keep on terms with the Church, the bent of his mind
had been palpably towards free thought, and the circumstance
had probably attracted the attention of Pius V., who then ruled
the Church in the spirit, as he had formerly exercised the func-
tions, of an inquisitor. Through the intercession, as would
appear, of some influential cardinals, Cardan was released, but
was deprived of his professorship, prohibited from teaching and
publishing any further, and removed to Rome, where he spent
his remaining years in receipt of a pension from the pope. It
seems to have been urged in his favour that his intellect had been
disturbed by grief for the loss of his son — an assertion to which
his frequent hallucinations lent some countenance, though the
existence of any serious derangement is disproved by the lucidity
and coherence of his last writings. He occupied his time at
Rome in the composition of his commentaries, De Vita Propria,
which, along with a companion treatise, De Libris Propriis,
is our principal authority for his biography. Though he had
burned much, he left behind him more than a hundred MSS.,
not twenty of which have been printed. He died at Rome on
the 21st of September 1576.
Alike intellectually and morally, Cardan is one of the most
interesting personages connected with the revival of science in
Europe. He had no especial bent towards any scientific pursuit,
but appears as the man of versatile ability, delighting in research
for its own sake. He possessed the true scientific spirit in
perfection; nothing, he tells us, among the king of France's
treasures appeared to him so worthy of admiration as a certain
natural curiosity which he took for the horn of a unicorn. It has
been injurious to his fame to have been compelled to labour,
partly in fields of research where no important discovery was
then attainable, partly in those where his discoveries could only
serve as the stepping-stones to others, by which they were
inevitably eclipsed. His medical career serves as an illustration
of the former case, and his mathematical of the latter. His
medical knowledge was wholly empirical; restrained by the
authority of Galen, and debarred from the practice of anatomy,
nothing more could be expected than that he should stumble on
some fortunate nostrums. As a mathematician, on the other
hand, he effected important advances in science, but such as
merely paved the way fordiscoverieswhich have obscured his own.
From his astrology no results could be expected; but even here
the scientific character of his mind is displayed in his common-
sense treatment of what usually passed for a mystical and occult
study. His prognostications are as strictly empirical as his
prescriptions, and rest quite as much upon the observations
which he supposed himself to have made in his practice. As
frequently is the case with men incapable of rightly ordering
316
CARDENAS— CARDIFF
their own lives, he is full of wisdom and sound advice for others;
his ethical precepts and practical rules are frequently excellent.
To complete the catalogue of his accomplishments, he is no
contemptible poet.
The work of Cardan's, however, which retains most interest for
this generation is his autobiography, De Vita Propria. In its
clearness and frankness of self-revelation this book stands almost
alone among records of its class. It may be compared with the
autobiography of another celebrated Italian of the age,Benvenuto
Cellini, but is much more free from vanity and self -consciousness,
unless the extreme candour with which Cardan reveals his own
errors is to be regarded as vanity in a more subtle form. The
general impression is highly favourable to the writer, whose
impetuosity and fits of reckless dissipation appear as mere
exaggerations of the warmth of heart which imparted such
strength to his domestic affections, and in the region of science
imparted that passionate devotion to research which could alone
have enabled him to persevere so resolutely and effect such
marked advances in such multifarious fields of inquiry.
Cardan's autobiography has been most ably condensed, and at
the same time supplemented by information from the general body
of his writings and other sources, by Henry Morley (Jerome Cardan,
1854, 2 vols). His capital treatises, De Subtilitate and De Varietate
Rerum, are combined and fully analysed in vol. it. of Rixner and
Siber's Leben und Lehrmeinungen beruhmter Physiker am Ends des
xvi. und am Anfange des xvti. Jahrhunderts (Sulzbach, 1820).
Cardan's works were edited in ten volumes by Sponius (Lyons,
1663). A biography was prefixed by Gabriel Naude, whose un-
reasonable depreciation has unduly lowered Cardan's character with
posterity. (R. G.)
CARDENAS {San Juan de Dios de Cdrdenas), a maritime town
of Cuba, in Matanzas province, about 75 m. E. of Havana, on the
level and somewhat marshy shore of a spacious bay of the
northern coast of the island, sheltered by a long promontory.
Pop. (1007) 24,280. It has railway communication with the
trunk railway of the island, and communicates by regular
steamers with all the coast towns. The city lies between the sea
and hills. There are broad streets, various squares (including
the Plaza de Col6n, with a bronze statue of Columbus given to the
city by Queen Isabel II. and erected in 1862) and substantial
business buildings. Cardenas is one of the principal sugar-
exporting towns of Cuba. The shallowness of the harbour
necessitates lighterage and repeated loading of cargoes. The
surrounding region is famed for its fertility. A large quantity of
asphalt has been taken from the bed of the harbour. A flow of
fresh water from the bed of the harbour is another peculiar
feature; it comes presumably from the outlets of subterranean
rivers. There is a large United States business element, which
has been, indeed, prominent in the city ever since its foundation.
At £1 Varadero, on a peninsula at the mouth of the bay, there is
fine sea-bathing on a long beach, and £1 Varadero is a winter
resort. Cardenas was founded in 1828, and in 1861 already had
12,910 inhabitants. In 1850 General Narciso Lopez landed here
on a filibustering expedition, and held the town for a few hours,
abandoning it when he saw that the people would not rise to
support him in his efforts to secure Cuban independence. On the
nth of May 1898 an American torpedo-boat and revenue cutter
here attacked three Spanish gun-boats, and Ensign Worth
Bagley (1874-1898) was killed — the first American naval officer
to lose his life in the Spanish- American War.
CARDIFF, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary
borough, seaport and market-town, and the county town of
Glamorganshire, South Wales, situated on the Taff, 1 m. above
its outflow, 145^ m. from London by the Great Western railway
via Badminton, 40$ m. W. of Bristol and 45J m. E.S.E. of
Swansea. Cardiff is also the terminus of both the Taff Vale and
the Rhymney railways, the latter affording the London &
North- Western railway access to the town. The Barry line from
Barry dock joins the Great Western and Taff Vale railways at
Cardiff, and the Cardiff Railway Company (which owns all the
docks) has a line from Pontypridd via Llanishen to the docks.
The Glamorganshire canal, opened in 1794, runs from Cardiff to
Merthyr Tydfil, with a branch to Aberdare. The increase of the
population of Cardiff during the 19th century was phenomenal;
from 1870 inhabitants in 1801, and 6187 in 1831 it grew to
32,954 in 1861. The borough, which originally comprised only
the parishes of St John's and St Mary's, was in 1875 and 1895
extended so as to include Roath and a large part of Llandaff,
known as Canton, on the right of the Taff. The whole area was
united as one civil parish in 1003, and the population in 1901 was
1 64,333, °f whom only about 8% spoke Welsh.
Probably no town in the kingdom has a nobler group of
public buildings than those in Cathays Park, which also com-
mands a view of the castle ramparts and the old keep. On
opposite sides of a fine avenue are the assize courts and new
town hall (with municipal offices), which are both in the Renais-
sance style. The Glamorgan county council has also a site of
one acre in the park for offices.
The University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire,
founded in 1883, under the principalship of J. Viriamu Jones, for
some time carried on its work in temporary buildings, pending the
erection of the commodious and imposing building from the plans
of Mr W. D. Caroe, in Cathays Park, where the registry of the
university of Wales (of which the college is a constituent) is also
situated. The Drapers' Company has given £15,500 towards
building a library, in addition to previous donations to the
engineering department and the scholarship fund of the college.
The college has departments for arts, pure and applied science
and technology, medicine, public health, music, and for the
training of men and women teachers for elementary and secondary
schools. Its library includes the Salesbury collection of books
relating to Wales. Aberdare Hall is a hostel for the women
students. The Baptist theological college of Pontypool was
removed to Cardiff in 1895.
The public library and museum were founded in 1863, but in
1882 were removed to a new building which was enlarged in
1896. The library is especially rich in books and MSS. relating
to Wales and in Celtic literature generally. These comprise the
Welsh portion of the MSS. which belonged to Sir Thomas
Phillipps of Middlehill (including the Book of Aneurin — one of
the " Four ancient books of Wales "), purchased for £3500. A
catalogue of the printed books in the Welsh department, which
soon became a standard work of reference, was published in
1898, while a calendar of the Welsh MSS. was issued by the
Historical MSS. Commission in 1903. There are six branch
libraries, while a scheme of school libraries has been in operation
since 1899. The chief features of the museum are collections of
the fossils, birds and flora of Wales and of obsolete Welsh
domestic appliances, casts of the pre-Norman monuments of
Wales, and reproductions of metal and ivory work illustrating
various periods of art and civilization. There is also a unique
collection of Swansea and Nantgarw china. The fine arts
department contains twenty-seven oil paintings by modern
English and continental artists bequeathed by William Menelaus
of Dowlais in 1883, the Pyke-Thompson collection of about 100
water-colour paintings presented in 1899, and some 3000 prints
and drawings relating to Wales. In 1905 Cardiff was selected
by a privy council committee to be the site of a state-aided
national museum for Wales, the whole contents of the museum
and art gallery, together with a site in Cathays Park, having been
offered by the corporation for the purpose. A charter providing
for its government was granted on the 19th of March 1907. In
Cathays Park there is also a " gorsedd " or bardic circle of huge
monoliths erected in connexion with the eisteddfod of 1899.
The other public buildings of the town include the infirmary
founded in 1837, the present buildings being erected in 1883,
and subsequently enlarged; the sanatorium, the seamen's
hospital, the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers (which
has a library) built in 1894, the exchange, an institute for the
blind, a school for the deaf and dumb, and one of the two prisons
for the county (the other being at Swansea). There are a
technical school, an intermediate school for boys and another for
girls, a " higher-grade " and a pupil teachers' school. A musical
festival is held triennially.
In the business part the buildings are also for the most
part imposing and the thoroughfares spacious, while the chief
CARDIFF
3i7
suburban streets are planted with trees. The Taff is spanned
by two bridges, one a four-arched bridge rebuilt in 1858-1859
leading to Llandaff , and the other a cantilever with a central
swinging span of 190 ft 8 in.
In virtue of its being the shire-town, Cardiff acquired in 1535
the right to send one representative to parliament, which it did
until 1832, from which date Cowbridge and Llantrisant have
been joined with it as contributory boroughs returning one
member. The great sessions for the county were during their
whole existence from 1542 to 1830 held at Cardiff, but the
assizes (which replaced them) have since then been held at
Swansea and Cardiff alternately, as also are the quarter sessions
for Glamorgan. The borough has a separate commission of the
peace, having a stipendiary magistrate since 1858. It was
granted a separate court of quarter sessions in 1800, it was con-
stituted a county borough in 1888, and, by letters patent dated
the 28th of October 1005, it was created a city and the dignity
of lord mayor conferred on its chief magistrate. The corporation
consists of ten aldermen and thirty councillors, and the area of
the municipal borough is 8408 acres.
Under powers secured in 1884, the town obtains its chief water
supply from a gathering ground near the sources of the Taff on
the old red sandstone beyond the northern out-crop of the
mineral basin and on the southern slopes of the Brecknock
Beacons. Here two reservoirs of a combined capacity of 668
million gallons have been constructed, and a conduit some 36 m.
long laid to Cardiff at a total cost of about £1,250,000. A third
reservoir is authorized. A gas company, first incorporated in
1837, supplies the city as well as Llandaff and Penarth with gas,
but the corporation also supplies electric power both for lighting
and working the tramways, which were purchased from a private
company in 1898. The city owned in 1005 about 200 acres
of parks and " open spaces," the chief being Roath Park of 100
acres (including a botanical garden of 15 acres), Llandaff fields of
70 acres, and Cathays Park of 60 acres, which was acquired
in 1900 mainly with the view of placing in it the chief public
buildings of the town.
Commerce and Industries, — Edward II. 's charter of 1324
indicates that Cardiff had become even then a trading and
shipping centre of some importance. It enjoyed a brief existence
as a staple town from 1327 to 1332. During the reigns of Eliza-
beth and James I. it was notorious as a resort of pirates, while
some of the ironfounders of the district were suspected of secretly
supplying Spain with ordnance. It was for centuries a " head
port," its limits extending from Chepstow to Llanelly; in the
18th century it sank to the position of " a creek " of the port
of Bristol, but about 1840 it was made independent, its limits
for customs' purposes being defined as from the Rumney estuary
to Nash Point, so that technically the " port of Cardiff " includes
Barry and Penarth as well as Cardiff proper. Down to the end
of the 18th century there was only a primitive quay on the river
side for shipping purposes. Coal was brought down from the
hills on the backs of mules, and iron carried in two-ton wagons.
In 1798 the first dock (12 acres in extent) was constructed at
the terminus of the Glamorgan canal from Merthyr. The com-
mercial greatness of Cardiff is due to the vast coal andiron
deposits of the country drained by the Taff and Rhymney,
between whose outlets the town is situated. But a great impetus
to its development was given by the 2nd marquess of Bute, who
has often been described as the second founder of Cardiff. In
1830 he obtained the first act for the construction of a dock,
which (now known as the West Bute dock) was opened in 1839
and measures (with its basin) 19J acres. The opening of the Taff
Vale railway in 1840 and of the South Wales railway to Cardiff
in 1850 necessitated further accommodation, and the trustees
of the marquess (who died in 1848) began in 185 1 and opened in
1855 &* East Bute dock and basin measuring 46J acres. The
Rhymney railway to Cardiff was completed in 1858 and the trade
of the port so vastly increased that the shipment of coal and coke
went up from 4562 tons in 1839 to 1,796,000 tons in i860. In
1864 the Bute trustees unsuccessfully sought powers for con-
structing three additional docks to cost two millions sterling, but
under the more limited powers granted in 1866, the Roath basin
(12 acres) was opened in 1874, and (under a substituted act
of 1882) the Roath dock (33 acres) was opened in 1887. All these
docks were constructed by the Bute family at a cost approaching
three millions sterling. Still they fell far short of the requirements
of the district for in 1865 the Taff Vale Railway Company opened
a dock of 26 acres under the headland at Penarth, while in 1884
a group of colliery owners, dissatisfied with their treatment at
Cardiff, obtained powers to construct docks at Barry which are
now 114 acres in extent. The Bute trustees in 1885 acquired the
Glamorgan canal and its dock, and in the following year obtained
an act for vesting their various docks and the canal in a company
now known as the Cardiff Railway Company. The South Bute
dock of 50} acres, authorized in 1894 and capable of accommodat-
ing the largest vessels afloat, was opened in 1907, bringing the
whole dock area of Cardiff (including timber ponds) to about
210 acres. There are also ten private graving and floating docks
and one public graving dock. There is ample equipment of fixed
and movable staiths and cranes of various sizes up to 70 tons,
the Lewis-Hunter patent cranes being largely used for shipping
coal owing to their minimizing the breakage of coal and securing
its even distribution. The landing of foreign cattle is permitted
by the Board of Trade, and there are cattle lairs and abattoirs
near the Cardiff wharf. The total exports of the Cardiff docks
in 1906 amounted to 8,767,502 tons, of which 8, 433, 629 tons were
coal, coke and patent fuel, 151,912 were iron and steel and their
manufactures, and 181,076 tons of general merchandise. What
Cardiff lacks is a corresponding import trade, for its imports in
1906 amounted to only 2,108,133 tons, of which the chief items
were iron ore (895,610 tons), pit-wood (303,407), grain and
flour (298,197). Taking " the port of Cardiff " in its technical
sense as including Barry and Penarth, it is the first port in the
kingdom for shipping cleared to foreign countries and British
possessions, second in the kingdom for its timber imports, and
first in the world for shipment of coal.
The east moors, stretching towards the outlet of the Rhymney
river, have become an important metallurgical quarter. Copper
works were established here in 1866, followed long after by tin-
stamping and enamel works. In 1888 the Dowlais Iron Company
(now Messrs Guest, Keen & Nettlefold, Ltd.) acquired here some
ninety acres on which were built four blast furnaces and six
Siemens' smelting furnaces. There are also in the city several
large grain mills and breweries, a biscuit factory, wire and hemp
roperies, fuel works, general foundries and engineering works.
At Ely, 3} m. out of Cardiff, there are also breweries, a small
tin works and large paper works. The newspapers of Cardiff
include two weeklies, the Cardiff Times and Weekly Mail,
founded in 1857 and 1870 respectively, two morning dailies,,
the South Wales Daily News and Western Mail, established in
1872 and 1869 respectively, and two evening dailies.
History and Historic Buildings. — In documents of the first
half of the 12th century the name is variously spelt as Kairdif,
Cairti and Kardid. The Welsh form of the name, Caerdydd
(pronounced Caerdeeth, with the accent on the second syllable)
suggests that the name means " the fort of (Aulus ?) Didius,"
rather than Caer Daf (" the fortress on the Taff "), which is
nowhere found (except in Leland), though Caer Dyv once existed
as a variant No traces have been found of any pre-Roman
settlement at Cardiff. Excavations carried out by the marquess
of Bute from 1889 onward furnished for the first time conclusive
proof that Cardiff had been a Roman station, and also revealed
the sequence of changes which it had subsequently undergone.
There was first, on the site occupied by the present castle, a
camp of about ten acres, probably constructed after the conquest
of the Silures a.d. 75-77, so as to command the passage of the
Taff, which was here crossed by the Via Maritima running from
Gloucester to St David's. In later Roman times there were
added a series of polygonal bastions, of the type found at Caer-
went. To this period also belongs the massive rampart, over
10 ft. thick, and the north gateway, one of the most perfect
Roman gateways in Great Britain. After the departure of
the Romans the walls became ruinous or were partly pulled down,
3i8.
CARDIGAN, LORD
perhaps by sea rovers from the north. In this period of anarchy
the native princes of Glamorgan had their principal demesne,
not at the camp but a mile to the north at Llystalybont, now
merely a thatched farmhouse, while some Saxon invaders threw
up within the camp a large moated mound on which the Normans
about the beginning of the 12th century built the great shell-
keep which is practically all that remains of their original
castle. Its builder was probably Robert, earl of Gloucester, who
also built Bristol castle. Then or possibly even earlier the old
rampart was for two-thirds of its circuit buried under enormous
earthworks, the remainder being rebuilt. It was in the keep,
and not, as tradition says, in the much later " Black Tower "
(also called " Duke Robert's Tower "), that Robert, duke of
Normandy, was imprisoned by order of his brother Henry I.
from 1 108 until his death in 11 34. Considerable additions of
later date, in the Decorated and Perpendicular styles, are due
to the Despensers'and to Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, while the
present residential part is of various dates ranging from the 15th
century down to the last half of the 19th, when a thorough
restoration, including the addition of a superbly ornamented
clock-tower, was carried out. The original ditch, about 20 yds.
wide, still exists on three sides, but it is now converted into a
" feeder " for the docks and canal. Geoffrey of Monmouth was
at one time chaplain of the castle, where he probably wrote
some of his works. The scene of the " sparrow-hawk " tourna-
ment, described in Geraint and Enid, one of the Arthurian
romances, is laid at Cardiff.
On the conquest of the district by the Normans under Fitz
Hamon, Cardiff became the caput of the seigniory of Glamorgan,
and the castle the residence of its lords. The castle and lordship
descended by heirship, male and female, through the families
of De Clare, Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III.,
on whose fall they escheated to the Crown, and were granted later,
first to Jasper Tudor, and finally by Edward VI. in 1550 to Sir
William Herbert, afterwards created Baron Herbert of Cardiff
and earl of Pembroke. Through the daughter and grand-
daughter of the 7th earl the castle and estates became the
property of the 1st marquess of Bute (who was created
Baron Cardiff in 1776), to whose direct descendant they now
belong.
The town received its earliest known grant of municipal
privileges sometime before 1147 from Fitz Hamon's successor
and son-in-law Robert, earl of Gloucester. In 1284 the inhabit-
ants petitioned the burgesses of Hereford for a certified copy of
the customs of the latter town, and these furnished a model
for the later demands of the growing community at Cardiff from
its lords, while Cardiff in turn furnished the model for the
Glamorgan towns such as Neath and Kenfig. In 1324 Edward II.
granted a number of exemptions to Cardiff and other towns in
South Wales, and this grant was confirmed by Edward III.
in 1359, Henry IV. in 1400, Henry VI. in 1452, and Edward IV.
in 1465.
Its most important early charter was that granted in 1340
by Hugh le Despenser, whereby the burgesses acquired the right
to nominate persons from whom the constable of the castle
should select a bailiff and other officers, two ancient fairs, held
on the 29th of June and 19th of September, were confirmed,
and extensive trading privileges were granted, including the
right to form a merchant gild. A charter granted in 142 1 by
Richard de Beauchamp provided that the town should be
governed by twelve elected aldermen, but that the constable
of the castle should be mayor. In 1581 Queen Elizabeth granted
a confirmatory charter to the mayor and bailiffs direct without
reference to the lord of the castle. The town was treated as a
borough by prescription until 1608, when James I. confirmed
its status by express incorporation, adding also to its rights of
self-government, and granting it a third fair (on the 30th of
November) . In 1687 the town surrendered this charter to James
II., who in a substituted one, which, however, was never acted
upon, reserved to the Crown the right of removing any member
of the corporation from office. The first step towards the modem
improvement of the town was taken in 1774, when a special act
was obtained for the purpose. Nineteen private acts and
provisional orders were obtained during the 19th century.
Among the many early English kings who visited or passed
through Cardiff was Henry II., on whom in 1171, outside St
Piran's chapel (which has long since disappeared), was urged
the duty of Sunday observance. About 1153, Ivor Bach (or
the Little), a neighbouring Welsh chieftain, seized the castle
and for a time held William, earl of Gloucester, and the countess
prisoners in the hills. In 1404 Owen Glendower burnt the town,
except the quarters of the Friars Minors. In 1645, after the
battle of Naseby, Charles I. visited the town, which until then
had been mainly Royalist, but about a month later was taken
by the Parliamentarians. In 1648, a week after the Royalists
had been decisively defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagan's,
4 m. west of Cardiff, Cromwell passed through the town on his
way to Pembroke.
Outside the north-west angle of the castle, Richard de Clare
in 1256 founded a Dominican priory, which was burnt by Glen-
dower in 1404. Though rebuilt, the building fell into decay
after the Dissolution. The site was excavated in 1887. Outside
the north-east angle a Franciscan friary was founded in 1280
by Gilbert de Clare,which at the Dissolution became the residence
of a branch of the Herbert family. Its site was explored in 1896.
The only other building of historic interest is the church of St
John the Baptist, which is in the Perpendicular style, its fine
tower having been built about 1443 by Hart, who also built
the towers of Wrexham and St Stephen's, Bristol. In the
Herbert chapel is a fine altar tomb of two brothers of the family.
A sculptured stone reredos by W. Goscombe John was erected
in 1896. The original church of St Mary's, at the mouth of the
river, was swept away by a tidal wave in 1607: Wordsworth
took this as a subject for a sonnet.
In 1555 Rawlins White, a fisherman, was burnt at Cardiff
for his Protestantism, and in 1679 two Catholic priests were
executed for recusancy. Cardiff was the birthplace of Christo-
pher Love (b. 1618), Puritan author, and of William Erbury,
sometime vicar of St Mary's in the town, who, with his curate,
Walter Cradock, were among the founders of Welsh nonconformity.
As to Roman Cardiff see articles by J. Ward in the Archaeologta
for 1901 (vol. lvit.), and in Archaeologta Cambrensis for 1908. As
to the castle and the Black and Gray Friars see Archaeologta Cam-
brensis, 3rd series, viii. 251 (reprinted in Clark's Medieval Military
Architecture), 5th series, vi. 07; vii. 283; xvii. 55; 6th series, i. 69.
The charters of Cardiff and Materials for a History of the County
Borough from the Earliest Times" were published by order of the
corporation in Cardiff Records (5 vols., 1898, sqq.). See also a
Handbook of Cardiff and District, prepared for the use of the British
Association, 1891; Cardiff, an Illustrated Handbook, 1896; the
Annual Report of the Cardiff Chamber of Commerce; the Calendar
of the University College. (D. Ll. T.)
CARDIGAN, JAMES THOMAS BRUDENELL, 7 th Earl of
(1797-1868), English lieutenant-general, son of the 6th earl
of Cardigan (the title dating from 166 1), was born at Hambleden,
Bucks, on the 16th of October 1797. He studied for several
terms at Christ Church, Oxford; and in 18 18 entered parliament.
He entered the army in 1824 as cornet in the 8th Hussars, and
was promoted within eight years, by purchase, to be lieutenant-
colonel in the 1 5th Hussars. With this regiment he made himself
one of the most unpopular of commanding officers. He gave the
reins to his natural overbearing and quarrelsome temper, treating
his men with excessive rigour and indulging in unscrupulous
licentiousness. Within two years he held 105 courts-martial,
and made more than 700 arrests, although the actual strength
of his regiment was only 350 men. In consequence of one of his
numerous personal quarrels, he left the regiment in 1834; but
two years later, at the urgent entreaty of his father, he was
appointed to the command of the nth Hussars. He played
the same part as before, and was censured for it; but he was
allowed to retain his post, and the discipline and equipment of
his regiment, in which he took great pride, and on which he spent
large sums of money, received high commendation from the duke
of Wellington. He succeeded to the peerage on the death of his
father in August 1837. In September 1840 Lord Cardigan
fought a duel, on Wimbledon common, with one of his own
CARDIGAN— CARDIGANSHIRE
319
officers. The latter was wounded, and Lord Cardigan was tried
before the House of Lords on a charge of feloniously shooting his
adversary. But the trial was a mere sham, and on a trivial
technical ground he was acquitted* In 1854, at the outbreak
of the Crimean War, he was appointed to the command of the
light cavalry brigade, with the rank of major-general, and he
spent a very large sum in the purchase of horses and on the
equipment of his regiment. He took a prominent part in the
early actions of the campaign, and displayed throughout the
greatest personal courage and the greatest recklessness in exposing
his men. In the charge of the light brigade at Balaklava (q.v.)
he was the first man to reach the line of the Russian guns; and
Cardigan and his men alike have been credited by the bitterest
critics of the charge -with splendid daring and unquestioning
obedience to orders. At the close of the war he was created
K.C.B., and was appointed inspector-general of cavalry, and this
post he held till i860. In 1863 he engaged without success in
legal proceedings against an officer who had published an account
of Balaklava which the earl held to contain a reflection on his
military character. He attained the rank of lieutenant-general
in 1861. He was twice married, in 1826 and 1858, but had
no children. On his death, which took place on the 28th of
March 1868, the family titles (including the English barony of
Brudenell, cr. 1628) passed to his relative, the second marquess
of Ailesbury.
CARDIGAN (Aberteift), a seaport, market-town and municipal
borough, and the county town of Cardiganshire, Wales, pictur-
esquely situated on the right bank of the Teifi about 3 m. above
its mouth. Pop. (1901) 3511. It is connected by an ancient
stone bridge with the suburb of Bridgend on the southern or
Pembroke bank of the river. It is the terminal station of the
Whitland-Cardigan branch of the Great Western railway.
Owing to the bar at the estuary of the Tein, the shipping trade is
inconsiderable, but there are brick-works and foundries in the
town; and as the centre of a large agricultural district, Cardigan
market is well attended. There is a curious local custom of
mixing " culm," a compound of clay and small coal, in the streets.
The town has for the most part a modern and prosperous ap-
pearance. Two bastions with some of the curtain wall of the
ancient castle remain, whilst the dwelling-house known as
Castle Green contains part of a drum tower, and some vaulted
chambers of the 13th century. The chancel of the Priory
church of St Mary is an interesting specimen of early Perpen-
dicular work, and the elaborate tracery of its fine east window
contains some fragments of ancient stained glass. It is the only
existing portion of a Benedictine house which was originally
founded by Prince Rhys ap Griffith in the 12th century.
Although a Celtic settlement doubtless existed near the mouth
of the Tein from an early period, it was not until Norman times
that Cardigan became a place of importance. Its castle was
first erected by Roger de Montgomery about the year 1091, and
throughout the 12th and 13 th centuries this stronghold of Car-
digan played no small part in the constant warfare between
Welsh and English, either side from time to time gaining posses-
sion of the castle and the small town dependent on it. In n 36
the English army under Randolf , earl of Chester, was severely
defeated by the Welsh at Crug Mawr, now called Bank-y- Warren,
a rounded hill 2 m. north-east of the town. During the latter
part of the 12th century the castle became the residence of Rhys
ap Griffith, prince and justiciar of South Wales (d. n 96), who
kept considerable state within its walls, and entertained here in
1 188 Archbishop Baldwin and Giraldus Cambrensis during their
preaching of the Third Crusade. In 1284 Edward I. spent a
month in the castle, settling the affairs of South Wales. This
famous pile was finally taken and destroyed by the Parliamen-
tarian Major-General Laugharne in 1645. The lordship, castle
and town of Cardigan formed part of the dower bestowed on
Queen Catherine of Aragon by King Henry VII. Henry VIH.'s
charter of 1542 confirmed earlier privileges granted by Edward I.
and other monarchs, and provided for the government of the
town by a duly elected mayor, two bailiffs and a coroner. In
1887 the assizes and quarter sessions were removed hence to
Lampeter, which has a more central position in the county.
Cardigan was declared a parliamentary borough in 1536, but in
1885 its representation was merged in that of the county.
CARDIGANSHIRE (Ceredigion, Str Aberteifi), a county of
South Wales, bounded N. by Merioneth, E. by Montgomery,
Radnor and Brecon, S. by Carmarthen and Pembroke, and W. by
Cardigan Bay of the Irish Sea. It has an area of 688 sq. m., so
that it ranks fifth in size of the Welsh countries. The whole of
Cardiganshire is hilly or undulating, with the exception of the
great bogs of Borth and Tregaron, but the mountains generally
have little grandeur in their character; Plinlimmon itself, on
the boundary of the county with Montgomeryshire, in spite of its
elevation of 2463 ft., being singularly deficient in boldness of
outline. Of other hills, only Tregaron Mountain (1778 ft.)
exceeds 1500 ft. in height. Of the rivers by far the most im-
portant is the Teifi, or Tivy, which rises above Tregaron in Llyn
Tein, one of a group of tiny lakes which are usually termed
the Teifi Pools, and flows southward through the county as far
as Lampeter, forming from this point onwards its southern
boundary. A succession of deep pools and rushing shallows, the
Teifi has from the earliest times been celebrated for the quantity
and quality of its salmon, which are netted in great numbers on
Cardigan Bar. Trout and sewin (a local species of sea-trout) are
also plentiful, so that the Teifi is much frequented by anglers.
This river is also believed to have been the last British haunt of
the beaver (afangc, lost4lydan), for the slaying of which a very
heavy penalty was exacted by the old royal laws of Wales.
Giraldus Cambrensis, Michael Drayton, and other writers allude
to this circumstance, though at what date the beaver became
extinct in these waters is quite uncertain. On the Teifi may
frequently be observed fishermen in coracles. Other rivers
worthy of mention are the Dovey (Dyfi), separating Cardigan
from Merioneth in the extreme north; the Rheidol and the
Ystwyth, which rise in Plinlimmon; and the Aeron, which has its
source in Llyn Eiddwen, a pool in the hilly district known as
Mynydd Bach. All these streams flow westward into Cardigan
Bay.
The valley of the Teifi presents many points of great beauty
and interest between Llandyssul and the sea. The rapids of
Henllan, the falls of Cenarth and the wooded cliffs of Coed-
more constitute some of the finest scenery in South Wales.
The valley of the Aeron is well wooded and fertile, while the
Rheidol contains amidst striking surroundings the famous
cascade spanned by the Devil's Bridge, which is known to the
Welsh as Pont-ar-Fynach (the Monks' Bridge).
Geology. — The rocks of Cardiganshire consist of shales, slates and
grits which have been folded and uptilted so that nowhere do they
retain their original horizontally. They belong entirely to the
Ordovician and Silurian periods; they have yielded few fossils,
and much work remains to bejdone upon them before the strati-
graphical subdivisions can be clearly defined. Many metalliferous
lodes occur in the rocks, and the lead mines have long been famous;
it was from the profits of his mining speculations, carried on chiefly
in this county, that the celebrated Sir Hugh Myddleton was enabled
to carry out his gigantic project for supplying London with water
by means of the New River. Copper and zinc ores have also been
obtained. Tregaron is the centre of the mining district, and the
Lisburne, Goginan and Cwm Ystwyth mines are among the most
important.
The slates have been worked at Devil's Bridge, Corris, Strata
Florida, Goginan, &c. Glacial drift occupies some of the lower
ground, and peaty bogs are common on the mountains. A small
tract of blown sand lies at the mouth of the river Dovey.
Industries. — The climate on the coast is mild and salubrious,
but that of the hill country is cold, bleak and rainy. The
cultivated crops consist of oats, wheat, barley, turnips and
potatoes; and in the lower districts on the coast, especially in
the neighbourhood of Cardigan, Aberaeron and Llanrhystyd,
good crops are raised. The uplands are mostly covered by wild
heathy pastures, which afford good grazing for Welsh mountain
sheep and ponies. The country has long been celebrated for its
breed of " Cardiganshire cobs," for which high prices are often
obtained from English dealers, who frequent the local horse
fairs, especially Dalis Fair at Lampeter. Cattle, sheep, pigs,
butter, oats, wool, flannel and coarse slates form the principal
320
CARDIGANSHIRE
articles of export. Hand-looms are by no means uncommon in
the remote parts of the country, and dog-making of alder wood
meets a local demand. The North Cardiganshire lead-mines, of
which the Lisburne, Goginan and Cwm Ystwyth mines are the
most noted, have been famous, and are said to have been worked
by the Romans. Some of the lead raised is very rich in silveT,
and in the 1 7th century so great was the amount of silver obtained
that a mint for coming it was erected by virtue of letters patent
at Aberystwyth.
Communications. — The railways within the county are the
Cambrian, by means of which access is given to Aberystwyth
from all parts of the kingdom; and the former Manchester &
Milford line, which runs south from Aberystwyth by Lampeter
to Pencader, and has been acquired by the Great Western
railway. The lower valley of the Teifi, or Tivyside, is reached by
means of two branch lines of the Great Western railway — one
from Whitland to Cardigan, and the other from Pencader to
Llandyssul and Newcastle-Emlyn.
Population and Administration. — The area of the administra-
tive county is 443,071 acres, with a population in 1891 of 63,467,
and in 1 901 of 60, 23 7 . The municipal boroughs are Aberystwyth
(pop. 8013), Cardigan (3511) and Lampeter (1722). Aberaeron
and New Quay are urban districts. Other towns are Tregaron
(1509), an ancient but decayed market-town in a wild boggy
district; Aberaeron (133 1), a small seaport, and Llandyssul
(2801,) a rising place on the Teifi with woollen factories. In
modern times several small watering-places have sprung up on
the coast, notably at Borth, New Quay, Tresaith, Aberporth and
Gwbert. Quarter sessions are held at Lampeter, and here also
are held the assizes for the county, which lies in the South Wales
circuit. The county returns one member of parliament, and has
no parliamentary borough. Ecclesiastically it lies wholly in the
diocese of St David's, and contains sixty-six parishes.
History. — In spite of its poverty and sparse population,
Cardiganshire has never ceased to play a prominent part in
all Welsh political, literary and educational movements. The
early history of the district is obscure, but at the time of the
Roman invasion it was tenanted by the Dimetae, a Celtic tribe,
within whose limits was comprised the greater portion of the
south-west of Wales. After the departure of the Romans, the
whole basin of the Teifi eventually fell into the power of Ceredig,
son of Cunedda Wledig of North Wales; and the district,
peopled with his subjects and nearly co-extensive with the
existing shire, obtained the name of Ceredigion, later corrupted
into Cardigan. During the 5th and 6th centuries Ceredigion was
largely civilized by Celtic missionaries, notably by St David and
St Padarn, the latter of whom founded a bishopric at Llanbadarn
Fawr, which in the 8th century became merged in the see of St
David's. Two important local traditions, evidently based on
fact, are associated with this remote era: — the inundation of the
Cantref-y-Gwaelod and the synod of Llanddewi Brefi. The
Cantref-y-Gwaelod (the lowland Hundred), a large tract of flat
pasture-land containing sixteen townships, and protected from
the inroad of the sea by sluices, was suddenly submerged at an
uncertain date about the year 500. The legend of its destruc-
tion declares that Seithenyn, the drunken keeper of the sluices,
carelessly let in the waters of the bay, with the result that the
land was lost for ever, and Prince Gwyddno and his son Elphin,
with all their subjects, were forced to migrate to the wild region
of Snowdon. This tale has ever been a favourite theme with
Welsh bards, so that " the sigh of Gwyddno when the wave
turned over his land " remains a familiar figure of speech through-
out Wales. In support of this story it may be mentioned that
there are indications of submerged dwellings and roads (e.g. the
Sarn Cynfelin and Sam Badrig) between the mouth of the Dovey
and Cardigan Head. The famous synod of Brefi, an historical
fact clouded by miraculous details, probably took place early in
the 6th century, when at a largely attended meeting of the
Welsh clergy held at Brefi, near the source of the Teifi, St David's
eloquence for ever silenced the champions of the Pelagian heresy.
In the 10th and nth centuries the coast of Ceredigion suffered
much from the inroads of the Danes, and in later times of the
Normans and Flemings; but on the whole the native inhabitants
seem to have maintained a successful resistance. By the close of
the nth century most of Ceredigion had been reduced by the
Normans, and during the 12th and 13th centuries it formed a
favourite battle ground between the Welsh princes and the
English forces. By the Statutes of Rhuddlan (1284) Edward I.
constituted Ceredigion out of the former principality of Wales a
shire on the English model, dividing the new county into six
hundreds and fixing the assizes at Carmarthen. By the act of
Union in the reign of Henry VIII. , the boundaries of the county
were subsequently enlarged to their present size by the addition
of certain outlying portions of the Marches round Tregaron and
Cardigan, and the assizes were assigned to the county town.
During the rebellion of Owen Glendower in the opening years of
the 15th century, the county was again disturbed, and Owen for
a short time actually held a court in Aberystwyth Castle. In
the year 1485, according to local tradition, Henry of Richmond
marched through South Cardiganshire on his way to Bosworth
Field, and he is stated to have raised recruits round Llanarth,
where the old mansion of Wern, still standing, is pointed out as
his halting-place on this occasion. Under Henry VIII. Cardigan-
shire was for the first time empowered to send a representative
member to parliament, and under Mary the same privilege
was extended to the boroughs. During the Great Rebellion the
county — which possessed at least three leading Parliamentarians
in the persons of Sir John Vaughan, of Crosswood, afterwards
chief justice of the common pleas; Sir Richard Pryse, of
Gogerddan; and James Philipps, of Cardigan Priory — seems to
have been less Royalist in its sympathies than other parts of
Wales. At this time the castles of Cardigan and Aberystwyth,
both held in the name of King Charles, were reduced to ruins
by the Cromwellian army. In the 18th century the Methodist
movement found great support in the county; in fact, Daniel
Rowland (17 13-1790), curate of Llangeitho, was one of the chief
leaders of this important revival. The 19th century witnessed
the foundation of two important educational centres in the
county: — St David's College at Lampeter (1827), and one of the
three colleges of the university of Wales at Aberystwyth (1872).
In the years 1842-1843 the county was much disturbed by the
Rebecca Riots, during which a large number of turnpike gates
were destroyed by local mobs. Forty-five years later it was
affected by the Welsh agrarian agitation against payment of
tithe, which produced some scenes of violence against the dis-
training police, especially in the district round Llangranog.
Chief amongst the county families of Cardigan is that of Lloyd,
descendants of the powerful Cadifor ap Dinawal, lord of Castle
Howell, in the 12th century. Certain branches of this family,
such as the Lloyds of Millfield (Maes-y-felin), the Lloyds of
Llanlyr and the Lloyds of Peterwell, are extinct, but others are
still flourishing. The family of Vaughan of Crosswood, or
Tra wscoed (now represented by the earl of Lisburne) , has held its
family estates in the male line for many centuries. A representa-
tive in the female line of the ancient house of Pryse, long
prominent in the annals of the county, still possesses the old
family seat of Gogerddan. Other families worthy of mention
are Lloyd of Bronwydd, Powell of Nanteos and Johnes of Hafod
and Llanfair-Clydogau.
Antiquities. — Scattered over all parts of the county are
numerous British or early medieval tumuli and camps. Traces
of the ancient Roman road, the Via Occidentals — called by the
Welsh Sarn Helen, a corruption of Sarn Lleon, Road of the
Legion — are to be found in the eastern districts of the county;
and at Llanio are to be seen what are perhaps the remains of
the Roman military station of Loventium. There are also
various inscribed and incised stones, of which good examples
exist in the churchyards of Llanbadarn Fawr and Llanddewi
Brefi. In buildings of interest Cardiganshire is singularly
deficient. Besides the ruins of Aberystwyth and Cardigan
Castles, and of Strata Florida Abbey, there is a large cruciform
church of the 12th century at Llanbadarn Fawr; whilst the
massive parish church of Llanddewi Brefi once formed part of
the minster of a prebendal college founded by Bishop Beck of
Cardinal
321
St David's towards the close of the 13th century. Tregaron,
Llanwenog, Llandyssul and Llanarth own parish churches with
western towers of early date, but for the most part the ecclesi-
astical structures of Cardiganshire are small in size and mean in
appearance, and many of them were entirely rebuilt during the
latter half of the 19th century. The little church of Eglwys
Newydd, near the Devil's Bridge, contains one of Sir Francis
Chantrey's masterpieces, a white marble group in memory of
Mariamne Johnes (181 8), the daughter of Thomas Johnes, of
Hafod (1748-1816), the translator of Froissart.
Ctistoms, etc. — The old Welsh costume, customs and super-
stitions are fast disappearing, although they linger in remote
districts such as the neighbourhood of Llangeitho. The steeple-
crowned beaver hat has practically vanished, although it was in
general use within living memory; but the short petticoat and
overskirt (pais-a-gtbn-bdch) , the frilled mob-cap, little check
shawl and buckled shoes are still worn by many of the older
women. Of peculiarly Welsh customs, the bidding (gwahoddiad)
is not quite extinct in the county. The bidding was a formal
invitation sent by a betrothed pair through a bidder (gwahoddwr)
to request the presence and gifts of all their neighbours at the
forthcoming marriage. All presents sent were duly registered in a
book with a view to repayment, when a similar occasion should
arise in the case of the donors. When printing became cheap
and common, the services of the professional bidder were often
dispensed with, and instead printed leaflets were circulated.
The curious horse wedding {priodas ceffylau) at which the man
and his friends pursued the future bride to the church porch on
horseback, and then returned home at full gallop, became
obsolete before the end of the 10th century. Of the practices
connected with death, the wake, or watching of the corpse, alone
remains; but the habit of attending funerals, even those of
strangers, is still popular with both sexes, so that a funeral pro-
cession in Cardiganshire is often a very imposing sight. Nearly
all the old superstitions, once so prevalent, concerning the fairies
(tylwyth teg) and fairy rings, goblins (bwbachod), and the teulu, or
phantom funeral, are rapidly dying out; but in the corpse candle
(canwll corph), a mysterious light which acts as a death-portent
and is traditionally connected with St David, are still found many
believers.
Authorities. — Sir S. R. Meyrick, History and Antiquities of
Cardiganshire (London, 1806); Rev. G. Eyre Evans, Cardiganshire
and its Antiquities (Aberystwyth, 1903); E. R. Horsf all-Turner,
Walks and Wanderings in County Cardigan (Bingley).
CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis), in the Roman Church, the title of
the highest dignitaries next to the pope. The cardinals constitute
the council or senate of the sovereign pontiff, his auxiliaries in the
general government of the Church; it is they who act as ad-
ministrators of the Church during a vacancy of the Holy See and
elect the new pope. Together they constitute a spiritual body
called the Sacred College. The dignity of cardinal is not an
essential part of the legal constitution of the Church; it is a
reflection of and participation in the sovereign dignity of the
Head of the Church, by the chief clergy of the Church of Rome.
The present position is the result of a long process of evolution, of
which there are several interesting survivals.
The name is derived from cardo, hinge; like many other words
{the word pope in particular) it was originally of a more general
application, before it was reserved exclusively to the members of
the Sacred College, and the word is still used adjectivally in the
sense of pre-eminent or that on which everything else " hinges."
As early as the 6th century we find mentioned, in the letters
of St Gregory, cardinal bishops and priests. This expression
signifies clergy who are attached to their particular church in a
stable relation, as a door is attached to a building by its hinges
(see Thomassin, Vetus et nova discipl. vol. 1, lib. ii. cap. 113-115).
Moreover, this sense is still preserved in the present day in the
expressions incardinatio, excardinatio, which signify the act by
which a bishop permanently attaches a foreign cleric to his
diocese, or allows one of his own clergy to leave his diocese in
order to belong to another. For a long time, too, the superior
clergy, and especially the canons of cathedrals or the heads of
important churches, were cardinales (see examples in Du Cange,
Glossarium, s.v.) . Gradually, however, this title was confined by
usage to the Roman cardinals, until Pius V., by his constitution
of the 15th of February 1568, reserved it to them exclusively.
The grouping of the cardinals into a body called the Sacred
College, the College of Cardinals, is connected, in the case at
least of cardinal priests, with the ancient presbyterium y
which existed in each church from the earliest times. 2w»rf
The Sacred College as such was not, however, de- Coiiegv.
finitively constituted until the uniting of the three
orders of cardinals into a single body, the body which was to
elect the pope; and this only took place in the 12th century.
Up till that time the elements remained distinct, and there were
separate classes: the " Roman " bishops, i.e. bishops of sees
near Rome, presbyters of the " titles " (titidi) of Rome, and
deacons of the Roman Church. Nowadays, the Sacred College is
still composed of three orders or categories: cardinal bishops,
cardinal priests, and cardinal deacons. But the process of evolu-
tion has not been the same in the case of all these orders.
Cardinal bishops are the bishops of suburbicarian churches,
situated in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome. Very
early we find them assisting the pope in his ritual ^^
functions and in dealing with important business; t^topa.
they formed a kind of permanent synod (cf. the
otoodos hdvjtio^aa of Constantinople); and they, also took the
place of the pope in the ceremonies of the liturgy, excepting the
most important ones, and especially in the service of the cathedral
at Rome, the Lateran. A passage from the life of Stephen II.
(a.d. 769), in the Liber Pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, i. p. 478),
shows clearly that they were seven in number and served for
a week in turn: Hie constituit ut omni dominico die a septetn
Episcopis cardinalibus hebdomadariis, qui in ecclesia Salvatoris
(the Lateran) observant, missarum solemnia super altare Beati
Petri celebrarentur. They were called "cardinal bishops of the
Lateran church," as recorded by St Peter Damian in 1058 (Ep. 1,
lib. ii.). Their sees are the same to-day as they were then:
Ostia, Porto, Santa Rufina (Sylva Candida), Albano, Sabina,
Tusculum (Frascati) and Palestrina. From time immemorial
the bishop of Ostia has had the privilege of sacring the pope, and
on this ground he enjoys the right of wearing the " pallium ";
he is ex officio dean of the suburbicarian bishops, and consequently
dean of the Sacred College. His episcopal see having been in
ruins for a long time, that of Velletri has been joined to it. The
second rank belongs to the bishop of Porto, who is ex officio vice-
dean of the Sacred College; his episcopal see being also in ruins
Calixtus II. added to it that of Santa Rufina, thus reducing the
number of suburbicarian bishoprics and cardinal bishops to six;
this number was adhered to by Sixtus V., andlias not varied since.
The second order of cardinals is that of the cardinal priests.
It represents and is a continuation of the ancient presbyterium;
but in Rome the process of evolution was different
from that in the other episcopal towns. In the latter, pr hMtM.
the division into parishes was but slowly accom-
plished; there is no authority for their existence before the year
1000; the bishop with the higher clergy, now developed into the
chapter, were in residence at the cathedral, which formed, as it
were, the one parish in the town. At Rome, on the contrary (and
doubtless at Alexandria), certain churches, to which were at-
tached certain districts, were at an early date entrusted to one
or more priests. These churches, in which the liturgy was cele-
brated, or certain sacraments administered, were called tituli
(titles). According to the Liber Pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, i. pp.
122, 126, 164), the titles of Rome, numbering twenty-five, were
already established as early as the 1st century; this seems
hardly probable, but it was certainly the case in the 5 th century.
The priest serving one of these churches was the priest of that
title, and, similarly, the church which he served was that priest's
title. When several priests were attached to the same church,
only the first, or principal one, had the title; he alone was the
presbyter cardinalis. This practice explains how it is that the
Roman presbyterium did not give rise to a cathedral chapter,
but to cardinal priests, each attached to his title. As the higher
v. II
322
CARDINAL
Cartinmi
clergy of Rome gradually acquired a more important status, the
relations between the cardinal priest and the church of which he
bore the title became more and more nominal; but they have
never entirely ceased. Even to-day every cardinal priest has his
title, a church in Rome of which he is the spiritual head, and the
name of which appears in his official signature, e.g. " Herbertus
tituli sanctorum Andreae et Gregorii sanctae romanae ecclesiae
presbyter cardinalis Vaughan." When the attachment of the
cardinal priest to his title had become no more than a tradition,
the number of cardinal titles, which in the nth century had
reached twenty-eight, was increased according to need, and it
was held an honour for a church to be made titulary. The last
general rearrangement of the titular churches was begun by
Clement VIII. and completed by Paul V.; Leo XIII. made a
title of the church of San Vitale. To-day, according to the
Gerarchia Ponlificia the cardinal titles number fifty-three; since
the highest possible number of cardinal priests is fifty, and this
number is never reached, it follows that there are always a certain
number of vacant titles. The first title is that of San Lorenzo in
Lucina, and the cardinal priest of the oldest standing takes the
name of "first priest," protopresbyter.
The third order of cardinals is that of the cardinal deacons.
For a long time the Roman Church, faithful to the example of
the primitive church at Jerusalem (Acts vi.), had only
seven deacons. Their special function was the ad-
ministration of her temporal property, and particularly
works of charity. Between them were divided at an early date
the fourteen districts (regiones) of Rome, grouped two by two
so as to constitute the seven ecclesiastical districts. Now the
charitable works were carried on in establishments called
diaconiae, adjoining churches which were specially appropriated
to each diaconia. The connexion between the names (diaconus)
and (diaconia) and the presence of a church in connexion with
each diaconia gradually established for the deacons a position
analogous to that of priests. In the 8th century Pope Adrian
found sixteen diaconiae and founded two others {Lib. Pont.
ed. Duchesne, i. p. 509); in the 12th century the cardinal
deacons, who then numbered eighteen, were no longer distin-
guished by an ecclesiastical district, as they had formerly been,
but by the name of the church connected with some diaconia
(loc. cit. p. 364). By the time of Sixtus V. the connexion between
a cardinal deacon and his diaconia was merely nominal. Sixtus
reduced the number of cardinal deacons to fourteen; and this
is still the number to-day. Except that his church is called a
diaconia, and not a title, the cardinal deacon is in this respect
assimilated to the cardinal priest; but he does not mention his
diaconia in his official signature; e.g. " Joannes Henri cus
diaconus cardinalis Newman. ,, There are at present sixteen
diaconiae, the chief being that of Santa Maria in Via lata; the
cardinal deacon of longest standing takes the name of " first
deacon," protodiaconus.
Cardinals can pass from one order, title or see to another, by a
process of " option." When a suburbicarian see falls vacant, the
cardinals resident at Rome have the right of " opting " for it in
order of rank, — that is to say, of claiming it in consistory and
receiving their promotion to it. In the same way cardinal deacons
can pass after ten years to the order of priests, while retaining after
their passage the rank in the Sacred College given them by the date
of their promotion.
With the exception of the classes resulting from the order to
which they belong, there are no distinctions between the rights of
the various cardinals. As to the ordination obligatory upon them,
it is that indicated in their title; cardinal bishops must naturally
be bishops; for cardinal priests it is enough to nave received the
priesthood, though many of them are actually bishops; similarly,
it is enough for cardinal deacons to have received the diaconate,
though most of them are priests; cases have occurred, however,
even in quite recent times, of cardinals who have only received the
diaconate, e.g. Cardinal Mertel.
There is one cardinal chosen by the pope from among the Sacred
College to whom is entrusted the administration of the common
property; this is the cardinal camerlengo or chamberlain (came-
rartus). His office is an important one, for during the vacancy of the
Holy See it is he who exercises all external authority, especially that
connected with the Conclave.
The number of the cardinals reaches a total of 70: six cardinal
bishops, fifty cardinal priests and fourteen cardinal deacons.
This number was definitively fixed by Sixtus V. (constit.
Postquam, 5th December 1586); but the Sacred Col- mm*
lege never reaches its full number, and there are always
ten or so " vacant hats," as the saying goes. Though
the rule laid down by Sixtus V. has not been modified since,
before him the number of cardinals was far from being constant.
For a long time it varied in the neighbourhood of twenty; in
1331 John XXII. said that there were twenty cardinals; in
1378 they were reckoned at 23. Their number increased during
the Great Schism because there were several rival obediences.
The councils of Constance and Basel reduced the number of
cardinals to 24; but it did not rest at that for long, and in the
1 6th century was more than doubled. In 151 7 Leo X., in order
to introduce strong supporters of himself into the Sacred College,
created 31 cardinals at the same time. The highest number
was reached under Pius IV., when the cardinals numbered as
many as 76.
The composition of the Sacred College is subject to no definite
law; but the necessity for giving a first representation to different
interests, especially in view of the election of the popes, has for
a long time past thrown open the Sacred College to representa-
tives of the episcopate of the Catholic nations. From the nth
century onwards are to be found cases in which the pope sum-
moned to its ranks persons who did not belong to the Roman
Church, particularly abbots, who were not even required to
give up the direction of their monasteries. In the following
century occur a few cases of bishops being created cardinals
without having to leave their see, and of cardinals upon whom
were conferred foreign bishoprics (cf. Thomassin, loc. cit. cap.
1 14, n. 9). Of the cardinals created by the popes of Avignon the
majority were French, and in 1331 John XXII. remarks that
1 7 cardinals were French out of the 20 who then existed. The
councils of Constance and Basel forbade that more than a third
of the cardinals should belong to the same country. After the
return of the popes to Rome and after the Great Schism, the
ancient customs were soon resumed; the cardinals were for the
most part Italians, the entire number of cardinals' hats conferred
on the other Catholic nations only amounting to a minority.
The non-Italian cardinals, with rare exceptions, are not resident
in Rome; together with the rank of cardinal they receive a
dispensation from residing in curia; they are none the less,
as cardinals, priests or deacons of the Roman Church.
The reform of the College of Cardinals inaugurated by the
councils of Constance and Basel, though without much immediate
success, was not only concerned with the number and g iaMmtHkm
nationality of the cardinals; it also dealt with conditions 2*m; "
of age, learning and other qualifications: men of the
most honourable character, aged not less than thirty, were to be
chosen; at least a third were to be chosen from among the
graduates of the universities; persons of royal blood and princes
were not to be admitted in too great numbers, and lastly, rela-
tives of the pope were to be set aside. Moreover, in order to
secure the effectiveness of these reforms, selection of the new
cardinals was to be made by the votes of the members of the
Sacred College given in writing. This mode of control was per-
haps excessive, and the reform consequently remained ineffective.
Up to the middle of the 16th century there were still instances
of unfortunate and even scandalous appointments to the car-
dinalate of very young men, of relatives or favourites of the
popes and of men whose qualifications were by no means eccles-
iastical. In the Sacred College as elsewhere nepotism and an
exaggerated estimate of temporal interests were rife. At last
a real reform was effected. The council of Trent (sess. xxiv.
cap. i. de reform.) requires for cardinals all the qualifications
prescribed by law for bishops. Sixtus V. defined these still
more clearly, and his regulations are still in force: a cardinal
must, in the year of his promotion, be of the canonical age
required for his reception into the order demanded by his rank:
i.e. 22 for the diaconate, 23 for the priesthood and 30 for the
episcopate, and if not already ordained he must take orders
in the year of his appointment. Men of illegitimate birth are
CARDINAL
323
excluded, as well as near relatives of the pope (with one exception)
and of the cardinals; the personal qualities to be most sought
for are learning, holiness and an honourable life. All these
recommendations have been, on the whole, well observed, and
are so better than ever in the present day. We may add that
the religious orders have had a certain number of representa-
tives, four, at least, in the Sacred College, since Sixtus V.,
several of whom, as we know, became popes. As to the cardinals'
hats granted at the request of the heads of Catholic states, they
are subject to negotiations analogous to those concerning
nominations to the episcopate, though entailing no concordatory
agreement, strictly speaking, on the part of the popes.
The creation of cardinals (to use the official term) is in fact
nowadays the function of the pope alone. It is accomplished
OMffM k v the publication of the persons chosen by the pope
in secret consistory (9.9.). No other formality is
essential; and the provision of Eugenius IV., which required
the reception of the insignia of the cardinalate for the pro-
motion to be valid, was abrogated before long, and definitely
annulled by the declaration of Pius V. of the 26th of January 1571.
Similarly neither the consent nor the vote of the Sacred College
is required. It is true that a Roman Ceremonialeoi 1338 (Thomas-
sin, loc. cit. cap. 114, n. 12) still enjoins upon the pope to consult
the Sacred College, on the Wednesdays during Ember days, as
to whether it is necessary to nominate new cardinals, and if so,
how many; but this is only a survival of the ritual of the ancient
form of ordination. The injunctions of the councils of Constance
and Basel as to the written vote of the cardinals became before
very long a dead letter, but there still remains a relic of them.
In the consistory, when the pope has nominated those whom he
desires to raise to the purple, he puts to the cardinals present
the question: "Quid vobis videtur?" The cardinals bend
the head as a sign of their consent, and the pope then continues:
" Itaque, auctoritate omnipotentis Dei, sanctorum Apostolorum
Petri etPauli,et Nostra, creamusetpublicamus sanctae romanae
Ecdesiae cardinales N. et N., etc."
The new dignitary, who has been warned of his nomination
several weeks in advance by " biglietto " (note) from the office
of the secretary of state, is then officially informed of it by a
ceremoniarius of the pope; he at once waits upon the pope,
to whom he is presented by one of the cardinals. The pope
first invests him with the rochet and red biretta, but there is no
formal ceremony. The conferring of the cardinal's red hat takes
place a few days later in a public consistory; while placing the
hat on his head the pope pronounces the following words:
" Ad laudem omnipotentis Dei et Sanctae Sedis ornamentum,
accipe galerum rubrum, insigne singularis dignitatis cardinalatus,
per quod designatur quod usque ad mortem et sanguinis effusio-
nem inclusive pro exaltatione sanctae fidei, pace et quiete populi
christiani, augmento et statu sacrosanctae romanae Ecclesiae,
te intrepidum exhibere debeas, in nomine Patris et Filii et
Spiritus Sancti." While pronouncing the last words the pope
makes the sign of the cross three times over the new cardinal.
The public consistory is immediately followed by a secret con-
sistory, to accomplish the last ceremonies. The pope begins
by closing the mouth of the new cardinal, who is led before him,
as a symbol of the discretion he should observe; after this he
bestows on him the cardinal's ring, assigns him a title or diaconia;
and finally, after going through the formality of consulting the
Sacred College, finishes with the symbolic ceremony of the opening
of the mouth, signifying the right and duty of the new cardinal
to express his opinion and vote in the matters which it will
fall to him to consider.
When the cardinals are resident abroad and appointed at the
request of the heads of their state, a member of the Noble
Guard is sent on the same day that the consistory is held to take
the new dignitary the cardinal's " calotte "; after a few days
the red biretta is brought to him by a Roman prelate, with the
powers of an ablegatus; the biretta is conferred on him with
great pomp by the head of the state. But the conferring of the
red hat always takes place at the hands of the pope in a public
consistory.
Sometimes, after nominating the cardinals, the pope adds that
he also appoints a certain number of others, whose names he
does not divulge, but reserves the right of publishing
at a later date. These cardinals, whose names he con- ^^ ntK
ceals " in his breast," are for that reason called cardinals pHto. "
in pectore (Ital. in petto). This practice seems to go
back to Martin V., who may have had recourse to this expedient
in order to avoid the necessity of soliciting the votes of the
cardinals; but for a long time past the popes have only resorted
to it for quite other reasons. If the pope dies before making
known the cardinals in petto, the promotion is not valid; if
he publishes them, the cardinals take rank from the day on
which they were reserved in pectore, the promotion acting
restrospectively, even in the matter of emoluments. This method
has sometimes been used by the popes to ensure to certain prelates
who had merit, but were poor, the means of paying the expenses
of their promotion. In March 1875 Pius IX. announced the nomi-
nation of several cardinals in petto, whose names would be given
in his will. It was pointed out to the pope that this posthumous
publication would not be a pontifical act, and ran the risk of
being contested, or even declared invalid; Pius IX. gave way
before this reasoning, and published the names in a subsequent
consistory (Sept. 17).
The dignity of the cardinals is a participation in that of the
sovereign pontiff, and as such places them above all the other
ecclesiastical dignitaries and prelates. This rank, DlgmMy.
however, has not always been assigned to them;
but was attributed to the cardinal bishops before it was to
the rest. Their common prerogative was definitively estab-
lished when they became the sole electors of the pope, at
a period when the papacy, under pontiffs like Innocent III.,
shone with its most brilliant lustre. For example, at the council
of Lyons in 1245 ^ tne cardinals took precedence of the arch-
bishops and bishops. It was in 1 245, or perhaps the year before,
that Innocent IV. granted the cardinals the privilege of wearing
the red hat; as to the scarlet robe which still forms their costume
of ceremony, it was already worn by cardinals performing the
functions of legate; and the use was soon extended to all.
As to their civil relations, cardinals were assimilated by the
Catholic kings to the rank of princes of the blood royal, cardinals
being the highest in the Church, after the pope, just as princes of
the blood royal are the first in the kingdom after the king. Of
the many ecclesiastical privileges enjoyed by the cardinals, we
will mention only two: the real, though nowadays restricted,
jurisdiction which they exercise over the churches forming
their title or diaconia; and the official style of address conferred
on them by Urban VIII. (10th of June 1630), of Eminence,
Etninentissimo signore.
The most lofty function of the cardinals is the election of the
pope (see Conclave). But this function is necessarily inter-
mittent, and they have many others to fulfil sede
plena. On those rare occasions on which the pope
officiates in person, they carry out, according to their respective
orders, their former functions in the ritual. But they are,
above all, the assistants of the pope in the administration of the
Church; they fill certain permanent offices, such as those of
chancellor, penitentiary, &c; or again, temporary missions,
such as that of legate a latere-, they have seats in the councils
and tribunals which deal with the affairs of the Church, and the
Roman congregations of cardinals (see Curia Romana).
Bibliography. — All works on canon law contain a treatise on the
cardinals. See particularly, for the history, Thomassin, Vetus et
nova discipl., torn. I., lib. ii., cap. 113-115. For history and law,
Phillips, Kirchenrecht, vol. vi. ; Hinschius, System des kathoL Kirchen-
rechts, vol. i. p. 312. For the canonical aspect, Ferraris, Prompta
bibliotheca t s,v. Cardinales;" Bouix, De curia romana (Paris,
1859), pp. 5- 141; Card, de Luca, Relatio curiae romanae, disc. 5.
For details of tne ceremonies and costume, Grimaldi, Les Congriga-
tions romaines (Sienna, 1890), p. 99 et seq.; Barbier de Montault,
he Costume et les usages ecclSsiastiques (Pans), s. d. For a list of the
names of the cardinals, according to their titles, see De Mas-Latrie,
Tresor de chronologic, col. 2219-2264; and in the chronological order
of their promotion, from St Leo IX. to Benedict XIV., ibid. 1177-
1242; also Dictionnaire des cardinaux (Paris, 1856). (A. Bo.*)
3^4
CARDINAL VIRTUES— CARDS, PLAYING
CARDINAL VIRTUES (Lat. cardo, a hinge; the fixed point
on which anything turns), a phrase used for the principal virtues
on which conduct in general depends. Socrates and Plato
(sec Republic, iv. 427) take these to be Prudence, Courage
(or Fortitude), Temperance and Justice. It is noticeable that
the. virtue of Benevolence, which has played so important a
part in Christian ethics and in modern altruistic and sociological
theories, is omitted by the ancients. Further, against the Platonic
list it may be urged (1) that it is arbitrary, and (2) that the
several virtues are not specifically distinct, that the basis of
the division is unsound, and that there is overlapping. It is
said that St Ambrose was the first to adapt the Platonic classifica-
tion to Christian theology. By the Roman Catholic Church
these virtues are regarded as natural as opposed to the theological
virtues, Faith, Hope and Charity. Some authors, combining
the two lists, have spoken of the Seven Cardinal Virtues. In
English literature the phrase is found as far back as the Cursor
Mundi (1300) and the Ayenbite of Inwit (1340).
See B. Jowett, Republic of Plato (Eng. trans.,' Oxford, 1887,
Introd. p. lxiii) ; Plato, Protagoras (329-330) ; Aristotle, Nicomachean
Ethics, vi. 13. 6; Th. Ziegler, Gesch. a. chr. Eth. (2nd ed.); H.
Sidgwick, History of Ethics (5th ed.), pp. 44, 133, 143; and Methods
of Ethics, p. 375.
CARDING, the process of using the " card " (Lat. carduus,
a thistle or teasel) for combing textile fibrous materials. The
practice of carding is of such great antiquity that its origin
cannot be traced. It consists in combing or brushing fibres
until they are straight and placed in parallel lines; in doing this,
imperfect fibres are separated from perfect ones, all impurities
are removed, and the sound fibres are in condition for further
treatment. The teasels once used have long given place to hand
cards, and these in turn to what, in the rudest form, were known
as " stock cards," namely, two wire brushes, each 4 in. broad
by 12 in. long, and having teeth bent at a uniform angle. One
was nailed upon a bench with the teeth sloping from the operator,
the other was similarly secured upon a two-handled bar with
the teeth sloping towards the operator. The material to be
treated was thinly spread upon the fixed card, and the movable
one drawn by hand to and fro over it. When sufficiently carded,
a rod furnished with parallel projecting needles, called a " needle
stick," was pushed amongst the card teeth to strip the fibres from
the comb. The strip thus procured was rolled into a sliver and
spun. James Hargreaves, the inventor of the spinning jenny,
suspended the movable comb by passing two cords over pulleys
fixed in the ceiling and attached balance weights to opposite
ends of the cords. This enabled him to lengthen the cards,
to apply two or three to the same stock and to manipulate the
top one with less labour, as well as to produce more and better
work. In May of 1748, Daniel Bourn, of Leominster, patented
a machine in which four parallel rollers were covered with cards,
and set close together. Fibres were fed to the first rotating
roller, each in turn drew them from the preceding one, and a
grid was employed to remove the carded material from the
last roller. This introduced the principle of carding with revolvin g
cylinders whose surfaces were clothed with cards working point to
point. In December of the same year Lewis Paul, of Birmingham ,
the inventor of drawing rollers, patented two types of carding
engines. In one, parallel rows of spaced cards were nailed upon
a cylinder which was revolved by a winch handle. Beneath the
cylinder a concave trough had a card fixed on the inside, so that
as the fibres passed between the two series of teeth they were
combed. This was the origin of " flat-carding," namely, nailing
strips of stationary cards upon transverse pieces of wood and
adjusting the strips or flats by screws to the cylinder. In
1762, the father of Sir Robert Peel, with the assistance of Har-
greaves, erected and used a cylinder carding engine which
differed in some important particulars from Bourn's invention.
But although roller-carding and flat-carding are the only principles
in use at the present time, to Sir Richard Arkwright belongs
the merit of introducing an automatic carding engine, for
between the years 1773 and 1775 he combined the various
improvements of his predecessors, entirely remodelled the
machine, and added parts which made the operation con-
tinuous. So successful were these cards that some of them
were in use at the beginning of the present century. Not-
withstanding the numerous and important changes that have
been made since Arkwright's time, carding remains essen-
tially the same as established by him. (See Cotton- Spinning
Machinery.) (T. W. F.)
CARDIOID, a curve so named by G. F. M. M. Castillon (1708-
1791), on account of its heart-like form (Gr. tcapdia, heart). It
was mathematically treated by Louis Carre in 1 705 and Koersma
in 1 741. It is a particular form of the limacon (q.v.) and is
generated in the same way. It may be regarded as an epicycloid
in which the rolling and fixed circles are equal in diameter,
as the inverse of a parabola for its focus, or as the caustic pro-
duced by the reflection at a spherical surface of rays emanating
from a point on the circumference. The polar equation to the
cardioid is r=a(i+cos0). There is symmetry about the initial
line and a cusp at the origin. The area is |ira*, i.e. i\ times the
area of the generating circle; the length of the curve is Sa.
(For a figure see Limacon.)
CARDONA (perhaps the anc. Udura), a town of north-eastern
Spain, in the province of Barcelona; about 55 m. N.W. of
Barcelona, on a hill almost surrounded by the river Cardoner,
a branch of the Uobregat. Pop. (1000) 3855. Cardona is a
picturesque and old-fashioned town, with Moorish walls and
citadel, and a 14th-century church. It is celebrated for the
extensive deposit of rock salt in its vicinity. The salt forms a
mountain mass about 300 ft. high and 3 m. in circumference,
covered by a thick bed of a reddish-brown clay, and apparently
resting on a yellowish-grey sandstone. It is generally more or
less translucent, and large masses of it are quite transparent.
The hill is worked like a mine; pieces cut from it are carved by
artists in Cardona into images, crucifixes and many articles
of an ornamental kind.
CARDOON, Cynara cardunculus (natural order Compositae),
a perennial plant from the south of Europe and Barbary, a near
relation of the artichoke. The edible part, called the char d,
is composed of the blanched and crisp stalks of the inner leaves.
Cardoons are found to prosper on light deep soils. The seed
is sown annually about the middle of May, in shallow trenches,
like those for celery, and the plants are thinned out to 10 or 12 in.
from each other in the lines. In Scotland it is preferable to sow
the seed singly in small plots, placing them in a mild temperature,
and transplanting them into the trenches after they have attained
a height of 8 or 10 in. Water must be copiously supplied in
dry weather, both to prevent the formation of flower-stalks
and to increase the succulence of the leaves. In autumn the
leaf-stalks are applied close to each other, and wrapped round
with bands of hay or straw, only the points being left free.
Earth is then drawn up around them to the height of 15 or
18 in. Sometimes cardoons are blanched by a more thorough
earthing up, in the manner of celery, but in this case the operation
must be carried on from the end of summer. During severe frost
the tops of the leaves should be defended with straw or litter.
Besides the common and Spanish cardoons, there are the prickly-
leaved Tours cardoon, the red-stemmed cardoon and the Paris
cardoon, ail of superior quality, the Paris being the largest
and most tender. The common artichoke is also used for the
production of chard.
CARDS, PLATING. As is the case with all very ancient
pastimes, the origin of playing-cards is obscure, many nations
having been credited with the invention, but the generally
accepted view is that they come from Asia. In the Chinese
dictionary, Ching-tsze4ung (1678), it is said that cards were
invented in the reign of Seun-ho, 11 20 a.d., for the amusement
of his concubines. There is a tradition that cards have existed
in India from time immemorial — very ancient ones, round in
form, are preserved in museums — and that they were invented
by the Brahmans. Their invention has also been assigned to
the Egyptians, with whom they were said to have had a religious
meaning, and to the Arabs. A very ingenious theory, founded on
numerous singular resemblances to the ancient game of chess
CARDS, PLAYING
325
(ckaturanga, the four angas or members of an army), has been
advanced that they were suggested by chess (see " Essay on the
Indian Game of Chess," by Sir William Jones, in his Asiatic
Researches, vol. ii.).
The time and manner of the introduction of cards into Europe
are matters of dispute. The 38th canon of the council of Worces-
ter ( 1 240) is often quoted as evidence of cards having been known
in England in the middle of the 13th century; but the games
de rege ei regina there mentioned are now thought to have been a
kind of mumming exhibition (Strutt says chess). No queen is
found in the earliest European cards. In the wardrobe accounts
of Edward I. (1278), Walter Stourton is paid 8s. 5d. ad opus
regis ad ludendum ad quatuor reges 9 a passage which has bees
thought to refer to cards, but it is now supposed to mean chess,
which may have been called the " game of four kings," as was
the case in India (ckaturaji). If cards were generally known
in Europe as early as 1278, it is very remarkable that Petrarch,
in his dialogue that treats of gaming, never once mentions them;
and that, though Boccaccio, Chaucer and other writers of that
time notice various games, there is not a single passage in them
that can be fairly construed to refer to cards. Passages have
been quoted from various works, of or relative to this period,
but modern research leads to the supposition that the word
rendered cards has often been mistranslated or interpolated.
An early mention of a distinct series of playing cards is the entry
of Charles or Charbot Poupart, treasurer of the household of
Charles VL of France, in his book of accounts for 1392 or 1393,
which runs thus: Donne* d Jacquemin Gringonneur, peintre,
pour trois jeux de cartes , d, or eta diver sescouleurs, omSs de plusieurs
devises, pour porter devers le Seigneur Roi, pour son Statement,
cinquante-six sols parisis. This, of course, refers only to the
painting of a set or pack of cards, which were evidently already
well known. But, according to various conjectural interpreta-
tions of documents, the earliest date of the mention of cards has
been pushed farther back by different authorities. For instance,
in the account-books of Johanna, duchess of Brabant, and her
husband, Wenceslaus of Luxemburg, there is an entry, under
date of the 14th of May 1379, as follows: " Given to Monsieur
and Madame four peters, two florins, value eight and a half
moutons, wherewith to buy a pack of cards " (Quartspel met te
copen). This proves their introduction into the Netherlands at
least as early as 1379. In a British Museum MS. (Egerton,
2, 4x9) mention is made of a game of cards (qui ludus
cartarum appellatur) in Germany in 1377. The safe conclusion
with regard to their introduction is that, though they may
possibly have been known to a few persons in Europe about the
middle of the 14th century, they did not come into general use
until about a half -century later. Whence they came is another
question that has not yet been answered satisfactorily. If we
may believe the evidence of Covelluzzoof Viterbo (15th century)
cards were introduced into Italyrrom Arabia. On the authority
of a chronicle of one of his ancestors he writes: " In the year
1379 was brought into Viterbo the game of cards, which comes
from the country of the Saracens, and is with them called
naib" The Crusaders, who were inveterate gamblers, may
have been the instruments of their introduction (see Istoria
delta citta di Viterbo, by F. Bussi, Rome, 1743). According to
other authorities, cards came first to Spain from Africa with the
Moors, and it is significant that, to this day, playing cards are
called in Spain naipes (probably a corruption of the Arabic Nabi,
prophet) . Taken in connexion with the statement of Covelluzzo,
this fact would seem to prove the wide popularity of the game of
naib, or cards, among the Arab tribes. The meaning of the word
(prophet) has been suggested to refer to the fortune-telling
function of cards, and the theory has been advanced that they
were used by the Moorish gypsies for that purpose. Gypsies
are, however, not known to have appeared in Spain before the
15th century, at a time when cards were already well known.
In regard to the word naib, the Italian language still preserves
the name naibi, playing cards.
Towards the end of the 14th century cards seem to have
become common, for in an edict of the provost of Paris, 1397,
working-people are forbidden to play at tennis, bowls, dice, cards
or nine-pins on working days. From an omission of any mention
of cards in an ordonnance of Charles V. in 1369, forbidding certain
other games, it may be reasonably concluded that cards became
popular in France between that date and the end of the century.
In Italy it is possible that they were generally known at a
somewhat earlier date. In the 1 5th century they were often the
object of the attacks of the clergy. In 1423 St Bernardino of
Siena preached a celebrated sermon against them at Bologna,
in which, like the English Puritans after him, he attributed their
invention to the devil. Cards in Germany are referred to in a
manuscript of Nuremberg about 1384, which illustrates the rapid
spread of the new game throughout Europe. In form the earliest
cards were generally rectangular or square, though sometimes
circular.
Not long after their introduction, cards began to be used for
other purposes than gaming. In 1509 a Franciscan friar, Thomas
Murner, published an exposition of logic in the form of a pack
of cards, and a pack invented in 1651 by Baptist Pendleton
purported to convey a knowledge of grammar. These were soon
followed by packs teaching geography and heraldry, the whole
class being called " scientiall cards." Politics followed, and in
England satirical and historical sets appeared, one of them
designed to reveal the plots of the Popish agitators. The first
mention of cards in the New World is found in the letters of
Herrera, a companion of Cortes, who describes the interest
manifested by the Aztecs in the card games of the Spanish
soldiers.
Early in the 15 th century the making of cards had become
a regular trade in Germany, whence they were sent to other
countries. Cards were also manufactured in Italy at least as
early as 1425, and in England before 1463; for by an act of
parliament of 3 Edw. IV. the importation of playing cards is
forbidden, in consequence, it is said, of the complaints of manu-
facturers that importation obstructed their business. No cards
of undoubted English manufacture of so early a date have been
discovered; and there is reason to believe, notwithstanding the
act of Edward IV., that the chief supplies came from France or
the Netherlands. In the reign of Elizabeth the importation of
cards was a monopoly; but from the time of James I. most of
the cards used in this country were of home manufacture. A
duty was first levied on cards in the reign of James I.; since
when they have always been taxed.
It has been much disputed whether the earliest cards were
printed from wood-blocks. If so, it would appear that the art
of wood-engraving, which led to that of printing, may have been
developed through the demand for the multiplication of imple-
ments of play. The belief that the early card-makers or card-
painters of Ulm, Nuremberg and Augsburg, from about 1418-
1450, were also wood-engravers, is founded on the assumption
that the cards of that period were printed from wood-blocks.
It is, however, clear that the earliest cards were executed by
hand, like those designed for Charles VI. Many of the earliest
wood-cuts were coloured by means of a stencil, so it would seem
that at the time wood-engraving was first introduced, the art of
depicting and colouring figures by means of stencil plates was
well known. There are no playing cards engraved on wood
to which so early a date as 1423 (that of the earliest dated
wood-engraving generally accepted) can be fairly assigned; and
as at this period there were professional card-makers established
in Germany, it is probable that wood-engraving was employed
to produce cuts for sacred subjects before it was applied to
cards, and that there were hand-painted and stencilled cards
before there were wood-engravings of saints. The German
Briefmaler or card-painter probably progressed into the wood-
engraver; but there is no proof that the earliest wood-engravers
were the card-makers.
It is undecided whether the earliest cards were of the kind now
common, called numeral cards, or whether they were tarocchi
or tarots, which are still used in some parts of France, Germany
and Italy, but the probability is that the tarots were the earlier.
A pack of tarots consists of seventy-eight cards, four suits of
326
CARDUCCI
numeral cards and twenty-two emblematic cards, called atuUi
or atouls ( = trumps). Each suit consists of fourteen cards,
ten of which are the pip cards, and four court (or more properly
coat cards), viz. king, queen, chevalier and valet. The atouls
are numbered from i to 21; the unnumbered card, called the fou f
has no positive value, but augments that of the other atouls
(see Academic desjeux, Corbet, Paris, 1814, for an account of the
mode of playing tarocchino or tarots).
The marks of the suits on the earliest cards (German) are hearts,
bells, leaves and acorns. No ace corresponding to the earliest
known pack has been discovered; but other packs of about
the same date have aces, and it seems unlikely that the suits
commenced with the deuces.
Next in antiquity to the marks mentioned are swords, batons,
cups and money. These are the most common on Italian
cards of the late 15th century, and are used both in Italy and in
Spain. French cards of the 16th century bear the marks now
generally used in France and England, viz. coeur (hearts),
trkfle (clubs), pique (spades) and cam tan (diamonds).
r The French trefle, though so named from its resemblance to
the trefoil leaf, was in all probability copied from the acorn;
and the pique similarly from the leaf (grUn) of the German suits,
while its name is derived from the sword of the Italian suits.
It is not derived from its resemblance to a pike head, as commonly
supposed. In England the French marks are used, and are
named—hearts, clubs (corresponding to trifle, the French symbol
being joined to the Italian name, bastoni), spades (corresponding
to the French pique,but having the Italian name, $£a<fe=» swords)
and diamonds. This confusion of names and symbols is accounted
for by Chatto thus — " If cards were actually known in Italy and
Spain in the latter part of the 14th century, it is not unlikely that
the game was introduced into this country by some of the English
soldiers who had served, under Hawk wood and other free captains,
in the wars of Italy and Spain. However this may be, it seems
certain that the earliest cards commonly used in this country
were of the same kind, with respect to the marks of the suits,
as those used in Italy and Spain."
About the last quarter of the 15th century, packs with animals,
flowers and human figures, for marks of the suits, were engraved
upon copper; and later, numerous variations appeared, dictated
by the caprice of individual card-makers; but they never came
into general use.
The court cards of the early packs were king, chevalier and
knave. The Italians were probably the first to substitute a
queen for the chevalier, who in French cards is altogether
superseded by the queen. The court cards of French packs
received fanciful names, which varied from time to time.
Authorities. — Abb6 Rive, ILclaircissements sur V invention des
cartes a jouer (Paris, 1780); J. G. I. Breitkopf, Ver such den Ursprung
der Spielkarten zu erforschen (Leipzig, 1784) ; Samuel Weller Singer,
Researches into the History of Playing Cards, with Illustrations of the
Origin of Printing and Engraving on Wood (London, 18 16); G.
Peignot, Analyse critique et raisonnee de toutes Us recherches publiies
jusqu & ce jour, sur I'origitie des cartes a jouer (Dijon, 1826); M. C.
Leber, Etudes historiques sur les cartes a jouer, principalement sur les
cartes franqaises (Paris, 1842); William Andrew Chatto, Facts and
Speculations on the Origin and History of Playing Cards (London,
1848); P. Boiteau D'Ambly, Les Cartes <L jouer et la cartomancie
(Paris, 1854), translated into English with additions under the title
of The History of Playing Cards, with Anecdotes of their use in Conjur-
ing, Fortune-teUing, ana Card-sharping, edited by the Rev. E. S.
Taylor, B.A. (London, 1865); W. Hughes Wiltshire, M.D., A
Descriptive Catalogue of Playing and other Cards in the British
Museum, printed By order of the trustees (London, 1876); Origine
des cartes a jouer, by R. Merlin (Paris, 1869); The Devil's Picture
Books, by Mrs J. K. Van Rensselaer (New York, 1890) ; Bibliography
of Works in English on Playing Cards and Gamtng, by F. Jessel
(London, 1905) ; and especially Les Cartes a jouer, by Henri Ren6
d'Allemagne (Paris, 1906) (an exhaustive account).
CARDUCCI, BARTOLOMMEO (1 560-1610), Italian painter,
better known as Carducho, the Spanish corruption of his Italian
patronymic, was born in Florence, where he studied architecture
and sculpture under Ammanati, and painting under Zuccaero.
The latter master he accompanied to Madrid, where he painted
the ceiling of the Escorial library, assisting also in the production
of the frescos that adorn the cloisters of that famous palace.
He was a great favourite with Philip III., and lived and died in
Spain, where most of his works are to be found. The most
celebrated of them is a Descent from the Cross, in the church
of San Felipe el Real, in Madrid.
His younger brother Vincenzo (1 568-1638), was born in Flor-
ence, and was trained as a painter by Bartolommeo, whom he
followed to Madrid. He worked a great deal for Philip III. and
Philip IV., and his best pictures are those he executed for the
former monarch as decorations in the Prado. Examples of his
work are preserved at Toledo, at Valladolid, at Segovia, and at
several other Spanish cities. For many years he laboured in
Madrid as a teacher of his art, and among his pupils were Giovanni
Ricci, Pedro Obregon, Vela, Francisco Collantes, and other
distinguished representatives of the Spanish school during the
17th century. He was also author of a treatise or dialogue,
De las Excdencias de la Pintuta, which was published in 1633.
CARDUCCI, GIOSUE (1 836-1007), Italian poet, was born
at Val-di-Castello, in Tuscany, on the 27th of July 1836, his
father being Michele Carducci, a physician, of an old Florentine
family, who in his youth had suffered imprisonment for his
share in the revolution of 183 1. Carducci received a good
education. He began life as a public teacher, but soon took to
giving private lessons at Florence, where he became connected
with a set of young men, enthusiastic patriots in politics, and in
literature bent on overthrowing the reigning romantic taste by
a return to classical models. These aspirations always constituted
the mainsprings of Carducci's poetry. In i860 he became pro-
fessor at Bologna, where, after in 1865 astonishing the public
by a defiant Hymn to Satan, he published in 1868 Levia Gratia,
a volume of lyrics which not only gave him an indisputable
position at the head of contemporary Italian poets, but made
him the head of a school of which the best Italian men of letters
have been disciples, and which has influenced all. Several other
volumes succeeded, the most important of which were the
Decmnalia (1871), the Nuove Poesie (1872), and the three series
of the Odi Barbate (1877-1889). v A
Carducci had been brought into more fraternal contact with
the aims of the younger generation by the efforts of Angelo
Sommaruga who became, about 1880, the publisher of a group
of young unknown writers all destined to some, and a few to
great, accomplishment. The period of his prosperity was a
strange one for Italy. The first ten years of the newly constituted
kingdom had passed more in 6tupor than activity; original
contributions to literature had been scarce, and publishers
had preferred bringing out inferior translations of not always
admirable French authors to encouraging the original work
of Italians — work which it must be confessed was generally
mediocre and entirely lifeless. Sommaruga's creation, a literary
review called La Cronaca Bisantina, gathered together such
beginners as Giovanni Marradi,Matilde Serao,£doardoScarfoguo,
Guido Magnoni and Gabriele d'Annunzio. In order to obtain the
sanction of what he considered an enduring name, the founder
turned to Giosue Carducci, then living in retirement at Bologna,
discontented with his fate, and still not generally known by the
public of his own country. The activity of Sommaruga exercised
a great influence on Giosue Carducci. Within the next few years
he published the three admirable volumes of his Confessioni e
Battaglie, the Qa Ira sonnets, the Nuove Odi Barbate, and a
considerable number of articles, pamphlets and essays, which
in their collected edition form the most living part of his work.
His lyrical production, too, seemed to reach its perfection in
those five years of tense, unrelenting work; for the Canzone
di Legnano, the Odes to Rome and to Monte Mario, the Elegy on
the urn of Percy Bysshe Shelley, the ringing rhymes of the Inter-
mezzo, in which he happily blended the satire of Heine with the
lyrical form of his native poetry — all belong to this period,
together with the essays on Leopardi and on Parini, the admirable
discussions in defence of his Qa Ira, and the pamphlet called
Eterno Femminino regale, a kind of self-defence, undertaken to
explain the origin of the Alcaic metre to the queen of Italy, which
marks the beginning of the last evolution in Carducci's work
(1881). The revolutionary spirits of the day, who had always
CARDWELL, E.— CARDWELL
327
looked upon Giosue* Carducci as their bard and champion,
fell away from him after this poem written in honour of a queen,
and the poet, wounded by the attitude of his party, wrote what
he intended to be his defence and his programme for the future
in pages that will remain amongst the noblest and most powerful
of contemporary literature. From that time Carducci appears
in a new form, evolved afterwards in his last Odes, // Piemonte,
Li Bicocca di San Giacomo y the Ode to the daughter of Francesco
Crispi on her marriage, and the one to the church where Dante
once prayed, Alia ChieseUa dei Polenta, which is like the with-
drawing into itself of a warlike soul weary of its battle.
For a few months in 1876 Carducci had a seat in the Italian
Chamber. In 1881 he was appointed a member of the higher
council of education. In 1800 he was made a senator. And in
1006 he was awarded the Nobel prize for literature. He died at
Bologna on the 16th of February 1007. By his marriage in 1859
he had two daughters, who survived him, and one son, who died
in infancy.
The same qualities which placed Carducci among the classics of
Italy in his earlier days remained consistently with him in later
life. His thought flows limpid, serene, sure of itself above an
undercurrent of sane and vigorous if pagan philosophy. Patriot-
ism, the grandeur of work, the soul-satisfying power of justice,
are the poet's dominant ideals. For many years the national
struggle for liberty had forced the best there was in heart and
brain into the atmosphere of political intrigue and from one
battlefield to another; Carducci therefore found a poetry emas-
culated by the deviation into other channels of the intellectual
virility of his country. On this mass of patriotic doggerel, of
sickly, languishing sentimentality as insincere as it was inane, he
grafted a poetry not often tender, but always violently felt and
thrown into a mould of majestic form; not always quite expected
or appreciated by his contemporaries, but never commonplace
in structure; always high in tone and free in spirit. The adapta-
tion of various kinds of Latin metres to the somewhat sinewless
language he found at his disposal, whilst it might have been an
effort of mere pedantry in another, was a life-giving and strength-
ening inspiration in his case. Another of his characteristics,
which made him peculiarly precious to his countrymen, is the
fact that his poems form a kind of lyric record of the Italian
struggle for independence. The tumultuous vicissitudes of
all other nations, however, and the pageantry of the history
of all times, have in turns touched his particular order of imagina-
tion. The more important part of his critical work which belongs
to this later period consists of his Conversazioni criHcke, his
Storia filosofica delta letteratura Italiana, and a masterly edition
of Petrarch. That he should have had the faults of his qualities
is not remarkable. Being almost a pioneer in the world of
criticism, his essays on the authors of other countries, though
appearing in the light of discoveries to his own country, absorbed
as it had hitherto been in its own vicissitudes, have little of
value to the general student beyond the attraction of robust
style. And in his unbounded admiration for the sculptural
lines of antique Latin poetry he sometimes relapsed into that
fascination by mere sound which is the snare of his language, and
against which his own work in its great moments is a reaction.
CARDWELL, EDWARD (1 787-1861), English theologian, was
born at Blackburn in Lancashire in 1787. He was educated at
Brasenose College, Oxford (B.A. 1809; M.A. 181 2; B.D. 1819;
D.D. 1831), and after being for several years tutor and lecturer,
was appointed, in 1814, one of the examiners to the university.
In 1825 he was chosen Camden professor of ancient history;
and during his five years' professorship he published an edition
of the Ethics of Aristotle, and a course of his lectures on The
Coinage of the Greeks and Romans. In 1831 he succeeded
Archbishop Whately as principal of St Alban's Hall. He
published in 183 7 a student's edition of the Greek Testament, and
an edition of the Greek and Latin texts of the History of the
Jewish War, by Josephus, with illustrative notes. But his most
important labours were in the field of English church history.
He projected an extensive work, which was to embrace the
entire synodical history of the church in England, and was to be
founded on David Wilkins's Concilia Magnae Britanniae et
Hiberniae. Of this work he executed some portions only. The
first published was Documentary Annals of the Reformed Church
of England from 1546 to 1716, which appeared in 1839. It was
followed by a History of Conferences, &c, connected with the
Revision of the Book of Common Prayer (1840) . On 1842 appeared
Synodalia, a Collection of Articles of Religion, Canons, and
Proceedings of Convocation from 1547 to 1717, completing the
series for that period. Closely connected with these works is the
Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum (1850), which treats of the
efforts for reform during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI.,
and Elizabeth. Cardwell also published in 1854 a new edition of
Bishop Gibson's Synodus Anglicana. He was one of the best
men of business in the university, and held various important
posts, among which were those of delegate of the press, curator of
the university galleries, manager of the Bible department of
the press, and private secretary to successive chancellors of the
university. He established the Wolvercot paper mill. He died
at Oxford on the 23rd of May 1861.
CARDWELL, EDWARD CARDWELL, Viscount (18 13-1886),
English statesman, was the son of a merchant of Liverpool,
where he was born on the 24th of July 18 13. After a brilliant
career at Oxford, where he gained a double first-class, he entered
parliament as member for Clitheroe in 1842, and in 1845 was
made secretary to the treasury. He supported Sir Robert Peel's
free-trade policy, and went out of office with him. In 1847 he
was elected for Liverpool, but lost his seat in 1852 for having
supported the repeal of the navigation laws. He soon found
another constituency at Oxford, and upon the formation of Lord
Aberdeen's coalition ministry became president of the Board of
Trade, although debarred by the jealousy of his Whig colleagues
from a seat in the cabinet In 1854 he carried, almost without
opposition, a most important and complicated act consolidating
all existing shipping laws, but in 1855 resigned, with his Peelite
colleagues, upon the appointment of Mr Roebuck's Sevastopol
inquiry committee, declining the offer of the chancellorship of
the Exchequer pressed upon him by Lord Palmerston. In 1858
he moved the famous resolution condemnatory of Lord Ellen-
borough's despatch to Lord/Canning on the affairs of Oude,
which for a time seemed certain to overthrow the Derby govern-
ment, but which ultimately dissolved into nothing. He obtained
a seat in Lord Palmerston's cabinet of 1859, and after filling the
uncongenial posts of secretary for Ireland and chancellor of the
duchy of Lancaster (1861), became secretary for the colonies in
1864. Here he reformed the system of colonial defence, refusing
to keep troops in the colonies during time of peace unless their
expense was defrayed by the colonists; he also laid the founda-
tion of federation in Canada and, rightly or wrongly, censured
Sir George Grey's conduct in New Zealand. Resigning with his
friends in 1866, he again took office in 1868 as secretary for war.
In this post he performed the most memorable actions of his life
by the abolition of purchase and the institution of the short
service system and the reserve in the army, measures which
excited more opposition than any of the numerous reforms
effected by the Gladstone government of that period, but which
were entirely justified by their successful working afterwards.
On the resignation of the Gladstone ministry in 1874 he was
raised to the peerage as Viscount Cardwell of Ellerbeck, but took
no further prominent part in politics. His mental faculties,
indeed, were considerably impaired during the last few years of
his life, and he died at Torquay on the 15th of February 1886.
He was not a showy, hardly even a prominent politician, but
effected far more than many more conspicuous men. The great
administrator and the bold innovator were united in him in an
exceptional degree, and he allowed neither character to pre-
ponderate unduly.
CARDWELL, a town of Cardwell county, Queensland, Australia,
on Rockingham Bay, about 800 m. direct N. W. by N. of Brisbane.
Pop. of town and district (1901) 3435. It has one of the best
harbours in the state, easy of access in all weathers, with a depth
ranging from 4 to 10 fathoms. Various minerals, including gold
and tin, exist in the district; and there are preserve and sauce
328
CAREW, G.— CAREY, H.
factories, and works for meat extract and tinning. The dugong
fishery is carried on, and the oil is extracted. There are large
timber forests in the district, and much cedar is exported.
CAREW, GEORGE (d. about 1613), English diplomatist and
historian, second son of Sir Wymond Carew of Antony, was
educated at Oxford, entered the Inns of Court, and passed some
years in continental travel. At the recommendation of Queen
Elizabeth, who conferred on him the honour of knighthood, he
was appointed secretary to Sir Christopher Hatton, and after-
wards, having been promoted to a mastership in chancery, was
sent as ambassador to the king of Poland. In the reign of James
he was employed in negotiating the treaty of union with Scotland,
and for several years was ambassador to the court of France.
On his return he wrote a Relation of the State of France, with
sketches of the leading persons at the court of Henry IV. It is
written in the classical style of the Elizabethan age, and was
appended by Di Birch to his Historical View of the Negotiations
between the Courts of England, France and Brussels, from 1592
to 1617. Much of the information regarding Poland contained
in De Thou's History of His Own Times was furnished by Carew.
CAREW, RICHARD (1555-1620), English poet and antiquary,
was born on the 17th of July 1555, at Antony House, East
Antony, Cornwall. At the age of eleven, he entered Christ
Church, Oxford, and when only fourteen was chosen to carry
on an extempore debate with Sir Philip Sidney, in presence of
the earls of Leicester and Warwick and other noblemen. From
Oxford he removed to the Middle Temple, where he spent three
years, and then went abroad. By his marriage with Juliana
Arundel in 1577 he added Coswarth to the estates he had already
inherited from his father. In 1 586 he was appointed high-sheriff
of Cornwall; he entered parliament in 1584; and he served
under Sir Walter Raleigh, then lord lieutenant of Cornwall, as
treasurer. He became a member of the Society of Antiquaries
in 1589, and was a friend of William Camden and Sir Henry
Spelman. His great work is the Survey of Cornwall, published
in 1602, and reprinted in 1769 and 181 1. It still possesses
interest, apart from its antiquarian value, for the picture it gives
of the life and interests of a country gentleman of the days of
Elizabeth. Carew's other works are.* — a translation of the first
five Cantos of Tasso's Gerusalemme (1594), printed in the first
instance without the author's knowledge, and entitled Godfrey
of BaUoigne, or the Recouerie of Hierusalam ; The Examination
of Men's Wits (1594), a translation of an Italian version of John
Huarte's Examen de Ingenios; and An Epistle concerning the
Excellences of the English Tongue (1605). Carew died on the
6th of November 1620.
His son, Sir Richard Carew (d. 1643?), was the author of a
True and Readie Way to learn the Latine Tongue, by writers of
three nations, published by Samuel Hartlib in 1654.
CAREW, THOMAS (1595-1645?), English poet, was the son
of Sir Matthew Carew, master in chancery, and his wife, Alice
Ingpenny, widow of Sir John Rivers, lord mayor of London.
The poet was probably the third of the eleven children of his
parents, and was born at West Wickham in Kent, in the early
part of 1595, for he was thirteen years of age in June 1608, when
he matriculated at Merton College, Oxford. He took his degree
of B.A. early in 161 1, and proceeded to study at the Middle
Temple. Two years later his father complained to Sir Dudley
Carleton that he was doing little at the law. He was in conse-
quence sent to Italy, as a member of Sir Dudley's household, and
when the ambassador returned from Venice, he seems to have
kept Thomas Carew with him, for he is found in the capacity
of secretary to Sir Dudley Carleton, at the Hague, early in 1616.
From this office he was dismissed in the autumn of that year for
levity and slander; he had great difficulty in finding another
situation. In August 1618 his father died, and Carew entered
the service of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, in whose train he
started for France in March 1619, and it is believed that he
travelled in Herbert's company until that nobleman returned
to England, at the close of his diplomatic missions, in April 1624.
Carew " followed the court before he was of it," not receiving
the definite appointment of gentleman of the privy chamber
until 1628. While Carew held this office, he displayed his tact
and presence of mind by stumbling and extinguishing the candle
he was holding to light Charles I. into the queen's chamber,
because he saw that Lord St Albans had his arm round her
majesty's neck. The king suspected nothing, and the queen
heaped favours on the poet. Probably in 1630, Carew was made
" server " or taster-in-ordinary to the king. To this period may
be attributed his close friendship with Sir John Suckling, Ben
Jonson and Clarendon; the latter says that Carew was "a
person of pleasant and facetious wit." Donne, whose celebrity
as a court-preacher lasted until his death in 1631, exercised a
powerful if not entirely healthful influence over the genius of
Carew. In February 1633 a masque by the latter, entitled Coelum
Britanicum, was acted in the banqueting-house at Whitehall,
and was printed in 1634. The close of Carew's life is absolutely
obscure. It was long supposed that he died in 1639, and this
has been thought to be confirmed by the fact that the first edition
of his Poems, published in 1640, seems to have a posthumous
character. But Clarendon tells us that " after fifty years of life
spent with less severity and exactness than it ought to have been,
he died with the greatest remorse for that licence." If Carew
was more than fifty years of age, he must have died in or after
1645, and in fact there were final additions made to his Poems
in the third edition of 1651. Walton tells us that Carew in
his last illness, being afflicted with the horrors, sent in great
haste to " the ever-memorable " John Hales (1 584-1 656); Hales
" told him he should have his prayers, but would by no means
give him then either the sacrament or absolution."
Carew's poems, at their best, are brilliant lyrics of the purely
sensuous order. They open to us, in his own phrase, " a mine of
rich and pregnant fancy." His metrical style was influenced by
Jonson and his imagery still more clearly by Donne, for whom he
had an almost servile admiration. His intellectual power was
not comparable with Donne's, but Carew had a lucidity and
directness of lyrical utterance unknown to Donne. It is perhaps
his greatest distinction that he is the earliest of the Cavalier
song-writers by profession, of whom Rochester is the latest,
poets who turned the disreputable incidents of an idle court-life
into poetry which was often of the rarest detincy and the purest
melody and colour. The longest and best of Carew's poems,
" A Rapture," would be more widely appreciated if the rich
flow of its imagination were restrained by greater reticence
of taste.
The best edition of Carew's Poems is that prepared by Arthur
Vincent in 1899. (E. G.)
CARET, HENRY (d. 1743), English poet and musician, reputed
to be an illegitimate son of George Savile, marquess of Halifax,
was born towards the end of the 17th century. His mother is
supposed to have been a schoolmistress, and Carey himself
taught music at various schools. He owed his knowledge of
music to Olaus Linnert, and later he studied with Roseingrave
and Geminiani. He wrote the words and the music of The
Contrivances; or More Ways than One, a farce produced at
Drury Lane in 17 15. His Hanging and Marriage; or The Dead
Man y s Wedding was acted at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1722.
Chrononhotonthologos (1734), described as " The most Tragical
Tragedy that ever was tragedized by any Company of Tra-
gedians," was a successful burlesque of the bombast of the
contemporary stage. The best of his other pieces were A
Wonder; or the Honest Yorkshireman(if$5), a ballad opera, and
the Dragon of Wantley (1737), a burlesque opera, the music of
which was by J. F. Lampe. He was the author of Nomby-
Pamby, a once famous parody of Ambrose Philips's verses to
the infant daughter of the earl of Carteret. Carey is best remem-
bered by his songs. " Sally in our Alley " (printed in his Musical
Century) was a sketch drawn after following a shoemaker's
'prentice and his sweetheart on a holiday. The present tune set
to these words, however, is not the one written by Carey, but is
borrowed from an earlier song, " The Country Lasse," which is
printed in The Merry Musician (vol. iii., c. 1716). It has been
claimed for him that he was the author of " God save the King "
(see National Anthems). He died in London on the 4th of
CAREY, H. C— CARGILL
329
October 1743, and it was asserted, without justification, that he
had committed suicide. Edmund Kean, the tragedian, was
one of his great-grandchildren.
The completest edition of his poems is Poems on Several Occasions
(1 729). His dramatic works were published by subscription in 1 743.
CARET, HENRY CHARLES (1793-1879), American econo-
mist, was born in Philadelphia on the 15th of December 1793.
At the age of twenty-eight he succeeded his father, Mathew
Carey (1 760-1 839) — an influential economist, political reformer,
editor, and publisher, of Irish birth, but for many years a resident
of Philadelphia — as a member of the publishing firm of Carey
& Lea, which was long the most conspicuous in America. He
died in Philadelphia on the 13th of October 1879.
Among Mathew Carey's many writings had been a collection
(1822) of Essays on Political Economy, one of the earliest of
American treatises favouring protection, and Henry C. Carey's
life-work was devoted to the propagation of the same theory.
He retired from business in 1838, almost simultaneously with
the appearance (183 7-1 840) of his Principles of Political
Economy. This treatise, which was translated into Italian and
Swedish, soon became the standard representative in the United
States of the school of economic thought which, with some
interruptions, has since dominated the tariff system of that
country. Carey's first large work on political economy was
preceded and followed by many smaller volumes on wages,
the credit system, interest, slavery, copyright, &c; and in
1858-1859 he gathered the fruits of his lifelong labours into
The Principles of Social Science, in three volumes. This work
is a most comprehensive as well as mature exposition of his
views. In it Carey sought to show that there exists, inde-
pendently of human wills, a natural system of economic laws,
which is essentially beneficent, and of which the increasing
prosperity of the whole community, and especially of the work-
ing classes, is the spontaneous result — capable of being defeated
only by the ignorance or perversity of man resisting or impeding
its action. He rejected the Malthusian doctrine of population,
maintaining that numbers regulate themselves sufficiently in
every well-governed society, and that their pressure on sub-
sistence characterizes the- lower, not the more advanced, stages
of civilization. He denied the universal truth, for all stages of
cultivation, of the law 0/ diminishing returns from land.
His fundamental the#geiic position relates to the antithesis
of wealth and value. Carey held that land, as we are concerned
with it in industrial life, is really an instrument of production
which has been formed as such by man, and that its value is due
to the labour expended on it in the past — though measured, not
by the sum of that labour, but by the labour necessary under
existing conditions to bring new land to the same stage of
productiveness. He studied the occupation and reclamation
of land with peculiar advantage as an American, for whom the
traditions of first settlement were living and fresh, and before
whose eyes the process was indeed still going on. The diffi-
culties of adapting a primitive soil to the work of yielding
organic products for man's use can be lightly estimated only
by an inhabitant of a country long under cultivation. It is,
in Carey's view, the overcoming of these difficulties by arduous
and continued effort that entitles the first occupier of land to his
property in the soil. Its present value forms a very small pro-
portion of the cost expended on it, because it represents only
what would be required, with the science and appliances of our
time, to bring the land from its primitive into its present state.
Property in land is therefore only a form of invested capital —
a quantity of labour or the fruits of labour permanently incor-
porated with the soil; for which, like any other capitalist, the
owner is compensated by a share of the produce. He is not
rewarded for what is done by the powers of nature, and society
is in no sense defrauded by his sole possession. The so-called
Ricardian theory of rent is a speculative fancy, contradicted by
all experience. Cultivation does not in fact, as that theory
supposes, begin with the best, and move downwards to the poorer
soils in the order of their inferiority. The light and dry higher
lands are first cultivated; and only when population has become
dense and capital has accumulated, are the low-lying lands, with
their greater fertility, but also with their morasses, inundations,
and miasmas, attacked and brought into occupation. Rent,
regarded as a proportion of the produce, sinks, like all interest
on capital, in process of time, but, as an absolute amount,
increases. The share of the labourer increases, both as a pro-
portion and an absolute amount. And thus the interests of
these different social classes are in harmony. But, Carey pro-
ceeded to say, in order that this harmonious progress may be
realized, what is taken from the land must be given back to it.
All the articles derived from it are really separated parts of it,
which must be restored on pain of its exhaustion. Hence the
producer and the consumer must be close to each other; the
products must not be exported to a foreign country In exchange
for its manufactures, and thus go to enrich as manure a foreign soil.
In immediate exchange value the landowner may gain by such
exportation, but the productive powers of the land will suffer.
Carey, who had set out as an earnest advocate of free trade,
accordingly arrived at the doctrine of protection: the "co-
ordinating power" in society must intervene to prevent private
advantage from working public mischief. He attributed his
conversion on this question to his observation of the effects of
liberal and protective tariffs respectively on American pros-
perity. This observation, he says, threw him back on theory,
and led him to see that the intervention referred to might be
necessary to remove (as he phrases it) the obstacles to the
progress of younger communities created by the action of older
and wealthier nations. But it seems probable that the influence
of List's writings, added to his own deep-rooted and hereditary
jealousy and dislike of English predominance, had something
to do with his change of attitude (see Protection).
CARET, WILLIAM (1761-1834), English Oriental scholar,
and the pioneer of modern missionary enterprise, was born at
Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, on the 17th of August 1761.
When a youth he worked as a shoemaker; but having joined
the Baptists when he was about twenty-one, he devoted much
of his time to village preaching. In 1787 he became pastor of
a Baptist church in Leicester, and began those energetic move-
ments among his fellow religionists which resulted in the for-
mation of the Baptist Missionary Society, Carey himself being
one of the first to go abroad. On reaching Bengal in 1793,
he and his companions lost all their property in the Hugli; but
having received the charge of an indigo factory at Malda, he
was soon able to prosecute the work of translating the Bible
into Bengali. In 1799 he quitted Malda for Serampore, where
he established a church, a school, and a printing-press for the
publication of the Scriptures and philological works. In 1801
Carey was appointed professor of Oriental languages in a college
founded at Fort William by the marquess of Wellesley. From
this time to his death he devoted himself to the preparation
of numerous philological works, consisting of grammars and
dictionaries in the Mahratta, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Telinga, Bengali
and Bhotanta dialects. The Sanskrit dictionary was unfortun-
ately destroyed by a fire which broke out in the printing establish-
ment. From the Serampore press there issued in his lifetime
over 200,000 Bibles and portions in nearly forty different lan-
guages and dialects, Carey himself undertaking most of the
literary work. He died on the 9th of June 1834.
See Lives by J. Culross (1881) and G. Smith (1884).
CARGILL, DONALD (1610-1681), Scottish Covenanter, was
born in 1610. He was educated at St Andrews, and afterwards
attached himself to the Protesters. After his appointment to
one of the churches in Glasgow, he openly resisted the measures
of the government. Compelled to remain at a distance from his
charge, he ventured back to celebrate the Communion, and was
arrested, but was liberated at the instance of some of his private
friends. He was afterwards wounded at the battle of Bothwell
Bridge, and fled to Holland, where he remained a few months.
On his return he joined Richard Cameron in publishing the
Sanquhar declaration, and boldly excommunicated the king and
his officials. He was soon afterwards apprehended, and brought
to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded on the 27th of July 1681.
v. 11 a
33°
CARGO— CARIBS
CARGO (Span, for " loading/' from Lat. carrus, car), a ship-
load, or the goods (or even, less technically, persons) carried on
board a ship; and so, by analogy, a term used for any large
amount. The maritime law affecting the cargo of a ship is dealt
with in the articles Average, Affreightment, Insurance,
Salvage, Bottomry, Lien; and the specialities of cargo-ships
under Ship.
CARIA, an ancient district of Asia Minor, bounded on the N.
by Ionia and Lydia, on the W. and S. by the Aegean Sea, and on
the £. by Lycia and a small part of Phrygia. The coast-line
consists of a succession of great promontories alternating with deep
inlets. The most important inlet, the Ceramic Gulf, or Gulf of Cos,
extends inland for 70 m., between the great mountain promontory
terminating at Myndus on the north, and that which extends to
Cnidus and the remarkable headland of Cape Krio on the south.
North of this is the deep bay called in ancient times the Gulf of
Iasus (now known as the Gulf of Mendeliyah), and beyond this
again was the deeper inlet which formerly extended inland
between Miletus and Priene, but of which the outer part has
been entirely filled up by the alluvial deposits of the Maeander,
while the innermost arm, the ancient Latmic Gulf, is now a lake.
South of Cape Krio again is the gulf known as the Gulf of Doris,
with several subordinate inlets, bounded on the south by the
rugged promontory of Cynossema (mod. Cape Alupo). Between
this headland and the frontier of Lycia is the sheltered bay of
Marmarice, noted in modern times as one of the finest harbours
of the Mediterranean.
Almost the whole of Caria is mountainous. The two great
masses of Cadmus (Baba-dagh) and Salbacum (Boz-dagh), which
are in fact portions of the great chain of Taurus (see Asia Minor) ,
form the nucleus to which the whole physical framework of the
country is attached. From these lofty ranges there extends a
broad tableland (in many parts more than 3000 ft. high), while it
sends down offshoots on the north towards the Maeander, and on
the west towards the Aegean. Of these ranges the summit of
Mt Latmus alone reaches 4500 ft.
The coast is fringed by numerous islands, in some instances
separated only by narrow straits from the mainland. Of these
the most celebrated are Rhodes and Cos. Besides these are
Syme, Telos, Nisyros, Calymnos, Leros and Patmos, all of which
have been inhabited, both in ancient and modern times, and
some of which contain excellent harbours. Of these Nisyros
alone is of volcanic origin; the others belong to the same lime-
stone formation with the rocky headlands of the coast The
country known as Caria was shared between the Carians proper
and the Caunians, who were a wilder people, inhabiting the
district between Caria and Lycia. They were not considered
to be of the same blood as the Carians, and were, therefore,
excluded from the temple of the Carian Zeus at Mylasa, which
was common to the Carians, Lydians and Mysians, though their
language was the same as that of the Carians proper. Herodotus
(i. 172) believed the Caunians to have been aborigines, the
Carians having been originally called Leleges, who had been
driven from the Aegean islands by the invading Greeks. This
seems to have been a prevalent view among the Greek writers,
for Thucydides (i. 8) states that when Delos was " purified "
more than half the bodies found buried in it were those of
" Carians." Modern archaeological discovery, however, is
against this belief; and the fact that Mysus, Lydus and Car were
regarded as brothers indicates that the three populations who
worshipped together in the temple of Mylasa all belonged to the
same stock. Homer (//. x. 428-429) distinguishes the Leleges
(q.v.) from the Carians, to whom is ascribed the invention of
helmet-crests, coats of arms, and shield handles.
A considerable number of short Carian inscriptions has been
found, most of them in Egypt. They were first noticed by
Lepsius at Abu-Simbel, where he correctly inferred that they
were the work of the Carian mercenaries of Psammetichus.
The language, so far as it has been deciphered, is "Asianic"
and not Indo-European.
The excavations of W.R. Paton at Assarlik (Journ. Hell. Studies,
1887) and of F. Winter at Idrias have resulted in the discovery
of Late-Mycenaean and Geometric pottery. Caria, however,
figured but little in history. It was absorbed into the kingdom
of Lydia, where Carian troops formed the bodyguard of the king.
Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the coast were colonized by Dorians.
At Halicarnassus (q.v.) the Mausoleum, the monument erected
by Artemisia to her husband Mausolus, about 360 B.C., was
excavated by Sir C. T. Newton in 1857-1858. Cnidus (q.v.) was
excavated at the same time, when the " Cnidian Lion/ 1 now in
the British Museum, was found crowning a tomb near the site of
the old city (C. T. Newton, History of Discoveries at Cnidus,
Halicarnassus and Branckidae). On the border-land between
Caria and Lydia lay other Greek cities, Miletus, Priene, and
Magnesia (see articles s.v.) , colonized in early times by the Ionians.
Inland was Tralles (mod. Aidin), which also had an Ionic popula-
tion, though it never belonged to the Ionic confederacy (see
Tralles). The excavations of the English in 1868*1869, of the
French under O. Rayet and A. Thomas in 1873, and more
recently of the Germans under Th. Wiegand and Schrader in
1895-1898 have laid bare the site of the Greek Priene, and the
same has been done for the remains of Magnesia ad Maeandrum
by French excavators in 1842-1843 and the German expedition
under K. Humann in 1 891- 1893. A German expedition under
Th. Wiegand carried on excavations at Miletus (see articles on
these towns).
In the Persian epoch, native dynasts established themselves
in Caria and even extended their rule over the Greek cities. The
last of them seems to have been Pixodarus, after whose death the
crown was seized by a Persian, Orontobates, who offered a
vigorous resistance to Alexander the Great. But his capital,
Halicarnassus, was taken after a siege, and the principality of
Caria conferred by Alexander on Ada, a princess of the native
dynasty. Soon afterwards the country was incorporated into
the Syrian empire and then into the kingdom of Pergamum.
See W. M. Ramsay, " Historical Geography of Asia Minor "
(R.G.S. iv., 1890); W. Ruge and E. Friedrich, Archdologische KarU
von Kleinasien (1899) I Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Phrygia,
Lydia, Caria and Lycia (Eng. trans., 1892) ; A. H. Sayce, " The
rfarian Language and Inscriptions" (T.S.B.A. ix. 1, 1887); P.
Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der grieckischen Sprache,
PP- 376-384 (1896). For the coinage see Numismatics. (A. H. S.)
CARIACO, or San Felipe de Austria, a town on the north
coast of Venezuela, 40 m. east of the city of Cumana at the head
of the gulf bearing the same name. Pop. (1008, estimate) 7000.
It stands a short distance up the Cariaco river and its port
immediately on the coast is known as Puerto Sucre. The
surrounding district produces cotton, tobacco, cacao, cattle
and fruit, and there is considerable trade through Puerto Sucre,
although that port has no regular connexion with foreign ports.
CARIBBEE ISLANDS, a name chiefly of historical importance,
sometimes applied to the whole of the West Indies, but strictly
comprehending only the chain of islands stretching from Porto
Rico to the coast of South America. These are also known as
the Lesser Antilles, and the bulk of them are divided into the
two groups of the Leeward and Windward Islands.
CARIBS, the name, used first by Columbus (from Cariba,
said to mean "a valiant man"), of a South American people,
who, at the arrival of the Spanish, occupied parts of Guiana
and the lower Orinoco and the Windward and other islands in
what is still known as the Caribbean Sea. They were believed
to have had their original home in North America, spreading
thence through the Antilles southward to Venezuela, the Guianas,
and north-east Brazil. This view has been abandoned, as Carib
tribes, the Bakairi and Nahuquas, using an archaic type of
Carib speech and primitive in habits, have been met by German
explorers in the very heart of Brazil. It may thus be assumed
that the cradle of the race was the centre of South America;
their first migrating movements being to Guiana and the Antilles.
A cruel, ferocious and warlike people, they made a stout resist-
ance to the Spaniards. They were cannibals, and it is to them
that we owe that word, Columbus's Caribal being transformed
into Cannibal in apparent reference to the canine voracity of
the Caribs. They are physically by no means a powerful race,
being distinguished by slight figures with limbs well formed but
CARICATURE
33i
lacking muscle, and with a tendency to be pot-bellied, due
apparently to their habit oi drinking paiwari (liquor prepared
from the cassava plant) in great quantities. Their colour is a
red cinnamon ; but varies with different tribes. Their hair is
thick, long, very black, and generally cut to an even edge, at
right angles to the neck, round the head. The features are
strikingly Mongoloid. Among the true Caribs a 2-in. broad
belt of cotton is knitted round each ankle, and just below each
knee of the young female children. All body-hair in both sexes
is pulled out, even to the eye-brows. Among the women the
lower lips are often pierced, pins of wood being passed through
and forming a sort of chevaux de frise round the mouth. Some-
times a bell-shaped ornament is hung by men to a piece of string
passed through the lower lip. The Carib government was
patriarchal. Though the women did most of the hard work,
they were kindly treated. Polygamy prevailed. Very little
ceremony attended death. The Caribs of the West Indies,
known^as "Red" and "Black," the first pure, the second mixed
with negro blood, after a protracted war with the British were
transported in 1796 to the number of 5000 from Dominica and
St Vincent to the island of Ruatan near the coast of Honduras.
A few were subsequently allowed back to St Vincent, but the
majority are settled in Honduras and Nicaragua.
CARICATURE (ItaL caricature, i.e. "ritratto ridicolo" from
caricare, to load, to charge; Fr. charge), a general term for the
art of applying the grotesque to the purposes of satire, and for
pictorial and plastic ridicule and burlesque. The word " cari-
catura" was first used as English by Sir Thomas Browne (1605-
1682), in his Christian Morals, a posthumous work; it is next
found, still in its Italian form, in No. 537 of the Spectator) it
was adopted by Johnson in his dictionary (1757), but does not
appear in Bailey's dictionary, for example, as late as 1773;
and it only assumed its modern guise towards the end of the
1 8th century, when its use and comprehension became general.
Little that is not conjectural can be written concerning
caricature among the ancients. Few traces of the comic are
discoverable in Egyptian art — such papyri of a satirical tendency
as are known to exist appearing to belong rather to the class of
ithyphallic drolleries than to that of the ironical grotesque.
Among the Greeks, though but few and dubious data are extant,
it seems possible that caricature may not have been altogether
unknown. Their taste for pictorial parody, indeed, has been
sufficiently proved by plentiful discoveries of pottery painted
with burlesque subjects. Aristotle, moreover, who disapproved
of grotesque art, condemns in strong terms the pictures of a
certain Pauson, who, alluded to by Aristophanes, and the subject
of one of Lucian's anecdotes, is hailed by Champfleury as the
doyen of caricaturists. That the grotesque in graphic art con-
ceived in the true spirit of intentional caricature was practised
by the Romans is evident from the curious frescoes uncovered
at Pompeii and Herculaneum; from the mention in Pliny of
certain painters celebrated for burlesque pictures; from the
curious fantasies graven in gems and called Grylli; and from
the number of ithyphallic caprices that have descended to
modern times. But in spite of these evidences of Greek and
Roman humour, in spite of the famous comic statuette of Cara-
caUa, and of the more famous graffito of the Crucifixion, the
caricaturists of the old world must be sought for, not among
its painters and sculptors, but among its poets and dramatists.
The comedies of Aristophanes and the epigrams of Martial were,
to the Athens of Pericles and the Rome of Domitian, what the
etchings of Gillray and the lithographs of Daumier were to the
London of George III. and the Paris of the Citizen Bang.
During the middle ages a vast mass of grotesque material was
accumulated, but selection becomes even more difficult than
with the scarce relics of antiquity. With the building of the
cathedrals originated a new style of art; a strange mixture of
memories of paganism and Christian imaginings was called
into being for the adornment of those great strongholds of urban
Catholicism, and in this the coarse and brutal materialism of
the popular humour found its largest and freest expression.
On missal-marge and sign-board, on stall and entablature, in
gargoyle and initial, the grotesque displayed itself in an infinite
variety of forms. The import of this inextricable tangle of
imagery, often obscene and horrible, often quaint and fantastic,
is difficult, if not impossible, to determine. We recognize the
prevalence of three great popular types or figures, each of which
may be credited with a satirical intention— of Reynard the Fox,
the hero of the famous medieval romance; of the Devil, that
peculiarly medieval antithesis of God; and of Death, the sar-
castic and irreverent skeleton. The popularity of the last is
evidenced by the fact that no fewer than forty-three towns in
England, France and Germany are enumerated as possessing
sets of the Dance of Death, that grandiose all-levelling series of
caprices in the contemplation of which the middle ages found
so much consolation. It was reserved for Holbein (1498-1554),
seizing the idea and resuming all that his contemporaries thought
and felt on the subject, to produce, in his fifty-three magnificent
designs of the Danse Macabre, the first and perhaps the greatest
set of satirical moralities known to the modern world.
It is in the tumult of the Renaissance, indeed, that caricature
in its modern sense may be said to have been born. The great
popular movements required some such vehicle of comment of
censure; the perfection to which the arts of design were attain-
ing supplied the means; the invention of printing ensured its
dissemination. The earliest genuine piece of graphic irony that
has been discovered is a caricature (1499) relating to Louis XII.
and his Italian war. But it was the Reformation that produced
the first full crop of satirical ephemerae, and the heads of Luther
and Alexander VI. are therefore the direct ancestors of the masks
that smirk and frown from the "cartoons" of Punch and the
Charivari. Fairly started by Lucas Cranach, a friend of Luther,
in his Passionate of Christ and Antichrist (1521), caricature was
naturalized in France under the League, but only to pass into
the hands of the Dutch, who supplied the rest of Europe with
satirical prints during the whole of the next century. A curious
reaction is visible in the work of Pieter Breughel (15 10-1570)
towards the grotesque diablerie and macaberesque morality of
medieval art, the last original and striking note of which is
caught in the compositions of Jacques Callot (1593-1635), and,
in a less degree, in those of his followers, Stefano della Bella
(1610-1664) and Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). On the other
hand, however, Callot, one of the greatest masters of the
grotesque that ever lived, in certain of his Caprices, and in his
two famous sets of prints, the Miseres de la guerre, may be said
to anticipate certain productions of Hogarth and Goya, and so
to have founded the modern school of ironic genre, *r ||
In England one of the earliest caricatures extant is that in the
margin of the Forest Roll of Essex, 5, ed. 1, now at the Record
Office; it is a grotesque portrait of "Aaron fil Diabole" (Aaron,
son of the devil), probably representing Cok, son of Aaron. It
is dated 1277. Another caricature, undated, appears on a Roll
containing an account of the tallages and fines paid by Jews,
17. Henry HI., belonging to 1233 (Exch. of Receipt, Jews' Roll,
No. 8). It is an elaborate satirical design of Jews and devils,
arranged in a pediment. During the 16th century, caricature
can hardly be said to have existed at all, — a grotesque of Mary
Stuart as a mermaid, a pen and ink sketch of which is yet to be
seen in the Rolls Office, being the only example of it known.
The Great Rebellion, however, acted as the Reformation had
done in Germany, and Cavaliers and Roundheads caricatured
each other freely. At this period satirical pictures usually did
duty as the title-pages of scurrilous pamphlets; but one instance
is known of the employment during the war of a grotesque
allegory as a banner, while the end of the Commonwealth
produced a satirical pack of playing cards, probably of Dutch
origin. The Dutch, indeed, as already has been stated, were the
great purveyors of pictorial satire at this time and during the
early part of the next century. In England the wit of the
victorious party was rather vocal than pictorial; in France the
spirit of caricature was sternly repressed; and it was from
Holland, bold in its republican freedom, and rich in painters
and etchers, that issued the flood of prints and medals
which illustrate, through cumbrous allegories and elaborate
33*
CARICATURE
symbolization, the principal political passages of both the former
countries, from the Restoration (1660) to the South Sea Bubble
( 1 7 20) . The most distinguished of the Dutch artists was Romain
de Hooghe (1638^1720), a follower of Callot, who, without any
of the weird power of his master, possessed a certain skill in
grouping and faculty of grotesque suggestiveness that made his
point a most useful weapon to William of Orange during the long
struggle with Louis XIV.
The 1 8th century, however, may be called emphatically the
age of caricature. The spirit is evident in letters as in art; in
the fierce grotesques of Swift, in the coarser charges of Smollett,
in the keen ironies of Henry Fielding, in the Aristophanic
tendency of Foote's farces, no less than in the masterly moralities
of Hogarth and the truculent satires of Gillray. The first event
that called forth caricatures in any number was the prosecution
(1710) of Dr Sacheverell; most of these, however, were importa-
tions from Holland, and only in the excitement attendant on the
South Sea Bubble, some ten years later, can the English school
be said to have begun. Starting into active being with the
ministry of Walpole (17 21), it flourished under that statesman
for some twenty years, — the " hieroglyphics," as its prints were
named, graphically enough, often circulating on fans. It con-
tinued to increase in importance and audacity till the reign
of Pitt (1757-1761), when its activity was somewhat abated.
It rose, however, to a greater height than ever during the rule
of Bute (1 761-1763), and since that time its influence has
extended without a check. The artists whose combinations
amused the public during this earlier period are, with few
exceptions, but little known and not greatly esteemed. Among
them were two amateurs, Dorothy, wife of Richard Boyle,
3rd earl of Burlington, and General George Townshend (after-
wards 1 st Marquess Townshend); Goupy, Boitard and Liotard
were Frenchmen; Vandergucht and Vanderbank were Dutch-
men. This period witnessed also the rise of William Hogarth
(1607-1764). As a political caricaturist Hogarth was not
successful, save in a few isolated examples, as in the portraits
of Wilkes and Churchill; but as a moralist and social satirist
he has not yet been equalled. The publication, in 1732, of his
Modern Midnight Conversation may be said to mark an epoch in
the history of caricature. Mention must also be made of Paul
Sandby (1 725-1809), who was not a professional caricaturist,
though he joined in the pictorial hue-and-cry against Hogarth
and Lord Bute, and who is best remembered as the founder of
the English school of water-colour; and of John Collet (1723-
1788), said to have been a pupil of Hogarth, a kindly and indus-
trious humorist, rarely venturing into the arena of politics.
During the latter half of the century, however, political caricature
began to be somewhat more skilfully handled than of old by
James Sayer, a satirist in the pay of the younger Pitt, while
social grotesques were pleasantly treated by Henry William
Bunbury (17 50-181 1) and George Moutard Woodward. These
personalities, however, interesting as they are, are dwarfed into
insignificance by the great figure of James Gillray (1 757-181 5),
in whose hands political caricature became almost epic for
grandeur of conception and far-reaching suggestiveness. It is
to the works of this man of genius, indeed, and (in a less degree)
to those of his contemporary, Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827),
an artist of great and varied powers, that historians must turn
for the popular reflection of all the political notabilia of the end
of the 1 8th and the beginning of the 19th centuries. England
may be said to have been the chosen home of caricature during
this period. In France, timid and futile under the Monarchy,
it had assumed an immense importance under the Revolution,
and a cloud of hideous pictorial libels was the result; but even
the Revolution left no such notes through its own artists, though
Fragonard (1 732-1806) himself was of the number, as came from
the gravers of Gillray and Rowlandson. In Germany caricature
did not exist. Only in Spain was there to be found an artist
capable of entering into competition with the masters of the
satirical grotesque of whom England could boast. The works
of Francesco Goya y Lucientes (1746-1828) are described by
Theophile Gautier as "a mixture of those of Rembrandt,
Watteau, and the comical dreams of Rabelais," and Champfleury
discovers analogies between him and Honore Daumier, the
greatest caricaturist of modern France.
The satirical grotesque of the 18th century had been character-
ized by a sort of grandiose brutality, by a certain vigorous
obscenity, by a violence of expression and intention, that appear
monstrous in these days of reserve and restraint, but that
doubtless sorted well enough with the strong party feelings and
fierce political passions of the age. After the downfall of Napoleon
(181 5), however, when strife was over and men were weary and
satisfied, a change in matter and manner came over the carica-
ture of the period. In connection with this change, the name
of George Cruikshank (1792-1878), an artist who stretches-
hands on the one side towards Hogarth and Gillray, and on the
other towards Leech and Tenniel, deserves honourable mention.
Those of Cruikshank's political caricatures which were designed
for the squibs of William Hone (1779-1842) are, comparatively
speaking, uninteresting; his ambition was that of Hogarth —
the production of " moral comedies." Much of his work, there-
fore, may be said to form a link in the chain of development
through which has passed that ironical genre to which reference
has already been made. In 1829, however, began to appear the
famous series of lithographs, signed H. B., the work of John
Doyle ( 1 798-1 868). These jocularities are interesting otherwise
than politically; thin and weakly as they are, they inaugurated
the style of later political caricature. In France, meanwhile,
with the farcical designs of Edme Jean Pigal (b. 1794) and the
realistic sketches of Henri Monnier (1805-1872), the admirable
portrait-busts of Jean Pierre Dan tan the younger (1800- 1869)
and the fine military and low-life drolleries of Nicolas Toussaint
Charlet (1 792-1845) were appearing. Up to this date, though
journalism and caricature had sometimes joined hands (as in
the case of the Craftsman and the Anti-Jacobin, and particularly
in Les Revolutions de France et de Brabant and Les Actes des
Apdtres), the alliance had been but brief; it was reserved for
Charles Philipon (1802-1862), who may be called the father of
comic journalism, to make it lasting. The foundation of La
Caricature, by Philipon in 1831, suppressed in 1835 after a brief
but glorious career, was followed by Le Charivari (December
1832), which is perhaps the most renowned of the innumerable
enterprises of this extraordinary man. Among the artists he
assembled round him, the highest place is held by Honore"
Daumier (1 808-1 879), a draughtsman of great skill, and a
caricaturist of immense vigour and audacity. Another of
Philipon's band was Sulpice Paul Chevalier (1 801-1866), better
known as Gavarni, in whose hands modern social caricature,
advanced by Cruikshank and Charlet, assumed its present
guise and became elegant. Mention must also be made of
Grandville (J. I. I. G6rard) (1803-1847), the illustrator of La
Fontaine, and a modern patron of the medieval skeleton; of
Charles Joseph Travids de Villers, the father of the famous
hunchback " Mayeux "; and of Amed6e de N06, or " Cham/*
the wittiest and most ephemeral of pictorial satirists. In 1840
the pleasantries of " H. B. " having come to an end, there was
founded, in imitation of this enterprise of Philipon, the comic
journal which, under the title of Punch, or the London Charivari,
has since become famous all over the world. Among its early
illustrators were John Leech (1817-1864) and Richard Doyle
( 1 824-1883), whose drawings were full of the richest grotesque
humour.
In 1862 Carlo Pellegrini, in Vanity Fair, began a series of
portraits of public men, which may be considered the most
remarkable instances of personal caricature in England.
For the later developments of caricature, it is convenient to take
them by countries in the following sections : —
Great Britain. — During the later 19th century the term caricature*
somewhat loosely used at all times, came gradually to cover almost
every form of humorous art, from the pictorial wit and wisdom of
Sir John Tenniel to the weird grotesques of Mr S. H. Sime, from the
gay pleasantries of Randolph Caldecott to the graceful but sedate
fancies of Mr Walter Crane. It is made to embrace alike the social
studies, satirical and sympathetic, of Du Maurier and Keene, the
political cartoons of Mr Harry Furniss and Sir F. C. Gould, the
unextenuating likenesses of " Ape," and " Spy," and " Max," the
CARICATURE'
333
-subtle conceits of Mr Linley Sambourne, the whimsicalities of Mr
E. T. Reed, the exuberant burlesoues of Mr J. F. Sullivan, the
frank buffooneries of W. G. Baxter. Of these diverse forms of graphic
humour, some have no other object than to amuse, and therefore do
not call for serious notice. The work of Mr Max Beerbohm (' ' Max ' ')
has the note of originality and extravagance too; while that of
" Spy " (Mr Leslie Ward) in Vanity Fair, if it does not rival the
occasional brilliancy of his predecessor " Ape " (Carlo Pellegrini,
1839-1889), maintains a higher average of merit. The pupil, too, is
much more genial than the master, and he is content if nis pencil
evokes the comment, " How ridiculously like!" Caricature of this
kind is merely an entertainment. Here we are concerned rather
with those branches of caricature which, merrily or mordantly.
reflect and comment upon the actual life we live. In treating of
recent caricature of this kind, we must give the first place to Punch.
Mr Punch's outlook upon life has not changed much since the
'seventies of the last century. His influence upon the tone of
caricature made itself felt most appreciably in the days of John
Leech and Richard Doyle. Their successors but follow in their steps.
In their work, says a clever German critic, is to be found no vestige
of the " sour bilious temper of John Bull " that pervaded the
pictures of Hogarth and Rowlandson. Charles Keene (1823-1891)
and Du Maurier (1834- 1896), he declares, are not caricaturists or
satirists, but amiable and tenderly grave observers of life, friendly
•optimists. The characterization is truer of Keene, perhaps, than of
Du Maurier. Charles Keene's sketches are almost always cheerful ;
almost without exception they make you smile or laugh. In many
of Du Maimer's, on the other hand, there is an underlying serious-
ness. While Keene looks on at life with easy tolerance, an amused
spectator, Du Maurier shows himself sensitive, emotional, sym-
pathetic, taking infinite delight in what is pretty and gay and
charming, but hurt and offended by the sordid and the ugly. Thus
while Keene takes things dispassionately as they come, seeing only
the humorous side of them, we find Du Maurier ever and anon
attacking some new phase of snobbishness or philistinism or cant.
For all his kindliness in depicting congenial scenes, he is at times as
unrelenting a satirist as Rowlandson. The other Punch artists,
whose work is in the same field, resemble Keene in this respect rather
than Du Maurier. Mr Leonard Raven-Hill recalls Charles Keene
not merely in temperament but in technique; like Keene, too, he
finds his subjects principally in bourgeois life. Mr J. Bernard
Partridge, though, like Du Maurier, he has an eye for physical
beauty, is a spectator rather than a critic of life, yet he has made
his mark as a " cartoonist." Phil May (d. 1903), a modern Touch-
stone, is less easily classified. Though he wears the cap and bells,
he is alive to the pity of things ; he sees the pathos no less than the
humour of his street-boys and " gutter-snipes." He is, however, a
jester primarily : an artist, too, of high achievement. Two others
stand out as masters of the art of social caricature — Frederick
Barnard and Mr J. F. Sullivan. Barnard's illustrations to Dickens,
like his original sketches, have a lively humour — the humour of
irrepressible high spirits — and endless invention. High spirits and
invention are characteristics also of Mr Sullivan. It is at the British
artisan and petty tradesman — at the grocer given to adulteration
and the plumber who outstays his welcome — that he aims his most
boisterous fun. He rebels, too, delightfully, against red tape and all
the petty tyrannies of officialdom. In political caricature Sir John
Tenniel (q.v.) remained the leading artist of his day. The death of
Abraham Lincoln, Bismarck's fall from power, the tragedy of
Khartum — to subjects such as these, worthy of a great painter,
Tenniel has brought a classic simplicity and a sense of dignity
unknown previously to caricature. It is hard to say in which field
Tenniel most excels — whether in those ingenious parables in which
the British Lion and the Russian Bear, John Chinaman, Jacques
Bonhomme and Uncle Sam play their part — or in the ever-changing
scenes of the great parliamentary Comedy — or in sombre dramas
of Anarchy, Famine or Crime-^-or in those London extravaganzas
in which the symbolic personalities of Gog and Magog, Father Thames
and the Fog Fiend, the duke of Mudford and Mr Punch himself,
have become familiar. Subjects similar to these have been treated
also for many years by Mr Linley Sambourne in his fanciful and often
beautiful designs. In the field of humorous portraiture also, as in
cartoon-designing, Mr Sambourne has made nis mark, and he may
be said almost to have originated, in a small way, that practice of
illustrating the doings of parliament with comic sketches in which
Mr Furniss, Mr E. T. Reed and Sir F. C. Gould were his most
notable successors. Mr Furniss satirized the Royal Academy as
effectively as the Houses of Parliament, but he has been above all
the illustrator of parliament — the creator of Mr Gladstone's collars,
the thief of Lord Randolph Churchill's inches, the immortalizer of so
many otherwise obscure politicians who has worked the House of
Commons and its doings into so many hundreds of eccentric designs.
But Mr Furniss was never, like Sir F. C. Gould (of the Westminster
Gazette), a politician first and a caricaturist afterwards. Gould is
an avowed partisan, and his caricatures became the most formidable
weapons of the Radical party. Caustic, witty and telling, not
specially well drawn, but drawn well enough — the likenesses un-
failingly caught and recognizable at a glance — his " Picture Politics "
won him a place unique in the ranks of caricaturists. There is no
evidence of such strenuousness in the work of Mr E. T. Reed (of
Punch). In his parliamentary sketches, as in his " Animal Land "
and " Prehistoric Peeps," Mr Reed is a wholly irresponsible humorist
and parodist. One finds keen satire, however, in those *' Ready-
made Coats of Arms," in which he turned at once his heraldic lore
and his insight into character to excellent account. In his more
serious picture in which he has drawn a parallel between the trtcoteuses
awaiting with grim enjoyment the fall of the guillotine and those
modern English gentlewomen who flock to the Old Bailey as to the
play, we have the true Hogarthian touch. Mr Gunning King,
Mr F.H.Townshend, Mr C. E. Brock, Mr Tom Browne, are among the
younger humorists who have advanced to the front rank. Though
there have been some notable competitors with Punchy there has
never been a really " good second." In Matt Morgan the Tomahavk
( 1 865-1867) could boast an original cartoonist after Tenniel's style r
but without Tenniel's power and humour. Morgan's Tomahawk
cartoons gained in effect from an ingenious method of printing in
two colours. In Fred Barnard, W. G. Baxter, and Mr J. F. Sullivan,
Judy (founded in 1867) possessed a trio of pictorial humorists of the
first rank, and in W. Bowcher a political cartoonist thoroughly to
the taste of those hot and strong Conservatives to whom Punch's
faint Whiggery was but Radicalism in disguise. His successor, Mr
William Parkinson, was not less loyal to Tory ideas, though more
urbane in his methods. Fun has had cartoonists of high merit in
Mr Gordon Thomson and in Mr John Proctor, who worked also for
Moonshine (founded in 1870, now extinct). Moonshine afterwards,
enlisted the services of Alfred Bryan, to whose clever pencil the
Christmas number of the World was indebted for many years. Ally
Sloper, founded in 1884, is notable only as the widely circulated
medium for W. G. Baxter's wild humours, kept up in the same spirit
by Mr W. F. Thomas, his successor. Pick-me-up could once count a
staff which rivalled at least the social side of Punch; Mr Raven-Hill,
Phil May, Mr Maurice Greiffenhagen and Mr Dudley Hardy all
contributed in their time to its sprightly pases, while Mr S. H. Sime
int-brained ' in
made it the vehicle for his " squint- 1
The Will
imaginings.
0' the Wisp, the Butterfly and the Unborn, kindred ventures, though
on different lines, all met with an early death. Lika Joko, founded
in 1894 by Mr Harry Furniss, who in that year abandoned Punch,
and afterwards Fair Game, were also short-lived. To this brief list
of purely comic or satirical journals should be added the names of
several daily and weekly publications — and among monthlies the
Idler, with its caricatures by Mr Scott Rankin, Mr Sime and Mr
Beerbohm — which have made a special feature of humorous art.
Among these are the Graphic, whose Christmas numbers were first
brightened by Randolph Caldecott; the Daily Graphic, enlivened
sometimes by Phil May and Mr A. S. Boyd; Vanity Fair, with its
Sotesque portraits; Truth, to whose Christinas numbers Sir F. C.
ould contributed some of his best and most ambitious work,
printed in colours; the Sketch, with Phil May and others; Black
and White, with Mr Henry Meyer; the Pall Mall Gazette, first with
Sir F. C. Gould, and later with Mr G. R. Halkett. The St Stephen's
Review, whose crudely powerful cartoons, the work of Tom Merry,
were so popular, ceased publication in 1892. A tribute should be
paid in conclusion to the coloured cartoons of the Weekly Freeman
and other Irish papers, often remarkable for their humour and talent.
(See also Cartoon and Illustration.)
France. — In that peculiar branch of art which is based on irony,
fun, oddity and wit, and in which Honore Daumier (1 808-1879),
next to " Gavarni " (180A-1866), remains the undisputed master,
France — as has already been shown — can produce an unbroken
series of draughtsmen of strong individuality. Though " Cham "
died in 1879, Eugene Giraud in 1881, " Randon " in 1884, " Andre
Gill " in 1885, " Marcelin " in 1887, Edouard de Beaumont in 1888,
Lami in 1891, Alfred Grevin in 1892, and " Stop " in 1890, a new
group arose under the leadership of " Nadar " (b. 1820) and Etienne
Carjat (b. 1828). Mirthful or satirical, and less philosophical than
of yore, neglecting history for incident, and humanity for the puppets
of the day, then* drawings, which illustrate daily events, will
perpetuate the manner and anecdotes of the time, though the illustra-
tions to newspapers, or prints which need a paragraph of explanation,
show nothing, to compare with the Propos de Thomas Virelocque by
■" Gavarni." Quantity perhaps makes up for quality, and some of
these artists deserve special mention. l4 Draner " (b. 1833) and
" Henriot " (b. 18*7) are journalists, carrying on the method first
introduced by " Cham " in the Unioers IllustrS: realistic sketches,
with no purpose beyond the droll illustration of facts, amusing at the
time, but of no value to the print-collector. M. J. L. Forain, born
at Reims in 1852, studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts under Jean
Leon Gerdme and J. B. Carpeaux. He first worked for the Courrier
Fran$ai$ in 1887, and afterwards for Figaro; he was then drawn
into the polemical work of politics. Though he has created some
great types of flunkeydom, the explanatory story is more to. him
than the picture, which is often too sketchy, though masterly.
Reduced reproductions of his work have been issued in volumes, a
common form of popularity never attempted with Daumier's fine
lithographs. M. A. L. WiHette, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1857,
a son of Colonel WHlette, the aide-de-camp to Marshal Bazaine.
worked for four years in Alexandre Cabanel s studio, and so gained
an artistic training which alone would have distinguished him from
his fellows, even without the delightful poetical fancy and Watteau-
like grace which are somewhat unexpected amid the ugliness of
334
CARICATURE
modern life. His work has the value, no doubt, of deep and various
meaning, but it has also intrinsic artistic worth. M. Wfllette is, in
fact, the ideal delineator of the more voluptuous and highly spiced
aspects of contemporary life. " Caran d'Acne," a native of Moscow,
born in 1858, borrowed from the German caricaturists — mainly from
W. Busch — his methods of illustrating " a story without words."
He makes fun even of animals, and is a master of canine physiog-
nomy. His simple and unerring outline is a method peculiarly his
own; now and again his wit rises to grandiloquence, as in his
Bellona, rushing on an automobile through massacre and con-
flagrations, and in his Epopee (Epic) of shadows thrown on a sheet.
Among his followers may be included A. Guillaume and Gerbault.
M. C. L. Leandre, born at Champsecret (One), in 1862, is, like
"Andr6 Gill," a draughtsman of monstrosities; he can get a perfect
likeness of a face while exaggerating some particular feature, gives
his figure a hump-back, as Dantan did in his statuettes, and has a
facial dexterity which sometimes does scant justice to his very
original wit. At the same time he has a true sense of beauty.
M. Theophile A. Steinlen, born at Lausanne in 1859, went to Paris
in 1 88 1. He should be studied in his illustrations to Bruant. He
knows the inmost core of the Butte-Montmartre, and depicts it
with realistic and brutal relish. M. Albert Robida,born at Compiegne
in 1848, collaborated with Decaux in 187 1 to found La Caricature;
he is a paradoxical seer of the possible future and a curiosity-hunter
of the past. Old Paris has no secrets from him; he knows all the
old stones and costumes of the middle ages, and has illustrated
Rabelais; and for fertility of fancy he reminds us of Gustave Dor£,
but with a sense of movement so vibrant as to be almost distressing.
" Bac," born at Vienna in 1859, has infused a strain of the Austrian
woman into the Parisienne ; representing her merely as a pleasure-
and love-seeking creature, as the toy of an evening, he has recorded
her peccadilloes, her witcheries and her vices. Others who have shot
folly as it flies are M. Albert Guillaume, who illustrated the Exhibi-
tion of 1900 in a series of remarkable silhouettes ; " Mars " ; " Henri
Somm n ; Gerbault; and Griln. M. Huard depicts to perfection
the country townsfolk in their elementary psychology. M. Hermann
Paul, M, rorain's not unworthy successor on the Figaro, is a cruel
satirist, who in a single face can epitomize a whole class of society,
and could catalogue the actors of the comSdie humaine in a series of
drawings. M. Jean Veber loves fantastic subjects, the gnomes of
fairy-tales and myths; but he has a biting irony for contemporary
history, as in the Butcher's Shop, where Bismarck is the blood-stained
butcher. M. Abel Faivre, a refined and charming painter, is a
whimiscal humorist with the pencil. He shows us monstrous 'women,
fabulously hideous, drawing them with a sort of realism which is
droll by sheer ugliness. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec startles us by
extraordinary dislocations, scrawled limbs and inexplicable
anatomy; he has left an inimitable series of sketches of Mme
Yvette Guilbert when she was at her thinnest. M. Felix Vallotton
reproduces crows in blots of black with a Japanese use of the brush.
M. G. Jeanniot, a notable illustrator, sometimes amuses himself by
contributing to Le Rire, Le Sourire, Le Pompon, VAssiette au
Beurre, &c, drawing the two types he most affects: the fashionable
world and soldiers. M. Ibels, Capiello and many more might be
enumerated, but it is impossible to chronicle all the clever humorous
artists of the illustrated papers.
It is the frequent habit of French caricaturists to employ a nom-
de-guerre. We therefore give here a list of the genuine names
represented by the pseudonyms used above, together with others
familiar to the public: —
14 Andre Gill" . . . = L. A. Gosset de Guine (1 840-1885).
" Bac (" Cab " and
14 Saro ").... = Ferdinand Bach (b. 1859).
41 Caran d'Ache " . =* Emmanuel Poire.
44 Cham " .... =Comte Amedee de N06 (b. 1818).
44 Crafty " .... » Victor Gerusez (b. 1840).
44 Draner " (and 44 Paf ") = Jules Renard (b. 1833).
44 Faustin " . . . . = Faustin Betbeder (b. 1847).
44 Gavarni " . . . . = S. G. Chevalier (1804-1866).
44 Gedeon " . . . . =Gedeon Baril (b. 1832).
41 Grandville " . . . «J. I. I. Gerard (1803-1847).
I " Henriot" (and 44 Pif "). - Henri Maigrot (b. 1857).
44 Henri Somm " . . = Henri Sommier (b. 1844).
44 Job " =1, O. de Breville (b. 1858).
44 Marcelin " . . . . =Emile Planat (1825-1887).
"Mars" — Maurice Bon voisin (b. 1849).
44 Moloch " . . . . = Colomb (b. 1849).
44 Montbard " . =C. A. Loye (1841-1905),
44 Nadar " , . =F£lix Tournachon (d. 18
44 Pasquin " . . . . = Georges Coutan (b. 1853).
11 Pepin " .... = Ed. Guillaume (b. 1842).
14 Randon " -Gilbert (1814-1845).
44 Sahib " =L. E. Lesage (b. 1847).
44 Said "..... =Alphonse Levy (b. 1845).
44 Sem " = George Goursat.
44 Stop " . . . =»L. P. Morel-Retz (b. 1825).
Germany, — During the later 19th century German caricature
flourished principally in the comic papers Kladderadatsck of Berlin
and Fliegende Bl&tter of Munich ; the former a political paper with
1820).
little artistic value, in which the ideas alone are clever, whilst the
illustrations are merely a more or less clumsy adjunct to the text,
while the Fliegende Bldtter, on the contrary, has artistic merit as
well as wit. Wilhelm Busch (b. 1832), the most brilliant German
draughtsman of the last generation, made his dSbut with an illustrated
poem " The Peasant and the Miller," and won a world-wide reputa-
tion with the following works: Pater Filucius, Die Fromme Kelene,
Max und Moritz, Der heilige Antonius, Holer Kleksel, Balduin
Bdhlamm, Die Erlebnisse Knopps des JunggeseUen. Busch stands
alone among the caricaturists of his nation, inasmuch as he is both
the author and the illustrator of these works, his witty doggerel
supplying Germany with household words. The drawings that
accompany the text are amazing for the skill and directness with
which he hits the vital mark. A flourish or two and a few touches
are enough to set before us figures of intensely comical aspect. This
distinguishes Busch from Adolf Oberlander (1845), who became the
chief draughtsman on Fliegende Blatter. Busch 's drawings would
have no meaning apart from the humorous words. Oberlander
works with the pencil only. Men, animals, trees, objects, are en-
dowed by him with a mysterious life of their own. Without the
help of any verbal joke, he achieves the funniest results simply by
seeing and accentuating the comical side of everything. His
drawings are caricature in the strict sense of the word, its principle
being trie exaggeration of some natural characteristic. The new
generation of contributors to Fliegende Blatter do not work on these
lines. Busch and Oberlander were both offshoots of the romantic
school ; they made fun of modern novelties. Hermann Schlittgen,
Meggendorter, H. Vogel-Plauen, Rene Reinicke, Adolf Hengeler
and Fritz Wahle are the sons of a self-satisfied time, triumphing in
its own chic, elegance and grace; hence they do not parody what
they see, but simply depict it. The wit lies exclusively in the text ;
the illustrations aim merely at a direct representation of street or
drawing-room scenes. It is this which gives to Fliegende Blatter
its value as a pictorial record of the history of German manners. Its
pages are a permanent authority on the subject for those who desire
to see the social aspects of Germany during the last quarter of the
19th century onwards. At the same time a talling-off in the brilliancy
of this periodical was perceptible. Its fun became domestic and
homely; it has faithfully adhered to the old technique of wood-
engraving, and made no effort to keep pace with the modern methods
of reproduction. German caricature, to live and flourish, was not
keeping pace with the development of the art ; it had to take into
its service the £ay effects of colour, and derive fresh inspiration
from the sweeping lines of the ornamental draughtsman. This led
to the appearance of three new weekly papers: Jugend, Das Narren-
schiff ana Simflicissimus. Jugend, started in 1896 by Georg Hirth
in Munich, collected from the first a group of gifted young artists,
more especially Th6ny, Bernhard Pankok and Julius Diez, who
based their style on old German wood-engraving; Fidus, who
lavished the utmost beauty of line in unshaded pen-and-ink work;
Rudolf Wilke, whose grotesques have much in common with Forain's
clever drawings; Angelo Jank and R. M. Eichler, who work with a
delightful bonhomie. Among the draughtsmen on the Narrenschiff
(The Ship of Fools), Hans Baluschek is worthy of mention as having
made the types of Berlin life all his own ; ana while this paper gives
us for the most part inoffensive satire on society, Simhltcisstmus,
first printed at Munich and then at Zurich, under the editorship of
Albert Langen, shows a marked Socialist and indeed Anarchist
tendency, subjecting to ridicule and mockery everything that has
hitherto been held as unassailable by such weapons ; it reminds us
of the scathing satire of Honore Daumier in La Caricature at the
time of Louis Philippe. Thomas Theodor Heine (1867) is unsurpassed
in this style for his power of expression and variety of technique.
We must admire his delicate draughtsmanship, or again, his drawing
of the figure with the heavy line of heraldic ornament, and his broad
and monumental grasp of the grotesque. His laughter is often
insolent, but he is more often the preacher, scourge in hand, who
ruthlessly unveils all the dark side of life. Next to him come Paul,
an incomparable limner of student life and the manners and customs
of the Bavarian populace; E. Thdny, a wonderfully clever cari-
caturist of the airs and assumption of the Prussian Junker and the
Prussian subaltern; J. C. Eugh and F. von Regnieck, who make
fun of the townsman and political spouter in biting and searching
satire. The standard of caricature is at the present time a high one
in Germany; indeed, the modern adoption of the pen-line, which
has arisen since the impressionists in oil-painting repudiated fine,
had its origin in the influence of caricature.
United States. — The proverbial irreverence of the American mind
even towards its most cherished personages and ideals has made it
particularly responsive to the appeal of caricature. At first an
importation, it developed but slowly; then it burst into luxuriant
growth, sometimes exceeding the limits of wise and careful cultiva-
tion. In the early period of American caricature, almost the only
native is F. O. C. Darley (1 822-1 888), an illustrator of some im-
portance; the other names include the engraver Paul Revere (chiefly
famous for a picturesque exploit in the War of Independence) ; a
Scotsman, William Charles; the Englishmen, Matt Morgan and
E. P. Bellew; and the Germans, Thomas Nast and Joseph Keppler.
The name of Thomas Nast overshadows and sums up American
political caricature. Nast, who was born in Bavaria in 1840, was
CARICATURE
335
brought to America at the age of six; and his training and all his
interests were strongly American. At fourteen he was an illustrator
on Leslie's Weekly, and was sent at twenty to England to illustrate
the famous Sayers-Heenan prize-fight. He then went as recorder
of Garibaldi's campaign of i860. He returned to America known
only as an illustrator. The Civil War did not awaken his latent
genius till 1864, when he published a cartoon of fierce irony against
the political party which opposed Lincoln's re-election and advocated
peace measures with the Southern confederacy. This cartoon not
only made Nast famous, but may be said to contain the germ of
American caricature; for all that had gone before was too crude in
technique to pass muster even as good caricature.
The magnificent corruption of Tammany Hall under the leader-
ship of William M. Tweed, the first of the great municipal " bosses,"
gave Nast a subject worth attacking. Siegfried, earnest but light-
earted, armed with the mightier sword of the pen of ridicule,
assailed the monster ensconced in his treasure-cave, and after a
long battle won a brilliant victory. Nast did not always rely on a
mere picture to carry his thrust; often his cartoon consisted of only
a minor figure or two looking at a large placard on which a long and
poignantly-worded attack was delivered in cold type. At other times
the most ingenious pictorial subtlety was displayed. This long series
sounds almost the whole gamut of caricature, from downright
ridicule to the most lofty denunciation. A very happy device was
the representation of Tweed's face by a money-bag with only dollar
marks for features, a device which, strangely enough, made a
curiously faithful likeness of the " boodle "-loving despot. When,
finally, Tweed took to flight, to escape imprisonment, he was recog-
nized and caught, it is said, entirely through the wide familiarity
given to his image in Nast's cartoons.
When Nast retired from Harper's Weekly, he was succeeded by
Charles Green Bush (born 1842; died 1909). With even greater
technical resources, he poured forth a series of cartoons of
remarkable evenness of skill and interest; he soon left weekly for
daily journalism. He never won, single-handed, such a battle as
Nast's, but his drawings have a more general, perhaps a more lasting
interest. When he left Harper's Weekly he was succeeded by W. A.
Rogers, who composed many ingenious and telling cartoons.
The vogue which, through Nast, Harper's Weekly gave to cari-
cature, prepared the way tor the first purely comic weekly paper,
Puck, founded by two Germans, and for long published in a German
as well as an English edition — a journal which has cast its influence
generally in favour of the Democratic party. It is worth noting
that not only the founders but the spirit of American caricature
have been rather German than English, the American comic papers
more closely resembling Fliegende Blatter, for example, than Punch.
One of the founders of Puck was Joseph Keppler (1838-1894), long
its chief caricaturist.
The Republican party soon found a champion in Judge, a weekly
satirical paper which resembles Puck closely in its crudely coloured
pages, though somewhat broader and less ambitious in the spirit and
execution of its black-and-white illustrations. These two papers
have kept rather strictly to permanent staffs, and have furnished
the opening for many popular draughtsmen, such as Bernhard
Gillam (d. 1896), and his brother, Victor; J. A. Wales (d. 1886);
E. Zimmerman, whose extremely plebeian and broadly treated types
often obscure the observation and Falstaffian humour displayed in
them; Grant Hamilton; Frederick Opper, for many years devoted
to the trials of suburban existence, and later concerned in combating
the trusts; C. J. Taylor, a graceful technician; H. Smith; Frank A.
Nankivell, whose pretty athletic girls are prone to attitudinizing;
J. Mortimer Flagg; F. M. Howarth; Mrs Frances O'Neill Latham,
whose personages are singularly well modelled and alive; and Miss
Baker Baker, a skilful draughtswoman of animals.
A stimulus to genuine art in caricature was given by the establish-
ment (1883) of the weekly Life, edited by J. A. Mitchell, a clever
draughtsman as well as an original writer. It is to this paper that
America owes the discovery and encouragement of its most remark-
able artist humorist, Charles Dana Gibson, whose technique has
developed through many interesting phases from exceeding delicacy
to a sculpturesque boldness of line without losing its rich texture,
and without becoming monotonous. Mr Gibson is chiefly beloved
by his public for his almost idolatrous realizations of the beautiful
American woman of various types, ages and environments. His
works are, however, full of the most subtle character-observations,
and American men of all walks of life, and foreigners of every type,
impart as much importance and humour to his pages as his " Gibson
girls " give radiance. His admitted devotion to Du Maurier, in
reverence for the beautiful woman beautifully attired, has led some
critics to set him down as a mere disciple, while his powerful indi-
viduality has led others to accuse him of monotony; but a serious
examination of his work has seemed to reveal that he has gone
beyond the genius of Du Maurier in sophistication, if not in variety,
of subjects and treatment. As much as any other artist Mr Gibson
has studiously tried new experiments in the new fields opened by
modernized processes of photo-engraving, and has been an important
influence in both English and American line-illustration.
Among other students of society, particular success has been
achieved by C. S. Reinhart (1 844-1 896), Charles Howard Johnson
(d. 1895), H. W. M'Vickar, S. W/van Schaick, A. E. Sterner, W. H.
Hyde, W. T. Smedley and A. B. Wenzell, each of them strongly
individual in manner and often full of verve and truth.
Life, and other comic papers, including for many years Truth,
also brought forward caricaturists of distinct worth and a marked
tendency to specialization. F. E. At wood (d. 1900) was ingenious
in cartoons lightly allegorical ; Oliver Herford has shown a fascina-
tion elusive of analysis in his drawings as in his verse ; T. S. Sullivant
has made a quaintly intellectual application of the old-world devices
of large heads, small bodies, and the like ; Peter Newell has developed
individuality both in treatment and in humour; E. W. Kemble is
noteworthy among the exploiters of negro life; and H. B. Eddy,
Augustus Dirk, Robert L. Wagner, A. Anderson, F. Sarka and T.
Swmnerton have all displayed marked individuality.
In distinction from the earlier period, the modern school of
American caricature is strongly national, not only in subject, but
in origin, training and in mental attitude, exception being made
of a lew notable figures, such as Michael Angelo Woolf, born in
England, and of a somewhat Cruikshankian technique. He came
to America while young, and contributed a long series of what may
be called slum-fantasies, instinct alike with laughter and sorrow,
at times strangely combining extravagant melodrama with a most
plausible and convincing impossibility. His drawings must always
lie very close to the affections of the large audience that welcomed
them. American also by adoption is Henry Mayer, a German by
birth, who has contributed to many of the chief comic papers of
France, England, Germany and America.
Entirely native in every way is the art of A. B. Frost (b. 1851), a
Erominent humorist who deals with the life of the common people.
a [is caricature (he is also an illustrator of versatility and importance)
is distinguished by its anatomical knowledge, or, rather, anatomical
imagination. Violent as the action of his figures frequently is, it is
always convincing. Such triumphs as the tragedy of the kind-
hearted man and the ungrateful bull-calf; the spinster's cat that
ate rat poison, and many others, force the most serious to laughter
by their amazing velocity of action and their unctuousness of ex-
pression. Frost is to American caricature what " Artemus Ward "
has been to American humour, and his field of publication has been
chiefly the monthly magazine.
The influence of the weekly periodicals has been briefly traced.
A later development was the entrance of the omnivorous daily
newspaper into the field of both the magazine and the weekly.
For many years almost every newspaper has printed its daily car-
toon, generally of a political nature. Few of the cartoonists have
been able to keep up the pace of a daily inspiration, but C. G. Bush
has been unusually successful in the attempt. Yet an occasional
success atones for many slips, and the cartoonists are known and
eagerly watched. The most influential has doubtless been Homer
C. Davenport, whose slender artistic resources have been eked out
by a vigour and mercilessness of assault rare even in American
annals. He has a Rabelaisian complacency and skill in making a
portrait magnificently repulsive, and his caricatures are a vivid
example of the school of cartoonists who believe in slashing rather
than merely prodding or tickling the object of attack. Charles
Nelan (1859*1904) frequently scored, and in the wide extent of the
United States one finds keen wits busily assailing the manifold evils
of life. Noteworthy among them are: Thos. E. Powers, H. R.
Heaton, Albert Levering, Clare Angell and R. C. Swayne.
Scandinavia. — Caricature flourishes also in the Scandinavian
countries, but few names are known beyond their borders. Professor
Hans Tegner of Denmark is an exception; his illustrations to Hans
Andersen (English edition, 1900) have carried his name wherever
that author is appreciated, yet his reputation was made in the
Danish Punch, which was founded after the year 1870 but has long
ceased to exist. Alfred Schmidt and Axel Thiess have contributed
notable sketches to Puk and its successor Klockhaus, but in point
of style they scarcely carry on the tradition of their predecessor,
Fritz Jiirgensen. Among humorous artists of Norway, Tn. Kittelsen
perhaps holds the leading place, and in Sweden, Bruno Liljefors,
best known as a brilliant painter of bird life.
Bibliography. — Rules far Drawing Caricature, with an Essay on
Comic Patnting, by Francis Grose (8vo, London, 1788); Historical
Sketch of the Art of Caricaturing, by J. Peller Malcolm (4to, London,
1 8 13) ; History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art, by
Thomas Wright (8vo, London, 1865) J MusSe de la caricature, by
Jaime; (a) Histoire de la caricature antique; (b) Histoire de la
caricature au moyen dge et sous la renaissance; (c) Histoire de la
caricature sous la reforme et la ligue; (d) Histoire de la caricature
sous la rSpublique, I 'empire, et la restauration; (e) Histoire de la
caricature moderne (5 vols.), by Champfleury {t.e. Jules Fleury),
}8vo, Paris) ; Le Music secret de la caricature, by Champfleury (t.e,
ules Fleury), (8vo t Paris); L'Art du rire et de la caricature, by
Arsene Alexandre (8vo, Paris); Caricature and other Comtc Art, by
James Parton (sm. 4to, New York, 1878) ; Le Miroir de la vie: la
Caricature, by Robert de la Sizeranne (8vo, Paris, 1902), (tracing
the aesthetic development of the art and spirit of caricature) ; La
Caricature d trovers Us siecles, by £eorges Veyrat Uto, Paris) ; La
Caricature et les cariedturistes, by Emile Bagaud (with a preface by
Ch. Leandre), (fo., Paris) ; Le Rire et la caricature, by Paul Gaultier
(with a preface by Sully Prudhomme), (8vo, Paris, 1906), (a work
of originality, dwelling not only on the aesthetic but on the essentially
33&
CARIGARA— CARINTHIA
pessimistic side of satiric art); English Caricaturists and Graphic
Humorists of the Nineteenth Century, by Graham Everitt (i.e. William
Rodgers Richardson), (4to, London, 1886), (a careful and interesting
survey) ; La Caricature en Angleterre, by Augustin Filva (8vo, Paris,
1902), (an able criticism from the point of view of psycho-sociology} ;
The History of Punch, by M. H. Spielmann (8vo, London, 1895),
(dealing with caricature art of England during the half-century
covered by the book); Magazine of Art, passim, for biographies of
English caricaturists — " Our Graphic Humorists " ; Social Pictorial
Satire, by George du Maurier (i2mo, London, 1898); Les Mceurs
el la caricature en France, by J. Grand-Carteret (8vo, Paris, 1885) ;
La Caricature et Vhumeur francais au XIX' si&cle, by Raoul Deberdt
(8vo, Paris) ; Les Mattres de la caricature francaise en XIX' siecle,
by Armand Dayot (Paris); Nos humoristes, by Ad. Brisson (4to,
Paris, 1900); Les Mceurs et la caricature en Allemagne, &c, by
J. Grand-Carteret (8vo, Paris, 1885). See also biographies of
Charles Keene, H. Daumier, John Leech, &c, indicated under those
names. (M. H. S.)
CARIGARA, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte,
Philippine Islands, on Carigara Bay, 22 m. W. of Tacloban,
the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,488, including that of Capoocan
(31 06), annexed to Carigara in the same year. Carigara is open
to coast trade, exports large quantities of hemp, raises much
rice, and manufactures cotton and abaca fabrics. It also has
important fisheries.
CARIGNANO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Turin, 1 1 m. S. by steam tramway from the town of Turin. Pop.
(1901) town, 4672, commune, 7104. It has a handsome church
(S. Giovanni Battista) erected in 1756-1766 by the architect
Benedetto Alfieri di Sostegno (1 700-1 767), uncle of the poet
Alfieri. S. Maria delle Grazie contains the tomb of Bianca
Palaeologus, wife of Duke Charles I. of Savoy, at whose court
Bayard was brought up. The town passed into the hands of the
counts of Savoy in 1418.
Carignano was erected by Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy into
a principality as an appanage for his third son, Thomas Francis
(1596-1656), whose descendant, Charles Albert, prince of Carig-
nano, became king of Sardinia on the extinction of the elder line
of the house of Savoy with the death of Charles Felix in 1831.
The house of Carignano developed two junior branches, those of
Soissons and Villafranca. The first of these, which became
extinct in 1734, was founded by Eugene Maurice, second son of
Thomas, by his wife Marie de Cond6, countess of Soissons, who
received his mother's countship as his appanage. In 1662 the
town of Yvois in the Ardennes was raised by Louis XIV. into a
duchy in his favour, its name being changed at the same time to
Carignan. The famous Prince Eugene was the second son of
the first duke of Carignan. The branch of Villafranca started with
Eugene Marie Louis (d. 1785), second son of Louis Victor of
Carignano, whose grandson Eugene (1816-1888), afterwards an
admiral in the Italian navy, was created prince of Savoy-
Carignano, by King Charles Albert in 1834. He had contracted
a morganatic marriage, and in 1888, on the occasion of his
silver wedding, the title of countess of Villafranca was bestowed
upon his wife, his eldest son, Filiberto, being at the same time
created count of Villafranca, and his younger son, Vittorio,
count of Soissons.
CARILLON, an arrangement for playing tunes upon a set of
bells by mechanical means. The word is said to be a Fr. form
of Late Lat. or Ital. quadriglio, a simple dance measure on four
notes or for four persons (Lat. quattuor); and is used sometimes
for the tune played, sometimes (and more commonly in England)
for the set of bells used in playing it. The earliest medieval
attempts at bell music, as distinct from mere noise, seem to have
consisted in striking a row of small bells by hand with a hammer,
and illustrations in MSS. of the 12th and 13th centuries show
this process on three, four or even eight bells. The introduction
of mechanism in the form either of a barrel (see Barrel-Organ)
set with pegs or studs and revolving in connexion with the
machinery of a clock, or of a keyboard struck by hand (carillon
a clavier), made it possible largely to increase the number of
bells and the range of harmonies. In Belgium, the home of the
carillon the art of the carillonneur was at one time brought to
great perfection and held in high esteem (see Bell); but even
there it is gradually giving way to mechanism. In England
manual skill has never been much employed, though keyboards
on the continental model have been introduced, e.g. at the
Manchester town hall, at Eaton Hall, and elsewhere; carillon
music being mainly confined to hymn tunes at regular intervals
(generally three hours), or chimes at the hours and intervening
quarters. The " Cambridge " and " Westminster " chimes are
very familiar; and more recently chimes have been composed
by Sir John Stainer for Freshwater in the Isle of Wight (" Tenny-
son" Chimes), and by Sir Charles Stanford for " Bow Bells " in
London.
CARINI, a town in the province of Palermo, Sicily, 13 m.
by rail W.N.W. of Palermo. Pop. (1901) 13,931. On the coast
are some ruins of the ancient Hyccara, the only Sican settlement
(probably a fishing village) on the coast. It was stormed and
taken by the Athenians in 415 B.C., and the inhabitants, among
them the famous courtesan Lais, sold as slaves. At La Grazia
Christian catacombs have been found (Not. degli Scavi, 1899, 362).
CARINTHIA (Ger. K&rnten) , a duchy and crownland of Austria,
bounded E. by Styria, N. by Styria and Salzburg, W. by Tirol,
and S. by Italy, Gorz and Gradisca and Carniola. It has an
area of 4005 sq. m. Carinthia is for the most part a mountainous
region, divided by the Drave, which traverses it from west to east
into two parts. To the north of the valley of the Drave the duchy
is occupied by the Hohe Tauern and the primitive Alps of Carin-
thia and Styria, which belong to the central zone of the Eastern
Alps. The Hohe Tauern contains the massifs of the Gross
Glockner (12,455 ft.), the Hochnarr (10,670 ft.) and the Ankogel
(11,006 ft.), and is traversed by the saddles of the Hochthor
and the Malnitzer Tauern, which separates these groups from
one another. To the east of the Hohe Tauern stretches the group
of the primitive Alps of Carinthia and Styria, namely the Pollaer
Alps with the glacier-covered peak of the Hafner Eck (10,041 ft.) ;
the Stang Alps with the highest peak the Eisenhut (8007 ft.);
the Saualpe with the highest peak the Grosse Saualpe (6825 ft.);
and finally the Koralpen chain or the Stainzer Alps (7023 ft.)
separated from the preceding group by the Lavant valley. The
country south of the Drave is occupied by several groups of the
southern limestone zone, namely the Carnic Alps, the Julian
Alps, the Karawankas and the Steiner Alps. The Carnic Alps
are divided by the Gail valley into the South Carnic group and the
northern Gailthal Alps. They are traversed by the Pontebba
or Pontafel Pass, through which passes one of the principal
Alpine roads from Italy to Austria. The road is covered by the
fortress of Malborgeth, where Captain Hensel with a handful
of men met with a heroic death defending the place against an
overwhelming French force in the campaign of 1809. A similar
fate overtook, on the same day, the 18th of May 1809, Captain
Hermann von Hermannsdorf and his small garrison, who were
defending the Predil fort. This fort covers the road which
traverses the Predil Pass in the Julian Alps and is the principal
road leading from Carinthia to the Coastland. Commemorative
monuments have been erected in both places. The Gailthal
Alps end with the Dobratsch or Villacher Alp (7107 ft.), situated
to the south-west of Villach (q.v.), which is celebrated as one of the
finest views in the whole eastern Alps. South of Hermagor, the
principal place of the Gail valley, is the chain of mountains which
is famous as being the only place where the beautiful Wulfenia
Carinthiaca is found. The highest peaks in the Karawankas
are the Grosse Mittagskogel (7033 ft), the Och Obir (7023 ft.)
and the Petzen (6934 ft.). The Ursula Berg (5563 ft.) ends the
group of the Karawankas, which are continued by the Steiner Alps.
The principal river is the Drave, which flows from west to east
through the length of the duchy, and receives in its course the
waters of all the other streams, except the Fella, which reaches
the Adriatic by its junction with the Tagliamento. Its principal
tributaries are the Gail on the right, and the Moll, the Lieser,
the Gurk with the Glan, and the Lavant on the left. Carinthia
possesses a great number of Alpine lakes, which, unlike the other
Alpine lakes, lie in the longitudinal valleys. The principal
lakes are: the Millstatter-see (8} sq. m. in extent, 908 ft. deep,
at an altitude of 1902 ft.), the Wdrther-see (17 sq. m. in extent,
3 1 2 f t. deep, at an altitude of 1438 ft.) , the Ossiach-see (10J sq. m.
CARINUS— CARISBROOKE
337
in extent, 1 50 ft. deep, at an altitude of 1 599 ft.) , and the elongated
Weissen-see (4} m. long, 309 ft. deep, at an altitude of 3037 ft.)*
The climate is severe in the north and north-west parts, but the
south and south-east districts are milder, while the most favoured
part is the Lavant valley. Of the total area only 1 3 • 7 1 % is arable
land, 10-50% is occupied by meadows and gardens, 5*18% by
pastures, while 44-24% is covered by forests, almost exclusively
pine-forests. Cattle-rearing is well developed, and the horses
bred in Carinthia enjoy a good reputation. The mineral wealth of
Carinthia is great, and consists in lead, iron, zinc and coal. Iron
ore is extracted in the region of the Saualpe, and is worked in the
foundries of St Leonhard, St Gertraud, Pravali, Hirt, Treibach
and Eberstein. About two-thirds of the total production of
lead in Austria is extracted in Carinthia, the principal places
being Bleiberg and Raibl. The metallurgic industries are well
developed, and consist in the production of iron, steel, machinery,
small-arms, lead articles, wire-cables and rails. The principal
manufacturing places are Pravali, Bruckl, Klagenfurt, Lippitz-
bach, Wolfsberg, St Veit and Buchscheiden near Feldkirchen.
The manufacture of small-arms is concentrated at Ferlach.
Other trades are the manufacture of paper, leather, cement
and the exploitation of forests.
The population of Carinthia in 1900 was 367,344, which
corresponds to 91 inhabitants per sq. m. According to nation-
ality, 7154% were Germans, and 28-39% Slovenes, mostly
settled in the districts adjoining the Slovene province of Carniola.
Over 94% of the population were Roman Catholics. The local
diet, of which the bishop of Gurk is a member ex officio, is com-
posed of 37 members, and Carinthia sends 10 deputies to the
Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province
is divided into seven districts, and an autonomous municipality,
Klagenfurt (pop. 24,314), the capital. Other principal places
are: Villach (9690), Wolfsberg (4852), St Veit (4667), an old
town, the former capital of Carinthia up to 151 8, Pravali (4047),
Travis (3640), a favourite summer-resort and tourist place,
Bleiberg (3435), Volkermarkt (2606) and Spittal (2564).
Carinthia is so called from the Carni, a Celtic people, and in
the time of Augustus it formed part of Noricum. After the fall
of the Roman empire, it was the nucleus of the kingdom of
Carentania, which was founded by Samo, a Frankish adventurer,
but soon fell to pieces after his death. Under Charlemagne
it constituted a margravate, which in 843 passed into the hands
of Louis the German, whose grandson Arnulf was the first to
bear the title of duke of Carinthia. The duchy was held by various
families during the nth, 12th and 13th centuries, and at length
in 1335 was bestowed by Louis the Bavarian on the dukes of
Austria. It was divided into Upper or Western Carinthia and
Lower or Eastern; of these the former fell to France in 1809,
but was reconquered in 1813. It was created a separate crown-
land in 1849.
See Aelschker. Geschichte Kdrntens (Klagenfurt, 1885).
CARINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor, a.d.
283-284, was the elder son of the emperor Cams, on whose
accession he was appointed governor of the western portion of
the empire. He fought with success against the German tribes,
but soon left the defence of the Upper Rhine to his legates and
returned to Rome, where he abandoned himself to all kinds of
debauchery and excess. He also celebrated the ludi Rotnani
on a scale of unexampled magnificence. After the death of
Cams, the army in the East demanded to be led back to Europe,
and Numerianus, the younger son of Cams, was forced to comply.
During a halt at Ghalcedon, Numerianus was murdered, and
Diocletian, commander of the body-guards, was proclaimed
emperor by the soldiers. Carinus at once left Rome and set out
for the East to meet Diocletian. On his way through Pannonia
he put down the usurper M. Aurelius Julianus, and encountered
the army of Diocletian in Moesia. Carinus was successful in
several engagements, and at the battle on the Margus (Morava),
according to one account, the valour of his troops had gained
the day, when he was assassinated by a tribune whose wife he
had seduced. In another account, the battle is represented as
having resulted in a complete victory for Diocletian. Carinus
has the reputation of having been one of the werst of the
emperors.
Voptgcus, Carinus (mainly the recital of his crimes); Aurelius
Victor, De Caesaribus, 38, Epit. 38; Eutropius ix. 18-20; Zonaras
xii. 30; Orosius vii. 25; Pauly-Wissowa, Redlencyclopddie, ii. 24 ff-
(Henze).
CARIPE, a small town of Venezuela in the state of Bermudez,
about 53 m. E.S.E. of Cumana. It is the chief station of the
Capuchin missions to the Chayma Indians, founded toward the
close of the 17th century, and stands 2635 ft. above sea-level,
in a fertile valley of the Sierra Bergantin, long celebrated for its
cool, invigorating climate. The locality is also celebrated for
the extensive system of caves in the limestone rocks found in its
vicinity, which were described by Humboldt in his Personal
Narrative. The principal cave, known as the Cueva del Guacharo,
extends inward a distance of 2800 ft. with a height of 70-80 ft.
These caves are frequented by a species of night-hawk, called
guacharo, which nests in the recesses of the rocks. The young are
killed in great numbers for their oil. Caripe itself has a popula-
tion of only 580, but the valley and neighbouring stations have
about ten times that number. Caripe should not be confounded
with Rio Caribe, a town and port on the Caribbean coast a short
distance east of Cariipano,which has a population of about 6000.
CARISBROOKE, a town in the Isle of Wight, England, 1 m.
S. of Newport. Pop. (1901) 3093. The valley of the Lugley
brook separates the village from the steep conical hill crowned
by the castle, the existence of which has given Carisbrooke
its chief fame. There are remains of a Roman villa in the valley,
but no reliable mention of Carisbrooke occurs in Saxon times,
though it has commonly been identified with the Saxon Wiht-
garaburh captured by Cerdic in 530. Carisbrooke is not mentioned
by name in the Domesday Survey, butBowcombe, its principal
manor, was a dependency of the royal manor of Amesbury, and
was obtained from the king by William Fitz Osbern in exchange
for three Wiltshire manors. The castle is mentioned in the
Survey under Alvington, and was probably raised by William
Fitz Osbern, who was made first lord of the Isle of Wight. From
this date lordship of the Isle of Wight was always associated
with ownership of the castle, which thus became the seat of
government of the island. Henry I. bestowed it on Richard de
Redvers, in whose family it continued until Isabella de Fortibus
sold it to Edward L, after which the government was entrusted
to wardens as representatives of the crown. The keep was
added to the castle in the reign of Henry I., and in the reign of
Elizabeth, when the Spanish Armada was expected, it was
surrounded by an elaborate pentagonal fortification. The castle
was garrisoned by Baldwin de Redvers for the empress Maud
in 1 136, but was captured by Stephen. In the reign of Richard II.
it was unsuccessfully attacked by the French; Charles I. was im-
prisoned here for fourteen months before his execution. After-
wards his two youngest children were confined in the castle,
and the Princess Elizabeth died there. In 1904 the chapel of St
Nicholas in the castle was reopened and reconsecrated, having
been rebuilt as a national memorial of Charles I. The remains
of the castle are extensive and imposing, and the keeper's house
and other parts are inhabited, but the king's apartments are in
ruins. Within the walls is a well 200 ft. deep; and another in
the centre of the keep is reputed to have been still deeper. The
church of St Mary, Carisbrooke, has a beautiful Perpendicular
tower, and contains transitional Norman portions. Only the
site can be traced of the Cistercian priory to which it belonged.
This was founded shortly after the Conquest and originated
from the endowment which the monks of Lyre near Evreux held
in Bowcombe, including the church, mill, houses, land and tithes
of the manor. Richard II. bestowed it on the abbey of Mount-
grace in Yorkshire. It was restored by Henry IV., but was
dissolved by act of parliament in the reign of Henry V., who
bestowed it on his newly-founded charter-house at Sheen.
Carisbrooke formerly had a considerable market, several mills,
and valuable fisheries, but it never acquired municipal or repre-
sentative rights, and was important only as the site of the castle.
See Victoria County History—Hampshire; William Westall, His-
tory of Carisbrooke Castle (1850).
33»
CARISSIMI— CARLILE
CARISSIMI, GIACOMO (c. 1604-1674), one of the most cele-
brated masters of the Italian, or, more accurately, the Roman
school of music, was born about 1604 in Marino (near Rome).
Of his life almost nothing is known. At the age of twenty he
became chapel-master at Assisi, and in 1628 he obtained the same
position at the church of St Apollinaris belonging to the Collegium
Germanicum in Rome, which he held till his death on the 12th
of January 1674, at Rome. He seems never to have left Italy.
The two great achievements generally ascribed to him are the
further development of the recitative, lately introduced by
Monteverde, and of infinite importance in the history of dramatic
music; and the invention of the chamber-cantata, by which
Carissimi superseded the madrigals formerly in use. His position
in the history of church music and vocal chamber music is
somewhat similar to that of Cavaili in the history of opera. It
is impossible to say who was really the inventor of the chamber-
cantata; but Carissimi and Luigi Rossi were the composers who
first made this form the vehicle for the most intellectual style of
chamber-music, a function which it continued to perform until
the death of Alessandro Scarlatti, Astorga and Marcello. Of his
oratorios Jephthah has been published by Novello & Co., and is
well known; this work and others are important as definitely
establishing the form of oratorio unaccompanied by dramatic
action, which has maintained its hold to the present day. He
also may claim the merit of having given greater variety and
interest to the instrumental accompaniments of vocal composi-
tions. Dr Burney and Sir John Hawkins published specimens of
his compositions in their works on the history of music; and Dr
Aldrich collected an almost complete set of his compositions, at
present in the library of Christ Church, Oxford. The British
Museum also possesses numerous valuable works by this great
Italian master. Most of his oratorios are in the Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris.
CARLETON, WILLIAM (1 704-1 869), Irish novelist, was born
at Prillisk, Clogher, Co. Tyrone, on the 4th of March 1794.
His father was a tenant farmer, who supported a family of
fourteen children on as many acres, and young Carleton passed
his early life among scenes precisely similar to those he after-
wards delineated with so much power and truthfulness. His
father was remarkable for his extraordinary memory, and had a
thorough acquaintance with Irish folklore; the mother was noted
throughout the district for the sweetness of her voice. The
beautiful character of Honor, the miser's wife, in Fardorougha,
is said to have been drawn from her.
The education received by Carleton was of a very humble
description. As his father removed from one small farm to
another, he attended at various places the hedge-schools, which
used to be a notable feature of Irish life. The admirable little
picture of one of these schools is given in the sketch called
" The Hedge School " included in Traits and Stories of Irish
Peasantry. Most of his learning was gained from a curate
named Keenan, who taught a classical school at Donagh (Co.
Monaghan), which Carleton attended from 1814 to 1816. Before
this Carleton had resolved to prosecute his education as a poor
scholar at Munster, with a view to entering the church; but
in obedience to a warning dream, the story of which is told
in the Poor Scholar, he returned home, where he received the
unbounded veneration of the neighbouring peasantry for his
supposed wonderful learning. An amusing account of this
phase of his existence is given in the little sketch, " Denis
O'Shaughnessy." About the age of nineteen he undertook one
of the religious pilgrimages then common in Ireland. His
experiences as a pilgrim, narrated in " The Lough Derg Pilgrim,"
made him resign for ever the thought of entering the church,
and he eventually became a Protestant. His vacillating ideas
as to a mode of life were determined in a definite direction by
the reading of Gil Bias. He resolved to cast himself boldly upon
the world, and try what fortune had in store for him. He went
to Killanny, Co. Louth, and for six months acted as tutor in the
family of a farmer named Piers Murphy, and after some other
experiments he set out for Dublin, and arrived in the metropolis
with 2s. gd. in his pocket. He first sought occupation as a bird-
stuffer, but a proposal to use potatoes and meal as stuffing failed
to recommend him. He then determined to become a soldier,
but the colonel of the regiment in which he desired to enlist
persuaded him — Carleton had applied in Latin — to give up the
idea. He obtained some teaching and a clerkship in a Sunday
School office, began to contribute to the journals, and his paper
" The Pilgrimage to Lough Derg," which was published in the
Christian Examiner, excited great attention. In 1830 appeared
the first series of Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry (2 vols.),
which at once placed the author in the first rank of Irish novelists.
A second series (3 vols.) , containing, among other stories, "Tubber
Derg, or the Red Well," appeared in 1833, and Tales of Ireland
in 1834. From that time till within a few years of his death
Carleton's literary activity was incessant. " Fardorougha the
Miser, or the Convicts of Lisnamona " appeared in 1837-1838
in the Dublin University Magazine. Among his other famous
novels are: Valentine McClutchy, the Irish Agent, or Chronicles
of the Castle Cumber Property (3 vols., 1845); The Black Prophet,
a Tale of the Famine, in the Dublin University Magazine (1846),
printed separately in the next year; The Emigrants of Ahadarra
(1847); Willy Reilly and his dear Colleen Bawn (in The Inde-
pendent, London, 1850); and The Tithe Proctor (1849), the
violence of which did his reputation harm among his own
countrymen. Some of his later stories, The Squanders of Castle
Squander (1852) for instance, are defaced by the mass of political
matter with which they are overloaded. In spite of his very
considerable literary production Carleton remained poor, but
his necessities were relieved in 1848 by a pension of £200 a year
granted by Lord John Russell in response to a memorial on
Carleton's behalf signed by numbers of distinguished persons
in Ireland. He died at Sandford, Co. Dublin, on the 30th of
January 1869.
Carleton's best work is contained in the Traits and Stories
of the Irish Peasantry. He wrote from intimate acquaintance
with the scenes he described; and he drew with a sure hand a
series of pictures of peasant life, unsurpassed for their appreciation
of the passionate tenderness of Irish home life, of the buoyant
humour and the domestic virtues which would, under better
circumstances, bring prosperity and happiness. He alienated
the sympathies of many Irishmen, however, by his unsparing
criticism and occasional exaggeration of the darker side of
Irish character. He was in his own words the " historian of their
habits and manners, their feelings, their prejudices, their super-
stitions and their crimes." (Preface to Tales of Ireland.)
During the last months of his life Carleton began an autobiography
which he brought down to the beginning of his literary career. This
forms the first part of The Life of WiUiam Carleton ... (2 vols.,
1896), by D. J. O'Donoghue, which contains full information about
his life, and a list of his scattered writings. A selection from his
stories (1880), in the " Camelot Series," has an introduction by
Mr W. B. Yeats. He must not be confused with Will Carleton
(b. 1845), the American author of Farm Ballads (1873).
CARLETON PLACE, a town and port of entry of Lanark
county, Ontario, Canada, 28 m. S. W. of Ottawa, on the Mississippi
river, and at the junction of the main line and Brockville branch
of the Canadian Pacific railway. It has abundant water-power
privileges, and extensive railway-repair shops and woollen
mills. Pop. (1901) 4059.
CARLILE, RICHARD (1790-1843), English freethinker, was
born on the 8th of December 1700, at Ashburton, Devonshire,
the son of a shoemaker. Educated in the village school, he was
apprenticed to a tinman against whose harsh treatment he fre-
quently rebelled. Having finished his apprenticeship, he obtained
occupation in London as a journeyman tinman. Influenced by
reading Paine's Rights of Man, he became an uncompromising
radical, and in 181 7 started pushing the sale of the Black Dwarf,
a new weekly paper, edited by Jonathan Wooler, all over London,
and in his zeal to secure the dissemination of its doctrines fre-
quently walked 30 m. a day. In the same year he also printed
and sold 25,000 copies of Southey's Wat Tyler, reprinted the
suppressed Parodies of Hone, and wrote himself, in imitation of
them, the Political Litany. This work cost him eighteen weeks
imprisonment. In 1818 he published Paine's works, for which
CARLINGFORD— CARLISLE, EARLS OF
339
and for other publications of a like character he was fined £i 500,
and sentenced to three years' imprisonment in Dorchester gaol.
Here he published the first twelve volumes of his periodical
the Republican. The publication was continued by his wife, who
was accordingly sentenced to two years' imprisonment in 1821.
A public subscription, headed by the duke of Wellington, was
now raised to prosecute Carlile's assistants. At the same time
Carlile's furniture and stock-in-trade in London were seized,
three years were added to his imprisonment in lieu cf payment
of his fine, his sister was fined £500 and imprisoned for a year
for publishing an address by him, and nine of his shopmen
received terms of imprisonment varying from six months to
three years. In 1825 the government decided to discontinue the
prosecutions. After his release in that year Carlile edited the
Gorgon, a weekly paper, and conducted free discussions in the
London Rotunda. For refusing to give sureties for good behaviour
after a prosecution arising out of a refusal to pay church rates,
he was again imprisoned for three years, and a similar resistance
cost him ten weeks' more imprisonment in 1834-1835. He died
on the 10th of February 1843, ** ter having spent in all nine years
and four months in prison.
CARLINGFORD, CHICHESTER SAMUEL FORTESCUE,
Baron (1823-1898), British statesman, son of Chichester Fortes-
cue (d. 1826), M.P. for Louth in the Irish parliament, was born
in January 1823. He came of an old family settled in Ireland
since the days of Sir Faithful Fortescue (1581-1666), whose uncle,
Lord Chichester, was lord deputy. The history of the family was
written by his elder brother Thomas (181 5-1887), who in 1852
was created Baron Clermont. The future Lord Carlingford,
then Mr Chichester Fortescue, went to Christ Church, Oxford,
where he took a first in classics (1844) and won the chancellor's
English essay (1846); and in 1847 he was elected to parliament
for Louth as a Liberal. He became a junior lord of the treasury
in 1854, and subsequently held minor offices in the Liberal
administrations till in 1865 he was made chief secretary for
Ireland under Lord Russell, a post which he again occupied
under Gladstone in 1 868-1870; he then became president of the
Board of Trade (1871-1874), and later lord privy seal (1881-1885)
and president of the council (1883-1885). He was raised to the
peerage in 1874. He parted from Gladstone on the question of
Irish Home Rule, but in earlier years he was his active supporter
on Irish questions. His influence in society was due largely
to his wife, Frances (1821-1879), previously the wife of the 7th
Earl Waldegrave, whom he married in 1863. In 1887 his brother,
Lord Clermont, died, and Carlingford inherited his peerage;
but on his own death without issue on the 30th of January 1898
both titles became extinct.
CARLINGFORD, a small market town and port of Co. Louth,
Ireland, in the north parliamentary division. Pop. (1001) 606.
It is beautifully situated on the western shore of Carlingford
Lough, at the foot of Carlingford Mountain (1935 ft.), facing the
fine heights of the Mourne Mountains across the lough in Co.
Down. It has a station on the railway connecting Greenore
and Newry, owned by the London & North- Western railway of
England. It was formerly a place of great importance, as attested
by numerous remains. King John's Castle (1 2 10) commands the
lough from an isolated rock. There are other remains of the
castellated houses erected during the Elizabethan and previous
wars. A Dominican monastery was founded in 1305, and com-
bines ecclesiastical and military remains. The town received
several charters between the reigns of Edward II. and James II.,
was represented in the Irish parliament until the Union, and
possessed a mint from 1467. The lough is a typical rock-basin
hollowed out by glacial action, about 4 fathoms deep at its
entrance,, but increasing to four times that depth within. The
oyster-beds are valuable.
CARU-RUBBI, GIOVANNI RINALDO, Count of (1720-1795)1
Italian economist and antiquarian, was born at Capo d' Istria, in
1 7 20. At the age of twenty-four he was appointed by the senate
of Venice to the newly established professorship of astronomy
and navigation in the university of Padua, and entrusted
with the superintendence of the Venetian marine. After filling
these offices for seven years with great credit, he resigned them,
in order to devote himself to the study of antiquities and political
economy. His principal economic works are his DeUe monete,
e della instiimione delle secche d' Italia; his Ragionamento
sopra i bilanci economici delle nazioni (1759)1 in which he
maintained that what is termed the balance of trade between
two nations is no criterion of the prosperity of either, since
both may be gainers by their reciprocal transactions; and
his Sul libera commercio dei grani (1771), in which he argues
that free trade in grain is not always advisable. Count Carli's
merits were appreciated by Leopold of Tuscany, afterwards
emperor, who in 1765 placed him at the head of the council of
public economy and of the board of public instruction. In
1769 he became privy councillor, in 1771 president of the new
council of finances. He died at Milan in February 1795* During
his leisure he completed and published his AntickUa Italiche,
in which the literature and arts of his country are ably discussed.
Besides the above, he published many works on antiquarian,
economic and other subjects, including V Uomo Hbero, in
confutation of Rousseau's Contra* Social; an attack upon the
abbe Tartarotti's assertion of the existence of magicians;
Observazioni sulla musica antica e moderna; and several
poems.
CARLISLE, EARLS OF. This English title has been held by
two families, being created for James Hay in 1632, and being
extinct in that line on the death of his son in 1660, and then
being given in 1661 to Charles Howard, and descending to the
present day in the Howard family.
James Hay, 1st earl of Carlisle (d. 1636), was the son of Sir
James Hay of Kingask (a member of a younger branch of the
Enroll family), and of Margaret Murray, cousin of George Hay T
afterwards 1st earl of Kinnoull. He was knighted and taken
into favour by James VI. of Scotland, brought into England
in 1603, treated as a " prime favourite " and made a gentleman
of the bedchamber. In 1604 he was sent on a mission to France
and pleaded for the Huguenots, which annoyed Henry IV.
and caused a substantial reduction of the present made to the
English envoy. On the 21st of June 1606 he was created by
patent a baron for life, with precedence next to the barons,
but without a place or voice in parliament, no doubt to render his
advancement less unpalatable to the English lords. The king
bestowed on him numerous grants, paid his debts, and secured
for him a rich bride in the person of Honora, only daughter and
heir of Edward, Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich. In
16x0 he was made a knight of the Bath, and in 1613 master of
the wardrobe, while in 161 5 he was created Lord Hay of Sawley,
and took his seat in the House of Lords. He was sent to France
next year to negotiate the marriage of Princess Christina with
Prince Charles, and on his return, being now a widower, married
in 1617 Lady Lucy Percy (1590-1660), daughter of the 9th earl
of Northumberland, and was made a privy councillor. In 1618
he resigned the mastership of the wardrobe for a large sum in
compensation. He was created Viscount Doncaster, and in
February 16 19 was despatched on a mission to Germany, where
he identified himself with the cause of the elector palatine and
urged James to make war in his support. In 1621 and 1622 he
was sent to France to obtain peace for the Huguenots from Louis
XIII., in which he was unsuccessful, and in September 1622 was
created earl of Carlisle. Next year he went to Paris on the occa-
sion of Prince Charles's journey to Madrid, and againin 1624 to join
Henry Rich, afterwards Lord Holland, in negotiating the prince's
marriage with Henrietta Maria, when he advised James without
success to resist Richelieu's demands on the subject of religious
toleration. On the 2nd of July 1627 Lord Carlisle obtained from
the king a grant of all the Caribbean Islands, including Barbados,
this being a confirmation of a former concession given by James
I. He was also a patentee and councillor of the plantation of
New England, and showed great zeal and interest in the colonies.
He became gentleman of the bedchamber to Ring Charles I.
after his accession. In 1628, after the failure of the expedition to
Rh6, he was sent to make a diversion against Richelieu in Lor-
raine and Piedmont; he counselled peace with Spain and the
34©
CARLISLE, EARLS OF
vigorous prosecution of the war with France, but on his return
home found his advice neglected. He took no further part in
public life, and died in March 1636. Carlisle was a man of good
sense and of accommodating temper, with some diplomatic
ability. His extravagance and lavish expenditure, his " double
suppers " and costly entertainments, were the theme of satirists
and wonder of society, and his debts were said at his death to
amount to more than £80,000. " He left behind him," says
Clarendon, " a reputation of a very hnp gentleman and a most
accomplished courtier, and after having spent, in a very jovial
life, above £400,000, which upon a strict computation he received
from the crown, he left not a house or acre of land to be
remembered by."
The charms and wit of his second wife, Lucy, countess of
Carlisle, which were celebrated in verse by all the poets of the
day, including Carew, Cartwright, Herrick and Suckling, and
by Sir Toby Matthew in prose, made her a conspicuous figure
at the court of Charles I. There appears no foundation for the
scandal which made her the mistress successively of Strafford
and of Pym. Strafford valued highly her sincerity and services,
but after his death, possibly in consequence of a revulsion of
feeling at his abandonment by the court, she devoted herself
to Pym and to the interests of the parliamentary leaders, to
whom she communicated the king's most secret plans and
counsels. Her greatest achievement was the timely disclosure
to Lord Essex of the king's intended arrest of the five members,
which enabled them to escape. But she appears to have served
both parties simultaneously, betraying communications on both
sides, and doing considerable mischief in inflaming political
animosities. In 1647 she attached herself to the interests of the
moderate Presbyterian party, which assembled at her house, and
in the second Civil War showed great zeal and activity in the
royal cause, pawned her pearl necklace for £1500 to raise money
for Lord Holland's troops, established communications with
Prince Charles during his blockade of the Thames, and made
herself the intermediary between the scattered bands of royalists
and the queen. In consequence her arrest was ordered on the
2 1 st of March 1649, aQ d she was imprisoned in the Tower,
whence she maintained a correspondence in cipher with the king
through her brother, Lord Percy, till Charles went to Scotland.
According to a royalist newsletter, while in the Tower she was
threatened with the rack to extort information. She was
released on bail on the 25th of September 1650, but appears
never to have regained her former influence in the royalist
counsels, and died soon after the Restoration, on the 5th of
November 1660.
The first earl was succeeded by James, his only surviving son
by his first wife, at whose death in 1660 without issue, the peerage
became extinct in the Hay family.
Charles Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle in the Howard line
(1629-1685), was the son and heir of Sir William Howard, of
Naworth in Cumberland, by Mary, daughter of William, Lord
Eure, and great-grandson of Lord William Howard, " Belted
Will " (1 563-1640), and was born in 1629. In 1645 ne became
a Protestant and supported the government of the common-
wealth, being appointed high sheriff of Cumberland in 1650.
He bought Carlisle Castle and became governor of the town.
He distinguished himself at the battle of Worcester on Crom-
well's side, was made a member of the council of state in 1653,
chosen captain of the protector's body-guard and selected to
carry out various public duties. In 1655 he was given a regiment,
was appointed a commissioner to try the northern rebels, and a
deputy major-general of Cumberland, Westmorland and North-
umberland. In the parliament of 1653 he sat for Westmorland,
in those of 1654 and 1656 for Cumberland. In 1657 he was
included in Cromwell's House of Lords and voted for the pro-
tector's assumption of the royal title the same year. In 1659
he urged Richard Cromwell to defend his government by force
against the army leaders, but his advice being refused he used his
influence in favour of a restoration of the monarchy, and after
Richard's fall he was imprisoned. In April 1660 he sat again in
parliament for Cumberland, and at the Restoration was made
custos rotulorum of Essex and lord-lieutenant of Cumberland and
Westmorland. On the 20th of April 166 1 he was created Baron
Dacre of Gillesland, Viscount Howard of Morpeth, and earl of
Carlisle; the same year he was made vice-admiral of North-
umberland, Cumberland and Durham, and in 1662 joint com-
missioner for the office of earl marshal. In 1663 he was appointed
ambassador to Russia, Sweden and Denmark, and in 1668 he
carried the Garter to Charles XI. of Sweden. In 1667 he was
made lieutenant-general of the forces and joint commander-in-
chief of the four northernmost counties. In 1672 he became
lord-lieutenant of Durham, and in 1673 deputy earl marshal.
In 1678 he was appointed governor of Jamaica, and reappointed
governor of Carlisle. He died on the 24th of February 1685,
and was buried in York Minster. He married Anne (d. 1696),
daughter of Edward, 1st Lord Howard of Escrick; his eldest
son Edward (c. 1646-169 2) succeeded him as 2nd earl of
Carlisle, the title descending to his son Charles (1674-1738)
and grandson Henry (1694-1758).
Frederick Howard, 5th earl (1 748-1825), son of the 4th
earl, was born in 1748. During his youth he was chiefly known
as a man of pleasure and fashion; and after he had reached
thirty years of age, his appointment on a commission sent out
by Lord North to attempt a reconciliation with the American
colonies was received with sneers by the opposition. The failure
of the embassy was not due to any incapacity on the part of the
earl, but to the unpopularity of the government from which
it received its authority. He was, indeed, considered to have
displayed so much ability that he was entrusted with the vice-
royalty of Ireland in 1780. The time was one of the greatest
difficulty; for while the calm of the country was disturbed by
the American rebellion, it was drained of regular troops, and
large bands of volunteers not under the control of the government
had been formed. Nevertheless, the two years of Carlisle's rule
passed in quietness and prosperity, and the institution of a
national bank and other measures which he effected left per-
manently beneficial results upon the commerce of the island.
In 1789, in the discussions as to the regency, Carlisle took a
prominent part on the side of the prince of Wales. In 1791
he opposed Pitt's policy of resistance to the dismemberment of
Turkey by Russia; but on the outbreak of the French Revolution
he left the opposition and vigorously maintained the cause of
war. In 1815 ne opposed the enactment of the Corn Laws;
but from this time till his death, in 1825, he took no important
part in public life. Carlisle was the author of some political
tracts, a number of poems, and two tragedies, The Father's
Revenge and The Stepmother, which received high praise from his
contemporaries. His mother was a daughter of the 4th Lord
Byron, and in 1798 he was appointed guardian to Lord Byron,
the poet, who lampooned him in English Bards and Scotch
Reviewers.
George Howard, 6th earl (1 773-1848), eldest son of the 5th
earl, entered parliament as Lord Morpeth in 1795 as a Whig.
He was appointed to the Indian board in 1806, when the "Ministry
of all the Talents " took office, but resigned in 1807, though he
remained prominent in the House of Commons. After his
elevation to the House of Lords (1825), he held various cabinet
offices under Canning and Grey. He made some minor con-
tributions to literature and left the reputation of an amiable
scholar.
George William Frederick Howard, 7th earl (1 802-1 864),
was born in London on the 18th of April 1802. He was the
eldest son of the 6th earl by his wife Lady Georgiana Cavendish,
eldest daughter of the duke of Devonshire. He was educated at
Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where (as Lord Morpeth) he
earned a reputation as a scholar and writer of graceful verse,
obtaining in 1821 both the chancellor's and the Newdigate
prizes for a Latin and an English poem. In 1826 he accompanied
his uncle, the duke of Devonshire, to Russia, to attend the
coronation of the tsar Nicholas, and became a great favourite
in society at St Petersburg. At the general election of the same
year he was returned to parliament as member for the family
borough of Morpeth. In one of his earliest speeches he undertook,
CARLISLE
34?
at the risk of forfeiting the good opinion of the Liberal party,
the defence of the Russian emperor against severe attacks made
on him in reference to the suppression of the Polish insurrection
of 1830. In the agitation for parliamentary reform he took the
side of Earl Grey; and after the dissolution of parliament, which
took place about that time, he was elected member for Yorkshire.
This seat he held till after the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832.
He was then returned for the West Riding; and in 1835 he
was appointed by Lord Melbourne chief secretary for Ireland,
a position at that time of great difficulty, O'Connell being then
at the height of his reputation. This post he held for about six
years (being included in the cabinet in 1839), winning great
popularity by his amiable manners and kindly disposition.
Losing his seat at the election of 1841, he visited the United
States, but in 1846 he was again returned for the West Riding,
and was made chief commissioner of woods and forests in Lord
John Russell's cabinet. Succeeding to the peerage in 1848, he
became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1850. The great
event of his life, however, was his appointment by Lord Palmer-
ston to the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland in 1855. This office he
continued to hold till February 1858, and again from June 1859
till within a few months of his death. His literary tastes and
culture were displayed in various popular lectures and in several
published works. Among these may be mentioned a lecture
on The Life and Writings of Pope (1851); The Last of the Greeks,
a tragedy (1828); a Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters (1854),
the fruit of travels in the East in 1853 and 1854; and a volume
of Poems, published after his death. In 1866 appeared his
Viceregal Speeches, collected and edited by J. Gaskin. He took
warm interest in the reformation of juvenile criminals, and
established on his own estate one of the best conducted reforma-
tories in the country. Lord Carlisle died at Castle Howard on
the 5th of December 1864. He was never married, and was
succeeded in the peerage by his brother, the Rev. William
George Howard (d. 1889), as 8th earl.
George Jakes Howard, 9th earl, born in 1843, was the son
of Charles, fourth son of the 6th earl. He was educated at
Eton and Trinity, Cambridge, and, then being only Mr Howard,
married in 1864 Rosalind, daughter of the 2nd Lord Stanley
of Alderley. He sat in parliament as a Liberal in 1879-1880,
and again from 1881 to 1885; and succeeded his uncle in the
peerage in 1889. His wife, a more active Liberal politician
than himself, took a prominent part in the temperance movement
and other advanced causes; and Lord Carlisle became best known
as an art patron and an artist of considerable ability, whose
landscape painting had considerable affinity to the work of
Giovanni Costa. His position as a connoisseur was recognized
by his being made one of the trustees of the National Gallery.
His son, Viscount Morpeth (b. 1867), had a distinguished career
at Oxford, and after various defeats in other constituencies was
returned to parliament for South Birmingham as a Unionist
supporter of Mr Chamberlain in 1904.
CARLISLE, a city, municipal and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Cumberland, England, 299 m. N.N.W.
of London, and 8 m. S. of the Scottish border. Fop. (1901)
45,480. It lies on the south bank of the river Eden, a little below
the point where it debouches upon the Solway Plain, 8 m. above
its mouth in the Solway Firth, at the junction of two tributaries
from the south, the Caldew and the Petteril. The city grew
up originally on and about the two slight eminences of the penin-
sula enclosed between these three streams. To the north of the
Eden lies the suburb of Stanwix, connected with the city by a
handsome bridge (1812-1815). The rivers are not navigable,
and a canal opened in 1823, connecting the city with Port
Carlisle on the Solway Firth, was unsuccessful, and was converted
into a railway. Silloth, on the Irish Sea, is the nearest port of
importance (21 m.). Carlisle, however, is one of the principal
railway centres in Great Britain. The London & North- Western
and the Midland railways of England, and the Caledonian,
North British and Glasgow & South-Western of Scotland,
here make a junction for through traffic between England
and Scotland; and the city is further served by the North
Eastern (from Newcastle) and the Maryport & Carlisle
railways.
Carlisle is the seat of a bishop. Bede, in his life of St Cuthbert,
alludes to a monastery here, and the saint was also believed to
have founded a convent and school But all was swept away
by the Northmen, and though William Rufus, who rehabilitated
the town, doubtless made provision for an ecclesiastical founda-
tion, it was left for Henry I., in 1133, to create a bishopric out of
the house of Augustinian canons, founded in 1102. This was
the sole episcopal chapter of regular canons of St Augustine in
England. It was dissolved in 1540. Between 11 56 and 1204
the bishop's throne was unoccupied, but thereafter there was
a continuous succession. The diocese covers the whole of
Westmorland, and practically of Cumberland, with Furness
and the adjacent district in the north of Lancashire. The
cathedral as it stands is a fine cruciform building with a central
tower, but it is incomplete. Of the Norman nave, built by
iEthelwold, the first prior and bishop, only two bays are standing,
the remainder having been destroyed by the Parliamentarians
in 1646. The south transept, and the lower part of the tower
piers, are also of this period. Remarkable distortion is seen in
the nave arches, owing to the sinking of the foundations. The
thinness of the aisle walls, and the rude masonry of the founda-
tions of the original apse which have been discovered, point to
native, not Norman, workmanship. The choir is ornate and
beautiful, and the huge Decorated east window, with its wonderful
elaborate tracery, is perhaps the finest of its kind extant. The
reconstruction of the Norman choir was begun in the middle of
the 13th century, but the work was almost wholly destroyed by
fire in 1292. The north transept and the tower also suffered.
Building began again c. 1352, and the present tower, erected with
some difficulty on the weak foundations of the Norman period,
dates from 1400-14 19. The conventual buildings are scanty,
including little more than a Perpendicular gateway and refectory.
A stone inscribed with runes, and a well, are among the objects
of interest within the cathedral. Among the numerous memorials
is one to Archdeacon Paley; and a stained-glass window com-
memorates the five children of Archibald Campbell Tait, dean of
the cathedral, and afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. Of the
two eminences within the three rivers, the cathedral occupies
one, the castle the other. It was moated and very strong; but
has been so far altered that only the keep is of special interest.
A tower in which Mary, queen of Scots, was imprisoned was
taken down in 1835. The castle serves as barracks. Fragments
of the old city walls are seen on the western side over against
the river Caldew. At Carlisle are the county gaol and the
Cumberland infirmary, in connexion with which there is a sea-
side convalescent institution at Silloth. Other notable public
buildings are the city hall, the court-houses, museum and art
gallery. The grammar school, of very early foundation, received
endowment from Henry VIII. Industries include the manu-
facture of cotton and woollen goods, and there are iron foundries,
breweries, tanneries and large railway works. There is also a
considerable agricultural trade. The parliamentary borough
returns one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor,
10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 2025 acres.
This was the Romano-British LuguvaUiwm, probably rather
a town than a fort, being one of the few towns as distinct from
forts in the north of Britain. It lay a mile south of Hadrian's wall
There are no traces above ground in situ; but many inscriptions,
potsherds, coins and other such-like relics have been discovered.
Carlisle (Caer Luel, Karliol) is first mentioned in 685, when
under the name of Luel it was bestowed by Ecgfrith on St
Cuthbert to form part of his see of Lindisfarne. It was then a
thriving and populous city, and when St Cuthbert visited it in
686 he was shown with pride the ancient walls and a Roman
fountain of marvellous construction. Nennius, writing in the
9th century, mentions it in a list of British cities under the name
of Caer Luadiit, Caer Ligualid or Caer Lualid, but about this
time it was either wholly or in part destroyed by the Danes, and
vanishes completely from history until in 1092 it was re-estab-
lished as the political centre of the district by William Rufus,
3+2
CARLISLE— CARLOMAN
who built the castle and sent husbandmen to dwell there and till
the land. During the centuries of border-strife which followed,
the history of Carlisle centres round that of the castle, which
formed the chief bulwark against the Scots on the western border,
and played an important part in the history of the country down
to the rebellion of the young Pretender in 1 745. In 1 292 a great
tire destroyed nearly all the buildings and muniments of the
city, so that no original charter is extant before that date. A
charter from Edward I., dated 1293, however, exemplifies two
earlier grants. The first, from Henry II., confirmed the liberties
and customs which the city had theretofore enjoyed, granting
in addition a free gild merchant, with other privileges. This
grant is exemplified in the second charter, from Henry III.,
dated 1251. By a writ dated 5 Henry III. the citizens were
allowed to hold the city direct from the king, paying a fee-farm
rent of £60, instead of the former rent of £50, paid by the medium
of the sheriff. A charter from Edward II., dated 1316, grants
to the citizens the city, the king's mills in the city, and the
fishery in the Eden, at a fee-farm rent of £80 a year. A charter
from Edward III. in 1352 enumerates the privileges and liberties
hitherto enjoyed by the citizens, including a market twice a week,
on Wednesday and Saturday; a fair for sixteen days at the
feast of the Assumption of the Virgin (15th of August); free
election of a mayor, bailiffs and two coroners; and the right to
hold their markets in the place called " Battailholm." It also
mentions that the city was greatly impoverished by reason of
the devastations of the Scots and by pestilence. Confirmations
of former privileges were issued by Richard II., Henry IV. and
Henry VI. A charter from Edward IV. in 1461, after reciting
the damage sustained by the city through fire, reduced the fee-
farm rent from £80 to £40, and granted to the citizens the fishery
called the sheriff's net, free of rent. Further confirmations were
granted by later sovereigns. Although the city had been under
the jurisdiction of a mayor and bailiffs at least as early as
1290, the first charter of incorporation was granted by Elizabeth
in 1 566; it established a corporation under the style of " a mayor,
eleven worshipful persons, and twenty-four able persons." A
charter of James I. confirmed former liberties, and in 1638
Charles I. granted a charter under which the town continued to
be governed until 1835. It declared Carlisle a city by itself,
and established a corporation consisting of a mayor, 1 1 aldermen,
24 capital citizens, 2 bailiffs, 2 coroners and a recorder; the
mayor, the recorder and 2 senior aldermen to be justices of the
peace, and the mayor to be clerk of the market; other officers
were a common clerk, a sword-bearer and three serjeants-at-mace.
Two charters from Charles BE. in 1664 and 1684 were never
accepted. The latter granted a three days' fair or market
on the first Wednesday in June. Much valuable information
relating to the early history and customs of Carlisle is furnished
both by the Dormont Book, which contains an elaborate set
of bye-laws dated 1561, and by the records of the eight craft
gilds—weavers, smiths, tailors, tanners, shoemakers, skinners,
butchers and merchants. The defensive and offensive warfare
in which the citizens were constantly engaged until the union of
the crowns of England and Scotland left little time for the
development of commercial pursuits, and Fuller, writing in the
17th century, says that the sole manufacture, that of fustian,
though established shortly after the Restoration, had met with
scant encouragement. In 1750 the manufacture of coarse linen
cloth was established, and was followed in a few years by the
introduction of calico stamperies. The commercial prosperity of
Carlisle, however, began with the railway development of the 19th
century. In 1 283 the citizens of Carlisle were summoned to send
two representatives to parliament, but no return is recorded.
From 1295 Carlisle continued to return two members until
the Redistribution Act of 1885. At the time of the Scottish wars
Edward I. held two parliaments at Carlisle — in 1300 and in 1307.
See Victoria County History, Cumberland; R. S. Ferguson, Some
Municipal Records of the City of Carlisle (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq.
and Archaeol. Soc., Carlisle and London, 1887), and Royal Charters
of Carlisle (ditto, Carlisle, &c, 1894) ; Mandell Creighton, Carlisle in
' J Historic Towns " series (London, 1889).
CARLISLE, a borough and the county-seat of Cumberland
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 18 m. W. by S. of Harrisburg
and 118 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 7620;
(1900) 9626 (1148 being negroes) ; (1910) 10,303. It is served by
the Cumberland Valley (controlled by the Pennsylvania railway)
and the Gettysburg & Harrisburg railways. The borough is
pleasantly situated in the central part of the fertile Cumberland
Valley, which is here 12 m. wide. Mount Holly Springs and
Boiling Springs are near, and are important summer attractions.
In Carlisle is Dickinson College, founded in 1783 by Presbyterians,
and named in honour of John Dickinson (?.&.), a benefactor
of the college; it was reorganized in 1833 as a Methodist Epis-
copal College, and is now divided into the college, the school of
law (founded in 1834) and Conway Hall, the preparatory
department. President James Buchanan and Chief Justice
R. B. Taney were graduates. Here are also Metzger College for
young ladies, and a well-known United States Indian industrial
school, established in 1879 through the efforts of Lieutenant (later
Brigadier-General) Richard Henry Pratt (b. 1840), its superin-
tendent until 1 904 ; the school pays especial attention to industrial
and agricultural training, and its athletic organizations are
famous. A great effort is made to preserve and develop Indian
arts and crafts; the instruction given by Mrs Angel Decora
Dietz, a Winnebago, in colour work and design, decorating
leather, making beadwork and weaving rugs, is particularly
noteworthy. On the initiative of the pupils the Leupp Indian
Art School was built on the campus in 1906-1907, all materials
being purchased with the funds of the athletic association and
all work being done by the students. The building is named
in honour of Francis Ellington Leupp (b. 1849) , U.S. commissioner
of Indian affairs in 1905. Carlisle is prominent for the manu-
facture of boots and shoes, and has machine shops and manufac-
tories of carriages, ribbons, railway frogs and switches, carpets
and paper boxes. In 1905 the value of all the factory products
was $1,985,743, of which $1,078,401 was the value of boots and
shoes. The place was laid out as a town in 1751, was named
from Carlisle, Cumberland, England, and was incorporated
as a borough in 1872. In 1753 Benjamin Franklin, with two
other commissioners, negotiated a treaty with the Ohio Indians
here. During the War of Independence the Americans kept
here for secure confinement a number of British prisoners,
among them Major John Andr6, and in 1 794 Carlisle was the head-
quarters of George Washington during the Whisky Rebellion. On
the night of the 1st of July 1863 Carlisle was bombarded by
Confederate troops.
CARLOFORTE, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Cagliari,
the capital of the small island (6 by 5 m.) of San Pietro (anc.
Accipitrum or 'Icpcucowfaos) off the west coast of Sardinia. Pop.
(1901) 7693. It lies on the east coast of the island, 6 m. west
by sea from Portoscuso, which is 47 m. west by rail from CagHari.
It was founded in 1737 by Charles Emmanuel III. of Savoy,
who planted a colony of Genoese, whose dialect and costume
still prevail. In 1798 it was attacked by the Tunisians and 933
inhabitants taken away as slaves. They were ransomed after
five years and the place fortified. It is now a centre of the
tunny fishery, and there are manganese mines also. The coral
banks, which were once important, are now exhausted. Three
m. to the south-east is the island of S. Antioco.
CARLOMAN (828-880), king of Bavaria and Italy, was the
eldest son of Louis the German, king of the East Franks. In
856 he undertook the defence of the eastern frontier of Bavaria
against the Bohemians and Moravians, and won considerable
fame in various campaigns. He married a daughter of Ernest,
count of the Bohemian mark, and in conjunction with his
father-in-law resisted the authority of his father in 861. For
some years he alternated between rebellion and submission to
his father, but in 865 an arrangement was made by which he
became possessed of Bavaria and Carinthia as his expectant share
of the kingdom of Louis. During the troubles between Louis and
his two younger sons Carloman remained faithful to his father,
and carried on the war with the Moravians so successfully that
in 870 their territory was completely under the power of the
CARLOMAN— CARLOS, DON
343
Franks; and when peace was made at Forchheim in 874, they
recognized the Frankish supremacy. In 8 7 5 the emperor Louis II.
died, having named his cousin Carioman as his successor in Italy.
Carloman crossed the Alps to claim his inheritance, but was
cajoled into returning by the king of the West Franks, Charles
the Bald. In 876, on his father's death, Carloman became
actually king of Bavaria, and after a short campaign against the
Moravians he went again to Italy in 877 and was crowned king
of the Lombards at Pa via; but his negotiations with Pope
John VIII. for the imperial crown were fruitless, and personal
illness added to the outbreak of an epidemic in his army com-
pelled him to return to Bavaria. Stricken with paralysis,
Carloman was unable to prevent his brother Louis from seizing
Bavaria; so making a virtue of necessity, he bequeathed the
whole of his lands to Louis. He died on the 72nd of September
880 at Ottingen, where he was buried, leaving an illegitimate
son, afterwards the emperor Arnulf .
See " Annates Fuldenses," "Annales Bertiniani," Regino von Prum,
" Chronicon," all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores,
Bandi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1 826-1 892) ; E. Muhlbacher,2?te Regesten
des Kaiserreichs unlet den Karolineem (Innsbruck, 1881); and E.
Dttmmler, Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen Retches (Leipzig, 1 887-1 888).
CARLOMAN* the name of three Frankish princes.
Carloman (d. 754), mayor of the palace under the Merovingian
kings, was a son of Charles Martel, and, together with his brother,
Pippin the Short, became mayor on his father's death in 741,
administering the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom. He
was successful in extending the power of the Franks in various
wars with his troublesome neighbours, and was not less zealous
in seeking to strengthen and reform the church in the lands
under his rule. In 747 Carloman laid down his office and retired
to a monastery which he founded on Monte Soracte, but troubled
by the number of his visitors, he subsequently entered a monastery
on Monte Casino. He died at Vienne on the 1 7th of August 754.
Carioman (751-771), king of the Franks, was a son of King
Pippin the Short, and consequently a brother of Charlemagne.
The brothers became joint kings of the Franks on Pippin's
death in 768, and some trouble which broke out between them
over the conduct of the war in Aquitaine was followed by Carlo-
man's death at Samoussy on the 4th of December 771. He married
Gerberga, a daughter of Desiderius, king of the Lombards, who,
together with her children, vanished from history soon after her
husband's death.
Carloman (d. 884), king of France, was the eldest son of Xing
Louis II., the Stammerer, and became king, together with his
brother Louis III., on his father's death in 879. Although some
doubts were cast upon their legitimacy, the brothers obtained
recognition and in 880 made a division of the kingdom, Carloman
receiving Burgundy and the southern part of France. In 882 he
became sole king owing to his brother's death, but the kingdom
was in a very deplorable condition, and his power was very
circumscribed. Carloman met his death while hunting on the
1 2th of December 884.
See E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).
CARLOS I. (1863-1008), king of Portugal, the third sovereign
of Portugal of the line of Braganza-Coburg, son of Bang Louis I.
and Maria Pia, daughter of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy,
was born on the 28th of September 1863. When about twenty
years of age he spent a considerable time in travelling, visiting
England in 1883. On the 22nd of May 1886 he married Marie
Am&lie, daughter of Philippe, due d'Orl6ans, comte de Paris,
and on the death of his father (19th of October 1889) he suc-
ceeded to the throne of Portugal. In that year the British
government found it necessary to make formal remonstrances
against Portuguese encroachments in South Africa, and relations
between the two countries were greatly strained for some time.
The king's attitude during this critical period was one of concilia*
tion, and his temperate, though firm, speech on opening the
Cortes in January 1800 did much to strengthen the party of
peace. In 1000-1901 also his friendly attitude towards Great
Britain was shown by cordial toasts at a banquet to the officers
of the British fleet at Lisbon. King Carlos distinguished himself
as a patron of science and literature, and was himself an artist
of some repute. In March 1894 he took a very active part in
the celebration of the 500th anniversary of the birth of Prince
Henry the Navigator, and a year later he decorated the Portuguese
poet, Joao de Deus, with much honour at Lisbon. He took a
great personal interest in deep-sea soundings and marine explora-
tion, and published an account of some of his own investiga-
tions, the results themselves being shown at an oceanographic
exhibition opened by him on the 12th of April 1897. In May
1907 the king suspended the constitution of Portugal and
temporarily appointed Senhor Franco as dictator with a view
to carrying out certain necessary reforms. Some discontent
was aroused by this proceeding; this was increased by Franco's
drastic measures, and on the 1st of February 1908 King Carlos
and his elder son, Louis, duke of Braganza (188 7-1908), were
assassinated whilst driving through the streets of Lisbon. The
king was succeeded by his only surviving son, Manuel, duke of
Beja (b. 1889), who took the title of Manuel II.
See S. M. El Rei D. Carlos J. e sua obra artisiica e scientifica
(Lisbon, 1908).
CARLOS, DON (1 545-1 568), prince of Asturias, was the son of
Philip II. king of Spain, by his first wife Maria, daughter of John
III., king of Portugal, and was born at Valladolid on the 8th of
July 1545. His mother died a few days after his birth, and the
prince, who was very delicate, grew up proud, wilful and indolent,
and soon began to show signs of insanity. In 1559 he was be-
trothed to Elizabeth, daughter of Henry II., king of France,
a lady who a few months later became the third wife of his
father; in 1560 he was recognized as the heir to the throne of
Castile, and three years later to that of Aragon. Other brides
were thensuggested for theprince; Mary, queen of Scots, Margaret,
another daughter of Henry II., and Anne, a daughter of the
emperor Maximilian II.; but meanwhile his mental derangement
had become much more acute, and his condition could no longer
be kept secret. In 1562 he met with an accident which was
followed by a serious illness, and after his recovery he showed
more obvious signs of insanity, while his conduct both in public
and in private was extremely vicious and disorderly. He took
a marked dislike to the duke of Alva, possibly because he wished
to proceed to the Netherlands instead of the duke, and he
exhibited a morbid antipathy towards his father, whose murder
he even contemplated. At length in January 1 568, when he had
made preparations for flight from Spain, he was placed in con-
finement by order of Philip, and on the 24th of July of the same
year he died. This event is still enveloped in some mystery.
Philip has been accused of murdering his son, and from what
is known of the king's character this supposition is by no means
improbable. It is known that the king appointed commissioners
to try the prince, and he may have been put to death for treason in
accordance with their verdict. It has also been suggested that
his crime was heresy, and that his death was due to poison, and
other solutions of the mystery have been put forward. On the
other hand, it should be remembered that the health of Carlos
was very poor, and that his outrageous behaviour in captivity
would have undermined a much stronger constitution than his
own. Consequently there is nothing strange or surprising in
his death from natural causes, and while no decisive verdict
upon this question can be given,Philip may perhaps be granted the
benefit of the doubt. By some writers the sad fate and early
death of Carlos have been connected with the story of his unlaw-
ful attachment to his promised bride, Elizabeth, who soon
became his stepmother, and whose death followed so quickly
upon his own. There is circumstantial evidence for this tale.
The loss of an affianced bride, followed by hatred between
supplanted and supplanter, who were father and son, then the
increasing infirmity of the slighted prince, and finally the almost
simultaneous deaths of the pair. But mature historical research
dismisses this story as a fable. It has, however, served as the
subject for romance. Schiller and Alfieri, J. G. de Campristron
in Andronic, and Lord John Russell have made it the subject
of dramas, and other dramas based upon the life of Don Carlos
have been written by Thomas Otway, M. A. Ch6nier, J. P. de
Montalvan, and D. X. de Enciso.
344
See C. V. de Saint Real, Don Carlos, nouoelle historique (Paris,
1672). This gives the story of the attachment of Carlos and Eliza-
beth, which has been refuted by L. von Ranke, Zur Geschichte des
don Carlos (Vienna, 1829); and J. A. Llorente, Histoire critique de
V Inquisition (French translation, Paris, 181 7). See also L. P.
Gacnard, Don Carlos et Philippe II (Brussels, 1863) ; C. de Mouy,
Don Carlos et Philippe II (Paris, 1863); M. Budinger, Don Carlos,
Haft und Tod (Vienna, 1891); L. A. Warnkonig, Don Carlos, Leben,
Verhaftung und Tod (Stuttgart, 1864); W. Maurenbrecher, Don
Carlos (Berlin, 1876) ; and W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of
Philip II. vol. ii. (London, 1855, 1859).
CARLOS, DON (1788-1855), the first of the Carlist claimants
of the throne of Spain, was the second surviving son of King
Charles IV. and his wife, Louisa Maria of Parma. He was born
on the 29th of March 1788, and was christened Carlos Maria
Isidro. From 1808 till 18 14 he was a prisoner in France at
Valencay with his brothers, who had been imprisoned by Napoleon
when he seized the whole royal family of Spain at Bayonne.
After his return he lived quietly as a prince at Madrid. In
September 1816 he married Maria Francesca de Asis, daughter
of King John VI. of Portugal, and sister of the second wife of
his elder brother King Ferdinand VIL Though he took no part
in the government of Spain, except to hold a few formal offices,
Don Carlos was known for the rigid orthodoxy of his religious
opinions, the piety of his life, and his firm belief in the divine
right of kings to govern despotically. During the revolutionary
troubles of 1820-1823 he was threatened by the extreme radicals,
but no attack was made on him. When the revolutionary
agitation was put down by French intervention in 1823, Don
Carlos continued to behave as the affectionate brother and
loyal subject of Ferdinand VIL The family affection between
them was undoubtedly sincere, and was one of the very few
amiable traits in the character of the elder brother. Towards
the close of Ferdinand's reign Don Carlos was forced against his
own will into the position of a party leader, or rather into the
position of a prince whom a great party was forced to take as
its leader. The extreme clericals among the Spaniards, who were
the partisans of despotism because they rightly considered
it as most favourable to the church, began to be discontented
with King Ferdinand, who seemed wanting in energy. When
the king showed his intention to alter the law of succession in
order to secure the crown for his daughter Isabella, the clericals
(in the Spanish phrase, " apostolicos ") banded to protect the
rights of Don Carlos. There can be no question that if he had
been disposed to place himself at the head of an insurrection he
would have been followed, and might have put Ferdinand under
restraint. But Don Carlos held his principles honestly. He
considered rebellion as a sin in a prince as much as in other men,
and as wicked when made by " apostolicos " as by liberals.
He would do no more than assert his rights, and those of his
children, in words. His wife and her sister, the princess of
Beira, widow of his first cousin the infante Pedro, were less
scrupulous. They were actively engaged in intrigues with the
1 ' apostolicos. " In March 1 833 the princess of Beira was informed
by the king that her brother Don Miguel, then regent in Portugal,
desired her presence, and that she must pay him a visit. On
the 16th of March Don Carlos left for Portugal with his wife,
in company with the princess, after an interview with his brother
the king which is said to have been friendly. In the following
month he was called upon by the king to swear allegiance to the
infanta Isabella, afterwards queen. Don Carlos refused, in
respectful terms but with great firmness, to renounce his rights
and those of his sons, in a public letter dated the 29th of April.
The death of his brother on the 29th of September 1833 gave him
an opportunity to vindicate his claims without offence to his
principles, for in his own opinion and that of his partisans he
was now king. But he was entangled in the civil war of Portugal
and was shut off from Spain. He did, and perhaps could do,
nothing to direct the Spaniards who rose on his behalf, and had
proclaimed him king as Charles V. When the Miguelite party
was beaten in Portugal, Don Carlos escaped to England on the
1st of June 1834 in H.M.S. " Donegal/' His stay in England
was short. On the 2nd of July he passed over to France, where
he was actively aided by the legitimist party, and on the nth
CARLOS, DON
he joined his partisans at Elizondo in the valley of Bastan, in
the western Pyrenees. On the 27th of October of this year
he was deprived of his rights as infante by a royal decree, con-
firmed by the Cortes on the 15th of January 1837. Don Carlos
remained in Spain till the defeat of his party, and then escaped
to France on the 14th of September 1839. During these years
he accompanied his armies, without displaying any of the qualities
of a general or even much personal courage. But he endured a
good deal of hardship, and was often compelled to take to hiding in
the hills. On these occasions he was often carried over difficult
places on the back of a stout guide commonly known as the royal
jackass {burro real). The semblance of a court which he main-
tained was torn by incessant personal intrigues, and by con-
flicts between his generals and the ecclesiastics who exercised
unbounded influence over his mind. The defeat of his cause,
which had many chances of success, was unquestionably due to
a very large extent to his want of capacity, his apathy, and his
increasing absorption in practices of puerile piety. His first
wife having died in England, Don Carlos married her elder sister,
the princess of Beira, in Biscay in October 1837. After his
flight from Spain, Don Carlos led a life of increasing insignificance.
He abdicated in May 1845, took a title of count of Molina, and
died at Trieste on the 10th of March 1855.
By his first marriage, Don Carlos had three sons, Charles
(1818-1861), John (1822-1887), and Ferdinand (1824-1861).
Charles succeeded to the claims of his father, and was known to
his partisans as Don Carlos VI., but was more commonly known
as the count of Montemolin. In 1846, when the marriage of queen
Isabella was being negotiated, the Austrian government endeav-
oured to arrange an alliance between her and the count of
Montemolin. But as he insisted on the complete recognition of
his rights, the Spanish government refused to hear of him as
a candidate. The Carlists took up arms on his behalf between
1846 and 1848, but the count, who had been expelled from
France by the police, did not join them in the field. In April
i860 he and his brother Ferdinand landed at San Carlos de la
Rapita, at the mouth of the Ebro, in company with a feather-
headed officer named Ortega, who held a command in the Balearic
islands. They hoped to profit by the fact that the bulk of the
Spanish army was absent in a war with Morocco. But no Carlist
rising took place. The men who had been brought from the
islands by Ortega deserted him. Montemolin and his brother,
together with their devoted partisan General Elio, who had
accompanied them from exile, lurked in hiding for a fortnight and
were then captured. Ortega was shot, but the princes saved their
lives, and that of Elio, by making an abject surrender of their
claims. When he had been allowed to escape and had reached
Cologne, the count of Montemolin publicly retracted his renunica-
tion on the 1 5th of June, on the ignominious ground that it had
been extorted by fear. Montemolin and his brother Ferdinand*
died within a fortnight of one another in January 1861 without
issue.
The third brother, John, who had advanced his own claims
before his brother's retraction, now came forward as the repre-
sentative of the legitimist and Carlist cause. As he had shown
a disposition to accept liberalism, and to make concessions to
the spirit of the age, he was unpopular with the party. On the
3rd of October 1868 he made a formal renunciation in favour of
his son Charles (Don Carlos VII.) , who is separately noticed below.
See Hermann Baumgarten, Geschichte Spaniens (Leipzig, 1861);
H. Butler Clarke, Modern Spain (Cambridge, 1906), which contains a
useful bibliography.
CARLOS, DON (Charles Maria de los Dolores Juan
Isidore Joseph Francis Quirin Antony Michael Gabriel
Raphael) (i 848-1 909) ,prince of Bourbon, claimant,as Don Carlos
VII., to the throne of Spain, was born at Laibach on the 30th
of March 1848, being the eldest surviving son of Don Juan (John)
of Bourbon and of the archduchess Maria Beatrix, daughter of
Francis IV., duke of Modena. Don Carlos was the grandson of
the first pretender, noticed above. He married in February 1867,
at Frohsdorf , Princess Marguerite, daughter of the duke of Parma
and niece of the comte de Chambord, who was born on the 1st
CARLOW
345
of January 1847, an d who bore him a son, Don Jaime, in 1870,
and three daughters. Don Carlos boldly asserted his pretensions
to the throne of Spain two years after the revolution of 1868
had driven Queen Isabella II. and the other branch of the Bour-
bons into exile. His manifesto, addressed to his brother Alphonso,
namesake of his rival, Alphonso XII., found an echo in the
fanatical priesthood and peasantry of many provinces of the
Peninsula, but little support among the more enlightened
middle classes, especially in the towns. The first rising was
started in Catalonia by the brother of the pretender, who himself
entered Spain by way of Vera, in the Basque provinces, on the
21st of May 1872. The troops of King Amadeus under General
Moriones, a progressist officer, who was one of Spain's ablest
and most popular commanders, surprised and very nearly cap-
tured the pretender at Oroquista, sending him a fugitive to France
in headlong flight with a few followers. For more than a year
he loitered about in the French Pyrenees, the guest of old noble
houses who showed him m\ich sympathy, while the French
authorities winked at the fact that he was fomenting civil war
in Spain, where his guerilla bands, many of them led by priests,
committed atrocities, burning, pillaging, shooting prisoners of
war, and not unfrequently ill-using even foreign residents and
destroying their property. When the Federal Republic was
proclaimed on the abdication of King Amadeus, the Carlists had
overrun Spain to such an extent that they held all the interior
of Navarre, the three Basque provinces, and a great part of
Catalonia, Lower Aragon, and Valencia, and had made raids
into the provinces of Old Castile and Estremadura. Don Carlos
re-entered Spain on the 15th of July 1873, just before the Carlists
took Estella, in Navarre, which became, with Tolosa and Durango
in the Basque provinces, his favourite residence. He displayed
very lax morals and an apathy which displeased his staff and
partisans. Don Carlos was present at some fights around
Estella, and was in the neighbourhood of Bilbao during its
famous siege of three months in 1874 until its relief by Marshals
Serrano and Concha on the 2nd of May. He was also present
at the battle near Estella on the 27th of June 1874, in which
Marshal Concha was killed and the liberals were repulsed with
loss. Twice he lost golden opportunities of making a rush for
the capital — in 1873, during the Federal Republic, and after
Concha's death. From the moment that his cousin Alphonso XII.
was proclaimed king at Sagunto, at Valencia, in Madrid, and
at Logrono, by General Campos, Daban, Jovellar, Primo de
Rivera, and Laserna, the star of the pretender was on the wane.
Only once, a few weeks after the Alphonsist restoration, the
army of Don Carlos checked the Liberal forces in Navarre, and
surprised and made prisoners half a brigade, with guns and
colours, at Lacar, almost under the eyes of the new king and his
headquarters. This was the last Carlist success. The tide of war
set in favour of Alphonso XII., whose armies swept the Carlist
bands out of central Spain and Catalonia in 1875, while Marshal
Quesada, in the upper Ebro valley, Navarre, and Ulava, prepared
by a series of successful operations the final advance of 180,000
men, headed by Quesada and the king, which defeated the Carlists
at Estella, Pena Plata, and Elgueta, thus forcing Don Carlos
with a few thousand faithful Carlists to retreat and surrender to
the French frontier authorities in March 1876.
The pretender went to Pau, and there, singularly enough,
issued his proclamations bidding temporary adieu to the nation
and to his volunteers from the same chateau where Queen
Isabella, also a refugee, had issued hers in 1868. From that date
Don Carlos became an exile and a wanderer, travelling much in
the Old and New World, and raising some scandal by his mode of
life. He fixed his residence for a time in England, then in Paris,
from which he was expelled at the request of the Madrid govern-
ment, and next in Austria, before he took up his abode at
Viarreggio in Italy. Like all pretenders, he never gave in, and
his pretensions, haughtily reasserted, often troubled the courts
and countries whose hospitality he enjoyed. His great dis-
appointment was the coldness towards him of Pope Leo XIII. ,
and the favour shown by that pontiff for Alphonso XII. and his
godson, Alphonso XIII. Don Carlos had two splendid chances
of testing the power of his party in Spain, but failed to profit
by them. The first was when he was invited to unfurl his flag
on the death of Alphonso XII., when the perplexities and un-
certainties of CastiHan politics reached a climax during the first
year of a long minority under a foreign queen-regent. The second
was at the close of the war with the United States and after the
loss of the colonies, when the discontent was so widespread
that the Carlists were able to assure their prince that many
Spaniards looked upon his cause as the one untried solution of the
national difficulties. Don Carlos showed his usual lack of decision;
he wavered between the advice of those who told him to unfurl
his standard with a view to rally all the discontented and dis-
appointed, and of those who recommended him to wait until a great
pronunciamiento, chiefly military, should be made in his favour —
a day-dream founded upon the coquetting of General Weyler and
other officers with the Carlist senators and deputies in Madrid.
Afterwards the pretender continued to ask his partisans to go
on organising their forces for action some day, and to push
their propaganda and preparations, which was easy enough
in view of the indulgence shown them by all the governments
of the regency and the open favour exhibited by many of the
priesthood, especially in the rural districts, the religious orders,
and the Jesuits, swarming all over the kingdom. After the
death of his first wife in 1893, Don Carlos married in the following
year Princess Marie Bertha of Rohan, s He died on the 18th of
July 1909. His son by his first wife, Don Jaime, was educated
in Austrian and British military schools before he entered the
Russian army, in which he became a colonel of dragoons.
CARLOW* a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded N. by the counties Kildare and Wicklow, E. by Wicklow
and Wexford, S. by Wexford, and W. by Queen's county and
Kilkenny. Excepting Louth, it is the smallest county in Ireland,
having an area of 221,424 acres, or about 346 sq. m. The surface
of the county is in general level or gently undulating, and of
pleasing appearance, except the elevated tract of land known
as the ridge of Old Leighlin (Gallows Hill Bog, 974 ft.), forming
the beginning of the coal-measures of Leinster, and the south-
eastern portion of the county bordering on Wexford, where the
wild and barren granitic elevations of Knockroe (1746 ft.)
and Mount Leinster (2610 ft.) present a bolder aspect. Glacial
deposits, which overspread the lower grounds, sometimes afford
good examples of the ridge-forms known as eskers, as in the
neighbourhood of Bagenalstown. There are no lakes nor canals
in the county, nor does it contain the source of any important
river; but on its western side it is intersected from north to
south by the Barrow, which is navigable throughout the county
and affords means of communication with the port of Waterford;
while on the eastern border the Slaney, which is not navigable
in any part of its course through the county, passes out of
Carlow into Wexford at Newtownbarry.
Carlow is largely a granite county; but here the Leinster
Chain does not form a uniform moorland. The mica-schists and
Silurian slates of its eastern flank are seen in the diversified
and hilly country on the pass over the shoulder of Mt. Leinster,
between Newtownbarry and Borris. The highland drops west-
ward to the valley of the Barrow, Carlow and Bagenalstown
lying on Carboniferous Limestone, which here abuts upon the
granite. On the west of the hollow, the high edge of the Castle-
comer coalfields rises, scarps of limestone, grit, and coal-measures
succeeding one another on the ascent. Formerly clay-ironstone
was raised from the Upper Carboniferous strata.
The soil is of great natural richness, and the country is among
the most generally fertile in the island. Agriculture is the chief
occupation of the inhabitants, but is not so fully developed as
the capabilities of the land would suggest; in effect, the extent
of land under tillage shows a distinctly retrograde movement,
being rather more than half that under pasture. The pasture
land is of excellent quality, and generally occupied as dairy farms,
the butter made in this county maintaining a high reputation
in the Dublin market. The farms are frequently large, and care
is given to the breeding of cattle. Sheep and poultry, however,
receive the greatest attention. The staple trade of the county is
34-6
CARLOW— CARLSBAD
in corn, flour, meal, butter and provisions, which are exported
in large quantities. There are no manufactures. The sandstone
of the county is frequently of such a nature as to split easily
into layers, known in commerce as Carlow flags.
Porcelain clay exists in the neighbourhood of Tullow; but no
attempt is made to turn this product to use.
The Great Southern & Western railway from Kildare to Wexford
follows the river Barrow through the county, with a branch from
Bagenalstown to Kilkenny, while another branch from the north
terminates at Tullow.
As regards population (41,964 in 1891; 37,748 in 1901),
the county shows a decrease among the more serious of Irish
counties, and correspondingly heavy emigration returns. Of the
total, about 89% are Roman Catholics, and nearly the whole
are rural. Carlow (pop. 6513), Bagenalstown (1882), and
Tullow (1725) are the only towns. The county is divided into
seven baronies, and contains forty-four civil parishes and parts
of parishes. It belongs to the Protestant diocese of Dublin and
the Roman Catholic diocese of Kildare and LeighJin. The
assizes are held at Carlow, and quarter sessions at that town
and also at Bagenalstown and Tullow. One member is returned
to parliament.
Carlow, under the name of Catherlogh, is among the counties
generally considered to have been created in the reign of John.
Leinster was confirmed as a liberty to William Marshal, earl of
Pembroke, by John, and Carlow, among other counties in this
area, had the privileges of a palatinate on descending to one of
the earl's heiresses. The relics of antiquity in the county com-
prise large cromlechs at Browne's Hill near Carlow and at
Hacketstown, and a rath near Leighlin Bridge, in which were
found several urns of baked earth, containing only small quan-
tities of dust. Some relics of ecclesiastical and monastic buildings
exist, and also the remains of several castles built after the
English settlement. Old Leighlin, where the 12th century
cathedral of St Lazerian is situated, is merely a village, although
until the Union it returned two members to the Irish parliament.
CARLOW, the county town of Co. Carlow, Ireland, on the
navigable river Barrow. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6513.
It is 56 m. S.W. of Dublin by the Great Southern & Western
railway. The castle (supposed to have been founded by Hugh
de Lacy, appointed governor of Ireland in 11 79, but sometimes
attributed to King John), situated on an eminence overlooking
the river, is still a chief feature of attraction in the general
view of the town, although there is not much of the original
building left. It consisted of a hollow quadrangle, with a
massive round tower at each angle. The principal buildings are
the Roman Catholic College of St Patrick (1793), a plain but
spacious building in a picturesque park adjoining the Roman
Catholic cathedral of the diocese of Kildare and Leighlin; the
Protestant parish church, with a handsome steeple of modern
erection; the court-house, where the assizes are held, an octagonal
stone building with a handsome Ionic portico; and other county
buildings. The cathedral, in the Perpendicular style, has a
highly ornamented west front, and a monument to Bishop James
Doyle (d. 1834). The Wellington Bridge over the river Barrow
connects Carlow with the suburb of Graigue. Two m. N.E. of
the town is one of the finest cromlechs in Ireland, and 3 m.
to the west is the notable church, of Norman and pre-Norman
date, of Killeahin in Queen's county. The industries of Carlow
consist of brewing and flour-milling, and a considerable trade is
carried on in the sale of butter and eggs.
Carlow was of early importance. In the reign of Edward III.
the king's exchequer was removed thither, and £500, a large
sum at that period, applied towards surrounding the town with
a strong wall. In the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth
the castle was taken, and the town burned by the Irish chieftain,
Rory Oge O'More. When summoned to surrender by Ireton,
the Commonwealth general, during the war of 1641, Carlow
submitted without resistance. In the insurrection of 1798 the
castle was attacked by an undisciplined body of insurgents.
They were speedily repulsed, and suffered severe loss, no quarter
being given; and, in the confusion of their flight, many of the
insurgents took refuge in houses, which the king's troops im-
mediately set on fire. Carlow obtained a charter of incorporation
as early as the 13th century, and was reincorporated, with
enlarged privileges, by James I. The corporation, which was
styled " The Sovereign, Free Burgesses and Commonalty of
the Borough of Catherlogh," was authorized to return two
members to the Irish parliament. The town returned one
member to the Imperial parliament until 1885.
CARLSBAD* or Kaiser-Karlsbad (Czech, Karlovy Vary),
a town and celebrated watering-place of Bohemia, Austria,
116 m. W.N.W. of Prague by rail Pop. (1900) 14,640. It is
situated at an altitude of 1227 ft. and lies in the beautiful
narrow and winding valley of the Tepl at its junction with the
Eger, being hemmed in by precipitous granite hills, covered with
magnificent forests of pine. The town is spread on both banks
of the river and in the valley of the Eger, its houses being built-
up the mountain sides in tier above tier of terraces approached
by long flights of steps or steep and tortuous roads. This
irregularity of site and plan, together with the varied form and
high-pitched roofs of the houses, makes the place very picturesque.
Among the principal buildings of Carlsbad are the Catholic
parish church, built in 173 2-1 736 in rococo style; the gorgeous
Russian church, finished in 1897; the English church; and a
handsome synagogue. In the first rank of the other buildings
stands the famous Mlihlbrunnen Colonnade, erected between
187 1 and 1878, which, with its 103 monolithic granite Corinthian
columns, is a fine example of modern classical architecture;
the Kurhaus (1865); the magnificent Kaiserbad, built in 1895
in the French Renaissance style, and several other bathing
establishments; the Sprudel Colonnade, an imposing iron and
glass structure, built in 1879, within which rises the Sprudel,
the principal spring of Carlsbad; and several hospitals and
hospices for poor patients. Both banks of the Tepl are provided
with quais, planted with trees, which constitute the chief pro-
menades of the centre of the town; and there are, besides, a
municipal park and several public gardens.
The mineral springs, to which Carlsbad owes its fame, rise
from beneath a very hard kind of rock, known as Sprudelschale or
Sprudeldecke, beneath which it is believed that there exists
a large common reservoir of the hot mineral water, known as
the Sprudelkessel. Several artificial apertures in the rock have
been made for the escape of the steam of this subterranean
cauldron, which, owing to the incrustations deposited by the
water, require to be cleared at regular intervals. Altogether
there are seventeen warm springs, with a temperature varying
from 164 F. to 107*7° E., and two cold ones. The oldest, best-
known, and at the same time the most copious spring is the
Sprudel, a hot geyser with a temperature of 164 F., which
gushes up in jets of 1} ft thick to a height of about 3} ft, and
delivers about 405 gallons of water per minute. Other springs
are the Mlihlbrunnen, with a temperature of 121° F., which is
after the Sprudel the most used spring; the Neubrunnen
(138° F.); the Kaiser-Karl-Quelle (112° F.); the Theresien-
brunncn (134° F.), &c. The warm springs belong to the class
of alkaline-saline waters and have all the same chemical com-
position, varying only in their degree of temperature. The
chemical composition of the Sprudel, taken to a thousand parts
of water, is: 2*405 sulphate of soda, 1*298 bicarbonate of soda,
1 -042 chloride of soda, o* 186 sulphate of potash, o* 166 bicarbonate
of magnesia, 0*012 bicarbonate of lithium, and 0*966 carbonic
acid gas. They contain also traces of arsenic, antimony, selenium,
rubidium, tin and organic substances. The water is colourless and
odourless, with a slightly acidulated and salt taste, and has a
specific gravity of 1*0053 at 64*4° F. The waters are used both
for drinking and bathing, and are very beneficent in cases of liver
affections, biliary and renal calculi, diabetes, gout, rheumatism,
and uric add troubles. They are very powerful in their effect
and must not be used except under medical direction, and during
the cure, a carefully-regulated diet must be observed, coupled
with a moderate amount of exercise in the open air. The number
of visitors in 1001 was 51,454; in 1756 it was only 257; in 1828
it was 37*35 an( * it attained 14,182 in i&6q, and 34,396 in 1890.
CARLSBAD DECREES
347
Carlsbad is encircled by mountains, covered with beautiful
forests of pine, which are made accessible by well-kept paths.
Just above the town towers the Hirschensprung (1620 ft.),
a little farther the Freundschaftshdhe (1722 ft.); the Franz-
Josefs-Hohe (1663 ft); and the Aberg (1980 ft.). On the
opposite bank of the Tepl lies the Rudolfshdhe (1379 ft);
the Dreikreuzberg (1805 ft); the Kdnig Otto's Hdhe (i960 ft);
and the Ewiges Leben (2086 ft.), with the Stephaniewarte, a
tower, 98 ft. high, built in 1889, which commands a superb view.
The town is the centre of the porcelain and stoneware industry
of Bohemia, and manufactures a special liqueur (Karlsbader
Bitter), besides various objects from the Sprudel rock and con-
fectionery. It exported, in 1901, 2} millions of bottles of mineral
water, and 160,000 lb of Sprudel salt, i.e. salt obtained by
evaporation from the water of the Sprudel.
Many interesting places are to be found near Carlsbad. To
the north is the village of Dallwitz, with a porcelain factory,
a handsome castle and beautiful oaks extolled by Theodor
Kftrner, under which he composed in 181 2 his touching elegy on
the downfall of Germany. To the east is the watering-place of
Giesshttbl-Puchstein with celebrated springs, which contain
alkaline waters impregnated with carbonic acid gas. To the west
in the valley of the Eger, the village of Aich, with a porcelain
factory, and a little farther the much-visited Hans Heiling's
Rock, a wild and romantic spot, with which a very touching
legend is connected. To the south-east the ruined castle of
Engelhaus, situated on a rock of phonolite, 2340 ft. high, built
probably in the first part of the 13th century and destroyed by
the Swedes in 1635. At the foot of the mountain lies the actual
village of Engelhaus.
According to legend the springs of Carlsbad were discovered
during a hunting expedition by the emperor Charles IV., who
built the town, which derives its name from him, on both banks
of the Tepl. But the hot springs were already known two
centuries before, as is indicated by the name of the river Tepl
(warm), under which name the river was known in the 12th
century. Besides, on the same spot stood already in the 13th
century a place called Vary, which means the Sprudel. The
truth is, that the emperor Charles IV., after being cured here,
built about 1358 a castle in the neighbourhood and accorded
many privileges to the town. It obtained its charter as a town
in 1370; the fame of the waters spread and it was created a royal
free town in 1707 by the emperor Joseph I. The waters were
used only for bathing purposes until 1520, when they began to be
prescribed also for drinking. The first Kurhaus was erected in
1711 near the Mtihlbrunnen, and was replaced by a larger one,
built in 1 761 by the empress Maria Theresa. Carlsbad was
nearly completely destroyed by fire in 1604, and another great
fire raged here in 1759. It also suffered much from inundations,
especially in 1582 and 1890. In August 1819 a meeting of the
ministers of the German courts took place here under the presi-
dency of Prince Metternich, when many reactionary measures,
embodied in the so-called " Carlsbad Decrees " (see below),
were agreed upon and introduced in the various states of the
German Confederation.
Among the extensive literature of the place see Mannl, Carlsbad
and its Mineral Springs (Leipzig, 1850); Cartellieri, Karlsbad als
Kurort (Karlsbad, 1888); Friedenthal, Der Kurort Karlsbad Topo-
graphisch und Medizinisch (Karlsbad, 1895).
CARLSBAD DBCRBBS (Karlsbader Besckklsse), the name
usually given to a series of resolutions (Beschliisse) passed by a
conference of the ministers and envoys of the more important
German states, held at Carlsbad from the 6th to the 31st of
August 1819. The occasion of the meeting was the desire of
Prince Metternich to take advantage of the consternation caused
by recent revolutionary outrages (especially the murder of the
dramatist Kotzebue by Karl Sand) to persuade the German
governments to combine in a system for the suppression of the
Liberal agitation in Germany. The pretended urgency of the
case served as the excuse lor only inviting to the conference those
states whose ministers happened to be visiting Carlsbad at the
time. The conferences were, therefore, actually attended by
the representatives of Austria, Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Wttrt-
temberg, Hanover, Baden, Nassau and Mecklenburg; at the
fourth conference (August 9th) Baron von Fritsch, minister of
state for Saxe- Weimar, who " happened to be present " at
Carlsbad on that day, attended by special invitation. Prince
Metternich presided over the conferences, and Friedrich von
Gentz acted as secretary.
The business to be discussed, as announced in Metternich's
opening address, was twofold: (1) Matters of urgent importance
necessitating immediate action; (2) Questions affecting the
fundamental constitution of the German Confederation, demand-
ing more careful and prolonged discussion. To the first class
belonged (a) the urgent necessity for a uniform system of press
regulation in Germany; (b) the most urgent measures in regard
to the supervision of universities and schools; (c) measures in
view of the already discovered machinations of the political
parties. To the second class belonged (a) the more clear
definition of article XIII. of the Act of Confederation (i.e. state
constitutions); (b) the creation of a permanent federal supreme
court; (c) the creation of a federal executive organization
(Bundes-Executions Ordnung) armed with power to make the
decrees of the diet and the judgments of the high court effective;
(d) the facilitation of commercial intercourse within the con-
federation in accordance with article XIX. of the Act of Con-
federation (Beilage A. zum ersten Protokoll, Martens, iv. p. 74).
These questions were debated in twenty-three formal confer-
ences. On the issues raised by the first class there was practical
unanimity. All were agreed that the state of Germany demanded
disciplinary measures, and as the result of the deliberations it
was determined to lay before the federal diet definite proposals
for (1) a uniform press censorship over all periodical publications;
(2) a system of " curators " to supervise the education given
in universities and schools, with disciplinary enactments against
professors and teachers who should use their position for purposes
of political propaganda; (3) the erection of a central commission
at Mainz, armed with inquisitorial powers, for the purpose of
unmasking the widespread revolutionary conspiracy, the exist-
ence of which was assumed.
On the questions raised under the second class there was more
fundamental difference of opinion, and by far the greater part
of the time of the conference was occupied in discussing the
burning question of the due interpretation of article XIII.
The controversy raged round the distinction between " assemblies
of estates," as laid down in the article, and " representative
assemblies," such as had been already established in several
German states. Gentz, in an elaborate memorandum (Neben-
beilage zum siebenten Protokoll, iv. p. 102), laid down that
representation by estates was the only system compatible with
the conservative principle, as the " outcome of a well-ordered
civil society, in which the relations and rights of the several
estates are due to the peculiar position of the classes and cor-
porations on which they are based, which have been from time to
time modified by law without detracting from the essentials of the
sovereign power "; whereas representative assemblies are based
on " the sovereignty of the people." In answer to this, Count
Wintzingerode, on behalf of the king of Wiirttemberg, placed
on record (Nebenbeilage 2 zum neunten Protokoll, p. 147) a protest,
in which he urged that to insist on the system of estates would be
to stereotype caste distinctions foreign to the whole spirit of the
age, would alienate public opinion from the governments, and
— if enforced by the central power — would violate the sovereign
independence of those states which, like Wiirttemberg, had
already established representative constitutions.
Though the majority of the ministers present favoured the
Austrian interpretation of article XIII. as elaborated by Gentz,
they were as little prepared as the representative of Wiirttem-
berg to agree to any hasty measures for strengthening the
federal government at the expense of the jealously guarded
prerogatives of the minor sovereignties. The result was that the
constitutional questions falling under the second class were
reserved for further discussion at a general conference of German
ministers to be summoned at Vienna later in the year. The
348
CARLSTADT
effective Carlsbad resolutions, subsequently issued as laws by
the federal diet, were therefore only those dealing with the
curbing of the " revolutionary " agitation. For the results of
their operation see Germany: History.
The acts, ptotocols and resolutions of the conference of Carlsbad
are given in M. de Martens's Nouvcau Recueil genhol de traitis, &c.,
t. 4, pp. 8-166 (Gdttingen, 1846). An interesting criticism of the
Carlsbad Decrees is appended (p. 166), addressed by Baron Hans
von Gagern, Luxemburg representative in the federal diet, to
Baron von Plessen, Mecklenburg plenipotentiary at the conference
of Carlsbad. (W. A. P.)
CARLSTADT, Karlstadt or Karolostadt (1480-1541),
German reformer, whose real name was Andreas Rudolf Boden-
stein, was born at Carlstadt in Bohemia. He entered the
university of Erfurt in the winter term of 1499-1500, and re-
mained there till 1503, when he went to Cologne. In the winter
term of 1 504-1 505 he transferred himself to the newly founded
university of Wittenberg, where he soon established his repu-
tation as a teacher of philosophy, and a zealous champion of
the scholastic system of Thomas Aquinas, against the revised
nominalism associated with the name of Occam. In 1508 he
was made canon of the AllerheiligensHft, a collegiate church
incorporated in the university; and in 1 510 he became doctor of
theology and archdeacon, his duties being to preach, to say mass
once a week and to lecture before the university; in 15 13 he
was appointed ordinary professor of theology. In 151 5 he went
to Rome, where with a view to becoming provost of the AUer-
heiligenstift he studied law, taking his degree as doctor juris
utriusque. His experiences in the papal city produced upon him
the same effect as upon Luther, and when in 1516 he returned to
Germany it was as an ardent opponent of the Thomist philosophy
and as a champion of the Augustinian doctrine of the impotence
of the human will and salvation through Divine grace alone.
The 151 theses of Carlstadt, dated the 16th of September 1516,
discovered by Theodor Kolde (" Wittenberger Disputations-
thesen " in Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengesckichte, xi. p. 448, &c),
prove that, so far from owing his change of view to Luther's
influence, he was at this time actually in advance of Luther.
The two reformers were, in fact, never friends; though from the
end of 1 5 16 onwards the development of each was considerably
influenced by the other.
In the spring of 1518, in reply to Eck's Obelisci, an attack on
Luther's 95 theses, Carlstadt published a series of theses, main-
taining the supremacy of the Holy Scriptures (which he regarded
as verbally inspired) over ecclesiastical tradition and the authority
of the fathers, and asserting the liability of general councils to
error. Eck challenged him to a public disputation, in which
Luther also took part, and which lasted from the 27th of June
to the 15th of July 1519. In this dialectical warfare Carlstadt
was no match for Eck; but the dispute only served to confirm
him in his revolt from the dominant theology, and in three violent
polemical treatises against Eck he proclaimed the doctrine of the
exclusive operation of grace in the justification of believers.
This attitude led him in 1520, by a logical development, to an
open attack on all those ecclesiastical practices in which the
doctrine of justification by works had become crystallized;
e.g. indulgences and the abuse of holy water and consecrated
salt. At the same time he appeared as the first of modern biblical
critics, denying the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch and
classing the Scriptures into three categories of different value in
accordance with the degrees of certainty as to their traditional
origin. He still, however, maintained the doctrine of verbal
inspiration, and attacked Luther for rejecting the epistle of James.
In 1520 Carlstadt's name was included in the papal bull ex-
communicating Luther; after a momentary hesitation he decided
to remain firm in his protestant attitude, published an appeal
from the pope to a general council, and attacked the corruptions
of the papacy itself in a treatise on " the holiness of the pope "
(Von pdpstlicher Heiligkeit, October 17th, 1520).
In May 1521 Carlstadt went to Denmark, on the invitation of
JKing Christian II., to assist in the reform of the church; but his
disposition was anything but conciliatory, and, though his
**»i?ueiice is traceable in the royal law of the 26th of May 1521
abolishing the celibacy of the clergy, he was forced, by the hos-
tility of nobles and clerics alike, to leave after a few weeks' stay.
In June he was back in Wittenberg, busy with tracts on the Holy
Sacrament (he still believed in the corporeal presence) and against
the celibacy of the clergy (de coelibatu). Carlstadt has been
unjustly accused of being responsible for the riots against the
Mass fomented by the Augustinian friars and the students; as
a matter of fact, he did his best to keep the peace, pending a
decision by the elector of Saxony and the authorities of the
university, and it was not till Christmas day that he himself
publicly communicated the laity under both species. The next
day he announced his engagement to a young lady of noble
family, Anna von Mochau.
From this moment Carlstadt was accepted as the leader of
Protestantism in Wittenberg; and, at his instance, auricular
confession, the elevation of the Host and the rules for fasting
were abolished. On the 19th of January he was married, in
the presence of many of the university professors and city
magistrates. A few days later the property of the religious
corporations was confiscated by the city and, after pensions had
been assigned to their former members, was handed over to
charitable foundations. A pronouncement of Carlstadt's against
pictures and images, supported by the town, also led to icono-
clastic excesses.
The return of Luther early in March, however, ended Carl-
stadt's supremacy. The elector Frederick the Wise was stren-
uously opposed to any alteration in the traditional services, and
at his command Luther restored communion in one kind and
the elevation of the Host. Carlstadt himself, though still pro-
fessor, was deprived of all influence in practical affairs, and
devoted himself entirely to theological speculation, which led him
ever nearer to the position of the mystics. He now denied the
necessity for a clerical order at all, called himself " a new layman,"
doffed his ecclesiastical dress, and lived for a while as a peasant
with his wife's relations at Segrena. In the middle of 1523,
however, he went to Orlamiinde, a living held by him with his
canonry, and there in the parish church reformed the services
according to his ideas, abolishing the Mass and even preaching
against the necessity for sacraments at all. He still continued
occasionally to lecture at Wittenberg and to fulminate against
Luther's policy of compromise. *«-.■« -»»•«-- -
All this brought him into violent conflict with the elector,
the university and Luther himself. His professorship and living
were confiscated and, in September 1524, he went into exile
with his wife and child. He was now exposed to great privations
and hardships, but found opportunity for polemical writing,
proclaiming for the first time his disbelief in the " Real Presence."
He preached wherever he could gain a hearing, and visited
Strassburg, Heidelberg, Zurich, Basel, Schweinfurth, Kitzingen
and Nordlingen, before he found a more permanent resting-place
at Rothenburg on the Tauber. He was here when the Peasants'
War broke out, and was sent as a delegate to reason with the
insurgents. His admonitions were unsuccessful, and he only
succeeded in bringing himself under suspicion of being in part
responsible for their excesses. When Rothenburg was taken
by the margrave of Anspach (28th June 1525) Carlstadt had to
fly for his life. His spirit was now broken, and from Frankfort
he wrote to Luther humbly praying him to intercede for him
with the elector. Luther agreed to do so, on receiving from
Carlstadt a recantation of his heterodox views on the Lord's
Supper, and as the result the latter was permitted to return to
Wittenberg (1525). He was not, however, allowed to lecture,
and he lived as a peasant, first at Segrena and afterwards at
Bergwitz, cultivating small properties, in which he had invested
the remnant of his fortune, with such poor success that at the
end of 1526 he had to eke out a living as a pedlar in the little
town of Kemberg. This was endurable; but not so the demand
presently made upon him to take up the cudgels against Zwingli
and Oecolampadius. Once more he revolted; to agree with
" Dr Martin's opinions on the sacrament " was as difficult as
flying like a bird; he appealed to the elector to allow him to
leave Saxony; but the elector's conscience was in Luther's
CARLYLE, A.— CARLYLE, THOMAS
349
keeping, and Carlstadt had to fly ignominiously in order to avoid
imprisonment. He escaped to Holstein, where in March 1529
he stayed with the Anabaptist Melchior Hofmann. Expelled
by the authorities, he took refuge in East Friesland, where he
remained till the beginning of 1530 under the protection of a
nobleman in sympathy with the Helvetic reformers. His
preaching gave him great influence, but towards the close. of the
year persecution again sent him on his travels. He ultimately
reached Zurich, where the recommendations of Bucer and
Oecolampadius secured him a friendly reception by Zwingli, who
procured him employment. After Zwingli's death he remained
in close intercourse with the Zurich preachers, who defended
him against renewed attacks on Luther's part; and finally, in
1534, on Bullinger's recommendation, he was called to Basel as
preacher at the church of St Peter and professor at the university.
Here he remained till his death on the 24th of December 1541.
During these latter years Carlstadt's attitude became more
moderate. His championship of the town council against the
theocratic claims of Antistes Myconius and the ecclesiastical
council, in the matter of the control of the university, was
perhaps in consonance with his earlier views on the relations of
clergy and laity. He was, however, also instrumental in restoring
the abolished doctorate of theology and other degrees; and,
despatched on a mission to Strassburg in 1536, to take part in a
discussion on a proposed compromise in the matter of the Lord's
Supper between the theologians of Strassburg and Wittenberg,
he displayed a conciliatory attitude which earned him the praise
of Bucer. Carlstadt's historical significance lies in the fact that
he was one of the pioneers of the Reformation. But he was a
thinker and dreamer rather than a man of affairs, and though
he had the moral and physical courage to carry his principles
to their logical conclusions (he was the first priest to write against
celibacy, and the first to take a wife), he lacked the balance of
mind and sturdy common sense that inspired Luther's policy
of consideration for " the weaker brethren " and built up the
Evangelical Church on a conservative basis. But though Carl-
stadt was on friendly terms, and corresponded with Munzer and
other Anabaptists, he did not share their antinomian views, nor
was he responsible for their excesses. His opinion as to the
relation of faith and " good works " was practically that ex-
pressed in articles XI. and XII. of the Church of England.
In reply to Luther's violent onslaught on him in his Wider
die himmlischen Propheten he issued from Rothenburg his
Anzeig etlicher Hauptartikel christlicher Lehre, a compendious
exposition of his views, in which he says: " Those who urge to
good works do so, not that the conscience may be justified by
works, but that their freedom may redound to God's glory and
that their neighbours may be fired to praise God,"
r See C. F. Jaeger, Andreas Bodensteiriyon Karlstadt (Stuttgart, 1 856) ;
Hermann Barge, Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt, vol. 1. (Leipzig,
1905).
CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (17 2 2-1805), Scottish divine, was
born on the 26th of January 1722, in Dumfriesshire, and passed
his youth and early manhood at Prestonpans, where he wit-
nessed the battle of 1745. He was educated at Edinburgh
(M.A. 1743), Glasgow and Leiden. From 1748 until his death
on the 28th of August 1805 he was minister at Inveresk in Mid-
lothian, and during this long career rose to high eminence
in his church not only as leader of the moderate or " broad "
Church section, but as moderator of the General Assembly 1770
and dean of the Chapel Royal in 1789. His influence was
enhanced by his personal appearance, which was so striking
as to earn him the name of " Jupiter Carlyle "; and his auto-
biography (published i860), though written in his closing years
and not extending beyond the year 1 7 70, is abundantly interesting
as a picture of Scottish life, social and ecclesiastical, in the 18th
century. Carlyle's memory recalled the Porteous Riots of 1736,
and less remotely his friendship with Adam Smith, David Hume,
and John Home, the dramatist, for witnessing the performance
of whose tragedy Douglas he was censured in 1757. He was
distinctly a bon vivant, but withal an upright, conscientious
and capable minister.
CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1750-1804), British orientalist,
was born in 1750 at Carlisle, where his father was a physician.
He went in 1775 to Cambridge, was elected a fellow of Queens'"
College in 1779, taking the degree of B.D. in 1793. With the
assistance of a native of Bagdad known in England as David
Zamio, then resident at Cambridge, he attained great proficiency
in Arabic literature; and after succeeding Dr Paley in the
chancellorship of Carlisle, he was appointed, in 1795, professor
of Arabic in Cambridge University. His translation from the
Arabic of Yusuf ibn Taghri Birdi, the Rerum Egypticartm
Annates, appeared in 1792, and in 1796 a volume of Specimens
of Arabic Poetry, from the earliest times to the fall of the Caliphate,
with some account of the authors. Carlyle was appointed chap-
lain by Lord Elgin to the embassy at Constantinople in 1799,
and prosecuted his researches in Eastern literature in a tour
through Asia Minor, Palestine, Greece and Italy, collecting in his
travels several valuable Greek and Syriac MSS. for a projected
critical edition of the New Testament, collated with the Syriac
and other versions — a work, however, which he did not live to
complete. On his return to England in 1801 he was presented
by the bishop of Carlisle to the living of Newcastle-on-Tyne,
where he died on the 12 th of April 1804. After his death there
appeared a volume of poems descriptive of the scenes of his
travels, with prefaces extracted from his journal. Among
other works which he left unfinished was an edition o| the Bible
in Arabic, completed by H. Ford and published in 181 1.
CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881), British essayist, historian
and philosopher,born on the 4th of December 1 795 at Ecclef echan,
in Annandale, was the eldest of the nine children of James
Carlyle by his second wife, Janet Aitken. The father was by
trade a mason, and afterwards a small farmer. He had joined
a sect of seceders from the kirk, and had all the characteristics
of the typical Scottish Calvinist. He was respected for his
integrity and independence, and a stern outside covered warm
affections. The family tie between all the Carlyles was unusually
strong, and Thomas regarded his father with a reverence which
found forcible expression in his Reminiscences. He always
showed the tenderest love for his mother, and was the best of
brothers. The narrow means of his parents were made sufficient
by strict frugality. He was sent to the parish school when
seven, and to Annan grammar-school when ten years old
His pugnacity brought him into troubles with his fellows at
Annan; but he soon showed an appetite for learning which
induced his father to educate him for the ministry. He walked
to Edinburgh in November 1809, and entered the university.
He cared little for any of the professors, except Sir John Leslie,
from whom he learned some mathematics. He acquired a little
classical knowledge, but the most valuable influence was that of
his contemporaries. A few lads in positions similar to his own
began to look up to him as an intellectual leader, and their
correspondence with him shows remarkable interest in literary
matters. In 1814 Carlyle, still looking forward to the career
of a minister, obtained the mathematical mastership at Annan.
The salary of £60 or £70 a year enabled him to save a little money.
He went to Edinburgh once or twice, to deliver the discourses
required from students of divinity. He does not seem, however,
to have taken to his profession very earnestly. He was too shy
and proud to see many of the Annan people, and found his chief
solace in reading such books as he could get. In 1816 he was
appointed, through the recommendation of Leslie, to a school
at Kirkcaldy, where Edward Irving, Carlyle's senior by three
years, was also master of a school. Irving's severity as a teacher
had offended some of the parents, who set up Carlyle to be his
rival. A previous meeting with Irving, also a native of Annan,
had led to a little passage of arms, but Irving now welcomed
Carlyle with a generosity which entirely won his heart, and the
rivals soon became the closest of friends. The intimacy, affection-
ately commemorated in the Reminiscences, was of great im-
portance to Carlyle's whole career. " But for Irving," he says,
" I had never known what the communion of man with man
means. " Irving had a library, in which Carlyle devoured Gibbon
and much French literature, and they made various excursions
35°
together. Carlyle did his duties as a schoolmaster punctiliously,
but found the life thoroughly uncongenial. No man was less
fitted by temperament for the necessary drudgery and worry.
A passing admiration for a Miss Gordon is supposed to have
suggested the " Blumine " of Sartor Resartus; but he made
no new friendships, and when Irving left at the end of 1818
Carlyle also resigned his post.
He had by this time resolved to give up the ministry. He has
given no details of the intellectual change which alienated him
from the church. He had, however, been led, by whatever
process, to abandon the dogmatic system of his forefathers,
though he was and always remained in profound sympathy
with the spirit of their teaching. A period of severe struggle
followed. He studied law for a time, but liked it no better than
schoolmastering. He took a pupil or two, and wrote articles
for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia under the editorship of Brewster.
He occasionally visited his family, and their unfailing confidence
helped to keep up his courage. Meanwhile he was going through
a spiritual crisis. Atheism seemed for a time to be the only
alternative to his old creed. It was, however, profoundly
repugnant to him. At last, one day in June 182 1, after three
weeks 1 total sleeplessness, he went through the crisis afterwards
described quite " literally " in Sartor Resartus. He cast out
the spirit of negation, and henceforth the temper of his misery
was changed to one, not of " whining," but of " indignation
and grim fire-eyed defiance." That, he says, was his spiritual
new-birth, though certainly not into a life of serenity. The
conversion was coincident with Carlyle's submission to a new
and very potent influence. In 1819 he had begun to study
German, with which he soon acquired a very remarkable familiar-
ity. Many of his contemporaries were awakening to the im-
portance of German thought, and Carlyle's knowledge enabled
him before long to take a conspicuous part in diffusing the new
intellectual light. The chief object of his reverence was Goethe.
In many most important respects no two men could be more
unlike; but, for the present, Carlyle seems to have seen in Goethe
a proof that it was possible to reject outworn dogmas without
sinking into materialism. Goethe, by singularly different
methods, had emerged from a merely negative position into
a lofty and coherent conception of the universe. Meanwhile,
Carlyle's various anxieties were beginning to be complicated
by physical derangement. A rat, he declared, was gnawing
at the pit of his stomach. He was already suffering from the
ailments, whatever their precise nature, from which he never
escaped. He gave vent to his irritability by lamentations so
grotesquely exaggerated as to make it difficult to estimate the
real extent of the evil.
Irving's friendship now became serviceable. Carlyle's con-
fession of the radical difference of religious opinion had not
alienated his friend, who was settling in London, and used his
opportunities for promoting Carlyle's interest. In January
1822 Carlyle, through Irving's recommendation, became
tutor to Charles and Arthur Buller, who were to be students
at Edinburgh. Carlyle's salary was £200 a year, and this, with
the proceeds of some literary work, enabled him at once to help
his brother John to study medicine and his brother Alexander
to take up a farm. Carlyle spent some time with the elder
Bullers, but found a life of dependence upon fashionable people
humiliating and unsatisfactory. He employed himself at inter-
vals upon a life of Schiller and a translation of Wtihelm Meister.
He received £50 for a translation of Legendre's Geometry ; and
an introduction, explaining the theory of proportion, is said by
De Morgan to show that he could have gained distinction as an
expounder of mathematical principles. He finally gave up his
tutorship in July 1824, and for a time tried to find employment
in London. The impressions made upon him by London men
of letters were most unfavourable. Carlyle felt by this time
conscious of having a message to deliver to mankind, and his
comrades, he thought, were making literature a trade instead of
a vocation, and prostituting their talents to frivolous journalism.
He went once to see Coleridge, who was then delivering his
oracular utterances at Highgate, and the only result was the
CARLYLE, THOMAS
singularly vivid portrait given in a famous chapter in his life of
Sterling. Coleridge seemed to him to be ineffectual as a philoso-
pher, and personally to be a melancholy instance of genius running
to waste. Carlyle, conscious of great abilities, and impressed
by such instances of the deleterious effects of the social atmo-
sphere of London, resolved to settle in his native district. There
he could live frugally and achieve some real work. He could,
for one thing, be the interpreter of Germany to England. A
friendly letter from Goethe, acknowledging the translation of
WiDielm Meister, reached him at the end of 1824 and greatly
encouraged him. Goethe afterwards spoke warmly of the life
of Schiller, and desired it to be translated into German. Letters
occasionally passed between them in later years, which were
edited by Professor Charles Eliot Norton in 1887. Goethe
received Carlyle's homage with kind complacency. The gift
of a seal to Goethe on his birthday in 183 1 " from fifteen English
friends," including Scott and Wordsworth, was suggested and
carried out by Carlyle. The interest in German, which
Carlyle did so much to promote, suggested to him other
translations and reviews during the next few years, and
he made some preparations for a history of German literature.
British curiosity, however, about such matters seems to
have been soon satisfied, and the demand for such work
slackened.
Carlyle was meanwhile passing through the most important
crisis of his personal history. Jane Baillie Welsh, born 1801,
was the only child of Dr Welsh of Haddington. She had shown
precocious talent, and was sent to the school at Haddington
where Edward Irving (q.v.) was a master. After her father's
death in 18 19 she lived with her mother, and her wit and beauty
attracted many admirers. Her old tutor, Irving, was now
at Kirkcaldy, where he became engaged to a Miss Martin. He
visited Haddington occasionally in the following years, and a
strong mutual regard arose between him and Miss Welsh. They
contemplated a marriage, and Irving endeavoured to obtain a
release from his previous engagement. The Martin family
held him to his word, and he took a final leave of Miss Welsh
in 1822. Meanwhile he had brought Carlyle from Edinburgh
and introduced him to the Welshes. Carlyle was attracted by
the brilliant abilities of the young lady, procured books for her
and wrote letters to her as an intellectual guide. The two were
to perform a new variation upon the theme of Abelard and
He*lobe. [A good deal of uncertainty long covered the precise
character of their relations. Until 1900, when Mr. Alexander
Carlyle published his edition of the " love-letters," the full
material was not accessible; they had been read by Carlyle's
biographer, Froude, and also by Professor Charles Norton, and
Norton (in his edition of Carlyle's Early Letters, 1886) declared
that Froude had distorted the significance of this corre-
spondence in a sense injurious to the writers. The publica-
tion of the letters certainly seems to justify Norton's view.]
Miss Welsh's previous affair with Irving had far less im-
portance than Froude ascribes to it; and she soon came to
regard her past love as a childish fancy. She recognized
Carlyle's vast intellectual superiority, and the respect gradually
deepened into genuine love. The process, however, took some
time. Her father had bequeathed to her his whole property
(£200 to £300 a year). In 1823 she made it over to her mother,
but left the whole to Carlyle in the event of her own and her
mother's death. She still declared that she did not love him
well enough to become his wife. In 1824 she gradually relented
so far as to say that she would marry if he could achieve inde-
pendence. She had been brought up in a station superior to
that of the Carlyles, and could not accept the life of hardship
which would be necessary in his present circumstances. Carlyle,
accustomed to his father's household, was leas frightened by the
prospect of poverty. He was determined not to abandon his
vocation as a man of genius by following the lower though more
profitable paths to literary success, and expected that his wife
should partake the necessary sacrifice of comfort. The natural
result of such discussions followed. The attraction became
stronger on both sides, in spite of occasional spasms of doubt
CARLYLE, THOMAS
35 1
An odd incident precipitated the result. A friend of Irving's,
Mrs Basil Montague, wrote to Miss Welsh, to exhort her to sup-
press her love for Irving, who had married Miss Martin in 1823.
Miss Welsh replied by announcing her intention to marry Carlyle ;
and then told him the whole story, of which he had previously
been ignorant. He properly begged her not to yield to the
impulse without due consideration. She answered by coming
at once to his father's house, where he was staying; and the
marriage was finally settled. It took place on the 17th of
October 1826.
Carlyle had now to arrange the mode of life which should
enable him to fulfil his aspiration. His wife had made over her
income to her mother, but he had saved a small sum upon which
to begin housekeeping. A passing suggestion from Mrs Carlyle
that they might live with her mother was judiciously abandoned.
Carlyle had thought of occupying Craigenputtock, a remote and
dreary farm belonging to Mrs Welsh. His wife objected his
utter incapacity as a farmer; and they finally took a small
house at Comely Bank, Edinburgh, where they could live on a
humble scale. The brilliant conversation of both attracted
some notice in the literary society of Edinburgh. The most
important connexion was with Francis, Lord Jeffrey, still editor
of the Edinburgh Review. Though Jeffrey had no intellectual
sympathy with Carlyle, he accepted some articles ior the Review
and became warmly attached to Mrs Carlyle. Carlyle began to
be known as leader of a new " mystic " school, and his earnings
enabled him to send his brother John to study in Germany.
The public appetite, however, for " mysticism " was not keen.
In spite of support from Jeffrey and other friends, Carlyle failed
in a candidature for a professorship at St Andrews. His brother,
Alexander, had now taken the farm at Craigenputtock, and the
Carlyles decided to settle at the separate dwelling-house there,
which would bring them nearer to Mrs Welsh. They went there
in 1828, and began a hard struggle. Carlyle, indomitably
determined to make no concessions for immediate profit, wrote
slowly and carefully, and turned out some of his most finished
work. He laboured " passionately " at Sartor Resartus, and
made articles out of fragments originally intended for the history
of German literature. The money difficulty soon became more
pressing. John, whom he was still helping, was trying unsuccess-
fully to set up as a doctor in London; and Alexander's farming
failed. In spite of such drawbacks, Carlyle in later years looked
back upon the life at Craigenputtock as on the whole a compara-
tively healthy and even happy period, as it was certainly one
of most strenuous and courageous endeavour. Though often
absorbed in his work and made both gloomy and irritable by his
anxieties, he found relief in rides with his wife, and occasionally
visiting their relations. Their letters during temporary separa-
tions are most affectionate. The bleak climate, however, the
solitude, and the necessity of managing a household with a single
servant, were excessively trying to a delicate woman, though
Mrs Carlyle concealed from her husband the extent of her
sacrifices. The position was gradually becoming untenable.
In the autumn of 183 1 Carlyle was forced to accept a loan of £50
from Jeffrey, and went in search of work to London, whither his
wife followed him. He made some engagements with publishers,
though no one would take Sartor Resartus, and returned to
Craigenputtock in the spring of 1832. Jeffrey, stimulated per-
haps by his sympathy for Mrs Carlyle, was characteristically
generous. Besides pressing loans upon both Thomas and John
Carlyle, he offered to settle an annuity of £100 upon Thomas,
and finally enabled John to support himself by recommending
him to a medical position. 1 Carlyle's proud spirit of independence
made him reject Jeffrey's help as long as possible; and even
his acknowledgment of the generosity (in the Reminiscences) is
tinged with something disagreeably like resentment. In 1834 he
applied to Jeffrey for a post at the Edinburgh Observatory.
■John Aitken Carlyle (1801-1879) finally settled near the Carlyles
in Chelsea. He began an English prose version of Dante's Divine
Comedy — which has earned him the name of " Dante Carlyle " —
but only completed the translation of the Inferno (18^9). The
work included a critical edition of the text and a valuable intro-
duction and notes.
Jeffrey naturally declined to appoint a man who, in spite of
some mathematical knowledge, had no special qualification, and
administered a general lecture upon Carlyle's arrogance and
eccentricity which left a permanent sense of injury.
In the beginning of 1833 the Carlyles made another trial of
Edinburgh. There Carlyle found materials in the Advocates'
Library for the article on the Diamond Necklace, one of his most
perfect writings, which led him to study the history of the French
Revolution. Sartor Resartus was at last appearing in Fraser 9 s
Magazine, though the rate of payment was cut down, and the
publisher reported that it was received with "unqualified
dissatisfaction." Edinburgh society did not attract him, and he
retreated once more to Craigenputtock. After another winter
the necessity of some change became obvious. The Carlyles
resolved to " burn their ships." They went to London in the
summer of 1834, and took a house at 5 (now 24) Cheyne Row,
Chelsea, which Carlyle inhabited till his death; the house has
since been bought for the public. Irving, who had welcomed
him on former occasions, was just dying, — a victim, as Carlyle
thought, to fashionable cajoleries. A few young men were
beginning to show appreciation. J. S. Mill had made Carlyle's
acquaintance in the previous visit to London, and had corre-
sponded with him. Mill had introduced Ralph Waldo Emerson,
who visited Craigenputtock in 1833. Carlyle was charmed with
Emerson, and their letters published by Professor Norton show
that his regard never cooled. Emerson's interest showed that
Carlyle's fame was already spreading in America. Carlyle's
connexion with Charles Buller, a zealous utilitarian, introduced
him to the circle of " philosophical radicals."
Carlyle called himself in some sense a radical; and J. S. Mill,
though not an intellectual disciple, was a very warm admirer of his
friend's genius. Carlyle had some expectation of the editorship of
the London Review, started by Sir W. Molesworth at this time as
an organ of philosophical radicalism. The combination would
clearly have been explosive. Meanwhile Mill, who had collected
many books upon the French Revolution, was eager to help
Carlyle in the history which he was now beginning. He set to
work at once and finished the first volume in five months. The
manuscript, while entrusted to Mill for annotation, was burnt by
an accident. Mill induced Carlyle to accept in compensation
£100, which was urgently needed. Carlyle took up the task again
and finished the whole on the 1 2th of January 1837. " I can tell
the world," he said to his wife, " you have not had for a hundred
years any book that comes more direct and flamingly from the
heart of a living man. Do what you like with it, you "
The publication, six months later, of the French Revolution
marks the turning-point of Carlyle's career. Many readers hold
it to be the best, as it is certainly the most characteristic, of
Carlyle's books. The failure of Sartor Resartus to attract
average readers is quite intelligible. It contains, indeed, some
of the most impressive expositions of his philosophical position,
and some of his most beautiful and perfectly written passages.
But there is something forced and clumsy, in spite of the flashes
of grim humour, in the machinery of the Clothes Philosophy.
The mannerism, which has been attributed to an imitation of Jean
Paul, appeared to Carlyle himself to be derived rather from the
phrases current in his father's house, and in any case gave an
appropriate dialect for the expression of his peculiar idiosyncrasy.
But it could not be appreciated by readers who would not take
the trouble to learn a new language. In the French Revolution
Carlyle had discovered his real strength. He was always at his
best when his imagination was set to work upon a solid frame-
work of fact. The book shows a unique combination: on the
one hand is the singularly shrewd insight into character and
the vivid realization of the picturesque; on the other is the
" mysticism " or poetical philosophy which relieves the events
against a background of mystery. The contrast is marked by
the humour which seems to combine a cynical view of human
folly with a deeply pathetic sense of the sadness and suffering of
life. The convictions, whatever their value, came, as he said,
" flamingly from the heart." It was, of course, impossible for
Carlyle to satisfy modern requirements of matter-of-fact accuracy.
352
CARLYLE, THOMAS
He could not in the time have assimilated all the materials even
then extant, and later accumulations would necessitate a
complete revision. Considered asa" prose epic," or a vivid
utterance of the thought of the period, it has a permanent and
unique value.
The book was speedily successful. It was reviewed by Mill
in the Westminster and by Thackeray in The Times, and Carlyle,
after a heroic struggle, was at last touching land. In each of
the years 1837 to 1840 he gave a course of lectures, of which
the last only (upon " Hero Worship ") was published; they
materially helped his finances. By Emerson's management he
also received something during the same period from American
publishers. At the age of forty-five he had thus become inde-
pendent. He had also established a portion among the chief
writers of the day. Young disciples, among whom John Sterling
was the most accepted, were gathering round him, and he became
an object of social curiosity. Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) ,
who won universal popularity by the most genuine kindliness
of nature, became a cordial friend. Another important intimacy
was with the Barings, afterwards Lord and Lady Ashburton.
Carlyle's conversational powers were extraordinary; though, as
he won greater recognition as a prophet, he indulged too freely
in didactic monologue. In his prophetic capacity he published
two remarkable books: Chartism (1829), enlarged from an article
which Lockhart, though personally approving, was afraid to take
for the Quarterly \ and Past and Present (1843), in which the
recently published Mediaeval Chronicle was taken as a text
for the exposure of modern evils. They may be regarded as
expositions of the doctrine implicitly set forth in the French
Revolution. Carlyle was a " radical " as sharing the sentiments
of the class in which he was born. He had been profoundly
moved by the widely-spread distresses in his earlier years. When
the yeomanry were called out to suppress riots after the Peace,
his sympathies were with the people rather than with the
authorities. So far he was in harmony with Mill and the * ' philo-
sophical radicals." A fundamental divergence of principle,
however, existed and was soon indicated by his speedy separation
from the party and alienation from Mill himself. The Revolu-
tion, according to him, meant the sweeping away of effete beliefs
and institutions, but implied also the necessity of a reconstructive
process. Chartism begins with a fierce attack upon the laissez
favre theory, which showed blindness to this necessity. The
prevalent political economy, in which that theory was embodied,
made a principle of neglecting the very evils which it should be
the great function of government to remedy. Carlyle's doctrines,
entirely opposed to the ordinary opinions of Whigs and Radicals,
found afterwards an expositor in his ardent disciple Ruskin, and
have obvious affinities with more recent socialism. At the time
he was as one crying in the wilderness to little practical purpose.
Liberals were scandalized by his apparent identification of
" right " with " might," implied in the demand for a strong
government; and though he often declared the true inter-
pretation to be that the right would ultimately become might,
his desire for strong government seemed too often to sanction
the inverse view. He came into collision with philanthropists,
and was supposed to approve of despotism for its own sake.
His religious position was equally unintelligible to the average
mind. While unequivocally rejecting the accepted creeds, and
so scandalizing even liberal theologians, he was still more hostile
to simply sceptical and materialist tendencies. He was, as he
called himself, a " mystic "; and his creed was too vague to be
put into any formula beyond a condemnation of atheism. One
corollary was the famous doctrine of " hero worship " first ex-
pounded in his lectures. Any philosophy of history which
emphasized the importance of general causes seemed to him
to imply a simply mechanical doctrine and to deny the efficacy
of the great spiritual forces. He met it by making biography
the essence of history, or attributing all great events to the
" heroes," who are the successive embodiments of divine
revelations. This belief was implied in his next great work, the
Life and Letters of Oliver Cromwell, published in 1845. The great
Puritan hero was a man after his own heart, and the portrait
drawn by so sympathetic a writer is not only intensely vivid, but
a very effective rehabilitation of misrepresented character. The
" biographical " view of history, however, implies the weakness,
not only of unqualified approval of all Cromwell's actions, but of
omitting any attempt to estimate the Protector's real relation
to the social and political development of the time. The ques-
tion, what was Cromwell's real and permanent achievement, is
not answered nor distinctly considered. The effect maybe partly
due to the peculiar form of the book as a detached series of docu-
ments and comments. The composition introduced Carlyle to
the " Dryasdust " rubbish heaps of which he here and ever after-
wards bitterly complained. A conscientious desire to unearth
the facts, and the effort of extracting from the dullest records
the materials for graphic pictures, made the process of production
excessively painful. For some years after Cromwell Carlyle
wrote little. His growing acceptance by publishers, and the
inheritance of her property by Mrs Carlyle on her mother's death
in 1842, finally removed the stimulus of money pressure. He
visited Ireland in 1846 and again in 1849, when he made a long
tour in company with Sir C. Gavan Duffy, then a young member
of the Nationalist party (see Sir C. G. Duffy's Conversations with
Carlyle, 1892, for an interesting narrative). Carlyle's strong
convictions as to the misery and misgovernment of Ireland re-
commended him to men who had taken part in the rising of 1848.
Although the remedies acceptable to a eulogist of CromweU
could not be to their taste, they admired his moral teaching;
and he received their attentions, as Sir C. G. Duffy testifies, with
conspicuous courtesy. His aversion from the ordinary radical-
ism led to an article upon slavery in 1849, to which Mill replied,
and which caused their final alienation. It was followed in 1850
by the Latterday Pamphlets, containing "sulphurous" denun-
ciations of the do-nothing principle. They gave general offence,
and the disapproval, according to Froude, stopped the sale for
years. The Life of Sterling (d. 1844), which appeared in 1851,
was intended to correct the life by Julius Hare, which had given
too much prominence to theological questions. The subject
roused Carlyle's tenderest mood, and the Life is one of the most
perfect in the language.
Carlyle meanwhile was suffering domestic troubles, unfor-
tunately not exceptional in their nature, though the exceptional
intellect and characters of the persons concerned have given
them unusual prominence. Carlyle's constitutional irritability
made him intensely sensitive to petty annoyances. He suffered
the torments of dyspepsia; he was often sleepless, and the
crowing of "demon-fowls" in neighbours' yards drove him
wild. Composition meant for him intense absorption in his
work; solitude and quiet were essential; and he resented inter-
ruptions by grotesque explosions of humorously exaggerated
wrath. Mrs Carlyle had to pass many hours alone, and the
management of the household and of devices intended to shield
him from annoyances was left entirely to her. House-cleanings
and struggles with builders during the construction of a " sound-
proof room " taxed her energy, while Carlyle was hiding himself
with his family in Scotland or staying at English country houses.
Nothing could be more affectionate than his behaviour to his
wife on serious occasions, such as the death of her mother, and
he could be considerate when his attention was called to the
facts. But he was often oblivious to the strain upon her energies,
and had little command of his temper. An unfortunate aggra-
vation of the difficulty arose from his intimacy with the Ash-
burtons. Lady Ashburton, a woman of singular social charm
and great ability, appreciated the author, but apparently ac-
cepted the company of the author's wife rather as a necessity
than as an additional charm. Mrs Carlyle was hurt by the fine
lady's condescension and her husband's accessibility to aristo-
cratic blandishments. Carlyle, as a wise man, should have
yielded to his wife's wishes; unluckily, he was content to point
out that her jealousy was unreasonable, and, upon that very
insufficient ground, to disregard it and to continue his intimacy
with the Ashburtons on the old terms. Mrs Carlyle bitterly
resented his conduct. She had been willing to renounce any
aspirations of her own and to sink herself in his glory, but she
CARLYLE, THOMAS
vS55
naturally expected him to tecognize her devotion and to value
her society beyond all others. She had just cause of complaint,
and a remarkable power, as her letters prove, of seeing things
plainly and despising sentimental consolations. She was child-
less, and had time to brood over her wrongs. She formed a little
circle of friends, attached to her rather than to her husband;
and to one of them, Giuseppe Mazzini, she confided her troubles
in 1846. He gave her admirable advice; and the alienation
from her husband, though it continued still to smoulder, led to
no further results. A journal written at the same time gives
a painful record of her sufferings, and after her death made
Carlyle conscious for the first time of their full extent. The
death of Lady Ashburton in 1857 removed this cause of jealousy;
and Lord Ashburton married a second wife in 1858, who became
a warm friend of both Carlyles. The cloud which had separated
them was thus at last dispersed. Meanwhile Carlyle had become
absorbed in his best and most laborious work. Soon after the
completion of the Cromwell he had thought of Frederick for his
next hero, and had in 1845 contemplated a visit to Germany
to collect materials. He did not, however, settle down finally
to the work till 185 1. He shut himself up in his study to wrestle
with the Prussian Dryasdusts, whom he discovered to be as
wearisome as their Puritan predecessors and more voluminous.
He went to Scotland to see his mother, to whom he had always
shown the tenderest affection, on her deathbed at the end of
1853. He returned to shut himself up in the "sound-proof
room." He twice visited Germany (1852 and 1858) to see
Frederick's battlefields and obtain materials; and he occasion-
ally went to the AShburtons and his relations in Scotland. The
first two volumes of Frederick the Great appeared in 1858, and
succeeding volume's in 1862, 1864 and 1865. The success was
great from the first, though it did little to clear up Carlyle's
gloom. The book is in some respects his masterpiece, and its
merits are beyond question. Carlyle had spared no pains in
research. The descriptions of the campaigns are admirably
vivid, and show his singular eye for scenery. These narratives
are said to be used by military students in Germany, and at least
convince the non-military student that he can understand the
story. The book was declared by Emerson to be the wittiest
ever written. Many episodes, describing the society at the
Prussian court and the relations of Frederick to Voltaire, are
unsurpassable as humorous portraiture. The effort to fuse
the masses of raw material into a well-proportioned whole is
perhaps not quite successful; and Carlyle had not the full
sympathy with Frederick which had given interest to the
Cromwell. A hero-worshipper with half-concealed doubts as
to his hero is in an awkward position. Carlyle's general con-
ception of history made him comparatively blind to aspects of
the subject which would, to writers of other schools, have a
great importance. The extraordinary power of the book is
undeniable, though it does not show the fire which animated
the French Revolution. A certain depression and weariness of
spirit darken the general tone.
During the later labours Mrs Carlyle's health had been break-
ing. Carlyle, now that happier relations had been restored,
did his best to give her the needed comforts; and in spite of his
immersion in Frederick, showed her all possible attention in later
years. She had apparently recovered from an almost hopeless
illness, when at the end of 1865 he was elected to the rectorship
of the university of Edinburgh. He delivered an address there
on the 2nd of April 1866, unusually mild in tone, and received
with general applause. He was still detained in Scotland when
Mrs Carlyle died suddenly while driving in her carriage. The
immediate cause was the shock of an accident to her dog. She
had once hurt her mother's feelings by refusing to use some wax
candles. She had preserved them ever since, and by her direction
they were now lighted in the chamber of death. Carlyle was
overpowered by her loss. His life thenceforward became more
and more secluded, and he gradually became incapable of work.
He went to Mentone in the winter of 1866 and began the Reminis-
cences. He afterwards annotated the letters from his wife,
published (1883) as Letters and Memorials. He was, as Froude
says, impressed by the story of Join. #wo
Uttoxeter, and desired to make a posthumo ^d
shortcomings in his relations to his wife. A fey
made known his opinions of current affairs. He )v
mittee for the defence of Governor Eyre in 1867; he
in 1867 an article upon " shooting Niagara," that is,
tendency of the Reform Bill of that year; and in 1870 ht
a letter defending the German case against France. The wi
of his Frederick was acknowledged by the Prussian Order c
Merit in 1874. In the same year Disraeli offered him the Grand
Cross of the Bath and a pension. He declined very courteously,
and felt some regret for previous remarks upon the minister.
The length of his literary career was now softening old antipathies,
and he was the object of general respect. His infirmities enforced
a very retired life, but he was constantly visited by Froude, and
occasionally by his disciple Ruskin. A small number of other
friends paid him constant attention. His conversation was still
interesting, especially when it turned upon his recollections,
and though his judgments were sometimes severe enough, he
never condescended to the scandalous. His views of the future
were gloomy. The world seemed to be going from bad to worse,
with little heed to his warnings. He would sometimes regret that
it was no longer permissible to leave it in the old Roman fashion.
He sank gradually, and died on the 4th of February 1881 . A place
in Westminster Abbey was offered, but he was buried, according
to his own desire, by the side of his parents at Ecclefechan.
He left Craigenputtock, which had become his own property, to
found bursaries at the university of Edinburgh. He gave his
books to Harvard College.
Carlyle's appearance has been made familiar by many portraits,
none of them, according to Froude, satisfactory. The statue by
Boehm on the Chelsea Embankment, however, is characteristic;
and there is a fine painting by Watts in the National Portrait
Gallery. J. McNeill Whistler's portrait of him is in the possession
of the Glasgow corporation.
During Carlyle's later years the antagonism roused by his
attacks upon popular opinions had subsided; and upon his
death general expression was given to the emotions natural upon
the loss of a remarkable man of genius. The rapid publication of
the Reminiscences by Froude produced a sudden revulsion of
feeling. Carlyle became the object of general condemnation.
Froude's biography, and the Memorials of Mrs Carlyle, published
soon afterwards, strengthened the hostile feeling. Carlyle had
appended to the Reminiscences an injunction to his friends not to
publish them as they stood, and added that no part could ever
be published without the strictest editing. Afterwards, when
he had almost forgotten what he had written, he verbally em-
powered Froude to use his own judgment: Froude accordingly
published the book at once, without any editing, and with many
inaccuracies. Omissions of a few passages written from memory
at a time of profound nervous depression would have altered the
whole character of the book. Froude in this and the later
publications held that he was giving effect to Carlyle's wish to
imitate Johnson's "penance." No one, said Boswell, should
persuade him to make his lion into a cat. Froude intended, in
the same spirit, to give the shades as well as the lights in the
portrait of his hero. His admiration for Carlyle probably led him
to assume too early that his readers would approach the story
from the same point of view, that is, with an admiration too
warm to be repelled by the admissions. Moreover, Froude's
characteristic desire for picturesque effect, unchecked by any
painstaking accuracy, led to his reading preconceived impressions
into his documents. The result was that Carlyle was too often
judged by his defects, and regarded as a selfish and eccentric
misanthrope with flashes of genius, rather than as a man with
many of the highest qualities of mind and character clouded by
constitutional infirmities. Yet it would be difficult to speak too
strongly of the great qualities which underlay the superficial
defects. Through long years of poverty and obscurity Carlyle
showed unsurpassed fidelity to his vocation and superiority to
the lower temptations which have ruined so many literary careers.
His ambition might be interpreted as selfishness, but certainly
v. 12
35*
CARMAGNOLA— CARMAGNOLE
H/>wed no coldness of heart. His unstinted generosity to his
tpothers during his worst times is only one proof of the singular
strength of his family affections. No one was more devoted to
such congenial friends as Irving and Sterling. He is not the only
man whom absorption in work and infirmity of temper have
made into a provoking husband, though few wives have had
Mrs Carlyle's capacity for expressing the sense of injustice. The
knowledge that the deepest devotion underlies misunderstandings
is often a very imperfect consolation; but such devotion clearly
existed all through, and proves the defect to have been relatively
superficial.
The harsh judgments of individuals in the Reminiscences had
no parallel in his own writings. He scarcely ever mentions a
contemporary, and was never involved in a personal controversy.
But the harshness certainly reflects a characteristic attitude of
mind. Carlyle was throughout a pessimist or a prophet denoun-
cing a backsliding world. His most popular contemporaries
seemed to him to be false guides, and charlatans had ousted the
heroes. The general condemnation of " shams " and cant had,
of course, particular applications, though he left them to be
inferred by his readers. Carlyle was the exponent of many of
the deepest convictions of his time. Nobody could be more in
sympathy with aspirations for a spiritual religion and for a lofty
idealism in political and social life. To most minds, however,
which cherish such aspirations the gentler optimism of men like
Emerson was more congenial. They believed in the progress of
the race and the triumph of the nobler elements. Though
Carlyle, especially in his earlier years, could deliver an invigorat-
ing and encouraging, if not a sanguine doctrine, his utterances
were more generally couched in the key of denunciation, and
betrayed a growing despondency. Materialism and low moral
principles seemed to him to be gaining the upper hand; and the
hope that religion might survive the " old clothes " in which it
had been draped seemed to grow fainter. The ordinary mind
complained that he had no specific remedy to propose for the
growing evils of the time; and the more cultivated idealist was
alienated by the gloom and the tendency to despair. To a later
generation it will probably appear that, whatever the exaggera-
tions and the misconceptions to which he was led, his vehement
attacks at least called attention to rather grave limitations and
defects in the current beliefs and social tendencies of the time.
The mannerisms and grotesque exaggerations of his writings
annoyed persons of refinement, and suggest Matthew Arnold's
advice to flee " Carlylese " as you would flee the devil. Yet the
shrewd common-sense, the biting humour, the power of graphic
description and the imaginative " mysticism " give them a
unique attraction for many even who do not fully sympathize
with the implied philosophy or with the Puritanical code of
ethics. The letters and autobiographical writings, whether they
attract or repel sympathy, are at least a series of documents of
profound interest for any one who cares to study character, and
display an almost unique idiosyncrasy. (L. S.)
The chief authorities for Carlyle's life are his own Reminiscences,
the Letters of Jane Welsh Carlyle, the Love Letters of Thomas
Carlyle and Jane Welsh (ed. A. Carlyle), and the four volumes of
J. A. Froude's biography; Froude was Carlyle's literary executor.
Prof. C. E. Norton s edition of the Reminiscences and his collection
of Carlyle's Early Letters correct some of Froude's inaccuracies. A
list of many articles upon Carlyle is given by Mr Ireland in Notes
and Queries, sixth series, vol. iv. Among other authors may be
noticed Henry Tames, sen., in Literary Kemains; Prof. Masson,
Carlyle, Personally and in his Writings; Conway, Thomas Carlyle;
Larlun, The Open Secret of Carlyle 1 s Life; Mrs Oliphant in Mac-
mi Han's Magazine for April 1881; G. S. Venables in Fortnightly
Review for May 1883 and November 1884. A good deal of con-
troversy has arisen relating to Froude's treatment of the relations
between Carlyle and his wife, and during 1903-1904 this was pushed
to a somewhat unsavoury extent. Those who are curious to pry
into the question of Carlyle's marital capacity, and the issues between
Froude's assailants and his defenders, may consult New Letters and
Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, with introduction by Sir James
Crichton-Browne; My Relations with Carlyle, by J. A. Froude:
The Nemesis of Froude, by Sir J. Crichton-Browne and Alexander
Carlyle; and articles in the Contemporary Review (June, July,
August, 1003), and Nineteenth Century and After (May, July, 1003).
See also Herbert Paul's Life of Froude (1905). The precise truth in
these matters is hardly recoverable, even if it concerns posterity:
and though Froude was often inaccurate, he was given full authority
by Carlyle, he had all the unpublished material before him, and
he was dead and unable to reply to criticism when the later attacks
were made.
CARMAGNOLA, FRANCESCO BUSSONE, Count 07 (1300-
1432), Italian soldier of fortune, was born at Carmagnola near
Turin, and began his military career when twelve years old under
Facino Cane, a condottiere then in the service of Gian Galeazzo
Visconti, duke of Milan. On the death of the latter his duchy
was divided among his captains, but his son and heir, Filippo
Maria, determined to reconquer it by force of arms. Facino Cane
being dead, Visconti applied to Carmagnola, then in his thirtieth
year, and gave him command of the army. That general's
success was astonishingly rapid, and soon the whole duchy was
brought once more under Visconti's sway. But Filippo Maria,
although he rewarded Carmagnola generously, feared that he
might become a danger to himself, and instead of giving him
further military commands made him governor of Genoa.
Carmagnola felt greatly aggrieved, and failing to obtain a
personal interview with the duke, threw up his commission and
offered his services to the Venetians (1425). He was well
received in Venice, for the republic was beginning to fear the
ambitions of the Visconti, and the new doge, Francesco Foscari,
was anxious to join the Florentines and go to war with Milan.
Carmagnola himself represented the duke's forces as much less
numerous than they were supposed to be, and said that the
moment was an opportune one to attack him. These arguments,
combined with the doge's warlike temper, prevailed; Carmagnola
was made captain-general of St Mark in 1426, and war was
declared. But while the republic was desirous of rapid and
conclusive operations, it was to the interest of Carmagnola, as
indeed to all other soldiers of fortune, to make the operations
last as long as possible, to avoid decisive operations, and to
liberate all prisoners quickly. .Consequently the campaign
dragged on interminably, some battles were won and others lost,
truces and peace treaties were made only to be broken, and no
definite result was achieved. Carmagnola's most important
success was the battle of Maclodio (1427), but he did not follow
it up. The republic, impatient of his dilatoriness, raised his
emoluments and promised him immense fiefs including the
lordship cf Milan, so as to increase his ardour, but in vain. At
the same time Carmagnola was perpetually receiving messengers
from Visconti, who offered him great rewards if he would abandon
the Venetians. The general trifled with his past as with his
present employers, believing in his foolish vanity that he held
the fate of both in his hand. But the Venetians were dangerous
masters to trifle with, and when they at last lost all patience, the
Council of Ten determined to bring him to justice. Summoned
to Venice to discuss future operations on the 20th of March 1432,
he came without suspicion. On his arrival at the ducal palace
he was seized, imprisoned and brought to trial for treason
against the republic. Although the doge befriended him he was
condemned to death and beheaded on the 5th of May. A man
of third-rate ability, his great mistake was that he failed to see
that he could not do with a solvent and strong government what
he could with bankrupt tyrants without military resources, and
that the astute Visconti meant to ruin him for his abandonment.
Bibliography. — The best account of Carmagnola is Horatio
Brown's essay in his Studies in Venetian History (London, 1007);
see also A. Batlistella, // Conte di Carmagnola (Genoa, 1889); E.
Ricotti, Storia delle ComfKtgnie di Ventura (Turin, 1845). Alessandro
Manzoni (q.v.) made this episode the subject of a poetical drama,
II Conte di Carmagnola (1826). (L. V.*)
CARMAGNOLA, a town of Italy, in the province of Turin,
18 m. by rail S. of Turin. Pop. (1001) 2447 (town), 11,721
(commune). It is the junction where the lines for Savona and
Cuneo diverge; it is also connected with Turin by a steam
tramway via Carignano. Carmagnola is a place of medieval
origin. The town was captured by the French in 1706.
CARMAGNOLE (from Carmagnola, the town in Italy), a word
first applied to a Piedmontese peasant costume, well known in
the south of France, and brought to Paris by the revolutionaries
CARMARTHEN— CARMARTHENSHIRE
355
of Marseilles in 1798. It consisted of a short skirted coat with
rows of metal buttons, a tricoloured waistcoat and red cap, and
became the popular dress of the Jacobins. The name was then
given to the famous revolutionary song, composed in 1792, the
tune of which, and the wild dance which accompanied it, may
have also been brought into France by the Piedmontese. The
original first verse began: —
11 Monsieur Veto (i.e. Louis XVI.) avait promis
D'etre fidele a sa patrie."
and each verse ends with the refrain: —
" Vive le son, vive le son,
Pansons la Carmagnole,
Vive le son
Du Canon."
The words were constantly altered and added to during the
Terror and later; thus the well-known lines,
41 Madame Veto avait promis
De faire egorger tout Paris
On lui coupa la tfcte," &c,
were added after the execution of Marie Antoinette. Played in
double time the tune was a favourite march in the Revolutionary
armies, until it was forbidden by Napoleon, on becoming First
Consul.
CARMARTHEN (Caerfyrddin), a municipal borough, contri-
butory parliamentary borough (united with Llanelly since 1832),
and county town of Carmarthenshire, and a county of itself,
finely situated on the right bank of the Towy, .which is here tidal
and navigable for small craft. Pop. (1901) 10,025. It is the
terminal station of a branch of the London & North-Western
railway coming southward from Shrewsbury, and is a station on
the main line of the Great Western running to Fishguard; it is
also the terminus of a branch-line of the Great Western running
to Newcastle-Emlyn. The station buildings lie on the left bank
of the river, which is here spanned by a fine old stone bridge.
There are works for the manufacture of woollens and ropes, also
tanneries, but it is as the central market of a large and fer-
tile district that Carmarthen is most important. The weekly
Saturday market is well attended, and affords interesting scenes
of modern Welsh agricultural life. From the convenient and
accessible position of the town, the gaol and lunatic asylum
serving for the three south-western counties of Wales — Cardigan,
Pembroke and Carmarthen — have been fixed here. Although
historically one of the most important towns in South Wales,
Carmarthen can boast of very few ancient buildings, and the
general aspect of the town is modern. A well-preserved gateway
of red sandstone and portions of two towers of the castle are
included in the buildings of the present gaol, and the old parish
church of St Peter contains some interesting monuments,
amongst them being the altar tomb (of the 16th century) of Sir
Rhys ap Thomas, K.G., and his wife, which was removed hither
for safety at the Reformation from the desecrated church of the
neighbouring Priory of St John. Some vestiges of this celebrated
monastic house, which formerly owned the famous Welsh MS.
known as the " Black Book of Carmarthen," are visible between
the present Priory Street and the river. Of the more recent
erections in the town, mention may be made of the granite
obelisk in memory of General Sir Thomas Picton (17 58-1 8 15)
and the bronze statue of General Sir William Nott (1 784-1 846).
Carmarthen is commonly reputed to occupy the site of the
Roman station of Maridunum, and its present name is popularly
associated with the wizard-statesman Merlin, or Merddyn, whose
memory and prophecies are well remembered in these parts of
Wales and whose home is popularly believed to have been the
conspicuous hill above Abergwili, known as Merlin's Hill.
Another derivation of the name is to be found in Caer-mdr-din,
signifying " a fortified place near the sea." In any case, the
antiquity of the town is undisputed, and it served as the seat of
government for Ystrad Tywi until the year 877, when Prince
Cadell of South Wales abandoned Carmarthen for Dinefawr,
near Llandilo, probably on account of the maritime raids of the
Danes and Saxons. Towards the close of the nth century a
castle was built here by the Normans, and for the next two
hundred years town and castle were frequently taken and
retaken by Welsh or English. On the annexation of Wales,
Edward I. established here his courts of chancery and exchequer
and the great sessions for South Wales. Edward III., by the
Statute Staple of 1353, declared Carmarthen the sole staple for
Wales, ordering that every bale of Welsh wool should be sealed
or " cocketed " here before it left the Principality. The earliest
charter recorded was granted in 1201 under King John; a
charter of James I. in 1604 constituted Carmarthen a county of
itself; and under a charter by George III. in 1764, which had
been specially petitioned for by the citizens, the two separate
jurisdictions of Old and New Carmarthen were fused and hence-
forth " called by the name of Our Borough of Carmarthen."
In 1555 Bishop Farrar of St David's was publicly burned for
heresy under Queen Mary at the Market Cross, which was ruth-
lessly destroyed in 1846 to provide a site for General Nott's
statue. In 1646 General Laugharne took and demolished the
castle in the name of the parliament, and in 1649 Oliver Cromwell
resided at Carmarthen on his way to Ireland. In 1684 the duke
of Beaufort with a numerous train made his state entry into
Carmarthen as lord-president of Wales and the Marches. With
the rise of Llanelly the industrial importance of Carmarthen has
tended to decline; but owing to its central position, its close
connexion with the bishops of St David's and its historic past the
town is still the chief focus of all social, political and ecclesiastical
movements in the three counties of Cardigan, Pembroke and
Carmarthen. Carmarthen was created a parliamentary borough
in 1536.
CARMARTHENSHIRE (Sir Gaerfyrddin, colloquially known
as Sir Gdr), a county of South Wales bounded N. by Cardigan,
E. by Brecon and Glamorgan, W. by Pembroke and S. by
Carmarthen Bay of the Bristol Channel. The modern county
has an area of 918 sq. m., and is therefore the largest in size of
the South Welsh counties. Almost the whole of its surface is
hilly and irregular, though the coast-line is fringed with extensive
stretches of marsh or sandy burrows. Much of the scenery in
the county, particularly in the upper valley of the Towy, is
exceedingly beautiful and varied. On its eastern borders
adjoining Breconshire rises the imposing range of the Black
Mountains (Mynydd D&), sometimes called the Carmarthenshire
Beacons, where the Carmarthen Van attains an elevation of
263 2 ft. Mynydd Mallaen in the wild districts of the north-east
corner of the county is 1430 ft. in height, but otherwise few of
the numberless rounded hills with which Carmarthenshire is
thickly studded exceed 1000 ft. The principal river is the Towy
(Tywi) j which, with its chief tributaries, the Gwili, the Cothi
and the Sawdde, drains the central part of the county and enters
the Bay at Llanstephan, 9 m. below Carmarthen. Coracles are
frequently to be observed on this river, as well as on the Teifi,
which separates Carmarthenshire from Cardiganshire on the
north. Other streams are the Taf, which flows through the
south-western portion of the county and reaches the sea at
Laugharne; the Gwendraeth, with its mouth at Kidwelly; and
the Loughor, or Llwchwr, which rises in the Black Mountains
and forms for several miles the boundary between the counties
of Carmarthen and Glamorgan until it falls into Carmarthen Bay
at Loughor. All these rivers contain salmon, sewin (gleisiad)
and trout in fair numbers, and are consequently frequented by
anglers. With the exception of the Van Pool in the Black
Mountains the lakes of the county are inconsiderable in size.
Geology. — The oldest rocks in Carmarthenshire come to the surface
in the Vale of Towy at Llanarthney and near Carmarthen; they
consist of black shales of Tremadoc (Cambrian) age, and are succeeded
by conglomerates, sandstones and shales, with beds of volcanic ash
and lava, of Arenig (Ordovician) age, which have been brought up
along a belt of intense folding and faulting which follows the Towy
from Llangadock to Carmarthen and extends westwards to the edge
of the county at Whitland. The Llandeilo shales, flags and lime-
stones and occasional volcanic ashes, which follow, are well developed
at Llangadock and Llandeilo and near Carmarthen, and are famed
for their trilobites, Asaphus tyrannus and Ogygia Buchi. Shales and
mudstones and impersistent limestones of Bala age come next in
order, and, bounding the Vale of Towy on the north, extend as a
3$6
CARMARTHENSHIRE
narrow belt north-westwards towards the Presley hills. Except
for the foregoing deposits the great area between the Teifi and the
Towy, of which little is known, is made up of a monotonous suc-
cession of greatly folded slates and shales with interbedded con-
glomerates and sandstones which give rise to scarps, ridges and
moorlands; they appear to be of Llandovery age.
South of the Towy a narrow belt of steeply dipping and even
inverted Silurian sandstones and mudstones (Upper Llandovery,
Wenlock and Ludlow) extends south-westwards from Llandovery
to Llanarthney, where they disappear under the Old Red Sandstone.
This formation, which consists of red marls and sandstones with
occasional thin impure limestones (cornstones), extends from near
Llandovery to beyond Carmarthen Bay; its upper conglomeratic
beds cap the escarpment of the Black Mountains (2460 it.) on the
south-eastern borders of the county. To the south the scarps and
moorlands of the Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit form
the north-western rim of the South Wales coalfield. The rest of the
county is occupied by the rich Coal- Measures of the Gwendraeth
Valley and Llanelly districts. All the rocks in the county are
affected by powerful folds and faults. Glacial deposits are plentiful
in the valleys south of the Towy, striae abound on the Millstone
Grit and show that the ice-sheet rose far up the slopes of the Black
Mountains. Coal is the chief mineral, the iron-ore is no longer
worked; the Carboniferous Limestone is burnt at Llandybie;
fire-bricks are manufactured from the Millstone Grit, and a few
lead-veins are found in the Ordovician rocks.
Industries. — The climate is mild, except in the upland regions,
but the annual rainfall is very heavy. With the exception of its
south-eastern portion, which forms part of the great South
Welsh coalfield, Carmarthenshire may be considered wholly as
an agricultural county. The attention of the farmers is devoted
to stock-raising and dairy-farming rather than to the growth
of cereals, whilst the large tracts of unenclosed hill-country form
good pastures for sheep and ponies. The soil varies much, but in
the lower valleys of the Towy and Taf it is exceedingly fertile.
Outside agriculture the gathering of cockles at the estuaries of
the Towy and T&i gives employment to a large number of persons,
principally women; Ferryside and Laugharne being the chief
centres of the cockling industry. The local textile factories at
Pencader, Penboyr, Uangeler, and in the valley of the Loughor
are of some importance. Gold has been found near Caio in the
Cothi valley, but the yield is trifling. There are lead-mines in
various places, but none of great value. The really important
industries are restricted to the populous south-eastern district,
where coal-mining, iron-founding and the smelting of tin and
copper are carried on extensively at Llanelly, Pembrey, Tirydail,
Garnant, Pontardulais, Ammanford and other centres.
Communications. — The Great Western railway traverses the
lower part of the county, whilst a branch of the London & North-
western enters it at its extreme north-eastern point by a tunnel
under the Sugar Loaf Mountain, and has its terminal station at
Carmarthen. A branch line of the Great Western connects
Llanelly with Llandilo by way of Ammanford, and another
branch of the same railway runs northward from Carmarthen
to Newcastle-Emlyn on the Teifi, joining the Aberystwyth
branch, formerly the Manchester & Milford line, at Pencader.
Population and Administration. — The area of the county is
587,816 acres, and the population in 1891 was 130,566 and in
1 00 1 it was 135,325. The municipal boroughs are Carmarthen
(pop. 9935), Kidwelly (2285) and Llandovery (1809). Urban
districts are Ammanford, Llanelly, Burry Port, Llandilo and
Newcastle - Emlyn. The principal towns are Carmarthen,
Llanelly (25,617), Llandilo or Llandeilo Fawr (1934), Iiangadock
(1578), Llandovery, Kidwelly, Pembrey (7513) and Laugharne
(1439). The county is in the South Wales circuit, and assizes
are held at Carmarthen. The borough of Carmarthen has a
commission of the peace and separate quarter sessions. The
county is divided into two parliamentary divisions, the eastern
and western, and it also includes the united boroughs of Car-
marthen and Llanelly, thus returning three members in
all to parliament. The ancient county, which contains 75
parishes and part of another, is wholly in the diocese of St
David's.
History. — Carmarthenshire originally formed part of the lands
of the Dimetae conquered by the Romans, who constructed
military roads and built on the Via Julia the important station
of Maridunum upon or near the site of the present county town.
After the retirement of the Roman forces this fortified town
became known in course of time as Caerfyrddin, anglicized into
Carmarthen, which subsequently gave its name to the county.
During the 5th and 6th centuries Carmarthenshire, or Ystrad
Tywi, was the scene of the labours of many Celtic missionaries,
notably of St David and St Teilo, who brought the arts of
civilization as well as the doctrines of Christianity to its rude
inhabitants. In the 9th century the whole of Ystrad Tywi was
annexed to the kingdom of Roderick the Great (Rhodri Mawr),
who at his death in 877 bequeathed the principality of South
Wales to his son, Cadell. The royal residence of the South Welsh
princes was now fixed at Dynevor (Dinefawr) on the Towy near
Llandilo. Cadell 's son, Howell the Good (Hywel Dda), was the
first to codify the ancient laws of Wales at his palace of Ty Gwyn
Ar Daf, the White Lodge on the banks of the Taf, near the
modern Whitland. In 1080, during the troubled reign of Rhys
ap Tudor, the Normans first appeared on the shores of Car-
marthen Bay, and before the end of King Henry I.'s reign had
constructed the great castles of Kidwelly, Carmarthen, Laug-
harne and Llanstephan near the coast. From this period until
the death of Prince Llewelyn (1282) the history of Carmarthen-
shire is national rather than local. By the Statutes of Rhuddlan
(1284) Edward I. formed the counties of Cardigan and Car-
marthen out of the districts of Ceredigion and Ystrad Tywi, the
ancient possessions of the house of Dinefawr, which were now
formally annexed to the English crown. Nearly a third of the
present county, however, still remained under the jurisdiction
of the Lords Marchers, and it was not until the Act 27 Henry
VIII. that these districts, including the commots of Kidwelly,
Iscennen and Carnwillion, were added to Edward I.'s original
shire. The prosperity of the new county increased considerably
under Edward HI., who named Carmarthen the chief staple-
town in Wales for the wool trade. The revolt of Owen Glendower
had the effect of disturbing the peace of the county for a time,
and the French army, landed at Milford on his behalf, was
warmly received by the people of Carmarthenshire. In the
summer of 1485 Sir Rhys ap Thomas, of Abermarlais and
Dinefawr, marched through the county collecting recruits for
Henry of Richmond, for which service he was created a knight
of the Garter and made governor of all Wales. At the Reforma-
tion the removal of the episcopal residence from distant St
David's to Abergwili, a village barely two miles from Carmarthen,
brought the county into close touch with the chief Welsh diocese,
and the new palace at Abergwili will always be associated with
the first Welsh translations of the New Testament and the
Prayer Book, made by Bishop Richard Davies (1500-1581) and
his friend William Salesbury, of Llanrwst (16th century). In
the early part of the 17 th century the county witnessed the first
religious revival recorded in Welsh annals, that led by Rhys
Prichard (d. 1644), the Puritan vicar of Llandovery, whose
poetical works, the Canwyll y Cymry (" the Welshman's Candle ")
are still studied in the principality. At the time of the Civil
Wars, Richard Vaughan, earl of Carbery, the patron of Jeremy
Taylor, was in command of the royal fortresses and troops, but
made a very feeble and half-hearted resistance against the
parliamentarian forces. During the following century the great
Welsh spiritual and educational movement, which later spread
over all Wales, had its origin in the quiet and remote parish of
Llanddowror, near Laugharne, where the vicar, the celebrated
an4 pious Griffith Jones (1684-1761), had become the founder
of the Welsh circulating charity schools. Other prominent
members of this important Methodist revival, likewise natives
of Carmarthenshire, were William Williams of Pantycelyn, the
well-known hymn-writer (1716-1791), and Peter Williams, the
Welsh Bible commentator (1722-1796). The county was deeply
implicated in the Rebecca Riots of 1842-1843.
Foremost amongst the county families of Carmarthenshire is
Rhys, or Rice, of Dynevor Castle, near Llandilo, a modern
castellated house standing in a beautiful park which contains the
historic ruin of the old Dinefawr fortress. The present Lord
Dynevor, the direct lineal descendant of the princes of South
Wales, is the head of this family. Almost opposite Dynevox
CARMATHIANS— CARMEL
357
Castle (formerly known as Newtown), on the left bank of the
Towy, stands Golden Grove (Gelli Aur), once the seat of the
Vaughans, earls of Carbery, whose senior line and titles became
extinct early in the 18th century. The famous old mansion has
been replaced by a modern Gothic structure, and is now the
property of Earl Cawdor. Golden Grove contains the " Hirlas
Horn," the gift of King Henry VII. to Dafydd ap Evan of
Owyndafydd, Cardiganshire, perhaps the most celebrated of
Welsh historical relics. Other families of importance, extinct
or existing, are Johnes, formerly of Abermarlais and now of
Dolaucothi; Williams (now Drummond) of Edwinsford; Lloyd
of Forest; Lloyd of Glansevin; Stepney of Llanelly and Gwynne
of Taliaris.
Antiquities. — Carmarthenshire contains few memorials of the
Roman occupation, but it possesses various camps and tumuli
of the British period, and also a small but perfect cromlech near
Llanglydwen on the banks of the T&f . Of its many medieval castles
the most important still in existence are: Kidwelly; Laugharne;
Llanstephan, a fine pile of the 1 2th century on a hill at the mouth
of the Towy; Carreg Cennen, an imposing Norman fortress
crowning a cliff not far from Llandilo; and Dynevor Castle, the
ancient seat of Welsh royalty, situated on a bold wooded height
above the Towy. The remains of the castles at Carmarthen,
DrysUwyn, Llandovery and Newcastle-Emlyn are inconsiderable.
Of the monastic houses Talley Abbey (Tal-y-Uychau, a name
drawn from the two small lakes in the neighbourhood of its site)
was founded by Rhys ap Griffith, prince of South Wales,
towards the close of the 12th century for Benedictine monks;
Whitland, or Albalanda, also a Benedictine house, was probably
founded by Bishop Bernard of St David's early in the 12 th
century, on a site long associated with Welsh monastic life; and
the celebrated Augustinian Priory of St John at Carmarthen
was likewise established in the 12th century. Very slight traces
of these three important religious houses now exist. The parish
churches of Carmarthenshire are for the most part small and of
no special architectural value. Of the more noteworthy mention
may be made of St Peter's at Carmarthen, and of the parish
churches at Laugharne, Kidwelly, Llangadock, Abergwili and
Llangathen, the last named of which contains a fine monument to
Bishop Anthony Rudd (d. 1615). Many of these churches are
distinguished by tall massive western towers, usually of the 1 2th
or 1 3th centuries. Besides Golden Grove and Dynevor the county
contains some fine historic houses, prominent amongst which are
Abergwili Palace, the official residence of the bishops of St
David's since the Reformation, burnt down in 1002, but rebuilt
on the old lines; Aberglasney, a mansion near Llangathen,
erected by Bishop Rudd and once inhabited by the poet John
Dyer (1700-1758); Court Henry, an ancient seat of the Herbert
family; and Abermarlais, once the property of Sir Rhys ap
Thomas.
Customs, &c. — The old Welsh costume, folklore and customs
have survived longer in Carmarthenshire than perhaps in any
other county of Wales. The steeple-crowned beaver hat, now
practically extinct, was often to be seen in the neighbourhood of
Carmarthen as late as 1890, and the older women often affect the
pais-a-g1bn bdch, the frilled mob-cap and the small plaid shawl of
a previous generation. Curious instances of old Welsh supersti-
tions are to be found amongst the peasantry of the more remote
districts, particularly in the lovely country in the valleys of the
Towy and Teifi, where belief in fairies, fairy-rings, goblins^and
" corpse-candles " still lingers. The curious mumming, known
as " Mari Lwyd " (Blessed Mary), in which one of the performers
wears a horse's skull decked with coloured ribbands, was prevalent
round Carmarthen as late as 1885. At many parish churches the
ancient service of the "Pylgain " (a name said to be a corruption
of the Latin pulli cantus) is held at daybreak or cock-crow on
Christmas morning. A species of general catechism, known as
pwnc, is also common in the churches and Nonconformist chapels.
The old custom of receiving New Year's gifts of bread and cheese,
or meal and money (calenig), still flourishes in the rural parishes.
The " bidding " before marriage (as in Cardiganshire) was
formerly universal and is not yet altogether discontinued, and
bidding papers were printed at Llandilo as late as 1900. The
horse weddings (priodas ceffylau) were indulged in by the farmer
class in the neighbourhood of Abergwili as late as 1880.
Authorities. — T. Nicholas, Annals and Antiquities of the Counties
of Wales (London, 1872) ; W. Spurrell, Carmarthen and its Neighbour-
hood (Carmarthen, 1879); J. B. D. Tyssen and Alcwyn C. Evans,
Royal Charters, fife, relating to the Town and County of Carmarthen
(Carmarthen, 1878).
CARMATHIANS (Qarmathians, Karmathians), a Mahom-
medan sect named after HamdSn Qarmat, who accepted the
teaching of the Isma'ilites (see Mahommedan Religion: Sects)
from IJosain ul-Ahw&zi, a missionary of Alpned, son of the
Persian Abdallah ibn MaimOn, toward the close of the 9th
century. This was in the Saw&d of Irak, which was inhabited by
a people little attached to Islam. The object of Abdallah ibn
MaimOn had been to undermine Islam and the Arabian power
by a secret society with various degrees, which offered induce-
ments to all classes and creeds and led men on from an interpreta-
tion of Islam to a total rejection of its teaching and a strict
personal submission to the head of the society. For the political
history of the Carmathians, their conquests and their decay, see
Arabia: History; Caliphate (sect. C. §§ 16, 17, 18, 23); and
Egypt: History (Mahommedan period).
In their religious teaching they claimed to be Shi'ites; i.e.
they asserted that the imamate belonged by right to the descend-
ants of Ali. Further, they were of the Isma'ilite branch of these,
i.e. they acknowledged the claim to the imamate of Isma'il the
eldest son of the sixth imam. The claim of Isma'il had been
passed over by his father and many Shi'ites because he had been
guilty of drinking wine. The Isma'ilites said that as the imam
could do no wrong, his action only showed that wine-drinking
was not sinful. Abdallah taught that from the creation of man
there had always been an imam sometimes known, sometimes
hidden. Isma'il was the last known; a new one was to be looked
for. But while the imam was hidden, his doctrines were to be
taught by his missionaries {defis). Hamdfin Qarmat was one
of these, A^med ibn Abdallah being nominally the chief. The
adherents of this party were initiated by degrees into the secrets
of its doctrines and were divided into seven (afterwards nine)
classes. In the first stage the convert was taught the existence
of mystery in the Koran and made to feel the necessity of a
teacher who could explain it. He took an oath of complete
submission and paid a sum of money. In the second stage the
earlier teachers-of Islam were shown to be wrong in doctrine and
the imams alone were proved to be infallible. In the third it was
taught that there were only seven imams and that the other sects
of the Shi'ites were in error. In the fourth the disciple learnt
that each of the seven imams had a prophet, who was to be
obeyed in all things. The prophet of the last imam was Abdallah.
The doctrine of Islam was that Mahomet was the last of the
prophets. In the fifth stage the uselessness of tradition and the
temporary nature of the precepts and practices of Mahomet were
taught, while in the sixth the believer was induced to give up
these practices (prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, &c). At this point
the Carmathian had completely ceased to be a Moslem. In the
remaining degrees there was more liberty of opinion allowed and
much variety of belief and teaching existed.
The last contemporary mention of the Carmathians is that of
N&sir ibn Khosrau, who visited them in a.d. 1050. In Arabia
they ceased to exercise influence. In Persia and Syria their work
was taken up by the Assassins (q.v.). Their doctrines are said,
however, to exist still in parts of Syria, Persia, Arabia and India,
and to be still propagated in Zanzibar.
See Journal asiatique (1877), vol. i. pp. 377-386. (G. W. T.)
CARMAUX, a town of southern France, in the department of
Tarn, on the left bank of the Cerou, 10 m. N. of Albi by rail. Pop.
(1906) 8618. The town gives its name to an important coal-
basin, and carries on the manufacture of glass.
CARMEL, the mountain promontory by which the seacoast
of Palestine is interrupted south of the Bay of Acre, 32 50' N.,
35 £. It continues as a ridge of oolitic limestone, broken by .
ravines and honeycombed by caves, running for about 20 m.
3S«
CARMELITES
in a south-easterly direction, and finally joining the mountains of
Samaria. Its maximum height is at % Esfia> 1760 ft. It was
included in the territory of the tribe of Asher. No great political
event is recorded in connexion with it; it appears throughout the
Old Testament " either as a symbol or as a sanctuary "; its name
means " garden-land." Its fruitfulness is referred to by Isaiah
and by Amos; Micah describes it as wooded, to which was no
doubt due its value as a hiding-place (Amos ix. 3). It is now
wild, only a few patches being cultivated; most of the mountain
is covered with a thick brushwood of evergreens, oaks, myrtles,
pines, &c, which is gradually being cleared away. That the
cultivation was once much more extensive is indicated by the
large number of rock-hewn wine and olive presses. Vines and
olives are now found at % Esfia only. The outstanding position
of Carmel, its solitariness, its visibility over a wide area of
country, and its fertility, marked it out as a suitable place for
a sanctuary from very ancient times. It is possibly referred
to in the Palestine lists of Thothmes III. as Rosh Kodsu, " the
holy headland." An altar of Jehovah existed here from early
times; it was destroyed when the Phoenician Baal claimed the
country under Jezebel, and repaired by Elijah (1 Kings xviii. 30)
before the great sacrifice which decided the claims of the con-
tending deities. The traditional site of this sacrifice is at
El-Muhrafta, at the eastern end of the ridge. The Druses still
visit this site, where is a dilapidated structure of stones, as a holy
place for sacrifice. On the bank of the Kishon below is a mound
known as TeU el-gusis, " the Priest's mound," but the connexion
that has been sought between this name and the slaughter of
the priests of Baal is hardly justifiable. Other sites on the hill
are traditionally connected with Elijah, and some melon-like
fossils are explained as being fruits refused to him by its owner,
who was punished by having them turned to stone. Elisha was
stationed here for a time. Tacitus describes the hill as the site
of an oracle, which Vespasian consulted. Iamblichus in his
life of Pythagoras speaks of it as a place of great sanctity forbidden
to the vulgar. A grove of trees, called the " Trees of the Forty "
[Martyrs], still remains, no doubt in former times a sacred grove.
So early as the 4th century Christian hermits began to settle here,
and in 1207 the Carmelite order was organized. The monastery,
founded at the fountain of Elijah in 1209, has had many vicissi-
tudes: the monks were slaughtered or driven to Europe in 1238
and the building decayed; it was visited and re founded by St
Louis in 1252; again despoiled in 1291; once more rebuilt in
1 63 1, and, in 1635 (when the monks were massacred), sacked
and turned into a mosque. Once more the monks established
themselves, only to be murdered after Napoleon's retreat in 1799.
The church and the monastery were entirely destroyed in 182 1
by 'Abd Allah, pasha of Acre, on the plea that the monks would
favour the revolting Greeks; but it was shortly afterwards
rebuilt by order from the Porte, partly at 'Abd Allah's expense
and partly by contributions raised in Europe, Asia and Africa
by Brother Giovanni Battista of Frascati. The villages with
which the mountain was once covered have been to a large
extent depopulated by the Druses. (R. A. S. M.)
CARMELITES, in England called White Friars (from the
white mantle over a brown habit), one of the four mendicant
orders. The stories concerning the origin of this order, seriously
put forward and believed in the 17th and 18th centuries, are
one of the curiosities of history. It was asserted that Elias
established a community of hermits on Mount Carmel, and that ,
this community existed without break until the Christian era
and was nothing else than a Jewish Carmelite order, to which
belonged the Sons of the Prophets and the Essenes. Members
of it were present at St Peter's first sermon on Pentecost and
were converted, and built a chapel on Mount Carmel in honour
of the Blessed Virgin Mary, who, as well as the apostles, enrolled
herself in the order. In 1668 the Bollandist Daniel Papen-
broek (1628-1714), in the March volumes of the Acta Sanctorum,
rejected these stories as fables. A controversy arose and the
Carmelites had recourse to the Inquisition. In Spain they
succeeded in getting the offending volumes of the Ada censured,
but in Rome they were less successful, and so hot did the
controversy become that in 1698 a decree was issued imposing
silence upon both parties, until a formal decision should be
promulgated — which has not yet been done.
The historical origin of the Carmelites must be placed at the
middle of the 12th century, when a crusader from Calabria,
named Berthold, and ten companions established themselves
as hermits near the cave of Elias on Mount Carmel. A Greek
monk, Phocas, who visited the Holy Land in 1185, gives an
account of them, and says that the ruins of an ancient building
existed on Mount Carmel; but though it is likely enough that
there had previously been Christian monks and hermits on the
spot, it is impossible to place the beginning of the Carmelite
institute before Berthold. About 12 10 the hermits on Carmel
received from Albert, Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, a rule com-
prising sixteen articles. This was the primitive Carmelite rule.
The life prescribed was strictly eremitical: the monks were to
live in separate cells or huts, devoted to prayer and work; they
met only in the oratory for the liturgical services, and were to
live a life of great silence, seclusion, abstinence and austerity.
This rule received papal approbation in 1226. Soon, however,
the losses of the Christian arms in Palestine made Carmel an
unsafe place of residence for western hermits, and so, c. 1240,
they migrated first to Cyprus and thence to Sicily, France and
England. In England the first establishment was at Alnwick
and the second at Aylesford, where the first general chapter of
the order was held in 1247, and St Simon Stock, an English
anchorite who had joined the order, was elected general. During
his generalate the institute was adapted to the conditions of the
western lands to which it had been transplanted, and for this
purpose the original rule had to be in many ways altered: the
austerities were mitigated, and the life was turned from eremitical
into cenobitical, but on the mendicant rather than the monastic
model. The polity and government were also organized on the
same lines, and the Carmelites were turned into mendicants and
became one of the four great orders of Mendicant Friars, in
England distinguished as the " White Friars " from the white
mantle worn over the dark brown habit. This change was made
and the new rule approved in 1247, and under this form the
Carmelites spread all over western Europe and became exceed-
ingly popular, as an order closely analogous to the Dominicans and
Franciscans. In the course of time, further relaxations of the
rule were introduced, and during the Great Schism the Carmelites
were divided between the two papal obediences, rival generals
being elected, — a state of things that caused still further re-
laxations. To cope with existing evils Eugenius IV. approved
in 143 1 of a rule notably milder than that of 1247, but many
houses clung to the earlier rule; thus arose among the Carmel-
ites the same division into " observants " and " conventuals"
that wrought such mischief among the Franciscans. During
the 15th and 16th centuries various attempts at reform arose,
as among other orders, and resulted in the formation of semi-
independent congregations owing a titular obedience to the
general of the order. The Carmelite friars seem to have flourished
especially in England, where at the dissolution of the monasteries
there were some 40 friaries. (See F. A. Gasquet, English Monas-
tic Life, table and maps; Catholic Dictionary, art. "Carmelites.")
There were no Carmelite nunneries in England, and indeed until
the middle of the 15th century there were no nuns at all anywhere
in the order.
Of all movements in the Carmelite order by far the most
important and far-reaching in its results has been the reform
initiated by St Teresa. After nearly thirty years passed in a
Carmelite convent in Avila under the mitigated rule of 1431,
she founded in the same city a small convent wherein a rule
stricter than that of 1 247 was to be observed. This was in 1 562.
In spite of opposition and difficulties of all kinds, she succeeded
in establishing a number, not only of nunneries, but (with the
co-operation of St John of the Cross, q.v.) also of friaries of the
strict observance; so that at her death in 1582 there were of the
reform 15 monasteries of men and 17 of women, all in Spain.
The interesting and dramatic story of the movement should be
sought for in the biographies of the two protagonists; as also
CARMICHAEL— CARNAC
an account of the school of mystical theology founded by them,
without doubt the chief contribution made by the Carmelites
to religion (see Mysticism). Here it must suffice to say that the
idea of the reform was to go behind the settlement of 1247 and
to restore and emphasize the purely contemplative character
of primitive Carmelite life: indeed provision was made for the
reproduction, for such as desired it, of the eremitical life led by
Berthokl and his companions. St Teresa's additions to the
rule of 1247 made the life one of extreme bodily austerity and of
prolonged prayer for all, two hours of private prayer daily, in
addition to the choral canonical office, being enjoined. From
the fact that those of the reform wore sandals in place of shoes
and stockings, they have come to be called the Discalced, or
bare-footed, Carmelites, also Teresians, in distinction to the
Caked or older branch of the order. In 1580 the reformed
monasteries were made a separate province under the general
of the order, and in 1593 this province was made by papal act
an independent order with its own general and government, so
that there are now two distinct orders of Carmelites. The
Discalced Carmelites spread rapidly all over Catholic Europe,
and then to Spanish America and the East, especially India and
Persia, in which lands they have carried on to this day extensive
missionary undertakings. Both observances suffered severely
from the various revolutions, but they both still exist, the Dis-
calced being by far the most numerous and thriving. There are
in all some 2000 Carmelite friars, and the nuns are much more
numerous. In England and Ireland there are houses, both of
men and of women, belonging to each observance.
Authorities. — A full account is given by Helyot, Hist, des ordres
rel igieux (1792), i. cc. 40-52; shorter accounts, continued to the
en<I of the 19th century and giving references to all literature old
and new, may be found in Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen
(1897), ii. §5 92-96; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2), art.
"Carmelitenorden"; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 3), art.
11 Karmeliter." The story of St Teresa's reform will be found in
lives of St Teresa and in her writings, especially the Foundations.
Special reference may be made to the works of Zimmerman, a
Carmelite friar, Carmel in England (1899), and Monumenta historica
Carmelitana, i. (1905 foil.). (E. C. B.)
CARMICHAEL, GERSHOH (c. 1672-1729), Scottish philo-
sopher, was born probably in London, the son of a Presbyterian
minister who had been banished by the Scottish privy council
for his religious opinions. He graduated at Edinburgh Univer-
sity in 169*, and became a regent at St Andrews. In 1694 he
was elected a master in the university of Glasgow — an office
that was converted into the professorship of moral philosophy
in 1727, when the system of masters was abolished at Glasgow.
Sir William Hamilton regarded him as " the real founder of the
Scottish school of philosophy." He wrote Breviuscula Intro-
ductio ad Logicam, a treatise on logic and the psychology of the
intellectual powers; Synopsis Theologiae Naturalis; and an
edition of Pufendorf, De Officio Hominis et Civis, with notes
and supplements of high value. His son Frederick was the
author of Sermons on Several Important Subjects and Sermons
on Christian Zeal, both published in 1753.
CARMINE, a pigment of a bright red colour obtained from
cochineal (q.v.). It may be prepared by exhausting cochineal
with boiling water and then treating the clear solution with alum,
cream of tartar, stannous chloride, or acid oxalate of potassium;
the colouring and animal matters present in the liquid are thus
precipitated. Other methods are in use; sometimes white of
egg, fish glue, or gelatine are added before the precipitation.
The quality of carmine is affected by the temperature and the
degree of illumination during its preparation — sunlight being
requisite for the production of a brilliant hue. It differs also
according to the amount of alumina present in it. It is some-
times adulterated with cinnabar, starch and other materials;
from these the carmine can be separated by dissolving it in
ammonia. Good carmine should crumble readily between the
fingers when dry. Chemically, carmine is a compound of car-
minic acid with alumina, lime and some organic acid. Carmine
is used in the manufacture of artificial flowers, water-colours,
rouge, cosmetics and crimson ink, and in the painting of minia-
359
tures. " Carmine lake " is a pigment obtained by adding freshly
precipitated alumina to decoction of cochineal.
CARMONA, a town of south-western Spain, in the province
of Seville; 27 m. N.E. of Seville by rail. Pop. (1900) 17,215.
Carmona is built on a ridge overlooking the central plain of
Andalusia, from the Sierra Morena, on the north, to the peak
of San Cristobal, on the south. It has a thriving trade in wine,
olive oil, grain and cattle; and the annual fair, which is held in
April, affords good opportunity of observing the costumes and
customs of southern Spain. The citadel of Carmona, now in
ruins, was formerly the principal fortress of Peter the Cruel
(1350-1369), and contained a spacious palace within its defences.
The principal entrance to the town is an old Moorish gateway;
and the gate on the road to Cordova is partly of Roman con-
struction. Portions of the ancient college of San Teodomir are
of Moorish architecture, and the tower of the church of San
Pedro is an imitation of the Giralda at Seville.
In 1 88 1 a large Roman necropolis was discovered close to the
town, beside the Seville road. It contains many rock-hewn
sepulchral chambers, with niches for the cinerary urns, and occa-
sionally with vestibules containing stone seats (triclinia). In
1 881 an amphitheatre, and another group of tombs, all belong-
ing to the first four centuries a.d., were disinterred near the
original necropolis, and a small museum, maintained by the
Carmona archaeological society, is filled with the mosaics,
inscriptions, portrait-heads and other antiquities found here.
Carmona, the Roman Carmo, was the strongest city of Further
Spain in the time of Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.), and its strength
was greatly increased by the Moors, who surrounded it with a
wall and ornamented it with fountains and palaces. In 1247
Ferdinand III. of Castile took the city, and bestowed on it the
motto Sicut Lucifer lucei in Aurora, sic in Wandalia Carmona
(" As the Morning-star shines in the Dawn, so shines Carmona
in Andalusia ").
For an account of the antiquities of Carmona, see Estudios arqueo-
logicos e historicos, by M. Sales y Ferre (Madrid, 1887).
CARNAC, a village of north-western France, in the depart-
ment of Morbihan and arrondissement of Lorient, 9 m. S.S.W.
of Auray by road. Pop. (1906) 667. Carnac has a handsome
church in the Renaissance style of Brittany, but it owes it$
celebrity to the stone monuments in its vicinity, which are among
the most extensive and interesting of their kind (see Stone
Monuments). The most remarkable consist of long avenues
of menhirs or standing stones; but there is also a profusion
of other erections, such as dolmens and barrows, throughout the
whole district. About half a mile to the north-west of the
village is the Menec system, which consists of eleven lines,
numbers 874 menhirs, and extends a distance of 3376 ft. The
terminal circle, whose longest diameter is 300 ft., is somewhat
difficult to make out, as it is broken by the houses and gardens
of a little hamlet. To the east-north-east there is another system
at Kermario (Place of the Dead), which consists of 855 stones,
many of them of great size — some, for example, 18 ft. in height
— arranged in ten lines and extending about 4000 ft. in length.
Still further in the same direction is a third system at Kerlescan
(Place of Burning), composed of 262 stones, which are distributed
into thirteen lines, terminated by an irregular circle, and alto-
gether extend over a distance of 1000 ft. or more. These three
systems seem once to have formed a continuous series; the
menhirs, many of which have been broken up for road-mending
and other purposes, have diminished in number by some thou-
sands in modern times. The alignment of Kermario points to
the dolmen of Kercado (Place of St Cado), where there is also
a barrow, explored in 1863; and to the south-east of Menec
stands the great tumulus of Mont St Michel, which measures
377 ft. in length, and has a height of 65 ft. The tumulus, which
is crowned with a chapel, was excavated by Ren6 Galles in 1862;
and the contents of the sepulchral chamber, which include
several jade and fibrolite axes, are preserved in the museum
at Vannes. About a mile east of the village is a small piece
of moorland called the Bossenno, from the bocenieu or mounds
with which it is covered; and here, in 1874, the explorations of
360
CARNARVON— CARNARVONSHIRE
James Miln, a Scottish antiquary, brought to light the remains
of a Gallo-Roman town. The tradition of Carnac is that there
was once a convent of the Templars or Red Cross Knights on
the spot; but this, it seems, is not supported by history. Similar
traces were also discovered at Mane Bras, a height about 3 m.
to the east. The rocks of which these various monuments are
composed is the ordinary granite of the district, and most of
them present a strange appearance from their coating of white
lichens. Carnac has an interesting museum of antiquities.
See W. C. Lukis, Guide to the Principal Chambered Barrows and
other Prehistoric Monuments in the Islands of the Morbihan, &t.
(Ripon, 1875); Ren ^ Galles, Fouilles du Mont Saint Michel en
Carnac (Vannes, 1864) ; A. Fouquet, Des monuments celtiques et des
ruines romaines dans le Morbinan (Vannes, 1853); James Miln,
Archaeological Researches at Carnac in Brittany: Kermario (Edin-
burgh, 1881); and Excavations at Carnac: The Bossenno and the
Mont St Michel (Edinburgh, 1877).
CARNARVON, EARLDOM OF. The earldom of Carnarvon
was created in 1628 for Robert Dormer, Baron Dormer of Wyng
(c. 1610-1643), who was killed at the first battle of Newbury
whilst fighting for Charles I., and it became extinct on the death
of his son Charles, the 2nd earl, in 1709. From 1714 to 1789 it
was held by the family of Brydges, dukes of Chandos and mar-
quesses of Carnarvon, and in 1793 Henry Herbert, Baron Por-
chester (1 741-18 n), was created earl of Carnarvon.
His great-grandson, Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert,
4th earl of Carnarvon (1831-1890), was born on the 24th of June
1831. He succeeded to the title in 1849, on the death of his
father, Henry John George, the 3rd earl ( 1800-1849). Soon after
taking his dfegree at Oxford he began to play a prominent part
in the deliberations of the House of Lords. In 1858 he was
under secretary for the colonies, and in 1866 secretary of state.
In this capacity he introduced in 1867 the bill for the federation
of the British North American provinces which set so many
political problems at rest; but he had not the privilege of passing
it, having, before the measure became law, resigned, owing to his
distaste for Disraeli's Reform Bill. Resuming office in 1874,
he endeavoured to confer a similar boon on South Africa, but
the times were not ripe. In 1878 he again resigned, out of oppo-
sition to Lord Beaconsfield's policy on the Eastern question;
but on his party's return to power in 1885 he became lord-
lieutenant of Ireland. His short period of office, memorable for
a conflict on a question of personal veracity between himself
and Mr Parnell as to his negotiations with the latter in respect
of Home Rule, was terminated by another premature resignation.
He never returned to office, and died on the 29th of June 1890.
As a statesman his career was marred by extreme sensitiveness;
but he was beloved as a man of worth and admired as a man of
culture. He was high steward of the university of Oxford, and
president of the Society of Antiquaries. The 4th earl was
succeeded by his son, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux
(b. 1866).
CARNARVON, a market town and municipal borough, and
the county town of Carnarvonshire, north Wales, 68) m. W.
of Chester by the London & North-Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 9760. It stands very nearly on the site of Caer Seint,
capital of the Segontiaci, and was fortified in 1098 by Hugh
Lupus, earl of Chester, after Roman occupation, a fort, baths
and villa, with coins and pottery, having been exhumed here.
As the castle was begun only in 1284, Edward EL, supposed to
have been born in its Eagle Tower on the extreme west, can only
have been born outside. The castle is an irregular oblong
building on the west of the town, surrounded by walls and having
thirteen polygonal towers. There is still much of the town wall
extant. The parish church (Llanbeblig) is some half-mile out
of the town, the institutions of which include a town and
county hall, a training college, and a gaol for Anglesey and
Carnarvonshire jointly. Manufactures in the town are scanty,
but Llanberis and Llanllyfni export hence slates, " sets " and
copper ore, A steam ferry unites Carnarvon and Tan y foel,
Anglesey, while a summer service of steamers runs to Menai
Bridge, Bardsey, &c. The borough forms part of a district return-
ing a member to parliament since 1536. To this district the
Reform Act added Bangor. The county quarter sessions and
assizes are held in the town, which has a separate commission
of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. Three
weekly Welsh (besides English) newspapers are published here.
CARNARVONSHIRE (Welsh Caer'narfon, for Caer yn Arfon),
a county of north Wales, bounded N. by the Irish Sea, E. by the
county of Denbigh, S.E. by Merioneth, S. by Tremadoc and
Cardigan Bays, S.W. by Carnarvon Bay, W. by the Menai
Straits (separating the county from Anglesey), and N.W. by
Conway Bay. Area, 565 sq. m. There is, owing to the changed
bed of the Conwy stream, a small detached part of the county
on the north coast of Denbighshire, stretching inland for some
2\ m. between Old Colwyn and Llandulas. About half the whole
length of the county is a peninsula, Lleyn, running south-west
into the Irish Sea, and forming Cardigan Bay on the south and
Carnarvon Bay on the north. The county is rich in minerals,
e.g. lead, copper, some gold. Its slate quarries are many and
good. Its mountains include the highest in the British Isles,
the summit of Snowdon (Wyddfa or Eryri) being 3560 ft. The
principal mountains occupy the middle of the county and include
Carnedd Llewelyn (3484 ft.), Carnedd Dafydd (3426), Glydyr
Fawr (3279) and Glydyr Fach (3262), Elidr Fawr (3029), Moei
Siabod (2860) , Moel Hebog or Hebawg ( 2 566) . The valleys vary
from the wildness of Pont Aberglaslyn gorge to the quiet of
Nant Gwynnant. Those of Beddgelert and Llanberis— at the
south and north base of Snowdon respectively — are famous,
while that of the Conwy, from Llanrwst to Conway (Conwy), is
well set off by the background of Snowdonia.
The largest stream is the Conwy, tidal and navigable for some
12 m. from Deganwy; this rises in Llyn Conwy, in the south-
east, divides Carnarvon from Denbigh (running nearly due
north) for some 30 m., and falls into the sea at Deganwy. The
Seint (wrongly spelled Seiont) is a small stream rising in Snowdon
and falling into the sea at Carnarvon, to which it gave its old
name Segontium (Kaer Seint yn Arvon in the Mabinogion).
The Swallow Falls are in Nant Ffrancon (the stream of the
Beaver or Afanc, a mythological animal). Nant Ffrancon leads
north-west from near Capel Curig, through Bettws y coed and
Bethesda, reaching the sea in Beaumaris Bay. The lakes,
numerous and occasionally large, include: Llyn Peris and Llyn
Padarn at Llanberis, north of Snowdon; Llyn Ogwen, north of
Glydyr Fawr; Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Eigiau, both north of
Capel Curig; Llyn Llydaw, on Snowdon; Llyn Cwellyn, west
of Snowdon; Llyn Gwynnant, east of Snowdon; Llyniau (Nant
y lief or) Nan tile, near Llanllyfni; Llyn Conway.
The greater part of the county, including the mountainous Snow-
don district and nearly all the eastern portion of the promontory of
Lleyn, is occupied by rocks of Ordovician age, the Arenig, Bala and
Llandeilo series. These are dark slates and thin-bedded grits with
enormous masses of interbedded igneous rocks, lavas and ashes, the
product of contemporaneous volcanoes. At the base of Snowdon
are Bala grits and slates, above them lie three beds of felspathic
porphyry, which are in turn succeeded by a great mass of calcareous
and sandy volcanic ashes, while upon the summit are the remnants
of a lava sheet. The whole mountain is part of a syncline, the beds
dipping into it from the north-west and south-east.
Next to the Ordovician, the Cambrian rocks are the most im-
portant; they are found in three separate areas; the largest is in
the north-west, and extends from Bangor to Bethesda, through Llyn
Cwellyn and Llanwada to the coast near Clynnogfawr. The second
area lies west of Tremadoc, which has given its name to the upper
division of the Cambrian system. The third forms the promontory
south of Llanenga. Cambrian slates are extensively quarried at
Penrhyn, Llanberis and Dinorwic. Pre-Cambrian schists and igneous
rocks occupy a strip, from 2 to 3 m. wide, along the coast from Neirn
to Bardsey Island. A very small area of the Denbighshire Silurian
enters this county near Conway near the eastern border; it com-
prises Tarannon shale and Wenlock beds with graptolites.
The striking headland of the Great Orme as well as Little Orme's
Head is composed of carboniferous limestone, containing corals
and large Productus shells. A narrow strip of the same formation
runs alone the Menai Straits for several miles south of the tubular
bridge. At the southern extremity of the limestone a small patch of
coal measures is found.
Glacial drift — gravel, boulders and clay — is abundant along the
northern coast, and in the neighbourhood of Snowdon it is an im-
portant feature in the landscape ; massive moraines, perched blocks,
striated stones and other evidences of ice action are common. On
CARNATIC
361
Moel Trygarn and on the western flanks of Snowdon marine shells
have been found in the drift up to an elevation of 1400 ft. above
sea-level. Blown sand occurs along the coast near Conway, south-
west of Carnarvon and on the south coast. Several hollows and
pipes in the carboniferous limestone about Orme's Head contain
clays and sands of mixed origin, including Upper Carboniferous,
Triassic and drift materials. The igneous rocks, especially those
of volcanic origin, constitute one of the most striking geological
features of the county; they comprise felsites, rhyohtes, quartz
porphyries, enstatite diabases, andesite tuffs, diabases and granite.
The climate is cold and damp in winter, except in the peninsula,
Lleyn, and on the mild coast. Arable land, but a small propor-
tion of the surface, is mostly in the Conwy valley or near the sea.
Principal crops are oats, barley and potatoes, with some little
wheat. The valley soil (alluvial) is often fertile, chiefly as
meadow and enclosed pasture. Dairy and sheep-farming occupy
most farmers. The small mountain ponies, especially of Llanbedr
(Conwy Vale), are famous, and Welsh ponies were known for
staying power even to Arrian (Cynegetics). Agriculture still too
much follows the old routine, besides losing by the influx of
labour into the towns or to the mining industry and "set
works "(stone).
The county is served by the London & North- Western railway;
its terminus is Afon Wen, within 4 m. of Pwllheli. Between
these stations plies the Cambrian, which runs along the Cardigan
Bay coast and terminates at Pwllheli. The North Wales Narrow
Gauge line runs from Dinas, south of Carnarvon, to Snowdon
Ranger, 4 m. from Beddgelert. The main line of the London
& Nortli-Western runs along the northern coast, with branches
from Llandudno junction to Blaenau Festiniog, along the
Denbighshire side of the Conwy stream; from Menai Bridge to
Carnarvon (thence continuing to Llanberis, or, by another line,
to Afon Wen). The chief ports are Portmadoc, Pwllheli, Car-
narvon, Port Dinorwic and Bangor. Near Portmadoc is
Criccieth, with a castle resorted to by visitors; Pwllheli is also
a summer resort, and a tramway runs thence to within a short
distance of Abersoch, another favourite watering-place. Nefyn
(some 6 m. from Pwllheli), still unserved by rail or tram, was the
scene of a royal tournament in the 15th century, and is another
bathing resort; near are Carreg Llam and Pistyll farm (see
Bardsey).
The area of the ancient county is 361,156 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1 901 of 126,883. The area of the administrative county
is 365,986 acres. The inhabitants practically all speak Welsh
(slightly differing, especially in Lleyn, from that of Anglesey).
Over 80 is the percentage in Carnarvonshire, as against over
00 for Anglesey, The county is divided into two parliamentary
divisions, south (Eifion) and north (Arfon).
The Carnarvon district of boroughs is formed of Bangor city,
Carnarvon, Conway, Criccieth, Nefyn and Pwllheli. There are
four municipal boroughs: Bangor (pop. 11,269), Carnarvon
(9760), Conway (4681) and Pwllheli (3675). Other urban
districts are: Bethesda (5281), Bettws y coed (1070), Criccieth
(1406), Llandudno (9279), Llanfairfechan (2769), Penmaenmawr
(3503) and Ynyscynhaiarn (4883). Carnarvon, where assizes
are held, is in the north Wales circuit. Except a few parishes
(in and near Llandudno) in St Asaph diocese, Carnarvonshire
is in the diocese of Bangor, and contains sixty-one ecclesiastical
parishes or districts, with parts of four others. Bangor, Carnar-
von, Pwllheli and Llandudno are the principal towns, with
Criccieth, Nefyn, Portmadoc and Tremadoc.
Carnarvonshire was occupied by the Segontiaci, with difficulty
subdued by Ostorius Scapula and C. Suetonius Pautinus (Paul-
linus) . From here Agricola crossed to conquer Anglesey. Relics
of British forts and camps have been discovered. Caerhun (Caer
Rhun) and Carnarvon (Caer Seint) are respectively the old
Conovium and Segontium of Britannia Secunda. The county
•was part of Gwynedd kingdom, until Edward I. in 1277 restricted
that to Snowdon proper. The early fortresses at Deganwy,
Dinorwic, Dinas Dinlle, &c, and the later castles of Conwy
(Conway), Carnarvon, Criccieth and Dolbadarn, bear witness
to the warlike character of its inhabitants.
See Edw. Breese, Kalendar of Gwynedd (London, 1874).
CARNATIC, or Kaknatax (Kannada, Karnata, Kamataka-
desa), a name given by Europeans to a region of southern India,
between the Eastern Ghats and the Coromandel coast, in the
presidency of Madras. It is ultimately derived, according to
Bishop Caldwell {Grammar of the Dravidian Languages), from
kar, " black," and nadu, " country," i.«. " the black country,"
" a term very suitable to designate the 'black cotton soil,' as it
is called, of the plateau of the Southern Deccan." Properly the
name is, in fact, applicable only to the country of the Kanarese
extending between the Eastern and Western Ghats, over an
irregular area narrowing northwards, from Palghat in the south
to Bidar in the north, and including Mysore. The extension of
the name to the country south of the Karnata was probably due
to the Mahommedan conquerors who in the 16th century over-
threw the kingdom of Vijayanagar, and who extended the name
which they found used of the country north of the Ghats to that
south of them. After this period the plain country of the south
came to be called Karnata Payanghat, or "lowlands," as
distinguished from Karnata Balaghat, or "highlands." The
misapplication of the name Carnatic was carried by the British
a step further than by the Mahommedans, it being confined by
them to the country below the Ghats, Mysore not being included.
Officially, however, this name is no longer applied, " the
Carnatic " having become a mere geographical term. Adminis-
tratively the name Carnatic (or rather Karnatak) is now applied
only to the Bombay portion of the original Karnata, viz. the
districts of Belgaum, Dharwar and Bijapur, part of North
Kanara, and the native states of the Southern Mahratta agency
and Kolhapur.
The region generally known to Europeans as the Carnatic,
though no longer a political or administrative division, is of
great historical importance. It extended along the eastern
coast about 600 m. in length, and from 50 to 100 m. in breadth.
It was bounded on the north by the Guntur circar, and thence it
stretched southward to Cape Comorin. It was divided into the
Southern, Central and Northern Carnatic. The region south
of the river Coleroon, which passes the town of Trichinopoly,
was called the Southern Carnatic. The principal towns of this
division were Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura, Tranquebar,
Negapatam and Tinnevelly. The Central Carnatic extended
from the Coleroon river to the river Pennar; its chief towns
were Madras, Pondicherry, Arcot, Vellore, Cuddalore, PuKcat,
Nellore, &c. The Northern Carnatic extended from the river (
Pennar to the northern limit of the country; and the chief town
was Ongole. 1 The Carnatic, as above denned, comprehended
within its limits the maritime provinces of Nellore, Chingleput,
South Arcot, Tanjore, Madura and Tinnevelly, besides the
inland districts of North Arcot and Trichinopoly. The popula-
tion of this region consists chiefly of Brahmanical Hindus, the
Mahommedans being but thinly scattered over the country.
The Brahmans rent a great proportion of the land, and also
fill different offices in the collection of the revenue and the
administration of justice. Throughout the country they
appropriate to themselves a particular quarter in every town*
generally the strongest part of it. Large temples and other
public monuments of civilization abound. The temples are
commonly built in the middle of a square area, and enclosed by a
wall 15 or 20 ft. high, which conceals them completely from the
public view, as they are never raised above it. «
At the earliest period of which any records exist, the country
known as the Carnatic was divided between the Pandya and
Chola kingdoms, which with that of Ghera or Kerala formed the
three Tamil kingdoms of southern India. The Pandya kingdom
practically coincided in extent with the districts of Madura and
Tinnevelly; that of the Cholas extended along the Coromandel
coast from Nellore to Pudukottai, being bounded on the north
by the Pennar river and on the south by the Southern Vellaru.
The government of the country was shared for centuries with
these dynasties by numerous independent or semi-independent
chiefs, evidence of whose perennial internecine conflicts is
1 As a geographical term, Carnatic is not now applied to the
district north of rennar.
v. 12 a
362
CARNATION
preserved in the multitudes of forts and fortresses the deserted
ruins of which crown almost all the elevated points. In spite,
however, of this passion of the military classes for war the Tamil
civilization developed in the country was of a high type. This
was largely due to the wealth of the country, famous in the
earliest times as now for its pearl fisheries. Of this fishery
Korkai (the Greek KoXxot), now a village on the Tambraparni
river in Tinnevelly, but once the Pandya capital, was the centre
long before the Christian era. In Pliny's day, owing to the
silting up of the harbour, its glory had already decayed and the
Pandya capital had been removed to Madura (Hist. Nat. vi. cap.
xxiii. 26), famous later as a centre of Tamil literature. The
Chola kingdom, which four centuries before Christ had been
recognized as independent by the great Maurya king Asoka,
had for its chief port Kaviripaddinam at the mouth of the
Cauvery, every vestige of which is now buried in sand. For
the first two centuries after Christ a large sea-borne trade was
carried on between the Roman empire and the Tamil kingdoms;
but after Caracalla's massacre at Alexandria in a.d. 215 this
ceased, and with it all intercourse with Europe for centuries.
Henceforward, until the oth century, the history of the country
is illustrated only by occasional and broken lights. The 4th
century saw the rise of the Pallava power, 1 which for some 400
years encroached on, without extinguishing, the Tamil kingdoms.
When in a.d. 640 the Chinese traveller Hsiian Tsang visited
Kanchi (Conjevaram), the capital of the Pallava king, he learned
that the kingdom of Chola (Chu-li-ya) embraced but a small
territory, wild, and inhabited by a scanty and fierce population;
in the Pandya kingdom (Malakuta), which was under Pallava
suzerainty, literature was dead, Buddhism all but extinct, while
Hinduism and the naked Jain saints divided the religious
allegiance of the people, and the pearl fisheries continued to
flourish. The power of the Pallava kings was shaken by the
victory of Vikramaditya Chalukya in a.d. 740, and shattered by
Aditya Chola at the close of the 9th century. From this time
onward the inscriptional records are abundant. The Chola
kingdom, which in the oth century had been weak, now revived,
its power culminating in the victories of Rajaraja the Great, who
defeated the Chalukyas after a four years' war, and, about a.d.
994, forced the Pandya kings to become his tributaries. A
magnificent temple at Tanjore, once his capital, preserves the
records of his victories engraved upon its walls. His career of
conquest was continued by his son Rajendra Choladeva I.,
self-styled Gangaikonda owing to his victorious advance to the
Ganges, who succeeded to the throne in a.d. 1018. The ruins
of the new capital which he built, called Gangaikonda Chola-
puram, still stand in a desolate region of the Trichinopoly
district. His successors continued the eternal wars with the
Chalukyas and other dynasties, and the Chola power continued
in the ascendant until the death of Kulottunga Chola III. in
1278, when a disputed succession caused its downfall and gave
the Pandyas the opportunity of gaining for a few years the
upper hand in the south. In 13 10, however, the Mahommedan
invasion under Malik Kafur overwhelmed the Hindu states of
southern India in a common ruin. Though crushed, however,
they were not extinguished; a period of anarchy followed,
the struggle between the Chola kings and the Mussulmans
issuing in the establishment at Kanchi of a usurping Hindu
dynasty which ruled till the end of the 14th century, while in
1365 a branch of the Pandyas succeeded in re-establishing itself
in part of the kingdom of Madura, where it survived till 1623.
At the beginning of the 15th century the whole country had come
under the rule of the kings of Vijayanagar; but in the anarchy
1 The Pallavas are supposed by some authorities to be identical
with the Pahlavas (Parthians of Persia), who, with the Sakas and
Yavanas, settled in western India about a.d. ico. Mr Vincent
Smith, however, who in the 1st edition (1904) of his Early History
of India maintained this view, says in the 2nd edition (1908, p. 423)
that " recent research does not support this hypothesis, and that
41 it seems more likely that the Pallavas were a tribe, clan or caste
which was formed in the northern part of the existing Madras
Presidency." The evidence points to their having been a race
distinct from the Tamils.
that followed the overthrow of the Vijayanagar empire by the
Mussulmans in the 16th century, the Hindu viceroys {nayakkas)
established in Madura, Tanjore and Kanchi made themselves
independent, only in their turn to become tributary to the
kings of Golconda and Bijapur, who divided the Carnatic
between them. Towards the close of the 17th century the
country was reduced by the armies of Aurangzeb, who in 1692
appointed Zulfikar Ali nawab of the Carnatic, with his seat at
Arcot. Meanwhile, the Mahratta power had begun to develop;
in 1677 Sivaji had suppressed the last remnants of the Vija-
yanagar power in Vellore, Gingee and Kurnool, while his brother
Ekoji, who in 1674 had overthrown the Nayakkas of Tanjore,
established in that city a dynasty which lasted for a century.
The collapse of the Delhi power after the death of Aurangzeb
produced further changes. The nawab Saadet-aHah of Arcot
(17 10-1 73 2) established his independence ; his successor Dost Ali
(173 2-1 740) conquered and annexed Madura in 1736, and his
successors were confirmed in their position as nawabs of the
Carnatic by the nizam of Hyderabad after that potentate had
established his power in southern India. After the death of the
nawab Mahommed Anwar-ud-din (1 744-1 749), the succession
was disputed between Mahommed Ali and Husein Dost. In
this quarrel the French and English, then competing for influence
in the Carnatic, took opposite sides. The victory of the British
established Mahommed Ali in power over part of the Carnatic
till his death in 1795. Meanwhile, however, the country had
been exposed to other troubles. In 1741 Madura, which the
nawab Dost Ali (1 732-1 740) had added to his dominions in
1736, was conquered by the Mahrattas; and in 1743 Hyder Ali
of Mysore overran and ravaged the central Carnatic. The
latter was reconquered by the British, to whom Madura had
fallen in 1758; and, finally, in 1801 all the possessions of the
nawab of the Carnatic were transferred to them by a treaty
which stipulated that an annual revenue of several lakhs of
pagodas should be reserved to the nawab, and that the British
should undertake to support a sufficient civil and military force
for the protection of the country and the collection of the revenue.
On the death of the nawab in 1853 it was determined to put an
end to the nominal sovereignty, a liberal establishment being
provided for the family.
The southern Carnatic, when it came into the possession of
the British, was occupied by military chieftains called poligars,
who ruled over the country, and held lands by doubtful tenures.
They were unquestionably a disorderly race; and the country,
by their incessant feuds and plunderings, was one continued
scene of strife and violence. Under British rule they were
reduced to order, and their forts and military establishments
were destroyed.
See India: History. For the various applications of the name
Carnatic see the Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), s.v. ; for
the results of the latest researches in the early history of the country
see V. A. Smith, Early History of India (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), and
Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar), (London, 1900).
CARNATION (Diantkus Caryophyllus, natural order Caryo-
phyllaceae), a garden flower, a native of southern Europe, but
occasionally found in an apparently wild state in England.
It has long been held in high estimation for the beauty and the
delightful fragrance of its blossoms. The varieties are numerous,
and are ranged under three groups, called bizarres, flakes and
picotees. The last, from their distinctness of character, are now
generally looked upon as if they were a different plant, whereas
they are, in truth, but a seminal development from the carnation
itself, their number and variety being entirely owing to the
assiduous endeavours of the modern florist to vary and to
improve them.
The true carnations, as distinguished from picotees, are those
which have the colours arranged in longitudinal stripes or bars
of variable width on each petal, the ground colour being white.
The bizarres are those in which stripes of two distinct colours
occur on the white ground, and it is on the purity of the white
ground and the clearness and evenness of the striping that the
technical merit of each variety rests. There are scarlet bizarres
CARNEA— CARNEADES
363
marked with scarlet and maroon, crimson bizarres marked with
crimson and purple, and pink and purple bizarres marked with
those two colours. The flakes have stripes of only one colour
on the white ground; purple flakes are striped with purple,
scarlet flakes with scarlet, and rose flakes with rose colour. The
selfs, those showing one colour only, as white, yellow, crimson,
purple, &c, are commonly called cloves.
The picotee has the petals laced instead of striped with a
distinct colour; the subgroups are red-edged, purple-edged,
rose-edged and scarlet-edged, all having white grounds; each
group divides into two sections, the heavy-edged and the light-
edged. In the heavy-edged the colour appears to be laid on in
little touches, passing from the edge inwards, but so closely that
they coalesce into one line of colour from fa to fa of an inch broad,
and more or less feathered on the inner edge, the less feathered
the better; the light-edged display only a fine edge, or " wire "
edge, of colour on the white ground. Yellow picotees are a
group of great beauty, but deficient in correct marking.
During the decade 1 898-1 908 a new American race of carna-
tions became very popular with British growers. As the plants
flower chiefly during the winter — from October till the end of
March — they are known as " winter flowering " or " perpetual ";
they are remarkable for the charming delicacy and colouring
of the blossoms and for the length of the flower-stalks. This
enables them to be used with great effect during the dullest
months of the year for all kinds of floral decorations. These
varieties are propagated by layers or cuttings or " pipings."
" Marguerite " carnations are lovely annuals remarkable for
their beautifully fringed blossoms. They are easily raised from
seeds every year, and should be treated like half-hardy annuals.
What trade growers call " jacks " are seedling carnations with
single flowers of no great value or beauty. Thousands of these
are raised every year for supplying " grass " (as the foliage is
called) to put with choicer varieties. Costermongers take
advantage of the ordinary householders' ignorance of plants
by selling " jacks " as choice varieties at a high price.
Carnations are usually propagated by " layering " the non-
flowering shoots about the second or third week in July, in the
open air; but almost at any period when proper shoots can be
obtained under glass. Cuttings or " pipings " are also inserted
in rich but very gritty soil in cold frames, or in beds with gentle
bottom heat in greenhouses. The rooted layers may be removed
and potted or planted out towards the end of September, or
early in October, the choice sorts being potted in rather small
pots and kept in a cokl frame during winter, when damp is
dangerous.
New varieties can only be obtained from carefully saved seeds,
or when a " sport " is produced — i.e. when a shoot with a flower
differing entirely in colour from that of the parent plant appears
unexpectedly. " Malmaison " carnations arose in this way, and
are largely cultivated in greenhouses.
The soil for carnations and picotees should be a good turfy
loam, free from wireworm, and as fibry as it can be obtained;
to four parts of this add one part of rotten manure and one of
leaf-mould, with sufficient sharp sand to keep it loose. A
moderate addition of old lime rubbish will also be an advantage.
This should be laid up in a dry place, and frequently turned over
so as to be in a free friable condition for use towards the end of
February or early in March.
Carnations are subject to several diseases, the worst being the
" rust " (Uromyces CaryophUinus), "leaf-spot" and maggot.
The first two are checked or prevented by spraying the plants
with sulphide of potassium (1 oz. to 10 gallons of water), taking
care to avoid the painted woodwork; while the only way to
deal with the carnation maggot is to* pierce the centre of
attacked plants with a needle, and to destroy the eggs whenever
they are observed.
Descriptive lists of the best varieties may be had from all the
leading nurserymen.
CARNEA, one of the great national festivals of Sparta, held in
honour of Apollo Carneus. Whether Carneus (or Carnus) was
originally an old Peloponnesian divinity subsequently identified
with Apollo, or merely an " emanation " from him, is uncertain;
but there seems no reason to doubt that Carneus means " the
god of flocks and herds " (Hesychius, s.v. K&pws), in a wider
sense, of the harvest and the vintage. The chief centre of his
worship was Sparta, where the Carnea took place every year
from the 7th to the 15th of the month Carneus (=Metageitnion,
August). During this period all military operations were sus-
pended. The Carnea appears to have been at once agrarian,
military and piacular in character. In the last aspect it is
supposed to commemorate the death of Carnus, an Acarnanian
seer and favourite of Apollo, who, being suspected of espionage,
was slain by one of the Heraclidae during the passage of the
Dorians from Naupactus to Peloponnesus. By way of punish-
ment, Apollo visited the army with a pestilence, which only
ceased after the institution of the Carnea. The tradition is prob-
ably intended to explain the sacrifice of an animal (perhaps a later
substitute for a human being) as the representative of the god.
The agrarian and military sides of the festival are clearly
distinguished. (1) Five unmarried youths (Kapvearat) were
chosen by lot from each [tribe] for four years, to superintend the
proceedings, the officiating priest being called byifrip (" leader ").
A man decked with garlands (possibly the priest himself) started
running, pursued by a band of young men called <FTa<t>vXo8p6fiot
(" running with bunches of grapes in their hands ") ; if he was
caught, it was a guarantee of good fortune to the city; if not,
the reverse. (2) In the second part of the festival nine tents
were set up in the country, in each of which nine citizens, repre-
senting the phratries (or oboe), feasted together in honour of the
god (for huts or booths extemporized as shelters compare the
Jewish feast of Tabernacles; and see W. Warde Fowler in
Classical Review y March 1908, on the country festival in Tibullus
ii. 1). According to Demetrius of Scepsis (in Athenaeus iv. 141),
the Carnea was an imitation of life in camp, and everything
was done in accordance with the command of a herald. In regard
to the sacrifice, which doubtless formed part of the ceremonial,
all that is known is that a ram was sacrificed at Thurii. Other
indications point to the festival having assumed a military char-
acter at an early date, as might have been expected among the
warlike Dorians, although some scholars deny this. The general
meaning of the agrarian ceremony is clear, and has numerous
parallels in north European harvest-customs, in which an animal
(or man disguised as an animal) was pursued by the reapers, the
animal if caught being usually killed; in any case, both the man
and the animal represent the vegetation spirit. E. H. Binney
in Classical Review (March 1905) suggests that the story of
Alcestis was performed at the Carnea (to which it may have :
become attached with the name of Apollo) as a vegetation
drama, and " embodied a Death and Resurrection ceremony."
The great importance attached to the festival and its month
is shown in several instances. It was responsible for the delay
which prevented the Spartans from assisting the Athenians at
the battle of Marathon (Herodotus vi. 106), and for the despatch
of a small advance guard under Leohidas to hold Thermopylae
instead of the main army (Herodotus vii. 206). Again, when
Epidaurus was attacked in 419 by Argos, the movements of the
Spartans under Agis against the latter were interrupted until
the end of the month, while the Argives (on whom, as Dorians,
the custom was equally binding), by manipulating the calendar,
avoided the necessity of suspending operations (see Grote, Hist,
of Greece, ch. 56; Thucydides v. 54).
See S. Wide, Lakonische Kulte (1893), and article " Karneios " in
Roscher's Lexikon; L. Couve in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictiannaire
des antiquites; W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen (1883),
p. 170, and Wold- und Feldkulte (2nd ed. f 1905), ii. 254; L. K.
Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iv. (1907) ; G. Schdmann, Griechische
Altertiimer (ed. J. H. Lipsius, 1902); J. G. Frazer on Pausanias,
iii. 13, 3; H. Usener in Rheinisches Museum, liii. (1898), p. 377;
J. Vurtheim in Mnemosyne, xxxi. (1903), p. 234.
CARNEADES (214-129 B.C.), Greek philosopher, founder of
the Third or New Academy, was born at Cyrene. Little is
known of his life. He learned dialectics under Diogenes the
Stoic, and under Hegesinus, the third leader of the Academy in
descent from Arcesilaus. The chief objects of his study, however,
3^4
CARNEGIE, A.
were the works of Chrysippus, opposition to whose views is the
mainspring of his philosophy. " If Chrysippus had not been/'
he is reported to have said, " I had not been either/' In 155,
together with Diogenes the Stoic and Critolaus the Peripatetic,
he was sent on an embassy to Rome to justify certain depreda-
tions committed by the Athenians in the territory of Oropus.
On this occasion he delivered two speeches on successive days,
one in favour of justice, the other against it. His powerful
reasoning excited among the Roman youth an enthusiasm for
philosophical speculations, and the elder Cato insisted on
Carneades and his companions being dismissed from the city.
Carneades, practically a 5th-century sophist, is the most
important of the ancient sceptics. Negatively, his philosophy
is a polemic against the Stoic theory of knowledge in all its
aspects. All our sensations are relative, and acquaint us, not
with things as they are, but only with the impressions that
things produce upon us. Experience, he says, clearly shows
that there is no true impression. There is no notion that may
not deceive us; it is impossible to distinguish between false and
true impressions; therefore the Stoic (fxunaula icaraXiprruc^
(see Stoics) must be given up. There is no criterion of truth.
Carneades also assailed Stoic theology and physics. In answer
to the doctrine of final cause, of design in nature, he points to
those things which cause destruction and danger to man, to the
evil committed by men endowed with reason, to the miserable
condition of humanity, and to the misfortunes that assail the
good man. There is, he concludes, no evidence for the doctrine
of a divine superintending providence. Even if there were
orderly connexion of parts in the universe, this may have resulted
quite naturally. No proof can be advanced to show that this
world is anything but the product of natural forces. Carneades
further attacked the very idea of God. He points out the contra-
diction between the attributes of infinity and individuality.
Like Aristotle, he insists that virtue, being relative, cannot be
ascribed to God. Not even intelligence can be an attribute of
the divine Being. Nor can he be conceived of as corporeal or
incorporeal. If corporeal, he must be simple or compound; if
a simple and elementary substance, he is incapable of life and
thought; if compound, he contains in himself the elements of
dissolution. If incorporeal, he can neither act nor feel. In fact,
nothing whatever can be asserted with certainty in regard to
God. The general line of argument followed by Carneades
anticipates much in modern thought
The positive side of his teaching resembles in all essentials
that of Arcesilaus (q.v.). Knowledge being impossible, a wise
man should practise kwoxft (suspension of judgment). He will
not even be sure that he can be sure of nothing. Ideas or notions
are never true, but only probable; nevertheless, there are
degrees of probability, and hence degrees of belief, leading to
action. According to Carneades, an impression may be probable
in itself; probable and uncontradicted (dxcpbnrcurTO*, lit. " not
pulled aside/ 1 not distracted by synchronous sensations, but
shown to be in harmony with them) when compared with others;
probable, uncontradicted, and thoroughly investigated and con-
firmed. In the first degree there is a strong persuasion of the
propriety of the impression made; the second and third degrees
are produced by comparisons of the impression with others
associated with it, and an analysis of itself. His views on the
summum bonum are not clearly known even to his disciple and
successor Clitomachus. He seems to have held that virtue
consisted in the direction of activity towards the satisfaction of
the natural impulses. Carneades left no written works; his
opinions seem to have been systematized by Clitomachus.
See A. Geffers, De Arcesilae Successoribus (1845) » C. Gouraud,
Rt
De Carneadis Vita et Placitis (1848); V. Brochard, Les Sceptiques
recs (1887); C. Martha, " Le Philosophe Carneade a Rome, in
\evue des deux tnondes, xxix. (1878), and the histories of philosophy;
also Academy, Greek.
CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1837- ), American " captain of
industry " and benefactor, was born in humble circumstances
in Dunfermline, Scotland, on the 25th of November 1837. In
1848 his father, who had been a Chartist, emigrated to America,
settling in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania. The raw Scots lad
started work at an early age as a bobbin-boy in a cotton factory,
and a few years later was engaged as a telegraph clerk and
operator. His capacity was perceived by Mr T. A. Scott of
the Pennsylvania railway, who employed him as a secretary;
and in 1859, when Scott became vice-president of the company,
he made Carnegie superintendent of the western division of the
line. In this post he was responsible for several improvements
in the service; and when the Civil War opened he accompanied
Scott, then assistant secretary of war, to the front. The first
sources of the enormous wealth he subsequently attained
were his introduction of sleeping-cars for railways, and his
purchase (1864) of Storey Farm on Oil Creek, where a large
profit was secured from the oil-wells. But this was only a
preliminary to the success attending his development of the
iron and steel industries at Pittsburg. Foreseeing the extent to
which the demand would grow in America for iron and steel,
he started the Keystone Bridge works, built the Edgar Thomson
steel-rail mill, bought out the rival Homestead steel works, and
by 1888 had under his control an extensive plant served by
tributary coal and iron fields, a railway 425 m. long, and a line
of lake steamships. As years went by, the various Carnegie
companies represented in this industry prospered to such an
extent that in 1901, when they were incorporated in the United
States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Mr J. Pierpont
Morgan, and Mr Carnegie himself retired from business, he was
bought out at a figure equivalent to a capital of approximately
£100,000,000.
From this time forward public attention was turned from the
shrewd business capacity which had enabled him to accumulate
such a fortune to the public-spirited way in which he devoted
himself to utilizing it on philanthropic objects. His views on
social subjects, and the responsibilities which great wealth
involved, were already known in a book entitled Triumphant
Democracy, published in 1886, and in his Gospel of Wealth
(1900). He acquired Skibo Castle, in Sutherlandshire, Scotland,
and made his home partly there and partly in New York; and
he devoted his life to the work of providing the capital for
purposes of public interest, and social and educational advance-
ment. Among these the provision of public libraries in the
United States and United Kingdom (and similarly in other
English-speaking countries) was especially prominent, and
" Carnegie libraries " gradually sprang up on all sides, his
method being to build and equip, but only on condition that
the local authority provided site and maintenance, and thus to
secure local interest and responsibility. By the end of 1908 he
had distributed over £10,000,000 for founding libraries alone.
He gave £2,000,000 in 1901 to start the Carnegie Institute at
Pittsburg, and the same amount (1902) to found the Carnegie
Institution at Washington, and in both of these, and other,
cases he added later to the original endowment. In Scotland
he gave £2,000,000 in 1901 to establish a trust for providing funds
for assisting education at the Scottish universities, a benefaction
which led in 1906 to his being elected lord rector of St Andrews
University. He was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute
under Booker Washington for negro education. He also
established large pension funds — in 1901 for his former employes
at Homestead, and in 1905 for American college professors.
His benefactions in the shape of buildings and endowments
for education and research are too numerous for detailed enumera-
tion, and are noted in this work under the headings of the various
localities. But mention must also be made of his founding of
Carnegie Hero Fund commissions, in America (1904) and in the
United Kingdom (1908), for the recognition of deeds of heroism;
his contribution of £500,000 in 1903 for the erection of a Temple
of Peace at The Hague, and of £150,000 for a Pan-American
Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau
of American republics. In all his ideas he was dominated by
an intense belief in the future and influence of the English-
speaking people, in their democratic government and alliance for
die purpose of peace and the abolition of war, and in the progress
of education on unsectarian lines. He was a powerful supporter
of the movement for spelling reform, as a means of promoting
CARNEGIE— CARNIOLA
3^5
the spread of the English language. Mr Carnegie married in
1887 and had one daughter. Among other publications by him
were An American Four-in-hand in Britain (1883), Round the
World (1884), The Empire of Business (1902), a Life of James
Watt (1905) and Problems of To-day (1908).
CARNEGIE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., 6 m. S.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 7330 (1816 being
foreign-born); (1910) 10,009. It * s served by the Pittsburg, Cin-
cinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youg-
hiogheny, and the Wabash Pittsburg Terminal railways, and the
Pittsburg street railway. Carnegie is situated in the beautiful
valley of Chartiers Creek, and is in one of the coal and natural
gas districts of the state. In the borough are a Carnegie library
and St Paul's orphan asylum. Among the borough's manu-
factures are steel, lead, glass, ploughs and enamel- and tin-ware.
There are alkaline and lithia mineral springs here. In 1894
Carnegie, named in honour of Andrew Carnegie, was formed by
the union of the boroughs Chartiers and Mansfield.
CARNELIAN, a red variety of chalcedony, much used as an
ornamental stone, especially for seals. The old name was
cornelian, said to have been given in reference either to the
horny appearance of the stone (Lat. cornu, " horn ") or to its
resemblance in colour to the berry of the cornel; but the original
word was corrupted to carnelian, probably in allusion to its
reddish colour (cameus, " flesh-coloured "). Some carnelian,
however, is brown, yellow or even white. Certain kinds of
brown and bright red chalcedony, much resembling carnelian,
pass under the name of sard (q.v.). The Hebrew odem was
probably a red stone, either carnelian, sard or jasper. All
carnelian is translucent and is thus distinguished from jasper
of similar colour, which is always opaque. The red colour of
typical carnelian is due to the presence of ferric oxide. This is
often developed artificially by exposure to sunshine, or to
artificial heat, whereby any ferric hydrate in the stone becomes
more or less dehydrated; or the stone is treated with a solution
of an iron salt, like ferrous sulphate, and then heated, when
ferric oxide is formed in the pores of the stone. An opaque
white surface is sometimes produced artificially on a red
carnelian: this is said to be done by coating the stone with
carbonate of soda and then placing it on a red-hot iron; or by
using a mixture of potash, white lead and certain vegetable
juices, and heating it on charcoal. Inscriptions and figures in
white on red carnelian (" burnt carnelian ") are well known from
the East. Much carnelian comes from India, being mostly
derived from agate-gravels, resulting from the disintegration of
the Deccan traps, in the neighbourhood of Ratanpur, near
Broach. A good deal of the carnelian now sold, however, is
Brazilian agate, artificially stained. (See Agate.)
CARNESECCHI, PIETRO (1 508-1 567), Italian humanist, was
the son of a Florentine merchant, who tinder the patronage of
the Medici, and especially of Giovanni de' Medici as Pope
Clement VII. , rapidly rose to high office at the papal court. He
came into touch with the new learning at the house of his
maternal uncle, Cardinal Bernardo Dovizzi, in Rome. At the
age of twenty-five he held several rich livings, had been notary
and protonotary to the Curia, and was first secretary to the
pope, in which capacity he conducted the correspondence with
the nuncios (among them Pier Paolo Bergerio in Germany) and a
host of pther duties. By his conduct at the conference with
Francis I. at Marseilles he won the favour of Catherine de'
Medici and other influential personages at the French court, who
in later days befriended him. He made the acquaintance of
the Spanish reformer Juan de Valdes at Rome, and got to know
him as a theologian at Naples, being especially drawn to him
through the appreciation expressed by Bernardino Ochino, and
through their mutual friendship with the Lady Julia Gonzaga,
whose spiritual adviser he became after the death of Valdes.
He became a leading spirit in the literary and religious circle
that gathered round Valdes in Naples, and that aimed at effecting
from within the spiritual reformation of the church. Under
Valdes* influence he whole-heartedly accepted Luther's doctrine
of justification by faith, though he repudiated a policy of schism.
When the movement of suppression began, Camesecchi was impli-
cated. For a time he found shelter with his friends in Paris, and
from 1552 he was in Venice leading the party of reform in that
city. In 1557 he was cited (for the second time) before the
tribunal in Rome, but refused to appear. The death of Paul IV.
and the accession of Pius IV. in 1559 made his position easier,
and he came to live in Rome. With the accession of Pius V.
(Michael Ghislieri) in 1565 the Inquisition renewed its activities
with fiercer zeal than ever. Carnesecchi was in Venice when the
news reached him, and betook himself to Florence, where, think-
ing himself safe, he was betrayed by Cosimo, the duke, who wished
to curry favour with the pope. From July 1566 he lay in prison
over a year. On the 21st of September 1567 sentence of degrada-
tion and death was passed on him and sixteen others, ambassadors
from Florence vainly kneeling to the pope for some mitigation,
and on the 1st of October he was publicly beheaded and then
burned.
CARNIOLA (Ger. Krain), a duchy and crown-land of Austria,
bounded N. by Carinthia, N.E. by Styria, S.E. and S. by
Croatia, and W. by G6rz and Gradisca, Trieste and Istria. It
has an area of 3856 sq. m. Carniola is for the most part a moun-
tainous region, occupied in the N. by the Alps, and in the S. by
the Karst (q.v.) or Carso Mountains. It is traversed by the
Julian Alps, the Karawankas and the Steiner Alps, which
belong all to the southern zone of the Eastern Alps. The highest
point in the Julian Alps is formed by the three sugar-loaf peaks of
the Triglav or Terglou (9394 ft.), which offers one of the finest
views in the whole of the Alps, and which bears on its northern
declivity the only glacier in the province. The Triglav is the
dividing range between the Alps and the Karst Mountains, and
its huge mass also forms the barrier between three races: the
German, the Slavonic and the Italian. Other high peaks are the
Mangart (8784 ft.) and the Jaluz (8708 ft.). The Karawankas,
which form the boundary between Carinthia and Carniola, have
as their highest peak the Stou or Stuhlberg (7344 ft.), and are
traversed by the Loibl Pass (4492 ft.). They are continued by
the Steiner or Santhaler Alps, which have as their highest peak
the Grintouz or Grintovc (8393 f t.) . This peak is situated on the
threefold boundary of Carinthia, Carniola and Styria, and affords
a magnificent view of the whole Alpine neighbouring region.
The southern part of Carniola is occupied by the following
divisions of the northern ramifications of the Karst Mountains:
the Birnbaumer Wald with the highest peak, the Nanos (4275 ft.),
and the Krainer Schneeberg (5890 ft.) ; the Hornwald with the
highest peak, the Hornbuchl (3608 ft.), and the Uskokengebirge
(3874 ft.). The portion of Carniola belonging to the. Karst
region presents a great number of caves, subterranean streams,
funnels and similar phenomena. Amongst the best-known are
the grottos of Adelsberg, the larger ones of Planina and the
Kreuzbergh5hle near Laas.
With the exception of the Idria and the Wippach, which as
tributaries of the Isonzo belong to the basin of the Adriatic,
Carniola belongs to the watershed of the Save. The Save or Sau
rises within the duchy, and is formed by the junction at Rad-
mannsdorf of its two head-streams the Wurzener Save and the
Wocheiner Save. Its principal affluents are the Kanker and the
Steiner Feistritz on the left, and the Zeyer or Sora, the Laibach
and the Gurk on the right. The most remarkable of these rivers
is the Laibach, which rises in the Karst region under the name of
Poik, takes afterwards a subterranean course and traverses the
Adelsberg grotto, and appears again on the surface near Planina
under the name of Unz. Shortly after this it takes for the
second time a subterranean course, to appear finally on the
surface near Oberlaibach. The small torrent of Rothwein, which
flows into the Wurzener Save, forms near Veldes the splendid
series of cascades known as the Rothwein Fall. Amongst the
principal lakes are the Wochein, the Weissenfels, the Veldes,
and the seven small lakes of the Triglav; while in the Karst
region lies the famous periodical lake of Zirknitz, known to the
Romans as Locus Lugens or Lugea Palus,
The climate is rather severe, and the southern part is exposed
to the cold north-eastern wind, known as the Bora. The mean
366
CARNIVAL— CARNIVORA
annual temperature at Laibach is 48-4° F., and the rainfall
amounts to 72 ins. Of the total area only 14-8% is under
cultivation, and the crops do not suffice for the needs of the
province; forests occupy 44*4 %, 17-2% are meadows, 15-7%
are pastures, and 1-17% of the soil is covered by vineyards.
Large quantities of flax are grown, while the timber trade is of
considerable importance. Fish and game are plentiful, and the
silkworm is bred in the warmer districts. The principal mining
product is mercury, extracted at Idria, while iron and copper
ore, zinc and coal are also found. The industry is not well
developed, but the weaving of linen and lace is pursued as a
household industry.
Carniola had in 1900 a population of 508,348, which corre-
sponds to 132 inhabitants per sq. m. Nearly 95 % were Slovenes
and 5% Germans, while 99% of the population belonged to the
Roman Catholic Church. The local diet, of which the bishop of
Laibach is a member ex officio, is composed of thirty-seven
members, and Carniola sends eleven deputies to the Reichsrat at
Vienna. For administrative purposes the province is divided
into eleven districts and one autonomous municipality, Laibach
(pop. 36,547), the capital. Other important places are Oberlai-
bach (5882), Idria (5772), Gurkfeld (5294), Zirknitz (5266),
Adelsberg (3636), Neumarktl (2626), Krainburg (2484) and
Gottschee (2421).
Carniola derives its modern name from the Slavonic word
Krajina (frontier). During the Roman Empire it formed part of
Noricum and Pannonia. The Slavonic population settled here
during the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century.
Conquered by Charlemagne, the most of the district was bestowed
on the duke of Friuli; but in the 10th century the title of
margrave of Carniola began to be borne by a family resident in
the castle of Kieselberg near Krainburg. Various parts of the
present territory were, however, held by other lords, such as the
duke of Carinthia and the bishop of Freising. Towards the close
of the 14th century all the separate portions had come by in-
heritance or bequest into the hands of Rudolph IV. of Austria,
who took the title of duke of Carniola; and since then the duchy
has remained a part of the Austrian possessions, except during
the short period from 1809 to 1813, when it was incorporated
with the French Illyrian Provinces. In 1849 it became a separate
crown-land.
See Diraitz, Geschichte Krains von der dltesten Zeit bis 1813
(4 vols., Laibach, 1 874-1 876).
CARNIVAL (Med. Lat. carndevarium, from caro, cornis,
flesh, and leuare, to lighten or put aside; the derivation from
wrfere, to say farewell, is unsupported), the last three days pre-
ceding Lent, which in Roman Catholic countries are given up to
feasting and merry-making. Anciently the carnival was held
to begin on twelfth night (6th January) and last till midnight
of Shrove Tuesday. There is little doubt that this period of
licence represents a compromise which the church always inclined
to make with the pagan festivals and that the carnival really
represents the Roman Saturnalia. Rome has ever been the
headquarters of carnival, and though some popes, notably
Clement IX. and XI. and Benedict XIII., made efforts to stem
the tide of Bacchanalian revelry, many of the popes were great
patrons and promoters of carnival keeping. Paul II. was notable
in this respect. In his time the Jews of Rome were compelled
to pay yearly a sum of 1 130 golden florins (the thirty being added
as a special memorial of Judas and the thirty pieces of silver),
which was expended on the carnival. A decree of Paul II.,
minutely providing for the diversions, orders that four rings of
silver gilt should be provided, two in the Piazza Navona and two
at the Monte Testaccio — one at each place for the burghers and
the other for the retainers of the nobles to practise riding at the
ring. The pope also orders a great variety of races, the expenses
of which are to be paid from the papal exchequer — one to be
run by the Jews, another for Christian children, another for
Christian young men, another for sexagenarians, a fifth for
asses, and a sixth for buffaloes. Under Julius III. we have long
accounts of bull-hunts — or rather bull-baits — in the Forum,
with gorgeous descriptions of the magnificence of the dresses,
and enormous suppers in the palace of ithe Conservatori in the
capitol, where seven cardinals, together with the duke Orazio
Farnese, supped at one table, and all the ladies by themselves
at another. After the supper the whole party went into the
courtyard of the palace, which was turned into the semblance of
a theatre, " to see a most charming comedy which was admir-
ably played, and lasted so long that it was not over till ten
o'clock!" Even the austere and rigid Paul IV. {pb. 1559)
used to keep carnival by inviting all the Sacred College to dine
with him. Sixtus V., who was elected in 1585, set himself to the
keeping of carnival after a different fashion. Determined to
repress the lawlessness and crime incident to the period, he set
up gibbets in conspicuous places, as well as whipping-posts,
the former as a hint to robbers and cut-throats, the latter in
store for minor offenders. We find, further, from the provisions
made at the time, that Sixtus reformed the evil custom of throw-
ing dirt and dust and flour at passengers, permitting only flowers
or sweetmeats to be thrown.
The later popes for the most part restricted the public festivi-
ties of the carnival to the last six or seven days immediately
preceding Ash Wednesday. The municipal authorities of the
city, on whom the regulation of such matters now depends, allow
ten days. The carnival sports at Rome anciently consisted of
three divisions: (1) the races in the Corso (formerly called the
Via Lata, and taking its present name from them), which appear
to have been from time immemorial a part of the festivity; (2) the
spectacular pageant of the Agona; (3) that of the Testaccio.
Of other Italian cities, Venice used in old times to be the
principal home, after Rome, of carnival. To-day Turin, Milan,
Florence, Naples, all put forth competing programmes. In
old times Florence was conspicuous for the licentiousness of its
carnival; and the Canti Carnascialeschi, or carnival songs, of
Lorenzo de' Medici show to what extent the licence was carried.
The carnival in Spain lasts four days, including Ash Wednesday.
In France the merry-making is restricted almost entirely to
Shrove Tuesday, or mardi gras. In Russia, where no Ash
Wednesday is observed, carnival gaieties last a week from Sunday
to Sunday.
CARNIVORA, the zoological order typified by the larger
carnivorous placental land mammals of the present day, such
as lions, tigers and wolves, but also including species like bears
whose diet is largely vegetable, as well as a number of smaller
flesh-eating species, together with the seals and their relatives,
and an extinct Tertiary group. Apart from this distinct group
(see Creodonta), the Carnivora are characterized by the follow-
ing features. They are unguiculate, or clawed mammals, with
never less than four toes to each foot, of which the first is never
opposable to the rest; the claws, or nails, being more or less
pointed although occasionally rudimentary. The teeth com-
prise a deciduous and a permanent series, all being rooted, and the
latter divisible into the usual four series. In front there is a series
of small pointed incisors, usually three in number, on each side
of both jaws, of which the first is always the smallest and the
third the largest, the difference being most marked in the upper
jaw; these are followed by strong conical, pointed, recurved
canines; the premolars and molars are variable, but generally,
especially in the anterior part of the series, more or less com-
pressed, pointed and trenchant; if the crowns are flat and
tuberculated, they are never complex or divided into lobes by
deep inflexions of enamel. The condyle of the lower jaw is a
transversely placed half-cylinder working in a deep glenoid
fossa of corresponding form. The brain varies much in size
and form, but the hemispheres are never destitute of convo-
lutions. The stomach is always simple and pyriform; the
caecum is either absent or short and simple; and the colon is
not sacculated or much wider than the small intestine. Vesiculae
seminales are never developed, but Cowper's glands may be
present or absent. The uterus is two-horned, and the teats are
abdominal and variable in number; while the placenta is
deciduate, and almost always zonary. The clavicle is often
absent, and when present never complete. The radius and ulna
are distinct; the scaphoid and lunar of the tarsus are united;
CARNIVORA
367
there is never an os centrale in the adult; and the fibula is
distinct.
The large majority of the species subsist chiefly on animal
food, though many are omnivorous, and a few chiefly vegetable-
eaters. The more typical forms live altogether on recently-
killed warm-blooded animals, and their whole organization is
thoroughly adapted to a predaceous mode of life. In conformity
with this manner of obtaining their subsistence, they are gener-
ally bold and savage in disposition, though some are capable
of being domesticated, and when placed under favourable cir-
cumstances exhibit a high degree of intelligence.
I. Fissipedia
The typical section of the group, the Carnivora Vera,Fissipedia
or Carnassidentia, includes all the existing terrestrial members
of the order, together with the otters and sea-otters. In this
section the fore-limbs never have the first digit, or the hind-
limbs the first and fifth digits, longer than the others; and the
incisors are j on each side, with very rare exceptions. The
cerebral hemispheres are more or less elongated; always with
three or four convolutions on the outer surface forming arches
above each other, the lowest surrounding the Sylvian fissure.
In the cheek-series there is one specially modified tooth in each
jaw, to which the name of " sectorial " or " carnassial " is
applied. The teeth in front of this are more or less sharp-
pointed and compressed; the teeth behind broad and tuber-
culated. The characters of the sectorial teeth deserve special
attention, as, though fundamentally the same throughout the
group,they are greatly modified in different genera. The upper
sectorial is the most posterior of the teeth which have pre-
decessors, and is therefore reckoned as the last premolar ( p. 4 of
the typical dentition). It consists of a more or less compressed
blade supported on two roots and an inner lobe supported by
a distinct root (see fig. 1). The blade when fully developed
has three cusps (1, 2 and 3), but the anterior is always small,
and often absent. The middle cusp is conical, high and pointed;
Fig. 1. — Left upper sectorial or carnassial teeth of Carnivora.
I, Felis; II, Cams; III, Ursus. 1, anterior, 2, middle, and 3,
posterior cusp of blade; 4, inner cusp supported on distinct root;
5, inner cusp, posterior in position, and without distinct root,
characteristic of the Ursidae.
and the posterior cusp has a compressed, straight, knife-like edge.
The inner cusp (4) varies in extent, but is generally placed near
the anterior end of the blade, though sometimes median in
position. In the Ursidae alone both the inner cusp and its root
are wanting, and there is often a small internal and posterior
cusp (5) without root. In this family also the sectorial is rela-
tively to the other teeth much smaller than in other Carnivora.
The lower sectorial (fig. 2) is the most anterior of the teeth
without predecessors in the milk-series, and is therefore reckoned
the first molar. It has two roots supporting a crown, consisting
when fully developed of a compressed bilobed blade (1 and 2),
a heel (4), and an inner tubercle (3). The cusps of the blade,
of which the hinder (2) is the larger, are separated by a notch,
generally prolonged into a linear fissure. In the specialized
Felidae (I) the blade alone is developed, both heel and inner
tubercle being absent or rudimentary. In Melts (V) and Ursus
(VI) the heel is greatly developed, broad and tuberculated.
The blade in these cases is generally placed obliquely, its flat
or convex (outer) side looking forwards, so that the two lobes
or cusps are almost side by side, instead of anterior and posterior.
The inner tubercle (3) is generally a conical pointed cusp, placed
to the inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade. The special
characters of these teeth are more disguised in the sea-otter
than in any other species, but even here they can be traced-
Fig. 2. — Left lower sectorial or carnassial teeth of Carnivora.
I, Felis; II, Cants; III, Herpestes; IV, Lutra; V, Meles; VI,
Ursus. 1, Anterior cusp of blade; 2, posterior cusp of blade;
3, inner tubercle ; 4, heel. It will be seen that the relative size of
the two roots varies according to the development of the portion of
the crown they respectively support.
The toes are nearly always armed with large, strong, curved
and sharp claws, ensheathing the terminal phalanges and held
firmly in place by broad plates of bone reflected over their
attached ends from the bases of the phalanges. In the Felidae
these claws are " retractile " ; the terminal phalange with the
claw attached, folding back in the fore-foot into a sheath by the
outer or ulnar side of the middle phalange of the digit, and
retained in this position when at rest by a strong elastic ligament.
In the hind-foot the terminal joint or phalange is retracted
on to the top, and not the side of the middle phalange. By the
action of the deep flexor muscles the terminal phalanges are
straightened, the claws protruded from their sheath, and the
soft " velvety " paw becomes suddenly converted into a formid-
able weapon of offence. The habitual retraction of the claws
preserves their points from wear.
The land Carnivora are best divided into two subgroups or
sections — (A) the Aeluroidea, or Herpestoidea, and (B) the
Arctoidea; the recognition of a third section, Cynoidea, being
rendered untenable by the evidence of extinct forms.
(A) Aeluroidea. — In this section, which comprises the cats
{Felidae) , civets (Viverridae) and hyenas (Hyaenidae), the
tympanic bone is more or less ring-like, and forms only a part
of the outer wall of the tympanic cavity; an inflated alisphenoid
bulla is developed; and the external auditory meatus is short.
In the nasal chamber the maxillo-turbinal is small and doubly
folded, and does not cut off the naso-turbinal and adjacent
bones from the nasal aperture. The carotid canal in the skull
is short or absent. Cowper's glands are present, as is a prostate
gland and a caecum, as well as a duodenal-jejunal flexure in
the intestine, but an os penis is either wanting or small.
The members of the cat tribe, or Felidae, are collectively character-
ized by the following features. An alisphenoid is lacking on the
lower aspect of the skull. In existing forms the usual cat tribe
dental formula is i. J, c. f, p. j, tn. f ; the upper molar
being rudimentary and placed on the inner side of the carnassial,
but the first premolar may be absent, while, as an abnormality, there
may be a small second lower molar, which is constantly present in.
368
CARNIVORA
some of the extinct forms. The auditory bulla and the tympanic
are divided by an internal partition. The paroccipital process is
separate from, or only extends to a slight degree upon the auditory
bulla. The thoracic vertebrae number 13; the feet are digitigrade,
with five front and four hind toes, of which the claws are retractile ;
and the metatarsus is haired all round. Anal glands are present.
As regards the teeth, when considered in more detail, the incisors
are small, and the canines large, strong, slightly recurved, with
trenchant edges and sharp points, and placed wide apart. The pre-
molars are compressed and sharp-pointed; the most posterior in
the upper jaw (the sectorial) being a large tooth, consisting of a
compressed blade, divided into three unequal cusps supported by
two roots, with a small inner lobe placed near the front and supported
by a distinct root (fig. 1, 1). The upper molar is a small tubercular
tooth placed more or less transversely at the inner side of the hinder
end of the last. In the lower jaw the molar (sectorial) is reduced to
the blade, which is large, trenchant, compressed ana divided into
two subequal lobes (fig. 2, I). Occasionally it has a rudimentary
heel, but never an inner tubercle. The skull generally is short and
rounded, though proportionally more elongated in the larger forms ;
with the facial portion short and broad, and the zygomatic arches
wide and strong. The auditory bullae are large, rounded and smooth.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3r Ca. 13-2^. Clavicles better
developed than in other Carnivora, but not articulating with either
the shoulder-bones or sternum. Of the five front toes, the third and
fourth are nearly equal and longest, the second slightly, and the
fifth considerably shorter. The first is still shorter, not reaching the
articulation of the second. In the hind-feet
the third and fourth toes are the longest, the second and fifth some-
what shorter and nearly equal, while the first is represented only by
the rudimentary metatarsal bone. The claws are large, strongly
curved, compressed, very sharp, and exhibit the retractile condition
in the highest degree. The tail varies greatly in length, being in
some species a mere stump, in others nearly as long as the body.
The ears are of moderate size, more or less triangular and pointed ;
and the eyes rather large, with the iris mobile, and with a pupillary
aperture which contracts under the influence of light in some species
to a narrow vertical slit, in others to an oval, and in some to a circular
aperture. The tongue is thickly covered with sharp, pointed, re-
curved horny papillae; and the caecum is small and simple.
As in structure so in habits, the cat may be considered the most
specialized of all Carnivora, although they exhibit many features
connecting them with extinct types. All the members of the group
feed almost exclusively on warm-blooded animals which they have
themselves killed, but one Indian species, Felts viverrina, is said to
prey on fish, and even fresh-water molluscs. Unlike dogs, they
never associate in packs, and rarely hunt their prey on open ground,
but from some place of concealment wait until the unsuspecting
victim comes within reach, or with noiseless and stealthy tread,
crouching close to the ground for concealment, approach near enough
to make the fatal spring. In this manner they frequently attack
and kill animals considerably exceeding their own size. They are
mostly nocturnal, and the greater number, especially the smaller
species, more or less arboreal. None are aquatic, and all take to
tne water with reluctance, though some may habitually haunt the
banks of rivers or pools, because they more easily obtain their prey
in such situations. The numerous species are widely diffused over
the greater part of the habitable world, though most abundant in
the warm latitudes of both hemispheres. None are, however, found
in the Australian region, or in Madagascar. Although the Old
World and New World cats (except perhaps the northern lynx) are
all specifically distinct, no common structural character has been
pointed out by which the former can be separated from the latter.
On the contrary, most of the groups into which the family may be
divided have representatives in both hemispheres.
Notwithstanding the considerable diversity in external appearance
and size between different members of this extensive family, the
structural differences are but slight. The principal differences are
to be found in the form of the cranium, especially of the nasal and
adjoining bones, the completeness of the bony orbit posteriorly,
the development of the first upper premolar and of the inner lobe
of the upper sectorial, the length of the tail, the form of the pupil,
and the condition and coloration of the fur, especially the presence
or absence of tufts or pencils of hair on the external ears.
In the typical genus Felis, which includes the great majority of
the species, and has a distribution coextensive with that of the
family, the upper sectorial tooth has a distinct inner cusp, the claws
are completely contractile, the tail is long or moderate, and the ears
do not carry distinct tufts of hair. As regards the larger species, the
lion (F. leo), tiger (F. forts), leopard (F.pardus), ounce or snow-
leopard (F. uncut) and clouded leopard (F. nebulosa) are described
in separate articles. Of other Old World species it must suffice to
mention that the Tibetan Fontanier's cat (J*, tristis), and the Indian
marbled cat (F. mormorata), an ally of the above-mentioned clouded
leopard, appear to be the Asiatic representatives of the American
ocelots. The Tibetan Pallas's cat (F. tnanul) has been made the
type of a distinct genus, Trichaelurus, in allusion to its long coat.
One of the largest of the smaller species is the African serval, q.v.
(F. serval), which is yellow with solid black spots, has long limbs,
and a relatively short tail. Numerous " tiger-cats " and " leopard -
cats," such as the spotted F. bengalensis and the uniformly chestnut
F. badia, inhabit tropical Asia; while representative species occur
in Africa. The jungle-cat (F. chaus), which in its slightly tufted
ears and shorter tail foreshadows the lynxes, is common to both
continents. Another African species {r. ocreata) appears to have
been the chief progenitor ot the European domestic cat, which has,
however, apparently been crossed to some extent with the ordinary
wild cat (F* catus). Of the New World species, F. concolor, the puma
or couguar, commonly called " panther " in the United States,
is about the size of a leopard, but of a uniform brown colour, spotted
only when young, and is extensively distributed in both North and
South America, ranging between the parallels of 6o° N. and 50 ° S.,
where it is represented by numerous local races, varying in size and
colour. F. onca, the jaguar, is a larger and more powerful animal
than the last, and more resembles the leopard in its colours; it is
also found in both North and South America, although with a less
extensive range, reaching northwards only as far as Texas, and
southwards nearly to Patagonia (see Jaguar). F. partialis and
several allied smaller, elegantly-spotted species inhabiting the
intratropical regions of America, are commonly confounded under
the name of ocelot or tiger-cat. F. yaguarondt, rather larger than
the domestic cat, with an elongated head and body, and of a uniform
brownish-grey colour, ranges from northern Mexico to Paraguay;
while the allied F. eyra is a small cat, weaseMike in form, having an
elongated head, body and tail, and short limbs, and is of a uniform light
reddish-brown colour. It is a native of South America and Mexico.
F.pajeros is the Pampas cat.
The typical lynxes, as represented by Lynx borealis (JL lynx), the
southern L. pardina, and the American L. rufa, are a northern group
common to both hemispheres, and characterized by their tufted
ears, short tail, and the presence of a rudimentary heel to the lower
carnassial tooth. As a rule, they are more or less spotted in winter,
but tend to become uniformly-coloured in summer. They are con-
nected with the more typical cats by the long-tailed and uniformly
red caracal, Lynx (Caracal) caracal, of India, Persia and Africa, and
the propriety of separating them from Felts may be open to doubt
(see Lynx and Caracal).
However this may be, there can be no doubt of the right of the
hunting- leopard or chita (cheeta), as, in common with the leopard,
it is called in India, to distinction from all the other cats as a distinct
genus, under the name of Cynaelurus jubatus. From all the other
Felidae this animal, which is common to Asia and Africa, is dis-
tinguished by the inner lobe of the upper sectorial tooth, though
supported by a distinct root, having no salient cusp upon it, by tne
tubercular molar being more in a line with the other teeth, and by
the claws being smaller, less curved and less completely retractile,
owing to the feebler development of the elastic ligaments. The
skull is short and high, with the frontal region broad and elevated
in conseauence of the large development of air-sinuses. The head is
small and round, the body light, the limbs and tail long, and the colour
pale yellowish-brown with small solid black spots (see Cheeta).
The family Viverridae, which includes the civet-cats, genets and
mongooses, is nearly allied to the Felidae, but its members have
a fuller dentition, and exhibit certain other structural fl ^ H -
differences from the cats, to the largest of which they avMtrtD9 '
make no approach in the matter of bodily size. As a rule,
there is an alisphenoid canal; the cheek-dentition is p. 3 or 4 ,
HI.
1 or 2
I or
3 or 4
The bulla is small and the tympanic large, with a low
division between them; and the paroccipital process is leaf-like
and spread over the bulla. The number of dorsal vertebrae, except
in the aberrant Proteles, is 13 or 14; the claws may be either
completely or partially retractile or non-retractile; generally
each foot has five toes, but there may be four in front and five
behind, the reverse of this, or only four on each foot ; the gait may
be either digitigrade or partially plantigrade; and the metatarsus
may be either hairy or naked inferiorly. Anal, and in some cases
also perineal, glands are developed. The family is limited to the
warmer parts of the Old World.
Considerable difference of opinion prevails with regard to the
serial position of the fossa, or foussa (firyptojtrocta ferox), of Mada-
gascar, some writers considering that its affinities are so close to the
relidae that it ought not to be included in the present family at
all. Others, on the contrary, see no reason to separate it from the
Viverrinae or more typical representatives of the civet-tribe. As a
medium course, it may be regarded as the sole representative of a
special subfamily — Cryploproctinae — of the Viverridae, The sub-
family and genus are characterized by possessing a total of %6
teeth, arranged as 1. fi *• h P* li *»• t« 1" e teeth generally closely
resemble those of the Felidae, the first premolar of both jaws being
very minute and early deciduous; the upper sectorial has a small
inner lobe, quite at the anterior part ; the molar is small and placed
transversely ; and the lower sectorial has a large trenchant bilobed
blade, and a minute heel, but no inner tubercle. The skull is gener-
ally like that of FeHs, but proportionally longer and narrower, with
the orbit widely open behind. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3,
Ca. 29. Body elongated. Limbs moderate in size. Feet sub-
plantigrade, with nve well-developed toes on each, carrying
sharp, compressed, retractile claws. Ears moderate. Tail long and
CARNIVORA
369
cylindrical. The foussa is a sandy-coloured animal with an exceed-
ingly long tail (see Foussa).
The more typical members of the group, constituting the subfamily
Viverrinae, are characterized bv tneir sharp, curved and largely
retractile claws, the presence of five toes to each foot, and of perineal
and one pair of anal glands, and a tympanic bone which retains to a
great extent the primitive ring-like form, so that the external auditory
meatus has scarcely any inferior lip, its orifice being close to the
tympanic ring. The first representatives of the subfamily are the
civet-cats, or civets (Viverra and Viverricula), and the genets
(Genetta), in all of which the dentition is i. f , c. {, p. J, m. { ; total 40.
The skull is elongated, with the facial portion small and compressed,
and the orbits well-defined but incomplete behind. Vertebrae:
C. 7, D. 13, L. 7 (or D. 14, L. 6), S. 3, Ca. 22-30. Body elongated
and compressed. Head pointed in front; ears rather small. Ex-
tremities short. Feet small and rounded. Toes short, the first on
fore and hind feet much shorter than the others. Palms and soles
covered with hair, except the pads of the feet and toes, and in some
species a narrow central line on the under side of the sole, extending
backwards nearly to the heel. Tail moderate or long. The pair
of large glands situated on the perineum (in both sexes} secretes an
oily substance of a peculiarly penetrating odour. In the true civets,
which include the largest members of the group, the teeth are stouter
and less compressed than in the other genera; the second upper
molar being especially large, and the auditory bulla smaller and
more pointed in front; the body is shorter and stouter; the limbs
are longer; the tail shorter and tapering. The under side of the
tarsus is completely covered with hair, and the claws are longer and
less retractile. Fur rather long and loose, and in the middle line of
the neck and back especially elongated so as to form a sort of crest
or mane. Pupil circular when contracted. Perineal elands greatly
developed. These characters apply especially to V." civetta, the
African civet, or civet-cat, as it is commonly called, an animal
rather larger than a fox, and an inhabitant of intratropical Africa.
V. zibetta, the Indian civet, of about equal size, approaches in many
respects, especially in the characters of the teeth and feet and
absence of the crest of elongated hair on the back, to the next section.
It inhabits Bengal, China, the Malay Peninsula and adjoining
islands. V, tangalunga is a smaller but nearly allied animal from
the same part of the world. From these three species and the next
the civet of commerce, once so much admired as a perfume in
England, and still largely used in the East, is obtained. The
animals are kept in cages, and the odoriferous secretion collected by
scraping the interior of the perineal follicles with a spoon or spatula.
The single representative of the genus Viverricula resembles in many
respects the genets, but agrees with the civets in having the whole
of the under side of the tarsus hairy; the alisphenoid canal is gener-
ally absent. V. malaccensis, the rasse, inhabiting India, China,
Java and Sumatra, is an elegant little animal which affords a
favourite perfume to the Javanese. The genets (Genetta) are smaller
animals, with more elongated and slender bodies, and shorter limbs
than the civets. The skull is elongated and narrow; and the
auditory bulla large, elongated and rounded at both ends. The
teeth are compressed and sharp-pointed, with a lobe on the inner
side of the third, upper premolar not present in the previous genera.
Pupil contracting to a linear aperture. Tail long, slender, ringed.
Fur short and soft, spotted or cloudy. Under side of the metatarsus
with a narrow longitudinal bald streak. Genetta vulgaris, or G.
genetta, the common genet, is found in France south of the river
Loire, Spain, south-western Asia and North Africa. G. felina,
senegalensis, tigrina, victoriae and pardalis are other named species,
all African in habitat.
The Malagasy fossane (Fossa daubentoni), which has but little
markings on the fur of the adult, differs by the absence of a scent-
pouch and the presence of a couple of bare spots on the under surface
of the metatarsus. The beautiful linsangs (Linsanga or Prionodon),
ranging from the eastern Himalaya to Java and Borneo, are repre-
sented by two or three species, easily recognizable by the broad
transverse bands of blackish brown and yellow with which the body
and tail are marked. They are specially distinguished by having
only one pair of upper molars, thereby resembling the cats, with
which, in correlation with their arboreal habits, they agree in their
highly retractile claws, and the hairy surface of the under side of the
metatarsus. About 15 in. is the length of the type species. In
West Africa the linsangs are represented by Poiana richardsoni, a
small species with a spotted genet-like coat, and also with a narrow
naked stripe on the under surface of the metatarsus, as in genets.
Here may be placed the two African spotted palm-civets of the
genus Nandinia, namely N. binotata from the west and N. gerrardi
from the east forest-region. In common with the true palm-civets,
thev have a dentition numerically identical with that of Viverra
and Genetta, but the cusps of the hinder premolars and molars are
much less sharp and pointed. They are peculiar in that the wall of
the inner chamber of the auditory bulla never ossifies, while the
paroccipital process is not flattened out and spread over the bulla.
In this respect they resemble the Miocene European genus Amphictis,
as they do in the form of their teeth, so that they may be regarded as
nearly related to the ancestral Viverridae, and forming in some
degree a connecting link between the present and the next sub-
family. Nandinia is also peculiar in possessing a land of rudimentary
marsupial pouch. Apparently Eupleres goudoti, of Madagascar,
which has oeen generally classed in the Herpestinae, is a nearly
related animal, characterized by the reduction of its dentition, due
to insectivorous habits (fie. 3) ; the canines being small, the anterior
premolars canine-like, and the hinder premolars molariform. It is
a uniformly-coloured creature of medium size.
The palm-civets, or paradoxures, constituting the Asiatic genus
Paradoxurus, have, as already stated, the following dental formula,
viz. *. f, c. \, p. J, m. |, total ±0; the cusps of the molars being
low and blunted, and these teetn in the upper jaw much broader
than in the civets. The head is pointed in front, with small rounded
ears; the limbs are of medium length, with the soles of the feet
almost completely naked, and fully retractile claws; while the long
tail is not prehensile and clothed with hair of moderate length.
Fig. 3. — Skull of Eupleres goudoti. t nat. size.
Spots are the chief type of marking. The vertebrae number C. 7,
D. 13, L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 29-36. Numerous relatively large species
ranging from India to Borneo, Sumatra and Celebes, with one in
Tibet, represent the genus. Nearly allied are Arctogale leucotis,
with a wide distribution, and A . trivtriata, of Java, both longitudin-
ally striped species, with small and slightly separated molars, and a
prolonged bony palate (see Palm-Civet).
The binturong (Aretictis binturong) has typically the same dental
formula as the last, but the posterior upper molar and the first lower
premolar are often absent. Molars small and rounded, with a dis-
tinct interval between every two, but formed generally on the same
pattern as Paradoxurus. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 5, S. 3, Ca. 34.
Body elongated; head broad behind, with a small pointed face,
long and numerous whiskers, and small ears, rounded, but clothed
with a pencil of long hairs. Eyes small. Limbs short, with the
soles of the feet broad and entirely naked. Tail very long and
prehensile. Fur long and harsh. Caecum extremely small. The
binturong inhabits southern Asia from Nepal through the Malay
Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra and Java. Although structu-
rally agreeing closely with the paradoxures, its tufted ears, long,
coarse and dark hair, and prehensile tail give it a very different
external appearance. It is slow and cautious in its movements,
chiefly if not entirely arboreal, and appears to feed on vegetables as
well as animal substances (see Binturong).
Hemigale is another modification of the paradoxure type, repre-
sented by H. hardwickei of Borneo, an elegant-looking animal,
smaller and more slender than the paradoxures, of light grey colour,
with transverse broad dark bands across the back and loins.
Cynogale also contains one Bornean species, C. bennetti, a curious
otter-like modification of the viverrine type, having semi-aquatic
habits, both swimming in the water and climbing trees, living upon
fish, crustaceans, small mammals, birds and fruits. The number
and general arrangement of the teeth are as in Paradoxurus, but the
premolars are peculiarly elongated, compressed, pointed and re-
curved, though the molars are tuberculated. The head is elongated,
with the muzzle broad and depressed, the whiskers are very long
and abundant, and the ears small and rounded. Toes short and
slightly webbed at the base. Tail short, cylindrical, covered with
short hair. Fur very dense and soft, of a dark-brown colour, mixed
with black and grey.
In the mongoose group, or Herpestinae, the tympanic or anterior
portion of the auditory bulla is produced into an ossified external
auditory meatus of considerable length; while the paroccipital
process never projects below the bulla, on the hinder surface of
which, in adult animals, it is spread out and completely lost. The
toes are straight, with long, unsheathed, non-retractile claws.
In the typical mongooses or ichneumons, Herpestes, the dental
formula is i. f , c. \, p. | ° j| , m. |; total \o or 36; the molars
having generally strongly-developed, sharply-pointed cusps. The
skull is elongated and constricted behind the orbits. The face is
short and compressed, with the frontal region broad and arched.
Post-orbital processes of frontal and jugal bones well developed,
generally meeting so as to complete the circle of the orbit behind.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 21-26. Head pointed in front.
Ears short and rounded. Body long and slender. Extremities
short. Five toes on each foot, the first, especially that on the hind-
foot, very short. Toes free, or but sligntly palmated. Soles of
fore-feet and terminal portion of those of hind-pair naked; under
surface of metatarsus clothed with hair. Tail long or moderate,
generally thick at the base, and sometimes covered with more or
less elongated hair. The longer hairs covering the body and tail
almost always ringed. The genus is common to the warmer parts of
37°
CARNIVORA
Asia and Africa, and while many of the species, like the Egyptian
H. ichneumon and the ordinary Indian mongoose, H. mungo, are
pepper-and-salt coloured, the large African H. albicauda has the
terminal two-thirds of the tail clothed with long white hairs (see
Ichneumon).
The following; distinct African and Malagasy generic representa-
tives of the subfamily are recognized, viz. Helogale, with j premolars,
and containing the small South African H. parvula and a variety of
the same. Bdeogale crassicauda and two allied tropical African
species differ from Herpestes in having only four toes on each foot.
The orbit is nearly complete, and the tail of moderate length and
rather bushy. In Cynictis, which has the orbit completely closed,
there are five front and four hind toes; and the skull is shorter and
broader than in Herpestes, rather contracted behind the orbits, the
face short, and the anterior chamber of the auditory bulla very
large. The front claws are elongated. Includes only C. penicillata
from South Africa.
All the foregoing herpestines have the nose short, with its under
surface flat, bald, and with a median longitudinal groove. The
remaining forms have the nose more or less produced, with its
under side convex, and a space between the nostrils and the upper
lip covered with closely pressed hairs, and without any median
groove. The South African Rhynchogale muelleri, a reddish animal
with five toes to each foot and J (abnormally & ) premolars, alone
represents the first genus. The cusimanses (Crossarchus) , which
diner by having only f premolars, and thus a total of 36 teeth,
include, on the other hand, several species. The muzzle is elongated,
the claws on the fore-feet are long and curved, the first front toe is
very short ; the under surface of the metatarsus naked ; and the
tail shorter than the body, tapering. Fur harsh. Includes C. ob-
scurus, the cusimanse, a small burrowing animal from West Africa,
of uniform dark-brown colour, C. fasciatus, C. zebra, C. gambianus
and others. Lastly, we have Suricata, a more distinct genus than
any of the above. The dental formula is as in the last, but the teeth
of the molar series are remarkably short in the antero-posterior
direction, corresponding with the shortness of the skull generally.
Orbits complete behind. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 20.
Though the head is short and broad, the nose is pointed and rather
produced and movable, while the ears are very short. Body shorter
and limbs longer than in Herpestes. Toes 4-4. Claws on fore-feet
very long and narrow, arched, -pointed and subequal. Hind-feet
with shorter claws, soles hairy. Tail rather shorter than the body.
One species only is known, the meerkat or suricate, S. tetradactyla,
a small grey-brown animal, with dark transverse stripes on the
hinder part of the back, from South Africa.
The names Galidictis, Galidia and Hemigalidia indicate three
generic modifications of the Herpestinae, all inhabitants of Mada-
gascar. The best-known, Galidia elegans, is a lively squirrel-like
little animal with soft fur and a long bushy tail, which climbs and
jumps with agility. It is of a chestnut-brown colour, the tail being
ringed with darker brown. Galidictis vittata and G. striata chiefly
differ from the ichneumons in their coloration, being grey with
parallel longitudinal stripes of dark brown.
Considerable diversity of opinion prevails with regard to the
serial position of the aard-wolf, or maned jackal (Prote&s cristatus),
of southern and eastern Africa, some authorities making it the
representative of a family by itself, others referring it to the
Hyaenidae, while others again regard it as a modified member of the
Viverridae. After all, the distinction either way cannot be very
great, since the two families just named are intimately connected
by marks of the extinct Ictitherium. With the Viverridae it agrees
in having the auditory bulla divided, while in the number of dorsal
vertebrae it is hyena-like. The cheek-teeth are small, far apart,
and almost rudimentary in character (see fig. 4), and the canines
long and rather slender. The dental formula is i.\, c.\, p.m. —-^ — ;
* r 3 or 4
total 30 or 32. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 2, Ca. 24. The
fore-feet with five toes; the first, though short, with a distinct claw.
The hind-feet with four subequal toes; all, like those of the fore-foot,
furnished with strong, blunt, non-retractile claws (see Aard-Wolf).
The hyenas or hyaenas (Hyaenidae) differ from the preceding
family {Viverridae) in the absence of a distinct vertical partition
between the two halves of the auditory bulla; and are
further characterized by the absence of an alisphenoid
canal, the reduction of the molars to }, and the presence
of 15 dorsal vertebrae. The dental formula in the existing forms
(to which alone all these remarks apply) is i. |, c. \, p. f, m. \;
total 34; the teeth, especially the canines and premolars, being very
large, strong and conical, tipper sectorial with a large, distinctly
trifobed blade and a moderately developed inner lobe placed at the
anterior extremity of the blade. Molar very small, and placed trans-
versely close to the hinder edge of the last, as in the Feltdae. Lower
sectorial consisting of little more than the bilobed blade. Zygomatic
arches of skull very wide and strong; and sagittal crest high, giving
attachment to very powerful biting muscles. Orbits incomplete
behind. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. a, Ca. 19. Limbs rather
long, especially the anterior pair, digit igrade, four subequal toes on
each, with stout non-retractile claws, the first toes being represented
by rudimentary metacarpal and metatarsal bones. Tail rather
Hyeam
tribe.
short. A large post-anal median glandular pouch, into which the
largely developed anal scent glands pour their secretion.
The three well-characterized species of Hyaena are divisible into
two sections, to which some zoologists assign generic rank. In the
typical species the upper molar is moderately developed and three-
rooted; and an inner tubercle and heel more or less developed
on the lower molar. Ears large and pointed. Hair long, forming a
mane on the back and shoulders. Represented firstly by H. striata.
Fig. 4.— Skull and Dentition of Aard-Wolf (Proteles cristatus). X i
the striped hyena of northern and eastern Africa and southern
Asia ; and H. brunnea of South Africa, in some respects intermediate
between this and the next section. In the second section, forming the
subgenus Crocuta, the upper molar is extremely small, two- or one-
rooted, often deciduous; the lower molar without trace of inner
tubercle, and with an extremely small heel. Ears moderate, rounded.
Hair not elongated to form a mane. The spotted hyena, Hyaena
(Crocuta) crocuta, of which, like the striped species, there are several
local races, represents this group, and ranges all over Africa south
of the Sahara. In dental characters the first section inclines more
to the Viverridae, the second to the Felidae; or the second may be
considered as the more specialized form, as it certainly is in its
visceral anatomy, especially in that of the reproductive organs of
the female. (See Hyena.)
(B) Arctoidea. — So far as the auditory region of the skull
is concerned, the existing representatives of the dog tribe or
Canidae are to a great extent intermediate between the cat and
civet group (Acluroidea) on the one hand, and the typical
representatives of the bear and .weasel group on the other.
They were consequently at one time classed in an intermediate
group — the Cynoidea; but fossil forms show such a complete
transition from dogs to bears as to demonstrate the artificial
character of such a division. Consequently, the dogs are in-
cluded in the bear-group. In this wider sense the Arctoidea
will be characterized by the tympanic bone being disk-shaped
and forming the whole of the outer wall of the tympanic cavity;
the large size of the external auditory meatus or tube; and the
large and branching maxillo-turbinal bone, which cuts off the
naso-turbinal and two adjacent bones from the anterior nasal
chamber. The tympanic bulla has no internal partition. There
is a large carotid canal. Cowper's glands are lacking; and there
is a large penial bone.
From all the other members of the group the Canidae are broadly
distinguished (in the case of existing forms) by the large and well-
developed tympanic bulla, with which the paroccipital Dog tribe.
process is in contact. An alisphenoid canal is present.
The feet are digitigrade, usually with five (in one instance four)
front and always four hind-toes. The molars — generally §—
have tall cusps, and the sectorials are large and powerful (figs. 1
and 2). The intestine has both a duodeno- jejunal flexure and a
caecum. A prostate gland is present ; but there are no glands in
the vasa deferentia; the penial bone is grooved; and anal glands
are generally developed. The distribution of the family is cosmo-
politan. The normal dentition is i. |, c. }, p. J, m. }; total 42;
thus differing from the typical series only by trie loss of the last pair
of upper molars (present in certain extinct forms). In the characters
of trie teeth the group is the most primitive of all Carnivora. Typi-
cally the upper sectcrial (fig. 1, II) consists of a stout blade, of which
the anterior cusp is almost obsolete, the middle cusp large, conical
and pointed backwards, and the posterior cusp in the form of a
compressed ridge; the inner lobe is very small, and placed at the
fore part of the tooth. The first molar is more than half the antero-
posterior length of the sectorial, and considerably wider than lone;
its crown consists of two prominent conical cusps, of which the
anterior is the larger, and a low, broad inward prolongation, support-
ing two more or less distinct cusps and a raised inner border. The
second molar resembles the first in general form, but is considerably
smaller. The lower sectorial (fig. 2, II) is a large tooth, with a
strong compressed bilobed blade, the hinder lobe being considerably
the larger and more pointed, a small but distinct inner tubercle
CARNIVORA
37i
placed at the hinder margin of the posterior lobe of the blade, and
a broad, low, tuberculated heel, occupying about one-third of the
whole length of the tooth. The second molar is less than half the
length of the first, with a pair of cusps placed side by side anteriorly,
and a less distinct posterior. pair. The third is an extremely small
and simple tooth with a subcircular tuberculated crown and single
root.
Views differ in regard to the best classification of the Canidae,
some writers adopting a number of generic groups, while others con-
sider that very few meet the needs of the case. In retaining the old
fenus Cants in the wide sense, that is to say, inclusive of the foxes,
'rofessor Max Weber is followed. The best cranial character by
which the different members of the family may be distinguished is
that in dogs, wolves and jackals the post-orbital process of the
frontal bone is regularly smooth and convex above, with its extremity
bent downwards, whereas in foxes the process is hollowed above,
with its outer margin (particularly of the anterior border) somewhat
raised. This moamcation coincides in the main with the division
of the group into two parallel series, the Thooids or Lupine forms
and Alopecoids or Vulpine forms, characterized by the presence
of frontal air-sinuses in the former, which not only affects the
external form but to a still greater degree the shape of the anterior
part of the cranial cavity, and the absence of such sinuses in the
latter. The pupil of the eye when contracted is round in most
members of the first group, and vertically elliptical in the others,
but more observations are required before this character can be
absolutely relied upon. The form and length of the tail is often used
for the purposes of classification, but its characters do not coincide
Fig. 5. — The African Hunting-Dog (Lycaon pictus).
with those of the cranium, as many of the South American Canidae
have the long bushy tails of foxes and the skulls of wolves.
, The most aberrant representative of the thooid series is the
African hunting-dog (Lycaon pictus, fig. 5), which differs from the
other members of this series by the teeth being rather more massive
and rounded, the skull shorter and broader, and the presence of
but four toes on each limb, as in Hyena. The hunting-dog, from
south and east Africa, is very distinct externally fron> all other
Canidae; being nearly as large as a mastiff, with large, broadly
ovate erect ears and a singular colouring, often consisting of un-
symmetrical large spots of white, yellow and black. It presents
some curious superficial resemblances to Hyena crocuta, perhaps a
case of mimetic analogy, and hunts its prey in large packs. Several
local races, one of which comes from Somaiiland, differing in size
and colour, are recognized (see Hunting-Dog). Nearly related to
the hunting-dog are the dholes or wild dogs of Asia, as represented
by the Central Asian Cyon primaevus and the Indo-Malay C.
javanicus. They have, however, five front-toes, but lack the last
lower molar; while they agree with Lycaon and Speothos in that
the heel of the lower sectorial tooth has only a single compressed
cutting cusp, in place of a large outer and a smaller inner cusp as in
Cants. Dholes are whole-coloured animals, with short heads;
and hunt in packs. The bush-dog (Speothos, or Icticyon venaticus)
of Guiana is a small, short-legged, short-tailed and short-haired
species characterized by the molars being only — - — ; the carnassial
having no inner cusp. The long-haired raccoon-dog (Nyctereutes
procyonoides) of Japan and China agrees essentially in everything
but general appearance (which is strangely raccoon-like) with Canis.
The typical group of the latter includes some of the largest members
of the family, such as the true wolves of the northern parts of both
Okl and New Worlds (C. lupus, fife), and the various breeds of the
domestic dog (C. familiaris) , the origin of which is still involved in
obscurity. Some naturalists believe it to be a distinct species,
descended from one that no longer exists in a wild state; others
have sought to find its progenitors in some one of the wild or half-
wild races, either of true dogs, wolves or jackals ; while others again
believe that it is derived from the mingling of two or more wild
species or races. It is probably the earliest animal domesticated
by man, and few if any other species have undergone such an extra-
ordinary amount of variation in size, form and proportion of limbs,
ears and tail, variations which have been perpetuated and increased
by careful selective breeding (see Dog). The dingo or Australian
dog is met with wild, and also as the domestic companion of the
aboriginal race of the country, by whom it appears to have been
originally introduced. It is nearly related to a half-wild dog in-
habiting Java, and also to the pariah dogs of India and other eastern
countries. Dogs were also in the possession of the natives of New
Zealand and other islands of the Pacific, where no placental mammals
exist naturally, on their discovery by Europeans in the 18th century.
The slender-jawed C. simensis of Abyssinia and the South American
C. jubatus and C. antarcticus are also generally placed in this group.
On the other hand, the North American coyote (C. lairans), with its
numerous subspecies, and the Old World jackals, such as the Indo-
European C. aureus, the Indian C. paUipes, and the African C.
lupaster, C. anthus, C. adustus, C. vartegatus and C. mesomelas (the
black-backed jackal), although closely related to the wolves, have
been placed in a separate group under the name of Lupulus. Again,
Thous (or Lycalopex), is a group proposed for certain South American
Canidae, locally known as foxes, and distinguished from all the
foregoing by their fox- like aspect and longer tails, although with
skulls of the thooid type. Among these are the bright-coloured
colpeo, C. magellanicus, the darker C. thous, C. azarae, C. griseus,
C. cancrivorus and C. brasiliensis. Some of these, such as C. azarae
and C. griseus, show a further approximation to the fox in that the
pupil of the eye forms a vertical sat. More distinct from all the pre-
ceding arethe members of the alopecoid or vulpine section, which are
unknown in South America. The characteristic feature of the skull
has been already mentioned. In addition to this, reference mav be
made to the elliptical (in place of circular) pupil of the eye, ancf the
general presence of ten (rarely eight) teats instead of a smaller
number. The typical croups constituting the subgenus (or genus)
Vulpes, is represented by numerous species and races spread over
the Old World and North America. Foremost among these is the
European fox (C vulpes — otherwise Vulpes alopex, or V. vulpes),
represented in the Himalaya by the variety C. v. montanus and in
North Africa by C. v. niloticus, while the North American C. pennsyl-
vanicus or fulvus, can scarcely be regarded as more than a local race.
On the other hand, the Asiatic C. bengalensis and C corsac, and the
North American C. velox (kit-fox) are smaller and perfectly distinct
species. From all these the North American C. cinereo-argentatus
(grey fox) and C. littoralis are distinguished by having a fringe of
stiff hairs in the tail, whence they are separated as Urocyon. Again,
the Arctic fox (C. lagopus), of which there is a blue and a white phase,
has the tail very full and bushy and the soles of the feet thickly
haired, and has hence been distinguished as Leucocyon. Lastly, we
have the elegant little African foxes known as fennecs (Fennecus),
such as C. zerda and C. jamelicus of the north, and the southern
C. chama, all pale-coloured animals, with enormously long ears,
and correspondingly inflated auditory bullae to the skull (see Wolf,
Jackal, Fox).
Whatever differences of opinion may obtain among naturalists
as to the propriety of separating generically the foxes from the
wolves and dogs, there can be none as to the claim of the long-eared
fox (Otocyon megalotis) of south and east Africa to represent a
genus by itself. In this animal the dental formula is t. %, c. [, p. J,
m. ~l » tota ^ 4^ or 4®* ^ e mo ^ ar teetn being in excess of almost
all other placental mammals with a differentiated series of teeth.
They have the same general characters as in Canis, with very pointed
cusps. The lower sectorial shows little of the typical character,
having five cusps on the crown-surface; these can, however, be
identified as the inner tubercle, the two greatly reduced and obliquely
placed lobes of the blade, and two cusps on the heel. The skull
generally resembles that of the smaller foxes, particularly the fennecs.
The auditory bullae are very large. The hinder edge of the lower
jaw has a peculiar form, owing to the great development of an ex-
panded, compressed and somewhat inverted subangular process.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 22. Ears very large. Limbs
rather long, with the normal number of toes. The two parietal
ridges on the skull remain widely separated, so that no sagittal
crest is formed. The animal is somewhat smaller than an ordinary
fox. In the year 1880 Professor Huxley suggested that in the long-
eared fox we have an animal nearly representing the stock from
which have been evolved all the other representatives of the dog
and fox tribe. One of the main grounds for arriving at this conclusion
was the fact that this animal has very generally four true molars in
each jaw, and always that number in the lower jaw ; whereas three
is the maximum number of these teeth to be met with in nearly
all placental mammals, other than whales, manatis, armadillos
and certain others. The additional molars in Otocyon were regarded
as survivals from a primitive type when a larger number was the
372
CARNIVORA
rule. Palaeontology has, however, made great strides since 1880,
and the idea that the earlier mammals had more teeth than their
descendants has not only received no confirmation, but has been
practically disproved. Consequently Miss Albertina Carlsson had a
comparatively easy task (in a paper published in the Zoologisches
Jahrbuch for 1905) in demonstrating that the long-eared fox is a
specialized, and to some extent degraded, form rather than a
primitive type. This, however, is not all, for the lady points out
that, as was suggested years previously by the present writer, the
creature is really the descendant of the fossil Cams curvipalatus of
northern India. This is a circumstance of considerable interest from
a distributional point of view, as affording one more instance of the
intimate relationship between the Tertiary mammalian fauna of
India and the existing mammals of Africa.
In regard to the members of the dog-tribe as a whole, it may be
stated that they are generally sociable animals, hunting their prey
in packs. Many species burrow in the ground; none habitually
climb trees. Though mostly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on animals
they have chased and killed themselves, many, especially among the
smaller species, eat garbage, carrion, insects, and also fruit, berries
and other vegetable substances. The upper surface of the tail
of the fox has a gland covered with coarse straight hair. This
gland, which emits an aromatic odour, is found in all Canidae, with
possibly the exception of Lycaon pictus. Although the bases of the
hair covering the gland are usually almost white, the tips are always
black; this colour being generally extended to the surrounding
hairs, and often forming dark bars on the buttocks. The dark spot
on the back of the tail is particularly conspicuous, notably in such
widely separated species as the wolves, Azara's dog and the fennec.
Although its existing representatives are very different, the bear-
family or Ursidae, as will be more fully mentioned in the sequel,
was in past times intimately connected with the Cantdae.
Bear tribe. T n common with the next two families, the modern
Ursidoe are characterized by the very small tympanic bulla,
and the broad paroccipital process, which is, however, inde-
pendent of the bulla. The feet are more or less completely planti-
grade and five-toed. The intestine has neither duodeno jejunal
flexure nor a caecum; the prostate gland is rudimentary; but
glands occur in the vasa deferentia ; and the penial bone is cylin-
drical. As distinctive characteristics of the Ursidae, may be men-
tioned the presence of an alisphenoid canal on the base of the skull;
the general absence of a perforation on the inner side of the lower
end of the humerus; the presence of two pairs of upper and three of
lower molars, which are mostly elongated and low-cusped ; and the
non-cutting character and fore-and-aft shortening of the upper
sectorial, which has no inner root and one inner cusp (fig. i, III.).
Anal glands are apparently wanting. The short tail, bulky build,
completely plantigrade feet and clumsy gait are features eminently
characteristic of the bears.
The great majority of existing bears may be included in the
typical genus Ursus, of which, in this wide sense, the leading char-
acteristics will be as follows. The dentition is i. |, c. \, p. \, m. f ■■ 42 ;
but the three anterior premolars, above and below, are one-rooted,
rudimentary and frequently wanting. Usually the first (placed
close to the canine) is present, and after a considerable interval the
third, which is situated close to the other teeth of the cheek-series.
The fourth (upper sectorial) differs essentially from the corresponding
tooth of other Carnivora in that the inner lobe is not supported by a
distinct root; its sectorial characters being very slightly marked.
The crowns of both true molars are longer than broad, with flattened,
tuberculated, grinding surfaces; the second having a large backward
prolongation or heel. The lower sectorial has a small and indistinct
blade and greatly developed tubercular heel ; the second molar is of
about the same leneth, but with a broader and more flattened
tubercular crown; while the third is smaller. The milk-teeth are
comparatively small, and shed at an early age. The skull is more
or less elongated, with the orbits small and incomplete behind, and
the palate prolonged considerably behind the last molar. Vertebrae :
C. 7, D. 14, L. 6, S. 5, Ca. 8-10. Body heavy. Feet broad, com-
pletely plantigrade; the five toes on each well developed, and
armed with long compressed and moderately curved, non-retractile
claws, the soles being generally naked. Tail very short. Ears
moderate, erect, rounded, hairy. Fur generally long, soft and
shaggy.
Bears are animals of considerable bulk, and include among them
the largest members of the order. Though the species are not
numerous, they are widely spread over the earth, although absent
from Africa south of the Sahara and Australasia. As a rule, they
are omnivorous, or vegetable feeders, even the polar bear, which
subsists for most of the year on flesh and fish, eating grass in summer.
On the other hand, many of the brown bears live largely on salmon
in summer. Among the various species the white polar bear of the
Arctic regions, Ursus (Thalassarctus) maritimus, differs from the
rest by its small and low head, small, narrow and simple molars,
and the presence of a certain amount of hair on the soles of the feet.
The typical group of the genus is represented by the brown bear
( U. arctus) of Europe and Asia, of which there are many local races,
such as the Syrian U. a. syriaeus, the Himalayan U. a. isabellinus,
the North Asiatic U. a. coUaris, and the nearly allied Kamchadale
race, which is of great size. In Alaska the group is represented by
huge bears, which can scarcely claim specific distinctness from
U. arctus; and if these are ranked only as races, it is practically
impossible to regard the Rocky Mountain frizzly bear (U. horribilis)
as of higher rank, although it naturally diners more from the Asiatic
animal. On the other hand, the small and light-coloured U. pruinosus
of Tibet may be allowed specific rank. More distinct is the North
American black bear U. americanus, and its white relative U.
kermodei of British Columbia; and perhaps we should affiliate to
this group the Himalayan and Japanese black bears (U. lorquatus
and 17. jatoonicus). Very distinct is the small Malay sun-bear U.
(Helarctus) malayanus, characterized by its short, smooth fur,
extensile tongue, short and wide head, and broad molars. Finally,
the spectacled bear of the Andes, U. (Tremarctus) ornatus, which is
also a broad-skulled black species, differs from all the rest in having
a perforation, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower end of the
humerus. A second genus, Melursus, represented by the Indian
sloth-bear (M. ur sinus) , differs from the preceding in having only
two pairs of upper incisors, the small size of the cheek-teeth, and the
extensile lips. Ants, white-ants, fruits and honey form the chief
food of this shaggy black species, — a diet which accounts for its
feeble dentition (see Bear).
The parti-coloured bear or giant panda (Aeluropus melanoleueus,
fig. 6) of eastern Tibet and north-west China forms in some degree
a connecting link between the bears and the true panda, although
? laced by Professor E. R. Lankester in the same family as the latter.
p_ the number of the teeth, and to some extent in the character of
the molars, as well as in the abbreviated tail, Aeluropus resembles
the bears, but in the structure of the sectorial tooth, the presence
of an extra radial carpal bone, and the osteology generally, it is
more like the panda. In the absence of an alisphenoid canal to the
IS^Siigfi?
Fig. 6. — The Parti-coloured Bear, or Giant Panda
(Aeluropus melanoleueus).
skull it differs both from the latter and the bears, and thereby
resembles the raccoons; while in having a perforation at the lower
end of the humerus, it agrees with the spectacled bear, the panda
and raccoons. The dentition is i. f, c. \, p. i, m. }; total 40;
premolars increasing in size from first to last, and two-rooted except
the first ; the first upper molar with quadrate crown, broader than
long; and the second larger than the first. Skull with the zygo-
matic arches and sagittal crest immensely developed, ascending
branch of lower jaw very high, giving great space for attachment of
temporal muscle, and facial portion snort. Bony palate not extend-
ing behind the last molar. No alisphenoid canal. Feet bear-like,
but soles more hairy, and perhaps less completely plantigrade.
Fur long and thick; and tail extremely short. Humerus with a
perforation on the inner side of the lower end; a very large extra
radial carpal bone. The colour of this strange animal is black and
white (fig. 6).
With the panda (Aelurus fulgens) we reach an undoubted repre-
sentative of the Procyonidae, or raccoon tribe, differing, however,
from all the rest except the doubtful Aeluropus, in its Asiatic habitat.
If the latter be included, the family may be defined as follows.
Molars i, except in Aeluropus, with blunt or sharp cusps; no ali-
sphenoid canal, except in Aelurus; humerus generally with a
foramen; feet plantigrade; tail/ except in Aeluropus, long and
generally ringed.
In the panda the dentition is *. f, c. \, p. J, m. I; total 38; the
first lower molar being minute and deciduous, and the upper molars
broad with numerous and complicated cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7,
D. 14, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 18. Skull high and compressed, with an ali-
sphenoid canal, a short facial portion, and the ascending branch
0? the lower jaw, as in Aeluropus, very tall. Face cat-like, with
moderate, erect, pointed ears. Claws blunt. Tail cylindrical and
CARNIVORA
373
ringed. Fur long and thick. Extra radial carpal bone moderate.
The panda is a bright golden red animal, with black under-parts,
ranging from the eastern Himalaya to north-western China, where
it is represented by a distinct race. Fossil species occur in the later
Tertiary deposits of Europe (see Panda).
The raccoons (Procyon) are the first and typical representatives
of the American section of the family, in which an alisphenoid canal
is always wanting. In this genus the dentition is i. j, c. f , p. j, m. | ;
total 40; the upper molars being broad and tuberculated; the upper
sectorial (like that of Aeluropus and Aelurus) having three outer
cusps and a broad bicuspid inner lobe, giving an almost quadrate
form to the crown. First upper molar with a large tuberculated
crown, rather broader than lone; second considerably smaller,
with transversely oblong crown. Lower sectorial (first molar) with
an extremely small and ill-defined blade, placed transversely in
front, and a large inner tubercle and heel ; second molar as long as
the first, but narrower behind, with five obtuse cusps. Vertebrae :
C. 7, D. 14, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 16-20. Body stout. Head broad behind,
but with a pointed muzzle. In walking the entire sole not applied
to the ground, as it is when the animal is standing. Toes, especially
of the fore-foot, very free, and capable of being spread wide apart ;
claws compressed, curved and pointed. Tail moderately long,
cylindrical, thickly covered with hair, ringed, non-prehensile. Fur
long, thick and soft. The common raccoon (Procyon lotor) of North
America is the type of this genus; it is replaced in South America
by P. cancrivorus (see Raccoon). The cacomistles (Bassariscus)
are nearly allied to Procyon, but of more slender and elegant propor-
tions, with sharper nose, longer tail, and more digitigrade feet, and
teeth smaller and more sharply cusped. The typical B. astuta is
from the southern parts of the United States and Mexico, while B.
(Wagneria) annulata is Mexican and Central American.
The name Bassaricyon has been given to a distinct modification of
the procyonine type of which at present two species are known,
one from Costa Rica and the other from Ecuador respectively,
named B. gabbi and B. alleni. They much resemble the ldnkajou
in external appearance, but the skull and teeth are more like those
of Procyon and Nasua. In the coatis, Nasua, the dentition is as in
Procyon, but the upper canines are larger and more strongly com-
pressed, and the molars smaller; while the facial portion of the
skull is more elongated and narrow. Vertebrae : C. 7, D. 14, L. 6,
S. 3, Ca. 22-23. Body elongated and rather compressed. Nose
prolonged into a somewhat upturned, obliquely-truncated, mobile
snout. Tail long, non-prehensile, tapering and ringed. Coatis, or
coati-mundis, live in small troops of eight to twenty, are chiefly
arboreal, and feed on fruits, young birds, eggs, insects, &c. The
two best-known species are N. narica of Mexico and Central America,
and N. rufa of South America from Surinam to Paraguay (see Coati).
In the ldnkajou (q.v.), an animal long known as CercoUptes caudi-
volvulus, but whose designation it has been proposed to change to
the unclassical Potos flavus, the dentition is i. |, c. \, p. f, m. 1 = 36.
Molars with low flat crowns, very obscurely tuberculated. Skull
short and rounded, with flat upper surface. Vertebrae : C. 7, D. 14,
L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 26-28. Clavicles present, but in a very rudimentary
condition. Head broad and round. Ears short. Body long and
musteline. Limbs short. Tail long, tapering and prehensile. Fur
short and soft. Tongue long and very extensile.
The last existing family of the land Carnivora is that typified
by the martens and weasels, and hence known as the Mustelidae.
WcmmcI The group is characterized by the absence of an alisphenoid
tr ff tCm canal in the skull, the reduction of the molars to J or even
|, the medium size of the sectorial tooth in each jaw, the
absence or presence of a perforation in the humerus, and the presence
of anal glands. The family is cosmopolitan in distribution, with the
exception of Australasia and Madagascar.
The first section of the family, forming the subfamily Mustelinae,
is typically characterized by the short and partially webbed toes,
furnished with short, compressed, sharp, curved and often partially
retractile claws. The upper molar is always of moderate size and
elongated in the transverse direction. In the martens and sables
(Mustela) the dentition is i. |, c. {, p. f, m. J; total 38; the upper
sectorial having its inner lobe close to the anterior edge of the
tooth; and the upper molar being nearly as large as the sectorial.
Lower sectorial with small inner tubercle. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14,
L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 18-23. Body * on S an( * slender. Limbs short, partially
digitigrade, with the feet rounded and the toes short, with com-
pressed, acute, semi-retractile claws. Tail moderate or long, more
or less bushy. One species, M . tnartes, the pine-marten, is British ;
the remainder inhabit the northern regions of Europe, Asia and
America. Many of the species, as the sable (-Jf. zibellina), yield fur
of great value (see Marten),
The dentition of Putorius differs from that of Mustela chiefly in
the absence of the anterior premolars of both jaws. The teeth are
more sharply cusped, and the lower sectorial wants the inner tubercle.
External characters generally similar to those of the martens, but
the body longer and more slender, and the limbs even shorter. All
the species are small animals, of active, bloodthirsty and courageous
disposition, living chiefly on birds and small mammals, and rather
terrestrial than arboreal, dwelling among rocks, stones and out-
buildings. Some of the species, as the stoat or ermine (P. ermineus),
inhabiting cold climates, undergo a seasonal change of colour, being
brown in summer and white in winter, though the change does
not affect the whole of the fur, the end of the tail remaining
black in all seasons. This is a large genus, having a very extensive
geographical range throughout the Old and New Worlds, and
includes the animals commonly known as weasels, polecats, ferrets
and minks (q.v.).
In the glutton (Gulo luscus) the dentition is *. |, c. {, p. f, m. J;
total 38; the crowns of the teeth being stout, and the upper molar
much smaller than the sectorial. Lower sectorial large, with small
heel and no inner tubercle. The dentition, though really but a
modification of that of the weasels, presents a general resemblance
to that of hyena. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 3, Ca. 15. Body
and limbs stoutly made; feet large and powerful, subplantigrade,
with large, compressed, much-curved and sharp-pointed claws.
Soles of the feet (except the pads of the toes) covered with thick
bristly hairs. Ears very small, nearly concealed by the fur. Eyes
small. Tail short, thick and bushy. Fur full, long and rather
coarse. The one species, the wolverine or glutton, is an inhabitant
of the forest regions of northern Europe, Asia and America, and much
resembles a small bear in appearance. It is a very powerful animal
for its size, climbs trees and lives on squirrels, hares, beavers,
reindeer, and is said to attack even horses and cows.
The South American grison and tayra represent the genus Galictis,
in which the dentition is t. |, c. {, p. |, m. }; total 34; the molars
being small but stout, and the upper sectorial with the inner lobe
near the middle of the inner border. Lower sectorial with heel
small, and inner tubercle small or absent. Body long; limbs short,
with non-retractile claws and naked soles. Head broad and
depressed. Tail of moderate length. The species include the
grison (G. vittata), G. allamandi, and the tayra (G barbara); the
last, which extends northward into Central America, being sub-
generically separated as Galera. Nearly allied to these is the smaller
and more weasel-like Lyncodon patagonicus. All the foregoing
South American carnivores display a marked tendency to being
darker on the lower than on the upper surface. The same feature
obtains in the African and Indian ratels, or honey-badgers, con-
stituting the genus Mellivora, distinguished from all the other
members of the family by having only a single pair of lower molars,
the dentition being 1. |, c. {, p. |, m. }; total32 ; the upper sectorial
is large, with its inner cusp at the anterior end of the blade, the molar
much smaller and transversely extended, having a small outer and
a larger rounded inner lobe. Heel of lower sectorial very small,
scarcely one-fourth of the whole length of the tooth, with but one
cusp. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 4, S. 4, Ca. 15. Body stout,
depressed; limbs short, strong; head depressed; nose rather
pointed; ears rudimentary. Tail short. M. indica, from India,
and M. raid, from south and west Africa, have nearly the same
general appearance and size, being rather larger than a common
badger, and may be only races of the same species. Their coloration
is peculiar, all the upper surface of the body, head and tail being
ash-grey, while the lower parts, separated by a distinct longitudinal
boundary line, are black. They live chiefly on the ground, into
which they burrow, but can also climb trees. They feed on small
mammals, birds, reptiles and insects, and are partial to honey.
In the Indo-Malay ferret-badger, Helictis, the dentition is *. 1, c. \,
p. J, m. i; total 38. Upper sectorial with a large bicusped inner
lobe, molar smaller, wider transversely than in the antero-posterior
direction. Lower sectorial with heel about one-third the length of
the tooth. Skull elongated, rather narrow and depressed; facial
portion especially narrow; infraorbital foramen very large. Head
rather small and produced in front, with an elongated, obliquely
truncated, naked snout and small ears. Body elongated, limbs
short. Tail short or moderate, bushy. Several species are described,
such as H. orientates, moschata, nipidensis, and subaurantiaca, from
eastern Asia, all small animals, climbing trees with agility and living
on fruits and berries as well as on small mammals and birds.
The African striped zorilles, or Muis-honds (Ictonyx), have a
dental formula of i. f, c. f, p. |, m, i; total 34; the teeth much
resembling those of the polecats, and the upper molar being smaller
than the sectorial, ana narrow from before backwards. Lower
sectorial with a small narrow heel and distinct inner tubercle.
General form of body musteline. Limbs short, fore-feet large and
broad, with five stout, nearly straight, blunt and non-retractile
claws, of which the first and fifth are considerably shorter than the
others. Tail moderate, with longer hairs towards the end, giving it
a bushy appearance. Hair generally long and loose. The best-
known species of this genus, the Cape polecat, Ictonyx cafensis
(or Zoruia zoriUa), is about the size of a polecat, but conspicuous
by its broad, longitudinal bands of dark-brown, alternating with
white. Its odour is Baid to be as offensive as that of the American
skunks. From the Cape of Good Hope it ranges as far north as
Senegal. Another species, /. lybicus, from Sennaar, has been described.
The small striped polecat of southern Africa, Poecilogale albinucha,
represents a genus by itself, and is a shorter-haired animal.
The skunks of America are very similar to the two genera last
mentioned in their colouring, and with the latter serve to form a
connecting link with the more typical Mustelinae, and the badger
group, or Melinae, in which the feet are elongated, with straight toes
and non-retractile, slightly curved, subcompressed, blunt claws,
especially large on the fore-foot. In all cases the upper molar is
374
CARNIVORA
larger than the sectorial, and in the more typical genera is much
longer than broad.
In the North American skunks of the genus Mephitis the dentition
is i. {, c. I, p. |, m. |; total 34. Upper molar larger than the
sectorial, subquadrate, rather broader than long; lower sectorial
with heel less than half the length of the whole tooth. Bony
palate terminating posteriorly opposite the hinder border of the
last molar. Facial portion of skull short and somewhat truncated
in front. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 16, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 21. Head small.
Body elongated. Limbs moderate, subplantigrade. Ears short and
rounded. Tail long, abundantly clothed with long fine hair. Anal
glands largely developed; their secretion, which can be discharged
at the will of the animal, has an intolerably offensive odour and has
rendered skunks proverbial. The South American species, which
have only two upper premolars, and differ in some other characters,
are generically separated under the name of Conepatus; while the
small North American arboreal skunks are distinguished as SpUogale
(see Skunk).
Passing on to the more typical members of the badger group, we
have first the genus Arctonyx* with the dentition i. |, c. }, p. 1, m. <i ;
Bidier total 38. The incisor line is curved, the outer teeth being
JJJJJT^ placed posteriorly to the others: lower incisors inclined
forwards. First premolars often rudimentary or absent ;
upper molar much larger than the sectorial, longer in the antero-
posterior direction than broad; lower sectorial with a very large,
low, tuberculated heel. Skull elongated and depressed; face long,
narrow and concave above; bony palate extending as far back-
wards as the level of the glenoid fossa; and palatal bones dilated.
Suborbital foramina very large. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 16, L. 4, S. 4,
Ca. 20. Snout long, naked, mobile and truncated, with large
terminal nostrils, much like those of a pig. Eyes small ; ears very
small and rounded. Body compressed, rather than depressed.
Limbs of moderate length, and partially digitigrade in walking.
Tail moderate, tapering. A full soft under-fur, with longer bristly
hairs interspersed. The longest-known species is A. collaris,
the bhalu-soor (bear-pig) or bait-soar (sand-pig) of the natives of the
mountains of north-eastern India, Burma and Borneo. It is rather
larger than the badger, higher on its legs, and very pig-like in general
aspect, of a light prey colour, with flesh-coloured snout and feet;
nocturnal and omnivorous. Other species or local varieties have been
described from north China and Burma.
In the genus Mydaus the dentition is as the last, but the cusps of
the teeth are more acutely pointed. Skull elongated, face narrow
and produced. Suborbital foramen small, and the palate, as in all
the succeeding genera of this group, produced backwards about
midway between the last molar and the glenoid fossa. Vertebrae:
C. 7, U. 14-15, L. 6-5, S. 3, Ca. 12. Head pointed in front; snout
produced, mobile, obliquely truncated, the nostrils being inferior.
Limbs rather short ana stout. Tail extremely short, but clothed
with rather long bushy hair. Anal glands largely developed, and
emitting an odour like that of the skunks. One species, M. meliceps,
the teledu, a small burrowing animal from the mountains of Java,
at an elevation of 7000 or more ft. above the sea-level ; and a second
(M. marckei) from the Philippines.
In the true badger of the genus Meles the dentition is t. | f c. J,
p. t, m. I ; total 38. The first premolar in both iaws is extremely
minute and often deciduous; while the upper molar is much larger
than the sectorial, subquadrate, and as broad as long. Lower
sectorial with a broad, low, tuberculated heel, more than half the
length of the whole tooth. The postglenoid process of the skull so
strongly developed, and the glenoid fossa so deep, that the condyle of
the lower jaw is firmly held in place after the soft parts are removed.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 3, Ca. 18. Muzzle pointed. Ears
very short. Body stout, broad. Limbs short, strong, subplanti-
grade. Tail short. Typified by the common badger (if. taxus or
M. meles) of Europe and northern Asia, still found m many parts of
England, where it lives in woods, is nocturnal, burrowing and very
omnivorous, feeding on mice, reptiles, insects, fruit, acorns and
roots. Other nearly allied species, M. leucurus and M. ckinensis,
are found in continental Asia, and M. anakuma in Japan.
In the nearly-allied genus Taxidea the dental formula is as in
Meles, except that the rudimentary anterior premolars appear to be
always wanting in the upper jaw. The upper sectorial is much larger
in proportion to the other teeth; and the upper molar about the
same size as the sectorial, triangular, with the apex turned back-
wards. Heel of lower sectorial less than half the length of the tooth.
Skull very wide in the occipital region ; the lambdoidal crest greatly
developed, and the sagittal but slightly , contrary to what obtains in
Meles. Vertebrae: C. 7. D. 15. L. 5, S. 3, Ca. (?). Body stoutly
built and depressed. Tail short. The animals of this genus are
Ssculiar to North America, where they represent the badgers of the
Id World, resembling them much in appearance and habits. T.
americana is the common American badger of the United States,
T. berlandieriy the Mexican badger, being a local variety.
The third and last subfamily is that of the otters, or Lutrinae,
in which the feet (with the exception of the hind pair in the sea-otter)
Q tt9f are short and rounded, with the toes webbed, and the
tr&0 claws small, curved and blunt. The head is broad and
much depressed. The upper posterior cheek-teeth are
large and quadrate. The kidneys are conglomerate. Habits aquatic.
In the true otter of the genus Lutra the dentition is i. (, c. \,
p. f, m. J; total 36. Upper sectorial with a trenchant tricusped
blade, and a very large inner lobe, hollowed on the free surface,
with a raised sharp edge, extending along two-thirds or more of the
length of the blade. Upper molar large, with a quadricuspidate
crown, broader than long. Skull broad and depressed, contracted
immediately behind the orbits ; with the facial portion very short and
the brain-case large. Vertebrae : C.7, D. 14-15, L. 6-5, S» 3, Ca. 20-26.
Body very long. Ears short and rounded. Limbs short. Feet com-
pletely webbed, with well-developed claws on all the toes. Tail long,
thick at the base and tapering, rather depressed. Fur short and close.
Otters are more or less aquatic, living on the margins of rivers,
lakes, and in some cases the sea; are expert divers and swimmers,
and feed chiefly on fish. They have an extensive geographical range,
and so much resemble each other in outward appearance, especially
in the nearly uniform brown colouring, that in some cases the species
are by no means well-defined. The Brazilian otter (L. brasiltensis)
is a very large species from Brazil, Demerara and Surinam, with
a prominent ridge along each lateral margin of the tail. In two
small species the feet are only slightly webbed; claws exceedingly
small or altogether wanting on some of the toes; the first upper
premolar very small, sometimes wanting; and the molars very
broad and massive. The species in question are L. tnunguis of
South Africa, and L. leptonyx or cinerea of India, Java and Sumatra,
and have been separated as a distinct genus, Aonyx.
The sea-otter. Latax (or Enhydra) Intra, with a dentition of i. f, c. \ ,
p- l, m> \> total 32, differs from other Carnivora in having but two
incisors on each side of the lower jaw, the one corresponding to the
first (very small in the true otters) being absent. Though the molar
teeth generally resemble those of Lutra in their proportions, they
differ in the exceeding roundness and massiveness of their crowns
and bluntness cf their cusps. Feet webbed; fore-feet short, with
five subequal toes, with snort compressed claws; hind-feet very
large, depressed and fin-like, their phalanges flattened as in seals.
The fifth toe the longest and stoutest, the rest gradually diminishing
in size to the first, all with moderate claws. Tail moderate, cylindrical
(see Otter).
II. PlNNTPEDIA
The second suborder is formed by the seals, walruses and
eared seals, which differ from the rest of the Carnivora mainly
in the limbs being modified for aquatic progression; the two
upper segments being very short and partially enveloped in
the general integument of the body, while the third, especially
in the hind extremities, is elongated, expanded and webbed.
There are always five well-developed digits on each limb. In
the hind-limb the two marginal digits (first and fifth) are stouter
and generally larger than the others. The teeth also differ from
those of the more typical Carnivora. The incisors are always
fewer than f . The cheek series consists generally of four pre-
molars and one molar of uniform characters, with never more
than two roots, and with conical, more or less compressed,
pointed crowns, which may have accessory cusps, placed before
or behind the principal one, but are never broad and tuber-
culated. The milk-teeth are small, simple and shed or absorbed
at an early age, usually either before or within a few days after
birth. The brain is relatively large, the cerebral hemispheres
broad in proportion to their length, and with numerous and
complex convolutions. There is a very short caecum; the
kidneys are divided into numerous distinct lobules. There
are no Cowper's glands. Teats two or four, abdominal. No
clavicles. Tail always short. Eyes large and exposed, with
flat cornea. The nostrils close by the elasticity of their walls,
and are opened at will by muscular action.
The members of this group are aquatic, spending the greater
part of their time in the water, swimming and diving with great
facility, feeding mainly on fish, crustaceans and other marine
animals, and progressing on land with difficulty, but always
coming on shore for the purpose of bringing forth their young.
They are generally marine, but occasionally ascend large rivers,
and some inhabit inland seas and lakes, as the Caspian and
Baikal. Though not numerous in species, they are widely
distributed over the world, but occur most abundantly on the
coasts of lands situated in cold and temperate zones.
As mentioned in the article CREODONTA,thetrueseals(PA0«tfa*),
together with the walruses, may be directly descended from the
primitive Creodont Carnivora. The eared seals, on the other
hand, show signs of affinity with the bears; but as they are
of earlier geological age than the latter, they cannot be derived
from that group.
CARNIVORA
•>/ 5
The true seals (family Phocidae) are the most completely adapted
for aquatic life of all the Pinnipedia. When on land the hind-limbs
are extended backwards and take no part in progression,
Seata * which is effected by a series of jumping movements
produced by the muscles of the trunk, in some species aided by the
fore-limbs. The soles of the feet are hairy. There is no pinna to
the ear, and no scrotum, the testes being abdominal. The upper
incisors have simple, pointed crowns, and vary in number in the
different groups. All have well developed canines and | teeth of the
cheek series. In those species of which the milk-dentition is known,
there are three milk molars, which precede the second, third, and
fourth permanent molars; the dentition is therefore p. J, m. },
the first premolar having as usual no milk predecessor. The skull
has no post-orbital process and no alisphenoid canal. The fur is
stiff and adpressed, without woolly under-fur.
In the typical group, or subfamily Phocinae, the incisors are I.
All the feet have five well-developed claws with the toes on the hind-
feet subequal, the first and fifth not greatly exceeding the others
in length, the interdigital membrane not extending beyond them.
In the genus Halichoerus the dentition is i. §, c. }, p. J, m. } ; total 34.
Molars with large, simple, conical, recurved, slightly compressed
crowns, having sharp anterior and posterior edges, but without
accessory cusps, except sometimes the two hinder ones of the lower
jaw. With the exception of the last one or two in the upper jaw
and the last in the lower jaw, all are single-rooted. Vertebrae:
C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 4, Ca. 1 a. Includes only one species H. grypus,
the grey seal of the coasts 01 Scandinavia and the British Isles.
In Pnoca the dental formula is as in the last, but the teeth are
smaller and more pointed. Molars with two roots (except the first
in each jaw). Crowns with accessory cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14-
I5i L- 5i S. 4, Ca. 1 1 -14. Head round and short. Fore-feet short
with five strong, subcompressed, slightly curved, subequal, rather
sharp claws. On the hind-feet the claws much narrower and less
curved. The species of this genus are widely distributed throughout
the northern hemisphere, and include P. barbata, the bearded seal ;
P. groenlandica, the Greenland seal ; P. vitulina, the common seal ;
P. hispida, the ringed seal of the north Atlantic; P. caspica, from
the Caspian and Aral Seas; and P. sibirica, from Lake Baikal. (See
Seal).
The members of the second subfamily, Monachinae, have incisors
f; and the molars two-rooted, except the first. On the hind-feet
the first and fifth toes greatly exceeding the others in length, with
nails rudimentary or absent. In the genus Monachus, the dentition
is i. l t c. }, p. i, m. \ ; total 32. Crowns of molars strong, conical,
compressed, hollowed on the inner side, with a strongly- marked
lobed cingulum, especially on the inner side, and slightly developed
accessory cusps before and behind. The first and last upper and
the first lower molar smaller than the others. Vertebrae: C. 7,
D. 15, L. 5, S. 2, Ca. 11. All the nails of both fore and hind feet
very small and rudimentary. Represented by M. albiventer, the
monk-seal of the Mediterranean and adjacent parts of the Atlantic,
and the West Indian M . tropicalis.
The other genera of this section have the same dental formula,
but are distinguished by the characters of the cheek-teeth and the
feet. They are all inhabitants of the snores of the southern
hemisphere.
In Ogmorhinus all the teeth of the cheek-series have three distinct
pointed cusps, deeply separated from each other, of which the
middle or principal cusp is largest and slightly recurved ; the other
two are nearly equal in size, and have their tips directed towards the
middle one. Skull much elongated. One species, 0. leptonyx, the
sea-leopard, widely distributed in the Antarctic and southern
temperate seas. In Lobodon the molars have compressed elongated
crowns, with a principal recurved cusp, rounded and somewhat
bulbous at the apex, and one anterior, and one, two or three posterior
distinct accessory cusps. One species, L. carcinophagus, the crab-
eating seal. In the third genus, Leptonychotes, represented by
L, weddelli, the molars are small, with simple, subcompressed,
conical crowns, and a broad cingulum, but no distinct accessory
cusps. Finally in the white seal (Ommatophoca rossi) all the teeth
are very small, those of the cheek-series with pointed, recurved
crowns, and small posterior and still less developed anterior accessory
cusps. Orbits very large. Nails rudimentary on front and absent
on hind-feet. The skull bears a considerable resemblance to that
of the next subfamily.
The presence of two pairs of upper and one pair of lower incisors
is characteristic of the members of the subfamily Cystophorinae,
in which the teeth of the cheek-series are generally one-rooted. The
nose of the males has an appendage capable of being inflated. First
and fifth toes of hind-feet greatly exceeding the others in length,
with prolonged cutaneous lobes, and rudimentary or no nails. In
the typical genus Cystophara the dentition is i. f, c. \ % p. J, m. };
total 30 ; the last molar having generally two distinct roots. Beneath
the skin over the face of the male, and connected with the nostrils,
is a sac capable of inflation, when it forms a kind of hood covering
the upper part of the head. Nails present, though small on the
hind-feet. Represented by C. cristate, the hooded or bladder-nosed
seal of the Polar Seas. In Macrorhinus the dentition is numerically
the same as in the last, but the molars are of simpler character and
all one-rooted. All the teeth, except the canines, very small rela-
tively to the size of the animal. Hind-feet without nails. Vertebrae :
C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 4, Ca. 11. Nose of adult male produced into a
short tubular proboscis, ordinarily flaccid, but capable of dilatation
and elongation under excitement. One species, M. leoninus, the
elephant-seal, or " sea elephant " of the whalers, the largest of the
whole family, attaining the length of nearly 20 ft. Formerly
abundant in the Antarctic Seas, and also found on the coast of
California.
The next family is that of the walruses, or Odobaenidae, the single
generic representative of which is in some respects intermediate
between the Phocidae and Otariidae, but has a completely
aberrant dentition. Walruses have no external ears, as W**w
in the Phocidae; but when on land the hind-feet are turned forwards
and used in progression, though less completely than in the Otariidae.
The upper canines are developed into immense tusks, which descend
a long distance below the lower jaw. All the other teeth, including
the lower canines, are much alike, small, simple and one- rooted^
the molars with flat crowns. The skull is without post-orbital
process, but has an alisphenoid canal. In the young the dentition is
*"• h e- 1. P- and m. \, but many of these teeth are, however, lost early
or remain through life in a rudimentary state, concealed by the gums.
The teeth which are usually developed functionally are *. J, c. \,
p. f, m. 8; total 18. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 6, S. 4, Ca. 9.
Head round. Eyes rather small. Muzzle short and broad, with a
group of long, very stiff, bristly whiskers on each side. The remainder
of the hair-covering very short and closely pressed. Tail rudi-
mentary. Fore-feet with subequal toes, carrying five minute
flattened nails. Hind-feet with subequal toes, the fifth slightly the
largest, with cutaneous lobes projecting beyond the ends as in
Otaria; first and fifth with minute flattened nails; second, third
and fourth with large, elongated, subcompressed pointed nails.
The two species are Odobaenus rosmarus, of the Atlantic, and the
closely allied 0. obesus, of the Pacific. (See Walrus.)
The third and last family of the Pinnipedia, and thus of existing
Carnivora, is the Otariidae, which includes the eared seals, or sea-
lions and sea-bears. In all these animals, when on land,
the hind-feet are turned forwards under the body, and Se «"^w>*»
aid in supporting and moving the trunk as in ordinary quadrupeds.
There are small external ears. Testes suspended in a distinct
external scrotum. Skull with post-orbital processes and alisphenoid
canal. Soles of feet naked. By many naturalists these seals are
arranged in a number of generic groups, but as the differences
between them are not very great, they may all be included in the
typical genus Otaria. The dental formula is i, f, c. }, p. }, m. l ° r2 ;
total 34 or 36. The first and second upper incisors are small, with
the summits of their crowns divided by deep transverse grooves
into an anterior and a posterior cusp of nearly equal heigtit; the
third large and canine-like. Canines large, conical, pointed, recurved.
Molars and premolars usually $ , of which the second, third and
fourth are preceded by milk-teeth shed a few days after birth;
sometimes (as in fig. 7) a sixth upper molar (occasionally developed
Fig. 7. — Skull and dentition of Australian Sea- Bear
(Otaria for steri).
on one side and not the other) ; all with similar characters, generally
single-rooted; crown moderate, compressed, pointed, with a single
principal cusp, and sometimes a cingulum, and more or less developed
anterior and posterior accessory cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15,
L. 5, S. 4, Ca. 9-10. Head rounded. Eyes large; ears small,
narrow and pointed. Neck long. Skin of the feet extended far
beyond the nails and ends of the digits, with a deeply-lobed margin.
The nails small and often quite rudimentary, especially those of
the first and fifth toes of both feet; the best-developed and most
constant being the three middle claws of the hind-foot, which are
elongated, compressed and curved.
Sea-bears and sea-lions are widely distributed, especially in the
temperate regions of both hemispheres, though absent from the
coasts of the North Atlantic. They spend more of their time on
shore, and range inland to greater distances than the true seals,
especially at the breeding-time, though they are obliged to return
to the water to seek their food. They are gregarious and poly-
gamous, and the males usually much larger than the females. Some
possess, in addition to the stiff, close, hairy covering common to the
group, a fine, dense, woolly under-fur. The skins of these, when
37 6
CARNOT, L. H.— CARNOT, L. N. M.
dressed and deprived of the longer harsh outer hairs, constitute the
11 sealskin " of commerce. The species include O. stelleri, the
northern sea-lion, the largest of the genus, from the North Pacific,
about 10 ft. in length ; O. jubata, the southern sea-lion, from the
Falkland Islands and Patagonia; O. californiana, from California;
O. ursina, the sea-bear or fur-seal of the North Pacific, the skins of
which are imported in immense numbers from the Pribiloff Islands;
O. antarctica or pusilla, from the Cape of Good Hope; and 0.
forsteri, from Australia and various islands in the southern hemisphere.
(See Seal-Fisheries.)
Little is known as to the past history of the sea-lions and sea-
bears, but a skull has been obtained from the Miocene strata of
Oregon, which Mr F. W. True states to be considerably larger than
any existing sea-lion skull; its basal length when entire being
probably about 20 in. The name Pontoleon magnus has been pro-
posed for this fossil sea-lion, as the character of the skull and teeth
do not agree precisely with those of any living member of the group.
If, however, all the modern eared seals are included in the genus
Otaria, there is apparently no reason to exclude the fossil species.
Extinct Carnivora
Modern Carnivora are undoubtedly the descendants of the
Creodonta (q.v.), an extinct early Tertiary suborder. It has been
observed that as the Miocene is approached, some of these Carnivora
Creodonta, or Primitiva, begin to assume more and more of the
characteristics of the Carnivora Vera, till at last it is difficult to
determine where the one group ends and the other commences.
The creodont genera Styjwlophus and Proviverra show some of these
modern characters; but it is not till we reach the European Oligo-
cene genus Amphictis, with the dental formula i. f , c. j, p. |, m. f ,
that we meet a type in which the fourth upper premolar and the first
lower molar assume the truly sectorial character of the Carnivora
Vera, while the teeth behind them are proportionally reduced in
size. From the Amphictidae are probably descended the Viverridae,
the connecting genus being the African Nandinia, which, as already
mentioned, retains the imperfectly ossified bulla of the ancestral
forms. In another direction, Amphictis, through the Old World
Lower Pliocene genus Ictitherium, has given rise to the Hyaenidae.
The Felidae have apparently an ancestral type in the creodont
Palaeonictis, which has been regarded as the direct ancestor of
the sabre-toothed cats, or Machaerodontinae (see Machaerodus) ;
but it is possible that Palaeonictis may be off the direct line, and
that the Felidae are sprung from Amphictis. Be this as it may,
from another group of creodonts, represented by Vulfavus (Miacis),
Viverravus {Didymictis), and Uintacyon, is probably derived the
Oligocene Cynodictis, with a dental formula like that of Cams or
Cyon, a perforation to the humerus, and an apparently undivided
auditory bulla; and from Cynodictis the transition is easy to the
Canidae. It should be mentioned, however, that there is a group
of North American Oligocene dog-like animals, such as Daphaenus,
Protemnocyon, and Temnocyon, which agree with Cyon in the short-
ness of the jaws, and with that genus and Speothos in the cutting-heel
of the lower sectorial. Possibly these genera may be nearly related
to Cyon. Other dog-like North American types are Oligohinis,
Enhydrocyon and Hyaenocyon.
By means of the Amphicyonidae, as represented by the Middle
Tertiary genera Proamphicyon, Pseudamphicyon, and Amfhicyon,
in which there were three upper molars, we have a transition from
the Cynodictis-tyoe to the bear-group; one of the later intermediate
forms being the Lower Pliocene Old World Hyaenarctus, in which
the two upper molars are squared and foreshadow those of Ursus
itself. In some unknown manner Hyaenarctus appears to be related
to A tint opus. An allied type is found in Arctotnerium of the South
American Pleistocene.
By the loss of the third lower molar and certain modifications of
the other teeth and skull, the Miocene genus Plesictis may be derived
from Cynodictis, its dental formula being *. f , c. \, p. J, m. — - — •
Now Plesictis is nothing more than a generalized representative of
the Mustelidae. We have thus traced three out of the four modern
arctoid families to the Cynodictis-type. The Procyonidae, or fourth
family (apart from the Asiatic Aelwrus and Aeluropus) are connected
with the last-named genus through the North American Oligocene
Phlaeocyon, which is stated to be in almost every respect inter-
mediate between Procyon and Cynodictis; while the living Bas-
sariscus is stated to show closer signs of affinity with Cynodictis
than with Phlaeocyon.
To deal with fossil representatives of living genera, or extinct
genera nearly related to groups still existing, would here be im-
practicable. It may be stated, however, that aberrant groups like
the otters are linked up with more normal types by means of extinct
forms (in this particular instance by the Miocene Potamotherium),
so that the gaps in the phylogeny of the Carnivora are comparatively
few.
Literature. — The above article is based on that by Sir W. H.
Flower in the pth edition of this Encyclopaedia. The principal
works on Carnivora are the following : W. H. Flower, On the
Value of the Base of the Cranium in the Classification of the Carni-
vora," Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1869; T. H. Huxley, " Cranial and
Dental Characters of the Canidae," Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1880;
St G. Mivart, " On the Classification and' Distribution of the Aelu-
roidea . . . and Arctoidea," Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1882 and
1885; E. R. Lankester, " On the Affinities of Aeluropus," Trans.
Linn. Soc. London, vol. viii. part iv., 1901; Miss A. Carlsson,
" Uber die systematische Stellung von Nandinia," Zool. Jahrb. Syst. t
vol. xiii., 1900, and " 1st Otocyon die Ausgangsform des Hunde-
geschlechts oder nicht?" op. ctt. vol. xxii., 1905; J. L. Wortman
and W. D. Matthew, " The Ancestry of Certain Members of the
Canidae, Viverridae, and Procyonidae," Bull. Amer. Mus., vol. xii.,
1899. (R. L.*)
CARNOT, LAZARE HIPPOLTTE (1801-1888), French states-
man, the second son of L. N. M. Carnot (q.v.), was born at Saint-
Omer on the 6th of October 1801. Hippolyte Carnot lived at
first in exile with his father, returning to France only in 1823.
Unable then to enter active political life, he turned to literature
and philosophy, publishing in 1828 a collection of Chants heM-
niques translated from the German of W. Miiller, and in 1830 an
Expose* de la doctrine Saint- Simonienne, and collaborating in
the Saint-Simonian journal Le Producteur. He also paid several
visits to England and travelled in other countries of Europe.
In March 1839, after the dissolution of the chamber by Louis
Philippe, he was elected deputy for Paris (re-elected in 1842
and in 1846), and sat in the group of the Radical Left, being
one of the leaders of the party hostile to Louis Philippe. On the
24th of February 1848 he pronounced in favour of the republic.
Lamartine chose him as minister of education in the provisional
government. Carnot set to work to organize the primary school
systems, proposing a law for obligatory and free primary in-
struction, and another for the secondary education of girls.
But he declared himself against purely secular schools, holding
that " the minister and the schoolmaster are the two columns
on which rests the edifice of the republic." By this attitude he
alienated both the Right and the Republicans of the Extreme
Left, and was forced to resign on the 5th of July 1848. He was
one of those who protested against the coup d'etat of the 2nd of
December 185 1, but was not proscribed by Louis Napoleon.
He refused to sit in the Corps Ligislatif until 1864, in order not
to have to take the oath to the emperor. From 1864 to 1869
he was in the republican opposition, taking a very active part.
He was defeated at the election of 1869. On the 8th of February
187 1 he was named deputy for the Seine et Oise, and participated
in the drawing up of the Constitutional Laws of 1875. On the
16th of December 1875, he was named by the National Assembly
senator for life. He died on the 16th of March 1888, three
months after the election of his elder son, M. F.S. Carnot (q.v.) f
to the presidency of the republic. He had published Le Minister e
de V instruction publique et des cultes du24*fevrier au fjuillet 1848,
(1849), Mimoires sur Lazare Carnot (2 vols., 1 861- 1864), Mimoires
de Barere (with David Angers, 4 vols., 1842-1843). His second
son, Marie Adolphe Carnot (b. 1839), became a distinguished
mining-engineer and director of the ficole des Mines (1899),
his studies in analytical chemistry placing him in the front rank
of French scientists. He was made a member of the Academy
of Sciences in 1895.
See Vermorel, Les Hommes de 1848 (3rd ed. f 1869); E. Spuller,
Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Ripublique (1891); P. de la
Gorce, Histoire du Second Empire (1894 et seq.).
CARNOT, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE (1753-1823),
French general, was born at Nolay in Burgundy in 1753. He
received his training as an engineer at Mezigres, becoming an
officer of the Corps de G6nie in 1773 and a captain ten years
later. He had then just published his first work, an Essai sur les
machines en general. In 1 784 he wrote an essay on balloons, and
his Hloge of Vauban, read by him publicly, won him the com-
mendation of Prince Henry of Prussia. But as the result of a
controversy with Montalembert, Carnot abandoned the official,
or Vauban, theories of the art of fortification, and went over to
the " perpendicular " school of Montalembert. He was conse-
quently imprisoned, on the pretext of having fought a duel,
and only released when selected to accompany Prince Henry
of Prussia in a visit to Vauban's fortifications. In 1791 he
married. The Revolution drew him into political life, and he
was elected a deputy for the Pas de Calais. In the Assembly he
CARNOT, M. F. S.
377
took a prominent part in debates connected with the army.
Carnot was a stern and sincere republican, and voted for the
execution of the king. In the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 he
was continually employed as a commissioner in military matters,
his greatest service being in April 1793 on the north-eastern
frontier, where the disastrous battle of Neerwinden and the
subsequent defection of Dumouriez had thrown everything into
confusion. After doing what was possible to infuse energy into
the operations of the French forces, he returned to Paris and
was made a member of the Committee of Public Safety. He was
charged with duties corresponding to those of the modern chief
of the general staff and adjutant-general. As a member of the
committee he signed its decrees and was thus at least technically
responsible for the acts of the Reign of Terror. His energies
were, however, directed to the organization, not yet of victory,
but of defence. His labours were incessant; practically every
military document in the archives of the committee was Carnot's
own work, and he was repeatedly in the field with the armies.
His part in Jourdan's great victory at Wattignies was so im-
portant that the credit of the day has often been assigned to
Carnot. The winter of 1 793-1 794 was spent in new preparations,
in instituting a severe discipline in the new and ill-trained troops
of the republic, and in improvising means and material of war.
He continued to visit the armies at the front, and to inspire them
with energy. He acquiesced in the fall of Robespierre in 1794,
but later defended Barere and others among his colleagues,
declaring that he himself had constantly signed papers without
reading them, as it was physically impossible to do so in the
press of business. When Carnot's arrest was demanded in May
1795, a deputy cried " Will you dare to lay hands on the man
who has organized victory? " Carnot had just accepted pro-
motion to the rank of major in the engineers. Throughout 1 793,
when he had been the soul of the national defence, and 1794, in
which year he had " organized victory " in fourteen armies, he
was a simple captain.
Carnot was elected one of the five Directors in November 1795,
and continued to direct the war department during the campaign
of 1796. Late in 1796 he was made a member (1st class) of the
Institute, which he had helped to establish. He was for two
periods president of the Directory, but on the coup d'ttat of the
18th Fructidor (1797) was forced to take refuge abroad. He
returned to France after the 18th Brumaire (1799) and was
re-elected to the Institute in 1800. Early in 1800 he became
minister of war, and he accompanied Moreau in the early part
of the Rhine campaign. His chief work was, however, in reducing
the expenses of the armies. Contrary to the usual custom he
refused to receive presents from contractors, and he effected
much-needed reforms in every part of the military administra-
tion. He tendered his resignation later in the year, but it was
long before the First Consul would accept it. From 1801 he
lived in retirement with his family, employing himself chiefly
in scientific pursuits. As a senator he consistently opposed the
increasing monarchism of Napoleon, who, however, gave him
in 1809 a pension and commissioned him to write a work on
fortification for the school of Metz. In these years he had
published De la correlation des figures de geomitrie (1801), GSo-
mitrie de position (1803), and Principesfondamentaux de I'Squilibre
el du mouvement (1803), all of which were translated into German.
His great work on fortification appeared at Paris in 18 10 {De la
defense de places fortes) , and was translated for the use of almost
every army in Europe. He took Montalembert as his ground-
work. Without sharing Montalembert's antipathy to the bas-
tioned trace, and his predilection for high masonry caponiers,
he followed out the principle of retarding the development of
the attack, and provided for the most active defence. To
facilitate sorties in great force he did away with a counterscarp
wall, providing instead a long gentle slope from the bottom of
the ditch to the crest of the glacis. This, he imagined, would
compel an assailant to maintain large forces in the advanced
trenches, which he proposed to attack by vertical fire from
mortars. Along the front of his fortress was built a heavy
detached wall, loop-holed for fire, and sufficiently high to be a
most formidable obstacle. This " Carnot wall," and, in general,
Carnot's principle of active defence, played a great part in the
rise of modern fortification.
He did not seek employment in the field in the aggressive wars
of Napoleon, remaining a sincere republican, but in 18 14, when
France itself was once more in danger, Carnot at once offered
his services. He was made a general of division, and Napoleon
sent him to the important fortress of Antwerp as governor.
His defence of that place was one of the most brilliant episodes
of the campaign of 18 14. On his return to Paris he addressed
a political memoir to the restored king of France, which aroused
much attention both in France and abroad. He joined Napoleon
during the Hundred Days and was made minister of the interior,
the office carrying with it the dignity of count, and on the 2nd of
June he was made a peer of France. On the second Restoration
he was proscribed. He lived thenceforward in Magdeburg,
occupying himself still with science. But his health rapidly
declined, and he died at Magdeburg on the 2nd of August 1823.
His remains were solemnly removed to the Invalides in 1889.
Long before this, in 1836, Antwerp had erected a statue to its
defender of 1814. In 1837 Arago pronounced his iloge before
the Acad6mie des Sciences. The sincerity of his patriotism and
his political convictions was proved in 1801-1804 and in 1814.
The memory of his military career is preserved in the title, given
to him in the Assembly, of " The organizer of victory." His
sons, Sadi and L. Hippolyte, are separately noticed.
Authorities. — Baron de B . . ., Vie privSe, politique, et morale
de L. N. M. Carnot (Paris, 1 81 6); Serieys, Carnot, sa vie politique et
privSe (Paris, 18 16); Mandar, Notice biographique sur le geniral
Carnot, &c. (Paris, 1818); W. K6rte, Das Leben L. N. M. Carnots
(Leipzig, 1820); P. F. Tissot, Mentoires historiques et militaires sur
Carnot (Paris, 1824); Arago, Biographie de Carnot (Paris, 1850);
Hippolyte Carnot, Memoires sur Carnot (Paris, 1863) ; C. Remond,
Notice biographique sur le grand Carnot (Dijon 1880) ; A. Picaud,
Carnot, V organisateur de la victoire (Paris, 1885 and 1887); A.
Burdeau, Une Famille de patriotes (Paris, 1888) ; L. Hennet, Laeare
Carnot (Paris, 1888); G. Hubbard, Une Famille republicaine (Paris,
1888); M. Dreyfous, Les Trois Carnot (Paris, 1888); M. Bonnal,
Carnot, d'apres les archives, &c. (Paris, 1888); and memoir by
E. Charavaray in La Grande Encyclopidie.
CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI (1837-1894), fourth
president of the third French Republic, son of L. Hippolyte
Carnot, was born at Limoges on the nth of August 1837. He
was educated as a civil engineer, and after having highly dis-
tinguished himself at the £cole Polytechnique and the ficole
des Ponts et Chauss6es, obtained an appointment in the public
service. His hereditary republicanism recommended him to the
government of national defence, by which he was entrusted in
1870 with the task of organizing resistance in the departments
of the Eure, Calvados and Seine Inf6rieure, and made prefect
of the last named in January 187 1. In the following month
he was elected to the National Assembly by the department
Cdte d'Or. In August 1878 he was appointed secretary to the
minister of public works. In September 1 880 he became minister,
and again in April 1885, passing almost immediately to the
ministry of finance, which he held under both the Ferry and
the Freycinet administrations until December 1886. When the
Wilson scandals occasioned the downfall of Gr6vy in December
1887, Carnot's high character for integrity marked him out as
a candidate for the presidency, and he obtained the support of
Clemenceau and of all those who objected to the candidatures
of men who have been more active in the political arena, so that
he was elected by 616 votes out of 827. He assumed office at a
critical period, when the republic was all but openly attacked
by General Boulanger. President Carnot's ostensible part during
this agitation was mainly confined to augmenting his popularity
by well-timed appearances on public occasions, which gained
credit for the presidency and the republic. When early in 1889,
Boulanger was finally driven into exile, it fell to President
Carnot's lot to appear at the head of the state on two occasions
of especial interest, the celebration of the centenary of 1789
and the opening of the Paris Exhibition of that year. The
perfect success of both was regarded, not unreasonably, as a
popular ratification of the republic, and though continually
378
CARNOT, S. N. L.— CARO, A.
harassed by the formation and dissolution of ephemeral ministries,
by socialist outbreaks, and the beginnings of anti-Semitism,
Carnot had but one serious crisis to surmount, the Panama
scandals of 1892, which, if they greatly damaged the prestige
of the state, increased the respect felt for its head, against whose
integrity none could breathe a word. Carnot seemed to be
arriving at the zenith of popularity, when on the 24th of June
1894, after delivering at a public banquet at Lyons a speech
in which he appeared to imply that he nevertheless would not
seek re-election, he was stabbed by an Italian anarchist named
Caserio and expired almost immediately. The horror and grief
excited by this tragedy were boundless, and the president was
honoured with a splendid funeral in the Pantheon, Paris.
His son, Francois Carnot, was first elected deputy for the
C6te d'Or in 1902.
See E. Zevort, Histoire de la Troisieme Ripublique, tome iv., " La
Presidence de Carnot " (Paris, 1901).
CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS L&ONHARD (1796-1832), French
physicist, elder son of L. N. M. Carnot, was born at Paris on the
1st of June 1796. He was -admitted to the ficole Poly technique
in 1 81 2, and late in 1814 he left with a commission in the
Engineers and with prospects of rapid advancement in his
profession. But Waterloo and the Restoration led to a second
and final proscription of his father ; and though not himself
cashiered, Sadi was purposely told off for the merest drudgeries
of his service. Disgusted with an employment which afforded
him neither leisure for original work nor opportunities for acquir-
ing scientific instruction, he presented himself in 18 19 at the
examination for admission to the staff corps (itat-major) and
obtained a lieutenancy. He then devoted himself with astonish-
ing ardour to mathematics, chemistry, natural history, tech-
nology and even political economy. He was an enthusiast in
music and other fine arts; and he habitually practised as an
amusement, while deeply studying in theory, all sorts of athletic
sports, including swimming and fencing. He became captain
in the Engineers in 1827, but left the service altogether in the
following year. His naturally feeble constitution, further
weakened by excessive study, broke down finally in 1832. An
attack of scarlatina led to brain fever, and he had scarcely
recovered when he fell a victim to cholera, of which he died in
Paris on the 24th of August 1832. He was one of the most
original and profound thinkers who have ever devoted them-
selves to science. The only work he published was his Reflexions
sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres a
dtvelopper cette puissance (Paris, 1824). This contains but a
fragment of his scientific discoveries, but it is sufficient to put
him in the very foremost rank, though its full value was not
recognized until pointed out by Lord Kelvin in 1848 and 1849.
Fortunately his manuscripts had been preserved, and extracts
were appended to a reprint of his Puissance motrice by his brother,
L. H. Carnot, in 1878. These show that he had not only realized
for himself the true nature of heat, but had noted down for trial
many of the best modern methods of finding its mechanical
equivalent, such as those of J. P. Joule with the perforated
piston and with the friction of water and mercury. Lord Kelvin's
experiment with a current of gas forced through a porous plug
is also given. ' ' Carno t's principle ' ' is fundamental in the theory
of thermodynamics (q.v.).
CARNOUSTIE, a police burgh and watering-place of Forfar-
shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5204. It lies on the North Sea,
iof m. E.N.E. of Dundee by the North British railway. Bathing
and golfing are good. Barry Links, a triangular sandy track
occupying the south-eastern corner of the shire, are used as a
camping and manoeuvring ground for the artillery and infantry
forces of the district, and occasionally of Scotland. Its most
extreme point is called Buddon Ness, off which are the dangerous
shoals locally known as the Roaring Lion, in consequence of
the deep boom of the waves. On the Ness two lighthouses have
been built at different levels, the lights of which are visible at
13 and 16 m.
CARNUNTUM (Kapvovs in Ptolemy), an important Roman
fortress, originally belonging to Noricum, but after the 1st
century a.d. to Pannonia. It was a Celtic town, the name,
which is nearly always found with K on monuments, being
derived from Kar, Karn (" rock," " cairn "). Its extensive
ruins may still be seen near Hamburg, between Deutsch-Alten-
burg and Petronell, in lower Austria. Its name first occurs in
history during the reign of Augustus (a.d. 6), when Tiberius
made it his base of operations in the campaigns against Maro-
boduus (Marbod). A few years later it became the centre of the
Roman fortifications along the Danube from Vindobona (Vienna)
to Brigetio (O-Szdny), and (under Trajan or Hadrian) the
permanent quarters of the XIV legion. It was also a very old
mart for the amber brought to Italy from the north. It was
created a municipium by Hadrian (Aelium Carnuntum).
Marcus Aurelius resided there for three years (172-175) during
the war against the Marcomanni, and wrote part of his Medita-
tions. Septimius Severus, at the time governor of Pannonia,
was proclaimed emperor there by the soldiers (193). In the
4th century it was destroyed by the Germans, and, although
partly restored by Valentinian I., it never regained its former
importance, and Vindobona became the chief military centre.
It was finally destroyed by the Hungarians in the middle ages.
A special society (Carnuntumverein) exists for the exploration of
the numerous ruins, the results of which will be found in J. W.
Kubitschek and S. Frankfurter, Fuhrer dutch Carnuntum (3rd ed.,
1894); see also E. von Sacken, " Die romische Stadt Carnuntum,"
in Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften, ix. (Vienna,
1852); article by Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie^
iii. part ii. (1899); Corpus Inscripttonum Latinarum t iii., part 1.
p. 550.
CARNUTES (Carnuti, Carnutae, Kapvovrlvoi in Plutarch),
a Celtic people of central Gaul, between the Sequana (Seine)
and the Liger (Loire). Their territory corresponded to the
dioceses of Chartres, Orleans and Blois, that is, the greater part
of the modern departments of Eure-et-Loir, Loiret, Loir-et-Cher.
It was regarded as the political and religious centre of the Gallic
nation. The chief towns were Cenabum (not Genabum; Orleans)
and Autricum (Chartres). According to Livy (v. 34) the Carnutes
were one of the tribes which accompanied Bellovesus in his
invasion of Italy during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. In
the time of Caesar they were dependents of the Remi, who on one
occasion interceded for them. In 52 they joined in the rebellion
of Vercingetorix, As a punishment for the treacherous murder
of some Roman merchants and one of Caesar's commissariat
officers at Cenabum, the town was burnt and the inhabitants
put to the sword or sold as slaves. During the war they sent
12,000 men to relieve Alesia, but shared in the defeat of the
Gallic army. Having attacked the Bituriges Cubi, who appealed
to Caesar for assistance, they were forced to submit. Under
Augustus, the Carnutes, as one of the peoples of Lugdunensis,
were raised to the rank of civitas socia or foederata f retaining
their own institutions, and only bound to render military service
to the emperor. Up to the 3rd century Autricum (later Carnutes,
whence Chartres) was the capital, but in 275 Aurelian changed
Cenabum from a vicus into a civitas and named it Aurelianum
or Aurelianensis urbs (whence Orleans).
See Caesar, Bell. Gall, v. 25, 29, vii. 8, n, 75, viii. 5, 31; Strabo
iv. pp. 191-193; R. Boutrays, tlrbis gentisque Carnutum historic
(1624); A. Desjardins, Giographie historique de la Gaule, ii. (1876-
1893); article and bibliography in La Grande Encyclopedic; T. R.
Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Caul (1899), p. 402, on Cenabum.
CARO, ANNIBALE (1507-1566), Italian poet, was born at
Civita Nuova, in Ancona, in 1507. He became tutor in the
family of Lodovico Gaddi, a rich Florentine, and then secretary
to his brother Giovanni, by whom he was presented to a valuable
ecclesiastical preferment at Rome. At Gaddi's death, he entered
the service of the Farnese family, and became confidential
secretary in succession to Pietro Lodovico, duke of Parma, and
to his sons, duke Ottavio and cardinals Ranuccio and Alexander.
Caro's most important work was his translation of the Aeneid
(Venice, 1 581; Paris, 1760). He is also the author of Rime,
Canzoni, and sonnets, a comedy named Gli Straccioni, and two
clever jeux d' esprit, one in praise of figs, La Ficheide, and another
in eulogy of the big nose of Leoni Ancona, president of the
Academia della Vertu. Caro's poetry is distinguished by very
CARO, E. M.— CAROL
379
considerable ability, and particularly by the freedom and grace
of its versification; indeed he may be said to have brought the
verso scioUo to the highest development it has reached in Italy.
His prose works consist of translations from Aristotle, Cyprian
and Gregory Nazianzen; and of letters, written in his own name
and in those of the cardinals Farnese, which are remarkable
both for the baseness they display and for their euphemistic
polish and elegance. His fame has been greatly damaged by the
virulence with which he attacked Lodovico Castelvetro in one
of his canzoni, and by his meanness in denouncing him to the
Holy Office as translator of some of the writings of Melanchthon.
He died at Rome about 1566.
CARO, ELME MARIE (1826-1887), French philosopher, was
born on the 4th of March 1826 at Poitiers. His father, a pro-
fessor of philosophy, gave him an excellent education at the
Stanislas College and the £cole Normale, where he graduated in
1848. After being professor of philosophy at several provincial
universities, he received the degree of doctor, and came to Paris
in 1858 as master of conferences at the £cole Normale. In 1861
he became inspector of the Academy of Paris, in 1864 professor
of philosophy to the Faculty of Letters, and in 1874 a member
of the French Academy. He married Pauline Cassin, the
authoress of the Pichi de Madeleine and other well-known novels.
He died in Paris on the 13th of July 1887. In his philosophy he
was mainly concerned to defend Christianity against modern
Positivism. The philosophy of Cousin influenced him strongly,
but his strength lay in exposition and criticism rather than in
original thought. Besides important contributions to La France
and the Revue des deux mondes, he wrote Le Mysticisme au
X VIII'siede(iS$2-i&S4)>L'I<te<k Dieu(iM4),UMaterialisme
et la science (1868), Le Pessimisme au XIX* siecle (1878), Jours
d'ipreuves (1872), M. LiUrl et le positivisme (1883), George Sand
(1887), Milanges et portraits (1888), La PhUosophie de Goethe
(2nd ed., 1880).
CAROL (O. Fr. car ole), a hymn of praise, especially such as
is sung at Christmas in the open air. The origin of the word is
obscure. Diez suggests that the word is derived from chorus.
Others ally it with coroUa, a garland, circle or coronet, 1 the
earliest sense of the word being apparently " a ring " or " circle,"
" a ring dance." Stonehenge, often called the Giants' Dance,
was also frequently known as the Carol; thus Harding, Chron.
lxx. x., " Within (the) Giauntes Carole, that so they hight, The
(Stone hengles) that nowe so named been." The Celtic forms, often
cited as giving the origin of the word, are derivatives of the English
or French. The crib set up in the churches at Christmas was the
centre of a dance, and some of the most famous of Latin Christmas
hymns were written to dance tunes. These songs were called
Wiegenlieder in German, noels in French, and carols in English.
They were originally modelled on the songs written to accompany
the choric dance, which were probably the starting-point of the
lyric poetry of the Germanic peoples. Strictly speaking, there-
fore, the word should be applied to lyrics written to dance
measures; in common acceptation it is applied to the songs
written for the Christmas festival. Carolling, i.e* the combined
exercise of dance and song, found its way from pagan ritual into
the Christian church, and the clergy, however averse they might
be from heathen survivals, had to content themselves in this,
as in many other cases, with limiting the practice. The third
council of Toledo (589) forbade dancing in the churches on the
vigils of saints' days , and secular dances in church were forbidden
by the council of Auxerre in the next year. Even as late as 1 209
it was necessary for the council of Avignon to forbid theatrical
dances and secular songs in churches. Religious dances persisted
longest on Shrove Tuesday, and a Castanet dance by the choristers
round the lectern is permitted three times a year in the cathedral
of Seville. The Christmas festival, which synchronized with and
1 In architecture, the term " carol " (also wrongly spelled " carrel "
or " carrol ") is U3ed, in the sense of an enclosure, of a small chapel
or oratory enclosed by screens, and also sometimes of the rails of the
screens themselves. It is more particularly applied to the separate
seats near the windows of a cloister (q.v.), used by the monks lor the
purposes of study, &c. The term " carol " has, by a mistake, been
sometimes used of a scroll bearing an inscription of a text, &c.
superseded the Latin and Teutonic feasts of the winter solstice,
lent itself especially to gaiety. The " crib " of the Saviour was
set up in the churches or in private houses, in the traditional
setting of the stable, with earthen figures of the Holy Family,
the ox and the ass; and carols were sung and danced around it.
The " rocking of the cradle " was the occasion of dialogue
between Joseph and Mary which was not without elements of
comedy, and gave rise to lullabies such as the well-known
German Dormi fili. The adoration of the shepherds and the
visit of the Magi also provided matter for dramatic and choral
representation. The singing of the carol has survived in places
where the institution of the " crib," said to have been originated
by St Francis of Assisi to inculcate the doctrine of the incarna-
tion, has been long in disuse, but in the West Riding of Yorkshire
the children who go round carol-singing still carry " milly-
boxes " (My Lady boxes) containing figures which represent the
Virgin and Child.
That carol-singing early became a pretext for the asking of
alms is obvious from an Anglo-Norman carol preserved in the
British Museum (MS. Reg. 16 E. viii.), Seigneurs ore entendey
a nus, which is little more than a drinking song. Carols were an
important element in the mystery plays of the Nativity, and
one of these, included in the Marguerites de la Marguerite des
princesses , tres-iUustre reine de Navarre (Lyons, 1 547) , incidentally
gives evidence of the connexion of dancing and carol-singing,
for the shepherds and shepherdesses open their chorus at the
manger with "Dansons, chantons, faisons rage" There is a long
English carol relating the chief incidents of the life of Christ,
which is a curious example of the mixture of the sacred and pro-
fane common in this species of composition. It begins " To-
morrow shall be my dancing day," and has for refrain —
11 Sing, oh ! my love, oh ! my love, my love, my love;
Tins have I done for my true love.
There are extant numerous carols dating from the 15th century
which have the characteristic features of folksong. The famous
Cherry-tree Carol, " Joseph was an old man," is based on an
old legend which is related in the Coventry mystery plays.
" I saw three ships come sailing in," and " The Camel and the
Crane," though of more modern date, preserve curious legends.
Numerous entries in the household accounts of the Tudor
sovereigns show that carol-singing was popular throughout
the 16th century, and the literature of Christmas was enriched
in the next century by poems which are often included in collec-
tions of carols, though they were probably written to be read
rather than sung. Milton, Crashaw, Southwell, Ben Jonson,
George Herbert and George Wither all produced Christmas
poems, but the richest collection by any one poet is to be found
in the poems of Herrick, whose " Come, bring with a noise " is
a typical carol of the jovial kind, and may well have been written
to a dance tune. Among 18th-century religious carols perhaps
the most famous is Charles Wesley's " Hark, how all the welkin
rings," better known in the variant, " Hark, the herald angels
sing." The artificial modern revival of carol-singing has pro-
duced a quantity of new carols, the best of which are perhaps
mostly derived from medieval Latin Christmas hymns. Among
the many modern Christmas poems one of the most striking
is Swinburne's " Three Damsels in the Queen's Chamber,"
which is, however, a ballad rather than a carol.
The earliest printed collection of carols was issued by Wynkyn
de Worde in 1521. It contained the famous Boar's Head carol,
Caput apri defero. Reddens laudes Domino, which in a slightly
altered form is sung at Queen's College, Oxford, on the bringing
in of the boar's head. Modern collections of ancient carols
are derived chiefly from three tracts belonging to the collection
of Anthony a Wood, preserved in the Bodleian library, from
a 15th-century MS. (Sloane 2593), a 16th-century MS. with the
music (Add. 5665), and other MSS. in the British Museum,
and from oral tradition. In the 18th century T. Bloomer of
Birmingham published a number of carols in the form of broad-
sides. Among the numerous collections of French carols is
Noei Borguignon de Gui Barfaai (1720), giving the words and
the music of thirty-four noSls, many of them very free in character.
38o
CAROLINE— CAROLINE ISLANDS
The term noil passed into the English carol as a favourite refrain,
" nowell," and seems to have been in common use in France as an
equivalent for vival.
Among the more important modern collections of Christmas carols
are: Songs and Car oh (1847), edited by T. Wright for the Percy
Society from Sloane MS. 2593 ; W. Sandys, Christmastide, its History,
Festivities and Carols (1852); Christmas with the Poets (edited by
V. H., 4th ed., 1872); T. Helmore and J. M. Neale, Carols for
Christmastide (185^-1 854), with music; R. R. Chope, Carols (new
and complete edition, 1894), a tune-book for church use, with an
introduction by S. Baring-Gould; H. R. Bramley, Christmas Carols,
New and Old, the music by Dr Stainer; A. H. Bullen, Carols and
Poems (1885); J. A. Fuller Maitland and W. S. Rockstro, Thirteen
Carols of the Fifteenth Century, from a Trinity Coll., Cambridge, MS.
(1891). See also Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology, s.v. " Carol ";
E. Cortet, Essai sur Us fites religieuses (1867).
CAROLINE (1683-1737), wife of George II., king of Great
Britain and Ireland, was a daughter of John Frederick, margrave
of Brandenburg- Ansbach (d. 1686). Born at Ansbach on the 1st
of March 1683, the princess passed her youth mainly at Dresden
and Berlin, where she enjoyed the close friendship of Sophie
Charlotte, wife of Frederick I. of Prussia; she married George
Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, in September 1705.
The early years of her married life were spent in Hanover. She
took a continual interest x in the approaching accession of the
Hanoverian dynasty to the British throne, was on very friendly
terms with the old electress Sophia, and corresponded with
Leibnitz, whose acquaintance she had made in Berlin. In
October 17 14 Caroline followed her husband and her father-in-
law, now King George I., to London. As princess of Wales she
was accessible and popular, and took the first place at court,
filling a difficult position with tact and success. When the quarrel
between the prince of Wales and his father was attaining serious
proportions, Caroline naturally took the part of her husband,
and matters reached a climax in 17 17. Driven from court,
ostracized by the king, deprived even of the custody of their
children, the prince and princess took up their residence in London
at Leicester House, and in the country at Richmond. They
managed, however, to surround themselves with a distinguished
circle; Caroline had a certain taste for literature, and among
their attendants and visitors were Lord Chesterfield, Pope,
Gay, Lord Hervey and his wife, the beautiful Mary Lepel.
A formal reconciliation with George I. took place in 1720. In
October 1727 George II. and his queen were crowned. During
the rest of her life Queen Caroline's influence in English politics
was very chiefly exercised in support of Sir Robert Walpole;
she kept this minister in power, and in control of church patron-
age. She was exceedingly tolerant, and the bishops appointed
by her were remarkable rather for learning than for orthodoxy.
During the king's absences from England she was regent of the
kingdom on four occasions. On the whole, Caroline's relations
with her husband, to whom she bore eight children, were satis-
factory. A clever and patient woman, she was very complaisant
towards the king, flattering his vanity and acknowledging his
mistresses, and she retained her influence over him to the end.
She died on the 20th of November 1737.
Caroline appears in Scott's Heart of Midlothian; see also Lord
Hervey, Memoirs of the Reign of George II., ed. by J.W. Croker (1884) ;
W. H. Wilkins, Caroline the Illustrious (1904) ; and A. D. Greenwood,
Lives of the Hanoverian Queens of England, vol. i. (1909).
CAROLINE AMELIA AUGUSTA (1768-1821), queen of
George IV. of Great Britain, second daughter of Charles William
Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick- Wolf enbuttel, was born on the
17th of May 1768. She was brought up with great strictness,
and her education did not fit her well for her subsequent station
in life. In 1795 she was married to the then prince of Wales
(see George IV.), who disliked her and separated from her after
the birth of a daughter in January 1796. The princess resided
at Blackheath; and as she was thought to have been badly
treated by her profligate husband, the sympathies of the people
were strongly in her favour. About 1806 reports reflecting on
her conduct were circulated so openly that it was deemed
necessary for a commission to inquire into the circumstances.
The princess was acquitted of any serious fault, but various
improprieties in her conduct were pointed out and censured.
In 18 14 she left England and travelled on the continent, residing
principally in Italy. On the accession of George in 1820, orders
were given that the English ambassadors should prevent the
recognition of the princess as queen at any foreign court. Her
name also was formally omitted from the liturgy. These acts
stirred up a strong feeling in favour of the princess among the
English people generally, and she at once made arrangements for
returning to England and claiming her rights. She rejected a
proposal that she should receive an annuity of £50,000 a year
on condition of renouncing her title and remaining abroad.
Further efforts at compromise proved unavailing; Caroline
arrived in England on the 6th of June, and one month later a bill
to dissolve her marriage with the king on the ground of adultery
was brought into the House of Lords. The trial began on the
17th of August 1820, and on the 10th of November the bill, after
passing the third reading, was abandoned. The public excite-
ment had been intense, the boldness of the queen's counsel,
Brougham and Denman, unparalleled, and the ministers felt
that the smallness of their majority was virtual defeat. The
queen was allowed to assume her title, but she was refused admit-
tance to Westminster Hall on the coronation day, July 19, 1821.
Mortification at this event seems to have hastened her death,
which took place on the 7th of August of the same year.
See A Queen of Indiscretions, the Tragedy of Caroline of Brunswick,
Queen of England, translated by F. Chapman from the Italian of
Graziano Paolo Clerici (London, 1907), with numerous portraits, &c.
Of contemporary authorities the Creevy Papers (1905) throw the
most interesting sidelights on the subject.
CAROLINE ISLANDS, a widely-scattered archipelago in the
Pacific Ocean, E. of the Philippines and N. of New Guinea,
included in Micronesia, between 5° and io Q N., and 135 and
165 E., belonging to Germany. They fall into three main
groups, the Western, Central and Eastern Carolines, the central
being the most numerous, while the western include the Pelew
group. The total land area is about 380 sq. m., and out of this,
307 sq. m. is covered by the four main islands, Ponape and
Kusaie in the eastern group, Truk or Hogolu in the central, and
Yap in the western. These islands are of considerable elevation
(the highest point of Ponape approaches 3000 ft.), but the rest
are generally low coral islets. The climate is equable and moist,
but healthy; but the islands are subject to heavy storms. The
total population is estimated at 36,000. The natives, who are
Micronesian hybrids of finer physique than their kinsmen of the
Pelew Islands, have a comparatively high mental standard, being
careful agriculturists, and peculiarly clever boatbuilders and
navigators. The Germans divide the whole archipelago into
two administrative districts, eastern and western, having the
seats of government at Ponape and Yap respectively. The
principal article of export is copra. The islands were discovered
(at least in part) by the Portuguese Diego da Rocha in 1527,
and called by him the Sequeira Islands. In 1686 Admiral
Francesco Lazeano, who made further explorations, renamed
them the Carolines in honour of Charles H. of Spain. The
islands were subsequently visited by a few travellers; but the
natives have only in modern times been reconciled to the presence
of foreigners; an early visit of missionaries (1731) resulted in
one of several murderous attacks on white men which darken
the history of the islands; and it was only in 1875 tnat Spain,
claiming the group, made some attempt to assert her rights.
These were contested by Germany, whose flag was hoisted on
Yap, and the matter was referred to the arbitration of Pope
Leo XIII. in 1885. He decided in favour of Spain, but gave
Germany free trading rights; and in 1899 Germany took over
the administration of the islands from Spain, paying 25,000,000
pesetas (nearly £1,000,000 sterling).
Ancient Stone Buildings. — In Ponape and Kusaie, massive stone
structures, similar to those which occur in several other parts
of the Pacific Ocean, have long been known to exist. They have
been closely explored by Herr Kubary, Mr F. J. Moss, and later
Mr F. W. Christian. None of the colossal structures hitherto
described appears to have been erected by the present Melanesian
CAROLINGIANS— CARORA
3«i
or Polynesian peoples, while their wide diffusion, extending as
far as Easter Island, within 400 m. of the New World, points
to the occupation of the Pacific lands by a prehistoric race which
had made some advance in general culture. The Funafuti
borings (1897) show almost beyond doubt that Polynesia is an
area of comparatively recent subsidence. Hence the land con-
nexions must have formerly been much easier and far more
continuous than at present. The dolmen-builders of the New
Stone Age are now known to have long occupied both Korea
and Japan, from which advanced Asiatic lands they may have
found little difficulty in spreading over the Polynesian world,
just as in the extreme west they were able to range over Scandi-
navia, Great Britain and Ireland. To Neolithic man, still perhaps
represented by some of the more light-cqloured and more regular-
featured Polynesian groups, may therefore not unreasonably
be attributed these astonishing remains, which assume so many
different forms according to the nature of the locality, but seem
generally so out of proportion with the present restricted areas
on which they stand. With the gradual subsidence of these
areas their culture would necessarily degenerate, although echoes
of sublime theogonies and philosophies are still heard in the oral
traditions and folklore of many Polynesian groups. In the islet
of Lele, close to Kusaie, at the eastern extremity of Micronesia,
the ruins present the appearance of a citadel with cyclopean
ramparts built of large basaltic blocks. There are also numerous
canals, and what look like artificial harbours constructed amid
the shallow lagoons.
In Ponape the remains are of a somewhat similar character,
but on a much larger scale, and with this difference, that while
those of Lele all stand on the land, those of Ponape are built in
the water. The whole island is strewn with natural basaltic
prisms, some of great size; and of this material, brought by boats
or rafts from a distance of 30 m. and put together without any
mortar, but sustained by their own weight, are built all the
massive walls and other structures on the east side of the island.
The walls of the main building near the entrance of Metalanim
harbour form a massive quadrangle 200 ft. on all sides, with
inner courts, vault and raised platform with walls 20 to 40 ft.
high and from 8 to 18 ft. thick. Some of the blocks are 25 ft.
long and 8 ft. in circumference, and many of them weigh from
3 to 4 tons. There are also numerous canals from 30 to 100 ft.
wide, while a large number of islets, mainly artificial, covering
an area of 9 sq. m., have all been built up out of the shallow
waters of the lagoon round about the entrance of the harbour,
with high sea-walls composed of the same huge basaltic prisms.
In some places the walls of this " Pacific Venice " are now
submerged to some depth, as if the land had subsided since the
construction of these extensive works. Elsewhere huge break-
waters had been constructed, the fragments of which may still
be seen stretching away for a distance of from 2 to 3 m. Most
observers, such as Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge and Mr Le Hunte,
agree that these structures could not possibly be the work of any
of the present Polynesian peoples, and attribute them to a now
extinct prehistoric race, the men of the New Stone Age from the
Asiatic mainland.
Stone Money. — The inhabitants of Yap are noted for possessing
the hiost extraordinary currency, if it can be so called, in the
whole world. Besides the ordinary shell money, there is a sort
of stone coinage, consisting of huge calcite or limestone discs or
wheels from 6 in. to 12 ft. in diameter, and weighing up to nearly
5 tons. These are all quarried in the Pelew Islands, 200 m. to
the south, and are now brought to Yap in European vessels.
But some were in the island long before the arrival of the whites,
and must consequently have been brought by native vessels or
on rafts. The stones, which are rather tokens than money, do
not circulate, but are piled up round about the chief's treasure-
house, and appear to be regarded as public property, although
it is hard to say what particular use they can serve. They appear
to be kept rather for show and ornament than for use.
See F. W. Christian, The Caroline Islands (London, 1899); G.
Volkens, " Uber die Karolinen Insel Yap," in Verhandlungen
Gesellschaft Erdkunde Berlin., xxviii. (1901); J. S. Kubary, Ethno-
graphische Beitrdge zur Kentniss des Karolinen-Arckipel (Leiden*
1 889-1 892); De Abrade, Historia del conflicto de las Carolinas, &c.
(Madrid, 1886).
CAROLINGIANS, the name of a family (so called from Charle-
magne, its most illustrious member) which gained the throne of
France a.d. 751. It appeared in history in 613, its origin being
traced to Arnulf (Arnoul), bishop of Metz, and Pippin, long
called Pippin of Landen, but more correctly Pippin the Old or
Pippin I. Albeit of illustrious descent, the genealogies which
represent Arnulf as an Aquitanian noble, and his family as
connected — by more or less complicated devices — with the
saints honoured in Aquitaine, are worthless, dating from the
time of Louis the Pious in the 9th century. Arnulf was one of
the Austrasian nobles who appealed to Clotaire II., king of
Neustria, against Brunhilda, and it was in reward for his services
that he received from Clotaire the bishopric of Metz (613).
Pippin, also an Austrasian noble, had taken a prominent part in
the revolution of 613. These two men Clotaire took as his
counsellors; and when he decided in 623 to confer the kingdom of
Austrasia upon his son Dagobert, they were appointed mentors to
the Austrasian king, Pippin with the title of mayor of the palace.
Before receiving his bishopric, Arnulf had had a son Adalgiselus,
afterwards called Anchis; Pippin's daughter, called Begga in later
documents, was married to Arnulf 's son, and of this union was born
Pippin II. Towards the end of the 7 th century Pippin II. , called
incorrectly Pippin of Heristal, secured a preponderant authority
in Austrasia, marched at the head of the Austrasians against
Neustria, and gained a decisive victory at Tertry, near St
Quentin (687). From that date he may be said to have been
sole master of the Frankish kingdom, which he governed till his
death (714). In Neustria Pippin gave the mayoralty of the palace
to his son Grimoald, and afterwards to Grimoald's son Theode-
bald; the mayoralty in Austrasia he gave to his son Drogo, and
subsequently to Drogo's children, Arnulf and Hngh. Charles
Martel, however, a son of Pippin by a concubine Chalpalda,
seized the mayoralty in both kingdoms, and he it was who
continued the Carolingian dynasty. Charles Martel governed
from 714 to 741 , and in 751 his son Pippin III. took the Jitle of
king. The Carolingian dynasty reigned in France from 751 to
987, when it was ousted by the Capetian dynasty. In Germany
descendants of Pippin reigned till the death of Louis the Child in
911; in Italy the Carolingians maintained their position until
the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887. Charles, duke of Lower
Lorraine, who was thrown into prison by Hugh Capet in 991,
left two sons, the last male descendants of the Carolingians, Otto,
who was also duke of Lower Lorraine and died without issue, and
Louis, who after the year 1000 vanishes from history.
See P. A. F. Gerard and L. A. Warnkdnig, Histoire des Carolingiens
(Brussels, 1862); H. E. Bonnell, Anfange des Karoling. Hauses
(Berlin, 1866); J. F. Bdhmer and E. Muhlbacher, Regesten d.
Kaiserreichs unter d. Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1889 seq.) ; E. Miihl-
bacher, Deutsche Gesch. unter d. Karolingern (Stuttgart, 1896);
F. Lot, Les Dernier s Carolingiens (Paris, 1891). (C. Pf.)
CAROLUS-DURAN, the name adopted by the French painter
Charles Auguste Emile Durand (1837- ), who was born at
Lille on the 4th of July 1837. He studied at the Lille Academy
and then went to Paris, and in 1861 to Italy and Spain for
further study, especially devoting himself to the pictures of
Velasquez. His subject picture ' * Murdered, ' ' or " The Assassina-
tion " (1866), was one of his first successes, and is now in the
Lille museum, but he became best known afterwards as a portrait-
painter, and as the head of one of the principal ateliers in Paris,
where some of the most brilliant artists of a later generation
were his pupils. His " Lady with the Glove " (1869) , a portrait of
his own wife,*was bought for the Luxembourg. In 1889 he was
made a commander of the Legion of Honour. He became a
member of the Acade*mie des Beaux-arts in 1904, and in the next
year was appointed director of the French academy at Rome in
succession to Eugene Guillaume.
CARORA, an inland town of the state of Lara, Venezuela, on
the Carora, a branch of the Tocuyo river, about 54 m. W. by S. of
the city of Barquisimeto, and n 28 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1908 estimate) 6000. The town is comparatively well-built
3 82
CARP— CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS
and possesses a fine parish church, and a Franciscan convent and
hermitage. It was founded in 1754, and its colonial history
shows considerable prosperity, its population at that time
numbering 9000 to 10,000. The neighbouring country is devoted
principally to raising horses, mules and cattle; and in addition
to hides and leather, it exports rubber and other forest products.
CARP, the typical fish of a large family (Cyprinidae) of Ostario-
physi, as they have been called by M. Sagemehl, in which the air-
bladder is connected with the ear by a chain of small bones (so-
called Weberian ossicles). The mouth is usually more or less
protractile and always toothless; the lower pharyngeal bones,
which are large and falciform, subparallel to the branchial arches,
are provided with teeth, often large and highly specialized, in
one, two or three series (pharyngeal teeth), usually working
against a horny plate attached to a vertical process of the basi-
occipital bone produced under the anterior vertebrae, mastica-
tion being performed in the gullet. These teeth, adapted to
various requirements, vary according to the genus, being conical,
hooked, spoon-shaped, molar? form, &c.
The species are extremely numerous, about 1400 being known,
nearly entirely confined to fresh water, and feeding on vegetable
substances or small animals. They are dispersed over the whole
world with the exception of South America, Madagascar, Papu-
asia, and Australasia. Remains of several of the existing
genera have been found in Oligocene and later beds of Europe,
Sumatra and North America. One member of the Cyprinidae is
at present known to be viviparous, but no observations have as
yet been made on its habits. It is a small barbel discovered in
Natal by Max Weber, and described by him under the name
Barbus viviparus.
The Cyprinidae 1 are divided into four subfamilies :—Calosto-
minae (mostly from North America, with a few species from
China and eastern Siberia), in which the maxillary bones take a
share in the border of the mouth, and the pharyngeal teeth are
very numerous and form a single, comb-like series; Cyprininae,
the great bulk of the family, more or less conforming to the type of
the carp; Cobitinae, or loaches (Europe, Asia, Abyssinia),
which are dealt with in a separate article (see Loach) ; and the
Homalopterinae (China and south-eastern Asia), mountain forms
allied to the loaches, with a quite rudimentary air-bladder.
For descriptions of other Cyprinids than the carp, see Gold-
fish, Barbel, Gudgeon, Rudd, Roach, Chub, Dace, Minnow,
Tench, Bream, Bleak, Bitterling, Mahseer.
The carp itself, Cyprinus carpio, has a very wide distribution,
having spread, through the agency of man, over nearly the
whole of Europe and a part of North America, where it lives in
lakes, ponds, canals, and slow-running rivers with plenty of
The Common Carp,
vegetation. The carp appears to be a native of temperate Asia
and perhaps also of south-eastern Europe, and to have been
introduced into other parts in the 12th and 13th century; it was
first mentioned in England in 1496. The acclimatization of the
carp in America has been a great success, especially in the
northern waters, where, the growth continuing throughout the
entire year, the fish soon attains a remarkable size. The presence
of carp in Indo-China and the Malay Archipelago is probably
also to be ascribed to human agency. In the British Isles the
1 The name of the fishes of the genus Cyprinus is derived from the
island of Cyprus, the ancient sanctuary of Venus; this name is
supposed to nave arisen from observations of the fecundity and
vivacity of carp during the spawning period.
carp seldom reaches a length of 2 J ft., and a weight of 20 lb,
whilst examples of that size are quite frequent on the continent,
and others measuring 4$ ft. and weighing 60 lb or more are on
record. The fish is characterized by its large scales (34 to 40 in
the lateral line), its long dorsal fin, the first ray of which is stiff
and serrated, and the presence of two small barbels on each side of
the mouth. But it varies much in form and scaling, and some
most aberrant varieties have been fixed by artificial selection,
the principal being the king-carp or mirror-carp, in which the
scales are enlarged and reduced in number, forming more or less
regular longitudinal series on the sides, and the leather-carp, in
which the scales have all but disappeared, the fish being covered
with a thick, leathery skin. Deformed examples are not of rare
occurrence.
Although partly feeding on worms and other small forms of
animal life, the carp is principally a vegetarian, and the great
development of its pharyngeal apparatus renders it particularly
adapted to a graminivorous regime. The longevity of the fish has
probably been much exaggerated, and the statements of carp of
200 years living in the ponds of Pont-Chartrain and other places
in France and elsewhere do not rest on satisfactory evidence.
A close ally of the carp is the Crucian carp, Cyprinus carassius,
chiefly distinguished by the absence of barbels. It inhabits
Europe and northern and temperate Asia, and is doubtfully
indigenous to Great Britain. It is a small fish, rarely exceeding a
length of 8 or 9 in. It has many varieties. One of these, re-
markable for its very short, thick head and deep body, is the so-
called Prussian carp, C. gibelio, often imported into English
ponds, whilst the best known is the goldfish (q.v.), C. auratus,
first produced in China. (G. A. B.)
CARPACCIO, VITTORIO, or Vittore (c. 1465-t;. 1522),
Italian painter, was born in Venice, cf an old Venetian family.
The facts of his life are obscure, but his principal works were
executed between 1490 and 1519; and he ranks as one of the
finest precursors of the great Venetian masters. The date of
his birth is conjectural. He is first mentioned in 1472 in a will
of his uncle Fra Ilario, and Dr Ludwig infers from this that
he was born c. 1455, on the ground that no one could enter into
an inheritance under the age of fifteen; but the inference ignores
the possibility of a testator making his will in prospect of the
beneficiary attaining his legal age. Consideration of the youthful
style of his earliest dated pictures (" St Ursula " series, Venice,
1490) makes it improbable that at that time he had reached so
mature an age as thirty-five; and the date of his birth is more
probably to be guessed from his being about twenty-five in 1490.
What is certain is that he was a pupil (not, as sometimes thought,
the master) of Lazzaro Bastiani, who, like the Bellini and
Vivarini, was the head of a large atelier in Venice, and whose
own work is seen in such pictures as the " S. Veneranda " at
Vienna, and the " Doge Mocenigo kneeling before the Virgin "
and " Madonna and Child " (formerly attributed to Carpaccio)
in the National Gallery, London. In later years Carpaccio
appears to have been influenced by Cima da Conegliano (e.g.
in the " Death of the Virgin," 1508, at Ferrara). Apart from
the " St Ursula " series, his scattered series of the " Life of the
Virgin " and " Life of St Stephen," and a " Dead Christ" at
Berlin, may be specially mentioned.
For an authoritative and detailed account, see the Life and Works
of Vittorio Carpaccio, by Pompeo Molmenti and Gustav Ludwig,
Eng. trans, by R. H. Cust (1007); and the criticism by Roger Fry,
" A Genre Painter and his Critics," in the Quarterly Review (London,
April 1908).
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 2 (Lat. Monies Sarmatici; Med.
Lat. Montes Nivium), the eastern wing of the great central
mountain system of Europe. With the exception of the
extreme southern and south-eastern ramifications, which belong
to Rumania, the Carpathians lie entirely within Austrian and
* The name is derived from the Slavonic word Chrb, which means
mountain-range. As Chrawat, it was first applied to the inhabitants
of the region, whence it passed in the form Krapat or Karpa as the
name of mountain system. In official Hungarian documents of
the 13th and 14th centuries the Carpathians are named Thorchal or
Tarczal, and also Montes Nivium.
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS
383
Hungarian territory. They begin on the Danube near Pressburg,
surround Hungary and Transylvania in a large semicircle, the
concavity of which is towards the south-west, and end on the
Danube near Orsova. The total length of the Carpathians is
over 800 m., and their width varies between 7 and 230 m.,
the greatest width of the Carpathians corresponding with its
highest altitude. Thus the system attains its greatest breadth
in the Transylvanian plateau, and in the meridian of the Tatra
group. It covers an area of 72,600 sq. m., and after the Alps
is the most extensive mountain system of Europe. The Car-
pathians do not form an uninterrupted chain of mountains,
but consist of several orographically and geologically distinctive
groups; in fact they present as great a structural variety as
the Alps; but as regards magnificence of scenery they cannot
compare with the Alps. The Carpathians, which only in a few
places attain an altitude of over 8000 ft., lack the bold peaks,
the extensive snow-fields, the large glaciers, the high waterfalls
and the numerous large lakes which are found in the Alps.
They are nowhere covered by perpetual snow, and glaciers
do not exist, so that the Carpathians, even in their highest
altitude, recall the middle region of the Alps, with which, how-
ever, they have many points in common as regards appearance,
structure and flora. The Danube separates the Carpathians from
the Alps, which they meet only in two points, namely, the Leitha
Mountains at Pressburg, and the Bakony Mountains at Vacz
(Waitzen), while the same river separates them from the Balkan
Mountains at Orsova. The valley of the March and Oder
separates the Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains,
which belong to the middle wing of the great central mountain
system of Europe. The Carpathians separate Hungary and
Transylvania from Lower Austria, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia,
Bukovina and Rumania, while its ramifications fill the whole
northern part of Hungary, and form the quadrangular mass
of the Transylvanian plateau. Unlike the other wings of the
great central system of Europe, the Carpathians, which form the
watershed between the northern seas and the Black Sea, are sur-
rounded on all sides by plains, namely the great Hungarian plain
on the south-west, the plain of the Lower Danube (Rumania)
on the south, and the Galician plain on the north-east.
The Carpathian system can be divided into two groups: the
Carpathians proper, and the mountains of Transylvania. The
Carpathians proper consist of an outer wall, which forms the
frontier between Hungary and the adjacent provinces of Austria,
and of an inner wall which fills the whole of Upper Hungary, and
forms the central group. The outer wall is a complex, roughly
circular mass of about 600 m. extending from Pressburg to the
valley of the Vis6, and the Golden Bistritza, and is divided
by the Poprad into two parts, the western Carpathians and the
eastern or wooded Carpathians. Orographically, therefore,
the proper Carpathians are divided into: (a) the western
Carpathians, (b) the eastern or wooded Carpathians, and (c)
the central groups.
(a) The western Carpathians, which begin at the Porta Hungarica
on the Danube, just opposite the Leitha Mountains, and extend to
Ranges. ^ e Poprad river, are composed of four principal groups :
the Little Carpathians (also called the Pressburg group)
with the highest peak Bradlo (2670 ft.) ; the White Carpathians or
Miava group, with the highest peak Javornik (3325 ft.), and the
Zemerka (3445 ft-); the Beskid proper or western Beskid group,
which extends from a little west of the Jablunka pass to the river
Poprad, with the highest peaks, Beskid (31 15 ft.), Smrk (4395 ft.),
Lissa Hora (4350 ft.) and Ossus (5106 ft.); and the Magura or
Arva Magura group, which extends to the south of Beskid Mountains,
and contains the Babia Gora (5650 ft.), the highest peak in the whole
western Carpathians.
(b) The eastern or wooded Carpathians extend from the river
Poprad to the sources of the river Vis6 and the Golden Bistritza,
whence the Transylvanian Mountains begin, and form the link
between these mountains and the central groups or High Carpathians.
They are a monotonous sandstone range, covered with extensive
forests, which up to the sources of the rivers Ung and San are also
called the eastern Beskids, and are formed of small parallel ranges.
The northern two-thirds of this range has a mean altitude of 3250 ft.,
and only in its southern portion it attains a mean altitude of 5000 ft
The principal peaks are Rusky Put (4264 ft.), Popadje (5690 ft.),
Bistra (5036 ft.), Pop Ivan (6214 ft.), Tomnatik (5035 ft.), Giumaleu
(6077 ft.) and Cserna Gora (6505 It.), the culminating peak of the
whole range. To the eastern Carpathians belongs also the range of
mountains extending between the Laborcza and the Upper Theiss,
called Vihorlat, which attains in the peak of the same name an
altitude of 3495 ft. As indicated by its name, which means " burnt,"
it is of volcanic origin, and plays an important part in the folklore
and in the superstitious legends of the Hungarian people.
(c) The central groups or the High Carpathians extend from the
confluence of the rivers Arva and Waag to the river Poprad, and
include the highest group of the Carpathian system. They consist
of the High Tatra group (see Tatra Mountains), where is found the
Gerlsdorfer or Franz Josef peak (Hung. Gerlachialm-Csucs)^ with an
altitude of 8737 ft., the highest peak in the whole Carpathian Moun-
tains. On its west are the Liptauer Magura, with the highest peak
the Biela Szkala (6900 ft.), and on its east are the Zipser Magura,
which have a mean altitude of 3000 ft. South of the central groups
lies a widely extending mountain region, which fills the whole of
northern Hungary, and is known as the Hungarian highland. It is
composed of several groups, which are intersected by the valleys of
numerous rivers, and which descend in sloping terraces towards the
Danube and the Hungarian plain. The principal groups are: the
Neutra or Galgoc Mountains (4400 ft.), between the rivers Waag
and Neutra; the Low or Nizna Tatra, which extends to the south
of the High Tatra, and has its highest peaks, the Djumbir (6700 ft.)
and the Rralova Hola (6400 ft.J; this group is continued towards
the east up to the confluence of the Gollnitz with the Hernad, by the
so-called Carpathian foot-hills, with the highest peak the Zelesznik
(2675 ft.). West of the Low Tatra extend the Fatra group, with the
highest peak, the Great Fatra (5825 ft.), to the south and east of
which lie the Schemnitz group, the Ostrowsky group, and several
other groups, all of which are also called the Hungarian Ore Moun-
tains, on account of their richness in valuable ores. South-east of
the Low Tatra extend the Zips — Gom6r Ore Mountains, while the
most eastern group is the Hegyalia Mountains, between the Topla,
Tarcza and Hernad rivers, which run southward from Eperjes to
Tokaj. In their northern portion, they are also called S6var Moun-
tains, and reach in their highest peak, Simonka, an altitude of 3350 ft.,
while their southern portion, which ends with the renowned Tokaj
Hill (1650 ft.), is also called Tokaj Mountains. The smaller groups
of the Hungarian highland are: on the south-west the Neograd
Mountains (2850), whose offshoots reach the Danube; to the east
of them extends the Matra group, with the highest peak the Sask6
(3285 ft.). The Matra group is of volcanic origin, rising abruptly in
the great Hungarian plain, and constitutes one of the most beautiful
groups of the Carpathians; lastly, to its east extend the thickly-
wooded Bukk Mountains (3100 ft.).
Throughout the whole of the Carpathian system there are numerous
mountain lakes, but they cannot compare with the Alpine lakes
either in extension or beauty. The largest and most #-*».
numerous are found in the Tatra Mountains. These lakes
are called by the people " eyes of the sea, M through their belief that
they are in subterranean communication with the sea.
The western and central Carpathians are much more accessible
than the eastern Carpathians and the Transylvanian Mountains.
The principal passes in the western Carpathians are: psmmbb
Strany, Hrozinkau, Wlara, Lissa and the Jablunka pass
(1970 ft.), the principal route between Silesia and Hungary, crossed
by the Breslau- Budapest railway; and the Jordanow pass. In the
central Carpathians are: the road from Neumarkt to Kesmark
through the High Tatra, the Telgart pass over the Kralova Hola
from the Poprad to the Gran, and the Tylicz pass from Bartfeld to
Tarnow. In the eastern Carpathians are: the Dukla pass, the
Mezo-Laborcz pass crossed by the railway from Tokaj to Przemysl ;
the Uszok pass, crossed by the road from Ungvar to Sambor; the
Vereczke pass, crossed by the railway from Lemberg to Munkacs;
the Delatyn or Korttemezo" pass (3300 ft.), also called the Magyar
route, crossed by the railway from Kolomea to Debreczen; and the
Stiol pass in Bukovina.
The Carpathians consist of an outer zone of newer beds and an
inner zone of older rocks. Between the two zones lies a row of
Klippen, while towards the Hungarian plain the inner Qeotogy.
zone is bordered by a fringe of volcanic eruptions of
Tertiary age. The outer zone is continuous throughout the whole
extent of the chain, and is remarkably uniform both in composition
and structure. It is formed almost entirely of a succession of sand-
stones and shales of Cretaceous and Tertiary age — the so-called
Carpathian Sandstone — and these are thrown into a series of iso-
clinal folds dipping constantly to the south. The folding of this zone
took place during the Miocene period. The inner zone is not con-
tinuous, and is much more complex in structure. It is visible only
in the west and in the east, while in the central Carpathians, between
the Hernad and the headwaters of the Theiss, it is lost beneath the
modern deposits of the H ungarian plain. I n the western Carpathians
the inner zone consists of a foundation of Carboniferous and older
rocks, which were folded and denuded before the deposition of the
succeeding strata. In the outer portion of the zone the Permian
and Mesozoic beds are crushed and folded against the core of ancient
rocks; in the inner portion of the zone they rest upon the old founda-
tion with but little subsequent disturbance. In the eastern Car-
pathians also, the Permian and Mesozoic beds are not much folded
except near the outer margin of the zone. The Klippen are isolated
3«4
CARPATHUS— CARPENTER, L.
hills, chiefly of Jurassic limestone, rising up in the midst of the later
and softer deposits on the inner border of the sandstone zone.
Their relations to the surrounding beds are still obscure. They may
be " rootless " masses brought upon the top of the later beds by
thrustplanes. They may be the pinched-up summits of sharp
anticlinals, which in the process of folding have been forced through
the softer rocks which lay upon them. Or, finally, they may have
been islands rising above the waters, in which were deposited the
later beds which now surround them. The so-called Khppen of the
Swiss Alps are now usually supposed to rest upon thrustplanes, but
they are not strictly analogous, either in structure or in position,
with those of the Carpathians. Of all the peculiar features of the
Carpathian chain, perhaps the most remarkable is the fringe of
volcanic rocks which lies along its inner margin. The outbursts
began in the later part of the Eocene period, and continued into the
Pliocene, outlasting the period of folding. They appear to be
associated with faulting upon the inner margin of the chain.
Trachytes, rhyolites, andesites and basalts occur, and a definite
order of succession has been made out in several areas; but this
order is not the same throughout the chain.
The Carpathians, like the Alps, form a protective wall to the
regions south of them, which enjoy a much milder climate than those
<gft»^fa situated to the north. The vegetation of these regions is
^^ naturally subjected to the different climateric conditions.
The mountains themselves are mostly covered with forests,
and their vegetation presents four zones: that of the
beech extends to an altitude of 4000 ft. ; that of the Scottish fir to
1000 ft. higher. Above this grows a species of pine, which, becomes
dwarfed and disappears at an altitude of about 6000 ft., beyond
which is a zone of lichen and moss covered or almost bare rock.
The highest parts in the High Tatra and in the Transylvanian
Mountains have a flora similar to that of the Alps, more specially
that of the middle region. Remarkable is the sea-shore flora, which
is found in the numerous salt-impregnated lakes, ponds and marshes
in Transylvania. As regards the fauna, the Carpathians still contain
numerous bears, wolves and lynxes, as well as birds of prey. It
presents a characteristic feature in its mollusc fauna, which contains
many species not found in the neighbouring regions, and only found
in the Alpine region. Cattle and sheep are pastured in great numbers
on its slopes.
The Carpathian system is richer in metallic ores than any other
mountain system of Europe, and contains large quantities of gold,
MlntnlM. s ^ ver » copper, iron, lead, coal, petroleum, salt, zinc, &c,
besides a great variety of useful mineral. A great number
of mineral springs and thermal waters are found in the Carpathians,
many of wnich nave become frequented watering-places.
The systematic and scientific exploration of the Carpathians
dates only from the beginning of the 19th century. The first ascen-
HiMtarv 8 * on °f tne I-oninitzer peak in the High Tatra was made
aMmnKjrm by one David or Johann FrBhlich in 1615. The first
account of tne Tatra Mountains was written by Georg Buchholz, a
resident of Kesmark in 1664. The English naturalist, Robert
Townson, explored the Tatra in 1793 an d 1794. and was the first to
make a few reliable measurements. The results of his exploration
appeared in his book, Travels in Hungary, published in 1797* But
the first real important work was undertaken by the Swedish
naturalist, Georg Wahlenberg (1780-1851), who in 1813 explored the
central Carpathians as a botanist, but afterwards also made topo-
graphical and geological studies of the system. The results of all
the former explorations were embodied by A. von Sydow in an
extensive work published in 1827. During the 19th century the
measurements of the various parts of the Carpathians was under-
taken by the ordnance survey of the Austrian army, which published
their first map of the central Carpathians in 1870. A great stimulus
to the study of this mountain system was given by the foundation
of the Hungarian Carpathian Society in 1873, and a great deal of
information has been added to our knowledge since. In 1880
two new Carpathian societies were formed: a Galician and a
Transylvanian.
Authorities. — F.W. Hildebrandt, Karpathenbilder(Glog3LU,iS6s) ;
E. Sagorski and G. Schneider, Flora Carpatorum Centralium (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1 891); Muriel Dowie, A Girl tn the Carpathians (London,
1 891); Orohyarographisches Tableau der Karpathen (Vienna, 1886), in
six maps of scale 1 : 750,000; V. Uhlig, " Bau und Bild der Karpaten,"
in Bau und Bild Osterreichs (Vienna, 1903). (0. Br.; P. La.)
CARPATHUS (Ital. Scarpanto), an island about 30 m. south-
west of Rhodes, in that part of the Mediterranean which was
called, after it, the Carpathian Sea (Carpathium Mare). It was
both in ancient and medieval times closely connected with
Rhodes; it was held by noble families under Venetian suzerainty,
notably the Cornari from 1306 to 1540, when it finally passed
into the possession of the Turks. From its remote position
Carpathus has preserved many peculiarities of dress, customs
and dialect, the last resembling those of Rhodes and Cyprus.
See L. Ross, Reisen aufden gr. Inseln (Halle, 1840-1845) ; T. Bent,
Journal of Hellenic Studies, vi. (1885), p. 235; R. M. Dawkins,
Annual of British School at Athens, ix. and x.
CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTS (1827-1875), French sculptor,
was born at Valenciennes, France, on the nth of May 1827.
He was the son of a mason, and passed his early life in extreme
poverty. In 1842 he came to Paris, and after working for two
years in a drawing-school, was admitted to the £cole des Beaux-
Arts on the 9th of September 1854. The Grand Prix de Rome
was awarded to his statue of " Hector bearing in his arms his
son Astyanax." His first work exhibited at the Salon, in 1853,
did not show the spirit of an innovator, and was very unlike the
work of his master Rude. At Rome he was fascinated by
Donatello, and yet more influenced by Michelangelo, to whom
he owes his feeling for vehement and passionate action. He
sent from Rome a bust, " La Palombella," 1856; and a " Nea-
politan Fisherman," 1858. This work was again exhibited in the
Salon of 1859, and took a second-class medal; but it was not
executed in marble till 1863. In his last year in Rome he sent
home a dramatic group, " Ugolino and his Sons," and exhibited
at the same time a " Bust of Princess Mathilde." This gained
him a second-class medal and the favour of the Imperial family.
In 1864 he executed the " Girl with a Shell," the companion
figure to the young fisherman; and although in 1865 he did
not exhibit at the Salon, busts of " Mme. A. E. Andrei" of
" Giraud " the painter, and of " Mile. Benedetti " showed
that he was not idle. He was working at the same time on the
decorations of the Pavilion de Flore, of which the pediment
alone was seen at the Salon, though the bas-relief below is an
even better example of his style. After producing a statue of
the prince imperial, Carpeaux was made chevalier of the Legion
of Honour in 1866. Two years later he received an important
commission to execute one of the four groups for the facade
of the new opera house. His group, representing " Dancing,"
1869, was greeted with indignant protests; it is nevertheless
a sound work, full of movement, with no fault but that of ex-
ceeding the limitations prescribed. In 1869 he exhibited a
" Bust of M. Gamier," and followed this up with two pieces
intended for his native city: a statue of Watteau, and a bas-
relief, " Valenciennes repelling Invasion . ' ' During the Commune
he came to England, and made a " Bust of Gounod " in 187 1.
His last important work was a fountain, the " Four Quarters of
the World," in which the globe is sustained by four female
figures personifying Europe, Asia, Africa and America. This
fountain is now in the Avenue de PObservatoire in Paris. Car-
peaux, though exhausted by illness, continued designing in-
defatigably, till he died at the Chateau de B6con, near Courbevoie,
on the 1 2th of October 1875, after being promoted to the higher
grade of the Legion of Honour. Many of his best drawings have
been presented by Prince Stirbey to the city of Valenciennes.
See Ernest Chesneau, Carpeaux. sa vie et son auvre (Paris, 1880) ;
Paul Foucart, Catalogue du Music Carpeaux, Valenciennes (Paris,
1882); Jules Claretie, /. Carpeaux (1882); Francois Bournand,
/. B. Carpeaux (1893).
CARPENTARIA, GULF OF, an extensive arm of the sea deeply
indenting the north coast of Australia, between io° 40' and
1 7 46' S., and 135° 30' and 142 ° E. Its length is 480 m. and its
extreme breadth (E. to W.) 420 m. It is bounded E. by Cape
York Peninsula, and W. by the Northern Territory of South
Australia. Near its southern extremity is situated a group of
islands called Wellesley; and towards the western side are the
Sir Edward Pellew Islands, the Groote Eylandt and others.
A large number of rivers find their way to the gulf, and some are
of considerable size. On the eastern side there is the Mitchell
river; at the south-east corner the Gilbert, the Norman, the
Flinders, the Leichhardt and the Gregory; and on the west the
Roper river. Jan Carstensz, who undertook a voyage of dis-
covery in this part of the globe in 1623, gave the name of Carpen-
tier to a small river near Cape Duyfhen in honour of Pieter
Carpentier, at that time governor-general of the Dutch East
Indies; and after the second voyage of Abel Tasman in 1644,
the gulf, which he had successfully explored, began to appear on
the charts under its present designation.
CARPENTER, LANT (1780- 1840), English Unitarian minister,
was born at Kidderminster on the 2nd of September 1780, the
CARPENTER, M.— CARPENTER, W. B.
385
son of a carpet manufacturer. After some months at a non-
conformist academy at Northampton, he proceeded to Glasgow
University, and then joined the ministry. After a short time
as assistant master at a Unitarian school near Birmingham, he
was in 1802 appointed librarian at the Liverpool Athenaeum.
In 1805 he became pastor of a church in Exeter, removing in
181 7 to Bristol. At both Bristol and Exeter he was also engaged
in school work, among his Bristol pupils being Harriet and
James Martineau. Carpenter did much to broaden the spirit
of English Unitarianism. The rite of baptism seemed to him a
superstition, and he substituted for it a form of infant dedication.
His health, undermined by his constant labours, broke down in
1839, and he was ordered to travel. He was drowned on the
night of the 5th of April 1840, having been washed overboard
from the steamer in which he was travelling from Leghorn to
Marseilles.
CARPENTER, MART (1807-1877), English educational and
social reformer, was born on the 3rd of April 1807 at Exeter,
where her father, Dr Lant Carpenter, was Unitarian minister.
In 1 81 7 the family removed to Bristol, where Dr Carpenter was
called to the ministry of Lewin's Mead Meeting. As a child
Mary Carpenter was unusually earnest, with a deep religious vein
and a remarkable thoroughness in everything she undertook.
She was educated in her father's school for boys, learning Latin,
Greek and mathematics, and other subjects at that time not
generally taught to girls. She early showed an aptitude for
teaching, taking a class in the Sunday school, and afterwards
helping her father with his pupils. When Dr Carpenter gave
up his school in 1829, his daughters opened a school for girls
under Mrs Carpenter's superintendence. In 1833 the raja
Rammohun Roy visited Bristol, and inspired Miss Carpenter
with a warm interest in India; and Dr Joseph Tuckerman of
Boston about the same time aroused her sympathies for the con-
dition of destitute children. Her life-work began with her taking
part in organizing, in 1835, a " Working and Visiting Society,"
of which she was secretary for twenty years. In 1843 her interest
in negro emancipation was aroused by a visit from Dr S. G.
Howe. Her interest in general educational work was also
growing. A bill introduced in this year "to make provision
for the better education of children in manufacturing districts,"
as a first instalment of a scheme of national education, failed to
pass, largely owing to Nonconformist opposition, and private
effort became doubly necessary. So-called " Ragged Schools "
sprang up in many places, and Miss Carpenter conceived the plan
of starting one in Lewin's Mead. To this was added a night-
school for adults. In spite of many difficulties this was rendered
a success, chiefly owing to Miss Carpenter's unwearied enthusiasm
and remarkable organizing power. In 1848 the closing of their
own private school gave Miss Carpenter more leisure for philan-
thropic and literary work. She published a memoir of Dr
Tuckerman, and a series of articles on ragged schools, which
appeared in the Inquirer and were afterwards collected in book
form. This was followed in 1851 by Reformatory Schools for
the Children of the Perishing and Dangerous Classes, and for
Juvenile Offenders. She sketched out three classes of schools as
urgently needed: — (1) good free day-schools; (2) feeding
industrial schools; (3) reformatory schools. This book drew
public attention to her work, and from that time onwards she
was drawn into personal intercourse with leading thinkers and
workers. She was consulted in the drafting of educational bills,
and invited to give evidence before House of Commons com-
mittees. To test the practical value of her theories, she herself
started a reformatory school at Bristol, and in 1852 she published
Juvenile Delinquents, their Condition and Treatment, which
largely helped on the passing of the Juvenile Offenders Act in
1854. Now that the principle of reformatory schools was
established, Miss Carpenter returned to her plea for free day-
schools, contending that the ragged schools were entitled to
pecuniary aid from the annual parliamentary grant. At the
Oxford meeting of the British Association (i860) she read a
paper on this subject, and, mainly owing to her instigation,
a conference on ragged schools in relation to government grants
for education was held at Birmingham (1861). In 1866 Miss
Carpenter was at last able to carry out a long-cherished plan of
visiting India, where she found herself an honoured guest. She
visited Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, inaugurated the Bengal
Social Science Association, and drew up a memorial to the
governor-general dealing with female education, reformatory
schools and the state of gaols. This visit was followed by others
in 1868 and 1869. Her attempt to found a female normal school
was unsuccessful at the time, owing to the inadequate previous
education of the women, but afterwards such colleges were
founded by government. A start, however, was made with a
model Hindu girls' school, and here she had the co-operation of
native gentlemen. Her last visit to India took place in 1875,
two years before her death, when she had the satisfaction of
seeing many of her schemes successfully established. At the
meeting of the prison congress in 1872 she read a paper on
" Women's Work in the Reformation of Women Convicts."
Her work now began to attract attention abroad. Princess
Alice of Hesse summoned her to Darmstadt to organize a Women's
Congress. Thence she went to Neuch&tel to study the prison
system of Dr Guillaume, and in 1873 to America, where she was
enthusiastically received. Miss Carpenter watched with interest
the increased activity of women during the busy 'seventies.
She warmly supported the movement for their higher education,
and herself signed the memorial to the university of London in
favour of admitting them to medical degrees. She died at
Bristol on the 14th of June 1877, having lived to see the accom-
plishment of nearly all the reforms for which she had worked
and hoped. (A. Z.)
CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885), English
physiologist and naturalist, was born at Exeter on the 29th
of October 18 13. He was the eldest son of Dr Lant Carpenter.
He attended medical classes at University College, London,
and then went to Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.D.
in 1 839. The subject of his graduation thesis, " The Physiological
Inferences to be Deduced from the Structure of the Nervous
System of Invertebrated Animals," indicates a line of research
which had fruition in his Principles of General and Comparative
Physiology. His work in comparative neurology was recognized
in 1844 by his election to the Royal Society, which awarded
him a Royal medal in 1861; and his appointment as Fullerian
professor of physiology in the Royal Institution in 1845 enabled
him to exhibit his powers as a teacher and lecturer, his gift of
ready speech and luminous interpretation placing him in the
front rank of exponents, at a time when the popularization of
science was in its infancy. His manifold labours as investigator,
author, editor, demonstrator and lecturer knew no cessation
through life; but in assessing the value of his work, prominence
should be given to his researches in marine zoology, notably
in the lower organisms, as Foraminifera and Crinoids. These
researches gave an impetus to deep-sea exploration, an outcome
of which was in 1868 the "Lightning," and later the more
famous " Challenger," expedition. He took a keen and laborious
interest in the evidence adduced by Canadian geologists as to the
organic nature of the so-called Eozoon Canadense, discovered
in the Laurentian strata, and at the time of his death had
nearly finished a monograph on the subject, defending the now
discredited theory of its animal origin. He was an adept in the
use of the microscope, and his popular treatise on The Microscope
and its Revelations (1856) has stimulated a host of observers to the
use of the " added sense " with which it has endowed man.
In 1856 Carpenter became registrar of the university of London,
and held the office for twenty-three years; on his resignation in
1879 he was made a C.B. in recognition of his services to edu-
cation generally. Biologist as he was, Carpenter nevertheless
made reservations as to the extension of the doctrine of evolution
to man's intellectual and spiritual nature. In his Principles of
Mental Physiology he asserted both the freedom of the will and
the existence of the " Ego," and one of his last public engage-
ments was the reading of a paper in support of miracles. He
died in London, from injuries occasioned by the accidental
upsetting of a spirit-lamp, on the 19th of November 1885.
v. 13
3»6
CARPENTRAS— CARPENTRY
CARPENTRAS, a town of south-eastern France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Vaucluse 16 m. N.E.
of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1006) town, 7775; commune, 10,721.
The town stands on the left bank of the Auzon on an eminence,
the summit of which is occupied by the church of St Siffrein, for-
merly a cathedral, and the adjoining law-court. St Siffrein, in
its existing state, dates from the 15th and 16th centuries and is
Gothic in style, but it preserves remains of a previous church
of Romanesque architecture. The rich sculpture of the southern
portal and the relics and works of art in the interior are of some
interest. The law-court, built in 1640 as the bishop's palace,
contains in its courtyard a small but well-preserved triumphal
arch of the Gallo-Roman period. Other important buildings
are the hospital, an imposing structure of the 18th century,
opposite which is a statue of its founder, Malachie dTnguimbert,
bishop of Carpentras; and the former palace of the papal
legate, which dates from 1640. Of the old fortifications the only
survival is the Porte d'Orange, a gateway surmounted by a fine
machicolated tower. Their site is now occupied by wide boule-
vards shaded by plane-trees. Water is brought to the town by
an aqueduct of forty-eight arches, completed in 1734.
Carpentras is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a court of assizes,
and has a tribunal of first instance, communal college for girls
and boys, a large library and a museum. Felt hats, confection-
ery, preserved fruits and nails are its industrial products, and
there are silk-works, tanneries and dye-works. There is trade
in silk, wool, fruit, oil, &c. The irrigation-canal named after the
town flows to the east of it (see Vaucluse).
Carpentras is identified with Carpentoracte, a town of Gallia
Narbonensis mentioned by Pliny, which appears to have been
of some importance during the Roman period. Its medieval
history is full of vicissitudes; it was captured and plundered
by Vandal, Lombard and Saracen. In later times, as capital
of the Comtat Venaissin, it was frequently the residence of the
popes of Avignon, to whom that province belonged from 1228
till the Revolution. Carpentras was the seat of a bishopric from
the 5th century till 1805.
CARPENTRY, the art and work of a carpenter (from Lat.
car pent urn, a carriage), a workman in wood, especially for build-
ing purposes. The labour of the sawyer is applied to the division
of large pieces of timber or logs into forms and sizes to suit the
purposes of the carpenter and joiner. His working-place is
called a sawpit, and his most important tool is a pit-saw. A
cross-cut saw, axes, dogs, files, compasses, lines, lampblack,
blacklead, chalk and a rule may also be regarded as necessary
to him. But this method of sawing timber is now only used in
remote country places, and in modern practice logs, &c, are
converted into planks and small pieces at saw-mills, which are
equipped with modern machinery to drive all kinds of circular
saws by electricity, steam or gas.
Carpentry or carpenters' work has been divided into three
principal branches — descriptive, constructive and mechanical.
The first shows the lines or method for forming every species of
work by the rules of geometry; the second comprises the practice
of reducing the timber into particular forms, and joining the
forms so produced in such a way as to make a complete whole
according to the intention or design; and the third displays
the relative strength of the timbers and the strains to which
they are subjected by their disposition. Here we have merely
to describe the practical details of the carpenter's work in the
operations of building. He is distinguished from the joiner by
his operations being directed to the mere carcass of a building,
to things which have reference to structure only. Almost every-
thing the carpenter does to a building is absolutely necessary
to its stability and efficiency, whereas the joiner does not begin
his operations until the carcass is complete, and every article
of joiners' work might at any time be removed from a building
without undermining it or affecting its most important qualities.
Certainly in the practice of building a few things do occur regard-
ing which it is difficult to determine to whose immediate province
they belong, but the distinction is sufficiently broad for general
purposes.
The carpenter frames or combines separate pieces of timber
by scarfing, notching, cogging, tenoning, pinning and wedging,
&c. The tools he uses are the rule, axe, adze, saws, mallet,
hammers, chisels, gouges, augers, pincers, set squares, bevel,
compasses, gauges, level, plumb rule, jack, trying and smooth-
ing planes, rebate and moulding planes, and gimlets and wedges.
ptan
Fig. 1 . — Lapped Joint.
s-yvroaahf iron plate
etavaliori
plan
Fig. 2. — Fished Joint.
^_
~7T:~_7r;- ftv_tf-""T
e\€va\\or\
wrt>cJcSt iron ,
/eh pfahtfe gr tx*te
T7T
• 1
pkan
Figs. 3, 4 and 5. — Scarf Joints.
The carpenter has little labour to put on to the stuff; his chief
work consists in fixing and cutting the ends of timbers, the
labour in preparing the timber being done by machinery.
Joints. — The joints in carpentry are various, and each is
designed according to the thrust or strain put upon it. Those
principally used are the following: lap, fished, scarf, notching,
cogging, dovetailing, housing, halving, mortice and tenon, stub
CARPENTRY
387
Fig. 6.— Notching.
and
tenon, dovetailed tenon, tusk tenon, joggle, bridle, foxtail
wedging, mitre, birdsmouth, built-up, dowel. Illustrations are
given of the most useful joints in general use, and these,
together with the descriptions, will enable a good idea to be
formed of their respective merits and methods of application.
The lapped joint (fig. 1) is used for temporary structures in
lengthening timbers and is secured with iron straps and bolts;
a very common use of the lap joint is seen in scaffolding
secured with cords and wedges.
The fished joint (fig. 2) is used for lengthening beams and
is constructed by butting the ends of two pieces of timber
together with an iron plate on top and bottom, and bolting
through the timber; these iron connecting-plates are usually
about 3 ft. long and i in.
and § in. in thickness.
This joint provides a good
and cheap method of
accomplishing its purpose.
The scarf joint (figs. 3,
4 and 5) is used for length-
ening beams, and is made
by cutting and notching
the ends of timbers and
lapping and fitting and
bolting through. This
method cuts into the tim-
ber, but is very strong
neat; in addition for
extra strong work
an iron fish-plate is
used as in the fished
joint.
The ends of floor
joints and rafters
are usually notched
(fig. 6) over plates
to obtain a good
bearing and bring
them to the re-
quired levels. Where
one timber crosses
another as in pur-
lins, rafters, wood
floor girders, plates,
&c, both timbers
notched so as to fit
over each other; this cog-
ging (fig. 7) serves instead
of fastenings. The timbers
are held together with a
spike. In this way they
are not weakened, and the
joint is a very good one for
keeping them in position.
Dovetailing
(fig. 8) is used
for connecting
angles of timber
together, such as
lantern curbs or
linings, and is
the strongest
form. When an
end of timber is
Fig. 7.— Cogging.
are
Fig. 8.— Dovetail.
Fig. 9. — Housing. Fig. 10. — Halving,
let entirely into
another timber it is said to be housed (fig. 9). Where timbers
cross one another and require to be flush on one or both faces,
sinkings are cut in each so as to fit over each other (halving);
these can either be square (fig. 10), bevelled (fig. n) or dove-
tailed sinkings (fig. 12). The end of one piece of timber cut so
as to leave a third of the thickness forms a tenon, and the piece
of timber which is to be joined to it has a mortice or slot cut
Fig. 11. — Bevelled Halving. Fig. 12. — Dovetailed Halving.
^
Fig. 13. — Mortice and Tenon.
&*&&
XV
Fig. 15. — Dovetailed Tenon.
Fig. 17. — Bridle Joint.
through it to receive the
tenon; the two are then
wedged or pinned with
wood pins (fig. 13).
A stub tenon or joggle
(fig. 14) is used for fixing
a post to a sill; a sinking
is cut in the sill and a
tenon is cut on the foot of
the post to fit into the
sinking to keep the post
from sliding.
The purpose of a dove-
tailed tenon (fig. 15) is to
hold two pieces of wood
together with mortice and
tenon so that it can be
Fig. 14. — Stub Tenon or Joggle.
m
M
Fig. 16. — Tusk Tenon.
Fig. 18.-— Foxtail Wedging.
388
CARPENTRY
taken apart when necessary. The tenon is cut dovetail shape,
and a long mortice permits the wide part of the tenon to
go through, and it is secured with wood wedges. Where the
floor joists or rafters are trimmed round fires, wells, &c, the
tusk tenon joint (fig. 16) is used for securing the trimmer joist.
It is formed by cutting a tenon on the trimmer joist and passing
it through the side of the trimming joist and fixing it with a wood
key. Where large timbers are tusk tenoned together, the tenons
do not pass right through, but are cut in about 4 in. and spiked.
A bridle joint or birdsmouth (fig. 17) is formed by cutting one
end of timber either V shape or segmental, and morticing the
centre of this shaped end. Similar sinkings are cut on the
adjoining timber to fit one into the other; these are secured with
pins and also various other forms of fastenings. Foxtail wedging
(fig. 18) is a method very similar to mortice and tenon. But the
tenon does not go through the full thickness of the timber; and
also on the end of the tenon are inserted two wedges, so that
when the tenon is driven home the wedges split it and wedge
tightly into the mortice. This joint is used mostly in joinery.
The mitre is a universal joint, used for connecting angles of
timber as in the case of picture frames. Built-up joints involve
a system of lapping and bolting and fishing, as in the case of
temporary structures, for large spans of centering for arches, and
for derrick cranes. Dowels are usually 3 or 4 in. long and driven
into a circular hole in the foot of a door frame or post; the other
end is let into a hole
in the sill (fig. 19).
Centering. — Cen-
tering is temporary
timber or framing
erected so as to
carry concrete floors
or arches of brick
ncao-Methodgsu^portingCentenngfor «,«££ *J'J*J
centering is removed
gradually. The centering for concrete floors is usually composed
of scaffold boards resting on wood bearers (fig. 20). One wood
bearer rests along on top of the steel joists; through this
bearer long bolts are suspended, and to the bottom of these
bolts a second bearer is fixed, and on the bottom bearer the
scaffold boards rest. Another method, not much used now, is
to fit the boards to the size of the floor and prop them up on
legs, but among other disadvantages this process takes up
much space and is more costly.
Turning piece is a name given to centering required for turning
an arch over (fig. 21); it is only 4$ in. wide on the sofl&t or bed,
and is generally cut out of a piece of 3 or 4 in. stuff, the top
edge being made circular to the shape of the arch. It is kept
Hri
Fig. 21.
<Dedic?n
in position whilst the arch is setting with struts from ground or
sills and is nailed to the reveals, a couple of cross traces being
wedged between. In the case of a semicircular or elliptical arch
with 4^ in. soffit this turning piece would be constructed of
ribs cut out of 4 in. stuff with ties and braces. Or the ribs could
be cut out of 1 in. stuff, in which case there must be one set of
ribs outside and one inside secured with ties and braces; each
set of ribs when formed of thin stuff is made of two thicknesses
nailed together so as to lap the joints. For spans up to 15 ft.
the thin ribs would be used, and for spans above 15 ft. ribs out
of 4 in. stuff and upwards. For arches with 9 in. soffit and
upwards, whether segmental or semicircular or elliptical, the
centres are formed with the thin ribs and laggings up to 15 ft.
span; above 15 ft. with 4 in. ribs and upwards (fig. 22). The
Fig. 22. — Centering for Stone Arch.
lower member of centres is called the tie, and is fixed so as to
tie the extremities together and to keep the centre from
spreading. Where the span is great, these ties, instead of being
fixed straight, are given a rise so as to allow for access or traffic
underneath. Braces are necessary to support the ribs from
buckling in, and must be strong enough and so arranged as to
withstand all stresses. Laggings are small pieces or strips of
wood nailed on the ribs to form the surface on which to build
the arch, and are spaced 1 in. apart for ordinary arches; for
gauged arches they are nailed close together and the joints planed
off. When centres are required to be taken down, the wedges
upon which the centre rests are first removed so as to allow the
arch to take its bearing gradually. Centres for brick sewers and
vault arching are formed in the same way as previously men-
tioned, with ribs and laggings, but the thickness of the timbers
depends upon the weight to be carried.
Floors. — For ordinary residential purposes floors are chiefly
constructed of timber. Up to about the year 1895 nearly
Fig. 23.— Single Floor.
every modern building was constructed with wood joists, but
because of evidence adduced by fire brigade experts and the
serious fires that have occurred fire-resisting floors have been
introduced. These consist of steel girders and joists, filled in
with concrete or various patented brick materials in accordance
with such by-laws as those passed by the London County Council
and other authorities. The majority of the floors of public
CARPENTRY
389
buildings, factories, schools, and large residential flats are now
constructed of fire-resisting materials. There are two descrip-
tions of flooring, single and double.
Single flooring (fig. 23) consists of one row of wood joists
resting on a wail or partition at each end without any inter-
mediate support, and receiving the floor boards on the
JJjjL upper surface and the ceiling on the underside. Joists
should never be less than 2 in. thick, or they are liable
to split when the floor brads are driven in; the thickness varies
^^rasraaaa ^iT^iLiD p ^
Fig. 24. — Floor pugged to resist passage of sound.
from 2 to 4 in. and the depth from 5 to 1 1 in. (see By-laws, below) ;
the distance between each joist is usually 12 in. in the clear, but
greater strength is obtained in a floor by having deep joists and
placing them closer together. These floors are made firm and
prevented from buckling by the use of strutting as mentioned
hereafter.
The efficiency of single flooring is materially affected by the
necessity which constantly occurs in practice of trimming round
fireplaces and flues, and round well holes such as lifts, staircases,
&c. Trimming is a method of supporting the end of a joist by
tenoning it into timber crossing it; the timber so tenoned is
called the trimmer joist, and the timber morticed for the tenon of
the trimmer is called the trimming joist, while the intermediate
timbers tenoned into the trimmer are known as the trimmed
joists. This system has to be resorted to when it is impossible to
get a bearing on the wall.
A trimmer requires for the most part to be carried or supported
at one or both ends by the trimming joists, and both the trimmer
and the trimming joists are necessarily made stouter than if they
had to bear no more than their own share of the stress. In the
usual practice the trimmer and trimming joists are 1 in. thicker
than the common joists, but there are special regulations and
by-laws set out in the various districts and boroughs (see By-
laws, below) to which attention must be given.
The principal objection to single flooring is that the sound
passes through from floor to floor, so that, in some cases,conversa-
tion in one room can almost be understood in another. To stop
Fig. 26.
the sound from passing through floors the remedy is to pug them
(fig. 24). This consists in using rough boarding resting on fillets
nailed to the sides of the joists about half-way up the depth of
the joists, and then filling in on top of the boarding with slag
wool usually 3 in. thick. Also to further prevent sound from
Fig. 27. — Construction of a Medieval Floor.
passing through floors the flooring should be tongued and the
ceiling should have a good thick floating coat; in poor work the
stuff on ceilings is very stinted. In days gone by, ceiling joists
were put at right angles to the floor joists, but this took up head
room and was costly, and the arrangement is obsolete.
Fig. 28. — Herring-bone Strutting.
•■3l^\l^*u%tt.7- .\vt r iii**f**^*. rvt ffivaJjyiiiiiTriiti
Fig. 29. — Solid Strutting.
Double flooring (fig. 25) consists of single fir joists trimmed
into steel girders; in earlier times a double floor consisted of
fir joists called binding, bridging and ceiling joists, Dmkh
but these are very little used now and the single fir aoortag.
joists and steel girders have taken their place.
Steel girders span from wall to wall, and on their flanges
are bolted wood plates to receive the ends of the single joists
which are notched over plates and run at right angles to the
39Q
CARPENTRY
girders (fig. 26). The bearings of the joists on the wall also
rest on wall plates, so as to get a level bed, and are some-
times notched over them. Wall plates, which are usually
4} in. X 3 in. and are bedded on walls in
motar, take the ends of joists and distri-
bute the weight along the wall. The plates
bolted on the side of girders are of sizes to
suit the width of the flanges.
The medieval floor (fig. 27) consisted of
the framed floor with wood girders, binding, K
bridging and ceiling joists, and the under- i
There are two kinds of stud or quarter partitions, common
and trussed.
Common partitions (fig. 30) simply act as a screen to divide
side of all the timbers was usually wrought, m
the girders and binders being boldly moulded m
and the other timbers either square or stop m
chamfered. m
Flooring is strengthened by the use of m
strutting, either herring-bone (fig. 28) or solid W
(fig. 29). Herring-bone strutting consists of
two pieces of timber, usually 2 in. X 2 in.,
fixed diagonally between each joist in continuous rows, the
rows being about 6 ft. apart. Solid strutting consists of ij in.
boards, nearly the same depth as the joists and fitted tightly
between the joists, and nailed in continuous rows 6 ft. apart.
Where heavy weights are likely to be put on floors long bolts
are passed through the centre of joists at the side of strutting;
since this draws the strutting tightly together and does not
produce any forcing stress on the walls, it is undoubtedly
the best method.
Floors are usually constructed to carry the following loads
(including weight of floor) : —
Residences, \\ cwt. per foot super of floor space.
Public buildings, 1 J cwt. per foot super of floor space.
Factories, 2} to 4 cwt. per foot super of floor space.
Local By-laws. — With regard to floor joists in domestic buildings,
the following are required in the Hornsey district, in the north of
London. The size of every common bearing floor joist up to 3 ft.
long in clear shall be 3 in. X 2$ in. ; from 3 ft. to 6 ft. in clear it shall
be 4$ in. X 3 in.; from 6 ft. to 8 ft., 6} in. X 2$ in.; from 8 ft. to
12 it., 7 in.X2$ in., and so on according to the clear span. The
Hornsey by-laws with regard to trimmers are as follows: — A
trimmer joist shall not receive more than six common joists, and
the thickness of a trimming ioist receiving a trimmer at not more
than 3 ft. from one end and: of every trimmer
joist shall be Jth of an inch greater than the
thickness for a common joist of the same
bearing for every common joist carried by a
trimmer. For example, if the common joists
are 7 in.X2} in. and the trimmer has six joists
trimmed into same, the size of trimmer would
have to be 7 in.X3i in. The Hornsey council
also requires that the floor boards shall not be
less than Jths of an inch thick.
There is little difference in the requirements
of the various localities. For example, the regu-
lations of the Croydon council require that every
common bearing joist for lengths up to 3 ft.
4 in. in clear shall be 3 in.X2$ in.; tor lengths
between 3 ft. 4 in. and 5 ft. 4 in., 4 in.X2 in.;
for lengths between 5 ft. 4 in. and 7 ft. 4 in.,
4 in.X3 in.; and so on according to the clear
span. The Croydon by-laws with regard to
trimmers are as follows: — A trimmer joist shall
not receive more than six common joists, and the thickness of a
trimming joist shall be 1} in. thicker than that for common joists
of the same bearing, and the thickness of a trimmer joist shall be
J in. thicker for every joist trimmed into same than the common
joist. For example, if the common joists are 4 in.X3 in. the trim-
ming joists would have to be 4 in.X4} in., and the trimmer joist
would have to be 4 in. X4I in.
Partitions. — Partitions are screens used to divide large floor
spaces into smaller rooms and are sometimes constructed to carry
the floors above by a system of trussing. They are built of
various materials; those in use now are common stud partitions,
bricknogged partitions, and solid deal and hardwood partitions,
4$ in. brick walls or bricks laid on their sides, so making a 3 in.
partition, and various patent partitions such as coke breeze
concrete or hollow brick partitions (see Brickwork), iron
and wire partitions, and plaster slab partitions (see Plaster-
work).
Fig. 30. — Common Partition,
one room from another, and do not carry any weight. They
weigh about 25 lb per foot superficial including
plastering on both sides, and are composed of 4 in. X 3 p^SSoma.
in. head and sill and 4 in. X 2 in. upright studs;
4 in. X 2 in. nogging pieces are fitted between the studs to
keep them from bending in, and are placed parallel with the
head, usually 4 ft. apart. Where door-openings occur in these
partitions the studs next the opening are 4 in. X 3 in. Should
the floor boards have been laid, the sill of the partition would
be laid direct on them, but if the partitions are erected at the
time of building the structure the sill should either rest directly
over a joist, if parallel with it, or at right angles to the joists;
should the position of the sill come between two joists, that is,
parallel with them, then short pieces called bridging pieces of
4 in. X 2 in. stuff are wedged between the two joists and nailed
to carry the sill.
Trussed partitions (fig. 31) are very similar to the last, but
they are so built as to carry their own weight and also
to support floors, and in addition have braces; the
head and sill are larger, and calculated according to
the clear bearing and the weight put upon them. There are
TtuBsed
pmrtMoas.
detail
at A
Fig. 31.— Trussed Partition,
two forms of trussing, namely, queen post (fig. 32) and king
post (fig. 33).
Bricknogged partitions are formed in the same manner as
the common stud partition, except that the studs are placed
usually 18 or 27 in. apart in the clear instead of 12 in., and
the 18 and 27 in. widths being multiples of a brick dimension,
they are filled in with brickwork 4$ in. thick and Brick-
always built in cement. These are used to prevent nogged
sound from passing from one room to another, and P mrtMottS '
also to prevent fire from spreading, and are vermin-proof.
Another method is to fill the space between the studs with coke
breeze concrete instead of brickwork.
Timber partitions have the advantages that they are light
and cheap and substantial, and the disadvantages that they
are not fire-resisting or sound-resisting or vermin-proof;
they should never be erected in damp positions such as the
CARPENTRY
39 1
Fig. 32. — Queen Post Trussed Partition.
of
lower floors
buildings.
Solid wood parti-
*i tions are used in
; offices and class-
rooms of schools,
upper portions
^tefeti! a\ F
j rooi
J the
usually being
glazed; where
these partitions
enclose a staircase
£Hdzail aX E
in a public building the London Building Act requires them
to be of 2 in. hardwood, with only small panels of fire-resisting
glass.
Timber Work. — Half timber work consists of a framework
of timber; the upper storeys of suburban and country residences
are often thus treated, and the spaces between the timbers are
filled in with brickwork and plastered inside, and rough cast
outside, though sometimes tiles are hung on the outside. In some
instances in country places there is no filling between the timbers,
and both sides are lath and plastered, and in others the timbers
are solid, or facing pieces are simply plugged to the walls, the
joints being pinned with hardwood pins. Half timber work
(fig. 34) well designed has a very pleasing, homely and rural
effect. The best and most durable wood to use is English oak
worked smooth on the external face and usually painted; the
by-laws of various authorities differ considerably as to the method
of construction and in the restrictions as to its use. Some very
fine early examples are to be seen in England, as at Holborn
Bars, London, in the old parts of Bristol, and at Moreton Old
Hall, near Congleton, Cheshire (see House, Plate IV. fig. 13).
Timber-framed permanent buildings are not used in the towns
of England, not being allowed by the by-laws. In some English
villages timber bungalows are allowed, plastered inside, and
either rough cast outside, or with tiles, or with sheet iron painted.
secforv
Fig. 33.— King Post Trussed Partition.
Jteer.
Fig. 34. — Half Timber Construction.
At the garden city of Letchworth, in Hertfordshire, there are
a few timber-framed bungalows (erected about 1904 and
originally intended to be used as week-end cottages), the
outsides of which are covered with sheet iron and painted.
Other instances of the temporary use of this kind of building
are found in soldiers' barracks, offices and chapels.
In America and the British colonies this class of building
is very largely erected on the outskirts of the cities. In
American practice in framing the walls of wooden buildings
two distinct methods are used and are distinguished as
" braced " and " balloon."
The Braced (fig. 35) was the only kind in use previous to
about the year 1850. In this method of framing the sills,
posts, girts and plates are made of heavy timber morticed and
pinned together and braced with 4 in. X 4 in. or 4 in. X 6 in.
braces and common studding. To frame a building in this way
it is necessary to cut all the pieces and make all the mortice
holes on the ground, and then fit them together and raise a
whole side at a time or at least one storey of it. The common
studs are only one storey high.
The Balloon frame (fig. 36) is composed of much smaller
scantlings and is more rapidly erected and less expensive.
The method is to first lay the sill, generally 4 in. X 6 in.,
halved at the angles. After the floor is laid, the corner posts,
usually 4 in. X 6 in., are erected and temporarily secured in
place with the aid of stays. The common studs are then set
392
CARPET
up and spiked to the sill, and a temporary board nailed
across their face on the inside. These common studs are
the full height from sill to roof plate, and the second tier of
floor joists are supported by notching a it in. X 7 in. board,
called a false girt or ribbon, into their inside edge at the
height to receive the floor joists. The ends of the joists are
also placed against a stud and spiked. The tops of the studs
are cut to a line, and a 2 in. X 4 in. plate is spiked on top,
an additional 2 in. X 4 in. plate being placed on the top of
Fig. 35. — Braced Frame.
the last breaking joint. Should the studs not be long
enough to reach the plate, then short pieces are fished on
with pieces of wood spiked on both sides. The diagram
shows a portion of the framework of a two-storey house
constructed in the manner described. In the balloon frame
the timbers are held together entirely by nails and spikes,
thus permitting them to be put up rapidly. The studs are
doubled where windows or openings occur. In both these
methods dwarf brick foundations should be built, upon which
to rest the sill. For buildings of a superior kind a combination
of the braced and balloon frames is sometimes adopted.
The sides of frame buildings are covered with siding, which is
fastened to a sheathing of rough boards nailed to the studs. The
siding may consist of matched boards placed diagonally, or of
clapboards or weather boards — which are thin boards thicker at
one edge than the other, and arranged horizontally with the
thick edge downwards and overlapping the thin edge of the
board below. Shingles or wooden tiles are also employed.
Authorities. — The following are the principal publications on
carpentry: T. Tredgold, Carpentry; Peter Nicholson, Carpenter and
Joiner; J. Newlands, Carpenter 1 s Assistant; J. Gwilt, Encyclopaedia
of Architecture; Rivington, Building Construction (elementary and
advanced) ; E. L. Tarbuck, Encyclopaedia of Practical Carpentry and
Joinery; A. W. Pugin, Details of Ancient Timber Houses; Beresford
Pite, Building Construction; J. P. Allen, Building Construction;
H. Adams, Notes on Building; C. F. Mitchell, Building Construction
(elementary and advanced); Burrell, Building Construction; F. E.
Kidder, Building Construction (U.S.A.) ; E. E. Viollet le
tionnaire; J. K. Krafft, VArt de la charpente.
Due, Dic-
(J. Bt.)
Fig. 36.— Balloon Frame.
CARPET, the name given to any kind of textile covering for
the ground or the floor, the like of which has also been in use on
couches and seats and sometimes even for wall or tent hangings
or curtains. In modern times, however, carpet usually means
a patterned fabric woven with a raised surface of tufts (either
cut or looped), and used as a floor covering. Other floor
coverings are and have been made also without such a tufted
surface, and of these some are simple shuttle-woven materials
plain or enriched with needlework or printed with patterns;
others are woven after the manner of tapestry-weaving (see
Tapestry) or in imitation of it, and a further class of carpets is
made of felt (see Felt). This last material is entirely different
from that of shuttle or tapestry weaving. Although carpet
weaving by hand is, and for centuries has been, an Oriental
industry, it has also been, and is still, pursued in many European
countries. Carpet-weaving by steam-driven machinery is solely
European in origin, and was not brought to the condition of
meeting a widespread demand until the 19th century.
In connexion with the word " carpet " (Lat. carpita t rug;
O. Fr. carpite) notice may be taken of the Gr. raxy* and the
Lat. tapetium, whence also comes the Fr. tapis (the ta&ty.
present word for " carpet ") as well as our own word
" tapestry." This latter, though now more particularly descrip-
tive of hangings and curtains woven in a special way, was, in
later medieval times, indiscriminately applied to them and to
stuffs used as floor and seat coverings. From a very early period
classical writers make mention of them. In ancient Egypt, for
instance, floor and seat coverings were used in temples for
religious ceremonies by the priests of Amen Ra; later on they
1
CARPET
Plate I.
Fig. i.— PART OF A LINEN COVERING OVER-WROUGHT
WITH ORNAMENT IN LOOPS OF COLOURED WOOLS.
Egypto- Roman of the 3rd or 4th century A.D.
(Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.)
Fig. 2. — PART OF A LINEN COVERING OVER-
WROUGHT WITH ORNAMENT IN LOOPS OF
DARK-BROWN WOOL.
Egypto- Roman of the 3rd or 4th century A.D.
(Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.)
Fig. 3 —CUT PILE TURKEY CARPET, i8th CENTURY, EXEMPLIFYING SUCH CHARACTERISTIC ANGULAR TREAT-
MENT OF QUASI-BOTANICAL FORMS AS IS USUALLY FOUND IN CARPETS AND RUGS MADE IN ASIA MINOR.
FROM DESIGNS OF PERSIAN OR MOSIL ORIGIN. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)
V.392.
Plate II.
CARPET
•° "ZOMmMSmSHSmr. <> : -
^^w^^hp^^^^"^^»^^
# o^.
*£*S3k;i&^^
Fto. 4.— RUG MADE IN PERSIA IN THE MANNER OF TAPESTRY WEAVING.
Fig. 5— CARPET OF STOUT FLAX OR HEMP WOVEN ANT) THEN COMPLETELY COVERED WITH ORNAMENT
WORKED IN CLOSE NEEDLE STITCHES IN COLOURED THREADS.
CARPET
393
were used to garnish the palaces of the Pharaohs. If one may
judge from rare remains of decorative textiles, in the museum
at Cairo especially, dating from at least 1480 B.C., such Egyptian
fabrics were of linen inwoven with coloured wools in a tapestry-
weaving manner, and were not tufted or piled textures. Taken
from the palace at Nineveh is a large marble slab carved in low
relief with a geometrical pattern surrounded by a border of lotus
flowers and buds, evidently a copy of an Assyrian floor cover or
rug about 705 B.C., such as was also woven probably in the
tapestry-weaving manner. On the other hand, its design
equally well suggests patchwork — a method of needlework in
vogue with Egyptians, at least 900 years B.C., for ornamental
purposes, as indicated by the elaborately patterned canopy
which covered the bier of an Egyptian queen — the mother-in-
law of Shishak who took Jerusalem some three or four years after
the death of Solomon — and is preserved in the museum at Cairo.
In the Odyssey, tapetia are frequently mentioned, but these again,
whether floor coverings or hangings, are more likely to have been
fiat-textured and not piled fabrics. On the tomb of Cyrus was
spread a " covering of Babylonian tapestry, the carpets under-
neath of the finest wrought purple " (Arrian vi. 29). Athenaeus
(bk. v. ch. 27) gives from Callixenus the Rhodian (c. 280 B.C.)
an account of a banquet given by Ptolemy Philadelphus at
Alexandria, and describes " the purple carpets of finest wool,
with the pattern on both sides," as well as "handsomely
embroidered rugs very beautifully elaborated with figures";
these again were probably not piled fabrics but kindred to the
hangings in the palace of Ptolemy Philadelphus decorated with
portraits, which were likely to have been of tapestry-weaving,
and would be nearly the same in appearance on both sides of the
fabric. Of corresponding tapestry woven work are Egypto-
Roman specimens dating from the 2nd or 3rd century a.d., a
considerable collection of which is in the Victoria and Albert
Museum at South Kensington. From about the same period
date bits of hangings or coverings woven in linen, over-wrought
in a method of needlework with ornament of compact loops of
worsted (Plate I. figs. 1 and 2). These are the earliest extant
specimens of textiles presenting a tufted or piled surface very
kindred to that of woven pile carpets of much later date. But
the modus operandi in producing the earlier only remotely
corresponds with that of the later — though making a surface
of loops by means of needlework as in the Coptic or Egypto-
Roman specimens of Plate I. figs. 1 and 2 seems to be a step in
a progress towards the introduction at an apparently later date
of tufts into loom weavings such as we find in 16th-century
tufted or piled carpets.
The simple traditional Oriental method of making these latter
is briefly as follows: — The foundation is a warp of strong cotton
Method of or hempen or woollen or silk threads, the number of
mmking which is regulated by the breadth of the carpet and
*** the fineness or coarseness to be given to its pile.
***** Short lengths of coloured wool or goats' or camels'
hair or silk are knotted on to each of the warp threads so that
the two ends of each twist or tuft of coloured yarn, of whatever
material it is, project in front. Across the width of the warp
and above the range of tufts a weft thread is run in; another
line or row of tufts is then knotted, and above this another weft
thread is run in across the warps, and so on. These rows of tufts
and weft as made are compressed together by means of a blunt
fork or rude comb-like instrument, and thus a compact textile
with a pile or tufted surface is produced; the projecting tufts
are then carefully clipped to an even surface. In the East the
rude wooden frames in which the warp-threads are stretched
either stand upright upon, or are level with, the ground. They
are easily transported and put together, and the weaving in them
is done chiefly by wandering groups of weavers. The local
surroundings, often those of rocky arid districts, in which
Kurdish and other families weave carpets are well illustrated
in Oriental Rugs by J. H. Mumford. For making pile carpets
and rugs two traditional knots are in use; the first is termed
the Turkish or Ghiordes knot, from Ghiordes, an old city not
far from Brusa. It is in vogue principally throughout Asia
Minor, as far east as Kurdistan and the Caucasus, but it is also
used farther south-east in parts of Persia and India. The yard
of the pile is knotted in short lengths upon the warp-threads
so that the two outstanding ends of each knot alternate with
every two threads of the warp. The second traditional knot is
the Persian or Sehna knot, which, though better calculated
to produce a close, fine, even, velvety surface, has in many
parts of Persia been abandoned for the Ghiordes knot, which
is a trifle more easily tied. The Persian or Sehna knot is tied
so that from every space between the warp-threads one end of
the knot protrudes. The number of knots to the inch tied
according to either the Turkish or Persian method is determined
by the size and closeness of the warp-threads and the size and
number of weft-threads thrown across after each row of knots.
The patterns of the fabrics made by country weavers are usually
taken by them from old rugs. But in towns where weaving is
conducted under more organized conditions new patterns are
often devised, and are traced sometimes upon great cardboards,
on which the stitches, or knots, are indicated by squares each
painted in its proper colour. In some of the Persian carpets
and rugs made at Sehna, Kirman and Tabriz, the warp
is of silk, a material that contributes to fine compact pile
textures.
There is much uncertainty as to the period when cut pile
carpets were first made in the East. Their texture is certainly
akin to that of fustian and velvet; while that of the j^ &
finer Persian carpets, which were not made much orlgtnmJ
earlier than about the 15th century, is practically not p0 \ mm
distinguishable from velvet, having long or heavy pile. <#xter **
Fustian, the English name for a cut short pile textile, is derived
from Fostat (old Cairo), and such material is likely to have been
made there, as soon as anywhere else, by Saracens, especially
during the propitious times of the Fatimite Khalif s, who for more
than two centuries previously to the 13th century were noted
for the encouragement they gave to all sorts of arts and manu-
factures. It seems that velvet came into use in Europe not much
earlier than the 14th century, and various French church inven-
tories of the time contain entries of " tapis veins (cut pile carpets)
d'aultre mer, d mettre par tent " (see Essai sur Vhistoire des tapis-
series et tapis , by W. Chocqueel, Paris, 1 863 , pp. 2 2-23) . It is an
open question if the making of cut pile carpets in Persia or by
Saracens elsewhere preceded that of fustians and velvets or
whether the developments in making the three proceeded pari
passu.
The making of carpets with a flat surface, however, is probably
far older than that of cut pile carpets, and characteristic of one
such old method is that in the making of Soumak car-
pets (Plate II. fig. 5), the ornament of which done in SBTflk
close needle stitches with coloured threads completely surface.
conceals the stout flax or hemp web which is the
essential material of these carpets. Soumak is a distortion of
Shemaka, a Caucasian town in the far east of Asia Minor. But
so-called Soumak carpets are made in other districts, and the
particular needlework used in them is practically of the same
kind as that on a smaller scale used for the well-known Persian
Nakshe or woman's trousering, and again that used on a still
smaller scale in the ornamentation of valuable Kashmir shawls.
Quilted and chain-stitched cotton prayer and bath rugs from
Persia are referred to in the article on Embroidery.
Another method of making carpets with a flat surface is that
of tapestry-weaving (see Plate II. fig. 4), which, according to
existing and well-authenticated specimens of considerable
antiquity (already referred to), appears to be the oldest of any
historic process of ornamental weaving (see Tapestry).
Very broadly considered, the traditional designs or patterns
of Oriental carpets fall into two classes: the one, prevailing to
a much larger extent than the other, seems to reflect MvtipeM f B
the austerity of the Sunni or orthodox Mahommedans trmdttioaml
in making patterns with abstract geometric and designs ia
angular forms, stiff interlacing devices, cryptic signs Orteo £ f
and symbols and the like; whilst the other suggests C ** P *
the freer thought of the Shiah or unorthodox sect, in
v. 13 a
394
CARPET
designs of ingenious blossom and leafy scrolls, conventional
arabesques, botanical and animal forms, and cartouches enclosing
Kufic inscriptions (see the splendid example known as the
Ardebil carpet, Plate III. fig. 7, and another in Plate IV. fig. 9).
Types of the more austere design occur in carpets from Afghan-
istan, Turkestan, Bokhara and Asia Minor, N.W. India and
even Morocco, the other types of freer design being almost
special to Persian rugs and carpets.
Next in historic importance to Persia, Turkestan and Asia
Minor is India, where the making of cut pile carpets — known
as Kalin and Kalicha — was presumably introduced
carpet* by the Mahommedans during the latter part of the
14th century. But the industry did not apparently
attain importance until after the founding of the Mogul dynasty
by Baber early in the 16th century. The designs mainly derived
from those of Persian carpets of that period do not as a rule rise
to the excellence of their prototypes. Historical centres of
Indian carpet making are in Kashmir, the Punjab and Sind,
and at Agra, Mirzapur, Jubbulpore, Warangal in the Deccan,
Malabar and Masulipatam. Velvets are richly embroidered in
gold and silver thread at Benares and Murshidabad and used as
ceremonial carpets, and silk pile carpets are made atTanjore and
Salem. For the most part the best of the Indian woollen pile
carpets have been produced by workers of repute engaged by
princes, great nobles and wealthy persons to carry on the craft
in their dwellings and palaces. These groups of highly skilled
workers as part of the household staff were paid fixed salaries,
but they were also allowed to execute private orders. During
the 19th century the carpet industry was developed in govern-
ment gaols. Produced in great quantities the prison-made
carpets as a rule are less well turned out, and the competition
set up betewen them and the rugs and carpets of private factories
has had a somewhat detrimental effect upon the industry
generally. Older in origin than the cut pile carpets are those
of thinner and flat surface texture, which from almost
immemorial times have been woven in cotton with blue and
white or blue and red stripes in the simplest way. These are
called darts and salranjis, and are made chiefly in Benares and
northern India. They are also made in the south and by such
aborigines retaining primitive habits as the Todas of the Nilgiri
Hills, a fact which points to the age of this particular method of
making ground or floor coverings.
A condition that has always controlled the designs of Oriental
carpets is their rectangular shape, more often oblong than
Condition s Q uare - As a rule, there is a well-schemed border,
controlling enclosing the main portion or field over which the
5m&»«o' details of the pattern are symmetrically distributed.
~~*"" " Simpler patterns in the field of a carpet or rug consist
of repetitions of the same device or of a small number
of different devices (see Plate II. fig. 4). Richer patterns
display more organic pattern in the construction, of which the
leading and continuous features are expressed as diversified
bands, scrolls and curved stems; amongst these latter are very
varied devices which play either predominant or subordinate
parts in the whole effect of the design (Plate III. fig. 7).
Angular and simplified treatments of these elaborate designs
are rendered in many Asia Minor or Turkey carpets (Plate I.
fig- 3); but the typical flowing and more graceful versions are
of Persian origin (see Plate III. fig. 7, and Plate IV. fig. 9),
usually of the 16th century. Mingled in such intricate stem
designs or " arabesques " are details many of which have been
derived on the one hand from Sassanian and even from far
earlier Mesopotamian emblematical ornament based on cheetahs
seizing gazelles, on floral forms, blossoms and buds so well con-
ventionalized in Assyrian decoration, and on the other hand
from Tatar and Chinese sources. The style, strong in suggestion
of successive historical periods, seems to have been matured
in Mosil engraved and damascened metal work of the 12th and
13th centuries before its occurrence in Persian carpet designs,
the finest of which were produced about the reign of Shah Abbas.
A good deal earlier than this period are carpets designed chiefly
according to the simpler taste of the Sunnites, and such as these
Orhnimi
appear to be mentioned by Marco Polo (1256-1323) when
writing that " in Turcomania they weave the handsomest carpets
in the world." He quotes Conia (Konieh in Anatolia), Savast
(Sivas in Asia Minor), some 300 m. north-east of Konieh, and
Cassaria (Kaisaria or Caesaraea in Anatolia) as the chief weaving
centres. It is the carpets from such places rather than from
Persia that appear to have been the first Oriental ones known in
European countries.
Entries of Oriental carpets are frequent in the inventories of
European cathedral treasures. In England, for instance, carpets
are said to have been first employed by Queen Eleanor
of Castile and her suite during the latter part of the ^op* *
13th century, who had them from Spain, where their
manufacture was apparently carried on by Saracens or Moors
in the southern part of the country. On the other hand,
Pierre Dupont, a master carpet-maker of the Savonnerie (see
below), gives his opinion in 1632 that the introduction of carpet-
making into France was due to the Saracens after their defeat
by Charles Martel in a.d. 726. But more historically precise
is the record in the book of crafts {Livre des nUUers) by Etienne
Boileau, provost of the merchants in Paris (12 58-1 268), of " the
tapicers or makers of tapis sarrasinois^ who say that their craft
is for the service only of churches or great men like kings and
nobles." In the 13th and 14th centuries Saracen weavers of
rich and ornamental stuffs were also employed at Venice, which
was a chief centre for importing Oriental goods, including carpets,
and distributing them through western Europe. Dr Bode, in
his Vorderasiatische Kniipfteppiche, instances Oriental carpets
with patterns mainly of geometric and angular forms represented
in frescoes and other paintings byDomenico di Bartolo (1440),
Niccolo di Buonaccorso (1450), Lippo Memmi (1480) and others.
Of greater interest perhaps, and especially as throwing light
upon the trade in, if not the making of, carpets in England
somewhat in the method of contemporary Turkey carpets, is
the specimen represented in Plate III. fig. 6. This may have
been made in England, where foreign workmen, especially
Flemings, were from early times of ten encouraged to settle in
order to develop industries, amongst which pile carpet-making
probably and tapestry-weaving certainly were included. The
earliest record of tapestry-weaving works in England is that of
William Sheldon's at Barcheston, Warwickshire, in 1509, and,
besides wall hangings, carpets of tapestry-weaving were also
possibly made there. 8 The cut pile carpet belonging to Lord
Verulam (Plate III. fig. 6) was perhaps made at Norwich. It
has a repeating and simply contrived continuous pattern of
carnations and intertwining stems with a large lozenge in the
centre bearing the royal arms of England with the letters E. R.
(Elizabeth Regina) and the date 1570. It also has the arms of
the borough of Ipswich and those of the family of Harbottle.
The sequence or continuity of its border pattern fails in the
corners at one end of the rug or carpet in a way very common
to many Asia Minor and Spanish carpets (see Plate I. fig. 3,
Plate II. fig. 4, and Plate IV. fig. 10) ; not, however, to the majority
of Persian carpets (see Plate III. fig. 7, and Plate IV. fig. 8). A
large cut pile carpet in the Victoria and Albert Museum has a
repeating pattern of star devices, rather Moorish in style, with
the inscription on one end of the border, " Feare God and Keep
His Commandments, made in the yeare 1603," and in the field
the shield of arms of Sir Edward Apsley of Thakeham, Sussex,
impaling those of his wife, Elizabeth Elmes of Lifford, Northamp-
tonshire. This may have been made in England. A carpet of
very similar design, especially in its border, is to be seen in a
painting by Marc Gheeraedts of the conference at old Somerset
House of English and Spanish plenipotentiaries (1604), now in
the National Portrait Gallery, London. A more important and
1 The tapissiers sarrasinois were apparently the makers of piled
or velvety carpets, and have always been written about in contra-
distinction to the tapissiers de haute lisse or tapissiers nostres, who it
appears did not weave piled or velvety material, but made tapestry-
woven hangings and coverings for furniture.
' * In Hakluyt's Voyages mention is made of directions having been
given to Morgan Hubblethorne, a dyer, to proceed (about 1579) to
Persia to learn the arts of dyeing and of making carpets.
CARPET
395
fine* carpet belongs to the Girdlers' Company (Plate IV. fig. 8),
and is of Persian design, into which are introduced the arms of
the company, shields with eagles, and white panels with English
letters, the monogram of Robert Bell the master in 1634, but
this was made at Lahore * to his order.
Before dealing with later phases of the carpet industry in
England, mention may now be made of Spanish carpets, of
European as distinct from Saracenic or Persian
J^ets. design; the making of them dates at least from the
end of the 15th century or the beginning of the 16th
century. It is only within recent years that specimens of them
have been obtained for public collections, and at present little
is known of the factories in Spain whence they came. A large
and most interesting series is shown in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, and a portion of one of the earlier of the Spanish cut
pile carpets in that museum is given in Plate IV. fig. 10. The
inner repeating pattern has suggestions of a lingering Moorish
influence, but a superior version of it with better definition is to be
seen in extant bits of Spanish shuttle-woven silks of the 16th
century. The border of distorted dragon-like creatures is of a
Renaissance style, and this style is more pronounced in other
Spanish carpets having borders of poorly treated Italian 16th-
century pilaster ornament. Beside cut pile, many Spanish
carpets of the 17th and 18th centuries have looped and flat
surfaces, and bear Spanish names and inscriptions; many too are
of needlework in tent or cross stitch.
Another interesting class of very fine pile carpets that has also
become known comparatively recently to collectors is the so-
called Polish carpets, generally made of silk pile for
^L^ to# the ornament, which is distinctively Oriental, and of
gold and silver thread textile for the ground, very
much after the manner of early 17th-century Brusa fabrics.
Many of these carpets are in the Czartoryski collection at Cracow.
They are discussed by Dr Bode in his treatise on Oriental carpets
already referred to. European coats of arms of the persons for
whom they were made are often introduced into them, sometimes
different in workmanship from that of the carpets, though there
are specimens in which the workmanship is the same throughout.
The details of their designs consist for the most part of arabesques
and long curved serrated leaves similar to such as are commonly
used in Rhodian pottery decoration of the 16 th century, though
more typical of those so frequent in 17th-century Turkish
ornament. Various considerations lead to the conclusion that
these so-called Polish carpets were probably made in either
Constantinople or Damascus {tapete Damaschini frequently
occur in Venetian inventories of the 16th century) rather than, as
has been thought, by the Persian workmen employed at the
Mazarski silk factory which lasted for a short period only during
the 1 8th century at Sleucz in Poland.
The European carpet manufactory, of which a continuous
history for some two hundred and fifty years is recorded with
exceptional completeness, is that which has been
Car ^ t f maintained under successive regimes, royal, imperial
France! an( ^ republican, in France — at the Hotel des Gobelins
in Paris. Seventy years before its organization under
Colbert in 1667 as a state manufactory {Manufacture Roy ale des
Meubles de la Couronne) y Henry IV. had founded royal art work-
shops for all sorts of decorative work, at the Louvre; and here in
1604 a workroom was established for making Oriental carpets by
the side of that which existed for making tapis flamands. In
1 610 letters patent were granted to the Sieur Fortier, who has
been reputed to be the first inventor in France of the art of
making in silk and wool real Turkey and other piled carpets with
grounds of gold thread, which must have been sumptuous
fabrics probably resembling the so-called Polish carpets of this
date. Some ten years later it is recorded that Pierre Dupont and
Simon Lourdet started a pile carpet {lapis velouUs) manufactory
at Chaillot (Paris) in large premises which had been used for the
manufacture of soap — whence the name of " Savonnerie." To
this converted manufactory were transferred in 163 1 the carpet-
1 The Royal Factory at Lahore was established by Akbar the Great
in the 16th century.
makers from the Louvre, and under the direct patronage of the
crown it continued its operations for many years at Chaillot. It
was not until 1828 that the making of tapis de la Savonnerie
(pile carpets of a fine velvety character) was transferred to the
H6tel des Gobelins. Here, in contradistinction to the Savonnerie,
carpets are made others which, like those of Beauvais (where
a manufactory of hangings and carpets was established by
Colbert in 1664), are tapis ras or non-piled carpets, being of
tapestry-weaving, as also are those made by old-established
firms at Aubusson and at Felletin, where the manufacture
was flourishing, at the former place in 1732 and at the latter
in 1737.
Returning now to England, there are evidences towards the
end of the 17th century, if not earlier, that Walloon and Flemish
makers of Turkey pile carpets had settled and set up works in
different parts of the country. A protective charter, for instance,
was granted in 1701 by William III. to weavers in Axminster and
Wilton. The ultimate celebrity of the pile carpet industry at
Wilton was due mainly to the interest taken in it during the
earlier part of the 18th century by Henry, earl of Pembroke and
Montgomery, who in the course of his travels abroad collected
certain French and Walloon carpet-makers to work for him in
Wiltshire — over them he put two Frenchmen, Antoine Dufossy
and Pierre Jemale. More notable, however, than these is Pere
Norbert, who naturalized himself as an Englishman, changed his
name to Parisot, and started a manufactory of pile carpets and a
training school in the craft at Fulham about 1751. In 1753 he
wrote and published " An account of the new manufactory of
Tapestry after the manner of that at the Gobelins, and of carpets
after the manner of that at Chaillot {i.e. Savonnerie) now under-
taken at Fulham by Mr Peter Parisot." Two refugee French
carpet-makers from the Savonnerie had arrived in London in
1750, and started weaving a specimen carpet in Westminster.
Parisot, having found them out, induced the duke of Cumberland
to furnish funds for their removal to better workrooms at
Paddington. The carpet when finished was presented by the
duke to the princess dowager of Wales. Parisot quarrelled with
his two employees, enticed others to come over, and then removed
the carpet works from Paddington to Fulham. A worker,
J. Baptiste Grignon, writing to " Mr Parisot in Foulleme Manu-
factory," mentions the marked preference " shown by the
English court for velvet," and how much a "chair-back he had
worked in the manner of the Savonnerie had been admired."
Correspondence published in the Nouvelles Archives de Vart
franqais (1878) largely relates to the efforts of the French govern-
ment to stop the emigration to England of workers from the
Gobelins and the Savonnerie. Parisot's Fulham works were sold
up in 1755. He then tried to start a manufactory at Exeter, but
apparently without success, as in 1756 his Exeter stock was sold
in the Great Piazza auction rooms, Covent Garden. Joseph
Baretti (Dr Johnson's friend), writing from Plymouth on the
1 8th of April 1760, alludes to his having that morning visited
the Exeter manufactory of tapisseries de Gobelins " founded by
a distinguished an ti- Jesuit — the renowned Father Nobert."
Previously to this a Mr Passavant of Exeter 2 had received in
1758 a premium from the Society of Arts of London for making a
carpet in " imitation of those brought from the East and called
Turky carpets." Similar premiums had been awarded by the
society in 1757 to a Mr Moore of Chiswell Street, Moorfields, and
to a Mr Whitty of Axminster. In 1759 a society's premium was
won by Mr Jeffer of Frome. In the Transactions of the Society,
vol. i., dated 1783, it is stated that by their rewards, the manu-
facture of " Turky carpets is now established in different parts of
the kingdom, and brought to a degree of elegance and beauty
which the Turky carpets never attained." Such records as
these convey a fair notion of the sporadic attempts which im-
mediately preceded a systematic manufacture of pile carpets in
this country. Whilst the Wilton industry survived, that actually
* A wealthy serge-maker of Swiss nationality, who had been
settled for some years in Exeter, and bought up the plant of Parisot 's
Exeter works. (See Bulletin de la sociSU de Vhistoire de l' art franqais,
p. 97, vol. 1875 to 1878.)
39&
CARPET
carried on at Axminster died towards the end of the 18th century,
and the name of Axminster like that of Savonnerie carpets now
perpetuates the memory of a locally deceased manufactory,
much as in a parallel way Brussels carpets seem to owe their name
to the renown of Brussels as an important centre in the 15th and
16th centuries for tapestry-weaving.
Before the existence of steam-driven carpet-making machinery
in England, employers, following the example set by the French,
applied the Jacquard apparatus, for regulating and
-rrftfirrrr facilitating the weaving of patterns, to the hand
manufacture of carpets. This was early in the 19th
century; a great acceleration in producing English carpets oc-
curred, severely threatening the industry as pursued (largely for
tapis ras) at Tournai in Belgium, at Ntmes, Abbeville, Aubusson,
Beauvais, Tourcoing and Lannoy in France. The severity of
the competition, however, was still more increased when English
enterprise, developing the inventions of Erastus B. Bigelow
(1 814-1879) of America and Mr William Wood of England,
took the lead in perfecting Jacquard weaving carpet looms
worked by steam, which resulted in the setting up of many power-
loom carpet manufactories in the United Kingdom. It was
not until 1880 that French pile carpet manufacturers began
to adopt similar carpet power-looms, importing them from
England.
These machines for weaving pile carpets, either looped (boucU)
as in Brussels, or cut (velouU) as in Wilton or Axminster carpets,
were similar in all respects to such as had been in use by the
important English manufacturers — Crossleyof Halifax,Templeton
of Glasgow, Humphreys 6f Kidderminster, Southwell of Bridg-
north, and others. A so-called tapestry carpet weaving-loom
was invented by Richard Whytock of Edinburgh in 1832, but
it was not brought to sufficient completeness for sustained
manufacture until 1855. The essential feature of Mr Whytock's
process was that the warp-threads were dyed and parti-coloured,
in such a way that when woven the several points of colour
formed the pattern of the whole fabric. Although the name
" tapestry " is used, the texture of these wares has but a remote
likeness to that of hand-made tapestry hangings and carpets
such as those of the Gobelins and Aubusson manufactories, nor
is it the same as the texture of Brussels carpets. Machine-made
tapestry carpets are also called " ingrain " carpets, because the
wool or worsted is dyed in the grain, i.e. before manufacture.
Germany in her manufacture of carpets resorts chiefly to the
" ingrain " process, but in common with Holland and Belgium
she produces pile (looped and cut) carpets from power-looms.
In the United States of America there are many similar and very
important carpet manufactories; and Austria produces fine cut
pile carpets (velouUs), the designs of which are largely derived
from those of the Aubusson tapestry- woven carpets (tapis ras).
Lengths or pieces of felt and other substantial material are
frequently made for floor and stair carpeting, and are often
printed with patterns. These of course come into quite another
class technically. The technological aspects of the several
branches of carpet manufacture by machinery are treated in
the articles on Textile-Printing and Weaving. Briefly, the
products of carpet manufacture practically fall into three main
divisions: (1) Pile carpets (tapis moquettes) which are either
looped (boucli) or cut (vdouU) ; (2) flat surface carpets (tapis ras)
as in hand tapestry-woven material; and (3) printed stuffs
used for carpeting.
Whilst the production of carpets by steam power predomi-
nates in Europe and the United States of America, and at
one time appeared to be giving the coup de grdce to
f the craft of making carpets by hand, there has been in
recent times a revival in this latter, and many carpets
of characteristic modern design, several of them
made in England, are due to the influence of the late William
Morris, who devoted much of his varied energies to tapestry
weaving and pile carpet weaving by hand, both of which crafts
are being fostered as cottage industries in parts of Ireland, as
well as in England. At the same time leading English carpet
manufactures continue to produce hand-made carpets as
occasion requires. In France a much move systematic existence
of tapestry weaving and pile carpet mafeing by hand lias been:
maintained and is of course attributable to the perennial activity
of the state tapestry works in Paris (at the Gobelins workshops)
and in Beauvais, and of corresponding work* managed by private*
enterprise at Aubusson and elsewhere.
Designing patterns for English carpet manufacture i» now
more organized than it was, and greater thought and invention
are given to devising ornament suitable to the purpose of floor
coverings. Before 1850 and for a few years' later, rather rude
realistic representations of animals and botanical forms (decadtent
versions of Savonnerie designs) were often wrought in rugs and
carpets, and survivals of these are still to be met with, but the
lessons that have been subsequently derived from intelligent study
of Oriental designs have resulted in the definite designing of
conventional forms for surface patterns. The early movement
in this direction owes much to the teaching of Owen Jones,,
and in its later and rather freer phases the Morris influence has
been powerful. Schools of art at Glasgow, at Manchester, Bir-
mingham and elsewhere in the United Kingdom have trained
and continue to train designers, whose work has contributed
to the formation of an English style with a new note, which, as
a French writer puts it, has created a sensation in France, in.
Germany, in fact in all Europe and America.
France retains that facility of execution and liveliness in
invention which have been nurtured for over three hundred
years by systematic governmental solicitude for education
in decorative design and enterprise in perfecting manufacture.
Her Aubusson and Savonnerie carpets have maintained a style
of design in form and colour entirely different from any that
clearly throws back to Oriental principles, and many of the
designs for the finer and larger of these carpets are schemed
with large central oval panels, garlands of flowers and fantastic
frames very much on the plan of what is frequently to be seen
in the decoration of ceilings. At the same time the style called
Vart nouveau has become developed. It largely grows from
very fanciful dispositions of free-growing natural forms, as well
as curiously curved and tenuous forms, many of which are
bone-like and fibre-like in character, flat in treatment and rather
thin and washy in colour, and its influence ha&slightry percolated
into designs for pile carpets. This style, sometimes intermixed
with the more robust, less fantastic and rather fuller-coloured
English style, has found followers in England, America and
Germany, but the bulk of the designs now used in power carpet
looms seems to be mainly of Oriental descent.
The more important art museums in Europe contain collections
of Oriental carpets, and the history of many is fairly well estab-
lished. The subject has become one of serious study, the results
of which have been published and elucidated by means of well-
executed coloured reproductions of carpets and rugs preserved
in both public and private collections.
Bibliography. — (1) An Account of the New Manufactory of
Tapestry after the manner of that at the Gobelins; and of Carpets
after the manner of that at CnaUlot, fife, now undertaken at Fulham,
by Mr Peter Parisot (London, Dodsley, 1753, 8vo). This is prob-
ably the only account of carpet-making in England during the 18th
century; it is of peculiar interest in that respect, and as containing
a statement that " the Manufacture of Chaillot is altogether of wool,
and worked in the manner of Velvet. All sorts of Figures of Men
and Animals may be imitated in this work; but Fruits and Flowers
answer better; and the properest employment for this Art is to
make Carpets and all sorts of Skreens." (2) Essai sur Vhistoire et
la situation actueUe de Vindustrie des taptsseries et tapis, by W.
Chocqueel (Paris, 1863). (3) Vol. xi. of Reports on the Paris Uni-
versal Exhibition of 1867, containing " Report on Carpets. Tapestry
and other stuffs for Furniture, by Matthew Digby Wyatt,
F.S.A. (1868). In reviewing the modern products shown at the
exhibition, Sir Digby Wyatt discusses at some length the aesthetics
of carpet design. (4) British Manufacturing Industries, edited by
G. Phillips Bevan, " Carpets," by Christopher Fresser (London,
1 876) . ($) A Itorientalische Teppichmuster nach Bildern und Originalen
des xv.-xvi. Jahrhunderts, by Julius Leasing (Berlin, 1877). Numerous
references are made in this illustrated work to the carpet designs
that occur in paintings by Italian and Flemish masters. (6) Eastern
Carpets, by Vincent J. Robinson, with water-colour drawings by^ E.
Julia Robinson (London, 1882, large 4 to). In this publication.
CARPET
Plate III.
^u- u it u ? i^*
.4 ki
, fJrl
4**J< if if it 1,
t!;ll. ;
M /it!
Fig. 6.— CUT PILE WORSTED CARPET,
BEARING ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND WITH
E. R. (ELIZABETH REGINA); DATE 1570.
V.306.
Fig. 7.— VERY FINE CUT PILE PERSIAN CARPET KNOWN AS THE
HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEB1L.
Plate IV.
CARPET
Fig. 8.— FINE CUT PILE LAHORE CARPET
(c. 1664) BELONGING TO THE GIRDLERS'
COMPANY AND PRESERVED IN THEIR
HALL IN LONDON, OF PERSIAN DESIGN.
Fig. 10.— CUT PILE CARPET OF SPANISH MANUFACTURE,
EARLY 16th CENTURY.
CARPET-BAGGER— GARPINI
397
which precedes by nine or ten years the more learned works by Riegl
and Bode, there are two examples, one ascribed to the manufactory
at Alcaraz in La Mancha, and one to the supposed manufactory of
the 17th century at Warsaw. By the light of later and more com-
plete investigations Mr Robinson's ascriptions are scarcely borne
out. (7) Oriental Carpets, by Herbert Coxon (London, 1884, 8vo).
(8) Altorientaliscke Teppicke, by Alois Riegl (Leipzig, 1891); a
useful book of reference (containing thirty-six illustrations) of
manufacturing, archaeological and artistic interest, (o) Jahrbuch
der kunsthistorischen Sammlunpn des AUerhochsten Kaiser hauses,
vol. xiii. (Wien, 1892). Containing an important and finely illus-
trated article, " Altere orientalische Teppkrhe aus dem Besitze des
AUerhochsten Kaiaerhauaes," by Alois Riegl, in the course of which
comparisons are made between the designs in Persian MS. illustra-
tions, in engraved metal work and those of carpets. (10) Oriental
Carpets, published by the Austrian Commercial Museum (English
edition by C. Purdon Clarke) (Vienna, 1892-1896). This contains a
series of monographs by I. M. Stockel, Smyrna; Dr William Bode,
Berlin; Vincent Robinson, London; M. Gerspach, Paris; T. A.
Churchill, Tehran; Sir George Birdwood, London; C. Purdon
Clarke, London; and Alois Riegl, Vienna, and a preface by A. von
Scala, Vienna. (11) Ancient Oriental Carpets, a supplement to the
above, four parts containing twenty-five plates with text (Leipzig,
1906, large folio). (12) VorderasiaHsche KnUffteppiche aus merer
Zeit, by Wilhelm Bode (Leipzig, 1901). This learned treatise gives
inter alia suggestive notes upon the production of the so-called
Polish carpets and of Spanish carpets. (13) Bin orientalischer
Tepfnch vom Jahre 1202 und die dltesten orientolischen Teppicke, by
Alois Riegl (Berlin, 1895). A coloured illustration is given of a pile
curtain with a triple niche design and an Armenian inscription that
it was made by Gorzi the Artist " to the glory of the church of
St Hripsime — an Armenian martyr. The date 651 appears in the
inscription, but Riegl adduces valid reasons for reading it as the
equivalent of a.d. 1202. Another pile carpet of conventional garden
design, probably not of earlier manufacture than 14th century, is
also illustrated and carefully discussed, especially in connexion with
the appearance in it of well-authenticated Sassamd devices — streams
with fashes and birds, &c. (14) Report on Carpets at the Paris
Exhibition of igoo, by Ferdinand Leborgne (1901, 8vo). (15)
Oriental Rugs, by John Kimberly Mumford (London, 1901), con-
tains twenty-four colour-plate and autotype reproductions of rugs
and eight photo-engravings of phases of the rug industry — amongst
which latter are: "A Nomad Studio," "Kurdish Girls at the
Loom," " Boy Weavers of Tabriz," and a " Rug Market in Iran."
(16) Rugs, Oriental and Occidental, by Rosa Belle Holt (Chicago,
1901), well illustrated, with colour-plate reproductions of various
types of rugs, including less known Chinese and Navajo specimens.
(17) The Art Workers 1 Quarterly, vol. iii. No. 11, July 1904; article
on the pile carpet belonging to the Worshipful Company of Girdlers
of the City of London, by A. F. Kendrick. with a colour-plate of
this remarkable carpet, made to the order of the master of the com-
pany in 1634 at Lahore. (18) Journal of Indian Art and Industry:
Indian Carpets and Rugs (parts 87 to 94) (London, 1905 and
1906). Upwards of ninety-nine illustrations 01 many varieties of
Indian and Persian carpets are given in this publication, a large
number showing debased versions of fine designs, e.g. some from the
Punjab, Warangal, Mirzapur and Elura; those from Yarkand
exhibit Tatar and Chinese influences, (10) A History of Oriental
Carpets before 1800, by F. R. Martin, published by the State Printing
Office in Vienna (Bernard Quaritch, London, 1906). This contains
a series of excellent reproductions in colours of Oriental carpets,
many of which, being presents to kings of Sweden by the shah
of Persia in the 17th century, are to be seen in the castles of Stock-
holm and Copenhagen— others are in the Imperial Museum at
Constantinople or belong to private owners. (A. S. C.)
CARPET-BAGGER* a political slang term for a person who
stands as a candidate for election in a locality in which he is a
stranger. It is particularly used of such a candidate sent down
by the central party organization. The term was first used in
the western states of America of speculative bankers who were
said to have started business with no other property than what
they could carry in a carpet-bag, and absconded when they
failed. The term became of general use in American politics
in the reconstruction period after the Civil War, as a term
of contempt for the northern political adventurers in the South
who, by the help of the negro vote, gained control of the ad-
ministration.
CARPET-KNIGHT, properly one who has been knighted in
time of peace on the carpet before the king's throne, and not
on the field of battle as an immediate reward for valour. It is
used as a term of reproach for a soldier who stays at home,
and avoids active service and its hardships, with a particular
reference to the carpet of a lady's chamber, in which such a
faineant soldier lingers.
CARPI, GIROLAMO DA (1501-1556), Italian historical and
portrait painter, born at Ferrara, was one of Benvenuto Garo-
falo's best pupils. Becoming infatuated with the work of Cor-
reggio, he quitted Ferrara, and spent several years in copying
that master's paintings at Parma, Modena and elsewhere,
succeeding in aping his mannerisms so well as to be able to
dispose of his own works as originals by Correggio. It is probable
that not a few pictures yet attributed to the great painter are in
reality the work of his parasite. Da Carpi's best paintings are
a Descent of the Holy Spirit, in the church of St Francis at
Rovigo; a Madonna, an Adoration of the Magi, and a St
Catharine, at Bologna; and the St George and the St Jerome,
at Ferrara.
CARPI,UGO DA, Italian x 5th-century painter, was long held the
inventor of the art of painting in chiaroscuro, afterwards brought
to such perfection by Parmigiano and by Baltasar Peruzzi of
Siena. The researches of Michael Huber (1727-1804) and Johann
Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf (17 10-1794) have proved, however,
that this art was known and practised in Germany by Johann
Ulrich Pilgrim (Wachtlin) and Nikolaus Alexander Mair (1450-
c. 1520), at least as early as 1499, while the date of the oldest
of Da Carpi's prints is 1 5 18. Printing in chiaroscuro is performed
by using several blocks. Da Carpi usually employed three —
one for the outline and darker shadows, another for the lighter
shadows, and a third for the half-tint By means of them he
printed engravings after several pictures and after some of the
cartoons of Raphael. Of these a Sybil, a Descent from the
Cross, and a History of Simon the Sorcerer are the most
remarkable.
CARPI, a Dacian tribe established upon the lower Danube
from the 1st century B.C. They rose to considerable power
during the 3rd century a.d., and claiming to be superior to the
Goths accordingly demanded that their incursions into Roman
territory likewise should be bought off by tribute. When this
was refused they invaded in force, but were beaten back by the
emperor Philip. After this they joined with the Goths in their
successful inroads until both nations were defeated by Claudius
Gothicus. Later, after repeated defeats under Diocletian and
Galerius, they were taken under Roman protection and the
greater part established in the provinces of Pannonia and
Moesia; some were left beyond the Danube, and they are last
heard of as allies of the Huns and Sciri in the time of Theodosius
I. Ptolemy speaks of Harpii and a town Harpis. This was no
doubt the form the name assumed in the mouths of their
Germanic neighbours, Bastarnae and Goths. (E. H. M.)
CARPI, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the
province of Modena, 9 m. N.N.W. by rail from the town of
Modena. Pop. (1005) 71 18 (town), 27,135 (commune). It is
the junction of a branch line to Reggio nelT Emilia via Correggio,
and the centre of a fertile agricultural district. Carpi contains
several Renaissance buildings of interest, the facade of the old
cathedral (an early Romanesque building in origin, with some
early 15th-century frescoes), the new cathedral (after 1513),
perhaps the nave of S. Niccold and a palace, all being by
Baldassare Peruzzi: while the prince's palace (with a good
court and a chapel containing frescoes by Bernardino Loschi of
Parma, 1 489-1 540) and the colonnades opposite the theatre
are also good. These, and the fortifications, are all due to
Alberto Pio of Carpi, a pupil of Aldus Manutius, expelled in
x 5 2 5 by Charles V., the principality being given to the house of
Este.
CARPINI, JOANNES DE PLANO, the first noteworthy Euro-
pean explorer of the Mongol empire (in the 13th century),
and the author of the earliest important Western work on
northern and central Asia, Russian Europe, and other regions
of the Tatar dominion. He appears to have been a native of
Umbria, where a place formerly called Pian del Carpine, but now
Piano della Magione, stands near Perugia, on the road to Cortona.
He was one of the companions and disciples of his countryman
St Francis of Assisi, and from sundry indications can hardly
have been younger than the latter, born in 1182. Joannes bore
a high repute in the order, and took a foremost part in the
39»
CARPINI
propagation of its teaching in northern Europe, holding suc-
cessively the offices of warden (custos) in Saxony, and of provincial
(minister) of Germany, and afterwards of Spain, perhaps of
Barbary, and of Cologne. He was in the last post at the time of
the great Mongol invasion of eastern Europe and of the disastrous
battle of Liegnitz (April 9, 1241), which threatened to cast
European Christendom beneath the feet of barbarous hordes.
The dread of the Tatars was, however, still on men's mind four
years later, when Pope Innocent IV. despatched the first formal
Catholic mission to the Mongols (1245), partly to protest against
the latter's invasion of Christian lands, partly to gain trustworthy
information regarding the hordes and their purposes; behind
there may have lurked the beginnings of a policy much developed
in after-time — that of opening diplomatic intercourse with a
power whose alliance might be invaluable against Islam.
At the head of this mission the pope placed Friar Joannes,
at this time certainly not far from sixty-five years of age; and
to his discretion nearly everything in the accomplishment of
the mission seems to have been left. The legate started from
Lyons, where the pope then resided, onsEaster day (April 16,
1245), accompanied by another friar, one Stephen of Bohemia,
who broke down at Kanev near Kiev, and was left behind.
After seeking counsel of an old friend, Wenceslaus, king of
Bohemia, Carpini was joined at Breslau by another Minorite,
Benedict the Pole, appointed to act as interpreter. The on-
ward journey lay by Kiev; the Tatar posts were entered at
Kanev; and thence the route ran across the Dnieper (Neper ,
Nepere, in Carpini and Benedict) to the Don and Volga (Ethil in
Benedict; Carpini is the first Western to give us the modern
name). Upon the last-named stood the Ordu or camp of Batu,
the famous conqueror of eastern Europe, and the supreme
Mongol commander on the western frontiers of the empire, as
well as one of the most senior princes of the house of Jenghiz.
Here the envoys, with their presents, had to pass between two
fires, before being presented to the prince (beginning of April
1246). Batu ordered them to proceed onward to the court of
the supreme khan in Mongolia; and on Easter day once more
(April 8, 1246) they started on the second and most formidable
part of their journey — " so ill," writes the legate, " that we could
scarcely sit a horse; and throughout all that Lent our food had
been nought but millet with salt and water, and with only snow
melted in a kettle for drink." Their bodies were tightly bandaged
to enable them to endure the excessive fatigue of this enormous
ride, which led them across the Jaec or Ural river, and north of
the Caspian and the Aral to the Jaxartes or Syr Dana (quidam
fluvius magnus cujus notnen ignoramus), and the Mahommedan
cities which then stood on its banks; then along the shores of
the Dzungarian lakes; and so forward, till, on the feast of St
Mary Magdalene (July 22), they reached at last the imperial
camp called Sir a Orda (i.e. Yellow Pavilion), near Karakorum
and the Orkhon river — this stout-hearted old man having thus
ridden something like 3000 m. in 106 days.
Since the death of Okkodai the imperial authority had been
in interregnum. Kuyuk, Okkodai's eldest son, had now been
designated to the throne; his formal election in a great Kurultai,
or diet of the tribes, took place while the friars were at Sira Orda,
along with 3000 to 4000 envoys and deputies from all parts of
Asia and eastern Europe, bearing homage, tribute and presents.
They afterwards, on the 24th of August, witnessed the formal
enthronement at another camp in the vicinity called the Golden
Ordu, after which they were presented to the emperor. It was
not till November that they got their dismissal, bearing a letter
to the pope in Mongol, Arabic and Latin, which was little else
than a brief imperious assertion of the khan's office as the scourge
of God. Then commenced their long winter journey homeward;
often they had to lie on the bare snow, or on the ground scraped
bare of snow with the traveller's foot. They reached Kiev on the
oth of June 1247. There, and on their further journey, the
Slavonic Christians welcomed them as risen from the dead, with
festive hospitality. Crossing the Rhine at Cologne, they found
the pope still at Lyons, and there delivered their report and the
Iciian's letter.
Not long afterwards Friar Joannes was rewarded with the
archbishopric of Antivari in Dalmatia, and was sent as legate
to St Louis. The date of his death may be fixed, with the help
of the Franciscan Martyr ology and other authorities, as the 1st
of August 1252; hence it is clear that John did not long survive
the hardships of his journey.
He recorded the information that he had collected in a work,
variously entitled in the MSS. Historia Mangalorum quos nos
Tartar os appeUatnus, and Liber Tar tar or urn, or Tatar or urn. This
treatise is divided into eight ample chapters on the country,
climate, manners, religion, character, history, policy and tactics
of the Tatars, and on the best way of opposing them, followed by
a single (ninth) chapter on the regions passed through. The
book thus answers to its title. Like some other famous medieval
itineraries it shows an entire absence of a traveller's or author's
egotism, and contains, even in the last chapter, scarcely any
personal narrative. Carpini was not only an old man when
he went cheerfully upon this mission, but was, as we know
from accidental evidence in the annals of his order, a fat and
heavy man (vir gravis et corpulentus), insomuch that during his
preachings in Germany he was fain, contrary to Franciscan pre-
cedent, to ride a donkey. Yet not a word approaching more
nearly to complaint than those which we have quoted above
appears in his narrative. His book, both as to personal and
geographical detail, is inferior to that written a few years later
by a younger brother of the same Order, Louis IX. 's most
noteworthy envoy to the Mongols, William of Rubrouck or
Rubruquis. But in spite of these defects, due partly to his con-
ception of his task, and in spite of the credulity with which he
incorporates the Oriental tales, sometimes of childish absurdity,
from which Rubruquis is so free, Friar Joannes' Historia is in
many ways the chief literary memorial of European overland
expansion before Marco Polo. It first revealed the Mongol
world to Catholic Christendom; its account of Tatar manners,
customs and history is perhaps the best treatment of the
subject by any Christian writer of the middle ages. We may
especially notice, moreover, its four name-lists: — of the nations
conquered by the Mongols; of the nations which had up to this
time (1 245-1 247) successfully resisted; of the Mongol princes;
and of the witnesses to the truth of his narrative, including
various merchants trading in Kiev whom he had met. All these
catalogues, unrivalled in Western medieval literature, are of the
utmost historical value. To the accuracy of Carpini's statements
upon Mongol life, a modern educated Mongol, Galsang Gomboyev,
has borne detailed and interesting testimony (see Melanges asiai.
tir^s du Bullet. Hist. Philol. de I' Acad. Imp. de St PStersbourg,
ii. p. 650, 1856).
The book must have been prepared immediately after the
return of the traveller, for the Friar Salimbeni, who met him in
France in the year of his return (1247), gives us these interesting
particulars: — " He was a clever and conversable man, well
lettered, a great discourser, and full of a diversity of experience.
. . . He wrote a big book about the Tattars (sic), and about other
marvels that he had seen, and whenever he felt weary of telling
about the Tattars, he would cause that book of his to be read, as
I have often heard and seen " (" Chron. Fr. Salimbeni Parmensis"
in Monum. Histor. ad Prov. et Placent. pertinentia, Parma, 1857).
For a long time the work was but partially known, and that
chiefly through an abridgment in the vast compilation of Vin-
cent of Beauvais (Speculum Historiale) made in the generation
following the traveller's own, and printed first in 1473. Hakluyt
(1598) and Bergeron (1634) published portions of the original
work; but the complete and genuine text was not printed till
1838, when it was put forth by the late M. D'Avezac, an editorial
masterpiece, embodied (1839) in the 4th volume of the Recueil
de voyages et de tn&moires of the Geographical Society of Paris.
Joannes' companion, Benedictus Polonus, also left a brief
narrative taken down from his oral relation. This was first
published by M. D'Avezac in the work just named.
The following four MSS. may be noticed: (1) " Corpus, " i.e.
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, No. 181; (2) " Petau," i.e.
Leiden University, 77 (formerly 104)— both these are certainly earlier
CARPOCRATES— CARRANZA
399
than 1300; (3) " Colbert, " i.e. Paris, National Library, Fonds Lat.
2477, of about 1350; (4) " London-Lumley," i.e. London, British
Museum, MSS. Reg. 13 A xiv., of late 13th century. Three other
MSS. certainly exist; yet six more are perhaps to be found, but
none of these possesses the value of those piven above. Besides
the editions referred to in the body of the article, we may also men-
tion (1) P. Girolamo Golubovich, BibHoteca bto-bibHografica delta
Terra Santa e dell* Oriente Franeescano (1906), voLi. (1215-1300), pp.
190-213; (2) William of Rubruck . . . with . . . John of Pian at
Carpine, edited by W. W. Rockhill, Hakluyt Society (1900), especi-
ally pp. 1-39; (3) C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography,
ii. (1901), 279-317, 375-380; iii. 85, 544, 553; and Carpmi and
Rubruquis, Hakluyt Society (1903), especially pp. vii.-xvih. 43-144,
249-295. (H. Y.;C. R. B.)
CARPOCRATES, a Gnostic of the 2nd century, about whose
life and opinions comparatively little is known. He is said to
have been a native of Alexandria and by birth a Jew. His
family, however, seem to have been converted to Christianity.
With Epiphanes, his son, he was the leader of a philosophic
school basing its theories mainly upon Platonism, and striving
to amalgamate Plato's Republic with the Christian ideal of
human brotherhood. The image of Jesus was crowned along
with those of Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle. Carpocrates
made especial use of the doctrines of reminiscence and pre-
existence of souls. He regarded the world as formed by inferior
spirits who are out of harmony with the supreme unity, knowledge
of which is the true Gnosis. The souls which remember their
pre-existing state can attain to this contemplation of unity,
and thereby rise superior to all the ordinary doctrines of religion
or life. Jesus is but a man in whom this reminiscence is unusually
strong, and who has consequently attained to unusual spiritual
excellence and power. To the Gnostic the things of the world
are worthless; they are to him matters of indifference. From
this position it easily followed that actions, being merely external,
were morally indifferent, and that the true Gnostic should
abandon himself to every lust with perfect indifference. The
express declaration of these antinomian principles is said to have
been given by Epiphanes. The notorious licentiousness of the
sect was the carrying out of their theory into practice.
CARPZOV (Latinized Carpzovius), the name of a family, many
of whose members attained distinction in Saxony in the 17th
and 1 8th centuries as jurists, theologians and statesmen. The
family traced its origin to Simon Carpzov, who was burgomaster
of Brandenburg in the middle of the 16th century, and who left
two sons, Joachim (d. 1628), master-general of the ordnance in
the service of the king of Denmark, and Benedikt (1 565-1624),
an eminent jurist.
Benedikt Carpzov was born m Brandenburg on the 22nd
of October 1565, and after studying at Frankfort and Witten-
berg, and visiting other German universities, was made doctor
of laws at Wittenberg in 1590. He was admitted to the faculty
of law in 1592, appointed professor of institutions in 1599, and
promoted to the chair Digest* infortiati el novi in 1601. In
1602 he was summoned by Sophia, widow of the elector
Christian I. of Saxony, to her court at Colditz, as chancellor, and
was at the same time appointed councillor of the court of appeal
at Dresden. After the death of the electress in 1623 he returned
to Wittenberg, and died there on the 26th of November 1624,
leaving five sons. He published a collection of writings entitled
DisputaHones juridicae.
Benedikt Carpzov (1595-1666), second of the name, was the
second son of the preceding, and like him was a great lawyer.
He was born at Wittenberg on the 27th of May 1595, was at first
a professor at Leipzig, obtained an honourable post at Dresden
in 1639, became ordinary of the faculty of jurists at Leipzig
in 1645, an d was named privy councillor at Dresden in 1653.
Among his works which had a very extensive influence on the
administration of justice, even beyond the limits of Saxony, are
Definitions forenses (1638), Practica nova Itnperialis Saxonica
return cnminalium (1635), Opus decisionum UlusPrium Saxoniae
(1646), Processus juris Saxonici (1657), and others. He did
much, both by his writings and by his official work, to systematize
the body of German jurisprudence which had resulted from the
intersection of the common law of Saxony with the Roman and
Canon laws. His last years were spent at Leipzig, and his time
was entirely devoted to sacred studies. He read the Bible
through fifty- three times, studying also the comments of Osiander
and Cramer, and making voluminous notes. These have been
allowed to remain in manuscript. He died at Leipzig on the
30th of August 1666.
Johann Benedikt Carpzov (1607-1657), fourth son of the first
Benedikt, was born at Rochlitz in 1607. He became professor
of theology at Leipzig in 1643, made himself chiefly known by
his Isagoge in Libros Ecdesiarum Luther anar urn Symbolicos (pub-
lished in 1665), and died at Leipzig on the 22nd of October 1657,
leaving five sons, all of whom attained some literary eminence.
August Carpzov (161 2-1683), fifth son of the first Benedikt,
distinguished himself as a diplomatist. Born at Colditz on the
4th of June 161 2, he studied at the universities of Wittenberg,
Leipzig and Jena, and in 1637 was appointed advocate of the
court of justice {Hofgericht) at Wittenberg. Entering the service
of Frederick William II., duke of Saxe-Altenburg, he took part
in the negotiations which led to the peace of Westphalia in 1648,
and was appointed chancellor by the duke in 1649. From 1672
to 1680 he was chief minister of Ernest I. and Frederick I.,
dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and died at Coburg on the 19th
of November 1683. August, who was a man of earnest piety,
wrote Der gekreuzigte Jesus (1679) and some treatises on
jurisprudence.
Johann Gottlob Carpzov (i 670-1 767), grandson of Johann
Benedikt, was born at Dresden in 1679. He was educated at
Wittenberg, Leipzig and Altdorf, became a learned theologian,
and in 17 19 was (appointed professor of Oriental languages at
Leipzig. In 1730 he was made superintendent and first pastor
at Llibeck. His most important works were the Introductio
in libros canonicos bibliorum Veteris Testamenti (1721), Crilica
sacra V.T. (1728), and Apparatus Historico-criticus Antiquitatum
V. Test. (1 748). He died at Ltibeck on the 7th of April 1767.
Johann Benedikt Carpzov (1720-1803), great-grandson of
the first Johann Benedikt, was bom at Leipzig, became professor
of philosophy there in 1747, and in the following year removed
to Helmstadt as professor of poetry and Greek. In 1 749 he was
named also professor of theology. He was author of various
philological works, wrote a dissertation on Mencius, and pub-
lished an edition of Muspeus. He died on the 28th of April 1803.
On the family of Carpzov, see Dreyhaupt, Beschreibung des
Saalkreises, Beilagen zu Theil 2. S. 26.
CARRANZA, BARTOLOMfi (1 503-1 576), Spanish theologian,
sometimes called de Miranda or de Carranza y Miranda, younger
son of Pedro Carranza, a man of noble family, was born at
Miranda d'Arga, Navarre, in 1503. He studied (151 5-1 5 20)
at Alcala, where Sancho Carranza, his uncle, was professor;
entering (1520) the Dominican order, and then (1521-1525)
at Salamanca and at Valladolid, where from 1527 he was teacher
of theology. No Spaniard save Melchior Canus rivalled him in
learning; students from all parts of Spain flocked to hear him.
In 1530 he was denounced to the Inquisition as limiting the papal
power and leaning to opinions of Erasmus, but the process failed;
he was made professor of philosophy and (1533-1539) regent
in theology. In 1539, as representative to the chapter-general
of his order he visited Rome; here he was made doctor of theo-
logy, and while he mixed with the liberal circle associated with
Juan de Valdes, he had also the confidence of Paul III. Return-
ing to Valladolid, he acted as censor (cualificador) of books
(including versions of the Bible) for the Inquisition. In 1540
he was nominated to the sees of Canaria and of Cusco, Peru,
but declined both. Charles V. chose him as envoy to the council
of Trent (1546). He insisted on the imperative duty of bishops
and clergy to reside in their benefices, publishing at Venice
(1547) his discourse to the council De necessaria residcnHa
personalis which he treated as juris divini. His Lenten sermon
to the council, on justification, caused much remark. He was
made provincial of his order for Castile. Charles sent him to
England (1554) with his son Philip on occasion of the marriage
with Mary. He became Mary's confessor, and laboured earnestly
for the re-establishment of the old religion, especially in Oxford.
400
CARRARA
In 1557 Philip appointed him to the archbishopric of Toledo; he
accepted with reluctance, and was consecrated at Brussels on
the 27 th of February 1 558. He was at the deathbed of Charles V.
(21st of September) and gave him extreme unction; then raised
a curious controversy as to whether Charles, in his last moments,
had been infected with Lutheranism. The same year he was
again denounced to the Inquisition, on the ground of his Comen-
tarios sobre el Catechismo (Antwerp, 15 58), which in 1563, however,
was approved by a commission of the council of Trent. He had
evidently lost favour with Philip, by whose order he was arrested
at Tordelaguna (1559) and imprisoned for nearly eight years,
and the book was placed on the Index. The process dragged on.
Carranza appealed to Rome, was taken thither in December 1566,
and confined for ten years in the castle of St Angelo. The final
judgment found no proof of heresy, but compelled him to abjure
sixteen errors, rather extorted than extracted from his writings,
suspended him from his see for five years, and secluded him to
the Dominican cloister of Sta Maria sopra Minerva. Seven
days after his abjuration he died, on the 2nd of May 1576. He
was succeeded in his see by the inquisitor-general, Gaspar
Quiroga. Yet the Spanish people honoured him as a saint;
Gregory XIII. placed a laudatory inscription on his tomb in
the church of Sta Maria. His real crime was not heresy but
reform. His Summa ConcUiorum et PatUificum (Venice, 1 546) has
been often reprinted (as late as 1821), and has permanent value.
See P. Salazar de Miranda, Vida (1788) ; H. Laugwitz, Bartholo-
mdus Carranza (1870); J. A. Llorente, Hist. Inquisition in Spain
(English abridgment, 1826); Hefele in I. Goschler's Diet, encyclo-
pl&ique de la thiol, cath. (1858). (A. Go.*)
CARRARA, or Carraresi, a powerful family of Longobard
origin which ruled Padua in the 14th century. They take their
name from the village of Carrara near Padua, and the first
recorded member of the house is Gamberto (d. before 970).
In the wars between Guelphs and Ghibellines the Carraresi
at first took the latter side, but they subsequently went ov^r
to the Guelphs. This brought them into conflict with Ezzelino
da Romano; Jacopo da Carrara was besieged by Ezzelino in
his castle of Agna, and while trying to escape was drowned.
Another Jacopo led the Paduans in 13 12 against Cangrande
della Scala, lord of Verona, and though taken prisoner managed
to negotiate a peace in 13 18. To put an end to the perpetual
civil strife the Paduans elected him their lord, and he seems to
have governed well, leaving the city at his death (1324) to his
nephew Marsiglio, a man famed for his cunning. But Cangrande
was bent on acquiring Padua, and Marsiglio, unable to resist,
gave it over to him and was appointed its governor. Cangrande
died in 13 19, being succeeded by his nephew Martino, and
Marsiglio soon began to meditate treachery; he negotiated with
the Venetians in 1336, and in the following year he secretly in-
troduced Venetian troops into Padua, arrested Alberto della
Scala, Martino's brother, then in charge of the town, and thus
regained the lordship. He died in 1338, and was succeeded by
his relative Ubertino, a typical medieval tyrant, who earned an
unenviable notoriety for his murders and acts of treachery,
but was also a patron of the arts; he built the Palazzo dei
Principi, the castle of Este, constructed a number of roads and
canals, and protected commerce. He died in 1345. His distant
kinsman Marsiglietto da Carrara succeeded to him, but was
immediately assassinated by Jacopo da Carrara, a prince famed
as the friend of Petrarch. In 1350 Jacopo was murdered by
Guglielmo da Carrara, and his brother Jacopino succeeded,
reigning together with his nephew Francesco.
In 1355 Francesco (il Vecchio) rose against his uncle and
imprisoned him. Francesco changed the traditional policy of
his house by quarrelling with the Venetians, in the hope of ob-
taining more advantages from the Visconti of Milan. When the
former were at war with Hungary over Dalmatia in 1356 and
asked Carrara to help them, he refused. Their resentment
was all the more bitter when at the instance of the pope he
mediated between them and Hungary and brought about
peace on terms unfavourable to the republic. He received
Feltre, Belluno and Cividale from the Hungarian king, but
in 1369 a frontier dispute led to war between him and Venice.
After some defeats, Venice was victorious and dictated peace;
Carrara had to pay a huge indemnity and ask the republic's
pardon (1373). In 1378 he joined the league against Venice
formed by Genoa, Hungary and the Scala, and took part in the
siege of Chioggia. But the Venetians were victorious, and by
the peace of Turin Carrara found himself in the status quo ante,
but he bought Treviso from Austria, to whom Venice had given it
in the day of her trouble. In 1385 the Venetians set the Scala
against Carrara, who thereupon allied himself with the treacher-
ous Gian Galeazzo Visconti. The Scala were expelled from
Verona, but Carrara and Visconti quarrelled over the division
of the spoils. Visconti was determined to capture Padua as
well as Verona, and made an alliance with Venice and the house
of Este for the purpose. Francesco, seeing that the situation
was hopeless, surrendered to Visconti, in whose hands he remained
a prisoner until his death in 1392.
Francesco Novello, his son, resisted bravely, but was compelled
to surrender owing to dissensions in Padua itself. He was forced
to renounce his dominions, and received a castle near Asti,
but he escaped to France, and after a series of romantic
adventures succeeded in making peace with Venice, who was
becoming alarmed at the restless ambition and treachery of
Visconti; in 1390 he raised a small armed force and seized
Padua, where he was enthusiastically welcomed by the citizens,
and for several years reigned there in peace. But in 1399
Visconti recommenced his wars of conquest, which were to have
included Padua had not death cut short his schemes in 1402.
Carrara then allied himself with Guglielmo Scala, seized Verona,
and tried to capture Vicenza. But the Vicentini had always
hated the Carraresi, and after a short siege gave themselves over
to Venice. This led to a war between that republic and Padua,
for now that Visconti was dead the Venetians had no longer
any reason to protect Carrara. Padua and Verona were besieged;
the latter, defended by Novello's son Jacopo, was soon captured.
Novello himself, besieged in his capital, although repeatedly
offered favourable terms, held out for some months hoping for
help from Florence and also from certain Venetian nobles with
whom he was intriguing. Hunger, plague, the treachery
of his captains and internal discontent at last forced him to
surrender (November 1405). He and his sons Francesco III.
and Jacopo were conveyed to Venice, and at first treated with
consideration; but when their intrigues with Venetian traitors
for the overthrow of the republic came to light, they were tried,
condemned, and strangled in prison (1406). Novello's other
son Marsiglio made a desperate attempt to recover Padua in
i435» but was discovered and killed. With him the house of
Carrara ceased from troubling.
Bibliography. — G. Gattaro, " Istoria Padovana," in Mur atari's
Rer. It. Script, xvii., a very full account; P. P. Vergerius, Viiae
Carrarensium, ibid. xii.. untrustworthy; Verci, Storia della Marca
Trivigiana (Venice, 1789); P. Litta, Le Famiglie celebri italiane,
vol. iii. (Milan, 1831) ; W. Lend, Studien zur Geschichte Paduas und
Veronas im XIII. Jahrh. (Strassburg, 1893); G. Cittadella, Storia
delta Dominazione Carrarese in Padova (Padua, 1842) ; and Horatio
Brown's brilliant essay on " The Carraresi " in his Studies in Venetian
History (London, 1907). (L. V.*)
CARRARA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of
Massa e Carrara, 300 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. by rail N.N.E.
of Avenza, which is 16m. E.S.E. of Spezia. Pop. (1881) 26, 325;
(1005) town, 38,100; commune, 48,493. The cathedral (1272-
1385) is a fine Gothic building dating from the period of Pisan
supremacy; the other churches, and indeed all the principal
buildings of the town, are constructed of the local marble, to
which the place owes its importance. The Accademia di Belle
Arti contains several Roman antiquities found in the quarries,
and some modern works by local sculptors. A large theatre
was inaugurated in 1892. Some of the quarries were worked in
Roman times (see Luna), but were abandoned after the downfall
of the western empire, until the growth of Pisan architecture
and sculpture in the 12th and 13th centuries created a demand
for it. The quarries now extend over almost the whole of the
Apuan Alps, and some 600 of them are being worked, of which
CARREL— CARRIAGE
401
345, with 4400 workmen, are at Carrara itself, and 50 (700 men)
at Massa. The amount exported in 1899 was 180,000 tons.
The quarries are served by a separate railway, with several
branch lines.
CARREL, JEAN BAPTISTS NICOLAS ARMAND (1800-1836),
French publicist, was born at Rouen on the 8th of May 1800.
His father was a merchant in good circumstances, and he received
a liberal education at the college of Rouen, afterwards attending
the military school at St Cyr. He had an intense admiration for
the great generals of Napoleon, and his uncompromising spirit,
bold uprightness and independent views marked him as a man
to be suspected. Entering the army as sub-lieutenant he took
a secret but active part in the unsuccessful conspiracy of Belfort.
On the outbreak of war with Spain in 1823, Carrel, whose
sympathies were altogether with the liberal cause, sent in his resig-
nation, and succeeded in effecting his escape to Barcelona. He
enrolled himself in the foreign legion and fought gallantly against
his former comrades. Near Figuieres the legion was compelled
to surrender, and Carrel became the prisoner of his old general,
Damas. There was considerable difficulty about the terms
of capitulation, and one council of war condemned Carrel to
death. Fortunately some informality prevented the sentence
being executed, and he was soon afterwards acquitted and set at
liberty. His career as a soldier being then finally closed, Carrel
resolved to devote himself to literature. He came to Paris
and began as secretary to Augustin Thierry, the historian. His
services were found to be of great value, and he not only obtained
admirable training in habits of composition, but was led to in-
vestigate for himself some of the most interesting portions of
English history. His first work of importance (he had already
written one or two historical abstracts) was the History of the
Counter-Revolution in England, an exceedingly able political
study of the events which culminated in the Revolution of 1688.
He gradually became known as a skilful writer in various periodi-
cals; but it was not till he formed his connexion with the
National that he became a power in France. The National
was at first conducted by Thiers, Mignet and Carrel in con-
junction; but after the revolution of July, Thiers and Mignet
assumed office, and the whole management fell into the hands of
Carrel. Under his direction this journal became the first political
organ in Paris. His judgment was unusually clear, his principles
solid and well founded, his sincerity and honesty beyond question;
and to these qualities he united an admirable style, lucid, precise
and well balanced. As the defender of democracy he had fre-
quently to face serious dangers. He was once in Ste Pelagie,
and several times before the tribunal to answer for his journal.
Nor was he in less danger from private enmities. Before his
last fatal encounter he was twice engaged in duels with editors
of rival papers. The dispute which led to the duel with fimile
de Girardin was one of small moment, and might have been
amicably arranged had it not been for some slight obstinacy on
Carrel's part. The meeting took place on the morning of the
22nd of July 1836. De Girardin was wounded in the thigh,
Carrel in the groin. The wound was at once seen to be dangerous,
and Carrel was conveyed to the house of a friend, where he died
after two days' suffering.
His works, with biographical notice by Littr&, were published in
five volumes (Paris, 1858). A fine estimate of his character will be
found in Mill's Dissertations, vol. i.
CARRERA, JOSft MIGUEL (1785-1821), the principal leader
in the early fighting for the independence of Chile, was born at
Santiago on the 15th of October 1785. Sent to Spain for a
military career, he served in the Spanish army in the Napoleonic
war, but returned to Chile in July 181 1, where his vigorous
character and military experience enabled him by means of a
series of coup d'6tats to place himself at the head of the nationalist
government. Though at first he laboured patriotically to estab-
lish a stable administration, to promote education, and to
organize the Chilean forces, his selfish arrogant spirit produced
dissensions between himself and other patriots, and it was his
rivalry with Bernardo O'Higgins that led to the defeat of the
nationalist forces at Rancagua in 18 14. In the expedition of
1817, led by Jose* de San Martin and Bernardo O'Higgins, which
resulted in the liberation of Chile, Carrera had no share, owing
to his hostility to the leaders, but he attempted to procure in
the United States materials for a fresh enterprise of his own.
The Argentine government, however, suspicious of his intentions,
would not allow him to go to Chile, and Carrera, enraged by this
treatment and by the execution of his brothers at Mendoza by
the San Martin party, proceeded to organize rebellion in Aigentina,
but was eventually captured and shot at Mendoza on the 4th of
September 1821.
See A. Valdes, Revolucion Chilena y Campanas de la Independencia
(Santiago, 1888), which is practically a vindication of Carrera's
career; also P. B. Figueroa, Diccionario biografico de Chile, 1550-
1887 (Santiago, 1888), and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos btograficos de hombres
notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886), both giving biographical sketches
of prominent characters in Chilean history.
CARRIAGE, a term which in its widest signification is used,
as its derivation permits, for any form of " carrying "; thus,
a person's " carriage " is still spoken of in the sense of the way
he bears himself. But it is more specifically the general term
for all vehicular structures employed for the purposes of trans-
port of merchandise and movable goods and of human beings.
Such vehicles are generally mounted on wheels, but the sledge
and the litter are types of the exception to this rule. Within this
definition a vast variety of forms is included, ranging from the
coster's barrow and rude farm-cart up to the luxuriously ap-
pointed sleeping-cars of railways and the state carriages of royal
personages. A narrower application, however, limits the term
to such vehicles as are used for the conveyance of persons
and are drawn by horses, and it is with carriages in this restricted
sense that we are here concerned. Tramcars, railway carriages
and motor-cars are dealt with in other articles.
History. — A wheeled carriage appears to have been in very
general use in Egypt at an early period, called a car or chariot
(q.v.); in the Bible the word is usually translated " chariot."
The bodies of these chariots were small, usually containing only
two persons standing upright. They were very light, and
could be driven at great speed. They were narrow, and therefore
suitable to Eastern cities, in which the streets were very narrow,
and to mountainous roads, which were often only 4 ft. wide.
From Egypt the use of chariots spread into other countries, and
they were used in war in large numbers on the great plains of
Asia. We read of the 900 chariots of Jabin, king of Canaan;
how David took 700 chariots from the kings of Syria and 1000
from the king of Zobah. Solomon had 1400 chariots, and his
merchants supplied northern Syria and the surrounding countries
with chariots brought out of Egypt at 600 shekels (about £50)
apiece. From the ancient sculptures preserved from Nineveh
and Babylon, some of which are in the British Museum, we
observe the use of chariots continued for the purpose of hunting
as well as for war. Homer describes the chief warriors on both
sides at the siege of Troy as going into battle and fighting from
their chariots. The Roman nation as it increased in power
adopted the car, though chiefly for purposes of show and state.
A beautiful marble model of one of these still exists at the Vatican
in Rome: a copy of it and the horses drawing it is in the museum
at South Kensington. The war chariots used by the Persians
were larger; the idea seems to have been to form a sort of turret
upon the car, from which several warriors might shoot or throw
their spears. These chariots were provided with curved blades
projecting from the axle-trees. Alexander the Great, king of
Macedon, invading Asia was met upon the banks of the river
Indus by King Porus, in whose army were a number of elephants
and also several thousand chariots. On Alexander's return from
India towards Persia, he travelled in a chariot drawn by eight
horses, followed by an innumerable number of others covered
with rich carpets and purple coverlets. After Alexander's
death a funeral car was prepared to convey his body from Baby-
lon to Alexandria in Egypt, and this car has perhaps never been
excelled in the annals of coach-building. It was designed by the
celebrated architect Hieronymus, and took two years to build.
It was 18 ft. long and 12 ft. wide, on four massive wheels, and
drawn by sixty-four mules, eight abreast. The car was composed
402
CARRIAGE
of a platform, with a lofty roof, supported by eighteen columns,
and was profusely adorned with drapery, gold and jewels; round
the edge of the roof was a row of golden bells; in the centre was
a throne, and before it the coffin; around were placed the
weapons of war and the armour that Alexander had used.
The Romans established the use of carriages as a private
means of conveyance, and with them carriages attained great
variety of form as well as richness of ornamentation. In all
times the employment of carriages depended greatly on the
condition of the roads over which they had to be driven, and the
establishment of good roads, such as the Appian Way, constructed
331 B.C., and others, greatly facilitated the development of
carriage travelling among the Romans. In Rome itself, and
probably also in other large towns, it was necessary to restrict
travelling in carriages to a few persons of high rank, owing to
the narrowness and crowded state of the streets. For the same
reason the transport of goods along the streets was forbidden
between sunrise and sunset. For long journeys and to convey large
parties the reda and carruca appear to have been mostly used,
but what their construction and arrangements were is not known.
During the empire the carriage which appears in representations
of public ceremonials is the carpentum. It is very slight, with
two wheels, sometimes covered, and generally drawn by two
horses. If a carriage had four horses they were yoked abreast,
among the Greeks and Romans, not in two pairs as now. From
the carruca are traced the modern European names, — the English
carriage, the French carrosse and the Italian carrozza. The
sir pea was a very ancient form of vehicle, the body of which was
of osier basket-work. It originated with the Gauls, by whom
it was named benna, and by them it was employed for the con-
veyance of persons and goods in time of peace, and baggage
during war. With its name are connected the modern French
banne, banneton, vannerie and panier, — all indicating basket-work.
The ancient Britons used a car for warlike purposes which was
evidently new to the Romans. It was open in front, instead of at
the back as in their cars; and the pole, which went straight
out between the horses, was broad, so that the driver could
walk along, and if needful drive from the end. Above all, it
possessed a seat, and was called essedum from this peculiarity.
For war purposes this car was provided with scythes projecting
from the ends of the axle-trees. Cicero, writing to a friend in
Britain, remarks " that there appeared to be very little worth
bringing away from Britain except the chariots, of which he
wished his friend to bring him one as a pattern."
The Roman vehicles were sometimes very splendidly orna-
mented with gold and precious stones; and covered carriages
seem more and more to have become appendages of Roman
pomp and magnificence. Sumptuary laws were enacted on
account of the public extravagance, but they were little regarded,
and were altogether abrogated by the emperor Alexander Severus.
Suetonius states that Nero took with him on his travels no less
than a thousand carriages.
On the introduction of the feudal system the use of carriages
was for some time prohibited, as tending to render the vassals
less fit for military service. Men of all grades and professions
rode on horses or mules, and sometimes the monks and women
on she-asses. Horseback was the general mode of travelling;
and hence the members of the council, who at the diet and on
other occasions were employed as ambassadors, were called
Rittmeister. In this manner also great lords made their public
entry into cities.
Covered carriages (see Coach) were known in the beginning
of the 15th century, but their use was confined to ladies of the
first rank; and as it was accounted a reproach for men to ride
in them, the electors and princes sometimes excused their non-
attendance at meetings of the state by the plea that their health
would not permit them to ride on horseback. Covered carriages
were for a long time forbidden even to women; but about the
end of the 15th century they began to be employed by the
emperor, kings and princes in journeys, and afterwards on state
occasions. In 1474 the emperor Frederick III. visited Frankfort
in a close carriage, and again in the following year in a very
magnificent covered carriage. Shortly afterwards carriages
began to be splendidly decorated; that, for instance, of the
electress of Brandenburg at the tournament held at Ruppin
in 1509 was gilded all over, and that of the duchess of Mecklen-
burg was hung with red satin. When Cardinal Dietrichstein
made his entrance into Vienna in 161 1, forty carriages went to
meet him; and in the same year the consort of the emperor
Matthias made her public entrance on her marriage in a carriage
covered with perfumed leather. The wedding carriage of the
first wife of the emperor Leopold, who was a Spanish princess,
cost, together with the harness, 38,000 florins. Those of the
emperor are thus described: " In the imperial coaches no great
magnificence was to be seen; they were covered over with red
cloth and black nails. The harness was black, and in the whole
work there was no gold. The panels were of glass, and on this
account they were called the imperial glass coaches. On festivals
the harness was ornamented with red silk fringes. The imperial
coaches were distinguished only by their having leather traces;
but the ladies in the imperial suite were obliged to be contented
with carriages the traces of which were made of ropes." At the
magnificent court of Duke Ernest Augustus at Hanover, in 168 1,
there were fifty gilt coaches with six horses each. The first time
that ambassadors appeared in coaches on a public solemnity
was at the imperial commission held at Erfurt in 1613. Soon
after this time coaches became common all over Germany, not-
withstanding various orders and admonitions to deter vassals
from using them. These vehicles appear to have been of very
rude construction. Beckmann describes a view he had seen of
Bremen, painted by John Landwehr in 1661, in which was
represented a long quadrangular carriage, apparently not
suspended by straps, and covered with a canopy supported by
four pillars, but without curtains. In the side was a small door,
and in front a low seat or box; the coachman sat upon the
horses; and the dress of the persons within proved them to be
burgomasters. At Paris in the 14th, 15th and even 16th cen-
turies, the French monarchs rode commonly on horses, the
servants of the court on mules, and the princesses and principal
ladies sometimes on asses. Persons even of the highest rank
sometimes sat behind their equerry on the same horse. Car-
riages, however, were used at a very early period in France; for
there is still extant an ordinance of Philip the Fair, issued in
1294, by which citizens' wives are prohibited from using them.
It appears, however, that about 1550 there were only three
carriages at Paris, — one belonging to the queen, another to
Diana of Poitiers, and the third to Rene* de Laval, a very cor-
pulent nobleman who was unable to ride on horseback. The
coaches used in the time of Henry IV. were not suspended by
straps (an improvement referred to the time of Louis XIV.),
though they were provided with a canopy supported by four
ornamental pillars, and with curtains of stuff or leather.
Occasional allusion is made to the use of some kinds of vehicles
in England during the middle ages. In The Squyr of Low Degree,
a poem of a period anterior to Chaucer, a description of a sump-
tuous carriage occurs:
" To-morrow ye shall on hunting fare
And ride, my daughter, in a chare.
It shall be cover'd with velvet red,
And cloth of fine gold all about your head,
With damask white and azure blue
Well diaper'd with lilies new."
Chaucer himself describes a chare as
" With gold wrought and pierrie."
When Richard II. of England, towards the end of the 14th
century, was obliged to fly before his rebellious subjects, he and
all his followers were on horseback, while his mother alone used
a carriage. The oldest carriages used in England were known
as chares, cars, chariots, caroches and whirlicotes; but these
became less fashionable when Ann, the wife of Richard II.,
showed the English ladies how gracefully she could ride on the
side-saddle, Stow, in his Survey of London, remarking, " so was
riding in those whirlicotes and chariots forsaken except at
coronations and such like spectacles."
CARRIAGE
403
There were curious sumptuary lavs enacted during the 16th
century in various Italian cities against the excessive use of siik,
velvet, embroidery and gilding, on the coverings of coaches
and the trappings of horses. In 1564 Pope Pius IV. exhorted
the cardinals and bishops not to ride in coaches, according to the
fashion of the times, but to leave such things to women, and
themselves ride on horseback. The use of coaches in Germany
in the x6th century was not less common than in Italy. The
current of trade, especially from the East, had for a long time
poured into those two countries towards Holland, enriching all
the cities in its progress. Macpherson, in his History of Commerce,
says that Antwerp possessed 500 coaches in 1560. France and
England appear to have been behind the rest of Europe at
this period.
The first coach in England was made in 1555 for the earl of
Rutland by Walter Rippon, who also made a coach in 1556 for
Queen Mary, and in 1564 a state coach for Queen Elizabeth.
That one of the carriages used by Queen Elizabeth could be
opened and closed at pleasure may be inferred from her causing
at Warwick during one of her progresses — " every part and side
of her coach to be opened that all her subjects present might
behold her, which most gladly they desired."
Coaches of the type now properly so-called were first known in
England about the year 1580, and were introduced, according
to Stow, from Germany by Henry Fitzalan, 12th earl of Arundel.
By the beginning of the 17 th century the use of coaches had
become so prevalent in England that in 1601 the attention of
parliament was drawn to the subject, and a bill " to restrain
the excessive use of coaches " was introduced, which, however,
was rejected on the second reading. Their use told severely on
the occupation of the Thames watermen, and Taylor the poet
and waterman complained bitterly both in prose and verse
against the new-fangled practice: —
" Carroaches, coaches, jades, and Flanders mares
Doe rob us of our shares, our wares, our fares.
Against the ground we stand and knock our heels
Whiles t all our profit runs away on wheeles."
The sneers of wits and watermen notwithstanding, coaches
became so common, that in the early part of the 17th century
they were estimated to number more than 6000 in London and
its surrounding country.
We now arrive gradually at the modern conception of carriage-
building. No trace of glass windows or complete doors for
coaches seems to have existed up to 1650. But plain and rude as
was the first coach of Louis XIV., it was in his reign, which lasted
till 171 5, that the most rapid progress was made. The credit for
this is equally due to Germany, Italy, France and England.
There is very little mention made by historians of steel springs,
but they were first applied to wheel carriages about 1670, prior to
which bodies were suspended by long straps from the four
corners to pillars erected upon the under carriage. The great
advantage of the introduction of springs was speedily recognized
as reducing vibration, enabling carriages to be built much
lighter and lessening the draught for the horses. In the diary of
Samuel Pepys there are many amusing and interesting references
to the art of coach-building, which was beginning to attract
much attention at that period.
In the French Encyclopedic (1772) by Diderot there are
elaborate descriptions of the art of coach-building, the workshops
and tools used, and plates of the different carriages in use. The
1 8th century is remarkable for the rapid development which
took place, more especially in the manufacture of state carriages
of a sumptuous and ornate character, which were largely in
demand by the various courts of Europe. One of the most
beautiful of these is that belonging to the imperial family of
Vienna, which was built in 1696, and is shaped with all the curves
that are familiar to us in cabinets and furniture of the style of
Louis XIV. The panels are beautifully painted with nymphs in
the style of Rubens. There is an unusual quantity of plate glass
in the panels, and on the centre of the roof is a large imperial
crown. In 1757 was built the elaborate state coach of the city
of London, and in 1 761 the royal state coach of England, built for
King George III. (see Coach). During the reigns of George H.
and George III. all English manufactures had received an
immense impulse from the energy of the men of the time, in
which they were much encouraged by the action of the Society of
Arts in offering money prizes for improvements; and in these
coach-builders largely participated.
In the year 1804 Obadiah Elliot patented his plan for hanging
vehicles upon elliptical springs, thus dispensing with the heavy
wood and iron perch and cross beds, invariably used in four-
wheeled carriages up to that time. Elliot was rewarded by the
grant of a gold medal by the Society of Arts, and extensive
orders for the carriages of a lighter character, which he was thus
enabled to produce.
Of carriages much in fashion and characteristic of this period
may be mentioned the " curricle," a cabriolet (see below) on two
wheels, driven with a pair of horses, the balance being secured
by an ornamental bar across the horses' backs, connected by a
leather brace to a spring under the pole. For lack of perfect
safety this was gradually superseded by the " gentleman's
cabriolet," for one horse, on C springs, fitted with folding leather
hood and platform behind, on which stood a youthful trim
servant in top-boots, popularly termed a " tiger." To produce
this satisfactorily, the best coach-building talent was required,
and to work it a horse of exceptional strength and breeding was
needful, but when complete this equipage had a distinction
never surpassed. During this period the pair-horse " mail
phaeton " was introduced, and has enjoyed a long period of
popularity. As a travelling carriage with the needful appoint-
ments the " britzska," having a straight body with ogee curves
at front and back, with single folding hood, and hung on C springs,
was a distinctive and popular feature among carriages of the
period from 1824 until after 1840. Of two-wheeled vehicles the
" stanhope " and " tilbury " gigs, the " dog cart " and " tandem
cart," came into use during these years, and have afforded
facilities of agreeable locomotion to many thousands of people at
a moderate cost. But the greatest improvement of this period
was the introduction of the " brougham." Several attempts
had been made to arrive at a light carriage of this description, but
it was not until 1839 that a carriage was produced to a design
adopted by Lord Brougham, and called after him. The " vic-
toria " was known as a carriage for public hire in continental
cities for several years before being adopted as a fashionable
carriage by the wealthy classes. In 1869 the prince of Wales
brought one from Paris of the cab shape, and Baron Rothschild
brought one from Vienna of the square shape, examples speedily
followed. In various elegant and artistic forms, either as an
elliptic or C spring, it has since become a most popular and
convenient carriage.
Public carriages for hire, or hackney (q*v.) coaches, were first
established in London in 1625. In 1635 the number was re-
stricted to fifty. Still they increased, notwithstanding the oppo-
sition of the court and king, who thought they would break up
the roads, till in 1650 there were as many as 300. In Paris
they were introduced during the minority of Louis XIV. by
Nicholas Sauvage, who lived in the rue St Martin at the sign
of St Fiacre, from which circumstance hackney carriages in
Paris have since been called fiacres. In 1694 the number in
London had increased to 700. Many of these were old private
coaches of the nobility and gentry, and it was not until 1790
that coaches on a smaller scale were built specially for hackney
purposes (see Coach).
We are told that in 1673 there were stage coaches from London
to York, to Chester and to Exeter, having each forty horses on
the road, and carrying each six inside-passengers. The coach
occupied eight days travelling to Exeter. In 1706 a coach went
from London to York every Monday, Wednesday and Friday,
performing the journey in four days. In the same year there was
a coach from London to Birmingham starting on Monday and
arriving on Wednesday. In 1754 a coach was started from
Manchester called the flying coach, which was advertised to reach
London in four days and a half. In 1784 coaches became
universal at the speed of 8 m. an hour.
4°4
CARRIAGE
In the year 1786 the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV.,
began to erect the pavilion at Brighton, and this led to a great
increase of traffic, so that in 1820 no less than 70 coaches
daily visited and left Brighton. The number continued to
increase, until in 1835 there were as many as 700 mail
coaches throughout Great Britain and Ireland. The system of
road construction introduced by Mr McAdam during this time
was of great value in facilitating this development.
Notwithstanding the competition of the sedan-chair (q.v.), the
hackney-coach held its place and grew in importance, till it was
supplanted about 1820 by the cabriolet de place, now shortened
into " cab " (q.v.), which had previously held a most important
place in Paris. In that city the cabriolet came into great public
favour about the middle of the 18th century, and in the year
1813 there were n 50 such vehicles plying in the Parisian streets.
The original cabriolet was a kind of hooded gig, inside which the
driver sat, besides whom there was only room left for a single
passenger. For hackney purposes Mr Boulnois introduced a
four-wheeled cab to carry two persons, which was followed by
one to carry four persons, introduced by Mr Harvey, the proto-
type of the London " four-wheeler."
The hansom patent safety cab (1834) owes its invention to J. A.
Hansom (q.v,), the architect of the Birmingham town-hall. This
has passed through many stages of improvement with which the
name of Forder of Wolverhampton is conspicuously associated.
The prototype of the modern " omnibus " first began plying in
the streets of Paris on the 18th of March 1662, going at fixed
hours, at a stated fare of five sous. Soldiers, lackeys, pages and
livery servants were forbidden to enter such conveyances,
which were announced to be pour la plus grande commodity et
liberti des personnes de tnerite. In the time of Charles X. the
omnibus system in reality was established; for no exclusion of
any class or condition of person who tendered the proper fare was
permitted in the vehicles then put on various routes, and the fact
of the carriages being thus " at the service of all " gave rise to the
present name. The first London omnibus was started in July
1829 by the enterprising Mr Shillibeer. The first omnibuses
were drawn by three horses abreast and carried twenty-two
passengers, all inside. Though appearing unwieldy they were
light of draught and travelled speedily. They were, however,
too large for the convenience of street traffic, and were superseded
by others carrying twelve passengers inside. In 1849 an outside
seat along the centre of the roof was added. The London
General Omnibus Company was founded in 1856; since then
continual improvements in this system of public conveyance
have been introduced.
Modern Private Carriages. — At the accession of Queen Victoria
the means of travelling by road and horse-power, in the case of
public coaches, had reached in England its utmost limits of speed
and convenience, and the travelling-carriages of the nobility
and the wealthy were equipped with the completest and most
elaborate contrivances to secure personal comfort and safety.
More particularly was this the case as regards continental tours,
which had become indispensable to all who had at their command
the means for this costly educational and pleasurable experience.
Concurrently with this development the style and character of
court equipages had also reached a consummate degree of
splendour and artistic excellence. Not only was this the case
in points of decoration, in which livery colour and heraldic
devices were effectively employed, but also in the beauty of
outline and skilful structural adaptation, in which respect
carriages of that period made greater demands upon the capacity
of the builder and the skill of the workman than do those of the
present day. For this attainment the art of coachmaking was
indebted to a very few leading men, whose genius has left its
impress upon the art, and is still jealously cherished by those
who in early life had experience of their achievements. The
early portion of Queen Victoria's reign was an age of much
emulation; the best-equipped carriages of that period, dis-
tinctive of noble families and foreign embassies, with their
graceful outline and superb appointments, and harnessed to a
splendid breed of horses — all harmoniously blended, perfect in
symmetry and adaptation — gave to the London season, more
especially on drawing-room days, and at other times in Hyde
Park, an attractiveness unequalled in any other capital. After
the death of the prince consort, the pageantry of that period very
much declined and, except as an appendage of royalty, full-
dress carriages have since been comparatively few, though there
are hopes of a revival in this direction. Meanwhile, owing to
the rapid development of railways and the wide extension of
commerce, the demand for carriages greatly increased. The
larger types gave place to others of a lighter build and more
general utility, in which in some cases an infusion of American
ideas made its appearance. In accordance with the universal
rule of supply meeting the demand, Mr Stenson, an ironmaster
of Northampton, was successful in producing a mild forging
steel, which proved for some years, until the manufacture ceased,
very conducive to the object of securing lightness with strength.
In the early 'seventies the eminent mechanician, Sir Joseph
Whitworth, in the course of his scientific studies in the perfecting
of artillery, succeeded in manufacturing a steel of great purity,
perfectly homogeneous and possessing marvellous tenacity and
strength, known as "fluid compressed steel." Incidentally
carriage-building was able to participate in the results of this
discovery. Two firms well known to Sir Joseph were asked
to test its merits as a material applicable to this industry. In
this test much difficulty was experienced, the nature of the steel
not being favourable to welding, of which so much is required
in the making of coach ironwork; but after much perseverance
by skilful hands this was at length accomplished, and for some
years there existed not a little rivalry in the use of this material,
more especially in the case of carriages on the C and under-
spring principle, which for lightness, elegance and luxurious
riding left nothing to be desired. Many of these carriages may
be referred to to-day as rare examples of constructive skill.
Unfortunately, the original cost of the material, still more of the
labour to be expended upon it, and the difficulty of educating
men into the art of working it, were effectual barriers to its
general adoption. The idea, however, had taken hold, and
attention was given by other firms to the manufacture of the
steel now in general use, admitting of easier application, with
approximate, if not equal, results.
From C and under-spring carriages there arose another
application of springs which was very prominently before the
public during this period, by means of which it was professed
that two drawbacks recognized in the C and under-spring
carriages were obviated, which were caused by the perch or bar
which passes under the body holding the front and hind parts
in rigid connexion, and yet making use of a form of spring to
which the same terms may be applied. These objections are
the weight of the perch, and the limitation which it causes to
the facility of turning, which in narrow roads and crowded
thoroughfares is an inconvenience. The objection to weight is,
however, minimized by the introduction of steel, and as the more
advanced builders almost always construct the perch with a
Fig. 1.
forked arch in front, allowing the wheels to pass under, the
difficulty of a limited lock is in a great measure overcome (fig. 1).
It must be noted, however (and this cannot be too emphatically
stated), that the so-called C springs above referred to are not at
all the same in action as the C spring proper; they are but an
elongation of the ordinary elliptic spring in the form of the
letter C (fig. 2), without adding anything to, but rather lessening
their elasticity, and entirely ignoring the principle of suspension
CARRIAGE
405
by leather braces over the C spring proper, by which alone the
advantage of superior ease is to be obtained.
Another improvement which stamps the period under review
is the introduction of indiarubber for the tires of wheels. To
produce a carriage as nearly as possible free from noise and
rattle has always been the aim of high-class coachmaking.
A structure composed of wood, iron and glass, with axle-trees,
Fig. 2.
doors, windows, lamps and other parts, in use upon the road
in all weathers, must from time to time require some attention
with this object. To meet this difficulty, the introduction of
indiarubber has been received by carriage-users as a great boon.
It was about the year 1852 that Mr Reading, who at that time
was known as a builder of invalid carriages, conceived the idea
of encircling wheels with that material, but his method only
admitted of its use on vehicles travelling slowly over good roads.
This was improved upon at a later date by Uriah Scott, who,
taking advantage of the tempering capacity of indiarubber by
the chemical action of sulphur, produced an inner rim of such
density as to hold bolts, by which it could be secured through the
felloe, forming a base for the outer covering of soft pliable rubber.
This system was attended with satisfactory results, and was in
favour for some years with persons whose health needed such
provision. Another method, originated by Mr Mulliner of Liver-
pool in the early 'seventies, was to screw on iron flanges to the
outer and inner sides of the felloes, having a kind of lip to press
into the indiarubber filling the intervening space; but the cost
of this — £36 per set — rendered its adoption prohibitive. Mean-
while another invention by Uriah Scott, afterwards improved
upon by an American patentee, came into use; this was known
as the "rubber-cushioned axle," cylindrical rings being introduced
between the axle-box and hub of the wheel, thus insulating the
body of the carriage from the concussion of the road. This,
however, necessitated the cutting away of so much of the timber
of the hub as to impair its durability, and had, therefore, after a
few years' experience, to be abandoned in favour of an invention
by a Parisian builder, who introduced indiarubber bearings
between the spring and axle-tree. This was thoroughly practi-
cable, and met with general acceptance, and it is still used in
conjunction with iron and steel tires. In 1890 the pneumatic
tire was first applied to road carriages. Its bulky appearance
is a great drawback, contrasting strongly with the qualities
which distinguish a graceful equipage; and in spite of its
practical advantages it never became popular in England or
America. In Paris and its neighbourhood and many parts of
France, pneumatic tires are to be seen in frequent use both on
public and private conveyances. In another form the indiarubber
tire has become of almost universal applica-
tion. Owing to an ingenious invention of
Mr Carment, what appeared to be an in-
superable difficulty in rolling a grooved tire
was overcome (fig. 3). This so simplified
the application as to bring the cost within
practicable limits. The grooved tire is now
made in several sections, in some of which the inward projection
for securing the rubber is dispensed with, this being kept in posi-
tion by wires running through the whole length, and electrically
welded at the point of contact. Whatever be the method chosen
for securing the tire, the best tires, both for durability and ease,
are those in which the rubber provided is most resilient in its
nature.
Fig. 3.
For the lifting and lowering of the hoods of victorias and other
such carriages, and the opening and closing of landaus, there
are now many automatic contrivances, of which the simplest
are the most to be preferred. The quarter-light or five-glass
landau is a carriage which has been greatly improved. The
complicated adjustments of pillars, windows and roof have been
replaced by one simple parallel movement. The first public
exhibition of a finished carriage on this principle was by an
English firm at the Paris Exhibition of 1876 (fig. 4).
In the matter of style certain types of carriages have passed
through marked changes. Extreme lightness was at one time
considered by many the one desideratum both as to appearance
and actual weight, in providing which ease of movement and
comfortable seating of the occupants became secondary con-
siderations — though to these extremes builders of repute were
always opposed. Still, when at the International Exhibition of
Paris 1889, it was seen that the Parisian builders had suddenly
gone in the opposite direction, the world of fashion in carriages
was taken by surprise. From being built upon easy, flowing,
graceful lines, it was seen, with some revulsion of feeling, that
f^— ~~-
Fig. 4.
these were to be displaced by the deep, full-bodied victoria,
brougham and landau. Only by slow degrees did this character-
istic find acceptance with English connoisseurs, and then only
in a modified form, though eventually in a greater or less degree
it is now the prevailing style.
While the better types of English carriages are still pre-
eminent in their constructive qualities, and represent the
well-known characteristics of individual firms, some emulation
may be excited by the elegant taste and careful workmanship
which French builders display in points of finish, both internally
and externally. Of the various types of carriages now in vogue,
the victoria, in its many varieties of form, is the most popular,
accompanied, as of necessity, by the double victoria, sociable,
brougham, landaulet and landau. Four-in-hand coaches for
private use, as well as the " road " coaches, are built on a smaller
scale than formerly; 6 ft. 8 in. may now be taken as the standard
height of the roof from the ground. Owing to the encouragement
given by the Four-in-hand and Coaching Clubs, the ascendancy
of this style of driving is still preserved to Great Britain; and
in association with it the char-jt-banc, mail phaeton, wagonette,
and four-wheel dog-cart retain their popularity. Of two-
wheeled vehicles the polo-cart and ralli-cart are most in favour,
to which may be added the governess-car, which is found con-
venient for many purposes not implied by its name. For a few
years an effort was made, but with very indifferent success, to
bring into fashion the tandem-cart, which may again be con-
sidered almost obsolete in England.
America has long held a prominent position in connexion with
the carriage industry. In all the chief cities manufactories on a
colossal scale are to be found, producing thousands of vehicles
annually and equipped with the most perfect labour-saving
machinery; and as vehicles of any particular pattern — many of
small value — are required, not singly, but in large numbers, much
economy.is exercised in their manufacture. It is remarkable that,
as a contrast to the popular buggy, wagon and rockaway of the
United States, which are to be found in infinite variety, carriage
establishments of the wealthy are not considered complete unless
furnished with some of a European character, selected from the
406
CARRICKFERGUS
most eminent firms of London or Paris, in addition to others of
their own manufacture. In Paris preference is given to an
excess of bulk, with elaborate scroll ornamentation and diminu-
tive windows, forming indeed, by reason of its exaggeration, a
distinctive class. In respect of workmanship and finish,
carriages by the best-known American builders leave nothing to
be desired.
The International Exhibition of Paris iooo brought together
examples from various continental countries, in some of which a
preference for curvilinear outline was displayed, but the best
examples followed very closely the well-known English styles.
In the French section it was interesting to find a revival of the
once all-prevailing chariot, barouche and britzska, suspended on
C and under-springs, with perch, but with ideas of lightness
somewhat out of proportion to their general character.
Coach-making, or the carriage-manufacturing industry, is a com-
bination of crafts rarely united in one trade, embracing as it does
work in such divers materials as wood, iron, steel, brass, cloth,
silk, leather, oils and colours, glass, ivory, hair, indiarubber, &c.
Many divisions of labour and numerous highly-skilled artisans are
consequently employed in the various stages in the construction of
a high-class carriage. The workmen include body-makers, who
buildup the parts in which persons sit; carriage-makers, who make
and fit together all the under parts of the vehicle on which the body
rests; wheelwrights, joiners and fitters; several classes of smiths,
for special work connected with the strengthening of the body frame-
work by means of long edge plates, the construction of under works,
tiring and wheels, manufacture of springs, axle-trees, &c. Painting
is an important part of the business, those professing it being
divided into body, carriage and heraldry painters. Trimmers are
needed who fit up the upholstery of the interior, and budget
trimmers who sew on the patent leather covering to dasher
wings, &c.
A very great deal in the coach-making industry depends upon the
selection of materials. Ash is the kind of wood required in the
framework both of body and carriage. The quality best suited for
the body is that of full-grown mild and free nature ; for the carriage
that which is strong and robust ; that for carriage-poles should be of
younger growth, straight and tough in quality. An important con-
sideration is the seasoning of this timber. Planks of various thick-
nesses are required, varying from ij in. to 6 in., the time required
for seasoning being one year for every inch of thickness. After the
framework is made, the body is panelled with \ in. mild Honduras
mahogany, plain and free from grain, every joint and groove care-
fully coated with ground white lead to exclude water. The roof is
covered with J in. wide pine boards, unless when superseded by an
American invention, by which, in order to obtain the needful width
frequently of 5 ft. or upwards, boards are cut from the circumference
of the tree, instead of through its diameter; three thicknesses of
very thin wood are then glued together under pressure, the grain of
the centre running across the outer plies, the whole forming a solid
covering without joints. Birch and elm of 1 in. thickness also enter
into the construction in many carriages; for floor and lining boards
pine is the material used.
Wheel-making is a very important branch of the business, in
which, owing to the increased lightness now required, many modern
improvements have been introduced. The timber used in an
ordinary carriage wheel is wych elm for the naves, heart of oak for
the spokes, and ash for the felloes. American hickory has of late
years been also largely used for spokes in exceptionally light wheels,
as well as the American method of making the rim in two sections of
straight-grained ash or hickory bent to the required circle. This
method has much to recommend it, more especially for wheels with
indiarubber tires, in which the wood felloes are not required to be
nearly so deep as for steel tires. One well-known feature in lijjht
wheels is the " Warner nave," which is a solid iron casting with
mortices to receive the spokes, and being of small diameter gives the
wheel a light appearance.
For springs the finest quality of steel is made from Swedish ore,
but the ordinary English spring steel by the best makers leaves
nothing to be desired. To secure the most perfect elasticity it is
important that the tapering down of the ends of each plate should
be done by hand labour on the anvil, and that the plates should
not be more than i in. in thickness. To obtain cheapness wholesale
spring-makers adopt the method of squeezing the ends of spring
plates between eccentric rollers, and so produce the tapered form,
which, however, is too short and gives a lumpy and unsightly appear-
ance to the spring when put together, so that by this they lose much
of their pliability.
The iron mounting of coach work requires the skill of experienced
smiths, and gives scope for much taste and judgment in shaping
the work, and providing strength suited to the relative strain to
which it will be subjected. Axle-trees are not made by coach-
builders, but by firms who make it their special business. They are
of two kinds, the " mail," which are secured to the wheel by three
bolts passing through the nave, and the "collinee" (invented in
1792), the latter made secure by gun-metal cone-shaped collets and
nuts. The axle boxes which are wedged into the nave are of three
kinds, cast, chilled and wrought iron, in all cases case-hardened,
the first being the cheapest and the last the most costly. Many
attempts have been made to improve upon the collinge axle-tree,
but none of them has got far beyond the experimental stage.
No branch of coach -building contributes more to the elegance of
the vehicle than that of painting. To obtain the needful perfection
the work has to pass through several stages before reaching the
finishing colour, which must be of the finest quality. The varnish
used is copal, of which there are two kinds, the one for finishing the
body, the other the carriage. In first-class work as many as eighteen
or twenty coats will be required to complete the various stages.
After a carriage has been in use about twelve months, it is practicable
to revive the brilliant gloss on the panels by hand-polishing with
the aid of rottenstone and oil, a process which requires a specially
trained man to do successfully.
The trimming of the interior of a carriage requires much skill and
judgment on the part of the workmen in providing really comfortable,
well-fitted seats and neatness of workmanship. In the middle of the
19th century figured tabaret or satin were much used, but for many
years past morocco has been almost universally preferred. Silk
lutestring spring curtains, Brussels or velvet pile carpet, complete
the interior, unless are added neat morocco covered trays with
mirror, &c, for ladies' convenience. Electric light is now frequently
used for the interior, and can be applied with much neatness and
efficiency. Road lamps, door handles, polished silver or brass
furniture, are supplied to the coach-builder by firms whose special
business it is to make them. Lever brakes are now a very ordinary
requirement. Much judgment is needful to make them efficient,
and careful workmanship to prevent rattle. Indiarubber is the best
material for blocks applied to steel tires, and cast iron for indiarubber
tires. The " Bowden wire " recently introduced is in some cases a
convenient and light alternative to the long bar connecting the
handle with the hind cross levers, and has the advantage of passing
out of sight through the interior of the body. (J. A. M'N.)
CARRICKFERGUS, a seaport and watering-place of Co. Antrim,
Ireland, in the east parliamentary division; on the northern
shore of Belfast Lough, 9$ m. N.E. of Belfast by the Northern
Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4208.
It stretches for about 1 m. along the shore of the Lough. The
principal building is the castle, originally built by John de Courci
towards the close of the 12 th century, and subsequently much
enlarged. It stands on a projecting rock above the sea, and was
formerly a place of much strength. It is still maintained as an
arsenal, and mounted with heavy guns. The ancient donjon or
keep, 00 ft. in height, is still in good preservation. The town
walls, built by Sir Henry Sidney, are still visible on the west and
north, and the North Gate remains. The parish church of St
Nicholas, an antiquated cruciform structure with curious
Elizabethan work in the north transept, and monuments of the
Chichester family, was originally a chapel or oratory dependent
on a Franciscan monastery. The entrance to a subterranean
passage between the two establishments is still visible under the
communion-table of the church. The gaol, built on the site of
the monastery above mentioned, was formerly the county of
Antrim prison. The court-house, which adjoins the gaol, is a
modern building. The town has some trade in domestic produce,
and in leather and linen manufactures, there being several flax
spinning-mills and bleach-works in the immediate neighbourhood.
Distilling is carried on. The harbour admits vessels of 500 tons.
The fisheries are valuable, especially the oyster fisheries. At
Duncrue about 2 m. from the town, rock salt of remarkable
purity and in large quantity is found in the Triassic sandstone.
The neighbouring country is generally hilly, and Slieve True
(1100 ft.) commands a magnificent prospect.
In 1 182, John de Courci, to whom Henry II. had granted all
the parts of Ulster he could obtain possession of by the sword,
fixed a colony in this district. The castle came in the 13th
century into possession of the De Lacy family, who, being
ejected, invited Edward Bruce to besiege it (1315)- A * ter a
desperate resistance the garrison surrendered. In 1386, the
town was burned by the Scots, and in 1400 was destroyed by
the combined Scots and Irish. Subsequently, it suffered much
by famine and the occasional assaults of the neighbouring Irish
chieftains, whose favour the townsmen were at length forced
to secure by the payment of an annual tribute. In the reign of
Charles I.many Scottish Covenanterssettledin the neighbourhood
CARRICKMACROSS— CARRIER
407
to avoid the persecution directed against them. In the civil
wars, from 1641, Carrickfergus was one of the chief places of
refuge for the Protestants of the county of Antrim; and on
the 10th of June 1642, the first Presbytery held in Ireland met
here. In that year the garrison was commanded by General
Robert Munro, who, having afterwards relinquished the cause
of the English parliament, was surprised and taken prisoner by
Sir Robert Adair in 1648. At a later period Carrickfergus was
held by the partisans of James II., but surrendered in 1689 to
the forces under King William's general Schomberg; and in
1690 it was visited by King William, who landed here on his
expedition to Ireland. In 1760 it was surprised by a French
squadron under Commodore Thurot, who landed with about
1000 men, and, after holding the place for a few days, evacuated
it on the approach of the English troops. Eighteen years later
Paul Jones, in his ship the " Ranger," succeeded in capturing
the " Drake," a British sloop-of war, in the neighbouring bay;
but he left without molesting the town. In the reign of Queen
Elizabeth the town obtained a charter, and this was confirmed
by James I., who added the privilege of sending two burgesses
to the Irish parliament. The corporation, however, was super-
seded, under the provisions of the Municipal Reform Act of 1840,
by a board of municipal commissioners. Carrickfergus was a
parliamentary borough until 1885; and a county of a town till
1898, having previously (till 1850) been the county town of
county Antrim. But its importance was sapped by the vicinity
of Belfast, and its historical associations are now its chief interest.
CARRICKMACROSS, a market town of Co. Monaghan, Ireland,
in the south parliamentary division, 68 m. N.W. of Dublin on
a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 1874. It has a pleasant, elevated site, a considerable
agricultural trade, and a famous manufacture of lace, which is
carried on in various conventual establishments. There are
some remains of an Elizabethan castle, a seat of the earls of
Essex, which was destroyed during the wars of 1641; the ruins
of the old church of St Finbar commemorate the same disastrous
period.
CARRICK-ON-SHANNON, a market town and the county
town of Co. Leitrim, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division,
beautifully situated on the left bank of the upper Shannon,
between Loughs Allen and Boderg, close to the confluence of
the Boyle. Pop. (1901) 11 18. It is on the Sligo branch of the
Midland Great Western railway, 90 m. W.N.W. of Dublin,
the station being across the river in county Roscommon. Though
having so small a population it is the largest town in the county,
is the seat of the assizes, and has quays and some river trade.
The surrounding country, with its waterways, loughs and woods,
is of considerable beauty.
CARRICK-ON-SUIR, a market town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland,
in the east parliamentary division, on the north (hit) bank of
the Suir, 14I m. W.N.W. from Waterford by the Waterford &
Limerick line of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 5406. It was formerly a walled town,
and contains some ancient buildings, such as the castle, erected
in 1309, formerly a seat of the dukes of Ormonde, now belonging
to the Butler family, a branch of which takes the title of earl
from the town. On the other side of the river, connected by a
bridge of the 14th century, and another of modern erection, stands
the suburb of Carrickbeg, in county Waterford, where an abbey
was founded in 1336. The woollen manufactures for which the
town was formerly famous are extinct. A thriving export trade
is carried on in agricultural produce, condensed milk is manu-
factured, and slate is extensively quarried in the neighbour-
hood, while some coal is exported from the neighbouring fields.
Dredging has improved the navigable channel of the river, which
is tidal to this point and is lined with quays.
CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTS (1756-1794), French Revolu-
tionist and Terrorist, was born at Yolet, a village near Aurillac
in Upper Auvergne. In 1790 he was a country attorney (coun-
sellor for the bailliage of Aurillac) and in 1792 he was chosen
deputy to the National Convention. He was already known
as one of the influential members of the Cordeliers club and of
that of the Jacobins. After the subjugation of Flanders he was
one of the commissioners nominated in the close of 1792 by the
Convention, and sent into that country. In the following year
he took part in establishing the Revolutionary Tribunal. He
voted for the death of Louis XVI., was one of the first to call for
the arrest of the duke of Orleans, and took a prominent part in
the overthrow of the Girondists (on the 31st of May). After a
mission into Normandy, Carrier was sent, early in October 1793,
to Nantes, under orders from the Convention to suppress the
revolt which was raging there, by the most severe measures.
Nothing loth, he established a revolutionary tribunal, and
formed a body of desperate men, called the Legion of Marat, for
the purpose of destroying in the swiftest way the masses of
prisoners heaped in the jails. The form of trial was soon dis-
continued, and the victims were sent to the guillotine or shot or
cut down in the prisons en masse. He also had large numbers
of prisoners put on board vessels with trap doors for bottoms,
and sunk in the Loire. This atrocious process, known as the
Noyades of Nantes, gained for Carrier a reputation for wanton
cruelty. Since in his mission to Normandy he had been very
moderate, it is possible that, as he was nervous and ill when sent
to Nantes, his mind had become unbalanced by the atrocities
committed by the Vendean and royalist armies. Naturally, the
stories told of him are not all true. He was recalled by the
Committee of Public Safety on the 8th of February 1794, took
part in the attack on Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, but was
himself brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal on the nth
and guillotined on the 16th of November 1794.
See Comte Fleury, Carrier a Nantes, 1 793-1 794 (Paris, 1897);
Alfred Lallie, J. B. Carrier, reprSsentant du Cantal a la Convention
i7$6-ifQ4 d'aprhs de nouveaux documents (Paris, 1901). These
works, and the others of Lalli6, are inspired by strong royalist
sympathies and are not altogether to be accepted.
CARRIER, a general term for any person who conveys the
goods of another for hire, more specifically applied to the trades-
men, now largely superseded by the railway system, who convey
goods in carts or wagons on the public roads. In jurisprudence,
however, the term is collectively applied to all conveyers of
property, whether by land or water; and in this sense the changes
and enlargements of the system of transit throughout the world
have given additional importance to the subject. The law by
which carriers, both by land and sea, are made responsible for
the goods entrusted to them, is founded on the praetorian edict
of the civil law, to which the ninth title of the fourth book of the
Pandect is devoted. The edict itself is contained in these few
words, " nautae, caupones, stabularii } quod cujusque salvum fere
receperint, nisi restituent, in eos judicium dabo" The simplicity of
the rule so announced has had a most beneficial influence on the
commerce of the world. Throughout the great civilized region
which took its law directly from Rome, and through the other
less civilized countries which followed the same commercial code,
it laid a foundation for the principle that the carrier's engagement
to the public is a contract of indemnity. It bound him in the
general case, to deliver what he had been entrusted with, or
its value, — thus sweeping away all secondary questions or dis-
cussions as to the conditions of mere or less culpability on his
part under which loss or damage may have occurred; and it
left any limitations of this general responsibility to be separately
adjusted by special contract.
The law of England recognizes a distinction between a common
and a private carrier. The former is one who holds himself out to
the public as ready to carry for hire from place to place the goods
of such persons as choose to employ him. The owner of a stage-
coach, a railway company, the master of a general ship, a whar-
finger carrying goods on his own lighters are common carriers;
and it makes no difference that one of the termini of the journey
is out of England. It has been held, however, that a person who
carries only passengers is not a common carrier; nor of course is
a person who merely engages to carry the goods of particular
individuals or to carry goods upon any particular occasion. A
common carrier is subject at law to peculiar liabilities. He is
bound to carry the goods of any person who offers to pay his
408
CARRIERE— CARROCCIO
hire, unless there is a good reason to the contrary, as, for example,
when his carriage is full, or the article is not such as he is in the
habit of conveying. He ought to carry the goods in the usual
course without unnecessary deviation or delay. To make him
liable there must be a due delivery of the goods to him in the
known course of his business. His charge must be reasonable;
and he must not give undue preference to any customer or class
of customers. The latter principle, as enforced by statute, has
come to be of great importance in the law of railway companies.
In respect of goods entrusted to him, the carrier's liability, unless
limited by a special contract, is, as already stated, that of an
insurer. There is no question of negligence as in the case of
injury to passengers, for the warranty is simply to carry safely
and securely. The law, however, excepts losses or injuries
occasioned immediately " by the act of God or the king's
enemies " — words which have long had a strict technical significa-
tion. It would appear that concealment without fraud, on the
part of the customer, will relieve the carrier from his liability for
negligence, but not for actual misfeasance. Fraud or deceit by
the customer {e.g., in misrepresenting the real value of the goods)
will relieve the carrier from his liability. The responsibility of the
carrier ceases only with the delivery of the goods to the proper
consignee. By the Carriers' Act 1830 the liability of carriers for
gold, silver, &c. (in general " articles of great value in small
compass ") is determined. Should the article or parcel exceed
£10 in value, the carrier is not to be liable for loss unless such
value is declared by the customer and the carrier's increased
charge paid. Where the value is thus declared, the carrier may,
by public notice, demand an increased charge, for which he must,
if required, sign a receipt. Failing such receipt or notice, the
carrier must refund the increased charge and remain liable as at
common law. Except as above no mere notice or declaration
shall affect a carrier's liability; but he may make special con-
tracts with his customers. The carriage of goods by sea is
subject to special regulations (see Affreightment). The
carriage of goods by railway and canal is subject to the law of
common carrier, except where varied by particular statutes, as
the Railway and Canal Traffic Acts 1854 to 1894 and the Regula-
tion of Railways Acts 1840 to 1893. The effect of these acts is to
prevent railway companies as common carriers from limiting by
special contract their liability to receive, forward and deliver
goods, unless the conditions embodied in the special contract are
reasonable, and the contract is in writing and signed by, or on
behalf of, the sender. A railway company must provide reason-
able facilities for forwarding passengers' luggage; where luggage
is taken into the carriage with a passenger, the company is
responsible for it only in so far as loss or damage is due to the
passenger's interference with the company's exclusive control
of it. As carriers of passengers companies are bound, in the
absence of any special contract, to exercise due care and diligence,
and are responsible for personal injuries only when they have
been occasioned by negligence or want of skill. Where there has
been contributory negligence on the part of the passenger, i.e.
where he might, by the exercise of ordinary care, have avoided
the consequences of the defendants' negligence — he is not
entitled to recover. By the act of 1846 (commonly called Lord
Campbell's Act), when a person's death has been caused by such
negligence as would have entitled him to an action had he
survived, an action may be maintained against the party re-
sponsible for the negligence on behalf of the wife, husband,
parent or child of the deceased. Previously such cases had been
governed by the maxim actio personalis moritur cum persona.
CARRI&RE, MORITZ (1817-1895), German philosopher and
historian, was born at Griedel in Hesse Darmstadt on the 5th of
March 1817. After studying at Giessen, Gttttingen and Berlin,
he spent a few years in Italy studying the fine arts, and established
himself in 1842 at Giessen as a teacher of philosophy. In 1853 he
was appointed professor at the university of Munich, where he
lectured mainly on aesthetics. He died in Munich on the 19th
of January 1895. An avowed enemy of Ultramontanism, he
contributed in no small degree to making the idea of German
unity more palatable to the South Germans. Carriere identified
himself with the school of the younger Fichte as one who held the
theistic view of the world which aimed at reconciling the contra-
dictions between deism and pantheism. Although no obstinate
adherent of antiquated forms and prejudices, he firmly upheld
the fundamental truths of Christianity. His most important
works are: Aestheiik (Leipzig, 1859; 3rd ed., 1885), supplemented
by Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Kutiurentoricklung und der
Ideate der MenschheU (3rd ed., 187 7-1886); Die philosophische
Weltanschauung der Reformationszeit (Stuttgart, 1847; 2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1886), and Die sittliche Weltordnung (Leipzig, 1877;
2nd ed., 1891), in which he recognized both the immutability of
the laws of nature and the freedom of the will. He described
his view of the world and life as " real-idealism." His essay on
Cromwell (in Lebensskmen, 1890), which may be considered his
political confession of faith, also deserves mention. His com-
plete works were published at Leipzig, 14 vols., in 1886*1894.
See S. P. V. Lind in Zeitschriftf. Philos. (cvi, 18^5, pp. 93-101);
W. Christ in AUgemeine deutscne Biographic (1903).
CARRINGTON, CHARLES ROBERT WYNN-CARINGTON,
ist Earl (1843- ), English statesman, son of the 2nd Baron
Carrington (d. 1868), was educated at Eton and Trinity,
Cambridge, and sat in the House of Commons as a Liberal for
High Wycombe from 1865 till he succeeded to the title in 1868.
He was governor of New South Wales 1885-1890, lord chamber-
lain 1892-1895, and became president of the board of agriculture
in 1905, having a seat in the cabinet in Sir H. Campbell-Banner-
man's and Mr Asquith's ministries. He was created Earl
Carrington and Viscount Wendover in 1895. The Carrington
barony was conferred in 1796 on Robert Smith (17 52-1838),
M.P. for Nottingham, a member of a famous banking family,
the title being suggested by one held from 1643 to I 7° 6 m another
family of Smith in no way connected. The 2nd baron married
as his second wife one of the two daughters of Lord Willoughby
de Eresby, and their son, through her, became in 1879 joint
hereditary lord great chamberlain of England. The 2nd Baron
took the surname of Carrington, afterwards altered to Carington,
instead of Smith.
CARRINGTON, RICHARD CHRISTOPHER (1826-1875),
English astronomer, son of a brewer at Brentford, was born in
London on the 26th of May 1826. Though intended for the
Church, his studies and tastes inclined him to astronomy, and
with a view to gaining experience in the routine of an observatory
he accepted the post of observer in the university of Durham.
Finding, however, that there was little chance of obtaining
instruments suitable for the work which he wished to undertake,
he resigned that appointment and established in 1853 an
observatory of his own at Redhill. Here he devoted three years
to a survey of the zone of the heavens within 9 degrees of the
North Pole, the results of which are contained in his Redhill
Catalogue of 3735 Stars. But his name is chiefly perpetuated
through his investigation of the motions of sun-spots, by which he
determined the elements of the sun's rotation and made the
important discovery of a systematic drift of the photosphere,
causing the rotation-periods of spots to lengthen with increase
of solar latitude. He died on the 27th of November 1875.
For further information see Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society,
xfv. 13, xviii. 2 3, 109, xix. 140, 161, xxxvi. 137; Memoirs Roy.
Astr. Soc. t xxvh. 139; The Times, Nov. 22 and Dec. 7, 1875;
Roy. Society's Cat. ScienL Papers, vols. L and vii. ; Introductions to
Works.
CARROCCIO, a war chariot drawn by oxen, used by the
medieval republics of Italy. It was a rectangular platform on
which the standard of the city and an altar were erected; priests
held services on the altar before the battle, and the trumpeters
beside them encouraged the fighters to the fray. In battle the
carroccio was surrounded by the bravest warriors in the army and
it served both as a rallying-poin t and as the palladium of the city's
honour; its capture by the enemy was regarded as an irretriev-
able defeat and humiliation. It was first employed by the
Milanese in 1038, and played a great part in the wars of the
Lombard league against the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. It
was afterwards adopted by other cities, and first appears on a
CARRODUS— CARROLL
409
Florentine battlefield in 1228. The Florentine carroccio was
usually followed by a smaller car bearing the martinella, a bell to
ring out military signals. When war was regarded as likely the
martinella was attached to the door of the church of Santa Maria
in the Mercato Nuovo in Flounce and rung to warn both citizens
and enemies. In times of peace the carroccio was in the keeping
of some great family which had distinguished itself by signal
services to the republic.
Accounts of the carroccio will be found in most histories of the
Italian republics; see for instance, M. Villain's Chronache, vi. 5
(Florence, 1825-1826); P. Villari, The Two First Centuries of
Florentine History, vol. i. (Engl, transl., London, 1894); Gino
Capponi, Storia della Repubblica di Firenze, vol. i. (Florence, 1875).
CARRODUS, JOHN TIPLADY (1836-1895), English violinist,
was born on the 20th of January 1836, at Keighley, in Yorkshire.
He made his first appearance as a violinist at the age of nine, and
had the advantage of studying between the ages of twelve and
eighteen at Stuttgart, with Wilhelm Bernhard Molique. On his
return to England in 1853 Costa got him engagements in the
leading orchestras. He was a member of the Covent Garden
opera orchestra from 1855, made his d€but as a solo player at a
concert given on the 22nd of April 1863 by the Musical Society
of London, and succeeded Sainton as leader at Covent Garden
in 1869. He died at Hampstead on the 13th of July 1895. For
many years he had led the Philharmonic orchestra and those of
the great provincial festivals. He published two violin solos and
a " Morceau de salon" and was a very successful teacher.
CARROLL* CHARLES (1737-1832), American political leader,
of Irish ancestry, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 19th
of September 1737I He was educated abroad in French Jesuit
colleges, studied law at Bourges, Paris and London, and in
February 1765 returned to Maryland, where an estate known as
" Carrollton," in Frederick county, was settled upon him;
he always signed his name as " Charles Carroll of Carrollton."
Before and during the War of Independence, he was a whig or
patriot leader, and as such was naturally a member of the various
local and provincial extra-legal bodies — committees of corre-
spondence,committees of observation,council of safety, provincial
convention (17 74-1 7 76) and constitutional convention (1776).
From 1777 until 1800 he was a member of the Maryland senate.
In April- June 1776 he, with Samuel Chase and Benjamin
Franklin, was a member of the commission fruitlessly sent by
the continental congress to Canada for the purpose of persuading
the Canadians to join the thirteen revolting colonies. From
1776 to 1779 he sat in the continental congress, rendering
important services as a member of the board of war, and signing
on the 2nd of August 1776 the Declaration of Independence,
though he had not been elected until the day on which that
document was adopted. He out-lived all of the other signers.
He was a member of the United States Senate from 1789 to 1792.
From 1801 until his death, at Baltimore, on the 14th of November
1832, he lived in retirement, his last public act being the formal
ceremony of starting the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio
railway (July 4, 1828). In politics, after the formation of
parties, he was a staunch Federalist. Of unusual ability,
high character and great wealth, he exercised a powerful
influence, particularly among his co-religionists of the Roman
Catholic faith, and he used it to secure the independence of the
colonies and to establish a stable central government.
See the Life by Kate Mason Rowland (1898).
CARROLL, JOHN (1735-1815), American Roman Catholic
prelate, was born at Upper Marlborough, Prince George's county,
Maryland, on the 8th of January 1735, the son of wealthy
Catholic parents and a cousin of Charles Carroll " of Carrollton."
He was educated at St Omer's in Flanders, becoming a novitiate
in the Society of Jesus in 1753, and then at the Jesuit college
in Li6ge, being ordained priest in 1769 and becoming professor of
philosophy and theology. In 17 71 he became a professed father
of the Society of Jesus and professor at Bruges. As tutor to
the son of Lord Stourton, he travelled through Europe in 1772-
1773. After the papal brief of the 21st of July 1773 suppressed
the Society of Jesus, he accompanied its English members then
in Flanders to England. In 1774 he returned to America, and
set to work at a mission at Rock Creek, Montgomery county,
Maryland, where his mother lived. He shared the feeling for
independence growing among the American colonists, foreseeing
that it would mean greater religious freedom. In 1776, at the
request of the continental congress, he accompanied Benjamin
Franklin, Charles Carroll and Samuel Chase on their mission
to secure the aid or neutrality of the French-Canadians, and
though unsuccessful it gained for him the friendship of Franklin.
In 1783 he took a prominent part in the petition to Rome to
take the control of the American church away from London; and
on Franklin's recommendation, Carroll was named prefect apos-
tolic, the American church being recognized as a distinct body in
a decree issued by Cardinal Antonelli on the 9th of June 1 784. In
the summer of 1785 he began his visitations; in 1786 he induced
the general chapter to authorize a Catholic seminary (now
Georgetown University) ; and at the same session it was voted
that the condition of the church required a bishop, accountable
directly to the pope (and not to the Congregation of the Pro-
paganda) and chosen by the American clergy. Consent to this
course was given by Antonelli in a letter of the 12th of July
1 788. The clergy met at Whitemarsh, Maryland, and Baltimore
was adopted as the episcopal seat, Carroll being chosen as
bishop; and on the 6th of November 1789 Pius VI. issued a bull
to that effect, Carroll being consecrated at Lulworth Castle,
England, on the 15th of August 1790.
On his return from England the bishop saw Georgetown
College completed (1791), thanks to moneys he had received
from English Catholics. His first synod met on the 7th of Novem-
ber 1 791; and on the 16th he issued the " Circular on Christian
Marriage," which attacked marriage by any save "lawful
pastors of our church." In 1795 the Rev. Leonard Neale (1746-
181 7) was appointed his coadjutor. In 1799, after the death
of Washington, Bishop Carroll bade his clergy hold the 22nd
of February 1800 as a day of mourning, and on that day delivered
in his pro-cathedral a memorial discourse which attracted
much attention. Already in 1802 he was pressing for the
creation of new sees in his diocese, and the Louisiana Purchase
of 1803 gave added weight to this request; in September 1805
the Propaganda made him administrator apostolic of the diocese
of New Orleans, to which he appointed John Olivier as vicar
general; and in 1808 Pius VII. divided Carroll's great diocese
into four sees, Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Bardstown
(Kentucky), suffragan to the metropolitanate of Baltimore, of
which Carroll actually became archbishop by the assumption
of the long delayed pallium on the 18th of August 181 1, having
consecrated three suffragans in the autumn of 1810. In 181 1
ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the Danish and Dutch West Indies
was bestowed upon him. Carroll was now an old man, and the
shock of the war of 181 2, which as a staunch Federalist he had
opposed until its actual declaration, together with the action of
the Holy See in appointing to the sees of Philadelphia and New
York other candidates than those of his recommendation,
weighed on his mind. He died in Georgetown on the 3rd of
December 181 5. He may well be reckoned the greatest figure
in the Roman Catholic Church of the United States. His position
in the church had never been easy, partly because he had been a
prominent member of the Society of Jesus. The great size of
his diocese had made it unwieldy; and his struggle to secure the
independence of the American church had been a difficult one.
As a defender of papal and episcopal authority he had, especially
in Philadelphia and Baltimore, to deal with churches whose
trustees insisted that they and their parishes alone could choose
priests, that bishop or prefect could not object to their choice.
Akin to this difficulty was the desire of Catholics of different
nationalities to have separate churches, a desire often created
or encouraged by intriguing and ambitious priests. Besides
these and other internal annoyances, Carroll had to meet the
deep-seated distrust of his church in communities settled almost
exclusively by Protestants.
See John Gilmary Shea, History of the Catholic Church in the
United States, vol. ii. (1763-1815), (Akron and New York, 1888);
4io
CARRONADE— CARSON
and Daniel Brent, Biographical Sketch of the Most Rev. John Carroll,
First Archbishop of Baltimore, with Select Portions of His Writings,
edited by John Carroll Brent (Baltimore, 1843).
CARRONADE, a piece of ordnance invented, by the applica-
tion of an old principle of gun construction, to serve as a ship's
gun. The inventor was the antiquary General Robert Melville
(1728-1809). He designed the piece in 1759, and called it the
" smasher," but it was not adopted in the British navy till 1779,
and was then known as the " carronade," from the Carron works
on the Carron river in Stirlingshire, Scotland, where it was first
cast by Mr Gascoigne. The carronade had a powder chamber
like many of the earliest guns known, and was similar to a mortar.
It was short, light, had a limited range, but was destructive at
close quarters. Carronades were added to the existing arma-
ments of guns proper or long guns. A 38-gun frigate carried
ten carronades, and was therefore armed with 48 pieces of
ordnance. As the official classifications were not changed, they
were misleading guides to the real strength of British ships,
which always carried more pieces than they were described as
carrying. The same remark applies to French and American
ships when the use of the carronade extended from the British
to other navies.
CARROT. Wild carrot, Daucus carota, a member of the
natural order Umbelliferae, grows wild in fields and on roadsides
and sea-shores in Britain and the north temperate zone generally
of the Old World. It is an annual and resembles the cultivated
carrot, except in the root, which is thin and woody. It is the
origin of the cultivated carrot, which can be developed from it in
a few generations. M. Vilmorin succeeded in producing forms
with thick fleshy roots and the biennial habit in four generations.
In the cultivated carrot, during the first season of growth, the
stem remains short and bears a rosette of graceful, long-stalked,
branched leaves with deeply cut divisions and small, narrow
ultimate segments. During this period the plant devotes its
energies to storing food, chiefly sugar, in the so-called root,
which consists of the upper part of the true root and the short
portion of the stem between the root and the lowest leaves. A
transverse section of the root shows a central core, generally
yellow in colour, and an outer red or scarlet rind. The core
represents the wood of an ordinary stem and the outer ring the
soft outer tissue (bast and cortex). In the second season the
terminal bud in the centre of the leaf-rosette grows at the
expense of the stored nourishment and lengthens to form a
furrowed, rather rough, branched stem, 2 or 3 ft. high, and
bearing the flowers in a compound umbel. The umbel is char-
acterized by the fact that the small leaves (bracts) which
surround it, resemble the foliage leaves on a much reduced scale,
and ultimately curve inwards, the whole inflorescence forming
a nest-like structure. The flowers are small, the outer white,
the central ones often pink or purplish. The fruit consists of
two one-seeded portions, each portion bearing four rows of stiff
spinous projections, which cause the fruits when dropped to
cling together, and in a natural condition help to spread the
seed by clinging to the fur of animals. On account of these
projections the seeds cannot be sown evenly without previous
rubbing with sand or dry ashes to separate them. As usual in
the members of the order Umbelliferae, the wall of the fruit is
penetrated lengthwise by canals containing a characteristic oil.
Carrots vary considerably in the length, shape and colour of
their roots, and in the proportion of rind to core. The White
Belgian, which gives the largest crops, has a very thick root
which is white, becoming pale green above, where it projects
above ground. For nutritive purposes it is inferior to the red
varieties. The carrot delights in a deep sandy soil, which should
be well drained and deeply trenched. The ground should be
prepared and manured in autumn or winter. For the long-
rooted sorts the soil should be at least 3 ft. deep, but the Short
Horn varieties may be grown in about 6 in. of good compost laid
on the top of a less suitable soil. Peat earth may be usefully
employed in lightening the soil. Good carrots of the larger sorts
may be grown in unfavourable soils by making large holes 18 in.
deep with a crowbar, and filling them up with sandy compost
in which the seeds are to be sown. The main crop is sown at the
end of March or beginning of April. After sowing, it is only
necessary to thin the plants, and keep them clear of weeds.
The roots are taken up in autumn and stored during winter in
a cool shed or cellar.
CARRYING OVER, or Continuation, a stock exchange term
for the operation by which the settlement of a bargain transacted
for money or for a given account, may for a consideration (called
either a " contango " or a " backwardation ") be postponed
from one settling day to another. Such a continuation is
equivalent to a sale " for the day " and a repurchase for the
succeeding account, or to a purchase " for the day " and a resale
for the succeeding account. The price at which such transac-
tions are adjusted is the " making-up " price of the day. (See
Account and Stock Exchange.)
CARSIOLI (mod. Car soli), an ancient city of Italy, on the Via
Valeria, 42 m. E. by N. of Rome. It was founded in the country
of the Aequi between 302 and 298 B.C., just after the establish-
ment of Alba Fucens, no doubt as a stronghold to guard the road
to the latter. It is mentioned in 2 1 1 B.C. as one of the twelve out
of thirty Latin colonies which protested their inability to furnish
more men or money for the war against Hannibal. We find it
used in 168 B.C. like Alba Fucens as a place of confinement for
political prisoners. It was sacked in the Social War, but prob-
ably became a tnunicipiutn after it, though we hear but little of
it. The modern town of Carsoli first appears in a diploma of
a.d. 866, but the old site does not seem to have been abandoned
until the 13 th century. It is now occupied only by vineyards,
and lies about 2100 ft. above sea-level, in a plain surrounded by
mountains, now called Piano del Cavaliere. The line of the city
walls (originally in tufa, and reconstructed in limestone), built
of rectangular blocks, can be traced, and so can the scanty
remains of several buildings, including the podium or base, of a
temple, and also the ancient branch road from the Via Valeria
(which itself keeps just south-east of Carsioli), traversing the
site from north to south. The forty-third milestone of the Via
Valeria still lies at or near its original site; it was set up by
Nerva in a.d. 97. One mile to the north-west of Carsioli are the
remains of an ancient aqueduct consisting of a buttressed wall
of concrete crossing a valley.
See G. J. Pfeiffer and T. Ashby in Supplementary Papers of the
American School in Rome, i. (1905), 108 seq. (T. As.)
CARSON, CHRISTOPHER ["Kit''] (1809-1868), American
hunter and scout, was born in Madison county, Kentucky, on
the 24th of December 1809. When he was a year old his parents
removed to Howard county, Missouri, then a frontier settlement,
and the boy was early trained in the hardships and requirements
of pioneer life. He served for a while as a saddler's apprentice,
and after 1826 devoted himself to the life of a professional guide
and hunter. He was hunter for the garrison at Bent's Fort on
the Arkansas river in what is now Bent county, Colorado, from
1832 to 1840, and accompanied John C. Fr6mont on his exploring
expeditions of 1842 and 1843-1844, and on his California expedi-
tion in 184 5-1846. Carson took part in the Mexican War, and,
after the rush to the Pacific Coast began, engaged as a guide to
convoy emigrants and drovers across the plains and mountains.
In 1854 he became Indian agent at Taos, New Mexico, in which
position, through his knowledge of the Indian traits and language,
he was able to exercise for many years a restraining influence
over the warlike Apaches and other tribes. During the Civil
War he rendered invaluable services to the Federal cause in the
south-west as chief scout in charge of the various bodies of
irregular scouts and rangers participating in the constant border
warfare that characterized the conflict in that part of the Union.
In March 1865 he was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers
for gallantry in the battle of Valverde (on the 21st of February
1862) and for distinguished services in New Mexico, and after the
war resumed his position as Indian agent, which he held until
his death at Fort Lyon, Colorado, on the 23rd of May 1868.
" Kit " Carson occupies in the latter period of American pioneer
history a position somewhat similar to that held by Daniel Boone
and David Crockett at an earlier period, as the typical frontier
CARSON CITY— CARTAGENA
411
hero and Indian fighter, and his hairbreadth escapes and personal
prowess are the subject of innumerable stories.
See Charles Burdett, Life of Kit Carson, the Great Western Hunter
and Guide (New York, 1859; new ed., 1877) ; and De Witt C. Peters,
The Life and Adventures of Kit Carson, the Nestor of the Rocky
Mountains, from Facts Narrated by Himself (New York, 1858).
CARSON CITY, the capital of Nevada, U.S.A., and the county
seat of Ormsby county, about 120 m. N.E. of Sacramento, Cali-
fornia. Pop. (1800) 3950; (1900) 2100; (1910) 2466. It is served
by the Virginia and Truckee railway, which has repair shops here,
and by stage to Lake Tahoe, 12 m. W. of the city. It is pictur-
esquely situated in Eagle valley, near the east base of the
Sierra Nevada, at an elevation of 4720 ft. above the sea. Within
1 m. of the city are Shaws Hot Springs. The city is a distribut-
ing point for the neighbouring mining region. Among the
public buildings are the capitol, the United States government
building, a United States mint, and a state orphans' home;
in the vicinity are the state prison and a United States govern-
ment school for Indians. The industrial interests of the city
are principally in mining, lumbering and agriculture. It has
an excellent supply of mountain spring water. Carson City
(named in honour of Christopher Carson) was settled in 1851
as a trading post, was laid out as a town in 1858, was made the
capital of the state and the county seat of the newly erected
county in 1861, and was chartered as a city in 1875.
CARSTARBS (or Cakstairs), WILLIAM (1649-1715), Scottish
clergyman, was born at Cathcart, near Glasgow, on the nth of
February 1649, the son of the Rev. John Carstares, a member of
the extreme Covenanting party of Protestors. He was educated
at the university of Edinburgh, and then passed over to Utrecht,
where he commenced his lifelong friendship with the prince of
Orange, and began to take an active part in the politics of his
country. The government disliked Carstares for several reasons.
He was the intimate of William; he had been the bearer of
messages between the disaffected in Scotland and Holland;
and he was believed to be concerned with Sir James Steuart
(163 5-1 7 1 5) in the authorship of a pamphlet — An Account of
Scotland* s Grievances by reason of the D. of Lauderdale's Minis trie,
humbly tendered to his Sacred Majesty. Accordingly, on his
return to England, at the close of 1674, he was committed to the
Tower; the following year he was transferred to Edinburgh
Castle, and it was not till August 1679 that he was released.
After this he visited Ireland, and then became pastor to a Non-
conformist congregation at Cheshunt. During 1682 he was in
Holland, but in the following year he was again in London, and
was implicated in the Rye House Plot. On its discovery he
was examined before the Scottish Council; though the torture
of the thumb-screw was applied, he refused to utter a word till
he was assured that his admissions would not be used in evidence,
and in the disclosures he then made he displayed great discretion.
On his return to Holland he was rewarded by William's still
warmer friendship, and the post of court chaplain; and after
the Revolution he continued to hold this office, under the title
of royal chaplain for Scotland. He was the confidential adviser
of the king, especially with regard to Scottish affairs, and
rendered important service in promoting the Revolution Settle-
ment. On the accession of Anne, Carstares retained his post as
royal chaplain, but resided in Edinburgh, having been elected
principal of the university. He was also minister of Greyfriars',
and afterwards of St Giles', and was four times chosen moderator
of the general assembly. He took an important part in pro-
moting the Union, and was consulted by Harley and other lead-
ing Englishmen concerning it. During Anne's reign, the chief
object of his policy was to frustrate the measures which were
planned by Lord Oxford to strengthen the Episcopalian Jacobites
— especially a bill for extending the privileges of the Episcopalians
and the bill for replacing in the hands of the old patrons the
right of patronage, which by the Revolution Settlement had been
vested in the elders and the Protestant heritors. On the ac-
cession of George I., Carstares was appointed, with five others,
to welcome the new dynasty in the name of the Scottish Church.
He was received graciously, and the office of royal chaplain was
again conferred upon him. A few months after he was struck
with apoplexy, and died on the 28th of December 17 15.
See State-papers and Letters addressed to William Carstares, to
which is prefixed a Life by M'Cormick (1774); Story's Character
and Career of William Carstares (1874); Andrew Lang's History oj
Scotland (1907).
CARSTENS, ARMUS JACOB (1754-1798), German painter,
was born in Schleswig, and in 1776 went to Copenhagen to study.
In 1783 he went to Italy, where he was much impressed by the
work of Giulio Romano. He then settled in Ltibeck as a portrait
painter, but was helped to visit Rome again in 1792, and gradually
produced some fine subject and historical paintings, e.g. "Plato's
Symposium " and the " Battle of Rossbach " — which made him
famous. He was appointed professor at Berlin, and in 1795 a
great exhibition of his works was held in Rome, where he died
in 1798. Carstens ranks as the founder of the later school of
German historical painting.
CARSULAE, an ancient city of Umbria, on the Via Flaminia,
19 m. N. of Narnia (mod. Narni) and 24 m. S.S.W. of Mevania
(mod. Bevagna). It is little mentioned in ancient literature.
The town was a municipium. The Via Flaminia is well preserved
and enters the north gate of the town, the archway of which still
stands. Remains of buildings may also be seen upon the site,
and the outline of an amphitheatre is visible. The town of Cesi,
3 m. to the south-east, has polygonal walls, and may perhaps be
regarded as an Umbrian city which was destroyed by the Romans,
Carsulae being constructed in its stead. The medieval city, as so
often happened in Italy, returned to the pre-Roman site.
See G. Gamurrini in Notieie degli Scavi (1884), *49 i for the tombs,
L. Lanzi, in Notizie degli Scavi (1902), 592.
CART (A.S. crat, Gaelic cairt; connected with "car"), a
general term for various kinds of vehicles (see Carriage), in
some cases for carrying people, but more particularly for trans-
porting goods, for agricultural or postal purposes, &c, or for
carriers. Though constructed in various ways, the simplest type
for goods is two-wheeled, topless and springless; but as a general
term " cart " is used in combination with some more specific
qualification (dog-cart, donkey-cart, road-cart, polo-cart, &c),
when it is employed for pleasure purposes. The " dog-cart," so
called because originally used to convey sporting dogs, is a more
or less elevated two-wheeled carriage, generally with seats back to
back, in front and behind; the " governess-cart " (presumably
so called from its use for children), a very low two-wheeled pony-
carriage, has two side seats facing inwards; the " tax-cart," a
light two-wheeled farmer's cart, was so called because formerly
exempted from taxation as under the value of £21.
CARTAGENA, or Carthagena, a city, seaport, and the capital
of the department of Bolivar, Colombia, South America, on the
Caribbean coast, in io° 25' 48* N., 75 34' W. Pop. (1905,
official estimate) 14,000. The population of Cartagena is
largely composed of blacks and mixed races, which form the
predominant type on the lowland plains of northern Colombia.
The well-to-do whites of Cartagena usually have country houses
on the Turbaco hills, where the temperature is much lower than
on the coast. The mean annual temperature in the city is 82 ,
and the port is classed as very unhealthful, especially for unac-
climatized foreigners. The harbour, which is the best on the north
coast of South America, is formed by an indentation of the coast-
line shut in by two long islands lying parallel to the mainland.
It covers an area of about 62*5 sq. m. and affords deep and
secure anchorages and ample facilities for loading and unloading
large vessels. The city itself has no modern quays, and large
vessels do not approach within a mile of its landing-stages, but
the railway pier (lengthened 120 ft. in 1898) on the mainland
opposite permits the mooring of vessels alongside. There were
formerly two entrances to the harbour — the Boca Grande (large
mouth) between the low sandy island or peninsula on which the
city stands and the island of Tierra Bomba, and the Boca Chica
(small mouth) at the south end of the latter island. The Boca
Grande was filled with stone after the city had been captured
three times, because of the ease with which an enemy's ships
could pass through it at any time, and the narrow and more
412
CARTAGENA
easily defended Boca Chica, 7 m. farther south, has since been
used.
The city occupies a part of the upper island or peninsula facing
the northern end of the harbour, and is separated from the main-
land on the east by a shallow lagoon-like extension of the bay
which is bridged by a causeway passing through the extra-mural
suburb of Xiximani on another island. The old city, about
} m. long, north and south, and $ m. wide, is enclosed by a heavy
wall, in places 40 ft. thick, and is defended by several formidable-
looking forts, which have long been dismantled, but are still in a
good state of preservation. At the mainland end of the causeway
leading from the city is the fort of San Felipe, about 100 ft. above
sea-level, adapted as a distributing reservoir in the city's water-
works; and behind it are verdure-covered hills rising to an
elevation of 500 ft., forming a picturesque background to the
grey walls and red-tiled roofs of the city. The streets are narrow,
irregular and roughly paved, but are lighted by electricity;
tramway lines run between the principal points of the city and
suburbs. The houses are built with thick walls of stone and
brick round open courts, in the Moorish style, and their iron-
barred doors and windows give them the appearance of being a
part of the fortifications. Among the numerous churches, the
largest and most imposing is the Jesuit church of San Juan de
Dios, with its double towers and celebrated marble pulpit; an
old monastery adjoins. Cartagena is an episcopal see, and its
cathedral dates from colonial times. The city was once the head-
quarters of the Inquisition in South America, and the edifice
which it occupied, now private property, is an object of much
interest. The water supply of the city was formerly obtained
from rainwater tanks on the walls or by carriage from springs a
few miles inland. But in 1906 an English company received a
concession to bring water by pipes from springs on the Turbaco
hills, 300 ft. above the sea.
The commercial importance of Cartagena declined greatly
during the period of civil disorders which followed the war for
independence, but in later years has revived. In the reign of
Philip II. the Spaniards had opened a canal (" El Dique ")
through some marshes and lagoons into a small western outlet of
the Magdalena, which gave access to that river at Calamar, about
81 m. above the bar at its mouth; during Cartagena's decline
this was allowed to fill up; it was reopened in 1846 for a short
time and then was obstructed again by river floods; but in 1881
it was reopened for steam navigation. Towards the end of the
19th century a railway, 65 m. long, was built between Cartagena
and Calamar. Imports consist of cotton, linen and woollen
fabrics, hardware, cutlery and machinery, kerosene, glass and
earthenware; and the exports of cattle, sugar, tobacco, coffee,
coco-nuts and fibre, dividivi and dye-woods, vegetable ivory,
rubber, hides and skins, medicinal forest products, gold, silver
and platinum. The aggregate value of the exports in 1906 was
$3,788,094 U. S. gold.
Cartagena was founded in 1 533 by Pedro de Heredia. In 1 544
it was captured by pirates, who plundered the town; in 1585 by
Sir Francis Drake, who exacted a large ransom; and in 1697 by
the French, who obtained from it more than £1,000,000. In
1 741 Admiral Vernon unsuccessfully besieged the town. It was
taken by Bolivar in 1815, but was surrendered to the royalists in
the same year. It was recaptured by the republicans on the 25th
of September 182 1, and thereafter remained in their possession.
It figured prominently in the political agitations and revolutions
which followed, and underwent a siege in the civil war of 1885.
It was an important naval station under Spanish colonial rule,
and is the principal naval station of Colombia.
CARTAGENA, or Ca&thagena, a seaport of south-eastern
Spain, in the province of Murcia; in 37 36' N. and o° 58' W., at
the terminus of a branch railway from the city of Murcia, and
on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 99,871. Cartagena is
fortified, and possesses an arsenal and naval dockyards. To-
gether with Ferrol and San Fernando near Cadiz, the other great
naval stations of Spain, it is governed by an admiral with the
title of captain-general. It has also an episcopal see.
The city stands on a hill separated by a little plain from the
harbour; towards the north and east it communicates with a
fertile valley; on the south and west it is hemmed in by high
mountains. Its grey houses have a neglected, almost a dilapi-
dated appearance, from the friable stone of which they are
constructed; and there are no buildings of antiquarian interest
or striking architectural beauty, except, perhaps, the ruined
citadel and the remnants of the town walls. The wide streets
are traversed by a system of tramways, which pass through
modern suburbs to the mining district about two leagues inland,
and on the west a canal enables small vessels to enter the town
without using the port. The harbour, the largest in Spain after
that of Vigo, and the finest on the east coast, is a spacious bay,
deep, except near its centre, where there is a ledge of rock barely
5 ft. under water. It is dominated, on the seaward side, by four
hills, and approached by a narrow entrance, with forts on either
hand; a breakwater affords shelter on the east, and on the west
is the Arsenal Basin, often regarded as the original harbour of
the Carthaginians and Romans. The island called La Escom-
brera, the ancient Scombraria (i.e. " mackerel fishery ")> 2 J m.
south, protects Cartagena from the violence of wind and waves.
The mines near the city are very productive, and thousands of
men and beasts are employed in transporting lead, iron, copper,
zinc and sulphur to the coast. The industrial and commercial
progress of Cartagena was much hindered, during the first half
of the 19th century, by the prevalence of epidemic diseases,
the abandonment of the arsenal, and rivalry with the neighbour-
ing port of Alicante. Its sanitary condition, though still defective,
was improved by the drainage of the adjacent Alma jar Marsh;
and after 1870, when the population had dwindled to about
26,000, Cartagena advanced rapidly in size and wealth. The
opening of the railway enabled it to compete successfully with
Alicante, and revived the mining and metallurgical industries,
while considerable sums were expended on bringing the coast
and land defences up to date, and adding new quays, docks and
other harbour works. As a naval station, Cartagena suffered
severely in 1898 from the maritime disasters of the Spanish-
American War; and its commerce was much affected when,
at the beginning of the same year, Porman, or Portman, a mining
village on a well-sheltered bay about 11 m. east, was declared by
royal order an independent port. Vessels go to Porman to land
coke and coal, and to load iron ore and lead. From Cartagena
the principal exports are metallic ores, esparto grass, wine,
cereals and fruit. Esparto grass, which grows freely in the
vicinity, is the spartum, or Spanish broom, which gave the town
its Roman designation of Carthago Spartaria. It is still used
locally for making shoes, ships' cables, mats and a kind of spun
cloth. Timber is largely imported from the United States,
Sweden and Russia; coal from Great Britain; dried codfish
from Norway and Newfoundland. In 1904, exclusive of coasters
and small craft trading with north-west Africa, 662 ships of
604,208 tons entered the port of Cartagena, 259 being British
and 150 Spanish; while 90 vessels were accommodated at Porman.
Cartagena was founded about the year 243 B.C. by the Cartha-
ginian Hasdrubal, and was called Carthago Nova or New Carthage,
to distinguish it from the African city of Carthage. It was
conveniently situated opposite to the Carthaginian territory in
Africa, and was early noted for its harbour. Its silver and gold
mines were the source of great wealth both to the Carthaginians
and to the Romans. In 210 B.C. this important place, the
headquarters and treasure city of the Punic army, was stormed
and taken with great slaughter by P. Scipio. The city continued
to flourish under the Romans, who made it a colony, with the
name Colonia Victrix Julia Nova Carthago. In a.d. 425 it was
pillaged and nearly destroyed by the Goths. Cartagena was a
bishopric from about 400 to 1289, when the see was removed to
Murcia. Under the Moors it became an independent principality,
which was destroyed by Ferdinand II. of Castile in 1243, restored
by the Moors, and finally conquered by James I. of Aragon in
1276. It was rebuilt by Philip II. of Spain (1527-1598) for the
sake of its harbour. In 1585 it was sacked by an English fleet
under Sir Francis Drake. In 1706, in the War of the Spanish
Succession, it was occupied by Sir John Leake; and in the next
CARTAGO— CARTERET
4i3
year it was retaken by the duke of Berwick. On the 5th of
November 1823 it capitulated to the French. In consequence
of the insurrection in Spain, Cartagena was in 1844 again the
scene of warfare. On the 23rd of August 1873 it was bombarded
by the Spanish fleet under Admiral Lobos; on the nth of
October a battle took place off the town, between the ships of
the government and the rebels, and on the 12th of January 1874
Cartagena was occupied by the government troops.
See Bibliotcca histSrica de Cartagena, by G. Vicent y Portillo
(Madrid, 1889, &c); Feckos y fechas de Cartagena, by I. Martinez
Rito (Cartagena, 1894) ; and Serie de los obispos de Cartagena, by P.
Diaz Casson (Madrid, 1895).
CARTAGO, the capital of the province of Cartago, in Costa
Rica, Central America; 13 m. E.S.E. of San Jos6 by the trans-
continental railway. Pop. (1900) 4536. Cartago is built 4930 ft.
above sea-level, on the fertile and beautiful plateau of San Jos6,
and at the southern base of the volcano Irazii (11,200ft.). Some
of its older buildings, especially the churches, are of considerable
interest; but all bear marks of the volcanic disturbances from
which the town has suffered on many occasions — notably in
1723, when it was nearly overwhelmed by the bursting of the
flooded crater of Irazu, and in 1841, when it was shattered by an
earthquake. There are hot mineral springs much frequented
by invalids at Bella Vista, a suburb connected with the town by a
tramway 3 m. long. The local trade is chiefly in coffee of fine
quality, which is readily cultivated in the rich volcanic soil of the
neighbourhood. Cartago is said to have been in existence as
early as 1522; it was probably named in 1563 by the Spaniard
Vazquez de Coronado, to whom its foundation is often ascribed.
Though several times plundered by buccaneers, it retained its
importance as the capital of Costa Rica until 1823, when it is said
by tradition to have contained 30,000 inhabitants. Its prosperity
rapidly diminished after the transference of the seat of govern-
ment to San Jos6, in 1823, but somewhat revived with the
development of railways after 187 1.
CARTE, THOMAS (1686-17 54), English historian, was born
at Dusmoon, near Clifton. He was educated at Oxford, and
was first brought into notice by his controversy with Dr Henry
Chandler regarding the Irish massacre, in which he defended
Charles I. His attachment to the Stuarts also caused him to
remain a non-juror, and on the discovery of the plot of Atterbury ,
whose secretary he was, he was forced to flee to France. There
he collected materials for an English edition of De Thou and
Rigault, which were purchased and published by Dr Mead.
Being recalled to England through the influence of Queen
Caroline, he published, in 1 738, A General Account of the Necessary
Materials for a History of England. The first volume of his
General History of England, which is only of value for its vast
and careful collection of facts, was published in 1747. By the
insertion in it of the statement that the king's evil had been
cured by the Pretender, Carte forfeited the favour of most of
his patrons. He, however, continued to publish; and the 2nd
volume appeared in 1750, the 3rd in 1752, the 4th in 1755.
He published also a Life of James, duke of Ormond, containing
a collection of letters, &c. (3 vols., 1735-1736; new ed., in 6 vols.,
Oxford, 1851), and a History of the Revolutions of Portugal, with
letters of Sir R. Southwell during his embassy there (London,
1740). His papers became the property of the university of
Oxford, and were deposited in the Bodleian library.
CARTER, ELIZABETH (17 17-1806), English poet and trans-
lator, daughter of the Rev. Nicholas Carter, was born at Deal,
in Kent, on the 16th of December 1717. Dr Carter educated
his children, boys and girls, alike; but Elizabeth's slowness tired
his patience, and it was only by great perseverance that she
conquered her natural incapacity for learning. She studied
late at night and early in the morning, taking snuff and chewing
green tea to keep herself awake; thus causing severe injury
to her health. She learned Greek and Latin, and Dr Johnson
said concerning a celebrated scholar that he "understood
Greek better than any one whom he had ever known except
Elizabeth Carter." She learned also Hebrew, French, German,
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and lastly some Arabic. She
studied astronomy, ancient geography, and ancient and modern
history. Edward Cave was a friend of Dr Carter, and in 1734
some of Elizabeth's verses, signed " Eliza," appeared in the
Gentleman's Magazine, to which she contributed for many years.
In 1738 Cave published her Poems upon Particular Occasions;
in 1739 she translated from the French an attack on Pope's
Essay on Man by J. P. de Crousaz; and in the same year
appeared her translation from the Italian of Algarotti's New-
tonianismo per le Dame, under the title of Sir Isaac Newton's
Philosophy explained for the use of the Ladies, in six Dialogues
on Light and Colour. Her translation of Epictetus (1758) was
undertaken in 1749 to please her friends, Thomas Seeker (after-
wards archbishop of Canterbury) and his niece, Catherine
Talbot, to whom the translation was sent, sheet by sheet, as it
was done. In 1762 Miss Carter printed a second collection of
Poems on Several Occasions. Her letters to Miss Talbot contain
an account of a tour on the continent undertaken in 1763 in
company with Edward and Elizabeth Montagu and William
Pulteney, 1st earl of Bath. Dr Carter, from 1762 to his death
in 1774, lived with his daughter in a house at Deal, which she
had purchased. An annuity was settled on her by Sir William
Pulteney and his wife, who had inherited Lord Bath's fortune;
and she had another annuity from Mrs Montagu. Among
Miss Carter's friends and correspondents were Samuel Johnson,
Bishop Butler, Richard Savage, Horace Walpole, Samuel
Richardson, Edmund Burke, Hannah More, and Elizabeth Vesey,
who was a leader of literary society. She died in Clarges Street,
Piccadilly, on the 19th of February 1806.
Her Memoirs were published in 1807; her correspondence with
Miss Talbot and Mrs Vesey in 1809 ; ana her letters to Mrs Montagu
in 1817. See also A Woman of Wit and Wisdom (1906), a biography
by Alice C. C. Gaussen.
CARTERET, SIR GEORGE (c. 16 10-1680), English politician,
was born between 1609 and 161 7 on the island of Jersey, where his
family had long been prominent landholders. He was the son
of Helier de Carteret of St Ouen, and in his youth was trained to
follow the sea. In 1639 he became comptroller of the English
navy. During the Civil War he was active in behalf of the king.
In 1643 he succeeded by reversion from his uncle, Sir Philip
Carteret, to the post of bailiff of Jersey, and in the same year
was appointed by the king lieutenant-governor of the island.
After subduing the Parliamentary party in the island, he was
commissioned (1644) a vice-admiral of Jersey and "the maritime
parts adjacent," and by virtue of that office he carried on from
there an active privateering campaign in the Royalist cause.
Parliament branded him as a pirate and excluded him specifically
from future amnesty. His rule in Jersey was severe, but profit-
able to the island; he developed its resources and made it a
refuge for Royalists, among whom in 1646 and again in 1640-
1650 was Prince Charles, who created Carteret a knight and
baronet. In 1650, in consideration of Carteret's services, Charles
granted to him " a certain island and adjacent islets near Vir-
ginia, in America," which were to be called New Jersey; but no
settlement upon this grant was made. In 1651 Carteret, after
a seven weeks' siege, was compelled to surrender Jersey to a
Parliamentary force; he then joined the Royalist exiles in France,
where for a time he held a command in the French navy. He
returned toEngland at theRestoration,became a privy councillor,
sat in parliament for Portsmouth, and also served as vice-cham-
berlain of the royal household, a position to which he had been
appointed in 1647. From 1661 to 1667 he was treasurer of the
navy. He rendered valuable service during the Dutch War,
but his lax methods of keeping accounts led to his being censured
by parliament. In 1667 he became a deputy treasurer of Ireland.
He continued nevertheless in the royal favour, and subsequently
was appointed one of the commissioners of the admiralty and
a member of the board of trade and plantations. He belonged to
that group of courtiers interested in the colonization of America,
and was one of the eight to whom Charles II. granted the country
of the Carolinas by the charters of 1663 and 1665. In 1664
James, duke of York, granted that part of his American territory
between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Sir George Carteret
414
CARTESIANISM
and John, Lord Berkeley, and in Carteret's honour this tract
received the name of New Jersey. Sir George's relative, Philip
Carteret (d. 1682), was sent over as governor in 1665, but was
temporarily deposed in 1672 by the discontented colonists,
who chose James Carteret (perhaps a natural son of Sir George)
as " president." Philip Carteret was restored to his office in
1674. In this year Lord Berkeley disposed of his share of the
grant, which finally fell under the control of William Penn and
his associates. With them Carteret agreed (1676) upon a
boundary line which divided the colony into East and West
Jersey. He died in January 16S0, and two years later his heirs
disposed of his New Jersey holdings to Penn and other quakers.
CARTESIANISM, 1 the general name given to the philosophy
developed principally in the works of Descartes, Malebranche and
Spinoza. It is impossible to exhibit the full meaning of these
authors except in connexion, for they are all ruled by one and
the same thought in different stages of its evolution. It may be
true that Malebranche and Spinoza were prepared, the former
by the study of Augustine, the latter by the study of Jewish
philosophy,to draw from Cartesian principles consequences which
Descartes never anticipated. But the foreign light did not alter
the picture on which it was cast, but only let it be seen more
clearly. The consequences were legitimately drawn. It may be
shown that they lay in the system from the first, and that they
were evolved by nothing but its own immanent dialectic At
the same time it is not likely that they would ever have been
brought into such dear consciousness, or expressed with such
consistency, except by a philosopher whose circumstances and
character had completely detached him from all the convictions
and prejudices of the age. In Malebranche, Cartesianism found
an interpreter whose meditative spirit was fostered by the
cloister, but whose speculative boldness was restrained by the
traditions of the Catholic church. In Spinoza it found one
who was in spirit and position more completely isolated than any
monk, who was removed from the influence of the religious as well
as the secular world of his time, and who in his solitude seemed
scarcely ever to hear any voice but the voice of philosophy.
It is because Cartesianism found such a pure organ of expression
that its development is, in some sense, complete and typical.
Its principles have been carried to their ultimate result, and we
have before us all the data necessary to determine their value.
The Philosophy of Descartes. — Descartes was, in the full sense
of the word, a partaker of the modern spirit. He was equally
moved by the tendencies that produced the Reformation, and
the tendencies that produced the revival of letters and science.
Like Erasmus and Bacon, he sought to escape from a tran-
scendent and unreal philosophy of the other world, to the know-
ledge of man and the world he lives in. But like Luther, he
found within human experience, among the matters nearest to
man, the consciousness of God, and therefore his renunciation
of scholasticism did not end either in materialism or in that
absolute distinction between faith and reason which inevitably
leads to the downfall of faith. What was peculiar to Descartes,
however, was the speculative interest which made it impossible
for him to rest in mere experience, whether of things spiritual or
of things secular, which made him search, both in our conscious-
ness of God and our consciousness of the world, for the links
by which they are bound to the consciousness of self. In both
Prtodoh cases ** * s kfe a™ to 8° Dac ^ to tne beginning, to retrace
of doubt the unconscious process by which the world of ex-
perience was built up, to discover the hidden logic
that connects the different parts of the structure of belief, to
substitute a reasoned system, all whose elements are inter-
dependent, for an unreasoned congeries of opinions. Hence his
first step involves reflection, doubt and abstraction. Turning
the eye of reason upon itself, he tries to measure the value of that
collection of beliefs of which he finds himself possessed; and the
first thing that reflection seems to discover is its accidental and
unconnected character. It is a mass of incongruous materials,
accumulated without system and untested. Its elements have
been put together under all kinds of influences, without any con-
l For biographical details see Descartes ; Malebranche ; Spinoza.
scious intellectual process, and therefore we can have no assur-
ance of them. In order that we may have such assurance we
must unweave the web of experience and thought which we have
woven in our sleep, that we may begin again at the beginning and
weave it over again with " clear and distinct " consciousness
of what we are doing. De omnibus dubitandum est. We must
free ourselves by one decisive effort from the weight of custom,
prejudice and tradition with which our consciousness of the world
has been overlaid, that in that consciousness in its simplest and
most elementary form we may find the true beginning of know-
ledge. The method of doubt is at the same time a method of
abstraction, by which Descartes rises above the thought of the
particular objects of knowledge, in order that he may find the
primary truth in which lies the very definition of knowledge, or
the reason why anything can be said to be true. First disappears
the whole mass of dogmas and opinions as to God and man
which are confessedly received on mere authority. Then the
supposed evidence of sense is rejected, for external reality is not
immediately given in sensation. It is acknowledged by all that
the senses often mislead us as to the nature of things without us,
and perhaps they may also mislead us as to there being anything
without us at all. Nay, by an effort, we can even carry doubt
beyond this point; we can doubt even mathematical truth.
When, indeed, we have our thoughts directed to the geometrical
demonstration, when the steps of the process are immediately
before our minds, we cannot but assent to the proposition
that the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles;
but when we forget or turn away our thoughts from such demon-
stration, we can imagine that God or some powerful spirit is
playing upon our minds to deceive them, also that even our most
certain judgments may be illusory. In this naive manner does
Descartes express the idea that there are necessities of thought
prior to, and presupposed in the truth of geometry. He is
seeking to strip thought of all the " lendings " that seem to
come to it from anything but itself, of all relation to being
that can be supposed to be given to it from without, that he may
discover the primary unity of thought and being on which all
knowledge depends. And this he finds in pure self- Gertmlaty
consciousness. Whatever I abstract from, I cannot of too
abstract from self, from the " I think " that, as Kant ***??**
puts it, accompanies all our ideas ; for it was in fact the
very independence of this universal element on the particulars
that made all our previous abstraction possible. Even doubt
rests on certitude; alone with self I cannot get rid of this self.
By an effort of thought I separate my thinking self from all
that I think, but the thinking self remains, and in thinking I
am. Cogito, ergo sum; " I think, therefore I am." The objective
judgment of self-consciousness is bound up with or involved
in the very faculty of judging, and therefore remains when we
abstract from all other objective judgments. It is an assertion
involved in the very process by which we dismiss all other
assertions. Have we not then a right to regard it as a primitive
unity of thought and being, in which is contained, or out of which
may be developed, the very definition of truth ?
The sense in which Descartes understood his first principle becomes
clearer when we look at his answers to the objections made against it.
On the one hand it was challenged by those who asked, Diff .
like Gassendi, why the argument should be based especi- iJu j^L a ot
ally on thought, and why we might not say with as good <A#
a right, ambulo, ergo sum: " I walk, therefore I am." €$ca
Descartes explains that it is only as referred to conscious-
ness that walking is an evidence of my existence; but if I
say, "lam conscious of walking, therefore I exist," this is equivalent
to saying, " I think in one particular way, therefore I exist." But
it is not thinking; in a particular way, but thinking in general that
is coextensive with my existence. I am not always conscious of
walking or of any other special state or object, but I am always
conscious, for except in consciousness there is no ego or self, and
where there is consciousness there is always an ego. ' ' Do I then always
think, even in sleep?" asks the objector; and Descartes exposes
himself to the criticisms of Locke, by maintaining that it is im-
possible that there should ever be an interval in the activity of
consciousness, and by insisting that as man is essentially a thinking
substance, the child thinks, or is self-conscious, even in its mothers
womb. The difficulty disappears when we observe that the question
as to the conditions under which self-consciousness is developed in
CARTESIANISM
4i5
the individual human subject does not affect the nature of self-
consciousness in itself or in its- relation to knowledge. * The force of
Descartes's argument really lies in this, that the world as an intelli-
gible world exists only for a conscious self, and that therefore the
unity of thought and being in self -consciousness is presupposed in
all knowledge. Of this self it is true to say that it exists only as it
thinks, and that it thinks always. Cogito, ergo sum is, as Descartes
points out, not a syllogism, but the expression of an identity which
is discerned by the simple intuition of the mind. 1 If it were other-
wise, the major " ornne quod cogiiat existit " would require to have
been known before the minor ** cogito "; whereas on the contrary
it is from the immediate consciousness of being as contained in self-
consciousness that that major can alone be derived. Again, when
Hobbes and others argued that thinking is or may be a property
of a material substance, Descartes answers that the question whether
the material and the thinking substance are one does not meet us
at the outset, but can only be solved after we have considered what
is involved in the conception of these different substances respec-
tively.* In other words, to begin by treating thinking as a quality
of a material substance, is to go outside of the intelligible world for
an explanation of the intelligible world. It is to ask for something
prior to that which is first in thought. If it be true that the conscious-
ness of self is that from which we cannot abstract, that which is
involved in the knowledge of anything, then to go beyond it and seek
for a reason or explanation of it in anything else is to go beyond
the beginning of knowledge; it is to ask for a knowledge before
knowledge.
Descartes, however, is himself unfaithful to this point of view ;
for, strictly taken, it would involve the consequence, not only that
there is nothing prior to the pure consciousness of self, but that
there can be no object which is not in necessary relation to it.
Hence there can be no absolute opposition between thought and
anything else, no opposition which thought itself does not transcend.
But Descartes commits the error of making thought the property
of a substance, a res cogitans, which as such can immediately or
directly apprehend nothing but thoughts or ideas ; while, altogether
outside of these thoughts and ideas, there is another substance
characterized by the property of extension, and with which thought
has nothing to do. Matter in space is thus changed, in Kantian
language, into a " thing in itself," an object out of all relation to
the subject; and on the other hand, mind seems to be shut up
in the magic circle of its own ideas, without any capacity of breaking
through the circle or apprehending any reality but itself. Between
thought and being, in spite of their subjective unity in self -conscious-
ness, a great gulf seems still to be fixed, which cannot be crossed
unless thought should become extended, or matter think. But to
Descartes the dualism is absolute, because it is a presupposition with
which he starts. Mind cannot go out of itself, cannot deal with
anything but thought, without ceasing to be mind; and matter
must cease to be matter ere it can lose its absolute externality, its
nature as having partes extra partes, and acquire the unity of mind.
They are opposed as the divisible and the indivisible, and there is
no possible existence of matter in thought except a representative
existence. The ideal (or, as Descartes calls it, objective) existence
of matter in thought and the real (or, as Descartes calls it, formal)
existence of matter out of thought are absolutely different and
independent things.
It was, however, impossible for Descartes to be content with
a subjective idealism that confined all knowledge to the tauto-
logical expression of self-consciousness " I am I,"
Aw/of " What I perceive I perceive." If the individual is to
ofaod. find in his self-consciousness the principle of all know-
ledge, there must be something in it which transcends
the distinction of self and not self, which carries him beyond
the limit cf his own individuality. What then is the point where
the subjective consciousness passes out into the objective,
from which it seemed at first absolutely excluded? Descartes
answers that it is through the connexion of the consciousness of
self with the consciousness of God. It is because we find God
in our minds that we find anything else. The proof of God's
existence is therefore the hinge on which the whole Cartesian
philosophy turns, and it is necessary to examine the nature of
it somewhat closely.
Descartes, in the first place, tries to extract a criterion of truth
out of the cogito , ergo sum. Why am I assured of my own existence ?
It is because the conception of existence is at once and immediately
involved in the consciousness of self. I can logically distin-
guish the two elements, but I cannot separate them; whenever I
clearly and distinctly conceive the one, I am forced to think the
other along with it. But this gives me a rule for all judgments
1 Resp. ad secundas objectiones, p. 74, — quoting from the Elzevir
edition.
* Resp. ad tertias object, p. 94.
whatever, a principle which is related to the cogito, ergo sum as
the formal to the material principle of knowledge. Whatever
we cannot separate from the clear and distinct conception of
anything, necessarily belongs to it in reality; and on the other
hand, whatever we can separate from the clear and distinct
conception of anything, does not necessarily belong to it in
reality. Let us therefore set an object clearly before us, let us
sever it in thought so far as is possible from all other objects,
and we shall at once be able to determine what properties and
relations are essential and what are not essential to it. And if
we find empirically that any object manifests a property or
relation not involved in the clear and distinct conception of it,
we can say with certainty that such property or relation does not
belong to it except by arbitrary arrangement, or, in other words,
by the external combination of things which in their own nature
have no affinity or connexion.
Now, by the application of this principle, we might at once
assure ourselves of many mathematical truths; but, as has been
already shown, there is a point of view from which we may
doubt even these, so long as the idea of a God that deceives us
is not excluded. If it is not certain that there is a God that
cannot lie, it is not certain that there is an objective matter in
space to which mathematical truth applies. But the existence of
God may be proved in two ways. In the first place, it may be
proved through the principle of causality, which is a self-evident
truth. We have in our mind many ideas, and according to the
principle of causality, all these ideas must be derived from
something that contains a " formal " reality which corresponds
to their " objective " reality, i.e. which contains at least as
much reality in its existence out of thought as they contain in
their existence in thought. Now we might derive from ourselves
not only the ideas of other minds like ourselves, but possibly
also of material objects, since these are lower in the scale of
existence than ourselves, and it is conceivable that the idea of
them might be got by omitting some of the qualities which
distinguish ourselves. But the idea of God, of a being who is
eternal and immutable, all-powerful, all-wise, and all-good,
cannot be derived from our own limited and imperfect existence.
The origin, therefore, must be sought in a being who contains
actually in himself all that is contained in our idea of him.
It was objected by some of the critics of Descartes that the idea
of God as the infinite Being is merely negative, and that it is derived
from the finite simply by abstracting from its conditions. f
Descartes answers that the case is just the reverse — the Dea ^ artet *
infinite is the positive idea, and the finite is the negative, m £ !__
and therefore the former is the presupposition of the latter. PAX***
As Kant, at a later date, pointed out that space is not a general
conception, abstracted from the ideas of particular spaces, and
representing the common element in them, but that, on the contrary,
the ideas of particular spaces are got by the limitation of the one
infinite space that is prior to them, so Descartes maintains in general
that the idea of the finite is had only by limitation of the infinite,
and not the idea of the infinite by abstraction from the particular
determinations of the finite. It is a necessary consequence of this
that the self-consciousness of a finite being is bound up with the
consciousness of the infinite. Hence the iaea of God is not merely
one among other ideas which we have, but it is the one idea that is
necessary to our very existence as thinking beings, the idea through
which alone we can think ourselves, or anything else. " I ought
never to suppose/' says Descartes, " that my conception of the
infinite is a negative idea, got by negation of the finite, just as I
conceive repose to be merely negation of movement, and darkness
merely the negation of light. On the contrary, I see manifestly
that there is more reality in the infinite than in the finite substance,
and that therefore I have in me the notion of the infinite, even in
some sense prior to the notion of the finite, or, in other words, that
the notion of myself in some sense presupposes the notion of God ;
for how could I doubt or desire, how could I be conscious of anything
as a want, how could I know that I am not altogether perfect, if I
had not in me the idea of a being more perfect than myself, by com-
parison with whom I recognize the defects of my own existence?" 8
Descartes then goes on in various ways to illustrate the thesis that
the consciousness of a defective and growing nature cannot give
rise to the idea of infinite perfection, but on the contrary presupposes
it. We could not think of a series of approximations unless there
were somehow present to us the idea of the completed infinite as the
goal we aim at. If we had not the consciousness of ourselves as
finite in relation to the infinite, either we should not be conscious of
* Meditatio tertia, p. 2 1 .
416
CARTESIANISM
ourselves at all, or we should be conscious of ourselves as infinite.
The image of God is so impressed by him upon us, that we " con-
ceive that resemblance wherein the idea of God is contained by the
same faculty whereby we are conscious of ourselves." In other
words, our consciousness of ourselves is at the same time conscious-
ness of our finitude, and hence of our relation to a being who is
infinite.
The principle which underlies the reasoning of Descartes is, that
to be conscious of a limit, is to transcend it. ^Ve could not feel the
limits either upon our thought or upon our existence, we could not
doubt or desire, if we did not already apprehend something beyond
these limits. Nay, we could not be conscious of our existence as
individual selves if we were not conscious of that which is not
ourselves, and of a unity in which both self and not-self are included.
Our individual life is therefore to us as self-conscious beings a part
of a wider universal life. Doubt and aspiration are but the mani-
festation of this essential division and contradiction of a nature
which, as conscious of itself, is at the same time conscious of the
whole in which it is a part. And as the existence of a self and its
consciousness are one, so we may say that a thinking being is not
only an individual, but always in some sense identified with that
universal unity of being to which it is essentially related.
If Descartes had followed out this line of thought, he would have
been led at once to the pantheism of Spinoza, if not beyond it.
As it is, he is on the verge of contradiction with himself when he
speaks of the consciousness of God as in some sense prior to the con-
sciousness of self. How can anything be prior to the first principle
of knowledge? It is no answer to say that the consciousness of
God is the principium essendi t while the consciousness of self is the
principium cognoscendi. For, if the idea of God is prior to the idea
of self, knowledge must begin where existence begins, with God.
The words " in some sense/' with which Descartes qualifies his
assertion of the priority of the idea of God, only betray his hesitation
and his partial consciousness of the contradiction in which he is
involved. Some of Descartes's critics presented this difficulty to
him in another form, and accused him of reasoning in a circle when
he said that it is because God cannot lie that we are certain that our
clear and distinct ideas do not deceive us. The very existence of the
conscious self, the cogito, ergo sum. which is the first of all truths
and therefore prior in certitude to tne existence of God. is believed
only because of the clearness and distinctness with which we appre-
hend it. How then, they argued, could God's truthfulness be our
security for a principle which we must use in order to prove the
being of God ? The answer of Descartes is somewhat lame. We
cannot doubt any self-evident principle, or even any truth based
on a self-evident principle, when we are directly contemplating it
in all the necessity of its evidence; it is only when we forget or turn
away from this evidence, and begin to think of the possibility of a
deceitful God, that a doubt arises which cannot be removed except
by the conviction that God is true. 1 It can scarcely be said that
this is a dignus vindice nodus, or that God can fitly appear as a
kind of second-best resource to the forgetful spirit that has lost its
direct hold on truth and its faith in itself. God, truth, and the human
spirit are thus conceived as having merely external and accidental
relations with each other. What Descartes, however, is really ex-
pressing in this exoteric way is simply that beneath and beyond all
particular truths lies the great general truth of the unity of thought
and existence. In contemplating particular truth, we may not
consciously relate it to this unity, but when we have to defend
ourselves against scepticism we are forced to realize this relation.
The ultimate answer to any attack upon a special aspect or element
of truth must be to show that the fate of truth itself, the very
possibility of knowledge, is involved in the rejection of it, and that
we cannot doubt it without doubting reason itself. But to doubt
reason is, in the language of Descartes, to doubt the truthfulness of
God, for, in his view, the idea of God is involved in the very con-
stitution of reason. Taken in this way then, the import of Descartes's
answer is, that the consciousness of self, like every other particular
truth, is not at first seen to rest on the consciousness of God, but
that when we realize what it means we see that it does so rest.
But if this be so, then in making the consciousness of self his first
principle of knowledge, Descartes has stopped short of the truth.
It can only be the first principle if it is understood, not as the
consciousness of the individual self, but in a sense in which the
consciousness of self is identical with the consciousness of God.
Descartes, however, is far from a clear apprehension of the ultimate
unity of thought and being, which nevertheless he strives to find in
God. Beginning with an absolute separation of the res cogitans
from the res extensa. he is continually falling back into dualism
just when he seemed to have escaped from it. Even in God the
absolute unity, idea and reality fall asunder; our idea of God is not
God in us, it is only an idea of which God's existence is the cause.
But the category of causality, if it forms a bridge between different
things, as here between knowing and being, at tne same time repels
them from each other. It is a category of external relation which
may be adequate to express the relation of the finite to the finite,
but not the relation of tne finite to the infinite. We cannot conceive
God as the cause of our idea of him, without making God a purely
1 Resp. quartae, p. 234.
objective and therefore finite existence. Nor is the case better
when we turn to the so-called ontological argument, — that existence
is necessarily involved in the idea of God, just as the property of
having its angles equal to two right angles is involved in the idea of
a triangle. If indeed we understood this as meaning that thought
transcends the distinction between itself and existence, and that
therefore existence cannot be a thing in itself out of thought, but
must be an intelligible world that exists as such only for the thinking
being, there is some force in the argument. But this meaning we
cannot find in Descartes, or to find it we must make him inconsistent
with himself. He was so far from having quelled the phantom
" thing in itself," that he treated matter in space as such a thing,
and thus confused externality of space with externality to the mind.
On this dualistic basis, the ontological argument becomes a manifest
paralogism, and lies open to all the objections that Kant brought
against it. That the idea of God involves existence, proves only
that God, if he exists at all, exists by the necessity of his being.
But the link that shall bind thought to existence is still wanting,
and, in consistency with the other presuppositions of Descartes, it
cannot be supplied.
But again, even if we allow to Descartes that God is the unity of
thought and being, we must still ask what kind of unity ? Is it a
mere generic unity, reached by abstraction, and therefore leaving
out alTthe distinguishing characteristics of the particulars under it?
Or is it a concrete unity to which the particular elements are sub-
ordinated, but in which they are nevertheless included ? To answer
this question, we need only look at the relation of the finite to the
infinite, as it is expressed in that passage already quoted, and in
many others. Descartes always speaks of the infinite as a purely
affirmative or positive existence, and of the finite in so far as it is
distinguished from the infinite, as purely negative, or in other words
as a nonentity. "I am," he says, a mean between God and
nothing, between the Supreme Being and not-being. In so far as I
am created by God, there is nothing in me that can deceive me
or lead me into error. But on the other hand, if I consider myself
as participating in nothingness or not-being, inasmuch as I am not
myself the Supreme Being, but in many ways defective, I find myself
exposed to an infinity of errors. Thus error as such is not something
real that depends on God, but simply a defect; I do not need to
explain it by means of any special faculty bestowed on me by God,
but merely by the fact that the faculty for discerning truth from
error with which he has endowed me, is not infinite."* But if we
follow out this principle to its logical result, we must say not only
that error is a consequence of finitude, but also that the very existence
of the finite as such is an error or illusion. All finitude, all determina-
tion, according to the well-known Spinozistic aphorism, is negation,
and negation cannot constitute reality. To know the reality of
things, therefore, we have to abstract from their limits, or in other
words, the only reality is the infinite. Finite being, qua finite, has
no existence, and finite self-consciousness, consciousness of a self
in opposition to or limited by a not-self, is an illusion. But Descartes
does not thus reason. He does not see " anything in the nature of
the infinite which should exclude the existence of finite things."
" What," he asks, " would become of the power of that imaginary
infinite if it could create nothing? Perceiving in ourselves the
power of thinking, we can easily conceive that there should be a
greater intelligence elsewhere. And even if we should suppose that
intelligence increased ad infinitum, we need not fear that our own
would be lessened. And the same is true of all other attributes
which we ascribe to God, even of his power, provided only that we
do not suppose that the power in us is not subjected to God's will.
In all points, therefore, he is infinite without any exclusion of created
things." * The truth of this view we need not dispute; the question
is as to its consistency with Cartesian principles. It may be a higher
idea of God to conceive him as revealing himself in and to finite
creatures; but it is a different idea from that which is implied in
Descartes's explanations of error. It is an inconsistency that brings
Descartes nearer to Christianity, and nearer, it may also be said,
to a true metaphysic; but it is not the less an inconsistency with
his fundamental principles, which necessarily disappears in their
subsequent development. To conceive the finite as constituted not
merely by the absence of some of the positive elements of the infinite,
but as in necessary unity with the infinite; to conceive the infinite
as not merely that which has no limits or determinations, but as
that which is self-determined and self-manifesting, which through all
finitude and manifestation returns upon itself, may not be erroneous.
But it would not be difficult to show that the adoption of such a
conception involves the rejection or modification of almost every
doctrine of the Cartesian system.
In connexion with this inconsistency we may notice the very
different relations in which Descartes conceives mind on the one side
and matter on the other, to stand towards God, who yet Mtmdmad
is the cause of both, and must therefore, by the principle „J^Jr^
of causality, contain in himself all that is in both. Matter m * n * r *
and mind are to Descartes absolute opposites. Whatever can
be asserted of mind can be denied of matter, whatever can be
asserted of matter can be denied of mind. Matter is passive, mind
is active ; matter is extended, and therefore divisible ad infinitum ;
1 Meditatio quarta, p. 26.
' Resp, ad sec. object, p. 75.
CARTESIANISM
417
mind is an indivisible unity. In fact, though of this Descartes is
not conscious, the determination of the one is mediated by its
opposition to the other; the ideas of object and subject, the self
and not-self, are terms of a relation distinguishable but inseparable.
But in the idea of God we must find a unity which transcends this
difference in one way or another, whether by combining the two
under a higher notion, or, as it would be more natural to expect on
Cartesian principles, by abstracting equally from the particular
characteristics of both. Descartes really does neither, or rather he
acts partly on the one principle and partly on the other. In his idea
of God he abstracts from the properties of matter but not from those
of mind. " God," he says, contains in himself formaliter all that
is in mind, but only eminenter all that is in matter "; 1 or, as he
elsewhere expresses it more popularly, he is mind, but he is only
the creator of matter. And for this he gives as his reason, that
matter as being divisible and passive is essentially imperfect. Ipsa
natura corporis multas imperfectiones involvit, and, therefore, " there
is more analogy between sounds and colours than there is between
material things and God." But the real imperfection here lies in the
abstractness of the Cartesian conception of matter as merely
extended, merely passive ; and this is balanced by the equal abstract-
ness of the conception of mind or self -consciousness as an absolutely
simple activity, a pure intelligence without any object but itself.
If matter as absolutely opposed to mind is imperfect, mind as
absolutely opposed to matter is equally imperfect. In fact they are
the elements or factors of a unity, and lose all meaning when severed
from each other, and if we are to seek this unity by abstraction, we
must equally abstract from both.
The result of this one-sidedness is seen in the fact that Descartes,
who begins by separating mind from matter, ends by finding the
_ mb essence of mind in pure will, «'.«. in pure formal self-deter-
JJJfJi mination. Hence God's will is conceived as absolutely
arbitrary, not determined by any end or law, for all laws,
even the necessary truths that constitute reason, spring from
God' 8 determination, and do not precede it. " He is the author
of the essence of things no less than their existence," and his will
has no reason but his will. In man there is an intelligence with
eternal laws or truths involved in its structure, which so far limits
his will. " He finds the nature of good and truth already determined
by God, and his will cannot be moved by anything else." His
highest freedom consists in having his will determined by a clear
perception of the nature of good and truth, and "he is never in-
different except when he is ignorant of it, or at least does not see it
so clearly as to be lifted above the possibility of doubt." 1 In-
difference of will is to him " the lowest grade of liberty," yet, on the
other hand, in nothing does the image of God in him show itself
more clearly than in the fact that his will is not limited by his
clear and distinct knowledge, but is " in a manner infinite." For
" there is no object of any will, even the infinite will of God, to
which our will does not extend."* Belief is a free act, for as we
can yield our assent to the obscure conceptions presented by sense
and the imagination, and thus allow ourselves to be led into error,
so on the other hand we can refuse to give this assent, or allow our-
selves to be determined by anything but the clear and distinct ideas
of intelligence. That which makes it possible for us to err is that
also in which the divine image in us is most clearly seen. We cannot
have the freedom of God whose will creates the object of his know-
ledge; but in reserving our assent for the clear and distinct
perceptions of intelligence, we, as it were, re-enact for ourselves
the divine law, and repeat, so far as is possible to finite beings, the
transcendent act of will in which truth and good had their origin.
The inherent defect of this view is the divorce it makes between the
form and the matter of intelligence. It implies that reason or self-
consciousness is one thing, and that truth is another and quite
different thing, which has been united to it by the arbitrary will of
God. The same external conception of the relation of truth to the
mind is involved in the doctrine of innate ideas. It is true that
Descartes did not hold that doctrine in the coarse form in which it
was attributed to him by Locke, but expressly declares that he has
11 never said or thought at any time that the mind required innate
ideas which were separated from the faculty of thinking. He had
simply used the word innate to distinguish those ideas which are
derived from that faculty, and not from external objects or the
determination of the will. Just as when we say generosity is innate
in certain families, and in certain others diseases, like the gout or
the stone, we do not mean to imply that infants in their mother's
womb are affected with these complaints." 4 Yet Descartes, as we
have seen, does not hold that these truths are involved in the very
nature of intelligence as such, so that we cannot conceive a self-
conscious being without them. On the contrary, we are to regard
the divine intelligence as by arbitrary act determining that two and
two should be four, or that envy should be a vice. We are " not to
conceive eternal truth flowing from God as rays from the sun." 6
In other words, we are not to conceive all particular truths as
different aspects of one truth. It is part of the imperfection of
man's finite nature that he " finds truth and good determined for
1 Resp. ad sec. object, pp. 72-73. * Resp. Sextae, 160-163.
8 Principia, i. 35. 4 Notae in Progratnma, p. 184.
5 Epistolae, i. 1 10.
him." It is something given, — given, indeed, along with his very
faculty of thinking, but still given as an external limit to it. ft
belongs not to his nature as spirit, but to his finitude as man.
After what has been said, it is obvious that the transition from
God to matter must be somewhat arbitrary and external. God's
truthfulness is pledged for the reality of that of which we r h
have clear and distinct ideas ; and we have clear and Tn V™ °\
distinct ideas of the external world so long as we conceive €X ^S
it simply as extended matter, infinitely divisible, and wonam
movecf entirely from without, — so long, in short, as we conceive it
as the direct opposite of mind, and do not attribute to it any one
of the properties of mind. " Omnes proprietates, quas in ea clare
percipimus, ad hoc unum reducuntur, quod sit partibilis et mobilis,
secundum partes." We must, therefore, free ourselves from the
obscure and confused modes of thought which arise whenever we
attribute any of the secondary qualities, which exist merely in our
sensations, to the objects that cause these sensations. The subjec-
tive character of such qualities is proved by the constant change
which takes place in them, without any change of the object in
which they are perceived. A piece of wax cannot lose its extension;
but its colour, its hardness, and all the other qualities whereby it is
presented to sense, may be easily altered. Wnat is objective in all
this is merely an extended substance, and the modes of motion
or rest through which it is made to pass. In like manner we must
separate from our notion of matter ail ideas of actio in distans, — e.g.
we must explain weight not as a tendency to the centre of the earth
or an attraction of distant particles of matter, but as a consequence
of the pressure of other bodies, immediately surrounding that which
is felt to be heavy. 6 For the only conceivable actio m distans is
that which is mediated by thought, and it is only in so far as we
suppose matter to have in it a principle of activity like thought,
that we can accept such explanations of its motion. Again, while
we must thus keep our conception of matter clear of ail elements
that do not belong to it, we must also be careful not to take away
from it those that do belong to it. It is a defect of distinctness in
our ideas when we conceive an attribute as existing apart from its
substance, or a substance without its attribute; for this is to treat
elements that are only separated by a " distinction of reason," as
if they were distinct things. The conception of the possibility of a
vacuum or empty space arises merely from our confusing the possible
separation of any mode or form of matter from matter in general
with the impossible separation of matter in general from its own
essential attribute. Accordingly, in his physical philosophy,
Descartes attempts to explain everything on mechanical principles,
starting with the hypothesis that a certain quantity of motion
has been impressed on the material universe by God at the first, a
quantity which can never be lost or diminished, and that space is an
absolute plenum in which motion propagates itself in circles.
It is unnecessary to follow Descartes into the detail of the theory
of vortices. It is more to the purpose to notice the nature of the
reasons by which he is driven to regard such a mechanical Uatmptm m
explanation of the universe as necessary. A real or sub- M***"**
stantive existence is, in his view, a res completa, a thing attirene *
that can be conceived as a whole in itself without relations
to any other thing. Now matter and mind are, he
thinks, such complete existences, so long as we conceive them, as
pure intelligence must conceive them, as abstract opposites of each
other; and do not permit ourselves to be confused by those mixed
modes of thought which are due to sense or imagination. Descartes
does not see that in this very abstract opposition there is a bond
of union between mind and matter, that they are correlative
opposites, and therefore in their separation res incompletae. In
other words, they are merely elements of reality substantiated by
abstract thought into independent realities. He indeed partly
retracts his assertion that mind and matter severed from each other
are res completae, when he declares that neither can be conceived
as existing apart from God, and that therefore, strictly speaking,
God alone is a substance. But, as we have seen, he avoids the
necessary inference that in God the opposition between mind and
matter is reconciled or transcended, by conceiving God as abstract
self -consciousness or will, and the material world not as his necessary
manifestation, but simply as his creation, — as having its origin in
an act of bare volition and that only. His God is the God of mono-
theism and not of Christianity, and therefore the world is to God
always a foreign matter which he brings into being, and acts on
from without, but in which he is not revealed.
It is a natural consequence of this view that nature is essentially
dead matter, that beyond the motion it has received from God at the
beginning, and which it transmits from part to part AnitBMia
without increase or diminution, it has no principle of aaigu ^L^
activity in it. Every trace of vitality in it must be
explained away as a mere false reflection upon it of the nature of
mind. The world is thus " cut in two with a hatchet," and there
is no attraction to overcome the mutual repulsion of its severed
parts. Nothing can be admitted in the material half that savours of
self-determination, all its energy must be communicated, not self-
originated ; there is no room for gravitation, still less for magnetism
or chemical affinity, in this theory. A fortiori, animal life must be
km.
1 Resp. Sextae, pp. 165-166*
v. 14
4 i8
CARTESIANISM
completely explained away. The machine may be very complicated ,
but it is still, and can be nothing but, a machine. If we once ad-
mitted that matter could be anything but mechanical, we should be
on the way to admit that matter could become mind. When a
modern physical philosopher declares that everything, even life and
thought, is ultimately reducible to matter, we cannot always be
certain that he means what he seems to say. Not seldom the
materialist soi-disant, when we hear his account of the properties
of matter, turns out to be something like a spiritualist in disguise ;
but when Descartes asserted that everything but mind is material,
and that the animals are automata, there is no such dubiety of
interpretation. He said what he meant, and meant what he said,
in the hardest sense his words can bear. His matter was not even
gravitating, much less living; it had no property except that of
retaining and transmitting the motion received from without by
pressure and impact. And his animals were automata, not merely
in the sense of being governed by sensation and instinct, but precisely
in the sense that a watch is an automaton. Henry More cries out
against the ruthless consequence with which he develops his principles
to this result. " In this, he says, " I do not so much admire the
penetrative power of your genius as I tremble for the fate of the
animals. What I recognize in you is not only subtlety of thought,
but a hard and remorseless logic with which you arm yourself as
with a sword of steel, to take away life and sensation with one blow,
from almost the whole animal kingdom. 1 ' But Descartes was not
the man to be turned from the legitimate result of his principles by
a scream. " Nee moror astutias et sagacitates canum et vulpium,
nee quaecunque alia propter cibum, venerem, aut metum a brut is
fiunt . Profiteer en im me posse perfacile ilia omnia ut a sola membrorum
conformationeprofecUi explicare. l
The difficulty reaches its height when Descartes attempts to
explain the union of the body and spirit in man. Between two
Natan of substances which, when clearly and distinctly conceived,
Mtasstion. d° not * m ply ^ch other, there can be none but an artificial
unity, — a unity of composition that still leaves^ them
external to each other. Even God cannot make them one in any
higher sense. 2 And as it is impossible in the nature of mind to see
any reason why it should be embodied, or in the nature of matter
to see any reason why it should become the organ of mind, the union
of the two must be taken as a mere empirical fact. When we put
on the one side all that belongs to intelligence, and on the other
all that belongs to matter, there is a residuum in our ideas which we
cannot reduce to either head. This residuum consists of our appetites,
our passions, and our sensations, including not only the feelings of
pain and pleasure, but also the perceptions of colour, smell, taste, of
hardness and softness, and all the other qualities apprehended by
touch. These must be referred to the union of mind with body.
They are subjective in the sense that they give us no information
as to the nature either of things or of mind. Their function is only
to indicate what things are useful or hurtful to our composite nature
as such, or in other words what things tend to confirm or dissolve
the unity of mind and body. They indicate that something is taking
place in our body, or without it, and so stimulate us to some kind of
action, but what it is that is taking place they do not tell us. There
is no resemblance in the sensation of pain produced by great heat to
the rending of the fibres of our body that causes it. out we do not
need to know the real origin of our sensation to prevent us going
too near the fire. Sensation leads us into error only when we are not
conscious that its office is merely practical, and when we attempt
to make objective judgments by means of its obscure and confused
ideas, e.g. when we say that there is heat in our hands or in the fire.
And the remedy for this error is to be found simply in the clear
conviction of the subjectivity of sensation.
These views of the nature of sense, however, at once force us to
ask how Descartes can consistently admit that a subjective result
Theory of suc ^ as ^nsation, a result in mind, should be produced
^^ by matter, and on the other hand how an objective result,
a result in matter, should be effected by mind. Descartes
explains at great length, according to his modification of
the physiology of the day, that the pineal gland, which is the im-
mediate organ of the soul, is acted on by the nerves through the
" animal spirits,'* and again by reaction upon these spirits produces
motions in the body. It is an obvious remark that this explanation
either materializes mind, or else puts for the solution the very problem
to be solved. It was therefore in the spirit of Descartes, it was only
making explicit what is involved in many of his expressions, when
Geulincx, one of his earliest followers, formulated the theory of
occasional causes. The general approval of the Cartesian school
proved that this was a legitimate development of doctrine. Yet it
tore away the last veil from the absolute dualism of the system,
which had so far stretched the antagonism of mind and matter
that no mediation remained possible, or what is the same thing,
remained possible only through an inexplicable will of God. The
intrusion of such a Dens ex machina into philosophy only showed
that philosophy by its violent abstraction nad destroyed the unity
of the known ana intelligible world, and was, therefore, forced to
seek that unity in the region of the unknown and unintelligible.
If our light be darkness, then in our darkness we must seek for fight;
Epist. i. 66, 67.
* Princ. i. 60.
if reason be contradictory in itself, truth must be found in unreason.
The development of the Cartesian school was soon to show what is the
necessary and inevitable end of such worship of the unknown.
To the ethical aspect of his philosophy, Descartes, unlike Spinoza,
only devoted a subordinate attention. In a short treatise, however,
he discussed the relation of reason to the passions. After Bthka.
we have got over the initial difficulty, that matter should
give rise to effects in mind, and mind in matter, and have admitted
that in man the unity of mind and body turns what in the animals
is mere mechanical reception of stimulus from without and reaction
upon it into an action and reaction mediated by sensation, emotion
and passion, another question presents itself. How can the mere
natural movement of passion, the nature of which is fixed by the
original constitution of our body, and of the things that act upon
it, be altered or modified by pure reason ? For while it is obvious
that morality consists in the determination of reason by itself, it is
not easy to conceive how the same being who is determined by
passion from without should also be determined by reason from
within. How, in other words, can a spiritual being maintain its
character as self-determined, or at least determined only by the clear
and distinct ideas of the reason which are its innate forms, in the
presence of this foreign element of passion that seems to make it
the slave of external impressions? Is reason able to crush this
intruder, or to turn it into a servant ? Can the passions be annihil-
ated, or can they be spiritualized ? Descartes could not properly
adopt either alternative ; he could not adopt the ethics of asceticism,
for the union of body and mind is, in his view, natural ; and hence
the passions which are the results of that union are in themselves good.
They are provisions of nature for the protection of the unity of soul
and body, and stimulate us to the acts necessary for that purpose.
Yet, on the other hand, he could not admit that these passions are
capable of being completely spiritualized ; for so long as the unity
of body and soul is regarded as merely external and accidental, it is
impossible to think that the passions which arise out of this unity
can be transformed into the embodiment and expression of reason.
Descartes, indeed, points out that every passion has a lower and
a higher form, and while in its lower or primary form it is based
on the obscure ideas produced by the motion of the animal spirits,
in its higher form it is connected with the clear and distinct judg-
ments of reason regarding good and evil. If, however, the unity
of soul and body be a unity of composition, there is an element of
obscurity in the judgments of passion which cannot be made clear,
an element in desire that cannot be spiritualized. If the mind be
external to the passions it can only impose upon them an external
rule of moderation. On such a theory no ideal morality is possible
to man in his present state; for, in order to the attainment of such
an ideal morality, it would be necessary that the accidental element
obtruded into his life as a spiritual being by his connexion with the
body should be expelled. What can be attained under present con-
ditions is only to abstract so far as is possible from external things,
and those relations to external things into which passion brings us.
Hence the great importance which Descartes attaches to the dis-
tinction between things in our power and things not in our power.
What is not in our power includes all outward things, and therefore
it is our highest wisdom to regard them as determined by an absolute
fate, or the eternal decree of God. We cease to wish for the im-
possible; and therefore to subdue our passions we only need to
convince ourselves that no effort of ours can enable us to secure
their objects. On the other hand, that which is within our power,
and which, therefore, we cannot desire too earnestly, is virtue.
But virtue in this abstraction from all objects of desire is simply
the harmony of reason with itself, the Arapa££a of the Stoic under
a slight change of aspect. Thus in ethics, as in metaphysics,
Descartes ends not with a reconciliation of the opposed elements,
but with a dualism, or at best, with a unity which is the result of
abstraction.
The Philosophy of Malebranche. — Malebranche was prepared,
by the ascetic training of the cloister and the teaching of Augus-
tine, to bring to clear consciousness and expression many of the
tendencies that were latent and undeveloped in the philosophy
of Descartes. To use a chemical metaphor, the Christian
Platonism of the church father was a medium in which Cartesian-
ism could precipitate the product of its elements. Yet the medium
was, as we shall see, not a perfect one, and hence the product
was not quite pure. Without metaphor, Malebranche, by his
previous habits of thought, was well fitted to detect and develop
the pantheistic and ascetic elements of his master's philosophy.
But he was not well fitted to penetrate through the veil of popular
language under which the discordance of that philosophy with
orthodox Christianity was hidden. On the contrary, the whole
training of the Catholic priest, and especially his practical spirit,
with that tendency to compromise which a practical spirit
always brings with it, enabled him to conceal from himself as
well as from others the logical result of his principles. And we
CARTESIANISM
419
do not wonder even when we find him treating as a "miserable "
the philosopher who tore away the veil.
Malebranche saw " all things in God" In other words, he
taught that knowledge is possible only in so far as thought is
the expression, not of the nature of the individual subject as
such, but of a universal life in which he and all other rational
beings partake. " No one can feel my individual pain; every
one can see the truth which I contemplate — why is it so ? The
reason is that my pain is a modification of my substance, but
truth is the common good of all spirits." 1 This idea is ever
present to Malebranche, and is repeated by him in an endless
variety of forms of expression. Thus, like Descartes, but with
more decision, he tells us that the idea of the infinite is prior to
the idea of the finite. " We conceive of the infinite being by
the very fact that we conceive of being without thinking whether
it be finite or no. But in order that we may think of a finite
being, we must necessarily cut off or deduct something from the
general notion of being, which consequently we must previously
possess. Thus the mind does not apprehend anything whatever,
except in and through the idea that it has of the infinite; and
so far is it from being the case that this idea is formed by the
confused assemblage of all the ideas of particular things as the
philosophers maintain, that, on the contrary, all these particular
ideas are only participations in the general idea of the infinite,
just as God does not derive his being from the creatures, but all
the creatures are imperfect participations of the divine Being. "*
Again, he tells us, in the same chapter, that " when we wish to
think of any particular thing, we first cast our view upon all
being, and then apply it to the consideration of the object in
question. We could not desire to see any particular object unless
we saw it already in a confused and general way, and as there is
nothing which we cannot desire to see, so all objects must be in
a manner present to our spirit." Or, as he puts it in another
place, " our mind would not be capable of representing to itself
the general ideas of genera and species if it did not see all things
as contained in one; for every creature being an individual
we cannot say that we are apprehending any created thing
when we think the general idea of a triangle."
The main idea that is expressed in all these different ways is
simply this, that to determine any individual object as such, we
must relate it to, and distinguish it from, the whole of which
it is a part ; and that, therefore, thought could never
JSJmJJJ/ apprehend anything if it did not bring with itself the
mlndtn* '" ea °* tne i nte Ufe">le world as a unity. Descartes had
hum*a already expressed this truth in his Meditations, but
know ne na ^ deprived it of its full significance by making a
hdre. distinction between the being and the idea of God, the
former of which, in his view, was only the cause of the
latter. Malebranche detects this error, and denies that there is any
idea of the infinite, which is a somewhat crude way of saying that
there is no division between the idea of the infinite and its reality.
What Reid asserted of the external world, that it is not represented
by an idea in our minds, but is actually present to them, Malebranche
asserted of God. No individual thing, he tells us — and an idea is
but an individual thing — could represent the infinite. On the
contrary, all individual things are represented through the infinite
Being, who contains them all in his substance " tres efficace, et par
consequence tres intelligible." 8 We know God by himself, material
things only by their ideas in God, for they are " unintelligible in
themselves, and we can see them only in the being who contains
them in an intelligible manner." And thus, unless we in some way
41 saw God, we should be able to see nothing else." The vision of
God or in God, therefore, is an " intellectual intuition " in which
seer and seen, knower and known, are one. Our knowledge of things
is our participation in God's knowledge of them.
When we have gone so far with Malebranche, we are tempted to
ask why he does not follow out his thought to its natural conclusion.
If the idea of God is not separable from his existence, if it is through
the idea of him that all things are known, and through his existence
that all things are, then it would seem necessarily to follow that our
consciousness of God is but a part of God's consciousness of himself,
that our consciousness of self and other things is but God's conscious-
ness of them, and lastly, that there is no existence either of ourselves
or other things except in this consciousness. To understand Male-
branche is mainly to understand how he stopped short of results
that seemed to lie so directly in the line of his thought.
To begin with the last point, it is easy to see that Malebranche
only asserts unity of idea and reality in God, to deny it everywhere
1 Morale, i. 1, §2. * Recherche, iii. pt. ii. ch. vi. * Recherche, ch. vii.
else, which with him is equivalent to asserting it in general and
denying it in particular. To him, as to Descartes, the opposition
between mind and matter is absolute. Material things cannot come
into our minds nor can our minds go out of themselves " pour se
promener dans les cieux." 4 Hence they are in themselves absolutely
unknown; they are known only in Cod, in whom are their ideas,
and as these ideas again are quite distinct from the reality, they
" might be presented to the mind without anything existing." That
they exist out of God in another manner than the intelligible manner
of their existence in God, is explained by a mere act of His will,
that is, it is not explained at all. Though we see all things in God,
therefore, there is no connexion between his existence and theirs.
The "world is not a necessary emanation of divinity; God is
perfectly self -sufficient, and the idea of the infinitely perfect Being
can be conceived quite apart from any other. The existence of the
creatures is due to the free decrees of God." 8 Malebranche, therefore,
still treats of external things as " things in themselves," which have
an existence apart from thought, even the divine thought, though
it is only in and through the divine thought they can be known by us.
" To see the material world, or rather to judge that it exists (since
in itself it is invisible), it is necessary that God should reveal it to
us, for we cannot see the result of his arbitrary will through necessary-
reason."*
But if we know external things only through their idea in God,
how do we know ourselves? Is it also through the idea of us in
God? Here we come upon a point in which Malebranche diverges
very far from his master. We do not, he says, properly know
ourselves at all as we know God or even external objects. We are
conscious of ourselves by inner sense {sentiment interieur), and from
this we know that we are, but we do not know what we are. " We
know the existence of our soul more distinctly than of our body,
but we have not so perfect a knowledge of our soul as of our body."
This is shown by the fact that from our idea of body as extended
substance, we can at once see what are its possible modifications.
In other words, we only need the idea of extended substance to see
that there is an inexhaustible number of figures and motions of
which it is capable. The whole of geometry is but a development
of what is given already in the conception of extension. But it is
not so with our consciousness of self, which does not enable us to
say prior to actual experience what sensations or passions are
possible to us. We only know what heat, cold, light, colour, hunger,
anger and desire are by feeling them. Our knowledge extends as
far as our experience and no further. Nay, we have good reason to
believe that many of these modifications exist in our soul only by
reason of its accidental association with a body, and that if it were
freed from that body it would be capable of far other and higher ex-
periences. " We know by feeling that our soul is great, but perhaps
we know almost nothing of what it is in itself." The informations
of sense have, as Descartes taught, only a practical but no theoretical
value; they tell us nothing of the external world, the real nature
of which we know not through touch and taste and sight, but only
through our idea of extended substances; while of the nature of
the soul they do not tell us much more than that it exists and that
it is not material. And in this latter case we have no idea, nothing
better than sense to raise us above its illusions. It is clear from
these statements that by self-consciousness Malebranche means
consciousness of desires and feelings, which belong to the individual
as such, and not consciousness of self as thinking. He begins, in
fact, where Descartes ended, and identifies the consciousness of
self as thinking, and so transcending the limits of its own particular
being, with the consciousness or idea of God. And between the
consciousness of the finite in sense and the consciousness of the
infinite in thought, or in other words, between the consciousness of
the universal and the consciousness of the individual, he sees no
connexion. Malebranche is just one step from the pantheistic
conclusion that the consciousness of finite individuality as such is
illusory, and that as all bodies are but modes of one infinite extension,
so all souls are but modes of one infinite thought. But while he
willingly accepts this result in regard to matter, his religious feelings
prevent him from accepting it in relation to mind. He is driven,
therefore, to the inconsistency of holding that sense and feeling,
through which in his view we apprehend the finite as such, give us
true though imperfect knowledge of the soul, while the knowledge
they give us of body is not only imperfect but false. 7 Thus the finite
spirit is still allowed to be a substance, distinct from the infinite,
though it holds its substantial existence on a precarious tenure. It
is left hanging, we may say, on the verge of the infinite, whose
attraction must soon prove too strong for it. Ideas are living things,
and often remould the minds that admit them in spite of the greatest
resistance of dead custom and traditionary belief. In the grasp of a
logic that overpowers him the more easily in that he is unconscious
of its tendency, Malebranche is brought within one step of the pan-
theistic conclusion, and all his Christian feeling and priestly training
can do is just to save him from denial of the personality of man.
But even this denial is not the last word of pantheism. When the
principle that the finite is known only in relation to the infinite,
the individual only in relation to the universal, is interpreted as
4 Recherche, ch. i.
a Entretien, i. § 5.
• Morale, i. 1, § 5.
7 Recherche, iii. pt. ii. ch. vii., § 4.
420
CARTESIANISM
meaning that the infinite and universal is complete in itself without
the finite and individual, when the finite and individual is treated
as a mere accidental existence due to the " arbitrary will of God,"
it ceases to be possible to conceive even God as a spirit. Did
Malebranche realize what he was saying when he declared that God
was " being in general," but not any particular being? At any rate
we can see that the same logic that leads him almost to deny the
reality of finite beings, leads him also to seek the divine nature in
something more abstract and general even than thought. If we
must abstract from all relation to the finite in order to know God as
he is, is it not necessary for us also to abstract from self -consciousness,
for self-consciousness has a negative element in it that is something
definite, and therefore limited? We do not wonder, therefore, when
we find Malebranche saying that reason does not tell us that God
is a spirit, but only that he is an infinitely perfect being, and that
he must be conceived rather as a spirit than as a body simply because
spirit is more perfect than body. " When we call God a spirit, it
is not so much to show positively what he is, as to signify that he
is not material." But as we ought not to give him a bodily form
like man's, so we ought not to think of his spirit as similar to our
own spirits, although we can conceive nothing more perfect. " It
is necessary rather to believe that as he contains in himself the
properties of matter without being material, so he comprehends in
himself the perfections of created spirits without being a spirit as
we alone can conceive spirits, and that his true name is ' He who
is,' i.e. Being without restriction, Being infinite and universal." 1
Thus the essentially self-revealing God of Christianity gives way
to. pure spirit, and pure spirit in its turn to the eternal and in-
comprehensible substance of which we can say nothing but that it is.
The divine substance contains in it, indeed, everything that is in
creation, but it contains them entinenter in some incomprehensible
form that is reconcilable with its infinitude. But we have no
adequate name by which to call it except Being. The curious
me ta physic of theology by which, in his later writings, Malebranche
tried to make room for the incarnation by supposing that the finite
creation, which as finite is unworthy of God, was made worthy by
union with Christ, the divine Word, shows that Malebranche had
some indistinct sense of the necessity of reconciling his philosophy
with his theology ; but it shows also the necessarily artificial nature
of the combination. The result of the union of such incongruous
elements was something which the theologians at once recognized as
heterodox and the philosophers as illogical.
There was another doctrine of Malebranche which brought him
into trouble with the theologians, and which was the main subject
of his long controversy with Arnauld. This was his denial of
particular providence. As Leibnitz maintained that this is the best
of all possible worlds, and that its evils are to be explained by the
negative nature of the finite, so Malebranche, with a slight change of
expression, derived evil from the nature of particular or individual
existence. It is not conformable to the nature of God to act by any
but universal laws, and these universal laws necessarily involve
particular evil consequences, though their ultimate result is the
highest possible good. The question why there should be any
particular existence, any existence but God, seeing such existence
necessarily involves evil, remains insoluble so long as the purely
pantheistic view of God is maintained ; and it is this view which is
really at the bottom of the assertion that he can have no particular
volitions. To the coarse and anthropomorphic conception of
particular providence Malebranche may be right in objecting, but
on the other hand, it cannot be doubted that any theory in which
the universal is absolutely opposed to the particular, the infinite to
the finite, is unchristian as well as unphilosophical. For under this
dualistic presupposition, there seem to be only two possible alter-
natives open to thought: either the particular and finite must be
treated as something independent of the universal and infinite,
which involves an obvious contradiction, or else it must be regarded
as absolute nonentity. We find Malebranche doing the one or the
other as occasion requires. Thus he vindicates the freedom of man's
will on the ground that the universal will of God does not completely
determine the particular volitions of man; and then becoming
conscious of the difficulty involved in this conception, he tries, like
Descartes, to explain the particular will as something merely
negative, a defect, and not a positive existence.
But to understand fully Malebranche's view of freedom and the
ethical system connected with it, we must notice an important
^^ alteration which he makes in the Cartesian theory of the
^f™L relation of will and intelligence. To Descartes, as we have
maawW ' seen, the ultimate essence of mind lay in pure abstract
self-determination or will, and hence he based even moral and in-
tellectual truth on the arbitrary decrees of God. With Malebranche,
on the other hand, abstraction goes a step further; and the absolute
is sought not in the subject as opposed to the object, not in pure
formal self-determination as opposed to that which is determined,
but in a unity that transcends this difference. With him, therefore,
will ceases to be regarded as the essence of intelligence, and sinks
into a property or separable attribute of it. As we can conceive an
extended substance without actual movement, so, he says, we can
conceive a thinking substance without actual volition. But " matter
1 Recherche, ch. ix.
or extension^without motion would be entirely useless and incapable
of that variety of forms for which it is made ; and we cannot, there-
fore, suppose, that an all-wise Being would create it in this way.
In like manner, if a spiritual or thinking substance were without
will, it is clear that it would be quite useless, for it would not be
attracted towards the objects of its perception, and would not love
the good for which it is made. We cannot therefore conceive an
intelligent being so to fashion it." * Now God need not be conceived
as creating at all, for he is self -sufficient ; but if he be a creator
of spirits, he must create them for himself. " God cannot will that
there should exist a spirit that does not love him, or that loves him
less than any other good." * The craving for good in general, for an
absolute satisfaction, is a natural love of God that is common to all.
" The just, the wicked, the blessed, and the damned all alike love
God with this love." Out of this love of God arises the love we
have to ourselves and to others, which are the natural inclinations
that belong to all created spirits. For these inclinations are but the
elements of the love which is in God, and which therefore he inspires
in all his creatures. " II s'aime, il nous aime, il aime toutes ses
creatures; il ne fait done point d'esprits qu'il ne les porte a Taimer,
a s'aimer, et k aimer toutes les creatures. 4 Stripping this thought
of its theological vesture, what is expressed here is simply that as a
spiritual being each man is conscious of his own limited and indi-
vidual existence, as well as of the limited and individual existence
of other beings like himself, only in relation to the whole in which
they are parts, so he can find his own good only in the good of the
whole, and he is in contradiction with himself so long as he rests
in any good short of that. His love of happiness, his natural
inclinations both selfish and social, may be therefore regarded as an
undeveloped form of the love of God; and the ideal state of his
inclinations is that in which the love of self and of others are ex-
plicitly referred to that higher affection, or in which his love does
not proceed from a part to the whole, but from the whole to the parts.
The question of morals to Malebranche is the question how these
natural vnclinations are related to the particular passions. Sensation
and passion arise out of the connexion of body and soul, muicm
and their use is only to urge us to attend to the wants of Bmkm.
the former. We can scarcely hear without a smile the simple
monastic legend which Malebranche weaves together about the
original nature of the passions and their alteration by the Fall.
" It is visibly a disorder that a spirit capable of knowing and loving
God should be obliged to occupy itself with the needs of the body.
" A being altogether occupied with what passes in his body and
with the infinity of objects that surround it cannot be thinking
on the things that are truly good."' Hence the necessity of an
immediate and instinctive warning from the senses in regard to
the relations of things to our organism, and also of pains and pleasures
which may induce us to attend to this warning. " Sensible pleasure
is the mark that nature has attached to the use of certain things in
order that without having the trouble of examining them by reason,
we may employ them for the preservation of the body, but not in
order that we may love them. • Till the Fall the mind was merely
united to the body, not subjected to it, and the influence of these
pleasures and pains was only such as to make men attend to their
bodily wants, but not to occupy the mind, or fill it with sensuous
joys and sorrows, or trouble its contemplation of that which is really
good. Our moral aim should therefore be to restore this state of
things, to weaken our union with the body and strengthen our union
with God. And to encourage us in pursuing this aim we have to
remember that union with God is natural to the spirit, and that,
while even the condition of union with the body is artificial, the
condition of subjection to the body is wholly unnatural to it. Our
primary tendency is towards the supreme good, and we only love
the objects of our passions in so far as we " determine towards
particular, and therefore false goods, the love that God gives us for
himself." The search for happiness is really the search for God in
disguise, and even the levity and inconstancy with which men rush
from one finite good to another, is a proof that they were made for
the infinite. Furthermore, this natural love of God, or inclination
for good in general, " gives us the power of suspending our consent
in regard to those particular goods which do not satisfy it." 7 If we
refuse to be led by the obscure and confused voice of instinctive
feeling, which arises from and always tends to confirm our union
with the body, and wait for the light of reason which arises from
and always tends to confirm our union with God, we have done all
that is in our power, the rest is God's work. " If we only judge
precisely of that which we see clearly, we shall never be deceived.
For then it will not be we that judge, but the universal reason that
judges in us." 8 And as our love, even of particular goods, is a
confused love of the supreme good, so the clear vision of God in-
evitably brings with it the love of him. " We needs must love the
highest when we see it." When it is the divine reason that speaks
in us it is the divine love that moves us, " the same love wherewith
God loves himself and the things he has made." 9
The general result of the ethics of Malebranche is ascetic. The
2 Recherche, i. pt. i. ch. i.
4 Recherche, iv. ch. i.
8 Recherche, v. ch. iv.
8 Morale, pt. i. ch. i. $ 9.
8 Recherche, i. pt. i. ch. iv.
8 Entretien, iv.
7 Recherche, iv. ch. i.
• Recherche, iv. ch. v.
CARTESIANISM
421
passions, like the senses, have no relation to the higher life of the
soul ; their value is only in relation to the union of soul and body, a
union which is purely accidental or due to the arbitrary will of God,
The more silently they discharge their provisional function, and the
less they disturb or interfere with the pure activity of spirit,
the more nearly they approach to the only perfection that is possible
for them. Their ideal state is to remain or become again simple
instincts that act mechanically like the circulation of the blood.
Universal light of reason casts no ray into the obscurity of sense ;
its universal love cannot embrace any of the objects of particular
passion. It is indeed recognized by Malebranche that sensation in
man is mixed with thought, that the passions in him are forms of the
love of good in general. But this union of the rational with the
sensuous nature is regarded merely as a confusion which is to be
cleared up, not in a higher unity of the two elements, but simply by
the withdrawal of the spirit from contact with that which darkens and
defiles it. Of a transformation of sense into thought, of passion into
duty — an elevation of the life of sense till it becomes the embodiment
and expression of the life of reason — Malebranche has no conception.
Hence the life of reason turns with him to mysticism in theory
and to asceticism in practice. His universal is abstract and opposed
to the particular; instead of explaining it, it explains it away.
A certain tender beauty as of twilight is spread over the world
as we view it through the eyes of this cloistered philosopher, and we
do not at first see that the softness and ideality of the picture is
due to the gathering darkness. ^ Abstraction seems only to be purify-
ing, and not destroying, till it has done its perfect work. Male-
branche conceived himself to be presenting to the world only the
Surest and most refined expression of Christian ethics and theology.
>ut if we obey his own continual advice to think clearly and dis-
tinctly, if we divest his system of all the sensuous and imaginative
forms in which he has clothed it, and reduce it to the naked simplicity
of its central thought, what we find is not a God that reveals himself
in the finite, and to the finite, but the absolute substance which has
no revelation, and whose existence is the negation of all but itself.
Thus to tear away the veil, however, there was needed a stronger,
simpler, and freer spirit — a spirit less influenced by opinion, less
inclined to practical compromise, and gifted with a stronger " faith
in the whispers of the lonely muse " of speculation than Malebranche.
The Philosophy of Spinoza. — It is a remark of Hegel's that
Spinoza, as a Jew, first brought into European thought the idea
of an absolute unity in which the difference of finite and infinite
is lost. Some later writers have gone further, and attempted to
show that the main doctrines by which his philosophy is distin-
guished from that of Descartes were due to the direct influences
of Jewish writers like Maimonides, Gersonides, and Hasdai
Crescas, rather than to the necessary development of Cartesian
ideas. And it is undoubtedly true that many points of similarity
with such writers, reaching down even to verbal coincidence,
may be detected in the works of Spinoza, although it is not so
easy to determine how much he owed to their teaching. His own
view of his obligations is sufficiently indicated by the fact, that
while in his ethics he carries on a continual polemic against
Descartes, and strives at every point to show that his own
doctrines are legitimately derived from Cartesian principles,
he only once refers to Jewish philosophy as containing an
obscure and unreasoned anticipation of these doctrines. " Quod
quidam Hebraeorum quasi per nebulam vidisse videntur qui
scilicet statuunt Deum Dei intellectum resque ab ipso intellectas
unum et idem esse." * It may be that the undeveloped pantheism
and rationalism of the Jewish philosophers had a deeper influence
than he himself was aware of, in emancipating him from the
traditions of the synagogue, and giving to his mind its first
philosophical bias. In his earlier work there are Neoplatonic
ideas and expressions which in the Ethics are rejected or re-
moulded into a form more suitable to the spirit of Cartesianism.
But the question, after all, has little more than a biographical
interest. In the Spinozistic philosophy there are few differences
from Descartes which cannot be traced to the necessary develop-
ment of Cartesian principles; and the comparison of Malebranche
shows that a similar development might take place under the
most diverse intellectual conditions. What is most remarkable
in Spinoza is just the freedom and security with which these prin-
ciples are followed out to their last result. His Jewish origin and
his breach with Judaism completely isolated him from every
influence but that of the thought that possesses him. And no
scruple or hesitation, no respect for the institutions or feelings
of his time interferes with his speculative consequence. He
1 Eth. ii. schol. 7.
exhibits to us the almost perfect type of a mind without super-
stitions, which has freed itself from all but reasoned and intelligent
convictions, or, in the Cartesian phrase, " clear and distinct
ideas "; and when he fails, it is not by any inconsistency, or
arbitrary stopping short of the necessary conclusions of his
logic, but by tie essential defect of his principles.
Spinoza takes his idea of method from mathematics, and after
the manner of Euclid, places at the head of each book of his Ethics
a certain number of definitions, axioms, and postulates ._ m
which are supposed to be intuitively certain, and to form "JJV^-
a sufficient Dasis for all that follows. Altogether there m9tbod
are twenty-seven definitions, twenty axioms, and eight ap ^i 9 ^f
postulates. If Spinoza is regarded as the most consequent 2«5««
of philosophers it cannot be because he has based his nhrtkw,
system upon so many fragmentary views of truth; it
must be oecause a deeper unity has been discerned in the system
than is visible on the first aspect of it. We must, therefore, to a
certain extent distinguish between the form and the matter of his
thought, though it is also true that the defective form itself involves
a defect in the matter.
What in the first instance recommends the geometrical method to
Spinoza is. not only its apparent exactness and the necessity of its
sequence, but, so to speak, its disinterestedness. Confusion of
thought arises from the fact that we put ourselves, our desires and
feelings and interests, into our view of things; that we do not regard
them as they are in themselves, in their essential nature, but Took
for some final cause, that is, some relation to ourselves by which
they may be explained. For this reason, he says, " the truth might
for ever have remained hid from the human race, if mathematics,
which looks not to the final cause of figures, but to their essential
nature and the properties involved in it, had not set another type of
knowledge before them." To understand things is to see how all
that is true of them flows from the clear and distinct idea expressed
in their definition, and ultimately, it is to see how all truth flows
from the essentia Dei as all geometrical truth flows from the idea of
quantity. To take a mathematical view of the universe, therefore,
is to raise ourselves above all consideration of the end or tendency
of things, above the fears and hopes of mortality into the region
of truth and necessity. " When I turned my mind to this subject,"
he says in the beginning of his treatise on politics, " I did not propose
to myself any novel or strange aim, but simply to demonstrate by
certain and indubitable reason those things which agree best with
practice. And in order that I might inquire into the matters of
this science with the same freedom of mind with which we are wont
to treat lines and surfaces in mathematics, I determined not to
laugh or to weep over the actions of men, but simply to understand
them ; and to contemplate their affections and passions, such as love,
hate, anger, envy, arrogance, pity and all other disturbances of soul
not as vices of human nature, but as properties pertaining to it in
the same way as heat, cold, storm, thunder pertain to the nature of
the atmosphere. For these, though troublesome, are yet necessary,
and have certain causes through which we may come to understand
them, and thus, by contemplating them in their truth, gain for our
minds as much joy as by the knowledge of things that are pleasing
to the senses." All our errors as to the nature of things arise from
our judging them from the point of view of the part and not of the
whole, from a point of view determined by their relation to our own
individual being, and not from a point of view determined by the
nature of the things themselves; or, to put the same thing in another
way, from the point of view of sense and imagination, and not from
the point of view of intelligence. Mathematics shows us the in-
adequacy of such knowledge when it takes us out of ourselves into
things, and when it presents these things to us as objects of universal
intelligence apart from all special relation to our individual feelings.
And Spinoza only wishes that the same universality and freedom of
thought which belongs to mathematics, because its objects do not
interest the passions, should be extended to those objects that do
interest them. Purity from interest is the first condition of the
philosopher's being; he must eet beyond the illusion of sense and
passion that makes our own lives so supremely important and
interesting to us simply because they are our own. He must look
at the present as it were through an inverted telescope of reason,
that will reduce it to its due proportion and place in the sum of
things. To the heat of passion and the higher heat of imagination,
Spinoza has only one advice — " Acquaint yourself with God and
be at peace." Look not to the particular but to the universal, view
things not under the form of the finite and temporal, but sub quadam
specie aeternitatis.
The illusion of the finite — the illusion of sense, imagination and
passion, which, in Bacon's language, tends to make men judge of
things ex analogia hominis and not ex analogia universi, g enBe t £ te
which raises the individual life, and even the present #ownwo /
moment of the individual life, with its passing feelings, emr ,
into the standard for measuring the universe — this, in
the eyes of Spinoza, is the source of all error and evil to man.
On the other hand, his highest good is to live the universal
life of reason, or what is the same thing, to view all things from
422
CARTESIANISM
their centre in God, and to be moved only by the passion forgood in
general, " the intellectual love of God." In the treatise De Emenda-
tion* Intellect™, Spinoza takes up this contrast in the first instance
from its moral side. " All our felicity or infelicity is founded on the
nature of the object to which we are joined by love." To love the
things that perish is to be in continual trouble and disturbance of
passion; it is to be full of envy and hatred towards others who
possess them; it is to be ever striving after that which, when we
attain it, does not satisfy us; or lamenting over the loss of that
which inevitably passes away from us; only " love to an object
that is infinite and eternal feeds the soul with a changeless and
un mingled joy." But again our love rests upon our knowledge;
if we saw things as they really are we should love only the highest
object. It is because sense and imagination give to the finite an
independence and substantiality that do not belong to it, that we
waste our love upon it as if it were infinite. And as the first step
towards truth is to understand our error, so Spinoza proceeds to
explain the defects of common sense, or in other words, of that first
and unreflected view of the world which he, like Plato, calls opinion.
Opinion is a kind of knowledge derived partly from hearsay, and
partly from experientia vaga. It consists of vague and general con-
ceptions of things, got either from the report of others or from an
experience which has not received any special direction from in-
telligence. The mind that has not got beyond the stage of opinion
takes things as they present themselves in its individual experience;
and its beliefs grow up by association of whatever happens to have
been found together in that experience. And as the combining
principle of the elements of opinion is individual and not universal,
so its conception of the world is at once fragmentary and accidental.
It does not see things in their connexion with the unity of the whole,
and hence it cannot see them in their true relation to each other.
41 I assert expressly," says Spinoza, " that the mind has no adequate
conception either of itself or of external things, but only a contused
knowledge of them, so long as it perceives them only in the common
order of nature, i.e. so long as it is externally determined to contem-
plate this or that object by the accidental concourse of things, and
so long as it is not internally determined by the unity of thought in
which it considers a number of things to understand their agreements,
differences and contradictions." l
There are two kinds of errors which are usually supposed to
exclude each other, but which Spinoza finds to be united in opinion.
vk*mat These are the errors of abstraction and imagination;
*2"^[ the former explains its vice by defect, the latter its vice
SJIjuiJ k y excess. On the one hand, opinion is abstract and one-
Immrlnm* sided; it is defective in knowledge and takes hold of
tto^ things only at one point. On the other hand, and just
because of this abstractness and one-sidedness, it is forced
to give an artificial completeness and independence to that which is
essentially fragmentary and dependent. The word " abstract " is
misleading, in so far as we are wont to associate with abstraction the
idea of a mental effort by which parts are separated from a given
whole; but it may be applied without violence to any imperfect
conception, in which things that are really elements of a greater
whole are treated as if they were res completae, independent objects,
complete in themselves. a And in this sense the ordinary conscious-
ness of man is often the victim of abstractions when it supposes itself
most of all to be dealing with realities. The essences ana substances
of the schoolman may delude him, but he cannot think these notions
clearly without seeing that they are only abstract elements of reality,
and that they have a meaning only in relation to the other elements
of it. But common sense remains unconscious of its abstractness
because imagination gives a kind of substantiality to the fragmentary
and limited, and so makes it possible to conceive it as an independent
reality. Pure intelligence seeing the part as it is in itself could never
see it but as a part. Thought, when it rises to clearness and distinct-
ness in regard to any finite object, must at once discern its relation
to other finite objects and to the whole, — must discern, in Spinozistic
language, that it is " modal " and not " real." But though it is
not possible to think the part as a whole it is possible to picture it
as a whole. The limited image that fills the mind's eye seems to
need nothing else for its reality. We cannot think a house clearly
and distinctly in all the connexion of its parts with each other
without seeing its necessary relation to the earth on which it stands,
to the pressure of the atmosphere, &c. The very circumstances by
which the possibility of such an existence is explained make it im-
possible to conceive it apart from other things. But nothing hinders
me from resting on a house as a complete picture by itself. Imagina-
tion represents things in the externality of space and time, and is
Subjected to no other conditions but those of space and time. Hence
it can begin anywhere and stop anywhere. For the same cara it
can mingle and confuse together all manner of inconsistent forms —
can imagine a man with a horse's head, a candle blazing in vacuo, a
speaking tree, a man changed into an animal. There may be ele-
ments in the nature of these things that would prevent such com-
binations; but these elements are not necessarily present to the
ordinary consciousness, the abstractness of whose conceptions leaves
it absolutely at the mercy of imagination or accidental association.
To thought in this stage anything is possible that can be pictured.
1 Eth. i. schol. 29.
On the other hand, as knowledge advances, this freedom of com-
bination becomes limited, " the less the mind understands and the
more it perceives the greater is its power of fiction, and the more it
understands the narrower is the limitation of that power. For
just as in the moment of consciousness we cannot imagine that we
do not think, so after we have apprehended the nature of body we
cannot conceive of a fly of infinite size, and after we know the nature
of a soul we cannot think of it as a square, though we may use the
words that express these ideas." 1 Thus, according to Spinoza,
the range of possibility narrows as knowledge widens, until to
perfected knowledge posibility is lost in necessity.
From these considerations it follows that all thought is imperfect
that stops short of the absolute unity of all things. Our first im-
perfect notion of things as isolated from each other, or
connected only by co-existence and succession, is a mere l*~MJ-
imagination of things. It is a fictitious substantiation ?f^°(-
of isolated moments in the eternal Being. Knowledge, —/ ~ h
so far as it deals with the finite, is engaged in a continual vM ** L
process of self-correction which can never be completed, for at every
step there is an element of falsity, in so far as the mind rests in the
contemplation of a certain number of the elements of the world,
as if they constituted a complete whole by themselves, whereas
they are only a part, the conception of which has to be modified
at the next step of considering its relation to the other parts. Thus
we rise from individuals of the first to individuals of the second order,
and we cannot stop short of the idea of " all nature as one individual
whose parts vary through an infinite number of modes, without
change of the whole individual." * At first we think of pieces of
matter as independent individuals, either because we can picture
them separately, or because they preserve a certain proportion or
relation of parts through their changes. But on further considera-
tion, these apparent substances sink into modes, each of which is
dependent on all the others. All nature is bound together by
necessary law, and not an atom could be other than it is without
the change of the whole world. Hence it is only in the whole world
that there is any true individuality or substance. And the same
principle applies to the minds of men. Their individuality is a mere
semblance caused by our abstraction from their conditions. Isolate
the individual man, and he will not display the character of a think-
ing being at all. His whole spiritual life is bound up with his rela-
tions to other minds, past and present. He has sucn a life, only in
and through that universal life of which he is so infinitesimal a part
that his own contribution to it is as good as nothing. " Vis qua
homo in existendo perseverat limitata est, et a potentia causarum
externarum infinite superatur." 4 What can be called his own?
His body is a link in a cyclical chain of movement which involves
all the matter of the world, and which as a whole remains without
change through all. His mind is a link in a great movement of
thought, which makes him the momentary organ and expression of
one of its phases. His verv consciousness of self is marred by a false
abstraction, above which he must rise ere he can know himself as he
really is.
" Let us imagine," says Spinoza in his fifteenth letter, " a little
worm living in blood which has vision enough to discern the particles
of blood, lymph, &c, and reason enough to observe how one particle
is repelled by another with which it comes into contact, or com-
municates a part of its motion to it. Such a worm would live in the
blood as we do in this part of the universe, and would regard each
particle of it, not as a part, but as a whole, nor could it know how
all the parts are influenced by the universal nature of the blood, and
are obliged to accommodate themselves to each other as is required
by that nature, so that they co-operate together according to a fixed
law. For if we suppose that there are no causes outside of the blood
which could communicate new motions to it, and no space beyond
the blood, nor any other bodies to which its particles could transfer
their motion, it is certain that the blood as a whole would always
maintain its present state, and its particles would suffer no other
variations than those which may be inferred from the given relation
of the motion of the blood to lymph, chyle, &c. And thus in that
case the blood would require to be considered always as a whole and
not as a part. But since there are many other causes which influence
the laws of the nature of blood, and are in turn influenced thereby,
other motions and other variations must arise in the blood which are
not due to the proportion of motion in its constituents but also to
the relation between that motion and external causes. And there-
fore we cannot consider the blood as a whole, but only as a part of
a greater whole."
" Now we can think, and indeed ought to think, of all natural
bodies in the same manner in which we have thought of this blood,
for all bodies are surrounded by other bodies, and reciprocally
determine and are determined by them, to exist and operate in a
fixed and definite way, so as to preserve the same ratio of motion
and rest in the whole universe. Hence it follows that every body,
in so far as it exists under a certain definite modification, ought to
be considered as merely a part of the whole universe which agrees
with its whole, and thereby is in intimate union with all the other
parts; and since the nature of the universe is not limited like that
of the blood, but absolutely infinite, it is clear that by this nature,
1 De Emend, viii. § 58. • Eth. ii. lemma, 7 schol. 4 Eth. iv. 3.
CARTESIANISM
423-
with its infinite powers, the parts are modified in an infinite number
of ways, and compelled to pass through an infinity of variations.
Moreover, when I think of the universe as a substance, I conceive
of a still closer union of each part with the whole; for, as I have
elsewhere shown, it is the nature of substance to be infinite, and
therefore every single part belongs to the nature of the corporeal
substance, so that apart therefrom it neither can exist nor be con-
ceived. And as to the human mind, I think of it also as of part of
nature, for I think of nature as having in it an infinite power of
thinking, which, as infinite, contains in itself the idea of all nature,
and whose thoughts run parallel with all existence."
From this point of view it is obvious that our knowledge of things
cannot be real and adequate, except in so far as it is determined by
The whoia tne ^ea °* tne wno ' e » am * proceeds from the whole to the
dominates P arts - ^ knowledge that proceeds from part to part
the oarts. must a ^ wav ? ^ imperfect; it must remain external to
*■""• its object, it must deal in abstractions or mere entia
rationis, which it may easily be led to mistake for realities. Hence
Spinoza, like Plato, distinguishes reason whose movement is regres-
sive (from effect to cause, from variety to unity) from scientia
intuitiva, whose movement is progressive, which " proceeds from
the adequate idea of certain of God's attributes to an adequate
knowledge of the nature of things." 1 The latter alone deserves to
be called science in the highest sense of the term. " For in order that
our mind may correspond to the exemplar of nature, it must develop
all its ideas from the idea that represents the origin and source of
nature, so that that idea may appear as the source of all other
ideas." 1 The regressive mode of knowledge has its highest value in
preparing for the progressive. The knowledge of the finite, ere it
can become perfectly adequate, must be absorbed and lost in the
knowledge of the infinite.
In a remarkable passage in the Ethics, Spinoza declares that the
defect of the common consciousness of men lies not so much in their
Finite ignorance, either of the infinite or of the finite, as in their
things incapacity for bringing the two thoughts together, so as
modes of to P ut tne ktter in lts proper relation to the former.
infinite ^H are ready to confess that God is the cause both of the
substance. ex i stence an d of the nature of things created, but they
do not realize what is involved in this confession — and
hence they treat created things as if they were substances, that is,
as if they were Gods. " Thus while they are contemplating finite
things, they think of nothing less than of the divine nature; and
again when they turn to consider the divine nature, they think of
nothing less than of their former fictions on which they have built
up the knowledge of finite things, as if these things could contribute
nothing to our understanding of the divine nature. Hence it is not
wonderful that they are always contradicting themselves."* As
Spinoza says elsewhere, it belongs to the very nature of the human
mind to know God, for unless we know God we could know nothing
else.^ The idea of the absolute unity is involved in the idea of every
particular thing, yet the generality of men, deluded by sense and
imagination, are unable to bring this implication into clear conscious-
ness, and hence their knowledge of God does not modify their view
of the finite. It is the business of philosophy to correct this defect,
to transform our conceptions of the finite by relating it to the
infinite, to complement and complete the partial knowledge produced
by individual experience by bringing it into connexion with the idea
of the whole. And the vital question which Spinoza himself prompts
us to ask is how far and in what way this transformation is effected
in the Spinozistic philosophy.
There are two great steps in the transformation of knowledge by
the idea of unity as that idea is conceived by Spinoza. The first
step involves a change of the conception of individual finite things
by which they lose their individuality, their character as independent
substances, and come to be regarded as modes of the infinite. But
secondly, this negation of the finite as such is not conceived as
implying the negation of the distinction between mind and matter.
Mind and matter still retain that absolute opposition which they
had in the philosophy of Descartes, even after all limits have been
removed. And therefore in order to reach the absolute unity, and
transcend the Cartesian dualism, a second step is necessary, by
which the independent substantiality of mind and matter is with-
drawn, and they are reduced into attributes of the one infinite
substance. Let us examine these steps successively.
The method by which the finite is reduced into a mode of the
infinite has already been partially explained. Spinoza follows to its
AooBca- legitimate result the metaphysical or logical principles of
gjj to " Descartes and Malebrancne. According to the former,
nature 0/ as we nave seen* the finite presupposes the infinite, and,
matter* indeed, so far as it is real, it is identical with the infinite.
The infinite is absolute reality, because it is pure affirma-
tion, because it is that which negoHonem nullam inyohnt. The finite
is distinguished from it simply by its limit, i.e. by its wanting some-
thing which the infinite has. At this point Spinoza takes up the
argument. If the infinite be the real, and the finite, so far as it is
distinguished therefrom, the unreal, then the supposed substantiality
or individuality of finite beings is an illusion. In itself the finite is
but an abstraction, to which imagination has given an apparent
1 Eth. ii. 40, schol. 2. * De Emend, vii. § 42. » Eth. ii. schol. 10.
independence. All limitation or determination is negative, and in
order to apprehend positive reality we must abstract from limits.
By denying the negative, we reach the affirmative; by annihilating
finitude in our thought, and so undoing the illusory work of the
imagination, we reach the indeterminate or unconditioned being
which alone truly is. All division, distinction and relation are but
entia rationis. imagination and abstraction can give to them, as
they can give to mere negation and nothingness, " a local habitation
and a name," but they have no objective meaning, and in the highest
knowledge, in the scientia intuitwa, which deals only with reality,
they must entirely disappear. Hence to reach the truth as to matter,
we must free ourselves from all such ideas as figure or number,
measure or time, which imply the separation and relation of parts.
Thus in his 50th letter, in answer to some question about figure*
Spinoza says, " to prove that figure is negation, and not anything
positive, we need only consider that the whole of matter conceived
indefinitely, or in its infinity, can have no figure; but that figure
has a place only in finite or determinate bodies. He who says that
he perceives figure, says only that he has before his mind a limited
thing and the manner in which it is limited. But this limitation
does not pertain to a thing in its ' esse,' but contrariwise in its
1 non-esse (i.e. it signifies, not that some positive quality belongs
to the thing, but that something is wanting to it). Since, then,
figure is but limitation, and limitation is but negation, we cannot
say that figure is anything." The same kind of reasoning is else-
where (Eptst. 29) applied to solve the difficulties connected with the
divisibility of space or extension. Really, according to Spinoza,
extension is indivisible, though modally it is divisible. In other
words, parts ad infinitum may be taken in space by the abstracting
mind, but these parts have no separate existence. You cannot
rend space, or take one part of it out of its connexion with other
parts. Hence arises the impossibility of asserting either that there
is an infinite number of parts in space, or that there is not. The
solution of the antinomy is that neither alternative is true. There
are many things " quae nullo numero explicari possunt," and to
understand these things we must abstract altogether from the
idea of number. The contradiction arises entirely from the applica-
tion of that idea to the infinite. We cannot say that space nas a
finite number of parts, for every finite space must be conceived as
itself included in infinite space. Yet, on the other hand, an infinite
number is an absurdity; it is a number which is not a number.
We escape the difficulty only when we see that number is a category
inapplicable to the infinite, and this to Spinoza means that it is
not applicable to reality, that it is merely an abstraction, or ens
imaeinationis.
The same method which solves the difficulties connected with the
nature of matter is applied to mind. Here also we reach the reality,
or thing in itself, by abstracting from all determination, sature 0/
All conceptions, therefore, that involve the independence mmo « %
of the finite, all conceptions of good, evil, freedom and
responsibility disappear. When W. Blyenburg accuses Spinoza of
making God the author of evil, Spinoza answers that evil is an ens
rationis that has no existence for God. " Evil is not something posi-
tive, but a state of privation, and that not in relation to the divine,
but simply in relation to the human intelligence. It is a conception
that arises from that generalizing tendency of our minds, which
leads us to bring ail beings that have the external form of man
under one and the same definition, and to suppose that they are all
equally capable of the highest perfection we can deduce from such a
definition. When, therefore, we find an individual whose works are
not consistent with this perfection, straightway we judge that he is
deprived of it, or that he is diverging from his own nature, — a
judgment we should never make if we had not thus referred him to
a general definition, and supposed him to be possessed of the nature
it defines. But since God does not know things abstractly, or through
such general definitions, and since there cannot be more reality
in things than the divine intelligence and power bestows upon them,
it manifestly follows that the defect which belongs to finite things,
cannot be called a privation in relation to the intelligence of God,
but only in relation to the intelligence of man." 4 Thus evil and good
vanish when we consider things sub specie aeternitatis f because they
are categories that imply a certain independence in finite beings.
For the idea of a moral standard implies a relation of man to the
absolute good, a relation of the finite to the infinite, in which the
finite is not simply lost and absorbed in the infinite. But Spinoza
can admit no such relation. In the presence of the infinite the finite
disappears, for it exists only by abstraction and negation; or it
seems to us to exist, not because of what is present to our thoughts,
but because of what is not present to them. As we think ourselves
free because we are conscious of our actions but not of their causes,
so we think that we have an individual existence only because the
infinite intelligence is not wholly but only partially realized in us.
But as we cannot really divide space, though we can think of a part
of it, so neither can we place any real division in the divine intelli-
gence. In this way we can understand how Spinoza is able to speak
of the human mind as part of the infinite thought of God, and of the
human body as part of the infinite extension of God, while yet he
asserts that the divine substance is simple, and not made up of parts.
* Epist. 32.
424
CARTESIANISM
So far as they exist, they must be conceived as parts of the divine
substance, but when we look directly at that divine substance their
separate existence altogether disappears.
It has, however, been already mentioned that this ascending
movement of abstraction does not at once and directly bring
-. - Spinoza to the absolute unity of substance. Tne prin-
soaisaa c ^ e ^^ «, determination is negation," and that there-
^"^' fore the absolute reality is to be found only in the
indeterminate, would lead us to expect this conclusion; but the
Cartesian dualism prevents Spinoza from reaching it. Mind and
matter are so absolutely opposed, that even when we take away
all limit and determination from both, they still retain their
distinctness. Raised to infinity, they still refuse to be identified.
We are forced, indeed, to take from them their substantial or sub-
stantive existence, for there can be no other substance but God,
who includes all reality in himself. But though reduced to attributes
of a common substance, the difference of thought and extension is
insoluble. The independence of individual finite things disappears
whenever we substitute thought for imagination, but even to pure
intelligence, extension remains extension, and thought remains
Soiao m>* thought. Spinoza seems therefore reduced to a dilemma ;
spnoMss jj e cannot surrender either the unity or the duality of
- things, yet he cannot relate them to each other. The only
^? m 9 course feft open to him is to conceive each attribute in its
m*u** turn as tne wn °l e substance, and to regard their difference
as the difference of expression. As the patriarch was
called by the two names of Jacob and Israel, under different aspects,
each of which included the whole reality of the man, so our minds
apprehend the absolute substance in two ways, each of which
expresses its whole nature. 1 In this way the extremes of absolute
identity and absolute difference seem to be reconciled. There is a
complete parallelism of thought and extension, " ordo et connexio
idearum idem est ac ordo et connexio rerum," * yet there is also a
complete independence and absence of relation between them, for
each is the whole. A thing in one expression cannot be related to
itself in another expression. Hence in so far as we look at the
substance under the attribute of thought, we must take no account
of extension, and in so far as we look at it under the attribute of
extension, we must equally refuse to take any account of thought.
This parallelism may be best illustrated by Spinoza's account of the
relation of the human soul and body. The soul is the idea of the
body, and the body is the object of the soul, whatever is in the one
really is in the other ideally; yet this relation of object and subject
does not imply any connexion. The motions and changes of the
body have to be accounted for partly by itself, partly by the influence
of other bodies; and the thoughts of the soul in like manner have
to be accounted for partly by what God thinks as constituting the
individual mind, ana partly by what he thinks as constituting the
minds of other individuals. But to account for thought by the
motions of the body, or for the motions of the body by thought,
is to attempt to bridge the impassable gulf between thought and
extension. It involves the double absurdity of accounting for a
thing by itself, and of accounting for it by that which has nothing
in common with it.
In one point of view, this theory of Spinoza deserves the highest
praise for that very characteristic which probably excited most
5 in » °dium against it at the time it was first published, namely,
Mh' M * lts exa ltation °f matter. It is the mark of an imperfect
id « r spiritualism to hide its eyes from outward nature, and to
uesuam. shrink from the material as impure and defiling. But
its horror and fear are proofs of weakness; it flies from an enemy
it cannot overcome. Spinoza's bold identification of spirit and
matter, God and nature, contains in it the germ of a higher idealism
than can be found in any philosophy that asserts the claims of the
former at the expense of the latter. A system that begins by making
nature godless, will inevitably end, as Schelling once said, in making
God unnatural. The expedients by which Descartes keeps matter at
a distance from God, were intended to maintain his pure spirituality;
but their ultimate effect was seen in his reduction of the spiritual
nature to mere will. As Christianity has its superiority over other
religions in this, that it does not end with the opposition of the human
to the divine, the natural to the spiritual, but ultimately reconciles
them, so a true idealism must vindicate its claims by absorbing
materialism into itself. It was, therefore, a true instinct of philosophy
that led Spinoza to raise matter to the co-equal of spirit, ana at
the same time to protest against the Cartesian conception of matter
as mere inert mass, moved only by impulse from without. " What
were a God that only impelled the world from without?" says
Goethe. " It becomes him to stir it by an inward energy, to involve
nature in himself, himself in nature, so that that which lives and
moves and has a being in him can never feel the want of his power
or his spirit."
While, however, Spinoza thus escapes some of the inconsequences
of Descartes, the contradiction that was implicit in the Cartesian
system between the duality and the unity, the attributes and the
substance, in his system becomes explicit. When so great emphasis
is laid upon the unity of substance, it becomes more difficult to
explain the difference of the attributes. The result is, that Spinoza
l Epist. 27.
*Eth. ii. 7.
is forced to account for it, not by the nature of substance itself,
but by the nature of the intelligence to which it is revealed. " By
substance," he says, " I understand that which is in itself, f m4 ^ a j
and is conceived through itself. By attribute ^understand ^Zj
the same thing, nisi quod attributum dicatur respectu ^
intellectus substantiae certum talem naturam tribuentis."* -
Hence we are naturally led with J. E. Erdmann to think
of the intelligence dividing the substance as a kind of "|T*^L
prism that breaks the white light into different colours, p ^
through each of which the same world is seen, only with a
different aspect. But if the intelligence in itself is but a mode of
one of the attributes, how can it be itself the source of their
distinction?
The key to this difficulty is that Spinoza has really, and almost in
spite of his logical principles, two opposite conceptions of substance,
between which he alternates without ever bringing them to a unity.
On the one hand, in accordance with the principle that determination
is negation, substance must be taken as that which is utterly in-
determinate, like the Absolute of the Buddhist, which we can char-
acterize only by denying of it everything that we assert of the finite.
In this view, no predicate can be applied uni vocally to God and to
the creatures; he differs from them, not only in existence, but in
essence. 4 If we follow out this view to its legitimate result, God is
withdrawn into his own absolute unity, and no difference of attributes
can be ascribed to him, except in respect of something else than
himself. It is owing to the defects of our intelligence that he appears
under different forms or expressions; in himself he is pure being,
without form or expression at all. But, on the other hand, it is to be
observed, that while Spinoza really proceeds by abstraction and
negation, he does not mean to do so. The abstract is to him the
unreal and imaginary, and what he means by substance is not
simply Being in general, the conception that remains when we omit
all that distinguishes the particulars, but the absolute totality of
things conceived as a unity in which all particular existence is
included and subordinated. Hence at a single stroke the indeter-
minate passes into the most determinate Being, the Being with no
attributes at all into the Being constituted by an infinite number
of attributes. And while, under the former conception, the defect
of our intelligence seemed to be that it divided the substance, or
saw a difference of attributes in its absolute unity, under the second
conception its defect lies in its apprehending only two out of the
infinite multitude of these attributes.
To do justice to Spinoza, therefore, we must distinguish between
the actual effect of his logic and its effect as he conceived it. The
actual effect of his logic is to dissolve all in the ultimate abstraction
of Being, from which we can find no way back to the concrete.
But his intent was simply to relate all the parts to that absolute
unity which is the presupposition of all thought and being, and so
to arrive at the most concrete and complete idea of the reality of
things. He failed to see what is involved in his own principle that
determination is negation ; for if affirmation is impossible without
negation, then the attempt to divorce the two from each other, the
attempt to find a purely affirmative being, must necessarily end in
the barest of all abstractions being confused with the unity of all
things. But even when the infinite substance is defined as the
negative of the finite, the idea of the finite becomes an essential
element in the conception of the infinite. Even the Pantheist, who
says that God is what finite things are not, in spite of himself recog-
nizes that God has a relation to finite things. Finite things may in
his eyes have no positive relation to God, yet they have a negative
relation; it is through their evanescence and transitoriness, through
their nothingness, that the eternal, the infinite reality alone is
revealed to him. Spinoza is quite conscious of this process, conscious
that he reaches the affirmation of substance by a negation of what
he conceives as the purely negative and unreal existence of finite
things, but as he regards the assertion of the finite as merely an
illusion due to our imagination, so he regards the correction of this
illusion, the negation of the finite as a movement of reflection which
belongs merely to our intelligence, and has nothing to do with the
nature of substance in itself. We find the true affirmation by the
negation of the negative, but in itself affirmation has no relation
to negation. Hence his absolute being is the dead all-absorbing
substance and not the self-revealing spirit. It is the being without
determination, and not the being that determines itself. There is no
reason in the nature of substance why it should have either attributes
or modes ; neither individual finite things nor the general distinction
of mind and matter can be deduced from it. The descending move-
ment of thought is not what Spinoza himself said it should be, an
evolution, but simply an external and empirical process by which
the elements dropped in the ascending movement of abstraction are
taken up again with a merely nominal change. For the sole difference
in the conception of mind and matter as well as in the conception
of individual minds and bodies which is made by their reference to
the idea of God, is that they lose their substantive character and
become adjectives. Aristotle objected to Plato that his ideas were
merely ai<r0irrd Atdta, that is, that his idealization of the world was
merely superficial, and left the things idealized very much what they
were before to the sensuous consciousness; and the same may be
*Epist. 27.
*Etk. i. schol. 17.
CARTESIANISM
425
said of Spinoza's negation of finite things. It was an external and
imperfect negation, which did not transform the idea of the finite,
but merely substituted the names of attributes and modes for the
names of general and individual substances.
The same defective logic, by which the movement of thought in
determining the substance is regarded as altogether external to the
substance itself, is seen again in Spinoza's conceptions of the relations
of the attributes to each other. Adopting the Cartesian opposi tion of
mind and matter, he does not see, any more than Descartes, that in
their opposition they are correlative. Or if he did see it (as seems
possible from a passage in his earliest treatise), 1 he regarded the
correlation as merely subjective, merely belonging to our thought.
They are to him only the two attributes which we happen to know
out of the infinite number belonging to God. There is no necessity
that the substance should manifest itself in just these attributes
and no others, for abstract substance is equally receptive of all
determinations, and equally indifferent to them all. Just because
the unity is merely generic, the differences are accidental, and do
not form by their union any complete whole. If Spinoza had seen
that matter in itself is the correlative opposite of mind in itself, he
need not have sought by abstracting from the difference of these
elements to reach a unity which is manifested in that very difference,
and his absolute would have been not substance but spirit. This
idea he never reached, but we find him approximating to it in two
ways. On the one hand, he condemns the Cartesian conception of
matter as passive and self-external, or infinitely divisible — as, in
short, the mere opposite of thought. 2 And sometimes he insists
on the parallelism of extension ana thought at the expense of their
opposition in a way that almost anticipates the assertion by Leibnitz
01 the essential identity of mind and matter. On the other hand,
he recognizes that this parallelism is not complete. Thought is not
like a picture; it is conscious, and conscious not only of itself,
but of extension. It transcends therefore the absolute distinction
between itself and other attributes. It is only because he cannot rid
himself of the phantom of an extended matter as a thing in itself,
which is entirely different from the idea of it, that Spinoza is pre-
vented from recognizing in mind that unity that transcends all
distinctions, even its own distinction from matter. As it is, his main
reason for saving that intelligence is not an attribute of God, but
merely a mode, seems to be this, that the thought of God must be
conceived as producing its own object, i.e. as transcending the dis-
tinction of subject and object which is necessary to our intelligence. 3
But this argument of itself points to a concrete quite as much as to
an abstract unity. It is as consistent with the idea of absolute spirit
as with that of absolute substance. Spinoza's deliberate and formal
doctrine is undoubtedly the latter; but he constantly employs
expressions which imply the former, as when he speaks of God as
causa sui. The higher idea inspires him, though his consciousness
only embraces the lower idea.
The ethical philosophy of Spinoza is determined by the same
principles and embarrassed by the same difficulties as his meta-
Soioox*'a phy 8 * 08, I* 1 ft *!*> yfe nod tne same imperfect conception
Zzl lca t of the relation of the positive to the negative elements,
xvstom an< *» ** a consequence, the same confusion of the highest
^ ' unity of thought, the affirmation that subordinates and
transcends all negation with mere abstract affirmation. Or, to put
the same thing in ethical language, Spinoza teaches a morality
which is in every point the opposite of asceticism, a morality of self-
assertion or self-seeking, and not of self-denial. The conatus sese
conservandi is to him the supreme principle of virtue; 4 yet this self-
seeking is supposed, under the guidance of reason, to identify itself
with the love of man and the love of God, and to find blessedness
not in the reward of virtue, but in virtue itself. It is only confusion
of thought and false mysticism that could object to this result on
the ground of the element of self still preserved in the amor Dei
inteuectualis. For it is just the power of identifying himself with
that which is wider and higher than his individual being that makes
morality possible to man. But the difficulty lies in this, that
Spinoza will not admit the negative element, the element of mortifica-
tion or sacrifice, into morality at all, even as a moment of transition.
For him there is no dead self, by which we may rise to higher things,
no losing of life that we may find it. For the negative is nothing,
it is evilin the only sense in which evil exists, and cannot be the
source of good. Tne higher affirmation of our own being, the higher
seeking of ourselves which is identical with the love of God, must
therefore be regarded as nothing distinct in kind from that first
seeking of our natural self which in Spinoza's view belongs to us in
common with the animals, and indeed in common with all beings
whatever. It must be regarded merely as a direct development
and extension of the same th ing. The main interest of the Spinozistic
ethics therefore lies in observing by what steps he accomplishes this
transition, while excluding altogether the idea of a real division of
the higher and the lower life, the spirit and flesh, and of a conflict
in which the former is developed through the sacrifice of the latter.
Finite creatures exist only as modes of the divine substance, only
so far as they partake in the infinite, or what is the same thing with
Spinoza, in the purely affirmative or self -affirming nature of God.
1 Tractates de Deo et homine, ii. 19. * Epist. 29, 70.
* Eth. i. schol. 17. % « Eth. iv. schol. 22.
They therefore must also be self-affirming. They can never limit
themselves; their limit lies in this, that they are not identified with
the infinite substance which expresses itself also in other modes.
In other words, the limit of any finite creature, that which makes it
finite, lies without it, and its own existence, so far as it goes, must
be pure self-assertion and self-seeking. " Unaquaeque res quantum
in se est in suo esse perseverare conatur," and this conatus is its very
essence or inmost nature.* In the animals this conatus takes the
form of appetite, in man of desire, which is " appetite with the
consciousness of it." 6 But this constitutes no essential difference
between appetite and desire, for " whether a man be conscious of
his appetite or no, the appetite remains one and the same thing." 7
Man therefore, like the animals, is purely self-asserting and self-
seeking. He can neither know nor will anything but his own being,
or if he knows or wills anything else, it must be something involved
in his own being. If he knows other beings, or seeks their good,
it must be because their existence and their good are involved in his
own. If he loves and knows God it must be because he cannot know
himself without knowing God, or find his supreme good anywhere
but in God.
What at first makes the language difficult to us is the identification
of will and intelligence. Both are represented as affirming their
objects. Descartes had prepared the way for this when he treated
the will as the faculty of judging or giving assent to certain com-
binations of ideas, and distinguished it from the purely intellectual
faculties by which the ideas are apprehended. By this distinction
he had, as he supposed, secured a place for human freedom. Admit-
ing that intelligence is under a law of necessity, he claimed for the
will a certain latitude or liberty of indifference, a power of giving
or withholding assent in all cases where the relations of ideas were
not absolutely clear and distinct. Spinoza points out that there is
no ground for such a distinction, that the acts of apprehension and
judgment cannot be separated from each other. "In the mind
there is no volition, i.e. no affirmation or negation which is not
immediately involved in the idea it apprehends," and therefore
" intellect and will are one and the same thing." 8 If, then, there is
no freedom except the liberty of indifference, freedom is impossible.
Man, like all other beings and things, is under an absolute law of
necessity. All the actions of his win, as well as of his intelligence,
are but different forms of the self-assertive tendency to which he
cannot but yield, because it is one with his very being, or only
ideally distinguishable therefrom. There is, however, another idea
of liberty. Liberty as the opposite of necessity is an absurdity — it
is impossible for either God or man ; but liberty as the opposite of
slavery is possible, and it is actually possessed by God. The divine
liberty consists in this, that God acts from the necessity of his own
nature alone, and is not in any way determined from without.
And the great question of ethics is, How far can man partake in this
liberty? At first it would seem impossible that he should partake
in it. He is a finite being, whose power is infinitely surpassed by
the power of other beings to which he is related. His body acts
only as it is acted on, and his mind cannot therefore apprehend his
body, except as affected by other things. His self-assertion and
self-seeking are therefore confused with the asserting and seeking
of other things, and are never pure. His thought and activity cannot
be understood except through the influence of other things which
lie outside of his consciousness, and upon which his will has no
influence. He cannot know clearly and distinctly either himself or
anything else; how then can he know his own good or determine
himself by the idea of it ?
The answer is the answer of Descartes, that the apprehension of
any finite thing involves the adequate idea of the infinite and eternal
nature of God.* This is the primary object of intelligence, in which
alone is grounded the possibility of knowing either ourselves or
anything else. In so far as our knowledge is determined by this
idea, or by the ideas of other things, which are referred to this idea
and seen in its light, in so far its action flows from an internal
and not an external necessity. In so far, on the other hand, as we
are determined by the affections of the body, ideas in which the
nature of our own body and the nature of other things are confused
together, in so far we are determined by an external necessity. Or
to put the same thing in what has been shown to be merely another
way of expression, in so far as we are determined by pure intelligence
we are free, but in so far as we are determined t>y opinion and
imagination we are slaves.
From these premises it is easy to see what form the opposition
of reason and passion must necessarily take with Spinoza. The
passions belong to our nature as finite; they are grounded on, or
rather are but another form of inadequate ideas; but we are free
only in so far as our ideas either immediately are, or can be made,
adequate. Our idea of God is adequate ex vi termini ; our ideas
of the affections of our body are inadequate, but can be made
adequate in so far as they are referred to the idea of God. And as
the idea of God is purely affirmative, this reference to the idea of
God implies the elimination of the negative element from the ideas
of the affections of the body, " for nothing that is positive in a false
idea is removed by the presence of truth as such. » Brought into
6 Eth. iii. 6, 7. • Eth. iii. 9. ' Eth. iii.Def. Affect. 1.
8 Eth. ii. 49. • Eth. ii. 45. «> Eth. iv. 1.
v. 14 a
426
CARTHAGE
contact with the idea of God, all ideas become true and adequate,
by the removal of the negative or false element in them. The idea
of God is, as it were, the touchstone which distinguishes the gold
from the dross. It enables us to detect the higher spiritual element
in the natural passions, and to sever the element belonging to that
pure love of self which is identical with the love of perfection from
the elements belonging to that impure love of our own finite
individuality as such which is identical with the love of evil.
The imperfection in Spinoza's development of this principle has
already been indicated. It is in fact the same imperfection which
Implicit runs through his whole system. Just as ne supposed that
dun. the ideas of finite things were at once made consistent
A r^Vf , with the idea of the infinite when he had named them
modes, so here his conception of the change through which
selfish natural desire must pass in order to become spiritual is far
too superficial and external. Hence he has no sympathy with
asceticism, but treats it, like Bentham, as a torva et trtstis super stitio.
Toy is the "transition from less to greater perfection," ana cannot
be but good ; pain is the " transition from greater to less perfection,"
and cannot be but evil. The revolt against the medieval opposition
of the nature and spirit is visible in many of his sayings. " No
Deity who is not envious can delight in my weakness or hurts, or
can regard as virtues those fears and sighs and tears which are the
signs of the mind's weakness; but contrariwise, the greater is our
joy, the greater is our progress to perfection, and our participation
in the divine nature." * "A free man thinks of nothing less than
death, his wisdom is a meditation not of death but of life." 1 The
same idea, combining with the idea of necessity, leads him to con-
demn repentance and pity, as well as pride and humility. Un-
consciously, Spinoza reproduces the principle of asceticism, while
in words he utterly rejects it. For though he tells us that pure
self-complacency is the highest thinp we can hope, yet from this
self-complacency all regard to the finite individuality of the subject
is eliminated. Qui Deum a mat, conari non potest ut Deus ipsum
contra amet." In like manner, he absolutely condemns all hatred,
envy, rivalry and ambition, as springing out of an over-estimate of
those finite things which one only can possess, while the highest good
is that which is enjoyed the more easily and fully the greater the num-
ber of participants. Yet Spinoza's exaltation of the social life, and
of the love that binds it together, is too like the Buddhist's universal
charity that embraces all creatures, and all creatures equally. Both
are based on an abstraction from all that is individual, only the Buddh-
ist's abstraction roes a step further, and erases even the distinction
between man ana the animals. Spinoza felt the pressure of this all-
levelling logic when he said, " I confess I cannot understand how
spirits express God more than the other creatures, for I know that
between the finite and the infinite there is no proportion, and that
the distinction between God and the most excellent of created things
differs not a whit from the distinction between him and the lowest
and meanest of them."* As Pope said, God is "as full and perfect
in a hair as a heart "; in all finite things there is a ray of divinity,
and in nothing more than a ray. Yet in another epistle Spinoza
contradicts this view, and declares that, while he does not consider
it necessary to " know Christ after the flesh, he does think it is
necessary to know the eternal Son of God, i.e. God's eternal wisdom,
which is manifested in all things, but chiefly in the mind of man,
and most of all in Christ Jesus. 4 In the Ethics the distinction of
man and the animals is treated as an absolute distinction, and it is
asserted with doubtful consistency that the human soul cannot
all be destroyed along with the body, for that there is something
of it which is eternal. Yet from this eternity we must, of course,
eliminate all notion of the consciousness of the finite self as such.
At this point, in short, the two opposite streams of Spinoza's thought,
the positive method he intends to pursue, and the negative or
abstracting method he really does pursue, meet in irreconcilable
contradiction. The finite must be related to the infinite so as to
preserve all that is in it of reality ; and therefore its limit or the
negative element in it must be abstracted from. But it turns out
that, with this abstraction from a negative element involved in the
existence of the finite, the positive also disappears, and God is all in
all in a sense that absolutely excludes the existence of the finite.
11 The mind's intellectual love of God," says Spinoza, " is the very
love wherewith God loves himself, not in so far as he is infinite, but
in so far as he can be expressed by the essence of the human mind,
considered under the form of eternity; i.e. the mind's intellectual
love of God is part of the infinite love wherewith God loves him-
self." 1 This double "in so far," which returns so frequently in
Spinoza, just conceals for a moment the contradiction of two streams
of thought, one of which must be swallowed up by the other, if they
are once allowed to meet.
We have now reviewed the main points of the system, which
was the ultimate result of the principles of Descartes. The
importance of this first movement of modern philosophy lies
in its assertion and exhibition of the unity of the intelligible
world with itself and with the mind of man. In this point of
1 Eth. iv. schol. 45.
*Epist. 21.
* Eth. iv. 67.
• EpisL 57.
1 Eth. v. 36.
view, it was the philosophical counterpart of Protestantism;
but, like Protestantism in its earliest phase, it passed rapidly
from the doctrine that God is, without priest or a9amwt
authority, present to man's spirit, to the doctrine taptrt*
that man's spirit is as nothing before God. The <Mto/ttt
object was too powerful for the subject, who effaced ( j^^ a
himself before God that he might be strong towards
men. But in this natural movement of feeling and thought it
was forgotten that God who effaced the world and the finite spirit
by his presence could not be a living God. Spinoza gives the
ultimate expression to this tendency, and at the same time
marks its limit, when he says that whatever reality is in the
finite is of the infinite. But he is unsuccessful in showing that,
on the principles on which he starts, there can be any reality in
the finite at all. Yet even if the finite be an illusion, still more
if it be better than an illusion, it requires to be accounted for.
Spinoza accounts for it neither as illusory nor as real. It was
reserved for the following generation of philosophers to assert,
in different ways, the reality of the finite, the value of experience
and the futility of abstractions. Spinoza had declared that true
knowledge consists in seeing things under the form of eternity,
but it is impossible that things can be seen under the form of
eternity unless they have been first seen under the form of
time. The one-sided assertion of individuality and difference in
the schools of Locke and Leibnitz was the natural complement cf
the one-sided assertion of universality and unity in the Cartesian
school. But when the individualistic tendency of the 18th
century had exhausted itself, and produced its own refutation
in the works of Kant, it was inevitable that the minds of men
should again turn to the great philosopher, who, with almost
perfect insight working through imperfect logic, first formulated
the idea of a unity presupposed in and transcending the difference
of matter and mind, subject and object.
See the Histories of Philosophy, especially those by Hegel,
Feuerbach, Erdmann and Fischer; F. Bouiflier, HisUnre de la
philosophic carte* sienne (1854); 0116-Laprune, Philosophic de Male-
iranche; E. Saisset, Pricurseurs et dtsciples de Descartes (1862).
The German treatises on Spinoza are too numerous to mention.
Jacobi's Letters on Spinoza, which were the beginning of a true
interpretation of his philosophy, are still worth reading. We may
also mention C. Schaarschmidt, Descartes und Spinoza (1850);
C. Sigwart, Spinozas neuentdeckter Tractat von Gott, dtm Menschen,
und dessen Gluckseligkeit (1866). Both these writers havepublished
German translations of the Tractatus de Deo. See also Trendelen-
burg, Historische Beitr&ge zur Philosophic (1867); R. Avenarius,
Vbcr die beiden erstcn Pnasen des spinozischen Pantheismus (1868) ;
M. Joel, Zur Genesis der Lehre Spinozas (1871) ; R. Willis, Benedict
de Spinoza: his Ethics, Life and Influence on Modern Religious
Thought (1870) ; F. Pollock, Spinoza, his Life and Philosophy (1880) ;
J. Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory (1885); J. Caird, Spinoza (in
Blackwood's Philosophical Series) ; H. H. Joachim, A Study of the
Ethics of Spinoza (1901); R. Adamson, The Development of Modern
Philosophy (1903) ; also articles Descartes, Malebranche, and
Spinoza. (E. C.)
CARTHAGE (Phoenician KarUhadshat, "New City"; Gr.
KapxnB&v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon), one of the most
famous cities of antiquity, on the north coast of Africa; it was
founded about 822 B.C. by the Phoenicians, destroyed for the
first time by the Romans in 146 B.C., rebuilt by the Romans,
and finally destroyed by the Arabs in a.d. 698. It was situated
in the heart of the Sinus Uticensis (mod. Gulf of Tunis), which
is protected on the west by the promontory of Apollo (mod.
Ras Ali el Mekki) , and on the east by the promontory of Mercury
or Cape Bon (mod. Ras Addar). Its position naturally formed
a sort of bastion on the inner curve of the bay between the
Lake of Tunis on the south and the marshy plain of Utica (Suk-
hara) on the north. Cape Gamart, the Arab village of Sidi-bu-
Sald and the small harbour of Goletta (La Goulette, Halk el Wad)
form a triangle which represents the area of Carthage at its
greatest, including its extramural suburbs. Of this area the
highest point is Sidi-bu-Sald, which stands on a lofty cliff about
490 ft. high. On Cape Gamart (Kamart) was the chief cemetery;
the citadel, Byrsa, was on the hill on which to-day stand the
convent of Les Pfcres Blancs (White Fathers) and the cathedral
of St Louis. The harbours lay about three-fifths of a mile
south of Byrsa, near the modern hospital of the Khram, at
CARTHAGE
427
Cartagenaa. The tongue of land, which runs from the harbours
as far as Goletta, to the mouth of the Catadas which connects
the Lake of Tunis with the sea, was known as taenia (ribbon,
band) or ligula (diminutive of lingua, tongue). The isthmus
connecting the peninsula of Carthage with the mainland was
roughly estimated by Polybius as 25 stades (about 15,000 ft.);
the peninsula itself, according to Strabo, had a circumference
of 360 stades (41 m.). The distance between Gamart and
Goletta is about 6 m.
From Byrsa, which is only 195 ft. above the sea, there is a fine
view; thence it is possible to see how Carthage was able at once
to dominate the sea and the gently undulating plains which
stretch westward as far as Tunis and the line of the river Bagradas
(mod. Mejerda). On the horizon, on the other side of the Gulf
of Tunis, rise the chief heights of the mountain-chain which was
the scene of so many fierce struggles between Carthage and Rome,
between Rome and the Vandals: — the Bu-Kornaln (" Two-
Homed Mountain "), crowned by the nuns of the temple of
Saturn Balcaranensis; Jebel Ressas, behind which lie the ruins of
Neferis; Zaghwan, the highest point in Zeugitana; Hammam-Lif,
Rades (Ghades, Gades, the ancient Manila) on the coast, and
10 m. to the south-west the " white " Tunis (Xewete Tinrtp
of Diodorus) and the fertile hills of Ariana. All round Byrsa,
alike on the plain and on the slopes, are fields of barley, vineyards
and patches of cactus, interrupted ozdy by huge heaps of rubbish
and excavation-mounds, the haunts of green lizards, and by
houses and villages built of materials drawn for many a century
from the ancient ruins.
The ancient harbours were distinguished as the military and the
commercial. The remains of the latter are to be seen in a par-
tially ruined artificial lagoon which originally, according to
Beul6, had an area of nearly 60 acres; there were, however,
in addition a large quay for unloading freight along the shore,
and huge basins or outer harbours protected by jetties, the remains
of which are still visible at the water-level. The military
harbour, known as Cothon, communicated with the commercial
by means of a canal now partially ruined; it was circular in
shape, surrounded by large docks 16J ft. wide, and capable of
holding 220 vessels, though its area was only some 22 acres.
In the centre was an islet from which the admiral could inspect
the whole fleet. 1
Among the other ruins which have been identified are the circus
or hippodrome, traversed by the railway at the north of the
village of Duar-es-Shat; the forum, between Cothon and Byrsa,
where stood the Curia, the regular place of assembly of the senate,
and near which were the moneychangers' shops, the tribunal,
the temple of Apollo, and in the Byzantine period the baths of
Theodora. Three main streets led from the forum to Byrsa.
The hill of St Louis, the ancient citadel of Byrsa, has a circuit
of 4525 ft. It appears to have been surrounded at least at
certain points by several lines of fortifications. It was, however,
dismantled by P. Scipio Africanus the younger, in 146 B.C., and
was only refortified by Theodosius II. in a.d. 424; subsequently its
walls were again renewed by Belisarius in 553. On the plateau
of Byrsa have been found the most ancient of the Punic tombs,
huge cisterns in the eastern part, and near the chapel of St Louis
the foundations of the famous temple of Eshmun (see below),
and the palace of the Roman proconsul.
About 3 2 5 ft. from the railway station of La Malga are the still
imposing ruins of the amphitheatre. Near by, at the spot
calledBir el Jebana, Pere Delattre has discovered four cemeteries,
one of which contains the tombs of state officials or servants of
the imperial government. Rather more than half a mile north-
west of Byrsa are the huge cisterns of La Malga, which, at the
time of the Arab geographer, IdrisI, still comprised twenty-four
parallel covered reservoirs, 325 ft. by ii\ ft.; of these fourteen
only remain.
^ l .7^5? whole question of these harbours has been fully discussed by
Cecil Torr, Otto Meltzer, R. Ohler, S. Gsell, M. de Roquefeuil •
see Au$. Audollent, Carthage romaine, pp. 198 seq.; Revue archSol.
3rd series, xxiy.; Jahrbuch /. class. Pkdologie, vols, cxlvii., cxlix.:
also Classical Review, vols, v., vii., viii.
On the hill of the Petit Seminaire, which is separated from
Byrsa by a valley, PSre Delattre has discovered a Christian
basilica, the baths of Gargilius, large graves with several levels
of tombs, and much debris of sculpture, which, however, is
insufficient to enable us to say that this is the site of the temple
of Tanit or Juno Caelestis. The quarter of Dermeche, near the
sea, whose name recalls the Latin Thermis or Thermos, is re-
markable for the imposing remains of the baths (thermae) of
Antoninus. In one place called Douimes was the Ceramicus
where excavation has discovered a graceful basilica, proto-Punic
tombs, potters' ovens with numerous terra-cotta moulds which
were abandoned after the siege in 146 B.C., and finally a Roman
palace with superb marble statues. Farther on are huge reser-
voirs of Borj-Jedid which are sufficiently well-preserved to be
used again.
Behind the small fort of Borj-Jedid is the plateau of the Odeum
where the theatre and fine marble statues of the Roman period
have been laid bare; beyond is the great Christian basilica of
Damus-el-Karita (perhaps a corruption of Dotnus Caritatis);
in the direction of Sidi-bu-Sald is the platea nova, the huge stairway
of which, like so many other Carthaginian buildings, has of late
years been destroyed by the Arabs for use as building material;
on the coast near St Monica is the necropolis of Rabs where
Delattre dug up fine anthropoid sarcophagi of the Punic period.
In the quarter of Megara (Magaria, mod. La Marsa) it would
seem that there never were more than isolated buildings, villas
in the midst of gardens. At Jebel Khaui (Cape Kamart) there
is a great necropolis, the sepulchral chambers of which were
long ago rifled by Arabs and Vandals. This cemetery had a
Jewish quarter.
We must mention finally the gigantic remains in the western
plain of the Roman aqueduct which carried water from Jebel
Zaghwan (Mons Zeugitanus) and Juggar (Zucchara) to the
cisterns of La Malga. From the nymphaeum of Zaghwan to
Carthage this aqueduct is 61 Roman miles (about 56 English
miles) long; in the plain of Manuba its arches are nearly 49 ft.
high.
Though several famous travellers visited and described the ruins
of Carthage during the first thirty years of the 19th century, such as
Major Humbert, Chateaubriand, Estrup, no scientific investigations
took place till 1833 In that year Captain Falbe, Danish consul at
Tunis, made a plan of the ruins so far as they were visible. In 1837
there was formed in Paris, on the initiative of Dureau de la Malle, a
Societi pour lesfouilles de Carthage ; under the auspices of this body
Falbe and Sir Grenville Temple undertook researches, and a little
later Sir Thomas Read, English consul, following the example of the
Genoese and the Pisans. carried away to England the mosaics,
columns and statues of the baths of Antoninus. The Abbe Bour-
gade, chaplain of the church of St Louis erected in 1841, collected
together Punic stelae and other antiquities from the surrounding
plain; these formed the nucleus of the magnificent museum subse-
quently formed by Pere Delattre at the instigation of Cardinal
Lavigerie. Between 1856 and 1858 Nathan Davis made excavations
on the supposed site of the Odeum, and in 1859 Beule undertook
his celebrated investigations on Byrsa. Among other explorers
were A. Daux in 1866; von Maltzan in 1870; E. de Sainte- Marie in
1874; Ch. d'Herisson in 1883; E. Babelon and S. Reinach in 1884;
Vernaz in 1885; Gauckler in 1903. Of these the majority were sent
officially by the French government. But their attempts were
partial, disjointed and without any systematic plan; they were
entirely superseded by the brilliant and persevering work of R. P.
Delattre. The Musee Lavigerie, the result of his labours, contains
a vast archaeological treasure, the interest of which is doubled by
the fact that it stands in the very midst of the ancient site. Un-
fortunately Delattre's work suffered too often from the absence of
a cordial understanding with the directors of the antiquities depart-
ment, La Blanchere and P. Gauckler, who, having themselves
undertaken excavations, transported their finds to the Bardo
museum, by the help of the public funds at their disposal.
The main authority for the topography and the history of the
excavations is Aue. Audollent's Carthage romaine (Paris, 1901). A
topographical and archaeological map of the site was published
under the direction of Colonel Dolot and with the assistance of
Delattre and Gauckler by the Ministere de 1'Instruction Publique in
1907.
History. — The history of Carthage falls into four periods: (1)
from the foundation to the beginning of the wars with the
Sicilian Greeks in 550 B.C.; (2) from 550 to 265, the first year of
the Punic Wars; (3) the Punic Wars to the fall of Carthage in
428
CARTHAGE
146 B.C.; (4) the pericds of Roman and Byzantine rule down to
the destruction of the city by the Arabs in a.d. 698.
(1) Foundation to 550 B.C.— From an extremely remote period
Phoenician sailors had visited the African coast and had had
commercial relations with the Libyan tribes who inhabited the
district which forms the modern Tunis. In the 16th century B.C.
the Sidonians already had trading stations on the coast; with
the object of competing with the Tyrian colony at Utica they
established a trading station called Cambe" or Caccabe on the very
site afterwards occupied by Carthage. Near Borj-Jedid unmis-
takable traces of this early settlement have been found, though
nothing is known of its history. According to the classical tradi-
tion Carthage was founded about 850 B.C. by Tyrian emigrants
led by Elissa or Elissar, the daughter of the Tyrian king Mutton I.,
fleeing from the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion. According to
the story, Elissa subsequently received the name of Dido, i.e. " the
fugitive." Cambe welcomed the new arrivals, who bought from
the mixed Libyo-Phoenician peoples of the neighbourhood,
tributaries of the Libyan king Japon, a piece of land on which
to build a "new city," Kart-hadshat, whence the Greek and Roman
forms of the name. The story goes that Dido, having obtained
11 as much land as could be contained by the skin of an ox,"
proceeded to cut the skin of a slain ox into strips narrow enough
to extend round the whole of the hill, which afterwards from
this episode gained the name of Byrsa. This last detail obviously
arose from a mere play on words by which Btyxra "hide,"
" skin," is confused with the Phoenician bosra, borsa, " citadel,"
" fortress." In memory of its Tyrian origin, Carthage paid an
annual tribute to the temple of Melkarth at Tyr, and under the
Roman empire coins were struck showing Dido fleeing in a galley,
or presiding over the building of Byrsa. On the Vatican Virgil
there is a representation in miniature of workmen shaping
marble blocks and columns for Dido's palace.
The early history of Carthage is very obscure. It is only in
the 6th century that real history begins. By this time the city
is unquestionably a considerable capital with a domain divided
into the three districts of Zeugitana (the environs of Carthage
and the peninsula of C. Bon), Byzacium (the shore of the Syrtes),
and the third comprising the emporia which stretch in the form
of a crescent to the centre of the Great Syrtis as far as Cyrenaica.
The first contest against the Greeks arose from a boundary
question between the settlements of Carthage and those of the
Greeks of Cyrene. The limits were eventually fixed and marked
by a monument known as the " Altar of Philenae." The de-
struction of Tyre by Nebuchadrezzar (q.v.), in the first half of
the 6th century, enabled Carthage to take its place as mistress
of the Mediterranean. The Phoenician colonies founded by
Tyre and Sidon in Sicily and Spain, threatened by the Greeks,
sought help from Carthage, and from this period dates the
Punic l supremacy in the western Mediterranean. The Greek
colonization of Sicily was checked, while Carthage established
herself on all the Sicilian coast and the neighbouring islands as
far as the Balearic Islands and the coast of Spain. The inevitable
conflict between Greece and Carthage broke out about 550.
(2) Wars with the Greeks. — In 550, the Carthaginians, led by the
suffetes Malchus, conquered almost all Sicily and expelled the
Greeks. In 536 they defeated the Phocaeans and the Massaliotes
before Alalia on the Corsican coast. But Malchus, having failed
in Sardinia, was banished by the stern Carthaginian senate
and swore to avenge himself. He laid siege to Carthage itself,
and, after having sacrificed his son Carthalo to his lust for
vengeance, entered the city as a victor. He ruled until he was
put to death by the party which had supported him. Mago,
son of Hanno, succeeded Malchus, as suffetes and general-in-chief .
He was the true founder of the Carthaginian military power.
He conquered Sardinia and the Balearic Islands, where he founded
Port Mahon (Portus Magonis), and so increased the power of
Carthage that he was able to force commercial treaties upon
the Etruscans, and the Greeks of both Sicily and Italy. The
first agreement between Carthage and Rome was made in 509,
one year after the expulsion of the Tarquins, in the consulship of
1 i.e. " of the Poeni (Phoenicians)."
Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius. The text is preserved by
Polybius (Hist. iii. 22-23). It assigned Italy to the Romans and
the African waters to Carthage, but left Sicily as a dangerous
neutral zone.
Mago was succeeded as commander-in-chief by his elder
son Hasdrubal (c. 500), who was thrice chosen suffetes; he
died in Sardinia about 485. His brother Hamilcar, having
collected a fleet of 200 galleys for the conquest of Sicily, was
defeated by the combined forces of Gelo of Syracuse and Theron
of Agrigentum under the walls of Himera in 480, the year in
which the Persian fleet was defeated at Salamis (some say
the two battles were simultaneous); it is said that 150,000
Carthaginians were taken prisoners. The victory is celebrated
by Pindar (Pyth. i.).
These two leaders of the powerful house of the Barcidae each left
three sons. Those of Hasdrubal were Hannibal, Hasdrubal and
Sapho; those of Hamilcar, Himilco, Hanno and Gisco. All,
under various titles, succeeded to the authority which it had
already enjoyed. About 460 Hanno* passing beyond the
Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), founded settlements
along the West African coast in the modern Senegal and Guinea,
and even in Madeira and the Canary Islands.
In Sicily the war lasted for a century with varying success.
In 406 Hannibal and Himilco destroyed Agrigentum and
threatened Gela, but the Carthaginians were forced back on
their strongholds in the south-west by Dionysius the Elder,
Dionysius the Younger, Timoleon and Agathocles successively,
whose cause was aided by a terrible plague and civil troubles
in Carthage itself. A certain Hanno, unquestionably of the
Barcide house, attempted to seize the supreme power, but
his partisans were overwhelmed and he himself suffered the
most cruel punishment. Profiting by these troubles, Timoleon
defeated the Carthaginians at Crimissus in 340, and compelled
them to sue for peace. This peace was not of long duration;
Agathocles crossed to Africa and besieged Carthage, which was
then handicapped by the conspiracy of Bomilcar. Bomilcar
was crucified, and Agathocles having been obliged to return to
Sicily, his general Eumarcus was compelled to carry his army out
of Africa, where it had maintained itself for three years (August
310 to October 307). After the death of Agathocles, the Car-
thaginians re-established their supremacy in Sicily, and Mago
even offered assistance to Rome against the invasion of Pyrrhus
(280). Pyrrhus crossed to Sicily in 277, and was preparing to
emulate Agathocles by sailing to Africa when he was compelled
to return to Italy (see Sicily: History).
Delivered from these dangers and more arrogant than before,
Carthage claimed the monopoly of Mediterranean waters, and
seized every foreign ship found between Sardinia and the Pillars
of Hercules. " At Carthage," said Polybius, " no one is blamed,
however he may have acquired his wealth." The sailors took
the utmost care to conceal the routes which they followed; there
is a story that a Carthaginian ship, pursued by a Roman galley
as far as the Atlantic, preferred to be driven out of her course
and sunk rather than reveal the course to the Cassiterides,
whither she was bound in quest of tin. The owner being saved,
the senate made good his losses from the public treasury (Strabo,
iii. 5. 11).
(3) Wars with Rome. 1 — The first Punic War lasted twenty-
seven years (268-241) ; it was fought by Carthage for the defence
of her Sicilian possessions and her supremacy in the Tyrrhenian
Sea. The Romans, victorious at the naval battles of Mylae
(Melazzo) and Ecnomus (260 and 256), sent M. Atilius Regulus
with an army to Africa. But the Carthaginians, by the help of
the Spartan Xanthippus, were successful, and Regulus was
captured. The fighting was then transferred to Sicily, where
Hasdrubal was defeated at Panormus (250); subsequently the
Romans failed before Lilybaeum and were defeated at Drepanum,
but their victory at the Aegates Islands ended the war (241).
'The identification of this Hanno with the son of Hamilcar is
conjectural; see Hanno.
1 For the military side of these wars see Punic Wars ; Hannibal ;
Hasdrubal.
CARTHAGE
429
Carthage now desired to disband her forces, but the mercenaries
claimed their arrears of pay, and on being refused revolted under
Spendius and Matho, pillaged the suburbs of Carthage and laid
siege to the city itself. Only the genius of Hamilcar Barca raised
the siege; the mercenaries were caught in the defile of the Axe,
where they were cut down without mercy. This war, which all
but ruined Carthage, is known to the Roman historians as the
bdlum inexpiabik.
This peril averted, Carthage undertook the conquest of Spain.
It was the work of Hamilcar, and lasted nine years up to the day
of Hamilcar's death, sword in hand, in 228. His son-in-law,
Hasdrubal Pulcher, built Carthagena in 227 and concluded with
Rome a treaty by which the Ebro was adopted as the boundary
of the Carthaginian sphere. On his death the soldiers chose for
themselves as leader Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. At this period
Carthage, with a population of perhaps 1,000,000, was in the
enjoyment of extraordinary prosperity alike in its internal
industries and in its foreign trade. The manufacture of woven
goods, especially, was a flourishing industry; the Greek writer
Polemo records a special treaty dealing with Carthaginian
fabrics which were a recognized luxury throughout the ancient
world. In Sicily, Italy and Greece the Carthaginians sold
especially black slaves, ivory, metals, precious stones and all
the products of Central Africa, which came thence by caravan.
In Spain they sought copper and silver, and it was by them that
the modern mines of Huelva, as also those of Osca and Cartha-
gena, were first exploited. The district round Carthage, with
its amazing fertility, was the granary of the city, as it was later
that of Rome. Mago had drawn up a treaty dealing with agri-
culture and rural economy generally, which was subsequently
brought to Rome and translated into Latin by Decimus Silanus
by order of the senate (J. P. Mahaffy, " The Work of Mago," in
Hermathena, xv. pp. 20-35).
In the midst of this prosperity the Second War with Rome
broke out. At this time the genius of Carthage is incarnate in
Hannibal; his campaigns in Spain, Italy and Africa have won
the admiration of military experts of all periods. The war
became inevitable in 219 when Hannibal captured Saguntum,
which was in alliance with Rome. Passing through Spain and
Gaul, Hannibal resolved to carry the war into the heart of Italy
(218-217). The battles of the Ticinus, Trebia and Trasimene
Lake are but stages in the wonderful progress which culminated
in the battle of Cannae (August 2, 216). The road to Rome was
now open to him, but he did not profit by his advantage, while
the Carthaginian senate, to its shame, withheld all further
support. His brother Hasdrubal with his relieving army was
defeated at the Metaurus in 207; the Romans recovered their
hold in Spain, and, seeing that Hannibal was unable to move in
Italy, carried the war back to Africa. Hearing that Scipio had
taken Utica (203) and defeated Hasdrubal and Syphax, king of
Numidia, Hannibal returned from Italy, but with a hastily
levied army was defeated at Zama (October 19, 202). The sub-
sequent peace was disastrous to Carthage, which lost its fleet
and all save its African possessions.
After the Second War Carthage soon revived. The population
is said still to have numbered 700,000, and despite its humiliation,
the city never ceased to inspire alarm at Rome. The Numidian
prince Massinissa, rival of Syphax and a Roman protege, took
advantage of a clause in the treaty of 202, which forbade Carthage
to make war without the consent of the Roman senate, to extend
his possessions at the expense of Carthage. In response to a
protest from Carthage an embassy including M. Porcius Cato the
Elder was sent to inquire into the matter, and Cato was so
impressed with the city as a whole that on returning to Rome
he never made a speech without concluding with the warning
" Delenda est Carthago."
At this time there were three political parties in Carthage:
(1) that which upheld the Roman alliance, (2) that which advo-
cated the Numidian alliance, and (3) the popular party. These
three were led respectively by Hanno, Hannibal Passer, Has-
drubal and Carthalo. The popular faction, which was turbulent
and exasperated by the bad faith of the Romans, expelled the
Numidian party and declared war in 149 on Massinissa, who was
victorious at Oroscope. Rome then intervened, determined
finally to destroy her now enfeebled rival. War was declared on
the pretext that Carthage had engaged in war with Massinissa
without the sanction of Rome. The third Punic War lasted three
years, and after a heroic resistance the city fell in 146. The last
champions of liberty entrenched themselves under Hasdrubal
in the temple of Eshmun, the site of which is now occupied by
the chapel of St Louis. The Roman troops were let loose to
plunder and burn. The thick bed of cinders, blackened stones,
broken glass, fragments of metal twisted by fire, half-calcined
bones, which is found to-day at a depth of 13 to 16 ft. under the
remains of Roman Carthage between Byrsa and the harbours,
bears grim witness, in accord with the accounts of Polybius and
Appian, to the terrible fate which overtook this part of the city.
Before long a commission arrived from Rome to decide the fate
of the province of Carthage. In the city itself, temples, houses
and fortifications were levelled to the ground, the site was
dedicated with solemn imprecations to the infernal gods, and all
human habitation throughout the vast ruined area was expressly
forbidden. ,*.. j * *?•
Constitutional History. — The narrative must here be interrupted
by an account of thepoutical and religious development of Phoenician
Carthage. Carthage was an aristocratic republic based on wealth
rather than on birth. Indeed, the popular party, which included
certain noble families such as the Barcidae, was always powerful,
and thus government by demagogues was not infrequent. So
Aristotle, writing about 330, emphasizes the importance of great
wealth in Carthaginian politics. The government was in fact a
plutocracy. The aristocratic party was represented by the two
suffetes and the senate; the democratic by the popular assembly.
The suffetes (Sofetim) presided in the senate and controlled the civil
administration;' the office was annual, but there was no limit to
re-election. Hannibal was elected for twenty-two years. The
senate, which, like that of Tyre, was composed of 300 members,
exercised ultimate control over all public affairs, decided on peace
and war, nominated the Commission of Ten, which was charged
with aiding and controlling the suffetes. This commission was
subsequently replaced by a council of one hundred, called by the
Greeks gerousia. This tribunal, which maintained law and order
and called the generals to account, gradually became a tyrannical
inquisition. Frequently it met at night in the Temple of Eshmun
on Byrsa, in secret sessions described by Aristotle as avavina t&v
The popular assembly was composed, not of all the citizens, but
of the timuchi (Gr. n/4, Cgar), *•*» those who possessed a certain
Eroperty-qualification. The election of the suffetes had to be ratified
y this assembly. The two bodies were almost always in opposition,
and this was one of the chief causes of the ruin of Carthage.
The army was recruited externally by senators who were sent to
the great empoHa or trade-centres, even to the most remote, to
contract with local princes for men and officers. The payments,
agreed upon in this way, were frequently in arrears; hence the
terrible revolts such as that of the bellum inexpiabile." It was
not till the 3rd century that Carthage, in imitation of the kings of
Syria and Egypt, began to make use of elephants in war. The
elephant used was the African type (elephas capensis), which was
smaller than the Asiatic (eUphas indicus), though with longer ears.
In addition to the mercenaries, the army contained a legion com-
posed of young men belonging to the best families in the state;
this force was important as a nursery of officers.
Religion, — The religion of Carthage was that of the Phoenicians.
Over an army of minor deities (atonim and baalim) towered the
trinity of great gods composed of Baal-Ammon or Moloch (identi-
fied by the Romans with Cronus or Saturn); Tanit, the virgin
goddess of the heavens and the moon, the Phoenician Astarte, and
known as Juno Caelestis in the Roman period ; Eshmun, the pro-
tecting deity and protector of the acropolis, generally identified
with Aesculapius. There were also special cults: of Iolaus or
Tammuz-Adonis, whom the Romans identified to some extent with
Mercury; of the god Patechus or Pvgmaeus, a deformed and
repulsive monster like the Egyptian Ptan, whose images were placed
on the prows of ships to frighten the enemy ; and lastly of the Tyrian
Melkarth, whose functions were analogous to those of Hercules.
The statue of this god was carried to Rome after the siege of 146
(Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 12. 39). From inscriptions we know the
names of other minor deities, which are perhaps only other names
of the same gods, e.g. Rabbat Umma, " the great mother "; Baalat
haedrat, " mistress of the sanctuary "; Ashtoreth (Astarte), Illat,
Sakon, Tsaphon, Sid, Aris (? Ares).
From the close of the 4th century B.C. the intimate relations
between the Carthaginians and the Sicilian Greeks began to introduce
Hellenic elements into this religion. In the forum of Carthage was a
temple to Apollo containing a colossal statue, which was transported
43°
CARTHAGE
to Rome. The Carthaginians once at least sent offerings to Delphi,
and Tanit approximated to some extent to Demeter; hence on the
coins we find the head of Tanit or the Punic Astarte crowned with
ears of corn, in imitation of the coins of the Greek Sicilian colonies.
The symbol of Tanit is the crescent moon ; in her temple at Carthage
was preserved a famous veil or peplus which was venerated as the
city's palladium. On the innumerable votive stelae which have
been unearthed, we find invocations to Tanit and Baal-Ammon,
as two associate deities (Owl wbpeSpot). The usual formula in these
inscriptions is, " To the great lady Tanit, the manifestation [reflex,
face] of Baal (TanU-Pene-Baal) and to our lord Baal-Ammon,
the vow of Bomilcar, son of Mago, son of Bomilcar, because they
have heard his prayer " (Corp. inscr. semit. vol. i. pp. 276 f. ;
Audollent, Cartk. Rom. p. 369).
Baal-Ammon or Moloch, the great god of all Libya, is represented
as an old man with ram's horns on his forehead ; the ram is frequently
found with his statues. He appears also with a scythe in his hand
C'falcem ferens senex pingitur" St Cyprian, De idol, vanit, 11).
At Carthage children were sacrificed to him, and in his temple there
was a colossal bronze statue in the arms of which were placed the
children who were to be sacrificed (Diod. Sic. xx. 14; Justin xviii.
6, xix. 1; Plut. De super stit. 13, De sera num. vindic. 6.). The
children slipped one by one from the arms into a furnace amid the
plaudits of fanatical worshippers. These sacrifices persisted even
under Roman rule; Tertullian states that even in his time they
took place in secret (Apolog. cix. ; cf. Delattre, " Inscript, de Carth.,
in Bulletin ipigraphique, iv. p. 317; Audollent, op. cii. p. 398).
(4) Roman Period. — In 122 B.C., twenty-four years after the
destruction of the city by Scipio Aemilianus, the Roman senate,
on the proposal of Rubrius, decided to plant a Latin colony on
the site. C. Gracchus and Fulvius Flaccus were entrusted
with the foundation of the new city, which was christened
Colonia Junonia, and placed under the protection of Juno
Caelestis, the new name for the Punic Tanit. But its prosperity
was obstructed both by unpropitious omens and by the very
recollection of the ancient feud, and fifty years later Marius,
proscribed by Sulla, found the ruins practically deserted. In
the neighbourhood were the scattered remnants of the old Punic
population, who, according to Athenaeus (Deipnosoph. v. 50),
had actually had the assurance to send ambassadors to Mithra-
dates the Great assuring him of their support against Rome.
Ultimately M. Minucius Rufus passed a law abrogating that of
122 and suppressing the Colonia Junonia.
Julius Caesar, pursuing the lost supporters of Pompey,
encamped on the ruins of the city, and there, according to
tradition, had a dream which induced him to re-establish the
abandoned colony. Returning to Rome, he despatched thither
the poor citizens who were demanding land from him. Later on
Augustus sent new colonists, and, henceforward, the machinery
of administration was regularly centred there (Appian viii. 136;
Dio Cass. lxxx. 1; Audollent, op. cit. p. 46). The proconsuls of
the African province had hitherto lived at Utica; in 14-13 B.C.
C. Sentius Saturninus transferred his headquarters to Carthage,
which was henceforth known as Colonia Julia Carthago. Several
inscriptions use this name, as also the bronze coins which bear
the heads of Augustus and Tiberius, and were struck at first in
the name of the suffetes, afterwards in that of duumviri.
Pomponius Mela and Strabo already describe Carthage as
among the greatest and most wealthy cities of the empire.
Herodian puts it second to Rome, and such is the force of tradi-
tion that the Roman citizens resident in Carthage boasted of its
Punic past, and loved to recall its glory. Virgil in the Aeneid
celebrated the misfortunes of Dido, whom the colonists ultimately
identified with Tanit- Astarte; a public Dido-cult grew up, and
the citizens even pretended to have discovered the very house
from which she had watched the departure of Aeneas. The
religious character of these legends, coupled with the city's
resumption of its old r61e as mistress of Africa, and its inde-
pendent spirit, reawakened the old distrust, and even up to the
invasions of the Vandals the jealous rivalry of Rome forbade
the reconstruction of the city walls.
The revolt of L. Clodius Macer, legate of Numidia, in a.d. 68
was warmly supported by Carthage, and one of the coins of this
short-lived power bears the symbol of Carthage personified.
At the moment of the accession of Vitellius, Piso, governor of
the province of Africa, was in his turn proclaimed emperor at
Carthage. A little later, under Antoninus Pius, we read of a fire
which devastated the quarter of the forum; about the same
time, i.e. under Hadrian and Antoninus, there was built the
famous Zaghwan aqueduct, which poured more than seven
million gallons of water a day into the reservoirs of the Mapalia
(La Malga) ; the cost of this gigantic work was defrayed by a
special tax which pressed heavily on the inhabitants as late as
the reign of Septimius Severus; allusions to it are made on the
coin-types of this emperor (£. Babelon, Rmsta italiana di
numismatica, 1903, p. 157).
In the early history of Christianity Carthage played an
auspicious part, in virtue of the number of its disciples, the
energy and learning of their leaders, the courage and eloquence
of its teachers, the persecutions of which it was the scene, the
number of its councils and the heresies of which it witnessed
the birth, propagation or extinction (see Carthage, Synods op).
The labours of Delattre have filled the St Louis museum at
Carthage with memorials of the early Church. From the end
of the 2nd century there was a bishop of Carthage; the first was
Agrippinus, the second Optatus. At the head of the apologists,
whom the persecutions inspired, stands Tertullian. In 202 or
203, in the amphitheatre, where Cardinal Lavigerie erected a
cross in commemoration, occurred the martyrdom of Perpetua
and Felicitas. Tertullian was succeeded (248) by a no less
famous bishop Cyprian. About this time the proconsul Gordian
had himself proclaimed (239) emperor at Thysdrus (£1 Jem).
Shortly afterwards Sabinianus, aspiring to die same dignity,
was besieged by the procurator of Mauretania; the inhabitants
gave him up and thus obtained a disgraceful pardon (R. Cagnat,
Uarmie romaine d'Afrique, p. 52; Audollent, op. cit. p. 73).
Peace being restored, the persecution of the Christians was
renewed by an edict of the emperor Decius (250). Cyprian
escaped by hiding, and subsequently caused the heresy of
Novatian to be condemned in the council of 251. In 257, in a
new persecution under Valerian, Cyprian was beheaded by the
proconsul Galerius Maximus.
About 264 or 265 a certain Celsus proclaimed himself emperor
at Carthage, but was quickly slain. Probus, like Hadrian and
Severus, visited the city, and Maximian had new baths con-
structed. Under Constantius Chlorus, Maxentius proclaimed
himself emperor in Africa; this caused great excitement in
Carthage, and the garrison, which was hostile to the pre-
tender, compelled L. Domitius Alexander to assume the purple.
Domitius was, however, captured by Maxentius and strangled
at Carthage. About 311 there arose the famous Donatist
heresy, supported by 270 African bishops (see Donatists and
Constantine I.). At the synod of Carthage in 411 this heresy
was condemned owing to the eloquence of Augustine. Two
years later the Carthaginian sectaries even ventured upon a
political rebellion under the leadership of Heraclianus, who
proclaimed himself emperor and actually dared to make a descent
on Italy itself, leaving his son-in-law Sabinus in command at
Carthage. Being defeated he fled precipitately to Carthage,
where he was put to death (413). Donatism was followed by
Pelagianism (see Pelagixjs), also of Carthaginian origin, and
these religious troubles were not settled when in May 429 the
Vandals, on the appeal of Count Boniface, governor of Africa,
crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and invaded Mauretania. Gen-
seric, who was hailed with one accord by all the different sectaries
as the champion of their several views, appeared in 439 before
the walls of Carthage, which had been hastily rebuilt after five
hundred years by the order of Theodosius II. The priest
Salvianus has left a splendid picture of Carthage at this moment
(de Gubern. vii. 16). It had 500,000 inhabitants, and 22 basilicas
(several of which have been discovered by Delattre). Genseric
entered almost without a blow (October 19, 439), and gave
over the city to plunder before departing for his attack on Italy.
From this time Carthage became, in the hands of the Vandals,
a mere pirate stronghold, such as Tunis and Algiers were sub-
sequently to become* Once, in 470, the fleet of the Eastern
empire under the orders of Basiliscus appeared in the Bay of
Carthage, but Genseric succeeded in setting fire to the attacking
ships and from Byrsa watched their entire annihilation
CARTHAGE—CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF
43i
Byzantine Rule. — Under Genseric's successors (see Vandals),
Carthage was still the scene of many displays of savage brutality,
though Thrasamund built new baths and a basilica. Ultimately
Gelimer, the last Vandal king, was defeated at Ad Decimum by
the Byzantine army under Belisarius, who entered Carthage
unopposed (September 14, 533). The restored city now received
the name of Colonia Justiniana Carthago; Belisarius rebuilt the
walls and entrusted the government to Solomon. New basilicas
and other monuments were erected, and Byzantine Carthage re-
covered for a century the prosperity of the Roman city.
At length the Arabs, having conquered Cyrenaica and Tri-
politana (647), and founded Kairawan (670), arrived before
Carthage. In 697 Hasan ibn en-Noman, the Gassanid governor
of Egypt, captured the city almost without resistance. But
the garrison left by the Arabs was quite unable to defend itself
against the patrician Joannes, who retook the city and hastily
put it in a state of defence. Hasan returned furious with anger,
defeated the Byzantines again, and decreed the entire destruction
of the city. His orders were fulfilled; and in 698 Carthage
finally disappears from history. Once again only does the name
appear in the middle ages, when the French king, Louis IX., at
the head of the eighth crusade, disembarked there on the 17 th of
July 1 2 70. He died, however, of the plague on the 2 5th of August
without having recovered northern Africa for civilization.
Bibliography. — I. Ancient. — (a) Polybius, Diodoms Siculus,
Livy, Appian, Justin, Strabo; (6) for the Christian period, Tertullian,
Cyprian, Augustine; (c) for the Byzantine and Vandal, Procopius
and Victor de Vita. All the references to the topography of Roman
and Byzantine Carthage are collected in Audollent, Carthage romaine
(1901), pp. 775-825, which also contains a full list of modern works
(pp. 13-32, and p. 835).
II. Modern. — The most important are: Falbe, Recherches sur
V emplacement de Carthage (Paris, 1833); Dureau de la Malle, Topo-
graphie de Carthage (Paris, 1835) ; Nathan Davis, Carthage and her
Remains (London, 1861); Beule, Fouilks a Carthage (Paris, 1861);
Victor Guerin, Voyage archeologique dans la regence de Tunis (Paris,
1862); £. de Sainte Marie, Mission & Carthage (Paris, 1884); C.
Tissot, Geographie comparSe de la province romaine d'Afrique (Paris,
1884-1888, 2 vols.); E. Babelon, Carthage (Paris, 1896); Otto
Meltzer, Geschichte der Karthaeer (Berlin, 1 879-1 896, 2 vols.); Paul
Monceaux, Les Africains, etude sur la litterature latine de VAfrique;
Les Patens (Paris, 1898); Histoire litUraire de lAfrique chritienne
(Paris, 1901-1909, 3 vols.); Pallu de Lessert, Vicatres et comtes
d'Afrique (Paris, 1892); Pastes des provinces africaines sous la
domination romaine (Paris, 1 896-1901, 2 vols.) ; R. Cagnat, VArmie
romaine d'Afrique (Paris, 1892); C. Diehl, VAfrique byzantine,
histoire de la domination byzantine en Afrique (Paris, 1896) ; Aug.
Audollent, Carthage romaine (Paris, 1901); A. J. Church and A.
Gilman, Carthage in " Story of the Nations " series (1886). For the
numerous publications of PereDelattre scattered in various periodicals
see Etude sur les diverses publications du R. P. Delattre f by Marquis
dVAnselme de Puisaye (Paris, 1895); Miss Mabel Moore s Carthage
of the Phoenicians (London, 1905) contains a useful summary of
Delattre's excavations. See further for the discussion of particular
points: " Chronique archeologique africaine," published by Steph.
Gsell, in the Revue africaine of Algiers, 1893, and following years;
and in the MSlanges d'archeologie et d'hisUnrc de l'£cole franqaise de
Rome, vol. xv. (1895 and following years) ; Dr Carton, " Chronique
archeologique nord-africaine," in the Revue tunisienne. (E. B.*)
CARTHAGE, a city and the county-seat of Jasper county,
Missouri, U.S.A., on the Spring river, about 950 ft. above sea-
level, and about 150 m. S. by E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890)
7981; (1900) 9416, of whom 539 were negroes; (1910 census)
9483. It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the
Missouri Pacific, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern
railways, and is connected with Webb City and Joplin, Mo.,
and Galena, Kan., by the electric line of the Southwest Missouri
railway. The town is built on high ground underlain by solid
limestone, and has much natural and architectural beauty. It
is the seat of the Carthage Collegiate Institute (Presbyterian).
A Chautauqua assembly and a county fair are held annually.
In the vicinity there are valuable lead, zinc and coal mines, and
quarries of Carthage "marble," with which the county court
house is built. Carthage is a jobbing centre for a fruit and grain
producing region; live-stock (especially harness horses) is raised
in the vicinity; and among the city's manufactures are lime,
flour, canned fruits, furniture, bed springs and mattresses,
mining and quarrying machinery, ploughs and woollen goods.
In 1005 thefactory products were valued at $1,1 79,661. Natural
gas for domestic use and for factories is piped from the Kansas
gas fields. The municipality owns and operates the electric*
lighting plant. Carthage, founded in 1833, was laid out as a
town and became the county-seat in 1842, was incorporated
as a town in 1868, was chartered as a city in 1873, and in 1890
became a city of the third class under the general (state) law.
On the 5th of July 1861 about 3500 Confederates under General
James £. Rains and M. M. Parsons, accompanied by Governor
Claiborne Fox Jackson (1807-1862), and 1500 Union troops
under Colonel Franz Sigel, were engaged about 7 m. north of the
city in an indecisive skirmish which has been named the battle
of Carthage.
CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF. During the 3rd, 4th. and 5th
centuries the town of Carthage (q.v.) in Africa served as the
meeting-place of a large number of church synods, of which,
however, only the most important can be treated here.
i. In May 251 a synod, assembled under the presidency of
Cyprian to consider the treatment of the lapsi (those who had
fallen away from the faith during persecution), excommunicated
Felicissimus and five other Novatian bishops (Rigorists), and
declared that the lapsi should be dealt with, not with indiscrim-
inate severity, but according to the degree of individual guilt.
These decisions were confirmed by a synod of Rome in the
autumn of the same year. Other Carthaginian synods concern-
ing the lapsi were held in 252 and 254.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., i. pp. in sqq. (English translation, i. pp. 93
sqq.); Mansi, i. pp. 863 sqq., 905 sqq.; Hardouin, i. pp. 133 sqq.,
147 sqq.; Cyprian, Epp. 52, 54, 55, 68.
2. Two synods, in 255 and 256, held under Cyprian, pro-
nounced against the validity of heretical baptism, thus taking
direct issue with Stephen, bishop of Rome, who promptly
repudiated them, and separated himself from the African
Church. A third synod, September 256, unanimously reaffirmed
the position of the other two. Stephen J s pretensions to authority
as " bishop of bishops " were sharply resented, and for some
time the relations of the Roman and African Churches were
severely strained.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., i. pp. 11 7- 119 (English translation, i. pp. 99
sqq.); Mansi, i. pp. 921 sqq., 951 sqq.; Hardouin, i. pp. 153 sqq.;
Cyprian, Epp. 69-75.
3. The Donatist schism (see Donatists) occasioned a number
of important synods. About 348 a synod of Catholic bishops,
who had met to record their gratitude for the effective official re-
pression of the " Circumcelliones " (Donatist terrorists), declared
against the rebaptism of any one who had been baptised in the
name of the Trinity, and adopted twelve canons of clerical
discipline.
See Hefele, 2nd. ed., i. pp. 632-633 (English translation, ii. pp.
184-186); Mansi, iii. pp. 143 sqq.; Hardouin, i. pp. 683 sqq.
4. The " Conference of Carthage " (see Donatists), held by
imperial command in 41 1 with a view to terminating the Donatist
schism, while not strictly a synod, was nevertheless one of the
most important assemblies in the history of the African church,
and, indeed of the whole Christian church.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 103-104 (English translation, ii. pp.
445-446) ; Mansi, iv. pp. 7-283 ; Hardouin, 1. pp. 1043-1190.
5. On the 1st of May 418 a great synod (" A Council of Africa,"
St Augustine calls it), which assembled under the presidency of
Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, to take action concerning the
errors of Caelestius, a disciple of Pelagius (q.v.) t denounced the
Pelagian doctrines of human nature, original sin, grace and
perfectibility, and fully approved the contraryviews of Augustine.
Prompted by the reinstatement by the bishop of Rome of a
deposed African priest, the synod enacted that " whoever
appeals to a court on the other side of the sea (meaning Rome)
may not again be received into communion by any one in Africa "
(canon 17).
See Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 116 sqq. (English translation, ii. pp.
458 sqq.); Mansi, iii. pp. 810 sqq., iv. pp. 377 sqq., 451 sqq.;
Hardouin, i. pp. 926 sqq.
6. The question of appeals to Rome occasioned two synods,
one in 419, the other in 424. The latter addressed a letter to
432
CARTHUSIANS
the bishop of Rome, Celestine, protesting against his claim to
appellate jurisdiction, and urgently requesting the immediate
recall of his legate, and advising him to send no more judges to
Africa.
See Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 120 sq^., 137 sqq. (English translation,
ii. pp.462 sqq., 480 sqq.); Mansi, in. pp. 835 sqq., iv. pp. 401 sqq.,
477 sqq* J Hardouin, 1. pp. 943 sqq., 1241 sqq. (T. F. C.)
CARTHUSIANS, an order of monks founded by St Bruno (q.v.).
In 1084 Bruno and his six companions presented themselves
before the bishop of Grenoble and explained to him their desire
to lead an ascetical life in a solitary place. He pointed out to
them a desolate spot named Chartreuse, on the mountains near
Grenoble, rocky and precipitous, and snow-covered during a
great portion of the year, and told them they might there carry
out their design. They built themselves three huts and an
oratory, and gave themselves up to a life of prayer and silence
and extreme austerity. After a few years Bruno was summoned
to Rome by Urban II., as an adviser in the government of the
Church, c. 1090; but after a year or so he obtained permission
to withdraw from Rome, and was able to found in the forests of
Calabria near Squillace a second, and later on a third and a fourth
monastery, on the same lines as the Chartreuse. On one of these
south Italian foundations Bruno died in 11 01. On leaving the
Chartreuse he had appointed a successor as superior, and the
institute steadily took more settled shape and further develop-
ment. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, writing about
forty years later, speaks thus of the mode of life of the earliest
Carthusians: —
11 Warned by the negligence and lukewarmness of many of the
older monks, they adopted for themselves and for their followers
greater precaution against the artifices of the Evil One. As
remedy against pride and vain-glory they chose a dress more poor
and contemptible than that of any other religious body; so that it
is horrible to look on these garments, so short, scanty, coarse and
dirty are they. In order to cut up avarice by the roots, they en-
closed around their cells a certain quantity of land, more or less,
according to the fertility of the distnct; and they would not accept
a foot of land beyond that limit if you were to otter them the whole
world. For the same motive they limit the quantity of their cattle,
oxen, asses, sheep and goat& And in order that they might have
no motive for augmenting their possessions, either of land or animals,
they ordained that in every one of their monasteries there should
be no more than twelve monks, with their prior the thirteenth,
eighteen lay brothers and a few paid servants. To mortify the
flesh they always wear hair shirts of the severest kind, and their
fasting is well nigh continuous. They always eat bread of unbolted
meal, and take so much water with their wine that it has hardly
any flavour of wine left. They never eat meat, whether in health
or ill. They never buy fish, but they accept it if it is given to them
for charity. They may eat cheese and eggs only on Sundays and
Thursdays. On Tuesdays and Saturdays they eat cooked vegetables.
On Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays they take only bread and
water. 1"fy eat once a day only, save during the octaves of
Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, Epiphany and other solemnities.
They live in separate little houses like the ancient monks of Egypt,
and they occupy themselves continually with reading, prayer and
the labour of their hands, especially the writing of books. They
recite the prayers for minor canonical hours in their own dwellings,
when warned by the bell of the church ; but they all assemble in
church for matins and vespers. On feast days they eat twice, and
sing all the offices in the church, and eat in the refectory. They
do not say mass save on festivals and Sundays. ^ They boil the
vegetables served out to them in their own dwellings, and never
drink wine save with their food." (Migne, Patrol. Lot. clxxxix. 943.)
In its broad outlines this description of primitive Carthusian
life has remained true, even to the present day: the regulations
as to food are not quite so stringent, and the habit is now an
ordinary religious habit of white serge. It was not until n 70
that the Carthusians were formally constituted a separate
religious order by papal act. Owing to its very nature, the
institute never had any great expansion: at the middle of the
13th century there were some 50 Charterhouses; at the beginning
of the 18th there were 170, 75 being in France.
There was no written rule before 1130, when Guigo, the
fifth prior of the Grande Chartreuse, reduced to writing the
body of customs that had been the basis of Carthusian life
(Migne, Patrol. Lot. cliii. 631); enlargements and modifications
of this code were made in 1259, 1367, 1509 and 1681: this last
form of the statutes is the present Carthusian rule.
The life is very nearly eremitical: except on Sundays and
feasts, the Carthusians meet only three times a day in the
church — for the Midnight Office, for Mass and for Vespers;
once a week, on Sundays (and feasts) they have their meal in
the refectory, and once a week they have recreation together
and a walk outside enclosure. All the rest of their time is passed
in solitude in their hermitages, which are built quite separate
from one another. Each hermitage is a house, containing
living-room, bedroom and oratory, workshop and store-room,
and has a small garden attached. The monks are supplied with
such tools as they wish to employ in workshop and garden, and
with such books as they need from the library. The Carthusian
goes to bed every evening at 7 and is called about 11, when
he says in his private oratory the Officium B. Mariae Virginis.
Towards midnight all repair to the church for Matins and Lauds,
which are celebrated with extraordinary solemnity and prolixity,
so as to last from 2 to 3 hours, according to the office. They
then return to bed until 5, when they again go to the church for
the daily High Mass, still celebrated according to the phase of
liturgical and ritual development of the nth century. The
private Masses are then said, and the monks betake themselves
to work or study. At 10 in summer, n in winter, 12 on feast
days, they have their dinner, alone except on Sundays and feasts;
the dinner is supplied from the common kitchen through a small
window. On many days of the year there is but one meal;
meat is never eaten, even in sickness — this has always been an
absolute rule among the Carthusians. In the afternoon they
again assemble in the church for Vespers; the lesser portions
of the canonical office, as well as the Office of the Blessed Virgin
and the Office of the Dead, are said privately in the oratories.
This manner of life has been kept up almost without variation
for eight centuries: among the Carthusians there have never
been any of those revivals and reforms that are so striking a
feature in the history of other orders — " never reformed, because
never deformed." The Carthusians have always lived thus
wholly cut off from the outer world, each one in almost entire
isolation. They introduced and have kept up in western
Europe a life resembling that of the early Egyptian monks,
as under St Anthony's guidance monasticism passed from the
utter individualism of the first hermits to the half eremitical,
half cenobitical life of the Lauras (see Monasticism). Owing
to certain resemblances in external matters to the Benedictine
rule and practice, the Carthusians have sometimes been regarded
as one of the offshoots from the Benedictines; but this view is
not tenable, the whole Carthusian conception, idea and spirit
being quite different from the Benedictine.
The superiors of the Charterhouses are priors, not abbots,
and the prior of the Grande Chartreuse is the superior general
of the order. A general chapter of the priors is held annually
at the Grande Chartreuse. The Carthusians have always
flourished most in France, but they had houses all over western
Europe; some of the Italian Cerlose, as those at Pa via, Florence
and Naples, are renowned for their wonderful beauty.
The first English Charterhouse was established in 11 78 at
Witham by Selwood Forest, and at the Dissolution there were
nine, the most celebrated being those at Sheen in Surrey and at
Smithfield in London (for list see Catholic Dictionary, art. " Car-
thusians "). The Carthusians were the only order that made
any corporate resistance to the ecclesiastical policy of Henry
VIII. The community of the London Charterhouse stood firm,
and the prior and several of the monks were put to death in
1535 under circumstances of barbarous cruelty. In Mary's
reign a community was reassembled at Sheen, and on her
death it emigrated, fifteen in number, to Flanders, and finally
settled in Nieuport; it maintained itself as an English community
for a considerable time, but gradually dwindled, and the last of
the old English Carthusian stock died in 183 1. There is now one
Charterhouse in England established at Parkminster in Sussex
in 1883; the community numbers 50 choir-monks, but it is
almost wholly made up of foreigners, including many of those
recently expelled from France.
At the French Revolution the monks were driven from the
CARTIER, SIR G. E.— CARTIER, J.
Grande Chartreuse, but they returned in 1816; they were again
driven out under the Association Laws of 1001, and the commun-
ity of the Grande Chartreuse is now settled in an old Certosa
near Lucca. Of late years the community at the Grande
Chartreuse had consisted of some 40 choir-monks and 20 lay
brothers. Before the recent expulsions from France there were
in all some 20 Charterhouses.
There have been since the middle of the 13th century a very
few convents of Carthusian nuns, not more than ten; in recent
times there have been but two or three, one situated a few miles
from the Grande Chartreuse. The rule resembles that of the
monks, but the isolation, solitude and silence are much less
stringent. The habit of the Carthusians, both monks and nuns,
is white.
A word may be added as to the famous liqueur, known as
Chartreuse, made by the monks. At the Revolution the property
of the Carthusians was confiscated, and on their restoration they
recovered only the barren desert in which the monastery stood,
and for it they had to pay rent. Thus they were for some years
in want even of the needful means of subsistence. Then the
liqueur was invented as a means of supplying the wants of the
community; it became a great commercial success and produces
a large yearly income. This income the monks have not spent
on themselves, nor does it accumulate. The first charge is the
maintenance of the Grande Chartreuse 'and the other Charter-
houses, and out of it have been built and established the new
monasteries of the order, as at Dilsseldorf, Parkminster and
elsewhere; but by far the largest portion has been spent on
religious and charitable purposes in France and all over the world,
— churches, schools, hospitals, almshouses, foreign missions.
One thing is certain: the profits made no difference at all to
the secluded and austere life of the monks of the Grande
Chartreuse.
Authorities. — The most comprehensive historical work on the
Carthusian order is B. Tromby, Storia del patriarca S. Brunone e
del suo ordine (10 vols., 1773). References to other histories, old
and new, will be found in Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregaiionen
(1896), i. § 36; Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2), art.
" Karthauserorden "; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 3), art.
" Karthauser." For the English Carthusians, see £. Margaret
Thompson, Somerset Carthusians (1895), and Dom L. Hendriks,
London Charterhouse (1889). The best study on St Bruno and the
foundation of the order is Hermann Ldbbel, " Der Stifter des
Karthauser-Ordens," 1899 (vol. v. No. 1 of Kirchengeschiehtliche
Studien, Mflnster) ; and the best account of the actual lite is by Algar
Thorold (Dublin Review, April 1892), who spent some months in the
noviciate at the Grande Chartreuse. A little tract (anonymous)
translated from French, The Carthusians, 1902 (Orphans Press,
Buckley Hall, Rochdale), gives precise information on the history,
spirit and life of the Carthusians. (E. C. B.)
CARTIER, SIR GEORGES tiTIENNE, Bart. (1814-1873),
Canadian statesman, was born in the province of Quebec on the
6th of September 1814. Called to the bar in 1835, he soon
gained a large practice. He took part in the rebellion of 1837,
and was forced for a time to fly the country. In 1848 he was
elected to the Canadian parliament. His youthful ebullition
of 1837 was soon repented of, and he became a loyal subject of
the British crown. So greatly had he changed that in 1854
he became a leading member of the reconstructed liberal-
Conservative party. In 1855 he was appointed provincial
secretary, and in 1857 attorney-general for Lower Canada.
From 1858 to 1862 he and Sir John Macdonald were joint prime
ministers of Canada, and their alliance lasted till the death of
Cartier. He took the chief part in promoting many useful
measures, such as the abolition of seigneurial tenure in Lower
Canada (see Quebec), and the codification of the civil law of
that province (1857-1864). Above all he favoured the con-
struction of railways, and to his energy and fearless optimism
are largely due the eventual success of the Grand Trunk railway,
and the resolve to construct the Canadian Pacific. In the face
of great opposition, he carried his native province into federation
( 1 864-1867), which would have been impossible without his aid.
In the first cabinet of Sir John Macdonald he sat as minister of
militia and defence, and carried in 1868 an important act estab-
lishing the land forces of Canada on a sound basis. Though a
433
devout Catholic, he became involved in a political quarrel with
his church, and was defeated by clerical influence at the general
election of 1872. Another seat was found for him, but his health
failed and he died on the 20th of May 1873.
The Life, by Alfred O. De Celles (Toronto, 1904), may be supple-
mented by the sketch in Dent's Canadian Portrait Gallery (Toronto,
1880). (W. L. G.)
CARTIER, JACQUES (1491-1557), French navigator, dis-
coverer of the Canadian river St Lawrence, was born at St Malo
in Brittany. Of his early life nothing is known. On the suppres-
sion by Admiral Chabot of the trade to Brazil, an expedition
consisting of two ships and sixty-one men was despatched from
St Malo under Cartier on the 20th of April 1534, to look for a
north-west passage to the East. Cartier reached Newfoundland
on the 10th of May, and at once entered the strait of Belle Isle,
then known to the fishermen as the bay of Castles. While the
ships renewed their supply of wood and water in Belles Amours
harbour on the north side of the strait, the long-boats discovered
that the coast farther west was barren, rocky and uninviting.
In view of this Cartier set sail on Monday, the 15th of June, for
the south side of the strait, by following which he was led down
almost the whole west coast of Newfoundland. Off St George's
Bay a storm drove the ships out into the gulf, but on resuming
his course Cartier fell in with the Bird Rocks. The island south
of these he named Brion Island, after Chabot. Cartier mistook
our Magdalen and Prince Edward Islands for the main shore on
the south side of this inland sea. Following the coast of New
Brunswick northward he was greatly disappointed to discover
Chaleur Bay was not a strait. During a ten days' stay in Gasp6
Harbour Cartier made friends with a tribe of Huron-Iroquois
Indians from Quebec, two of whom he carried off with him. A
mirage deceived him into thinking the passage up the river south
of Anticosti was a bay, whereupon he proceeded to coast the
southern, eastern and northern shores of Anticosti. On dis-
covering the passage between this island and the Quebec shore
a council was held, at which it was decided to postpone the
exploration of this strait until the following year. Heading
eastward along the Quebec shore, Cartier soon regained the Strait
of Belle Isle and, entering the Atlantic on the 15th of August,
reached St Malo in safety on the 5th of September.
Cartier set sail again from St Malo with three vessels on the
1 6th of May 1536, and passing through the strait of Belle Isle
anchored on the 9th of August in Pillage Bay, opposite Anticosti.
The next day he named this the bay of St Lawrence. In course
of time the name spread to the gulf and finally to the river.
Proceeding through the passage north of Anticosti, Cartier
anchored on the 1st of September at the mouth of the Saguenay,
which the two Indians who had passed the winter in France
informed him was the name of a kingdom " rich and wealthy
in precious stones." Again on reaching the island of Orleans,
so named after the third son of Francis I., they told Cartier he
was now in the kingdom of Canada, in reality the Huron-Iroquois
word for village. Leaving his two larger vessels in the St Charles,
which there enters the St Lawrence, Cartier set off westward
with the bark and the long-boats. The former grounded in Lake
St Peter, but in the latter he reached, on the 2nd of October,
the Huron-Iroquois village of Hochelaga on the site of the city
of Montreal. Further progress was checked by the Lachine
Rapid. From the top of Mount Royal, a name still in use,
Cartier beheld the St Lawrence and the Ottawa stretching away
to the west On his return to the St Charles, where during the
winter twenty-five men died of scurvy, Cartier sought further
information about the rich country called Saguenay, which he
was informed could be reached more easily by way of the
Ottawa. In order to give Francis I. authentic information of
this northern Mexico, Cartier seized the chief and eleven of the
headmen of the village and carried them off to France. This
time he passed south of Anticosti and, entering the Atlantic
through Cabot Strait, reached St Malo on the 16th of July
1537-
Francis I. was unable to do anything further until the spring
of 1 54 1, when Cartier set sail with five vessels and took up
434
CARTILAGE— CARTOON
his quarters at Cap Rouge, 9 m. above Quebec. A soldier, the
seigneur de Roberval, had been chosen to lead the men to the
conquest of Saguenay; but when he did not arrive, Cartier made
a fresh examination of the rapid of Lachine, preparatory to
sending the men up the river Ottawa. Roberval at length set
sail in April 1542, but on reaching St John's, Newfoundland, met
Cartier on his way back to France. In the summer of 1543,
Cartier was sent out to bring home Roberval, whose attempt to
make his way up the Ottawa to this mythical Saguenay had
proved futile. From 1544 until his death at St Malo, on the 1st
of September 1557, Cartier appears to have done little else than
give technical advice in nautical matters and act as Portuguese
interpreter.
A critical edition of Carder's Brief RScit de la navigation faicte es
isles de Canada (1545), from the MSS., has been published by the
university of Toronto. The best English version is that by James
Phinney Baxter, published at Portland, Maine, in 1906. (H. P. B.)
CARTILAGE (Lat. cartilago, gristle), the firm elastic and gristly
connective tissue in vertebrates. (See Connective Tissues
and Joints.)
CARTOON (Ital. car tone, pasteboard), a term used in pictorial
art in two senses. (1) In painting, a cartoon is used as a model
for a large picture in fresco, oil or tapestry, or for statuary.
It was also formerly employed in glass and mosaic work. When
cartoons are used in fresco-painting, the back of the design is
covered with black-lead or other colouring matter; and, this
side of the picture being applied to the wall, the artist passes over
the lines of the design with a point, and thus obtains an impression.
According to another method the outlines of the figures are
pricked with a needle, and the cartoon, being placed against the
wall, is " pounced," i.e. a bag of black colouring-matter is drawn
over the perforations, and the outlines are thus transferred to the
wall. In fresco-painting^ the portions of the cartoon containing
figures were formerly cut out and fixed (generally in successive
sections) upon the moist plaster. Their contour was then traced
with a pointed instrument, and the outlines appeared lightly
incised upon the plaster after the portion of the cartoon was
withdrawn. In the manufacture of tapestries upon which it
is wished to give a representation of the figures of cartoons, these
figures are sometimes cut out, and laid behind or under the woof,
to guide the operations of the artist. In this case the cartoons
are coloured.
Cartoons have been executed by some of the most distinguished
masters; the greatest extant performances in this line of art
are those of Raphael. They are seven in number, coloured in
distemper; and at present they adorn the Victoria and
Albert Museum, in South Kensington, having been removed
thither from their former home, the palace of Hampton Court.
With respect to their merits, they count among the best of
Raphael's productions; Lanzi even pronounces them to be in
beauty superior to anything else the world has ever seen. Not that
they all present features of perfect loveliness, and limbs of
faultless symmetry, — this is far from being the case; but in
harmony of design, in the universal adaptation of means to one
great end, and in the grasp of soul which they display, they stand
among the foremost works of the designing art. The history of
these cartoons is curious. Leo X. employed Raphael in design-
ing (in 1515-1516) a series of Scriptural subjects, which were
first to be finished in cartoons, and then to be imitated in tapestry
by Flemish artists, and used for the decoration of the Sistine
Chapel. Two principal sets of tapestries were accordingly
executed at Arras in Flanders; but it is supposed that neither
Leo nor Raphael lived to see them. The set which went to Rome
was twice carried away by invaders, first in 1 527 and afterwards in
1798. In the first instance they were restored in a perfect state;
but after their return in 18 14 one was wanting — the cupidity of
a Genoese having induced him to destroy it for the sake of
the precious metal which it contained. Authorities differ as
to the original number of cartoons, but there appear to have
been twenty-five, — some by Raphael himself, assisted by Gian-
francesco Penni, others by the surviving pupils of Raphael.
The cartoons after which the tapestries were woven were not,
it would seem, restored to Rome, but remained as lumber
about the manufactory in Arras till after the revolution of the
Low Countries, when seven of them which had escaped destruc-
tion were purchased by Charles I., on the recommendation of
Rubens. They were found much injured, " holes being pricked
in them for the weavers to pounce the outlines, and in other parts
they were almost cut through by tracing." It has never been
ascertained wha t became of the other cartoons. Three tapestries,
the cartoons of which by Raphael no longer exist, are in the
Vatican, — representing the stoning of St Stephen, the conversion
of St Paul, and St Paul in prison at Philippi.
Besides the cartoons of Raphael, two, to which an extra-
ordinary celebrity in art-history attaches, were those executed in
competition by Leonardo da Vinci and by Michelangelo — the
former named the Battle of the Standard, and the latter the
Cartoon of Pisa — soldiers bathing, surprised by the approach of
the enemy. Both these great works have perished, but the
general design of them has been preserved. In recent times
some of the most eminent designers of cartoons have been masters
of the German school, — Cornelius, Kaulbach, Steinle, Fuhrich,
&c; indeed, as a general rule, these artists appear to greater
advantage in their cartoons than in the completed paintings of
the same compositions. In England cartoon- work developed con-
siderably in 1843 and 1844, when a competition was held for the
decoration of the new Houses of Parliament. Dyce and Maclise
left examples of uncommon mark in this line. The cartoon by
Fred. Walker, A.R.A., made to advertise the dramatic version of
Wilkie Collins's Woman in White, is now at the Tate Gallery; and
cartoons by Ford Madox Brown are in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, South Kensington. (W. M. R.)
(2) " Cartoon " is also a term now applied to the large political
drawings in the humorous or satirical papers of the day. At an
earlier period satirical prints were styled " caricatures," and were
issued separately. Gillray, Rowlandson, the three Cruikshanks,
Heath and others were popular favourites in this class of design.
Even the insignificant little cuts by Robert Seymour in Figaro in
London, the diableries in The Fly, and the vulgar and rancorous
political skits identified with the flood of scurrilous little papers of
the time, were dignified by the same term. The long series of
Political Sketches by " H. B." (John Doyle) were the first ex-
amples of unexaggerated statement, and fair and decorous
satire. With the advent of Punch and its various rivals (The
Peep-Show, The Great Gun, Diogenes and the like), the general
tone was elevated. Punch at first adopted the word " pencilling "
to describe the " big cut," which dealt variously with political
and social topics. But when in 1843 there was held in West-
minster Hall the great exhibition of " cartoons " from which
selection was to be made of designs for the decoration in fresco of
the new Houses of Parliament, Punch jocularly professed to
range himself alongside the great artists of the day; so that the
" mad designe " of the reign of Charles I. became the " cartoon "
of that of Queen Victoria. John Leech's drawing in No. 105 of
that journal was the first caricature to be called a cartoon: it was
entitled " Substance and Shadow: the Poor ask for Bread, and
the Philanthropy of the State accords — an Exhibition." Later,
Punch dropped the word for a while, but the public took it up.
Yet theNew English Dictionary curiously attributes the first use of
it to Miss Braddon in 1863.
In England the cartoon, no longer a weapon of venomous
attack, has come to be regarded as a humorous or sarcastic
comment upon the topic uppermost in the nation's mind, a witty
or saturnine illustration of views already formed, rather than as
an instrument for the manufacture of public opinion. It has
almost wholly lost its rancour; it has totally lost its ferocity —
the evolutionary result of peace and contentment, for satire in its
more violent and more spontaneous form is but the outcome of
the dissatisfaction or the rage of the multitude. The cartoon, it is
agreed, must be suggestive; it must present a clear idea lucidly
and, if possible, laughably worked out; and, however reserved
or restrained it may be, or even, when occasion demands (as in
the case of Sir John Tenniel and some of his imitators), however
epic in intuition, it must always figure, so to say, as a leading
CARTOUCHE— CARTWRIGHT, SIR R. J.
article transformed into a picture. (See Caricature and
Illustration.) (M. H. S.)
CARTOUCHE (a French word adapted from the Ital. cartoccio,
a roll of paper, Med Lat. carta, for charta, paper), originally a
roll of paper, parchment or other material, containing the charge
of powder and shot for a firearm, a cartridge (q.v.), which itself is a
corruption of cartouche. The term was applied in architecture to
various forms of ornamentation taking the shape of a scroll, such
as the volute of an Ionian capital. It was particularly used of a
sculptured tablet in the shape of a partly unrolled scroll on
which could be placed an inscription or device. Such "car-
touches " are used for titles, &c, on engravings of maps, plans,
and the like. The arms of the popes and ecclesiastics of high
birth were borne on an oval cartouche; and it is thus particularly
applied, in Egyptian archaeology, for the oblong device with
oval ends, enclosing the names of royal personages on the
monuments. It is properly an oval formed by a rope knotted at
one end. An amulet of similar shape, as the symbol of the
" name," was worn by men and women as a protection against
the blotting out of the name after death.
CARTRIDGE (corruption of Fr. cartouche), a case, of brass or
other metal, cardboard, silk, flannel, &c, containing an ex-
plosive charge, and usually the projectile also, for small arms and
ordnance (see Ammunition).
CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND (1743-1823), English inventor,
younger brother of Major John Cartwright (q.v.), was born at
Marnham, Nottinghamshire, on the 24th of April 1743, and
educated at Wakefield grammar school. He began his academical
studies at University College, Oxford, and in 1764 he was elected
to a fellowship at Magdalen. In 1770 he published Armine and
Elvira, a legendary poem, which was followed in 1779 by The
Prince of Peace. In 1779 he was presented to the rectory of
Goadby Marwood, Leicestershire, to which in 1786 was added
a prebend in the cathedral of Lincoln. He took the degree
of D.D. at Oxford in 1806. He would probably have passed
an obscure life as a country clergyman had not his attention
been accidentally turned in 1784 to the possibility of applying
machinery to weaving. The result was that he invented a power-
loom, for which he took out a patent in 1785; it was a rude
contrivance, though it was improved by subsequent patents
in 1786 and 1787, and gradually developed into the modern
power-loom. Removing to Doncaster in 1785, he started a
weaving and spinning factory; it did not, however, prove a
financial success, and in 1793 he had to surrender it to his
creditors. A mill at Manchester, in which a number of his
machines were installed, was wilfully destroyed by fire in 1791.
In 1789 he patented a wool-combing machine, for which he took
out further patents in 1790 and 1792; it effected large economies
in the cost of manufacture, but its financial results were not
more satisfactory to its inventor than those of the power-loom,
even though in 1801 parliament extended the patent for fourteen
years. In 1807 a memorial was presented to the government
urging the benefits that had been conferred on the country by
the power-loom, and the House of Commons voted him £10,000
in 1809. He then purchased a small farm at Hollander, near
Sevenoaks, Kent, where he spent the rest of his life. He died
at Hastings on the 30th of October 1823. Other inventions of
Cartwright's included a cordelier or machine for making rope
(1792), and an engine working with alcohol (1797), together
with various agricultural implements.
CARTWRIGHT, JOHN (1740-18 24), English parliamentary
reformer, was born at Marnham in Nottinghamshire on the
17th of September 1740, being the elder brother of Edmund
Cartwright, inventor of the power-loom. He was educated at
Newark grammar school and Heath Academy in Yorkshire, and
at the age of eighteen entered the navy. He was present, in his
first year of service, at the capture of Cherbourg, and served in
the following year in the action between Sir Edward Hawke
and Admiral Conflans. Engaged afterwards under Sir Hugh
Palliser and Admiral Byron on the Newfoundland station, he
was appointed to act as chief magistrate of the settlement; and
the duties of this post he discharged for five years (1765-1770).
435
Ill-health necessitated his retirement from active service for a
time in 17 71. When the disputes with the American colonies
began, he saw clearly that the colonists had right on their side,
and warmly supported their cause. At the beginning of the war
he was offered the appointment of first lieutenant to the duke of
Cumberland, which would have put him on the path of certain
promotion. But he declined to fight against the cause which
he felt to be just. In 1774 he published his first plea on behalf
of the colonists, entitled American Independence the Glory and
Interest of Great Britain. In the following year, when the
Nottinghamshire Militia was first raised, he was appointed
major, and in this capacity he served for seventeen years. He
was at last illegally superseded, because of his political opinions.
In 1776 appeared his first work on reform in parliament, which,
with the exception of Earl Stanhope's pamphlets (1774), appears
to have been the earliest publication on the subject. It was
entitled, Take your Choice — a second edition appearing under
the new title of The Legislative Rights of the Commonalty vindi-
cated. The task of his life was thenceforth chiefly the attainment
of universal suffrage and annual parliaments. In 1778 he con-
ceived the project of a political association, which took shape in
1780 as the " Society for Constitutional Information," including
among its members some of the most distinguished men of the
day. From this society sprang the more famous " Corresponding
Society." Major Cartwright worked unweariedly for the pro-
motion of reform. He was one of the witnesses on the trial of
his friends, Home Tooke, John Thelwall and Thomas Hardy, in
1794, and was himself indicted for conspiracy in 18 19. He was
found guilty in the following year, and was condemned to pay a
fine of £100. He died in London on the 23rd of September 1824.
He had married in 1780, but had no children. In 183 1 a monu-
ment from a design by Macdowell was erected to him in Burton
Crescent where he had lived.
The Life and Correspondence of Major Cartwright, edited by his
niece F. D. Cartwright, was published in 1826.
CARTWRIGHT, PETER (1785-187 2), American Methodist
Episcopal preacher, was born on the 1st of September 1785 in
Amherst county, Virginia. His father, a veteran of the War of
Independence, took his family to Kentucky in 1790, and lived
near Lancaster until 1793, and then until 1802 in Logan county
near the Tennessee line. Peter received little education, and was
a gambler at cards and horse-racing until 1801, when he heard
John Page preach. In June he was received into the church;
in May 1802 was licensed as a regular exhorter, becoming known
as the " Kentucky Boy "; in the autumn of 1802 was licensed to
form the Livingston circuit around the mouth of the Cumberland
river; in 1806 was ordained deacon by Bishop Asbury, and in
1808 presiding elder by Bishop McKendree, under whose direc-
tion he had studied theology. He was presiding elder of the
Wabash district in 181 2, and of Green river district in 1813-1816,
and, after four years on circuit in Kentucky and two as presiding
elder of the Cumberland district, was transferred in 1823 to the
Illinois conference, in which he was presiding elder of various
districts until 1869. Up to 1856 he preached some 14,600 times,
received some 10,000 persons into the church, and baptized some
1 2 ,000 persons. He died near Pleasant Plains, Sangamon county,
Illinois, on the 25th of September 1872. He was a typical back-
woods preacher, an able, vigorous speaker, and a racy writer.
See the Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, the Backwoods Preacher,
edited by W. P. Strickland (New York, 1856).
CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1835- ), Canadian
statesman, was born in Kingston, Canada, on the 4th of
December 1835, son of the Rev. R. D. Cartwright, chaplain to
H.M. Forces. In 1863 he entered the Canadian parliament as a
Conservative, but soon after federation in 1867 quarrelled with
his party on the question of their financial policy, which he
considered extravagant. By 1870 the breach was complete, and
in 1873 he became finance minister of the Liberal ministry of the
Hon. Alexander Mackenzie. His honesty and economy were
undoubted, but the latter quality was sometimes pushed to
extremes. From 1878 to 1806 he was the chief financial critic on
the side of the Liberal opposition, and on the accession of Sir
43^
C ARTWRIGHT,\ T.— CARUS
Wilfrid Laurier to power in 1896 he became minister of trade
and commerce. In 189&-1899 he represented Canada on the
Anglo-American joint high commission at Quebec. In 1004
failing health led to his retirement to the senate. He acted
in Sir Wilfrid Laurier's absence at the Imperial Conference
1907 a s act ing premier.
CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS (c. 1535-1603), English Puritan
divine, was born in Hertfordshire. He studied divinity at St
John's College, Cambridge, but on Mary's accession had to leave
the university, and found occupation as clerk to a counsellor-at-
law. On the accession of Elizabeth, he resumed his theological
studies, and was soon afterwards elected fellow of St John's and
later of Trinity College. In 1564 he opposed John Preston in a
theological disputation held on the occasion of Elizabeth's state
visit, and in the following year helped to bring to a head the
Puritan attitude on church ceremonial and organization. He
was popular in Ireland as chaplain to the archbishop of Armagh
(1565-1567), and in 1569 he was appointed Lady Margaret
professor of divinity at Cambridge; Jjut John Whitgift, on
becoming vice-chancellor, deprived Inrn of the post in December
1570, and— as master of Trinity— of his fellowship in September
1571, This was a natural consequence of the use which he made
of his position; he inveighed bitterly against the hierarchy and
constitution of the Anglican Church,which he compared unfavour-
ably with the primitive Christian organization. So keen was the
struggle between him and Whitgift that the chancellor, William
Cecil, had to intervene. After his deprivation by Whitgift,
Cartwright visited Beza at Geneva. He returned to England in
1572, and might have become professor of Hebrew at Cambridge
but for his expressed sympathy with the notorious " Admonition
to the Parliament " by John Field and Thomas Wilcox. To
escape arrest he again went abroad, and officiated as clergyman
to the English residents at Antwerp and then at Middelburg.
In 1 576 he visited and organized the Huguenot churches of the
Channel Islands, and after revising the Rhenish version of the
New Testament, again settled as pastor at Antwerp, declining
the offer of a chair at St Andrews. In 1585 he returned without
permission to London, was imprisoned for a short time, and
became master of the earl of Leicester's hospital at Warwick.
In 1500 he was summoned before the court of high commission
and imprisoned, and in 159 1 he was once more committed to the
Fleet. But he was not treated harshly, and powerful influence
soon secured his liberation. He visited Guernsey (1 595-1 598),
and spent his closing years in honour and prosperity at Warwick,
where he died on the 27th of December 1603. Cartwright was a
man of much culture and originality, but exceedingly impulsive.
His views were distinctly Presbyterian, and he stoutly opposed
the Brownists or Independents. He never conceived of a separa-
tion between church and state, and would probably have refused
to tolerate any Nonconformity with his reformed national Pres-
byterian church. To him, however, the Puritanism of his day
owed its systematization and much of its force.
CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM (1611-1643), English dramatist
and divine, the son of a country gentleman who had been reduced
to keeping an inn, was born at North way, Gloucestershire, in
161 1. Anthony a Wood, whose notice of Cartwright is in the
nature of a panegyric, gives this account of his origin, which is
probably correct, although it is contradicted by statements made
in David Lloyd's Memoirs. He was educated at the free school
of Cirencester, at Westminster school, and at Christ Church,
Oxford, where he took his M.A. degree in 1635. He became, says
Wood, "the most florid and seraphical preacher in the uni-
versity/ 1 and appears to have been no less admired as a reader
in metaphysics. In 1642 he was made succentor of Salisbury
cathedral, and in 1643 he was chosen junior proctor of the uni-
versity. He died on the 29th of November of the same year.
Cartwright was a "son" of Ben Jonson and an especial
favourite with his contemporaries. The collected edition of his
poems (1651) contains commendatory verses by Henry Lawes,
who set some of his songs to music, by Izaak Walton, Alexander
Brome, Henry Vaughan and others, and the king wore mourning
«on the day of his funeral. His plays are, with the exception of
The Ordinary, extremely fantastic in plot, and stilted and
artificial in treatment. They are: The Royal Slave (1636),
produced by the students of Christ Church before the king and
queen, with music by Henry Lawes; The Lady Errant (acted,
1635-1636; printed, 1651); The Siege, or Love's Convert (printed
1651). In The Ordinary (1635 ?) be produced a comedy of real
life, in imitation of Jonson, representing pot-house society. It
is reprinted in Dodsley's Old Plays (ed. Hazlitt, vol. xii.).
CARUCATE, or Carkucate (from the Med. Lat. carrucata f
from carruca, a wheeled plough), a measure of land, based
probably on the area that could be ploughed by a team of oxen in
a year; hence " carucage " means a tax levied on each " caru-
cate " of land (see Hide).
CARtJPANO, a town and port of the state of Bermudez,
Venezuela, 65 m. N.E. of the city of Cumana. Pop. (1908,
estimate) 8600. Carupano is situated on the Caribbean coast
at the opening of two valleys, and is a port of call for several
regular steamship lines. Its mean annual temperature is 8i° F.,
but the climate is healthy, because of its open situation on the
coast. The country immediately behind the town is rough,
but there is a considerable export of cacao, coffee, sugar, cotton,
timber and rum.
CARUS, KARL GUSTAV (1789-1869), German physiologist
and psychologist, distinguished also as an art critic and a land-
scape painter, was born and educated at Leipzig. After a course
in chemistry, he began the systematic study of medicine and in
181 1 became a Privat docent. On the subject which he selected
(comparative anatomy) no lectures had previously been given
at Leipzig, and Cams soon established a reputation as a medical
teacher. In the war of 1813 he was director of the military
hospital at Pfaffendorf, near Leipzig, and in 18 14 professor to the
new medical college at Dresden, where he spent the remainder
of his life. He was made royal physician in 1827, and a privy
councillor in 1862. He died on the 28th of July 1869. In
philosophy Cams belonged to the school of Schelling, and his
works are thoroughly impregnated with the spirit of that system.
He regarded inherited tendency as a proof that the cell has a
certain psychic life, and pointed out that individual differences
are less marked in the lower than in the higher organisms. Of
his many works the most important are: — Grundzilge der
vergleichenden Anatomie und Physiologic (Dresden, 1828);
System der Physiologie (2nd ed., 1847-1849); Psyche: zur
Entwickelungsgeschichte der Seele (1846, 3rd ed. Stuttgart, i860);
Physis, zur Geschichte des leiblichen Lebens (Stuttgart, 185 1);
Natur und Idee (Vienna, 1861); Symbolik des menschlichen
Gestalts (Leipz., 1853, 2nd ed., 1857); Atlas der Kranioskopie
(2nd ed. Leipz., 1864); Verdeichende Psychologie (Vienna, 1866).
See his autobiography, Lebenserinnerungen und Denkwiirdigkeiten
(4 vols., 1 865- 1 866) ; K. von Reich enbach, Odische Erwiederungen
an die Herren Professoren Forttage . . . und Hofrath Carus (1856).
His England und Schottland im Jahre 1844 was translated by S. C.
Davison (1846).
CARUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor a.d. 282-283,
was born probably at Narbona (more correctly, Narona) in
lUyria, but was educated at Rome. He was a senator, and had
filled various civil and military posts before he was appointed
prefect of the praetorian guards by the emperor Probus, after
whose murder at Sirmium he was proclaimed emperor by the
soldiers. Although Carus severely avenged the death of Probus,
he was himself suspected of having been an accessory to the
deed. He does not seem to have returned to Rome after his
accession, but contented himself with an announcement of the
fact to the senate. Bestowing the title of Caesar upon his sons
Carinus and Numerianus, he left Carinus in charge of the western
portion of the empire, and took Numerianus with him on the
expedition against the Persians which had been contemplated by
Probus. Having defeated the Quadi and Sarmatians on the
Danube, Carus proceeded through Thrace and Asia Minor,
conquered Mesopotamia, pressed on to Seleucia and Ctesiphon,
and carried his arms beyond the Tigris. But his hopes of further
conquest were cut short by his death. One day, after a violent
storm, it was announced that he was dead. His death was var-
iously attributed to disease, the effects of lightning, or a wound
CARVACROL— CARVER
+37
received in a campaign against the Huns; but it seems more
probable that he was murdered by the soldiers, who were averse
from further campaigns against Persia, at the instigation of
Arrius Aper, prefect of the praetorian guard. Cams seems to
have belied the hopes entertained of him on his accession, and
to have developed into a morose and suspicious tyrant.
CHi
cA&VACRGL, or C\mC?2ENCL, CigHi:OH; or I J
C,H 7 (iso),
a constituent of the ethereal oil of Origanum hirtum, oil of thyme,
oil obtained from pepperwort, and wild bergamot. It may
be synthetically prepared by the fusion of cymol sulphonic
acid with caustic potash; by the action of nitrous acid on
i-methyl-2-amino-4-propyl benzene; by prolonged heating
of 5 parts of camphor with i part of iodine; or by heating
carvol with glacial phosphoric acid. It is extracted from
Origanum oil by means of a 10% potash solution. It is a thick
oil which sets at— 2o° C. to a mass of crystals of melting point o°C,
and boiling point 236-23 7°C. Oxidation with ferric chloride
converts it into dicarvacrol, whilst phosphorus pentachloride
transforms it into chlorcymol.
CARVAJAL, ANTONIO FERNANDEZ (d. 1659), a Portuguese
Marano (q.v.) or Crypto- Jew, who came to England in the reign
of Charles I. He was the first " endenizened " Jew in England,
and by his extensive trade with the West Indies rendered con-
siderable services to the Commonwealth. Besides his commercial
value to Cromwell, Carvajal was politically useful also, for he
acted as " intelligencer." When Manasseh ben Israel in 1655
petitioned for the return of the Jews who had been expelled
by Edward I., Carvajal took part in the agitation and boldly
avowed his Judaism. Carvajal may be termed the founder
of the Anglo- Jewish community. He died in 1659.
See Lucien Wolf, " The First English Jew," Trans. Jewish
Historical Society, ii. 14.
CARVAJAL, LUISA DE (1568-1614), Spanish missionary in
England, was born at Jaraicejo in Estremadura on the 2nd of
January 1568. Her father, Don Francisco de Carvajal, was the
head of an old and wealthy family which produced many men
of note. Her mother, Dona Maria, belonged to the powerful
house of Mendoza. Both were people of pious character. The
mother died in 1572 from a fever contracted while visiting the
poor, and the father took the disease from his wife, and died of it.
Luisa and a brother were left to the care of their grand-aunt
Maria Chacon, governess of the young children of Philip II.
On her death they passed to the care of their maternal uncle,
Francisco Hurtado de Mendoza, count of Almazan. The
count, who was named viceroy of Navarre by Philip II., was an
able public servant in whom religious zeal was carried to the
point of inhuman asceticism. His niece attracted his favour
by her manifest disposition to the religious life; she sent her
own share of dinner to the poor, ate broken meats, wore a chain
next her skin, and invited humiliation; and at the age of seven-
teen she was instructed by the count to make a surrender of her
will to two female servants whom he set over her, and by whom
she was repeatedly scourged while naked, trampled upon and
otherwise ill-treated. But when Luisa came of age she refused
to enter a religious house, and decided to devote herself to the
conversion of England. The execution of the Jesuit emissary
priest, Henry Walpole, in 1 596 had moved her deeply, and she
prepared herself by learning English and by the study of divinity.
A lawsuit with her brother caused temporary delay, but she
secured her share of the family fortune, which she devoted to
founding a college for English Jesuits at Lou vain; it was
transferred to Watten near Saint Omer in 161 2, and lasted till
the suppression of the Order. In 1605 she was allowed to go to
England. She established herself under the protection of the
Spanish ambassador, whose house was in the Barbican. From
this place of safety she carried on an active and successful propa-
ganda. She made herself conspicuous by her attentions to the
Gunpowder Plot prisoners, and won converts, partly by persuasion,
partly by helping women of the very poorest class in childbirth,
and taking charge of the children. Her activity attracted the
attention of the authorities, and she was arrested in 1608. But
the protection of the Spanish ambassador Zuniga, and the desire
of King James I. to stand well with Spain, secured her release.
In 1613, while staying at a house in Spitalfields, where she had
in fact set up a disguised nunnery, she was arrested with all the
inmates by the pursuivants of Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury,
who had been on the watch for some time. Her release was again
secured by the new Spanish ambassador Gondomar, who played
with effect on tne ^L 1 !^ of King James. By this time,
however, the Spanish authorities had begun to oi&CCYCr ***&*
she was a political danger to them, and recalled her. Luisa,
who had hoped for the crown of martyrdom, was bitterly dis-
appointed, and resisted the order. Before she could be forced
to obey she died in the Spanish ambassador's house on her
birthday, the 2nd of January 1614. Her body remained as an
object of admiration for months till it was carried back to Spain.
The original authority for the life of Luisa de Carvajal is La Vida y
Virtudes de la Venerable Virgen Doha Luisa de Carvajal y Mendota
(Madrid, 1632), by the Licentiate Lorenzo Munoz. It is founded
on her own papers collected by her English confessor Michael Wal-
pole. It is largely autobiographical, and contains some examples
of her verse. The Vida y virtudes is summarized by Southey in
his Letters from Spain and Portugal (1808). A life was written by
Lady Georgiana Fullerton (1873), in which much that is shocking to
modern sentiment is concealed. See also Quatre Portraits defemmes,
by La Comtesse R. de Courson (Paris, 1805). There are several
references to Luisa de Carvajal in the Records of the English Province
of the Society of Jesus, by Henry Foley (1877-1883). (D. H.)
CARVER, JOHN (i575?-i62i), one of the " Pilgrim Fathers,"
first governor of the Plymouth colony in America, was born,
probably in Nottinghamshire, England, about 1575. Owing
to religious persecution at home he took refuge in Holland
about 1607, and eventually became a deacon in the church at
Leiden of which John Robinson was the pastor. In 1620 he
emigrated to America in the " Mayflower," and founded the
Plymouth colony. Before leaving England he had probably
been elected governor; after the signing of the famous " Com-
pact " this election was confirmed; and on the 23rd of March
1620 (162 1 N.S.) Carver was re-elected for the ensuing year.
Early in April, however, he died from the effects of sunstroke.
CARVER, JONATHAN (c. 1725-1780), American traveller,
was born probably in Canterbury, Connecticut. The date
usually given for his birth, 1732, is now considered too late, since
he was apparently married in 1746. In early life he followed the
trade of a shoemaker and subsequently served with the pro-
vincial forces in the French and Indian wars. According to
his " Journal " he conceived the idea, after the peace of 1763,
of exploring Great Britain's newly acquired territory in the
north-west. He is said to have set out in 1766, journeyed west-
ward by way of the Straits of Mackinac and the Fox and
Wisconsin rivers to the Mississippi, viewed the Falls of
St Anthony, lived for some time among the Indians, and received
from them a grant of 100 sq. m. of territory between the Missis-
sippi and St Croix rivers. Returning east in 1768 by way of the
north shore of Lake Superior he proceeded in 1769 to England,
where he presented a letter of introduction to Benjamin Franklin,
and made vain efforts to interest the board of trade in his in-
vestigations. In 1778 there was published in London what
purported to be his own narrative of his explorations under the
title of Travels through the Interior Parts of North America in
the Years 1766, 1767 and 1768. It had an immediate success,
was translated into French, German and Dutch, and was long
generally accepted as a truthful narrative of his travels and
observations, and as one of the highest authorities on the manners,
customs and language of the Indians of the northern Mississippi
valley. Carver died in London on the 31st of January 1780,
having married a second time in England although his first wife
was still living in America.
Soon after his death a new edition of the Travels was brought
out by the well-known Quaker physician and author, Dr John
Coakley Lettsom (1 744-181 5), who "edited" the work and
furnished a biographical introduction. Some doubt seems to
have been early entertained as to the real authorship of the
43«
CARVING— CARY
work, Oliver Wolcott in 1793 writing to Jedediah Morse, the
geographer, that Carver was too unlettered to have written it,
and that in his belief the book was the work of some literary
hack. Careful investigation of Indian life and north-western
history, notably by H. R. Schoolcraft in 1823, William H.
Keating in his narrative of Major Long's Expedition (1824),
and Robert Greenhow in his History of Oregon (1844), showed
a remarkable similarity between the Travels and the accounts
of several French authorities, but these criticisms were scarcely
noticed by later writers. Finally Professor E. G. Bourne, in a
paper contributed to the American Historical Review for January
1006, proved beyond dispute that the bulk of Carver's alleged
narrative was merely a close paraphrase of Charlevoix's Journal,
La Hontan's New Voyages to North America, and James Adair's
History of the American Indians. Professor Bourne's theory
is that the entire book was probably the work of the facile
Dr Lettsom, whose personal relations with Carver are known
to have been intimate, the " journal " alone, which constituted
an inconsiderable part of the whole, having been, in part,
founded on Carver's random notes and recollections.
See also J. G. Godfrey, Jonathan Carver; His Travels in the
North-west, 1766-1768 (No. 5 of the Parkman Club Publications,
Milwaukee, Wis., 1896), and Daniel S. Durrie, " Captain Jonathan
Carver and the Carver Grant," in vol. vi. of the Wisconsin Historical
Society's Collections (1872).
CARVING. To carve (A.S. ceorfan: connected with Gr.
yp6.<f>€iv) is to cut, whatever the material; but apart from
the domestic sense of carving meat, the word is more parti-
cularly associated with the art of sculpture. The name of
sculptor (see Sculpture) is commonly reserved for the great
masters of the art, especially in stone and marble, while that of
carver is given to the artists or workmen who execute the sub-
ordinate decorations of architecture. The word is also specially
applied to sculpture in ivory (q.v.) and its substitutes, and in
wood (see Wood-Carving) and other soft materials (see also Gem.)
CARVING AND GILDING, two allied operations which for-
merly were the most prominent features in the important
industry of frame-making. The craftsmen who pursued the
occupation were known as " carvers and gilders," and the terms
still continue to be the recognized trade-name of frame-making,
although very little of the ornamentation of frame-work is now
accomplished by carving, and much of the so-called gilt orna-
ment is produced without the use of gold. The trade has to do
primarily with the frames of pictures, engravings and mirrors,
but many of the light decorative fittings of houses, finished in
" composition " and gilt work, are also entrusted to the carver
and gilder. Fashion in picture frames, like all fashions, fluctuates
greatly. Mouldings of the prevailing sizes and patterns are
generally manufactured in special factories, and supplied in
lengths to carvers and gilders ready for use. A large proportion
of such mouldings, especially those of a cheaper and inferior
quality, are made in Germany. What is distinctively known
as a " German " moulding is a cheap imitation of gilt work made
by lacquering over the surface of a white metallic foil. German
artisans are also very successful in the preparation of imitation
of veneers of rosewood, mahogany, walnut and other orna-
mental woods. The more expensive mouldings are either in
wood (such as oak or mahogany), in veneers of any expensive
ornamental wood, or real gilt.
A brief outline of the method of making a gilt frame, enriched
with composition ornaments, may be taken as a characteristic
example of the operations of the frame-maker. The foundation
of such a frame is soft pine wood, in which a moulding of the
required size and section is roughly run. To prevent warping
the moulding is, or ought to be, made from two or more pieces
of wood glued together. The moulding is " whitened up," or
prepared for gilding by covering it with repeated coatings of a
mixture of finely powdered whiting and size. When a sufficient
thickness of the whitening mixture has been applied, the whole
surface is carefully smoothed off with pumice-stone and glass-
paper, care being taken to keep the angles and curves clear and
sharp. Were a plain gilt moulding only desired, it would now
be ready for gilding; but when the frame is to be enriched
it first receives the composition ornaments. Composition, or
" compo," is a mixture of fine glue, white resin, and linseed oil
well boiled together, with as much rolled and sifted whiting
added as makes the whole into a doughy mass while hot. This
composition is worked in a hot state into moulds of boxwood,
and so pressed in as to take up every ornamental detail. On its
removal from the mould all superfluous matter is trimmed away,
and the ornament, while yet soft and plastic, is laid on the
moulding, and fitting into all the curves, &c, is fixed with glue.
The ornamental surface so prepared quickly sets and becomes
very hard and brittle. When very large bold ornaments are
wanted for frames of unusual size they are moulded in papier
mdchi. Two methods of laying on gold — oil-gilding and water-
gilding — are practised, the former being used for frames broken
up with enrichments. For oil-gilding the moulding is prepared
with two coats of fine thin size to fill the pores of the wood,
and afterwards it receives a coat of oil gold-size, which consists
of a mixture of boiled linseed oil and ochre. When this gold-
size is in a " tacky " or " sticky " condition, gold-leaf is laid on
and carefully pressed over and into all parts of the surface; and
when covered with a coat of finish-size the gilding is complete.
Water-gilding is applied to plain mouldings and all considerable
unbroken surfaces, and is finished either " matt " or burnished.
For these styles of work the mouldings are properly sized, and
after the size (which for " matt " is red in colour and for burnish
blue) is dry the gold is laid on with water. Matt-work is pro-
tected with one or two coats of finish-size; but burnished gold
is finished only by polishing with an agate burnisher — no size
or water being allowed to touch such surfaces. The mitring up
of frames, the mounting and fitting up of paintings, engravings,
&c, involve too many minor operations to be noticed here in
detail; but these, with the cutting and fitting of glass, cleaning
and repairing pictures and prints, and similar operations, all
occupy the attention of the carver and gilder.
CARY, ALICE (1820-1871), and PHOEBE (1824-1871),
American poets, were born at Mount Healthy, near Cincinnati,
Ohio, respectively on the 26th of April 1820 and the 4th of
September 1824. Their education was largely self-acquired,
and their work in literature was always done in unbroken com-
panionship. Their poems were first collected in a volume
entitled Poems of Alice and Phoebe Carey [sic] (1850). In 1850-
1851 they removed to New York, where the two sisters, befriended
by Rufus W.Griswold (1815-1857), the quasi-dict&tor of American
verse, and Horace Greeley, occupied a prominent position in
literary circles. In 1868-1860 Alice Cary served for a short
time as the first president of Sorosis, the first woman's club
organized in New York. Alice, who was much the more volu-
minous writer of the two, wrote prose sketches and novels, now
almost forgotten, and various volumes of verse, notably The
Lover* s Diary (1868). Her lyrical poem, Pictures of Memory,
was much admired by Edgar Allan Poe. Phoebe published two
volumes of poems (1854 and 1868), but is best known as the
author of the hymn " Nearer Home," beginning " One sweetly
solemn thought," written in 1852. Alice died in New York City
on the 1 2th of February 187 1, and Phoebe in Newport, Rhode
Island, on the 31st of July of the same year. The collected Poetical
Works of Alice and Phoebe Cary were published in Boston in 1886.
See Mrs Mary Clemmer Ames's Memorial of Alice' and Phoebe
Carey (New York, 1873).
CARY, ANNIE LOUISE (1842- ), American singer, was
born in Wayne, Maine, on the 2 2nd of October 1842. She studied
in Milan, and made her d6but as an operatic contralto in Copen-
hagen in 1868. She had a successful European career for several
years, singing in Stockholm, Paris and London, and made
her New York first appearance in 1870. She only once re-
turned to Europe for a brilliant Russian tour, and until she
retired in 1882, on her marriage to Charles M. Raymond, she was
the most popular singer in America.
CARY, HENRY FRANCIS (177 2-1844), English author and
translator, was born at Gibraltar on the 6th of December 1772,
the son of a captain in the army. He was educated at the
grammar schools of Rugby, Sutton Coldfield and Birmingham,.
CARYATIDES— CARYOPHYLLACEAE
+39
and at Christ Church, Oxford, which he entered in 1700. He
took holy orders, and was presented in 1797 to the vicarage of
Abbott's Bromley in Staffordshire. This benefice he held till
his death. In 1800 he was also presented to the vicarage of
Kingsbury in Warwickshire. While still at school he had become
a regular contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine, and had
published a volume of Sonnets and Odes. At Christ Church he
devoted much time to the study of French and Italian literature;
and the fruits of these studies appeared in the notes to his classic
translation of Dante. The version of the Inferno was published
in 1805, together with the original text. Soon afterwards Cary
moved to London, where he became reader at Berkeley chapel,
and subsequently lecturer at Chiswick and curate of the Savoy.
His version of the whole Divina Commedia did not appear till
1 8 14. It was published at Cary's own expense, as the publisher
refused to undertake the risk, owing to the failure incurred over
the Inferno. The translation was brought to the notice of
Samuel Rogers by Thomas Moore. Rogers made some additions
to an article on it by Ugo Foscolo in the Edinburgh Review.
This article, and praise bestowed on the work by Coleridge in a
lecture at the Royal Institution, led to a general acknowledg-
ment of its merit. Cary's Dante thus gradually took its place
among standard works, passing through four editions in the
translator's lifetime. It has the great merits of accuracy,
idiomatic vigour and readableness; it preserves the sincerity and
vividness of the original; and, although many rivals have since
appeared in the field, it still holds an honourable place. Its
blank verse, however, cannot represent the close woven texture
and the stately music of the terza rima of the original. In
1824 Cary published a translation of The Birds of Aristophanes,
and, about 1834, of the Odes of Pindar. In 1 826 he was appointed
assistant-librarian in the British Museum, a post which he held
for about eleven years. He resigned because the appointment
of keeper of the printed books, which should have been his in
the ordinary course of promotion, was refused him when it fell
vacant. In 1841 a crown pension of £200 a year, obtained
through the efforts of Samuel Rogers, was conferred on him.
Cary's Lives of the early French Poets, and Lives of English Poets
(from Johnson to Henry Kirke White), intended as a continuation
of Johnson's Lives of the Poets, were published in a collected form
in 1846. He died in London on the 14th of August 1844, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
A memoir was published by his son, Henry Cary, in 1847.
CARYATIDES (Latinized from the Greek; the plural of
Caryatis, i.e. a woman of Caryae in Laconia), in architecture,
the term given to the draped female figures used for piers or
supports, as found in the porticos of the Erechtheum and of the
Treasury of Cnidus at Delphi (see Greek Art, fig. 17).
CARYL, JOSEPH (1602-1673), English Nonconformist divine,
was born in London in 1602. He graduated at Exeter College,
Oxford, and became preacher at Lincoln's Inn. He frequently
preached before the Long Parliament, and was a member of
the Westminster Assembly in 1643. By order of the parliament
he attended Charles I. in Holmby House, and in 1650 he was
sent with John Owen to accompany Cromwell to Scotland.
In 1662 he was ejected from his church of St Magnus near
London Bridge, but continued to minister to an Independent
congregation in London till his death in March 1673, when
John Owen succeeded him. His piety and learning are displayed
in his ponderous commentary on Job (12 vols., 4to., 1651-1666;
2nd ed., 2 vols., fol. 1676-1677).
CARYOPHYLLACEAE, a botanical order of dicotyledonous
plants, containing about 60 genera with 1300 species, and
widely distributed, especially in temperate, alpine and arctic
regions. The plants are herbs, sometimes becoming shrubby at
the base, with opposite, simple, generally uncut leaves and
swollen nodes. The main axis ends in a flower (definite inflor-
escence), and flower-bearing branches are borne one on each
side by which the branching is often continued (known technic-
ally as a dichasial cyme). The flowers are regular, with four or
five sepals which are free or joined to form a tube in their lower
portion, the same number of petals, free and springing from below
the ovary, twice as many stamens, inserted with the petals,
and a pistil of two to five carpels joined to form an ovary con-
taining a large number of ovules on a central placenta and bearing
Fig. 1. — Stitchwort (SteUaria Holostea) nat. size. I, Flower
cut vertically; 2, seed; 3, same cut vertically; 4, same cut
horizontally.
two to five styles; the ovary is one-celled or incompletely
partitioned at the base into three to five cells; honey is secreted
at the base of the stamens. The fruit is a capsule containing a
large number of small seeds and opening by apical teeth; the
seed contains a floury endosperm and a curved embryo.
The order is divided into two well-defined tribes which are
Fig. 2. — 1, Flowering shoot of Pink (Dianthus); 2, horizontal plan
of flower; 3, flower in vertical section.
distinguished by the character of the flower and the arrangements
for ensuring pollination.
Tribe I. Alsineae: the sepals are free and the flowers are open,
with spreading petals, and the honey which is secreted at the
base of the stamens is exposed to the visits of short-tongued
44°
CASABIANCA— CASANOVA DE SEINGALT
Fig. 3.
insects, such as flies and small bees; the petals are white in
colour. It includes several British genera, Cerastiutn (mouse-
ear duckweed), SteUaria (fig. 1)
(stitchwort and duckweed),
Arenaria (sandwort), S agin a
(pearlwort), Spergula (spurrey)
and Sper gularia (sandwort
spurrey).
Tribe II. Sileneae: the sepals
are joined below to form a
narrow tube, in which stand the
long daws of the petals and the
stamens, partly closing the tube
and rendering the honey in-
accessible to all but long-tongued
insects such as the larger bees and
a, Pistil of Cerastiutn hirsu- Lepidoptera. The flowers are
turn cut vertically; o % uni- f ten red. It includes several
ITS* °cen^rKn^ ary £ ; British ^er^Dianthus (pink)
ovules; s, styles. ' fi «- 2 > SUene (catchfly, bladder
6, The same cut horizontally, campion), Lychnis (campion, L.
and the halves separated so as Flos-Cuculi is ragged robin), and
to show the interior of the Githago or Agrostemma (corn
cavity of the ovary with the cock i e ). Several, such as Lychnis
free central placenta />, covered . ;. c . 7 ' . J ,
with ovules g. vesperttna, SUene nutans and
others, are night-flowering, open-
ing their flowers and becoming scented in the evening or at
night, when they are visited by night-flying moths.
The plants of this order are of little or no economic value,
soap-wort, Saponaria officinalis, forming a lather in water was
formerly officinal. Dianthus (carnation and pink) Gypsophila,
Lychnis and others, are garden plants.
CASABIANCA, RAPHAEL, Comte de (1738-1825), French
general, was descended from a noble Corsican family. In 1769
he took the side of France against Genoa, then mistress of the
island. In 1793, having entered the service of the revolutionary
government, he was appointed lieutenant-general in Corsica in
place of Pascale Paoli, who was outlawed for intrigues with
England. For his defence of Calvi against the English he was
appointed general of division, and he served in Italy from 1794
to 1798. After the 18th of Brumaire he entered the senate and
was made count of the empire in 1806. In 18 14 he joined the
party of Louis XVIII., rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred
Days, and in 18 19 succeeded again in entering the chamber of
peers.
His nephew, Louis de Casabianca (1752-1798), entered the
French navy, served in the convoy of the French troops sent to
aid the revolted American colonies, and took part in various
naval actions off the North American coast. He became captain
in 1 700, represented Corsica in the Convention, and then received
command of the Orient, which at the battle of the Nile bore
the flag of Admiral Brueys. When the latter was killed, Casa-
bianca took command, and rather than surrender blew up his
ship after the crew had been saved. His son, Giacomo Jocante,
a boy of ten years of age, refused to leave the ship and died
with his father. This heroic act was the theme of poems
by Ecouchard Lebrun and Andre Chenier, as well as by Mrs
Hemans.
CASABLANCA (Dar el Baida, " the white house "), a seaport
on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, in 33 27' N., 7 46' W. It
is a wool and grain port for central Morocco, chiefly for the
provinces of Tadla and Shawia. Third in importance of the
towns on the Moorish coast, unimpeded by bar or serious rocks,
the roadstead is exposed to the north-west winds. There is
anchorage for steamers in 5 to 6 fathoms. Vessels were loaded
and discharged by lighters from the beach. In May 1907 the
construction began of harbour works which afford sheltered
accommodation for ships at all states of the tide. The value of
the foreign trade of the port for the period 1897-1007 was about
£750,000 a year. A railway to Ber Reshid, the first section of a
line intended to tap the rich agricultural region of which Casa-
blanca is the port, was opened in September 1908, being the first
railway built in Morocco. The population, about 20,000, indudes
numerous foreign merchants,Frandscan and Protestant missions,
and a consular corps. Built by the Portuguese upon the site
of the once prosperous town of Anfft, which they had destroyed
in 1468, Casablanca was held by them for some time, till trouble
with the natives compelled them to abandon it. In August
1007, in consequence of the murder of a number of French and
Spanish workmen engaged on the harbour works, the town was
bombarded and occupied by the French (see Morocco: History).
CASALE MONFERRATO, a town and episcopal see of Pied-
mont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria, 21 m. N.N.W. by
rail from the town of Alessandria. Pop. (1001) 18,874 (town);
31,370 (commune). It lies in the plain on the right bank of the
Po, 377 ft. above sea-level, and is a junction for Mortara, Vercelli,
Chivasso and Asti; it is also connected by steam tramways
with Alessandria, Vercelli and Montemagno. The fine Lombard
Romanesque cathedral, originally founded in 742, was rebuilt
in the early 12th century and consecrated in 1106; it suffered
from restoration in 1706, but has been brought back to its original
form. It contains some good pictures. The church of S.
Domenico is a good Renaissance edifice, and there are some fine
palaces. The church of S. Ilario is said to occupy the site of a
pagan temple, but the name of the ancient town (if any) which
occupied this site is not known. About 10 m. distant is the
Sacro Monte di Crea, with eighteen chapels on its slopes con-
taining terra-cotta groups of statues, resembling those at Varallo.
Casale Monferrato was given by Charlemagne to the church of
Vercelli, but obtained its liberty from Frederick I. (Barbarossa).
It was sacked by the troops of Vercelli, Alessandria and Milan
in 1 2 1 5, but rebuilt and fortified in 1 220. It fell under the power
of its marquises in 1292, and became the chief town of a small
state. In 1 536 it passed to the Gonzagas of Mantua, who fortified
it very strongly. It has since been of considerable importance
as a fortress: it successfully resisted the Austrians in 1849, and
was strengthened in 1852. There is a large Portland cement
factory here.
CASAMARI, a Cisterdan abbey in the province of Rome,
6 m. E.S.E. of Veroli. It marks the site of Cereatae, the birth-
place of Marius, afterwards known, as inscriptions attest, as
Cereatae Marianae, having been separated perhaps by the
triumvirs, from the territory of Arpinum. We find it under
the early empire as an independent community. The abbey is
a fine example of Burgundian early-Gothic (1203-12 17),
paralleled in Italy by Fossanuova alone (which is almost con-
temporary with it), and is very well preserved.
See C. Enlart, " Origines frangaises de Tarchitecture gothique en
Italie " (Bibliotheque des Scoles franchises d'Athenes et de Rome, fasc.
66), (Paris, 1894).
CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, GIOVANNI JACOPO (1725-1798),
Italian adventurer, was born at Venice in 1725. His father
belonged to an ancient and even noble family, but alienated
his friends by embradng the dramatic profession early in life.
He made a runaway marriage with Zanetta Farusi, the beautiful
daughter of a Venetian shoemaker; and Giovanni was their
eldest child. When he was but a year old, his parents, taking a
journey to London, left him in charge of his grandmother,
who, perceiving his precodous and lively intellect, had him
educated far above her means. At sixteen he passed his ex-
amination and entered the seminary of St Cyprian in Venice,
from which he was expelled a short time afterwards for some
scandalous and immoral conduct, which would have cost him his
liberty, had not his mother managed somehow to procure him a
situation in the household of the Cardinal Acquaviva. He made
but a short stay, however, in that prelate's establishment, all
restraint being irksome to his wayward disposition, and took
to travelling. Then began that existence of adventure and
intrigue which only ended with his death. He visited Rome,
Naples, Corfu and Constantinople. By turns journalist, preacher,
abb6, diplomatist, he was nothing very long, except homme a
bonnes fortunes, which profession he cultivated till the end of his
days. In 1755, having returned to Venice, he was denounced
as a spy and imprisoned. On the 1st of November 1756 he
CASAS GRANDES— CASAUBON
441
succeeded in escaping, and made his way to Paris. Here he was
made director of the state lotteries, gained much financial
reputation and a considerable fortune, and frequented the
society of the most notable French men and women of the day.
In 1759 he set out again on his travels. He visited in turn the
Netherlands, South Germany, Switzerland — where he made the
acquaintance of Voltaire, — Savoy, southern France, Florence —
whence he was expelled, — and Rome, where the pope gave him
the order of the Golden Spur. In 1761 he returned to Paris,
and for the next four or five years lived partly here, partly in
England, South Germany and Italy. In 1764 he was in Berlin,
where he refused the offer of a post made him by Frederick II.
He then travelled by way of Riga and St Petersburg to Warsaw,
where he was favourably received by King Stanislaus Ponia-
towski. A scandal, followed by a duel, forced him to flee, and he
returned by a devious route to Paris, only to find a lettre de
cachet awaiting him, which drove him to seek refuge in Spain.
Expelled from Madrid in 1769, he went by way of Aix — where he
met Cagliostro — to Italy once more. From 1774, with which
year his memoirs close, he was a police spy in the service of the
Venetian inquisitors of state; but in 1782, in consequence of a
satirical libel on one of his patrician patrons, he had once more
to go into exile. In 1785 he was appointed by Count Waldstein,
an old Paris acquaintance, his librarian at the chateau of Dux
in Bohemia. Here he lived until his death, which probably
occurred on the 4th of June 1798.
The main authority for Casanova's life is his Mhnoires (12 vols.,
Leipzig, 1826-1838; later ed. in 8 vols., Paris, 1885), which were
written at Dux. They are clever, well written and, above all,
cynical, and interesting as a trustworthy picture of the morals and
manners of the times. Among Casanova's other works may be
mentioned Confutazione della storia del governo Veneto d'Amelot
de la Houssaye (Amsterdam, 1769), an attempt to ingratiate himself
with the Venetian government ; and the Histoire of his escape from
prison (Leipzig, 1788; reprinted Bordeaux, 1884; Eng. trans,
by P. Villars, 1892). Ottmann's Jacob Casanova (Stuttgart, 1900)
contains a bibliography.
CASAS 6RANDES ("Great Houses"), a small village of
Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, situated on the Casas Grandes
or San Miguel river, about 35 m. S. of Llanos and 150 m. N.W. of
the city of Chihuahua. The railway from Ciudad Juarez to
Terrazas passes through the town. It is celebrated for the
ruins of early aboriginal buildings still extant, about half a mile
from its present site. They are built of " sun-dried blocks of
mud and gravel, about 22 in. thick, and of irregular length, gener-
ally about 3 ft., probably formed and dried in situ" The walls
are in some places about 5 ft. thick, and they seem to have been
plastered both inside and outside. The principal edifice extends
800 ft. from north to south, and 250 ft. east to west; its general
outline is rectangular, and it appears to have consisted of three
separate piles united by galleries or lines of lower buildings. The
exact plan of the whole is obscure, but the apartments evidently
varied in size from mere closets to extensive courts. The walls
still stand at many of the angles with a height of from 40 to 50 ft.,
and indicate an original elevation of several storeys, perhaps six
or seven. At a distance of about 450 ft. from the main building
are the substructions of a smaller edifice, consisting of a series of
rooms ranged round a square court, so that there are seven to
each side besides a larger apartment at each corner. The age
of these buildings is unknown, as they were already in ruins at the
time of the Spanish Conquest. The whole district of Casas
Grandes is further studded with artificial mounds, from which
are excavated from time to time large numbers of stone axes,
metates or corn-grinders, and earthern vessels of various kinds.
These last have a white or reddish ground, with ornamentation
in blue, red, brown or black, and are of much better manufacture
than the modern pottery of the country. Similar ruins to those
of Casas Grandes exist near the Gila, the Salinas, and the Colorado
and it is probable that they are all the erections of one people.
Bancroft is disposed to assign them to the Moquis.
See vol. iv. of H. H. Bancroft's The Native Races of the Pacific
States of North America, of which the principal authorities are the
Noticias del Estado de Chihuahua of Escudero, who visited the ruins
in 1819; an article in the first volume of the Album Mexicano, the
author of which was at Casas Grandes in 1842 ; and the Personal
Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico,
California, Sonora and Chihuahua (1854), by John Russell Bartlett,
who explored the locality in 1851.
CASAUBON, FLORENCE ESTIENNE MfiRIC (1599-1671),
English classical scholar, son of Isaac Casaubon, was born at
Geneva on the 14th of August 1599. At an early age he joined
his father in England, and completed his education at Eton
and Oxford (B.A. 16 18). His defence of his father against the
attacks of certain Catholics (Pietas contra ntaledicos patrii
Nominis tt Religionis Hostes, 162 1), secured him the notice and
favour of James I., who conferred upon him a prebendal stall
in Canterbury cathedral. He also vindicated his father's literary
reputation against certain impostors who had published, under
his name, a work on The Origin of Idolatry ( Vindicate Patris
adversus Impostores, 1624). During the Civil War he lived a
retired life, and after its conclusion refused to acknowledge the
authority of Cromwell, who, notwithstanding, requested him to
write an " impartial " history of the events of the period. In
spite of the tempting inducements held out, he declined, and also
refused the post of inspector of the Swedish universities offered
him by Queen Christina. After the Restoration, he was reinstated
in his benefice, and devoted the rest of his life to literary
work. He died at Canterbury on the 14th of July 1671. M6ric
Casaubon's reputation was overshadowed by that of his father;
but his editions of numerous classical authors, and especially
of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (also English translation,
new ed. by W. H. D. Rouse, 1900), were highly valued. Among
his other works may be mentioned: De Quatuor Linguis Com-
mentatio (1650), Of the Necessity of Reformation (1664), On
Credulity and Incredulity in Things natural, civil and divine (1668).
CASAUBON, ISAAC (1 559-1614), French (naturalized English)
classical scholar, was born at Geneva, on the 18th of February
1 559, of French refugee parents. On the publication of the edict
of January 1562, the family returned to France and settled at
Crest in Dauphine, where Arnaud Casaubon, Isaac's father,
became minister of a Huguenot congregation. Till he was nine-
teen, Isaac had no other instruction than what could be given
him by his father during the years of civil war. Arnaud was
away from home whole years together in the Calvinist camp,
or the family were flying to the hills to hide from the fanatical
bands of armed Catholics who patrolled the country. Thus
it was in a cave in the mountains of Dauphin6, after the massacre
of St Bartholomew, that Isaac received his first lesson in Greek,
the text-book being Isocrates ad Demonicum.
At nineteen Isaac was sent to the Academy of Geneva, where
he read Greek under Francis Portus, a native of Crete. Portus
died in 1 58 1, having recommended Casaubon, then only twenty-
two, as his successor. At Geneva he remained as professor of
Greek till 1596. Here he married twice, his second wife being
Florence, daughter of the scholar-printer, Henri Estienne.
Here, without the stimulus of example or encouragement, with
few books and no assistance, in a city peopled with religious
refugees, and struggling for life against the troops of the Catholic
dukes of Savoy, Casaubon made himself a consummate Greek
scholar and master of ancient learning. His great wants at
Geneva were books and the sympathy of learned associates.
He spent all he could save out of his small salary in buying
books, and in having copies made of such classics as were not
then in print. Henri Estienne, Theodore de Beza (rector of
the university and professor of theology), and Jacques Lect
(Lectius), were indeed men of superior learning. But Henri,
in those last years of his life, was no longer the Estienne of the
Thesaurus) he was never at home, and would not suffer his son-
in-law to enter his library. " He guards his books," writes
Casaubon, " as the griffins in India do their gold!" Beza was
engrossed by the cares of administration, and retained, at most,
an interest for theological reading, while Lect, a lawyer and
diplomatist, had left classics for the active business of the council.
The sympathy and help which Casaubon's native city could
not afford him, he endeavoured to supply by cultivating the
acquaintance of the learned of other countries. Geneva, as the
442
CASAUBON
metropolis of Calvinism, received a constant succession of
visitors. The continental tour of the young Englishman of birth
was not complete without a visit to Geneva. It was there that
Casaubon made the acquaintance of young Henry Wotton, the
poet and diplomatist, who lodged in his house and borrowed
his money. Of more consequence to Isaac Casaubon was the
acquaintance of Richard Thomson (" Dutch " Thomson), fellow
of Clare College, Cambridge; for it was through Thomson that
the attention of Joseph Scaliger, settled in 1593 at Leiden,
was directed to Casaubon. Scaliger and Casaubon first ex-
changed letters in 1594. Their intercourse, which was wholly
by letter, for they never met, passes through the stages of civility,
admiration, esteem, regard and culminates in a tone of the
tenderest affection and mutual confidence. Influential French
men of letters, the Protestant Jacques Bongars, the Catholic
Jacques de Thou, and the Catholic convert Philippe Canaye, sieur
du Fresne, aided him by presents of books and encouragement,
and endeavoured to get him invited, in some capacity, to France.
This was effected in 1596, in which year Casaubon accepted
an invitation to the university of Montpellier, with the title of
conseiUer du rot and professeur stipendU aux langues et bonnes
lettres. In Montpellier he never took root He held the professor-
ship there only three years, with several prolonged absences.
The hopes raised by his brilliant reception were disappointed;
he was badly treated by the authorities, by whom his salary
was only paid very irregularly, and, finally, not at all. He was
not, at any time, insensible to the attractions of teaching, and
his lectures at Montpellier were followed not only by the students,
but by men of mature age and position. But the love of know-
ledge was gradually growing upon him, and he began to perceive
that editing Greek books was an employment more congenial
to his peculiar powers than teaching. At Geneva he had first
tried his hand on some notes on Diogenes Laertius, on Theo-
critus and the New Testament, the last undertaken at his father's
request. His d6but as an editor had been a complete Strabo
(1 587), of which he was so ashamed afterwards that he apologized
for its crudity to Scaliger, calling it " a miscarriage." This was
followed by the text of Polyaenus, an editio princeps, 1589; a
text of Aristotle, 1590; and a few notes contributed to Estienne's
editions of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Pliny's Epistolae.
It is not till we come to his edition of Theophrastus's Characteres
(1592), that we have a specimen of that peculiar style of illus-
trative commentary, at once apposite and profuse, which dis-
tinguishes Casaubon among annotators. At the time of his
removal to Montpellier he was engaged upon what is the capital
work of his life, his edition of, and commentary on, Athenaeus.
In 1598 we find Casaubon at Lyons, superintending the
passage of his Athenaeus through the press, for which he had
been unable to find facilities at Montpellier. Here he lived
in the house of M6ric de Vicq, surintendant de la justice, a Catholic,
but a man of acquirements, whose connexions were with the
circle of liberal Catholics in Paris. In the suite of De Vicq
Casaubon made a flying visit to Paris, and was presented to
Henry IV. The king was very gracious, and said something
about employing Casaubon's services in the "restoration"
of the fallen university of Paris. Full of hope he returned to
Montpellier. In January 1 599, he received a summons to repair
to Paris. But the terms of the letter missive were so vague that,
though it bore the sign manual, Casaubon hesitated to act
upon it. However, he resigned his chair at Montpellier, but
instead of hastening to Paris, he lingered more than a year at
Lyons, in De Vicq's house, where he hoped to meet the king,
who was expected to visit the south. Nothing more was heard
about the professorship, but instead he was summoned by
De Vicq, who was then in Paris, to come to him in all haste on
an affair of importance. The business proved to be the Fontaine-
bleau Conference. Casaubon allowed himself to be persuaded
to sit as one of the referees who were to adjudicate on the
challenge sent to Du Plessis Mornay by Cardinal Duperron. By
so doing he placed himself in a false position, as Scaliger said:
" Non debebat Casaubon interesse colloquio Plessiaeano; erat
asinus inter simias, doctus inter imperitos " (Scaligerana 2*).
The issue was so contrived that the Protestant party could not
but be pronounced to be in the wrong. By concurring in the
decision, which was unfavourable to Du Plessis Mornay, Casaubon
lent the prestige of his name to a court whose verdict would
without him have been worthless, and confirmed the suspicions
already current among the Reformed churches that, like his
friend and patron, Canaye du Fresne, he was meditating abjura-
tion. From this time forward he became the object of the hopes
and fears of the two religious parties; the Catholics lavishing
promises, and plying him with arguments; the Reformed
ministers insinuating that he was preparing to forsake a losing
cause, and only higgling about his price. We now know enough
of Casaubon's mental history to know how erroneous were these
computations of his motives. But, at the time, it was not
possible for the immediate parties to the bitter controversy to
understand the intermediate position between Genevan Calvin-
ism and Ultramontanism to which Casaubon 's reading of the
fathers had conducted him.
Meantime the efforts of De Thou and the liberal Catholics
to retain him in Paris were successful. The king repeated his
invitation to Casaubon to settle in the capital, and assigned him
a pension. No more was said about the university. The recent
reform of the university of Paris had closed its doors to all but
Catholics; and though the chairs of the College de France were
not governed by the statutes of the university, public opinion
ran so violently against heresy, that Henry IV. dared not appoint
a Calvinist to a chair, even if he had desired to do so. But it was
designed that Casaubon should succeed to the post of sub-
librarian of the royal library when it should become vacant,
and a patent of the reversion was made out in his favour. In
November 1604, Jean Gosselin died in extreme old age; and
Casaubon succeeded him as sub-librarian, with a salary of
400 livres in addition to his pension.
In Paris Casaubon remained till 1610. These ten years were
the brightest period of his life. He had attained the reputation
of being, after Scaliger, the most learned man of the age, — an
age in which learning formed the sole standard of literary merit.
He was placed above penury, though not in easy circumstances.
He had such facilities for religious worship as a Huguenot could
have, though he had to go out of the city to Hablon, and after-
wards to Charenton, for them. He enjoyed the society of men
of learning, or of men who took an interest in learned publica-
tions. He had the best opportunities of seeing men of letters
from foreign countries as they passed through Paris. Above
all, he had ample facilities for using Greek books, both printed
and in MS., the want of which he had felt painfully at Geneva
and Montpellier, and which no other place but Paris could at
that period have supplied.
In spite of all these advantages we find Casaubon restless,
and ever framing schemes for leavingParis,and settling elsewhere.
It was known that he was open to offers, and offers came to him
from various quarters, — from Nimes, from Heidelberg, from
Sedan. His friends Lect and Giovanni Diodati wished, rather
than hoped, to get him back to Geneva. The causes of Casaubon's
discomfort in Paris were various, but the principal source of
uneasiness lay in his religion. The life of any Huguenot in Paris
was hardly secure at that time, for it was doubtful if the police
of the city was strong enough to protect them against any sudden
uprising of the fanatical mob, always ready to re-enact the St
Bartholomew. But Casaubon was exposed to persecution of
another sort. Ever since the Fontainebleau Conference an
impression prevailed that he was wavering. It was known
that he rejected the outri anti-popery opinions current in the
Reformed churches; that he read the fathers, and wished for
a church after the pattern of the primitive ages. He was given
to understand that he could have a professorship only by re-
cantation. When it was found that he could not be bought, he
was plied by controversy. Henry IV., who liked Casaubon
personally, made a point of getting him to follow his own ex-
ample. By the king's orders Duperron was untiring in his efforts
to convert him. Casaubon's knowledge of the fathers was that
of a scholar, Duperron's that of an adroit polemist; and the
CASAUBON
443
scholar was driven to admit that the polemist was often too
hard for him. These encounters mostly took place in the king's
library, over which the cardinal, in his capacity of aumonier,
exercised some kind of authority; and it was therefore impossible
for Casaubon to avoid them. On the other hand, the Huguenot
theologians, and especially Pierre du Moulin, chief pastor of the
church of Paris, accused him of conceding too much, and of
having departed already from the lines of strict Calvinistic
orthodoxy.
When the assassination of Henry IV. gave full rein to the
Ultramontane party at court, the obsessions of Duperron
became more importunate, and even menacing. It was now
that Casaubon began to listen to overtures which had been
faintly made before, from the bishops and the court of England.
In October 1610 he came to England in the suite of the ambas-
sador, Lord Wotton of Marley (brother of Casaubon's early friend),
an official invitation having been sent him by Richard Bancroft,
archbishop of Canterbury. He had the most flattering reception
from James I., who was perpetually sending for him to discuss
theological matters. The English bishops were equally delighted
to find that the great French scholar was an Anglican ready
made, who had arrived, by independent study of the Fathers, at
the very via media between Puritanism and Romanism, which
was becoming the fashion in the English Church. Casaubon,
though a layman, was collated to a prebendal stall in Canter-
bury, and a pension of £300 a year was assigned him from the
exchequer. Nor were these merely paper figures. When Sir
Julius Caesar made a difficulty about payment, James sent a
note in his own hand: " Chanceler of my excheker, I will have Mr
Casaubon paid before me, my wife, and my barnes." He still
retained his appointments in France, and his [office as librarian.
He had obtained leave of absence for a visit to England, where
his permanent settlement was not contemplated. In order to
retain their hold upon him, the government of the queen regent
refused to allow his library to be sent over. It required a special
request from James himself to get leave for Madame Casaubon
to bring him a part of his most necessary books. Casaubon
continued to speak of himself as the servant of the regent, and
to declare his readiness to return when summoned to do so.
Meanwhile his situation in London gradually developed
unforeseen sources of discomfort. Not that he had any reason
to complain of his patrons, the king and the bishops. James
continued to the last to delight in his company, and to be as
liberal as the state of his finances allowed. John Overall had
received him and his whole family into the deanery of St Paul's,
and entertained him there for a year. Overall and Lancelot
Andrewes, then bishop of Ely, were the most learned men of
a generation in which extensive reading was more general among
the higher clergy than it has ever been since. These two were
attracted to Casaubon by congenial studies and opinions. With
the witty and learned bishop of Ely in particular Casaubon was
always happy to spend such hours as he had to spare from the
labours of the study. Andrewes took him to Cambridge, where
he met with a most gratifying reception from the notabilities
of the university. They went on together to Downham, where
Casaubon spent six weeks of the summer of 161 1, in which year
he became naturalized. In 1613 he was taken to Oxford by Sir
Henry Savile, where, amid the homage and feasting of which he
was the object, his principal interest was for the MSS. treasures
of the Bodleian. The honorary degree which was offered him
he declined.
But these distinctions were far from compensating the serious
inconveniences of his position. Having been taken up by the
king and the bishops, he had to share in their rising unpopularity.
The courtiers looked with a jealous eye on a pensioner who
enjoyed frequent opportunities of taking James I. on his weak
side — his love of book talk — opportunities which they would
have known how to use. Casaubon was especially mortified by
Sir Henry Wotton's persistent avoidance of him, so inconsistent
with their former intimacy. His windows were broken by the
roughs at night, his children pelted in the streets by day. On
one occasion he himself appeared at Theobalds with a black eye,
having received a blow from some ruffian's fist in the street.
The historian Hallam thinks that he had " become personally
unpopular "; but these outrages from the vulgar seem to have
arisen solely from the cockney's antipathy to the Frenchman.
Casaubon, though he could make shift to read an English book,
could not speak English, any more than Mme Casaubon. This
deficiency not only exposed him to insult and fraud, but restricted
his social intercourse. It excluded him altogether from the
circle of the " wits "; either this or some other cause prevented
him from being acceptable in the circle of the lay learned — the
" antiquaries." William Camden, the antiquary and historian,
he saw but once or twice. Casaubon had been imprudent enough
to correct Camden's Greek, and it is possible that the ex-head-
master of Westminster kept himself aloof in silent resentment of
Casaubon's superior learning. With Robert Cotton and Henry
Spelman he was slightly acquainted. Of John Selden we find
no mention. Though Sir Henry Savile ostensibly patronized
him, yet Casaubon could not help suspecting that it was Savile
who secretly prompted an attempt by Richard Montagu to
forestall Casaubon's book on Baronius. Besides the jealousy
of the natives, Casaubon had now to suffer the open attacks
of the Jesuit pamphleteers. They had spared him as long as
there were hopes of getting him over. The prohibition was taken
off, now that he was committed to Anglicanism. Not only
Joannes Eudaemon, Heribert Rosweyd and Scioppius (Gaspar
Schoppe), 1 but a respectable writer, friendly to Casaubon,
Andreas Schott of Antwerp, gave currency to the insinuation
that Casaubon had sold his conscience for English gold.
But the most serious cause of discomfort in his English
residence was that his time was no longer his own. He was
perpetually being summoned out of town to one orother of James's
hunting residences that the king might enjoy his talk. He had
come over from Paris in search of leisure, and found that a new
claim on his time was established. The king and the bishops
wanted to employ his pen in their literary warfare against Rome.
They compelled him to write first one, then a second, pamphlet
on the subject of the day, — the royal supremacy. At last,
ashamed of thus misappropriating Casaubon's stores of learning,
they set him upon a refutation of the Annals of Baronius, then
in the full tide of its credit and success. Upon this task Casaubon
spent his remaining strength and life. He died in great suffering
on the 1st of July 1614. His complaint was an organic and
congenital malformation of the bladder; but his end was
hastened by an unhealthy life of over-study, and latterly by his
anxiety to acquit himself creditably in his criticism on Baronius.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The monument by which
his name is there commemorated was erected in 1632 by his friend
Thomas Morton when bishop of Durham.
Besides the editions of ancient authors which have been
mentioned, Casaubon published with commentaries Persius,
Suetonius, the Scriptores HUtoriae Augustae. The edition of
Polybius, on which he had spent vast labour, he left unfinished.
His most ambitious work was his revision of the text of
the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus, with commentary. The Theo-
phrastus perhaps exhibits his most characteristic excellences
as a commentator. The Exercitationes in Baronium are but a
fragment of the massive criticism which he contemplated;
it failed in bringing before the reader the uncritical character of
Baronius's history, and had only a moderate success, even
among the Protestants. His correspondence (in Latin) was
finally collected by Van Almeloveen (Rotterdam, 1709), who
prefixed to the letters a careful life of Isaac Casaubon. But this
learned Dutch editor was acquainted with Casaubon's diary
only in extract. This diary, Ephemerides, of which the MS.
is preserved in the chapter library of Canterbury, was printed in
1850 by the Clarendon Press. It forms the most valuable
record we possess of the daily life of a scholar, or man of letters,
of the 16th century. (M. P.)
A few minor changes have been made in the above article, com-
pared with its form in the 9th edition. The most complete account
1 Eudaemon was a Cretan, Rosweyd a Dutch, Jesuit; Schoppe, a
German philologist and critic.
444
CASCADE MOUNTAINS— CASERTA
of Casaubon is the full biography by Mark Pattison (1875), of
which a second and revised edition, by H. Nettleship, was published in
1892; the most recent work on the subject is Isaac Casaubon, sa vie
et son temps, by L. J. Nazelle (1897); there is a monograph on the
Fontainebleau conference by J. A. Lalot (1889). Casaubon is the
subject of one of St Beuve's Causeries, the 30th of July i860 (a notice
of the Oxford edition of the Ephemerides). See also the article in
E. Haag's La France Protestante (1882), and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of
Class. Schol. vol. ii. (ed. 1908), pp. 204 foil.
CASCADE MOUNTAINS* a continuation northward of the
Sierra Nevada, some 500 m. across the states of Oregon and
Washington, U.S.A., into British Columbia. In American
territory the range lies from 100 to 150 m. from the coast. The
Cascades are separated on the S. from the Sierras by deep
valleys near Mt. Shasta in California, while on the N., somewhat
below the international boundary of 49 N., they approach the
northern Rockies, mingling with these in inextricable confusion,
although their name is given also to the much-broken, river-
dissected, central mountain plateau that crosses British Columbia
from S.E. to N.W. Geologically the Sierras and Cascades are
very different, though their exact relations are not yet clearly
determined; topographically they are also different. The
Cascades are in general a comparatively low, broad mass sur-
mounted by a number of imposing peaks in Oregon and
Washington. Especially north of the Columbia river, the
range widens out into a plateau. There are no notable elevations
in British Columbia. Evidences of volcanic activity in com-
paratively recent geologic time are abundant throughout the
length of the range, and all the highest summits are volcanic
cones, covered with snow fields and, in a number of instances,
with glaciers. The grandest peaks are Shasta (14,380 ft.) at
the southern end, and Rainier (or Tacoma, 14,363 ft.) in
Washington, two of the most magnificent mountains of America.
Other notable summits are Mt. Pitt (9760), Mt. Scott (9122),
Diamond Peak (8807), Mt. Thielsen (9250), Mt. Jefferson
(10,200) and Mt. Hood (11,225), in Oregon; and Stuart (9470),
St Helens (10,000), Baker (10,827) and Adams (12,470), in
Washington. The Fraser river in the far north, the Columbia
at the middle, and the Klamath in the south cut athwart the
range to the Pacific, and many minor streams descend the range
to swell their waters, while some drain directly from the flanks
of the mountains into Puget Sound and Gray's Harbor. The
Columbia has cut almost to the sea-level through the great
mountain mass, the Dalles being only about 100 ft. above the
sea. It is to the Cascades of the tremendous rapids at this point
that the mountains owe their name. The slopes of the Cascades,
particularly on the west, which has a very much moister climate
than the eastern slope, are clothed with magnificent forests,
chiefly of coniferous evergreens: firs, pine, tamarack and cedar.
The Douglas fir, the " Oregon pine " of commerce, often attaining
a height of 250 ft, is one of the most beautiful trees in the world.
There are also a variety of deciduous trees, but in the aggregate
they are unimportant. In 1910 the mountain forests were
largely included in ten national forest reserves, with a total
area of nearly 16,000,000 acres, extending from the northern
boundary of Washington to the southern boundary of Oregon.
The magnificent forest cloak, splendid peaks, great open
mountain plateau pastures, and exquisite lakes embosomed in
mountain fastnesses and forest gloom, give variety to the
scenery, which is often grand, and throughout the range inde-
scribably beautiful, though perhaps not equal to the Sierra
Nevada in splended light and colour. Large game — deer, bears,
mountain sheep and goats, wolves and panthers — still abound.
Two great railway systems, the Great Northern and the Northern
Pacific, cross the Cascades through noteworthy tunnels; that
on the former line is 2} m. long, that on the latter a little less
than 2 m.
See Oregon and Washington; also G. O. Smith and F. C.
Calkins, A Geological Reconnaissance across the Cascade Range near
the Forty-Ninth Parallel (Washington, D.C., 1904), being U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 253.
CASE, JOHN (d. 1600), English Aristotelian scholar and
physician, was born at Woodstock. He was educated at Oxford,
and elected to a fellowship at St John's College, which he was
obliged to resign in consequence of his Roman Catholic sym-
pathies. He subsequently opened a philosophical school in
Oxford, which was largely attended. He enjoyed a great reputa-
tion as a logician and dialectician, and was in addition an
authority on music and a distinguished physician. He is de-
scribed as " a man of an innocent, meek, religious and studious
life/' an agreeable conversationalist, an enthusiastic teacher,
and a great favourite with his pupils. Most of his works were
commentaries on various treatises of Aristotle (Organon, Ethics,
Politics, Oeconomics, Physics) under curious titles; they enjoyed
a large circulation during his time, and were frequently reprinted.
He was also the author of The Praise ofMusicke (1586), dedicated
to Sir Walter Raleigh.
CASE. (1) (From Lat. casus, that which falls or happens;
coder e, to fall), a word used in various senses traceable to the
derivation. In grammar, the " cases " are the various forms
in the declension of a noun, adjective or pronoun, the Latin
word being a translation of the Greek ttt&ois, falling, applied
by Aristotle to the variations from the simple form of the word,
whether noun, verb or adjective (of which the adverb would be
a TrroxTts). Later grammarians confined the term to nouns,
and included the nominative. In law, " case " is the common
term for a cause or suit brought before a court of justice. Certain
particular legal usages may also be noted. Action on the case
means an action for the recovery of damages for an injury to the
person or property, where the act done was not immediately
injurious (see Contract; Tort). A case stated is a statement
of facts drawn up by one court for the opinion of another on a
point of law. A special case is a statement of facts agreed to on
behalf of two or more litigant parties, and submitted for the
opinion of a court of justice as to the law bearing upon the facts
so stated. A leading case is a decision which settles some point
of importance. In the legal systems of the United Kingdom
and of the United States decided cases are considered authoritative
for courts of at least equal jurisdiction with those in which the
judgments were given, but on the continent of Europe the rule
is, following that of the Roman law, that they are instructive
but not authoritative.
(2) (O. Fr. casse, mod. chdsse, Lat. capsa, from capere t to hold;
cf. " cash "), a box, sheath or covering. The term is applied to
the natural protective covering of seed-vessels, and of a pupa
or chrysalis. It is also used of a box containing instruments,
pistols, swords, &c, and sometimes of the contents. In building,
a " case " is the facing where the backing may be of inferior
material; the framework in which a window or door is hung;
or the wall surrounding a stair, " staircase " properly signifying
the whole structure of walls and stairs. In bookbinding, a
" case " means the boards and back in which the books are bound ;
and in typography, the tray, divided into partitions, containing
the type ready for the compositor's use.
CASEMATE (Ital. casa, a house, and motta, dull or dim),
an armoured vault or chamber, or in field fortification, a bomb-
proof shelter; in architecture, a hollow moulding, chiefly
employed in cornices.
CASEMENT (from a Lat. form casamentum), in architec-
ture, a frame in wood or metal, which holds the glass of
a window, and is hung by hinges either at the top, bottom or
sides.
CASERTA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy,
the capital of the province of Caserta, situated 21 m. N. by E.
of Naples by rail via Accerra, and 23 m. via Aversa. Pop.
(1901) town, 19,180; commune, 33,373. The modern town
(229 ft.) was a mere village belonging to the Caetani family of
Sermoneta, who were counts of Caserta, until its purchase from
them by Charles IV. of Naples, and the erection of the royal
palace, begun by Luigi Vanvitelli (van Wittel) in 1752, but not
completed until 1774 for Charles's son Ferdinand IV. It forms
a rectangle, the south front being 830 ft. long and 134 ft. high,
with 37 windows in each storey. The interior is richly decorated
with marbles, almost all of which, except the white Carrara
marble, are Neapolitan or Sicilian. The staircase, the chape)
CASE-SHOT— CASHEW NUT
445
and the theatre are especially sumptuous. The extensive
gardens which occupy the hillside behind the palace are adorned
with fountains and cascades; the botanical garden contains
many trees from northern climates. Two miles north is S. Leucio,
a village founded by Ferdinand IV. in 1789, with a royal casino,
and large silk factories which are still active. The old town
(Caserta Vecchia) lies high (1310 ft.) about 3 m. to the north-east.
It was founded in the 9th century by the Lombards of Capua.
The cathedralhas not suffered fromrestoration. It was completed
in 1153. It is a copy of that of Sessa Aurunca, and preserves
the type of the Latin basilica. The campanile, Sicilian in style,
was completed in 1234, while the dome, which betrays similar
motives, is even later. Its pulpit is decorated with the richest
polychrome mosaic that can be found anywhere in Sicily or
south Italy, and is quite Moslem in its brilliance. It is indeed re-
markable to find these motives in a church so far inland (Bertaux,
L'Art dans Vltalie meridionale, Paris, 1904, i. 353, &c). There
are also the ruins of the old walls.
CASE-SHOT, a projectile used in ordnance for fighting at
close quarters. It consists of a thin metal case containing a
large number of bullets or other small projectiles (see
Ammunition). Case-shot was formerly called "canister,"
though the term now used occurs as early as 1625.
CASH. (1) (From O. Fr. casse, mod. caisse, a box or chest;
cf. " case "), a term which, originally meaning a box in which
money is kept, is now commonly applied to ready money or coin.
In commercial and banking usage " cash " is sometimes confined
to specie; it is also, in opposition to bills, drafts or securities,
applied to bank-notes. Hence " to cash " means to convert
cheques and other negotiable instruments into coin. In book-
keeping, in such expressions as " petty cash," " cash-book,"
and the like, it has the same significance, and so also in
" cash-payment " or ready-money payment as opposed to
11 credit," however the payment may be made, by coin, notes
or cheque.
The " cash on delivery " or " collect on delivery " system,
known as C.O.D., is one whereby a tradesman can, through a
delivery agency, send goods to a customer, and have the money
due to him collected on the delivery of the same, with a guarantee
from the carrier that, if no money be collected, the goods shall
be returned. The function of such an agency is performed in
the United States of America by the express companies (see
Express). In most countries of the continent of Europe the
post office acts as such an agent, as in Germany (where the
system is known as Post-Nachnahme) and in France (contre
retnboursement). It is also in use in India, where it is known as
" value payable," and was introduced in 1877 in Australia.
The advantages of the system are obvious, from the point of view
both of the customer, who can, by post or telegram, order and
obtain speedy delivery from large towns, and of the tradesman,
whose area of trade is indefinitely extended. The system does
away with credit or the delay and inconvenience of paying in
advance. The success of the large " catalogue " houses in
America has been mainly due to the system as operated by the
express companies. At various times, notably in 1904, it has
been proposed that the General Post Office of the United
Kingdom should adopt the system. The consistent opposition
of the retail traders in large urban centres other than the large
stores, and of the country shopkeeper generally, has been
sufficient to secure the refusal of the postmaster-general to
the proposed scheme, but a commencement was made in 1908
for orders not exceeding £20 between the United Kingdom and
Egypt, Cyprus and Malta, and certain British post offices in
Turkey and Tangier.
(2) (From Tamil kasu, Sinhalese kasi, a small coin, adopted
by Portuguese as caixa, a box, and similarly assimilated in
English to " cash " above), a name given by English residents
in the East to native coins of small value, and particularly to
the copper coinage of China, the native name for which is tsien.
This, the only coin minted by the government, should bear a
fixed ratio of 1000 cash to one tad of silver, but in practice
there is no such fixed value. It is the universal medium of
exchange throughout China for all retail transactions. The tsien
is a round disk of copper alloy, with a square hole punched
through the centre for stringing. A " string of cash " amounts
to 500 or 1000 cash, strung in divisions of 50 or 100.
CASHEL, a city of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the east parlia-
mentary division, 5 m. S.E. of Goold's Cross and Cashel station
on the main line of the Great Southern & Western railway,
96 m. S.W. from Dublin. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2938.
The town, which lies at the base of the Rock of Cashel, is of
somewhat poor appearance, but contains several public buildings.
There are also the cathedral church of St John the Baptist
(c. 1780), the deanery house (once the bishop's palace), and a
Roman Catholic church. Cashel gives name to a Roman Catholic
archdiocese.
The Rock of Cashel is the object of chief interest in the place.
This elevation of limestone formation rises abruptly from the
plain to a height of about 300 ft. and is a commanding object
for many miles around. Its summit is occupied by one of the
most interesting assemblages of ruins in Ireland, consisting of the
remains of St Patrick's cathedral, a round tower, Cormac's
chapel, and an ancient cross. The chapel, which is said to have
been erected by King Cormac McCarthy in the 12th century,
combines the ancient form of high stone roof, having chambers
between the pitch and the vault, with the richest Norman
decoration; the chancel arch being of especial magnificence.
The cathedral, of the 13th century, is cruciform in design,
with lancet windows and pointed arches, and contains many
interesting sculptures and tombs. In the adjoining cemetery
there stands, on a rude pedestal, whereon the kings of Munster
were crowned, the " Cross of Cashel," with an effigy of St Patrick
and a portrayal of the Crucifixion sculptured on its sides. The
round tower, situated at the north-east angle of the cathedral,
is 80 ft. high with a circumference of 50 ft., and unlike the
neighbouring ruins is built, not of the limestone of the " Rock,"
but of freestone. Of the defences of the Rock a massive guard-
tower and portions of the wall remain. At the base of the Rock
is Hore Abbey, a Cistercian foundation (1272), exhibiting a
similar style of architecture to that of the cathedral on the Rock;
and within the town is a Dominican priory (1243), of which the
east window is a beautiful example of the style of the period.
From the Rock itself an extensive prospect is commanded over
the rich Golden Vale backed by the Gal tee Mountains, the Devil's
Bit, and other ranges; the clustering roofs of the city providing
a picturesque foreground.
The history of Cashel belongs to the early period of Irish
chronology. Legend states that the vision of an angel blessing
the Rock, seen by two swineherds early in the 5th century, led
Core Mac Luighdheach, king of Munster, to establish a strong-
hold here. It became one of the principal seats of the kings
of Munster, but in 1101 it was given over to the church by
King Murkertagh O'Brien. It afterwards became noteworthy
as the place where Henry II. received the homage of
O'Brien, king of Limerick, and still later, where Edward Bruce
held his Irish parliament. The cathedral was burnt in 1495
by the earl of Kildare. Cashel was taken by storm during
the wars of 1647. It was reduced from an archbishopric to a
bishopric in 1839, and was disfranchised, on account of corrupt
practice, in 1870, having previously returned one member to
parliament.
CASHEW NUT, the fruit of the cashew, cadju or acajou
tree, Anacardium occidentale (nat. ord. Anacardiaceae), a native
of the West Indian Islands. The fruit is kidney-shaped, about
an inch in length, and the kernel is enclosed in two coverings,
the outer of which is smooth, grey and leathery. Inside this
external rind is a dark-coloured layer, containing an excessively
acrid juice. The kernels have a bland, oily, pleasant taste.
They are much eaten, both raw and roasted, in the tropical
regions in which the tree is cultivated, and they yield a light-
coloured, sweet-tasted oil, said to be equal to olive oil for culinary
purposes. The fruit-stalk, immediately under the fruit, is
swollen and fleshy, and assumes a pear-like shape. This swollen
portion of the stalk has a pleasant acid taste, and is eaten under
446
CASHIBO— CASIMIR III.
Anacardium occidental*, Cashew Nut plant, belonging to the
nat. ord. Anacardiaceae.
Branch {reduced), bearing
flowers and fruit. The fruit-
stalks are enlarged in a pear-
like form, bearing the nut
(the true fruit) at their apex.
Flower expanded.
Stamen and pistil, with the
calyx; one fertile stamen
longer than the others.
4. Stamen separated.
5. Nut constituting the fruit.
6. Nut opened longitudinally.
7. Seed separated from the
nut.
8. Cotyledons opened to show the
radicle a, and the plumule.
Two-thirds scale of nature.
the name of cashew apple. By fermentation it yields an alcoholic
beverage, from which a spirit for drinking is distilled in the West
Indies and Brazil. The stem of the tree yields a gum analogous
to gum arabic.
CASHIBO, or Carapache (" bat "), a tribe of South American
Indians of Pannoan stock, living in scanty numbers on the west
side of the Ucayali, Peru. They are a wild, savage people who
have always been foremost in attacks on the Jesuits. They
joined Juan Santos in 1744 in the destruction of missions.
CASHIER. (1) (Adapted from the Fr. caissier, one in charge
of the caisse, or money-box), one who has charge of the payment
or receiving of money in a business house. The " cashier "
may be a high executive official of a banking or mercantile house
— thus the name of chief cashier of the Bank of England appears
on all notes issued during his occupation of the post — or he may
be merely a clerk, who receives payment for goods sold, and has
the right to give receipts for the same.
(2) (In origin ultimately the same as " quash," to annul,
from Lat. quassare, to dash or break to pieces, a frequenta-
tive of quolere, to shake, but also connected in form and
meaning with cassare, to make, cassus, empty or void), a military
term, meaning originally to disband, and probably adopted from
the Dutch in the 16th century. The word in various forms is
used in the same sense in most European languages. It is now
used in English for the dismissal of a commissioned officer from
the army and navy for particularly serious offences, in the words
of the Army Act, 1881, s. 16, for " behaving in a scandalous
manner unbecoming an officer and a gentleman." " Cashiering "
involves not merely the loss of the commission, but also a per-
manent disqualification from serving the state in any capacity.
CASH REGISTER, a species of calculating machine adapted
for use in connexion with the cash-tills of shops, in order to
provide a record of the money received. Such machines are made
in great variety and widely used. Sometimes the records are
constituted by holes punched in a roll of paper; in other cases
they are shown on dials by the aid of adding mechanism. A
common form has a number of keys, each representing a particular
sum and each attached to a counting mechanism which records
how many times it has been used. By pressing appropriate
combinations of these keys the amount of any purchase can be
registered, and the combined records of all the counting mechanism
give the total that has been passed through the machine in any
selected period. Each key when pressed also raises an indicator
which informs the customer how much he has to pay. In their
more elaborate forms these cash registers may have a separate
money-drawer for each assistant employed in the shop, thus
enabling the proprietor to ascertain how many customers each
man has served and how much money he has taken, and also to
fix responsibility for mistakes, bad money, &c. The machines
are also made to deliver a printed receipt for each purchase,
showing the amount, date and assistant concerned, and they
may be arranged to keep separate records of credit sales, money
received on account, and money paid out.
CASILINUM (mod. Capua), an ancient city of Campania,
Italy, 3 m. N.W. of the ancient Capua. Its position at the point
of junction of the Via Appia and Via Latina, and at their crossing
of the river Volturnus by a three-arched bridge, which still
exists, gave it considerable importance under the Roman
republic; and while the original pre-Roman town, which was
doubtless dependent on the neighbouring Capua, stood entirely
on the left (S.) bank, surrounded on three sides by the river,
the Roman city extended to the right bank also; remains of
it have been found at some 25 ft. below the modern ground-level,
the river-bed having risen considerably. In the Second Punic War
it was occupied by Fabius Cunctator in 217 B.C., taken by Hanni-
bal after a gallant defence by troops from Praeneste and Perusia
in the winter of 216-215, but recaptured in the following year,
serving the Romans as their base of operations against Capua.
It lost its independence and became a praefectura. Caesar
conducted a colony thither in 59 B.C., which was renewed by
Antony in 44 B.C. The veterans took Octavian's side after
Caesar's death, but it seems to have been united with Capua
before the time of Vespasian, and it does not occur in the list of
independent communities given by Pliny, who indeed (Hist.
Nat. iii. 70) speaks of the morientis Casilini reliquiae, and only
its position at the junction of the roads redeemed it from utter
insignificance. (T. As.)
CASIMIR III., called " The Great," king of Poland (1310-
1370), the son of Wladislaus Lokietek, king of Poland, and
Jadwiga, princess of Kalisch, was born at Kowal in Kujavia
in 13 10. Casimir belongs to that remarkable group of late
medieval sovereigns who may be called the fathers of modern
diplomacy, inasmuch as they relegated warfare to its proper
place as the instrument of politics, and preferred the council-
chamber to the battle-field. He was educated at the court of
Charles Robert of Hungary, who had married Casimir's beautiful
sister Elizabeth, and who gave his brother-in-law an excellent
education under Italian masters. In his youth Casimir was
considered frivolous and licentious; while his sudden flight
from the field of Plowce, the scene of his father's great victory
over the Teutonic knights, argued but poorly for his personal
courage. When, therefore, he ascended the Polish throne in 1333,
the future of his country, which then consisted of little more than
the lately reunited provinces of Great and Little Poland, seemed
dark indeed; especially as she was still at war with the Teutonic
Order and with John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, who
claimed the crown of Poland also. Fortunately Casimir was a
man of penetrating genius. His father had been a hero who
CASIMIR IV.
447
trusted entirely to his sword, yet the heroic struggle of a lifetime
had barely sufficed to keep at bay the numerous and potent foes
with which Poland was environed. Casimir recognized from the
first that further fighting against tremendous odds was unprofit-
able. A careful, calculating dynastic policy, which aimed at the
establishment of an equilibrium by means of prudent compro-
mises and defensive alliances, was, he rightly judged, the best
guarantee for the future safety and glory of Poland. Casimir began
by tying the hands of the Teutonic Order by the truce of Thorn;
he induced the king of Bohemia to relinquish his claims to the
Polish throne by consenting to leave him a free hand in Silesia
(conference of Trencsen, early in 1335); and subsequently he
attended the celebrated congress of Visegrad (November 12-
December 3, 1335), where Charles Robert entertained him
and the king of Bohemia magnificently. At this congress the
differences between Casimir and John of Bohemia were finally
adjusted; peace was made between the king of Poland and the
Teutonic Order on the basis of the cession of Pomerania, Kulm,
and Michalow to the knights, who retroceded Kujavia and
Dobrzyn; and the kings of Hungary and Poland further agreed
to assist each other in the acquisition of the south-eastern
border province of Halicz, or Red Russia (very nearly correspond-
ing to the modern Galicia), in case the necessity for intervention
should arise. The Holy See, jealous of the growing power of
the house of Luxemburg, attempted to set aside the decrees
of the congress of Visegrad, by urging Casimir to take up arms
against the knights once more; but Casimir prudently refrained
from hostilities, and ultimately compensated himself in the south-
east for his losses in the north. To guarantee still further the
integrity of Poland, Casimir, who had no male issue, concluded
a compact with Charles Robert whereby he recognized Louis,
Charles Robert's son, as the successor to the Polish crown;
Louis on his part contracting to confirm the privileges of the
Polish gentry and clergy, and to rule Poland through natives only.
In 1340 the death of George II. of Halicz, and the ravaging
of that fruitful border principality by the Tatars, induced Casimir
and Charles Robert to establish their joint influence there, and
in r344 the Red Russian boyar, Demetrius Detko, was appointed
starosta, or governor, in the names of the two kings. Nine years
later Lubart of Lithuania, who also had claims upon Red Russia,
disputed the sway of Poland in that principality. Hungary
coming to the assistance of Poland, Lubart was defeated and
taken prisoner; but Casimir, anxious to avoid a bloody war
with Lithuania's Tatar allies, came to a compromise with Lubart
whereby Poland retained Halicz with Lemberg, while Vladimir,
Belz, and Brzesc fell to the share of Lithuania. With the Teutonic
knights, still Poland's most dangerous foe, Casimir preserved
peaceful relations throughout his reign. He kept them within
due bounds by using the influence of the Luxemburgers against
them at the papal court; but the disputes between Poland and
the order were ultimately settled by the peace of Kalisz (July
23, 1343), when the knights engaged for the first time to pay
tribute to the Polish crown. John of Bohemia was also a con-
stant thorn in the side of Casimir. Silesia, now split up into
seventeen principalities, was the bone of contention between them ;
and when Casimir suddenly invaded that country, took Wschowa,
and made Prince Charles of Bohemia a prisoner, war between
the two kingdoms actually broke out and Casimir was besieged in
Cracow by the Czechs. But his Hungarian allies hastened to
his assistance, and the mediation of the Holy See restored
peace in 1346. The death of the adventurous John at Cre*cy,
and the election of his son as emperor, still further improved the
situation. Charles IV., a cautious sovereign with many cares,
was as anxious for the maintenance of peace as Casimir himself.
Thus the relations between them were never very seriously
disturbed.
'throughout his reign Casimir never neglected the great work
of domestic reform, greatly aided by Jaroslaw Skotowicki,
archbishop of Gnesen, formerly a professor at Bologna. The
first result of their joint labours was the much-needed codification
of the laws of Great and Little Poland in 1 347. This was followed
by the establishment of a supreme court of appeal in 1357.
Towards everything like disorder, tyranny, or aristocratic
oppression, Casimir was always inexorably severe; all dis-
turbers of the peace were remorselessly put to death as the worst
enemies of their country and he enjoyed in consequence the
honourable title of " the Peasants' King." The lawlessness
of the nobility was most noticeable in the province of Great
Poland, where outrageous acts of violence were of everyday
occurrence. To remedy the evil, Casimir drew up and pro-
mulgated the severe statute of Great Poland, which went to the
very root of the matter and greatly strengthened the hands of
the king's justices. Casimir also did much for education.
Stimulated by the example of Charles IV., who had founded the
university of Prague in 1348, Casimir on the 12th of May 1364
established and richly endowed the first university of Cracow,
which had five professors of Roman law, three of Canon law,
two of physics, and one master of arts. The security of the
kingdom was sensibly promoted by the erection of a cordon of
fortresses on its north-eastern borders, and a blow was given to
foreign interference when Casimir succeeded in gaining dominant
influence over the independent Polish principality of Masovia,
which had hitherto gravitated between Bohemia and the
Teutonic Order.
Casimir's last political act was the conclusion of a fresh
alliance with Louis of Hungary against Charles IV. at Buda
in 1369. He died on the 5 th of November 1370 from the effects
of an injury received while hunting. Though married three
times Casimir left no sons; but he had the satisfaction of knowing
that his domains would pass into the hands of a nephew every
whit as capable and sagacious as himself.
See Jan Leniek, The Congress of Visegrdd (Pol.), (Lemberg, 1884) ;
T. K. Kochanowski, Casimir the Great (Pol.), (Warsaw, 1900);
Kazimierz J. Gorzycki, The Annexation of Red Russia by Casimir the
Great (Pol.), (Lemberg, 1889) ; Stanislaw Kryzanowski, The Embassy
of Casimir the Great to Avignon (Pol.), (Cracow, 1900). (R. N. B.)
CASIMIR IV., king of Poland (142 7-1492), second son of
Wladislaus II. Jagiello, was appointed while still a lad grand-
duke of Lithuania by his father, and crowned king of Poland
at Cracow in June 1447, three years after the death of his elder
brother, Wladislaus III., at the battle of Varna. The cause of
this long interregnum was the disinclination of the Lithuanians
to part with their prince till their outstanding differences with
Poland, relating chiefly to the delimitation of the frontiers of the
two states, had been settled. Casimir's reign of forty-five years
was epoch-making for Poland. He was without doubt one of the
greatest statesmen of his age, concealing beneath a simple
exterior and homely habits a profound political sagacity and an
unerring common-sense, and possessing in a high degree those
useful qualities of patience, moderation, and tenacity, which
characterized nearly all the princes of the house of Jagiello.
Throughout life he steadily followed two guiding principles —
the preservation of the political union between Poland and
Lithuania at whatever cost, and the recovery of the lost lands
of old Poland. It was due entirely to his steadfast adherence to
these principles that Poland in the course of the 15th century
rose to the rank of a great power; but by a singular irony of
fate, Casimir, in consequence of his unswerving efforts to make
his country glorious and prosperous, entirely forfeited the
popularity of his Polish subjects, whose true interests he under-
stood far better than they did themselves. Thus his refusal to
sacrifice Polish to Lithuanian or Lithuanian to Polish interests
caused both Poles and Lithuanians to accuse the far-seeing monarch
of partiality and favouritism; while his anti-German policy,
on which the future safety of the dual state depended, could
only be carried through by the most humiliating concessions
to patrician pride and greed. His difficulties were moreover
considerably enhanced by the fact that he was not of an essentially
martial temperament, and could not therefore appeal to the
heroic side of the Polish character.
The great triumph of Casimir's reign was the final subjugation
of the Teutonic Order, a triumph only accomplished after a
harassing and desultory thirteen years' war, during which
Casimir's own subjects gave him more trouble than all his
enemies. The pretext of the rupture was the attempt of the
448
CASIMIR-PERIER— CASINO
knights to crush the Prussian diet, which, bearing as it did most
of the burdens, claimed fairly enough a proportionate share
in the government of the Prussian provinces. Excommunicated
by the pope and placed under the ban of the Empire, the
Prussian cities and gentry naturally turned to their nearest
neighbour, Poland, for protection. In October 1453 they placed
themselves beneath the over lordship of Casimir; on the 4th of
February 1454 formally renounced their ancient allegiance to the
Order; and some weeks later captured no fewer than fifty-seven
towns and castles. On the 6th of March 1454 Casimir issued
a manifesto directing the incorporation of the Prussian provinces
with Poland, but granting them at the same time freedom
from taxation and full autonomy. But except in the border
province of Great Poland, the acquisition of this new territory
excited little interest and no enthusiasm in Poland generally.
The local diets granted subsidies with a niggard hand, and for
the conduct of the war the king soon had to depend almost
entirely on Hussite mercenaries, who frequently turned against
him when their wages were not paid. The Polish gentry on the
other hand exhibited far less energy in the field than in the
council chamber; they were defeated again and again by the
knights, and showed themselves utterly incapable of taking
fortresses. No wonder then if in the. earlier years of the war
the Order recovered its lost ground, and the king, irritated
beyond endurance by the suicidal parsimony of the estates,
threatened to retire to the forests of Lithuania. But manlier
counsels prevailed, the struggle was resumed, and after the
bloody victory of Puck (September 17, 1462) the scales of
fortune inclined decisively to the side of Poland. Finally
the Holy See intervened, and by the second peace of Thorn
(October 14, 1466) all West Prussia, as it is now called,
was ceded to Poland, while East Prussia was left in the hands of
the knights, who held it as a fief of the Polish crown.
The intervention of the Curia, which hitherto had been hostile
to Casimir because of his steady and patriotic resistance to papal
aggression, was due to the permutations of European politics.
The pope was anxious to get rid of the Hussite king of Bohemia,
George Pod&brad, as the first step towards the formation of a
league against the Turk. Casimir was to be a leading factor in this
combination, and he took advantage of it to procure the election
of his son Wladislaus as king of Bohemia. But he would not
commit himself too far, and his ulterior plans were frustrated
by the rivalry of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, who even
went so far as to stimulate the Teutonic Order to rise against
Casimir. The death of Matthias in 1400 was a great relief to
Poland, and Casimir employed the two remaining years of his
reign in consolidating his position still further. He expired rather
suddenly while hunting at Troki in Lithuania in June 1492.
The feature of Casimir's character which most impressed his
contemporaries was his extraordinary simplicity and sobriety.
He, one of the greatest monarchs in Europe, habitually wore
plain Cracow cloth, drank nothing but water, and kept the
most austere of tables. His one passion was the chase. Yet
his liberality to his ministers and servants was proverbial, and
his vanquished enemies he always treated with magnificent
generosity. Casimir's married life was singularly happy. His
consort, Elizabeth of Austria, " the mother of the Jagiellos,"
bore him six sons and seven daughters, and by her affection and
good counsel materially relieved the constant anxieties and
grievous burdens of his long and arduous reign.
See Jan Dlugosz, Opera (Cracow, 1887) ; August Sokolowski, Illus-
trated History of Poland (Pol.), vol. ii. (Vienna, 1904). (R. N. B.)
CASIMIR-PfiRIER, JEAN PAUL PIERRE (1847-1907), fifth
president of the French Republic, was born in Paris on the 8th
of November 1847, being the grandson of Casimir Pierre Pener
(q.v.) the famous premier of Louis Philippe. He entered public
life as secretary to his father, A. V. L. C. Pener, who was minister
of the interior under the presidency of Thiers. In 1874 he was
elected general councillor of the Aube, and was sent by the same
department to the chamber of deputies in the general elections
of 1876, and he was always re-elected until his presidency. In
spite of the traditions of his family, Casimir-Perier joined the
group of Republicans on the Left, and was one of the 363 on the
Seize-Mai (1877). If he refused to vote the expulsion of the
princes in 1883, and resigned as deputy upon the enactment of
the law, it was only owing to personal connexions with the family
of Orleans. On the 17th of August 1883 he became under-
secretary of state for war, and retained that position until the 7th
of January 1885. From 1800 to 1892 he was vice-president of
the chamber, then in 1893 president. On the 3rd of December
he became prime-minister, holding the department of foreign
affairs, resigned in May 1894, and was re-elected president of the
chamber. On the 24th of June 1894, after the assassination of
President Carnot, he was elected president of the republic by
451 votes against 195 for Henri Brisson and 97 for Charles Dupuy.
His presidency lasted only six months. The resignation of the
Dupuy ministry on the 14th of January 1895 was followed the
next day by that of the president. Casimir-P6rier explained his
action by the fact that he found himself ignored by the ministers,
who did not consult him before taking decisions, and did not keep
him informed upon political events, especially in foreign affairs.
From that time he definitely and absolutely abandoned politics,
and devoted himself to business — especially mining. At the
trial of Dreyfus at Rennes, Casimir-Pener's evidence, as opposed
to that of General Mercier, was of great value to the cause of
Dreyfus. He died on the 1 ith of March 1007.
CASINO (diminutive of casa, a house), the Italian name for a
pleasure-house in a garden, which has been extended to a place
of public amusement at pleasure resorts, in which concerts,
theatrical performances and public balls are given, and which
usually contains a cafe* -restaur ant and gaming saloons. " Casino "
as an architectural term is still employed in France, and the
subject is given in competitive programmes in the French schools
of design. In the 18th century in England many Italian examples
were built in the parks of country mansions, and Sir William
Chambers in his treatise on civil architecture publishes plates of
the casinos he had built at Marino, near Dublin, Wilton near
Salisbury, and Birdshall, Yorkshire.
Casino or Cassino is also the name given to a game of cards of
obscure origin, played with a full whist-pack. The object is to
take as many cards as possible, particularly such as have special
value. It may be played by two, three or four persons, partners
sitting opposite one another. The player at the dealer's right is
called the pony {pone), the one at his left the eldest hand. The
dealer (selected by the cut of the lowest card) deals four cards to
each player by twos and also, just before dealing to himself, four
to the table, face upwards. The eldest hand begins the game by
playing a card in one of three ways. Either he may take one of
the exposed cards on the table by matching it with one from his
own hand; or he may put one of his cards upon one of the table
hand and call the sum of the pips (called building) ; or thirdly,
failing to do either of these things, he must trail } i.e. lay a card
face upwards on the table beside the exposed cards, and the
player at his left then plays in his turn. When each player has
played out all four of his cards the dealer deals four more all
round, and the game proceeds until the pack is exhausted. The
game either (1) ends at this juncture, the player having secured
the most points winning; or (2) the side or player first securing
21 points wins; or (3) the points secured in a given number of
deals may determine the winner. The points and their respective
values are as follows: — Big (or Great) Casino (ten of diamonds), 2 ;
Little Casino (deuce of spades), 1; Cards (greatest number), 3;
Spades (greatest number), 1; Aces, 1 each or 4 together; Sweeps,
1 each. Thus, without sweeps, the maximum points in one deal
are 1 1 . A sweep is a play that clears the table of all exposed cards.
The game then proceeds by the next player placing a card on the
table face upwards.
11 Building," referred to above, is done as follows. Should a 3
lie exposed on the table, a player may place a 4 upon it, saying,
" I build a 7," and, if it is not disturbed before his next turn, he
may then take the two cards with another 7 from his hand. It
follows that no combination may be built unless the builder holds
the proper card in his hand. But a build may be increased. Thus,
in the case cited above, another player may put a 2 upon the two
cards which make 7 and say, " I build 9," in which case the original
CASINUM— CASKET LETTERS
449
builder loses control of the build unless he also holds a 9 in his hand
or can himself increase the build again; for instance, adding an ace
and calling 10. In the old way of playing the ace counted 1, the
deuce 2, and so on as at whist, excepting that all court cards counted
10. But in the popular variation called Royal Casino, now almost
universally played, the ace counts either 1 or 14, the king 13, the
queen 12 and the knave 11. In this manner the opportunities for
simple and increased building are greatly multiplied, resulting in a
much livelier game.
If a player has made a build be must take it in on his next play,
unless he can take some other card. He cannot have two builds on
the table at the same time, nor increase another build if he already
has one of his own. Double Builds cannot be increased, e.g. if a
player combines a 3 and 4 lying on the table and places a 7 from his
hand upon them, saying, " I build sevens/' this build can be taken
only with a 7, and cannot be built upon further. Of course in the
case cited the builder must still have another 7 in his hand. In
playing partners each may take in the other's builds, or may build
to a card that has been declared by his partner; e.g. if his partner
has built an 8 that has been captured by an opponent, he may build
another 8 with a card from his own hand to the 8 that he knows
to be in his partner's hand, even though he has no 8 himself. In
trailing, i.e. laying down a card without matching or building, one
usually plays small cards, avoiding aces and (if Big and Little
Casino have not yet been played) tens and deuces, as well as any
cards one has reason to think will be of service to the enemy. High
cards are usually played last, as they are stronger in taking com-
binations. Such rules are, however, quite general, each situation
calling for special treatment.' In the last round all cards remaining
on the table become the property oft the player taking the last trick.
A good memory and keen powers of observation are essential in
playing this game.
fn Twenty-One-Point Casino nothing is scored until the end of the
deal. A second or third deal is usually necessary before one side
scores the requisite 21. In the final deal each side keeps a mental
count of the points made, and as soon as 21 are scored the game
is claimed and the points shown. But if, when added to those already
scored in previous deals, they make more or less than 21, the claimant
loses the game. In counting out cards count first, followed by spades,
Big Casino, LiiUe Casino, aces and sweeps, in that order.
Spade Casino is a variation in which the usual 1 1 points count as
in the regular game, and, in addition, each spade counts 1 , excepting
the knave of spades, which counts 2, making 24 points in all. These
are scored on a cribbage- board, each point being marked as it is
made. The game is for 61 points, or once round the board and into
the game-bole.
CASINUM, an ancient town of Italy, probably of Volscian
origin. Varro states that the name was Sabine, and meant/orum
vetus, and also that the town itself was Samnite,but he is probably
wrong. When it came under Roman supremacy is not known,
but it probably received the citizenship in 188 B.C. It was the
most south-easterly town in Latium adjectum, situated on the Via
Latina about 40 m. N.W. of Capua. It appears occasionally
in the history of the Hannibalic War. Varro possessed a villa near
it, in which later on Mark Antony held his orgies. Towards the
end of the republic it was a praefectura, and under the empire it
appears as a colony (perhaps founded by the triumvirs), though
in two (not local) inscriptions it is called municipium. Strabo
speaks of it as an important town; Varro mentions the olive-oil
of its district as especially good. The older Volscian Casinum
must have stood on the hill (171 5 ft.) above the Roman town
(148 ft) , where considerable remains of fortifications in Cyclopean
masonry, of finely cut blocks of limestone, still exist. The site is
now occupied by the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino
(q.v.) founded by St Benedict himself in 5 29. A number of Roman
inscriptions from Casinum are preserved there. The wall which
runs south-west and west starting from the west side of the
monastery, for a total length of about 300 yds., is not so clearly
traceable on the other side of the hill, though there is one fragment
under the east side of the monastery; but it seems to have
defended the summit and was perhaps the original acropolis.
The Roman town lay at the foot of the mountain, close to the
Via Latina. The amphitheatre, erected by Ummidia QuadratiUa
(whose passion for actors is mentioned by Pliny, Epist. vii. 24,
on the occasion of her death at the age of about eighty), is still
existing: it is built of opus reticulatum and the five entrances are
by arches of larger blocks of stone; it is approximately circular
in plan. The external walls are 59 ft. high. The seats in the
interior have disappeared. Above it on the hillside is a theatre
of opus reticulatum, less well preserved. Close by is a building
converted into the Cappella del Crocefisso, originally perhaps a
tomb in the Via Latina; it is a chamber in the form of a Greek
cross, constructed of large masses of travertine, with a domed roof
of the same material. On the opposite bank of the Rapido are
theruins called Monticelli, attributed to the villa of Varro,a partof
which was frequently drawn by the architects of the 16th century
(T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, ii. 19). The
medieval town of S. Germano, which resumed the name Cassino
in 1871, lies a little to the north. The cathedral was founded in
the 8th century, but the present building was constructed in the
1 7 th century . The church of S. Maria delle Cinque Torn contains
twelve ancient marble columns; above the town is a picturesque
medieval castle. (T. As.)
CASIRI, MIGUEL (1710-1791), a learned Maronite, was bcrn
at Tripoli (Syria) in 1 7 1 o. He studied at Rome, where he lectured
on Arabic, Syriac, Chaldee, philosophy and theology. In 1748
he went to Spain, and was employed in the royal library at
Madrid. He was successively appointed a member of the Royal
Academy of History, interpreter of oriental languages to the
king, and joint-librarian at the Escorial. In 1763 he became
principal librarian, a post which he appears to have held till his
death in 1791. Casiri published a work entitled Bibliothcca
Arabtco-Hispana Escurialensis (2 vols., Madrid, 1760- 17 70).
It is a catalogue of above 1800 Arabic MSS., which he found in
the library of the Escorial; it also contains a number of quota-
tions from Arabic works on history. The MSS. are classified
according to subjects; the second volume gives an account of
a large collection of geographical and historical MSS., which
contain valuable information regarding the wars between the
Moors and the Christians in Spain. Casiri's work is not yet
obsolete, but a more scientific system is adopted in Hartwig
Derenbourg's incomplete treatise, Les Manuscrits arabes de
r Escorial (Paris, 1884).
CASKET, a small box or coffer, commonly used for jewels,
money, papers, or other objects of value. The etymology is
doubtful. It is possibly a diminutive of " cask, 1 ' a barrel for
wine or other liquor. The Spanish casco meant also a skull,
helmet, or rind of an onion, and is probably connected with
cascar, to break open,Latin quassare, French, cosset, to break, shake.
The French casque, casquet, of the same origin is only used of a
helmet, and the sense of " small chest " is not found in languages
other than English. Skeat suggests that the word is a corruption
of French cassette, diminutive of casse, box, Latin capsa, from
caper e, to hold, contain, cf. English " case ." History and
literature are full of references to the often disconcerting contents
of these famous receptacles. The " Casket Letters " (q.v.) are
one of the mysteries of history. Harpagnon's casket plays
an important part in Moliere's L'Avare; Bluebeard gives his
too-curious wife the keys of his caskets filled with precious stones ;
the contents of Sainte-Croix's casket brought about the trial and
condemnation of the marquise de Brinvilliers, the poisoner.
This very ancient piece of furniture was no doubt derived from
the chest, which was the original wardrobe. It was often an
object of great value, covered with ivory, enamel, or stamped
leather, enriched with precious metals, or encrusted with jewels.
One which belonged to St Louis and is preserved in the Louvre is
covered with enamelled shields of arms and other decorations.
In the 16th and 17th centuries secret hiding-places were some-
times in the thickness of the lid or in a false bottom. The word
is now little used — the natural result of the desuetude of the
object; but auctioneers occasionally announce that they will sell
a " casket of jewels," and undertakers, especially in the United
States, frequently use it as a grandiose synonym for " coflm."
CASKET LETTERS. This is the name generally given to
eight letters, and a sequence of irregular sonnets, all described as
originally in French, and said to have been addressed by Mary,
queen of Scots, to the earl of Bothwell, between January and
April 1 566-1 567. The nature of these documents — authentic,
forged, or partly forged, partly genuine — has been the theme of
much discussion. If authentic throughout, they afford perfect
proof of Mary's complicity in the murder of her husband, Henry,
Lord Darnley. The topic is so perplexing, and possibilities
v. is
450
CASKET LETTERS
are so delicately balanced, that inquirers may change their
views, and modify or reverse their opinions, on the appearance of
each fresh document that is brought to light; or even upon a
new consideration of existing evidence. Controversy centres
round a very long and singular undated epistle called " The
Glasgow Letter " or " Letter II." If Mary wrote all of this, or
even wrote some compromising parts of it, she was certainly
guilty. But two questions remain to be settled — (i) did her
accusers at one time possess another version of this letter which
if it existed was beyond doubt a forgery ? and (2) is not part of
Letter II. a forged interpolation, based on another document,
not by Mary ?
The whole affair has been obscured and almost inextricably
entangled, as we shall see, by the behaviour of Mary's accusers.
Of these Maitland of Lethington was consenting to Darnley's
murder; the earl of Morton had, at least, guilty foreknowledge;
the regent Moray (Mary's natural brother) had " looked through
his fingers " at the crime, and for months remained on intimate
terms with the criminals. He also perjured himself when putting
before Elizabeth's commission of inquiry at Westminster (Dec-
ember 1568) a copy of the confession of Hepburn of Bowton
(Cotton MSS. British Museum. Caligula C.I. fol. 325). This
is attested as a " true copy," but Moray, who had been present
when Bowton was examined (December 8, 1567), knew that
the copy presented at Westminster (December 1568) had been
mutilated because the excised passages were damning to Lething-
ton and the earl of Morton, accomplices in the crime of Darnley's
murder, and accomplices of Moray in his prosecution of his
sister. (See in Cambridge University Library, MS. Oo. 47,
fol. 5 et seq. Compare the MS. copy of the confession in the
British Museum, Cotton MSS. Caligula, C.I. fol. 325, printed
in Anderson's Collections, vol. ii. pp. 183-188.)
If Moray the righteous could act thus, much more might the
murderer Morton perjure himself in his averment that there
had been no tampering with the Casket Letters in his custody.
We cannot, in short, believe Mary's accusers on their oaths.
When they all went, in October-December 1568, to York and
London to accuse their queen — and before that, in their pro-
clamations — they contradicted themselves freely and frequently;
they put in a list of dates which made Mary's authorship of Letter
II. impossible; and they rang the changes on Scots translations
of the alleged French originals, and on the French itself. For
example, when Moray, after Mary was in Elizabeth's power
(May 16, 1568), wished Elizabeth to have the matter tried,
he in May- June 1568 sent John Wood to England with Scots
translations of the letters. Wood was to ask, " if the French
originals are found to tally with the Scots translations, will that be
reckoned good evidence?" It was as easy to send copies of
the French, and thus give no ground for the suspicion that the
Scots letters were altered on the basis of information acquired
between May and October 1568, and that the French versions
were made to fit the new form of the Scots copies. Another
source of confusion, now removed, was the later publication in
France of the letters in French. This French did not correspond
with French copies of some of the originals recently discovered
in Cecil's MSS. and elsewhere. But that is no ground of suspicion,
for the published French letters were not copies of the alleged
originals, but translations of Latin translations of them, from
the Scots (see T. F. Henderson, The Casket Letters, 1800). German
historians have not made matters more clear by treating the
Letters on the principle of " the higher criticism " of Homer and
the Bible. They find that the documents are of composite
origin, partly notes from Mary to Darnley, partly a diary of
Mary's, and so on; all combined and edited by some one who
played the part of the legendary editorial committee of Peisis-
tratus (see Homer), which compiled the Iliad and Odyssey out
of fragmentary lays I From all these causes, and others, arise
confusion and suspicion.
So much information unknown to older disputants such as
Goodall, the elder Tytler, Chalmers, and Malcolm Laing, and in
certain cases unknown even to Froude and Skelton, has accrued,
that the question can now best be studied in The Casket Letters,
by T. F. Henderson (1889; second issue, 1890, being the more
accurate); in The Mystery of Mary Stuart, by Andrew Lang
(4th edition, 1004), and in Henderson's criticism of that book,
in his Mary, Queen of Scots (1005) (Appendix A). The conclu-
sion arrived at here is that of Henderson, but it is reached
independently.
The history of the letters must be given in summary. Hen-
derson, in The Casket Letters (1889), was the first to publish and
use as evidence a document of which the existence was made
known in the fifth report of the royal commission on historical
manuscripts. It is a sworn statement of the earl of Morton,
written in 1568. A silver casket (originally Mary's property,
but then in the possession of Bothwell) was placed in his hands
on the 20th of June, and was inspected by several nobles and
gentlemen on the 21st of June 1567. Morton denies that the
contents, the letters, sonnets, and some other papers, had been
in any way tampered with. But if Moray could knowingly
submit garbled evidence, Morton's oath is of no value if un-
corroborated.
Mary was, on the 21st of June 1567, a prisoner in Loch Leven
Castle. A messenger was at once sent from Edinburgh to London
with a letter from Lethington and a verbal message. By the 1 2 th
of July, de Silva, the Spanish ambassador, reports on the
authority of the French ambassador that du Croc, French envoy
to Scotland, avers that Mary's Scottish enemies have autograph
letters of hers proving her guilt, and himself possesses copies.
Of these copies no more is heard, and they cannot be found.
According to de Silva, Elizabeth said that she did not believe
in the Letters, and that Lethington, who wrote to Cecil on the
21st of June, and sent a verbal message by the bearer, " had
behaved badly in the matter," — whether that of the letters, or in
general. On what evidence she based that opinion, if she
really held it, is unknown. In December 1567 the Scottish
parliament was informed that the letters were signed by Mary
(they are unsigned), but the phrase is not used in the subsequent
act of parliament. The letters were exhibited and apparently
were read, probably read aloud. Mary's party in September
1568 declared that they were garbled, and that the handwriting
was not hers. In the end of July 1 567 the earl of Moray, Mary's
brother, passing through London from France, told de Silva,
as de Silva reported to his government, that there was proof
of Mary's guilt in a letter of three double sheets of paper signed
by her.
According to Moray's version of the letter, Mary was to try
to poison Darnley in a house on the way between Glasgow
and Edinburgh where he and she were to stop. Clearly Lord
Livingstone's house, Callendar, where they did rest on their
journey, is intended. If this failed, Mary would put Darnley
"in the house where the explosion was arranged for the night
upon which one of the servants was to be married." No such
arrangement had been made, as the confessions of the murderers,
at which Moray was present, clearly prove. It may be said that
de Silva means " the house in which the explosion was afterwards
arranged." But the earl of Lennox, Darnley's father, understood
Moray to mean that as early as January 21-22, 1567, the
house of Kirk o' Field, where Darnley was slain, had already been
mined. Moray's version of the letter made Mary tell Bothwell
to poison or put away his wife. No such matters occur in Letter
II. ; Moray spoke, he said, on the authority of " a man who had
read the letter." A similar account of this letter is given in a
document of Darnley's father, the earl of Lennox (Cambridge
University Library MSS. Oo. 7. 47; f. 17 b.). Can we suppose
that " the man who had read the letter " invented much of its
contents, and told them to Moray, who told de Silva, and told
Darnley's father, Lennox, then in or near London?
At this point comes in the evidence — unknown to Froude,
Skelton, Hosack, and Henderson in his book The Casket Letters —
of a number of documents, notes of information, and indictments
of Mary, written for or by the earl of Lennox. These MSS
are in the University Library of Cambridge, and were transcribed
by Father Stevenson. His transcripts were brought to light by
Father Pollen, S. J., who lent them, with his own notes on them,
CASKET LETTERS
45*
to Andrew Lang for use in his book, The Mystery of Mary Stuart
(1000-1004).
Not one of the Lennox documents is dated; all but one are
endorsed in an English hand of the period. It may be conjectured
that they were selected by Lennox from his papers, and lent by
him to some one who was writing against Mary. Among them
(Cambridge University MSS. Oo. 7. 47- fol. 17 b.) is a long
indictment of Mary, in which Lennox describes a wicked letter of
hers. As has been said, he closely follows Moray's version re-
ported by de Silva in July 1567. Lennox also gives several
stories of cruel words of Mary spoken to Darnley in the hearing
of her servants.
Now, on the nth of June 1568, Lennox was in the company of
John Wood, a creature of Moray's, and Wood, as we saw, brought
copies of the Scots renderings of the Letters into England in
May-June 1568. It was argued by Andrew Lang that Wood
was likely to show these letters to Lennox; and that as Lennox
follows Moray's version of Mary's long and murderous letter,
and does not follow Letter II., the murderous letter (a forgery)
was then part of the dossier of Mary's accusers. Again, as
Lennox's indictment of Mary (Cambridge Oo. 7. 47. fol. 17 b.)
is rife in " reports and sayings of Mary's servants " about her
cruel words to Darnley, and as Lennox had not these reports
on the nth of June 1568, for on that day he wrote to Scotland
asking his friends to discover them and send them to him, the
indictment (Oo. 7. 47) must have been composed long after the
nth of June. This must be so, for Lennox's letters of the nth
of June were intercepted by his foes, the Hamiltons, and were
found in the Hamilton Muniment Room. Thus answers to
his inquiries were delayed. (The letters of Lennox were published
in Miscellany of the Maitland Club, vol. iv.)
Henderson, on the other side, believes that Wood " indu-
bitably " showed to Lennox the Scots copies of the Casket
Letters about the nth of June 1568. But Lennox, he says,
could not quote Letter II. in his indictment against Mary,
and had to rest on Moray's version of July 1567, because Lennox's
indictment was completed, and even laid before Elizabeth, as
early as the 28th of May 1568. Henderson seeks to prove that
this is so by quoting from Chalmers's Mary Queen of Scots (vol.
ii. p. 289) the statement that Lennox and his wife on that day
presented to Elizabeth a " Bill of Supplication "; and (though he
submits that the indictment [Oo. 7. 47] is a draft for the Bill)
he strengthens his case by heading the indictment, which he
publishes, Bill of Supplication. The document, in fact, is
unendorsed, and without a title, and there is not a word of
" supplication " in it. It is a self-contradictory history of the
relations between Mary and Darnley.
Henderson's contention therefore seems erroneous. Lennox
could not begin to prepare an English indictment against Mary
till she was in England and in Elizabeth's power. He could not
hear of this fact — Mary's arrival in England (May 16, 1568) —
before, say, the 19th of May; and between the 19th of May and
the 28th of May he could not write for and receive from Scotland
" the reports and sayings of her servants." He did not possess
them on the nth of June, when he asked for them; he did not
get them at once, for his letters were intercepted; the indictment
(Oo. 7. 47) is rich in them; therefore that paper is not the " Bill
of Supplication" of the 28th of May.
Thus the question remains, why, if Wood about the nth of
June showed to Lennox Letter II. in Scots, did Lennox follow
Moray's erroneous version of July 1567 ? Because in June 1568
that version, forged, was in the Scots collection of the Casket
Letters ? If so, there was time for Lennox to lend to the accusers
certain notes which a retainer of his, Thomas Crawford of Jordan
Hill, swore (December 9, 1568) that he had made for Lennox
(about January 22, 1567) of secret conversations between
Darnley and Mary. Lennox (June n, 1568) asked Crawford
for his reminiscences, not of Darnley's reports of his talks with
Mary, but of Crawford's own interview with her as she entered
Glasgow to visit Darnley, probably on the 21st of January 1567.
It follows that Lennox possessed Crawford's written notes of
the Darnley and Mary conversations. If he had not possessed
them on the nth of June 1568, he must have asked Crawford
for his reminiscences of these talks. But he did not ask.
Crawford's evidence was all-important, because it corroborated
Mary's own account of her interviews with Darnley in Letter II.
That part of the letter then, it is argued by many, is a forged
interpolation based on Crawford's notes and memories. The
force of this contention lies in the close verbal identities between
Crawford's account of the Darnley-Mary interviews (see Craw-
ford's Declaration of December 9, 1568, in Lang's Mystery
of Mary Stuart , pp. 428-431; from State Papers Scotland,
Elizabeth vol. xiii. No. 14. Record Office) and the correspond-
ing passages in Letter II. (Mystery of Mary Stuart, pp. 396-398).
The verbal identities can only be explained in one of the following
ways. Either Letter II. is here based on Crawford; or Crawford
has copied Letter II. by way of corroborating it (a fatal step,
if the case came before a modern English court of justice); or
Darnley's memory of his conversation with Mary was so fresh,
when he dictated his recollection of it to Crawford on 2ist-22nd
January 1567, that he reported speeches in almost the very
same words as Mary used in writing Letter II, Henderson prefers
the hypothesis that Lennox had lost Crawford's notes; and that
the identities are explained by the " remarkably good memories
of Crawford and Mary, or by the more likely supposition that
Crawford, before preparing his declaration for the conference "
(at Westminster, December 1568) "refreshed his memory by
the letter." (Letter II., Mary Queen of Scots, p. 650.)
Mary did not need a particularly good memory; if she wrote,
she wrote unchecked her recollections of the day's talk. But
no human memory of a conversation reported on the 22nd of
January 1567, could be so nearly " word perfect " as Crawford's
must have been two years later. If Crawford " refreshed his
memory by the letter," he exposed himself, and the entire case,
by copying whole passages, often with few verbal changes. If
he had access to his original notes of the 2 1st and 22nd of January
1567, then he was safe — that is, if Darnley's memory of the con-
versations tallied so exactly with Mary's. Whether that could
be, Darnley dictating while still hot from the exciting inter-
change of words which he meant to report, is a question for
psychologists. Experiments made by a person who possesses
a good memory seem to show that the thing is very possible,
especially if Darnley revised Crawford's notes.
Thus the probabilities are delicately balanced. But if any
one compares Crawford's whole declaration with Letter U. in
Scots, he will find that>*Crawford has sources of information not
yielded by Letter II.; while Letter II. abounds in matter spoken
by Mary and Darnley which could not be borrowed by the
hypothetical forger from Crawford's Declaration, for it does not
contain the facts. These facts, again, in Letter II. , are worthless
to a forger, because they concern matters never alluded to in any
of the records; never employed in any indictment (though
Lennox's are copious in private talk between Darnley and Mary,
" reports of her servants "), and totally useless for the purposes
of the accusers. Here is one of several examples. Letter II. has,
and Crawford has not, the statement that Darnley " showed me,
amongst other talk, that he knew well enough that my brother
had revealed to me what he (Darnley) had spoken at Stirling.
Of this he (Darnley) denies half, and above all that he (the
brother?) ever came to his (Darnley's) chamber."
Nothing is known about this matter. The Lennox papers are
full of reports of bitter words that passed between Darnley and
Mary at Stirling (December 1566), where Darnley was sulking
apart while the festivities of the baptism of his son (later
James VI.) were being held. But nothing is said in the Lennox
papers of words spoken by Darnley to Mary's brother (probably
Lord Robert of Holyrood) and revealed by Lord Robert to Mary.
Lord Robert was the only friend of Darnley in Mary's entourage;
and he even, according to the accusers, warned him of his danger
in Kirk o' Field, to which they said that a Casket Letter (HI.)
referred. The reference is only to be seen by willing eyes.
Is it credible that a forger, using Crawford's Declaration, which
is silent as to Mary's brother at Stirling, should have superfluously
added what is not to any purpose ? Could he have combined
4-52
CASLON— CASPIAN SEA
with Crawford's matter the passage " he (Darnley) showed me
almost all that is in name of the Bishop and Sutherland, and yet
I have never touched a word of what you (Bothwell) showed
me . . . and by complaining of the Bishop, I have drawn it all
out of him. "
Who but Mary herself could have written about this unknown
affair of the Bishop, and what had the supposed forger to gain
by inventing and adding these references to affairs unconnected
with the case?
There remains what looks like absolute proof that, in essence,
Crawford's Declaration and Letter Il.are independent documents.
We are not aware that this crucial point has been noticed by the
earlier critics of the Letters. In Letter II. (paragraph 7, p. 398,
in Lang's Mystery of Mary Stuart, 1001) Mary writes, " I asked
why he (Darnley) would pass away in the English ship. He
denies it, and swears thereunto; but he grants that he spoke
unto the men." Here Crawford's declaration has, " She asked
him why he would pass away in the English ship. He answered
that he had spoken with the Englishman, but not of mind to go
away with him. And, if he had, it had not been without cause,
considering how he was used. For he had neither [means] to
sustain himself nor his servants, and need not make further
rehearsal thereof, seeing she knew it as well as he." {Mystery of
Mary Stuart, p. 429.)
It may seem to the reader doubtful whether these complaints
are words of Darnley's, or an indignant addition by his friend
Crawford. But Mary, in Letter II., shows that the complaints
and the self-defence are Darnley's own. It was in paragraph 7
that she wrote about the English ship; she did not then give
Darnley's remonstrances, as Crawford does. But in paragraph
18 {Mystery, p. 406) Mary returns to the subject, and writes, " He
(Darnley) spoke very bravely at the beginning, as the bearer will
show you, upon the subject of the Englishmen, and of his depart-
ing; but in the end he returned to his humility."
Thus it is certain that Darnley had reported to Crawford his
brave words and reproaches of Mary, which Crawford gives in the
proper place. But Letter II. omits them in that place (para-
graph 7) ; and only on her second day of writing, in paragraph
18, does Mary's mind recur to Darnley's first brave words — " he
spoke very bravely at the beginning," about his wrongs, " but in
the end he returned again to his humility. "
Here is proof positive that Crawford does not copy Letter II.,
but gives Darnley's words as reported to him by Darnley —
words that Darnley was proud of, — while Mary, returning on the
second day of writing to the topic, does not quote Darnley's
brave words, but merely contrasts his speaking " very bravely
at the beginning" with his pitiful and craven later submission;
" he has ever the tear in his eye," with what follows. {Mystery,
paragraph 12, p. 402.)
When we add to these and other proofs the strange lists of
memoranda in the middle of the pages of the letter, and the
breach in internal chronology which was apparently caused by
Mary's writing, on her second day, on the clean verso of a page
on the other side of which she had written some lines during her
first night in Glasgow; when we add the dramatic changes of her
mood, and the heart-breaking evidence of a remorse not stifled
by lawless love, we seem compelled to believe that she wrote the
whole of Letter II.; that none of it is forged.
In The Mystery of Mary Stuart the evidence for an early forged
letter was presented with confidence; the interpolation of
forgeries based on Crawford's declaration was more dubiously
suggested. That position the writer now abandons. It may be
asked why, after being with Wood on the nth of June, did
Lennox still rely on Moray's version of Mary's letter? The reply
may be that the Scots versions were regarded as a great secret;
that Lennox was a married man; and that though Lennox in
June knew about Mary's letters, doubtless from Wood, or from
common report (Bishop Jewell in a letter of August 1567 mentions
that he had heard of them), yet Wood did not show to him the
Scots copies. Lennox quotes Letter II. later, in an indictment
to be read to the commission sitting at York (October 1568).
But, on the other hand, as Lennox after meeting Wood wrote to
Crawford for his reminiscences of his own interview with Mary
(January 21, 1567), and as these reminiscences were only useful
as corroborative of Mary's account in Letter II., it seems that
Wood had either shown Lennox the letters or had spoken of
their contents. In that case, when Lennox later quotes Moray's
version, not Letter II. itself, he is only acting with the self-
contradictory stupidity which pervades his whole indictment
(Oo. 7. 47. fol. 17 b.).
The letters are not known to have been seen by any man — they
or the silver casket — after the death of the earl of Gowrie (who
possessed them). In May 1584 Bowes, the English ambassador
to Holyrood, had endeavoured to procure them for Elizabeth,
" for the secrecy and benefit of the cause." Conceivably the
letters fell into the hands of James VI. and were destroyed by
his orders. (A. L.)
CASLON, the name of a famous family of English typefounders.
William Caslon (169 2- 1766), the first of the name, was born at
Cradley, Worcestershire, and in 17 16 started business in London
as an engraver of gun locks and barrels, and as a bookbinder's
tool-cutter. Being thus brought into contact with printers,
he was induced to fit up a type foundry, largely through the
encouragement of William Bowyer. The distinction and legi-
bility of his type secured him the patronage of the leading
printers of the day in England and on the continent. The use
of Caslon types, discontinued about the beginning of the 19th
century, was revived about 1845 at the suggestion of Sir Henry
Cole, and used for printing the Diary of Lady WUloughby (a
pseudo- 17th-century story) by the Chiswick Press. The head-
line on this page is " Caslon Old Face." He died on the 23rd of
January 1766. His son, William Caslon (1720-1778), who had
been partner with his father for some years, continued the
business.
CASPARI, KARL PAUL (1814-1892), German Lutheran
theologian and orientalist, was born of Jewish parents at Dessau,
Anhalt, on the 8th of February 18 14. He studied at Leipzig and
Berlin, became a Christian in 1838, and in 1857 was appointed
professor of theology at Christiania, having declined invitations
to Rostock and Erlangen. He died at Christiania on the nth
of April 1892. Caspari is best known as the author of an Arabic
grammar {Grammatica Arabica, 2 vols., 1 844-1 848; new edition,
Arabische Grammatik, edited by A. Miiller; 5th ed. 1887). He
also wrote commentaries on the prophetical books of the Old
Testament, dogmatic and historical works on baptism, and
from 1857 helped to edit the Theologisk Tidskrift for den evan-
gelisk-lutherske Kirke i Norgc. His writings include: Beitr&ge
zur Einleitung in Jesaja (1848), and Alte und neue Quellen zur
Geschichte des Tauf symbols und der Glaubensregel (1879).
CASPIAN SEA (anc. M are Caspium or Mare Hyrcanium;
Russian, Kaspiyskoe More, formerly Hvalynskoe More; Persian,
Darya-i-Khyzyr or Gurzeni; Tatar, Ak-dengkiz; the Sikvm and
Jurjan of the ancient Eastern geographers), an inland sea between
Europe and Asia, extending from 36 40' to 47 20' N. lat., and
from 46 50' to 55 10' E. long. Its length is 760 m. from N.
to S., and its breadth 100 to 280 m., and its- area reaches
169,330 sq. m., of which 865 sq. m. belong to its islands. It
fills the deepest part of a vast depression, sometimes known as
the Aralo- Caspian depression, once an inland sea, the Eurasian
Mediterranean or Sarmatian Ocean. At the present time its
surface lies 86 ft. below the level of the ocean, or 96- 7 ft. according
to the Aral-Caspian levelling 1 and 242-7 ft. below the level of
the Aral.
Hydrography and Shores. — The hydrography of the Caspian
Sea has been studied by von Baer, by N. Ivashintsev (1819-1871)
in 1862-1870, by O. Grimm, N. I. Andrusov (1895), and by J.
B. Spindler (1897), N. von Seidlitz and N. Knipovich (1904)
since the last quoted date. Its basin is divided naturally into
three sections — (1) A northern, forming in the east the Gulf
of Mortvyi Kultuk or Tsarevich Bay. This is the shallowest
part, barely reaching a depth of 20 fathoms. It is being gradually
1 By the triangulation of 1840 its level was found to be 84 ft.
below the level of the Black Sea. The Caucasus triangulation of
1 860-1 870 gave 89 ft.
CASPIAN SEA
453
silted up by the sedimentary deposits brought down by the
rivers Volga, Ural and Terek. The western shore, from the delta
of the Volga ta-the mouth of the Kuma, a' distance of 170 m.,
is gashed byTifolisands of narrow channels or lagoons, termed
litnans, from 12 to 30 m. in length, and separated in some cases
by chains of hillocks, called bugors, in others by sandbanks.
These channels are filled, sometimes with sea-water, sometimes
with overflow water from the Volga and the Kuma. The coast-
line of the Gulf of Mortvyi Kultuk on the north-east is, on the
other hand, formed by a range of low calcareous hills, constituting
the rampart of the Ust-Urt plateau, which intervenes between
the Caspian and the Sea of Aral. On the south this gulf is backed
by the conjoined peninsulas of Busachi and Manghishlak,
into which penetrates the long, narrow, curving bay or fjord of
Kaidak or Kara-su. (2) South of the line joining the Bay of
Kuma with the Manghishlak peninsula, in 44 10' N. lat., the
western shore is higher and the water deepens considerably,
being over one-half of the area 50 fathoms, while the maximum
depth (between 41 and 42 N. lat.) reaches 437 fathoms. This,
the middle section of the Caspian, which extends as far as the
Apsheron peninsula, receives the Terek and several smaller
streams (e.g. Sulak, Samur), that drain the northern slopes of
the Caucasus. At Derbent, just north of 42 lat., a spur of the
Caucasus approaches so close to the sea as to leave room for only
a narrow passage, the Caspiae Pylae or Albanae Portae, which
has been fortified for centuries. The eastern shore of this section
of the sea is also formed by the Ust-Urt plateau, which rises
550 ft. to 750 ft. above the level of the Caspian; but in 42 N.
lat. the Ust-Urt recedes from the Caspian and circles round the
Gulf of Kara-boghaz or Kara-bugaz (also called Aji-darya and
Kuli-darya). This subsidiary basin is separated from the
Caspian by a narrow sandbar, pierced by a strait ij m. long
and only 115 to 170 yds. wide, through which a current flows
continuously into the gulf at the rate of i£ to 5 m. an hour,
the mean velocity at the surface being 3 m. an hour. To this
there exists no compensating outflow current at a greater
depth, as is usually the case in similar situations. The area of
this lateral basin being about 7100 sq. m., and its depth but
comparatively slight (3 J to 36 ft.), the evaporation is very ap-
preciable (amounting to 3*2 ft. per annum), and sufficient,
according to von Baer, to account for the perpetual inflow from
the Caspian. 'South of the Kara-Boghaz Bay the coast rises
again in another peninsula, formed by an extension of the
Balkhan Mountains. This marks (40 N. lat.) the southern
boundary of the middle section of the Caspian. This basin may
be, on the whole, considered as a continuation of the synclinal
depression of the Manych, which stretches along the northern foot
of the Caucasus. from the Sea of Azov. It is separated from
(3), the southern and deepest section of the Caspian, by a sub-
marine ridge (30 to 150 fathoms of water), which links the main
range of the Caucasus on the west with the Kopet-dagh in the
Transcaspian region on the east. This section of the sea washes
on the south the base of the Elburz range in Persia, sweeping
round from the mouth of the Kura, a little north of the Bay of
Kizil-agach, to Astarabad at an average distance of 40 m. from
the foot of the mountains. A little east of the Gulf of Enzeli,
which resembles the Kara-boghaz, though on a much smaller
scale, the Sefid-rud pours into the Caspian the drainage of the
western end of the Elburz range, and several smaller streams
bring down the precipitation that falls on the northern face of
the same range farther to the east. Near its south-east corner
the Caspian is entered by the Atrek, which drains the mountain
ranges of the Turkoman (N.E.) frontier of Persia. Farther
north, on the east coast, opposite to the Bay of Kizil-agach 7
comes the Balkhan or Krasnovodsk Bay. In the summer of
1894 a subterranean volcano was observed in this basin of the
Caspian, in 38 io' N. lat. and 52 37' E. long. The depth in
this section ranges from 300 to 500 fathoms, with a maximum
of 602 fathoms.
Drainage Area and Former Extent. — The catchment area from
which the Caspian is fed extends to a very much greater distance
on the west and north than it does on the south and east. From
the former it is entered by the Volga, which is estimated to drain
an area of 560,000 sq. m., the Ural 96,000 sq. m., the Terek
59,000 sq. m., the Sulak 7000 sq. m., the Samur 4250 sq. m.;
as compared with these, there comes from the south and east
the Kura and Aras, draining the south side of the Caucasus
over 87,250 sq. m., and the Sefid-rud and the Atrek, both rela-
tively short. Altogether it is estimated (by von Dingelstedt)
that the total discharge of all the rivers emptying into the
Caspian amounts annually to a volume equal to 174-5 cub. m.
Were there no evaporation, this would raise the surface of
the sea $b ft. annually. In point of fact, however, the entire
volume of fresh water poured into the Caspian is only just
sufficient to compensate for the loss by evaporation. Indeed
in recent times the level appears, to have undergone several
oscillations. From the researches of Philippov it appears that
during the period 1851-1888 the level reached a maximum on
three separate occasions, namely in 1 868-1 869, 1882 and 1885,
while in' 1853 and 1873 It stood at a minimum; the range of
these oscillations did not, however, exceed 3 ft. 6£ in. The
Russian expedition which investigated the Kara-boghaz in
1896 concluded that there is no permanent subsidence in the
level of the sea. In addition to these periodical fluctuations,
there are also seasonal oscillations, the level being lowest in
January and highest in the summer.
The level of the Caspian, however, was formerly about the
same as the existing level of the Black Sea, although now some
86 ft. below it. This is shown by the evidences of erosion on
the face of the rocks which formed the original shore-line of its
southern basin, those evidences existing at the height of 65 to
80 ft. above the present level. That a rapid subsidence did take
place from the higher level is indicated by the fact that between
it and the present level there is an absence of indications of
erosive energy. There can be no real doubt that formerly the
area of the Caspian was considerably greater than it is at the
present time. Nearly one hundred and fifty years ago Pallas
had his attention arrested by the existence of the salt lakes and
dry saline deposits on the steppes to the east of the Caspian,
and at great distances from its shores, and by the presence in the
same localities of shells of the same marine fauna as that which
now inhabits that sea, and he suggested the obvious explanation
that those regions must formerly have been covered by the
waters of the sea. And it is indeed the fact that large portions
of the vast region comprised between the lower Volga, the Aral-
Irtysh water-divide, the Dzungarian Ala-tau, and the outliers
of the Tian-shan and Hindu-kush systems are actually covered
with Aralo-Caspian deposits, nearly always a yellowish-grey
day, though occasionally they assume the character of a more or
less compact ndstone of the same colour. These deposits
attain their maximum thickness of 90 ft. east of the Caspian,
and have in many parts been excavated and washed away by
the rivers (which have frequently changed their beds) or been
transported by the winds, which sweep with unmitigated
violence across those wide unsheltered expanses. The typical
fossils unearthed in these deposits are shells of species now living
in both the Caspian and the Aral, though in the shallow parts
of both seas only, namely (according to Ivan V. Mushketov
[1850- 1 902)) Cardmm edule, Dreissena polymorpha, NerUina
liturata, Adacna vitrea, Hydrobia stagnalis, in the Kara-kum
desert, and Lithoglyphus caspius, Hydrobia stagnalis, Anodonta
ponderosa and the sponge Metchnikovia tuberculoid, in the Kizil-
kum desert. The exact limits of the ancient Aralo-Caspian sea
are not yet settled, except in the north-west, where the Ergeni
Hills of Astrakhan constitute an unmistakable barrier. North-
wards these marine deposits are known to exist 80 m. away from
Lake Aral, though they do not cross the Aral-Irtysh water-
divide, so that this sea will not probably have been at that time
connected with the Arctic, as some have supposed. The eastern
limits of these deposits lie about 100 m. from Lake Aral, though
Severtsov maintained that they penetrate into the basin of Lake
Balkash. Southwards they have been observed without a break
for 160 m. from Lake Aral, namely in the Sary-kamysh depression
(the surface of which lies below the level of the Caspian) and up
454
CASPIAN SEA
the Uzboi trench for ioo m. from the latter sea. How far they
reach up the present courses of the Ozus (Amu-darya) and
Jaxartes (Syr-darya) is not known. Hence, it is plain that in late
Tertiary, and probably also in Post-Tertiary, times the Aralo-
Caspian Sea covered a vast expanse of territory and embraced
very large islands (e.g. Ust-Urt), which divided it into an eastern
and a western portion, communicating by one or two narrow
straits only, such as on the south the Sary-kamysh depression,
and on the norththe line of the lakes of Chumyshty and Asmantai.
More than this, the Caspian was also, it is pretty certain, at the
same epoch, and later, in direct communication with the Sea of
Azov, no doubt by way of the Manych depression; for in the
limans or lagoons of the Black Sea many faunal species
exist which are not only identical with species that are found in
the Caspian, but also many which, though not exactly identical,
are closely allied. As examples of the former may be named —
Archaeobdella, Clessinia variabilis, NerUima lituraia, Gmelina,
Gammarus moeoticus, Pseudocuma pectinata, Paramysis Baeri,
Mesomysis Kawalevskyi and M. intermedia, Limnomysis Benedeni
and L. Brandti, and species of the ichthyological fauna Gobius,
Clupea and Acipenser; while as illustrating the latter class
the Black Sea contains Dreissenia bugensis (allied to D. rostriformis
and D. Grimmi), Cardium poniicum (to C. caspium), C. coloratum
(to Monodacna edentula), Amphicteis antiqua (to A. Kawalevskyi)
and Bythotrephes azovicus (to B. socialis).
In the opinion of Russian geologists the separation of the
Caspian from the great ocean must have taken place at a com-
paratively recent geological epoch. During the early Tertiary
age it belonged to the Sarmatian Ocean, which reached from
the middle Danube eastwards through Rumania, South Russia,
and along both flanks of the Caucasus to the Aralo-Caspian
region, and westwards had open communication with the great
ocean, as indeed the ancient geographers Eratosthenes, Strabo
and Pliny believed it still had in their day. This communication
began to fail, or close up presumably in the Miocene period;
and before the dawn of Pliocene times the Sarmatian Ocean
was broken up or divided into sections, one of which was the
Aralo-Caspian sea already discussed. During the subsequent
Ice Age the Caspian flowed over the steppes that stretch away
to the north, and was probably still connected with the Black
Sea (itself as yet unconnected with the Mediterranean), while
northwards it sent a narrow gulf or inlet far up the Volga valley,
for Aralo-Caspian deposits have been observed along the lower
Kama in 56 N. lat. Eastwards it penetrated up the Uzboi
depression between the Great and Little Balkhan ranges, so that
that depression, which is strewn (as mentioned above) with
Post-Tertiary marine deposits, was not (as is sometimes supposed)
an old bed of the Oxus, but a gulf of the Ca. n. After the
great ice cap had thawed and a period of general desiccation set in ,
the Caspian began to shrink in area, and simultaneously its
connexions with the Black Sea and the Sea of Aral were severed.
Fauna. — The fauna of this sea has been studied by Eichwald,
Kowalevsky, Grimm, Dybowski, Kessler and Sars. At the
present time it represents an intermingling of marine and fresh-
water forms. To the former belongs the herring {Clupea), and
to the latter, species of Cyprinus, Perca and Silurus, also a
lobster. Other marine forms are Rhizopoda (Rotalia and
TextiUaria), the sponge Amorphina, the Amphicteis worm,
the molluscs Cardium edule and other Cardidae, and some
Amphipods (Cumacea and Mysidae,), but they are forms which
either tolerate variations in salinity or are especially characteristic
of brackish waters. But there are many species inhabiting the
waters of the Caspian whichare not foundelsewhere. These include
Protozoa, three sponges, Vermes, twenty-five Molluscs, numerous
Amphipods, fishes of the genera Gobius, Benthopkilus and Cobitis,
and one mammal (Phoca caspia) . This last, together with some
of the Mysidae and the species Glyptonotus entomon, exhibits
Arctic characteristics, which has suggested the idea of a geologic-
ally recent connexion between the Caspian and the Arctic, an
idea of which no real proofs have been as yet discovered. The
Knipovich expedition in 1004 found no traces of organic life
below the depth of 220 fathoms except micro-organisms and a
single Oligochaete; but above that level there exist abundant
evidences of rich pelagic life, more particularly from the surface
down to a depth of 80 fathoms.
Fisheries. — No other inland sea is so richly stocked with fish
as the Caspian, especially off the mouths of the large rivers,
the Volga, Ural, Terek and Kura. The fish of greatest economic
value are sturgeon (four species), which yield great quantities
of caviare and isinglass, the herring, the salmon and the lobster.
The annual catch of the entire sea is valued at an average of one
million sterling. Some 50,000 persons are engaged in this
industry off the mouth of the Volga alone. Seals are hunted
in Krasnovodsk Bay.
Salinity. — The proportion of salt in the water of the Caspian,
though varying in different parts and at different seasons,
is generally much less than the proportion in oceanic water,
and even less than the proportion in the water of the Black Sea.
In fact the salinity of the Caspian is only three-eights of that of
the ocean. In the northern section, which receives the copious
volumes brought down by the Volga, Ural and Terek, the salinity
is so slight (only 0-0075% m the surface layers) that the water
is quite drinkable, its specific gravity being not higher than
i- 00 1 6. In the middle section the salinity of the surface layers
increases to 0-015%, though it is of course greater along the
shores. The concentration of the saline ingredients proceeds
with the greatest degree of intensity in the large bays on the east
side of the sea, and more especially in that of Kara-boghaz,
where it reaches 16*3% (Spindler expedition). The bottom
of this almost isolated basin is covered for an area of 1300 sq. m.
with a deposit of Epsom salts (sulphate of magnesia), 7 ft. thick,
amounting to an estimated total of 1,000,000,000 tons. While
the proportion of common salt to sulphate of magnesia is as 1 1
to 1 in the water of the Black Sea and as 2 to 1 in the Caspian
water generally, it is as 12-8 to 5*03 in the Kara-boghaz. The
salinity of the surface water of the southern section of the
Caspian averages 1 • 5 %.
Climate. — The temperature of the air over the Caspian basin
is remarkable for its wide range both geographically and season-
ally. The January isotherm of 15 F. skirts its northern shore;
that of 40 crosses its southern border. But the winter extremes
go far below this range: during the prevalence of north-east
winds the thermometer drops to -20 , or even lower, on the
surrounding steppes, while on the Ust-Urt plateau a temperature
of -30 is not uncommon. Again, the July isotherm of 75
crosses the middle section of the Caspian, nearly coinciding with
the January isotherm of 25 , while that of 8o° skirts the southern
shore of the sea, nearly coinciding with the January curve of 40 ,
so that the mean annual range over the northern section of the
sea is 6o° and over the southern section 40 . The former section,
which is too shallow to store up any large amount of heat during
the summer, freezes for three or four months along the shores,
effectually stopping navigation on the lower Volga, but out in the
middle ice appears only when driven there by northerly winds.
The prevalent winds of the Caspian blow from the south-east,
usually between October and March, and from the north and
north-west, commonly between July and September. They
sometimes continue for days together with great violence,
rendering navigation dangerous and driving the sea-water up
over the shores. They also, by heaping up the water at the one
end of the sea or the other, raise the level temporarily and locally
to the extent of 4 to 8 ft. The currents of the Caspian were
investigated by the Knipovich expedition; it detected two of
special prominence, a south-going current along the west shore
and a north-going current along the east shore. As a consequence
of this the temperature of the water is higher on the Asiatic than
on the European side. The lowest temperature obtained was
35 -24 on the bottom in shallow water, the highest 70 -7 on the
surface. But in March the temperature, as also the salinity,
was tolerably uniform throughout all the layers of water. Another
interesting fact ascertained by the same expedition is that the
amount of oxygen contained in the water decreases rapidly with
the depth: off Derbent in the middle section of the sea the
amount diminished from 5-6 cc. per litre at a depth of 100 metres
CASS
455
(330 ft.) to 0-32 cc. per litre at a depth of 700 metres (say 2300 ft.).
At the same spot samples of water drawn from the bottom were
found to contain 0-3 cc. of sulphuretted hydrogen per litre. In
the southern section of the sea the decrease is not so rapid. In
this latter section Spindler ascertained in July 1897 that the
temperature of the surface water 60 m. from Baku was 72*9°,
but that below 10 fathoms it sank rapidly, and at 200 fathoms
and below it was constant at 21*2°.
Navigation. — The development of the petroleum industry in
the Apeshron peninsula (Baku) and the opening (1886) of the
Transcaspian railway have greatly increased the traffic across
the Caspian Sea. A considerable quantity of raw cotton is
brought from Ferghana by the latter route and shipped at
Krasnovodsk for the mills in the south and centre of Russia, as
well as for countries farther west. And Russia draws her own
supplies of petroleum, both for lighting and for use as liquid fuel,
by the sea route from Baku. Other ports in addition to those
just mentioned are Astrakhan, on the Volga; Petrovsk, Derbent
and Lenkoran, on the west shore; Enzeli or Resht, and Astarabad,
on the Persian coast; and Mikhailovsk, on the east coast. The
Russians keep a small naval flotilla on the Caspian, all other
nations being debarred from doing so by the treaty of Turk-
manchai (1828).
At various times and by various persons, but more particularly
by Peter the Great, the project has been mooted of cutting a
canal between the Volga and the Don, and so establishing
unrestricted water communication between the Caspian and the
Black Sea; but so far none of these schemes has taken practical
shape. In 1000 the Hydrotechnical Congress of Russia discussed
the plan of constructing a canal to connect the Caspian more
directly with the Black Sea by cutting an artificial waterway
about 22 ft. deep and 180 ft. wide from Astrakhan to Taganrog
on the Sea of Azov.
See works quoted under Aral; also von Baer, " Kaspische
Studien," in Bull. Sci. St-PStersbourg (1855-1859), and in Erman's
Archiv russ. (1855-1856); Radde, Fauna und Flora des sudwest-
lichen Kaspigebietes (1886); J. V. Mushketov, Turkestan (St Peters-
burg, 1886), with bibliographical references; Ivashintsev, Hydro-
graphic Exploration of the Caspian Sea (in Russian), with atlas
2 vols., 1866) ; Philippov, Marine Geography of the Caspian Basin
in Russian, 1877); Memoirs of the Aral-Caspian Expedition of
1876-1877 (2 vols., in Russian), edited by the St Petersburg Society
of Naturalists; Andrusov, " A Sketch of the Development of the
Caspian Sea and its Inhabitants," in Zapiski of Russ. Geog. Soc:
General Geoe. vol. xxiv.; Eichwald, Fauna Caspio-Caucasica
(1841); Seidlitz, "Das Karabugas Meerbusen," in Globus, with
map, vol. lxxvi. (1899); Knipovich, " Hydrobiologische Unter-
sucnungen des Kaspischen Meeres," in Petermanns MitteUungen,
vol. 1. (1904); and Spindler, in Izvestia of Russ. Geog. Soc. vol.
xxxiv. (P.A. K.;J. T. Be.)
CASS, LEWIS (1782-1866), American general and statesman,
was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 9th of October 1782.
He was educated at Phillips Exeter Academy, joined his father
at Marietta, Ohio, about 1799, studied law there in the office of
Return Jonathan Meigs (1765-1825), and was admitted to the
bar at the age of twenty. Four years later he became a member
of the Ohio legislature. During the War of 18 12 he served under
General William Hull, whose surrender at Detroit he strongly
condemned, and under General W. H. Harrison, and rose from
the rank of colonel of volunteers to be major-general of Ohio
militia and finally to be a brigadier-general in the regular United
States army. In 18 13 he was appointed governor of the territory
of Michigan, the area of which was much larger than that of the
present state. This position gave him the chief control of Indian
affairs for the territory, which was then occupied almost entirely
by natives, there being only 6000 white settlers. During the
eighteen years in which he held this post he rendered valuable
services to the territory and to the nation; he extinguished the
Indian title to large tracts of land, instituted surveys, constructed
roads, and explored the lakes and sources of the Mississippi river.
His relations with the British authorities in Canada after the War
of 18 1 2 were at times very trying, as these officials persisted in
searching American vessels on the Great Lakes and in arousing
the hostility of the Indians of the territory against the American
government. To those experiences was largely due the antipathy
("
for Great Britain manifested by him in his later career. Upon
the reorganization of President Jackson's cabinet in 183 1 he
became secretary of war, and held this office until 1836. It fell
to him, therefore, to direct the conduct of the Black Hawk and
Seminole wars. He sided with the president in his nullification
controversy with South Carolina and in his removal of the
Indians from Georgia, but not in his withdrawal of the govern-
ment deposits from the United States Bank.
In 1836 General Cass was appointed minister to France, and
became very popular with the French government and people.
In 1842, when the Quintuple Treaty was negotiated by representa-
tives of England, France, Prussia, Russia and Austria for the
suppression of the slave trade by the exercise of the right of
search, Cass attacked it in a pamphlet entitled " An Examination
of the Questions now in Discussion between the American and
British Government Concerning the Right of Search," and
presented to the French government a formal memorial which
was probably instrumental in preventing the ratification of the
treaty by France. In this same year the Webster-Ashburton
treaty between Great Britain and the United States was con-
cluded, and, as England did not thereby relinquish her claim of
the right to search American vessels, Cass, after having taken
such a decided stand in this controversy, felt himself in an
awkward position, and resigned his post. His attitude on this
question made him very popular in America, and he was a strong,
but unsuccessful, candidate for the Democratic nomination for
the presidency in 1844. From 1845 to l8 4& and from 1849 to
1857 he was a member of the United States Senate, and in 1846
was a leader of those demanding the " re-annexation " of all the
Oregon country south of 54 40' or war with England, and was
one of the fourteen who voted against the ratification of the
compromise with England at the 49th parallel. He loyally
supported Polk's administration during the Mexican War,
opposed the Wilmot Proviso, and advocated the Compromise
Measures of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. In his
famous u Nicholson letter " of December 1847 he made what was
probably the earliest enunciation of the doctrine of " popular
sovereignty/' namely, that the people of the territories should
decide for themselves whether or not they should have slavery.
In 1848 he received the Demo ratic nomination for the presi-
dency, but owing to the defection of the so-called " Barnburners "
(see Free-Soil Party) he did not receive the united support of
his party, and was defeated by the Whig candidate, Zachary
Taylor. His name was again prominent before the Democratic
convention of 1852, which, however, finally nominated Franklin
Pierce. On account of his eminently conservative attitude on all
questions concerning slavery, General Cass has been accused of
pandering to the southern Democrats in order to further his
political aspirations. His ideas of popular sovereignty, however,
were not inconsistent with the vigorous Democratic spirit of the
west, of which he was a typical representative, and it is not clear
that he believed that the application of this principle would result
in the extension of slavery. As the west became more radically
opposed to slavery after the troubles in Kansas, Cass was soon
out of sympathy with his section, and when the Republicans
secured control of the legislature in 1857 they refused to return
him to the Senate. President Buchanan soon afterward made
him secretary of state, and in this position he at last had the
satisfaction of obtaining from the British government an ac-
knowledgment of the correctness of the American attitude with
regard to the right of search (or " visitation," as .Great Britain
euphemistically termed it). In December i860 he retired
from the cabinet when the president refused to take a firmer
attitude against secession by reinforcing Fort Sumter, and he
remained in retirement until his death at Detroit, Michigan, on
the 17th of June 1866. He wrote for the North American and
the American Quarterly Reviews, and published Inquiries
Concerning the History, Traditions and Languages of Indians
Living Within the United States (1823), and France: Its King,
Court and Government (1840).
See W. T. Young, Life and Public Services of General Lewis Cass
(Detroit, 1852); W. L. G. Smith, Life and Times of Lewis Cass
CASSABA— CASSANDRA
(New York, 1856). The best biography is by A. G. McLaughlin,
Lewis Cass (revised edition, Boston, 1899), in the " American
Statesmen " series.
CASSABA, a town of Asia Minor, in the sanjak of Manisa,
63 m. £. of Smyrna, with which it is connected by rail. Pop.
estimated at 23,000, of which two-thirds are Mussulman; but
the estimate is probably excessive. It has considerable local
trade, and exports the products of the surrounding district.
Cotton is the most important article, and there are ginning
factories in the town; the silkworm is largely raised and
exported; and the " melons of Cassaba " are sent not only to
Smyrna but to Constantinople. There are fragments of marbles
built into the houses, but the modern town does not seem to
occupy any ancient site of importance.
CASSAGNAC, BERNARD ADOLPHE GRANIER DB (1806-
1880), French journalist, was born at Averon-Bergelle in the
department of Gers on the nth of August 1806. In 1832 he
began his career as a Parisian journalist, contributing ardent
defences of Romanticism and Conservatism to the Revue de
Paris, the Journal des Dtbats, and to La Presse. Then he founded
a political journal, L'Upoque (1845-1848), in which his violent
polemics in support of Guizot brought him notoriety and not
a few duels. In 185 1, in the ConstUutionnel, he declared himself
openly an imperialist; and in 1852 was elected as " official
candidate " by the department of Gers. As journalist and
deputy he actively supported an absolutist policy. He de-
manded the restoration of religion, opposed the laws in favour
of the press, and was a member of the club of the rue de 1* Arcade.
In March 1868 he accused the Liberal deputies of having received
money from the king of Prussia for opposing the emperor, and
when called upon for proof, submitted only false or trivial
documents. After the proclamation of the republic (4th of
September 1870) he fled to Belgium. He returned to France
for the elections of 1876, and was elected deputy. He continued
to combat all the republican reforms, but with no advantage to
his party. He died on the 31st of January 1880. In addition
to his journalistic articles he published various historical works,
now unimportant.
His son, Paul Adolphe Marie Prosper Granter de
Cassagnac ( 1 843-1 004), while still young was associated with
his father in both politics and journalism. In 1866 he became
editor of the Conservative paper Le Pays, and figured in a long
series of political duels. On the declaration of war in 1870 he
volunteered for service and was taken prisoner at Sedan. On
his return from prison in a fortress in Silesia he continued
to defend the Bonapartist cause in Le Pays, against both
Republicans and Royalists. Elected deputy for the department
of Gers in 1876, he adopted in the chamber a policy of obstruc-
tion " to discredit the republican regime." In 1877 he openly
encouraged MacMahon to attempt a Bonapartist coup d'Uat,
but the marshal's refusal and the death of the prince imperial
foiled his hopes. He now played but a secondary role in the
chamber, and occupied himself mostly with the direction
of the journal UAutoriU, which he had founded. He was
net re-elected in 1002, and died in November 1904. His
sons took over UAutoriU and the belligerent traditions of the
family.
CASSANA, NICCOLO (1650-17 14), often called Nicoletto,
Italian painter, was born at Venice, and became a disciple of his
father, Giovanni Francesco Cassana, a Genoese, who had been
taught the art of painting by Bernardino Strozzi (" il Prete
Genovese "). Having painted portraits of the Florentine court,
and also of some of the English nobility, Nicoletto was invited
to England, and introduced to Queen Anne, who sat to him for
her likeness, and conferred on him many marks of favour. He
died in London in 17 14, having given way to drinking in his
later years. Cassana was a man of the most vehement temper,
and would wallow on the ground if provoked with his work.
One of his principal paintings is the " Conspiracy of Catiline,"
now in Florence.
CASSANDER (c. 350-297 B.C.), king of Macedonia, eldest son
of Antipater, first appears at the court of Alexander at Babylon,
where he defended his father against the accusations of his
enemies. Having been passed over by his father in favour of
Polyperchon as his successor in the regency of Macedonia,
Cassander allied himself with Ptolemy Soter and Antigonus,
and declared war against the regent. Most of the Greek states
went over to him, and Athens also surrendered. He further
effected an alliance with Eurydice, the ambitious wife of King
Philip Arrhidaeus of Macedon. Both she and her husband,
however, together with Cassander's brother, Nicanor, were
soon after slain by Olympias. Cassander at once marched
against Olympias, and, having forced her to surrender in Pydna,
put her to death (316). In 310 or 300 he also murdered Roxana
and Alexander, the wife and son of Alexander the Great, whose
natural son Heracles he bribed Polyperchon to poison. He
had already connected himself with the royal family by mar-
riage with Thessalonica, Alexander the Great's half-sister,
and, having formed an alliance with Seleucus, Ptolemy and
Lysimachus, against Antigonus, he became, on the defeat and
death of Antigonus in 301, undisputed sovereign of Macedonia.
He died of dropsy in 207. Cassander was a man of literary
taste, but violent and ambitious. He restored Thebes after its
destruction by Alexander the Great, transformed Therma into
Thessalonica, and built the new city of Cassandreia upon the
ruins of Potidaea.
See Diod. Sic. xviii., xix., xx. ; Plutarch, Demetrius, 18. 31,
Phocion, 31 ; also Macedonian Empire.
CASSANDER (or Cassant), GEORGE (1513-1566), Flemish
theologian, born at Pitthem near Bruges, went at an early age
to Louvain and was teaching theology and literature in 1541
at Bruges and shortly afterwards at Ghent. About 1549 he
removed to Cologne, where, after a profound study of the
points of difference between the Catholic and reformed churches,
he devoted himself to the project of reunion, thus anticipating
the efforts of Leibnitz. In 1561 he published anonymously
De Officiis pii ac publicae tranquillitatis vere amantis viri in hoc
dissidio religionis (Basel), in which, while holding that no one,
on account of abuses, has a right utterly to subvert the Church,
he does not disguise his dislike of those who exaggerated the
papal claims. He takes his standpoint on Scripture explained
by tradition and the fathers of the first six centuries. At a time
when controversy drowned the voice of reason, such a book
pleased neither party; but as some of the German princes
thought that he could heal the breach, the emperor Ferdinand
asked him to publish his Consul tatio de Articulis Fidei inter
Catholicos et Protestantes Contr over sis (1565), in which, like
Newman at a later date, he tried to put a Catholic interpretation
upon Protestant formularies. While never attacking dogma, and
even favouring the Roman church on the ground of authority,
he criticizes the papal power and makes reflections on practices.
The work, attacked violently by the Louvain theologians on
one side, and by Calvin and Beza on the other, was put on the
Roman Index in 1617. He died at Cologne on the 3rd of
February 1 566. The collected edition of his works was published
in 1616 at Paris. (E. Tn.)
CASSANDRA* in Greek legend, daughter of Priam and Hecuba.
She was beloved of Apollo, who promised to bestow on her the
spirit of prophecy if she would comply with his desires. Cas-
sandra accepted the proposal; but no sooner had she obtained
the gift than she laughed at the tempter, and refused to fulfil her
promise. Apollo revenged himself by ordaining that her pre-
dictions should be discredited (Apollodorus iii. 12. 5) ; and hence
it was in vain that on the arrival of Helen she prophesied the ruin
of Troy. On the capture of that city she was ravished by Ajax,
the son of Olleus, in the temple of Minerva (Strabo vi. p. 264).
In the distribution of the booty, Cassandra fell to the lot of
Agamemnon; but again her foresight was useless, for he would
not believe her prediction that he should perish in his own
country. The prophecy was fulfilled, for both were slain through
the intrigues of Clytaemnestra {Odyssey, xi. 421 ff.). It is to be
noticed that there is no mention in Homer of her prophetic gifts.
Together with Apollo, she was worshipped under the name oi
Alexandra.
CASSANO ALL' IONIO— CASSEL
457
CASSANO ALL 9 IONIO, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the
province of Gweaza; its railway station (6 m. S. of the town)
is 37 m. N. by E. from the town of Cosenza, while it is 6 m. W.
of Sibari, on the line between Metaponto and Reggio. Pop.
6842. It is very finely situated, 820 ft. above sea-level: the
rock above it is crowned by a medieval castle commanding
beautiful views: a tower is still pointed out as that from which
the stone was thrown which killed Milo, but this rests on an
erroneous identification of Cassano with the ancient Compsa
(q.v.). There are warm sulphurous springs here which are used
for baths.
CASSAVA, the name given to the farinaceous root of two
species of Euphorbiaceous plants, the bitter cassava, Manihot
uiilissima, and the sweet cassava, M. Aipi, both highly im-
portant sources of food starches; Manihot is given as the native
Brazilian name in Spanish writings of the 16th century. They
are herbaceous or semi-shrubby perennials with very large
fleshy, cylindrical, tapering roots as much as 3 ft. long and 6 to
9 in. in diameter, and filled with milky juice. The slender stems,
Cassava or Manioc (Manihot utiliss-ima), less than half nat. size.
i, An inflorescence showing at a 3, Stamens and fleshy disc of male
a fruit which will presently flower,
separate into five one-seeded 4, Seed with its appendage (stro-
parts, about \ nat. size. phiole or caruncle).
2, Pistil of female flower.
5 to 9 ft. high, bear large spreading long-stalked leaves, with
the blade divided nearly to the base into three to seven long
narrow segments. . The plants are probably natives of South
America, but the bitter cassava, which is the more important
of the two in an economic sense, has been introduced into most
tropical regions, and is extensively cultivated in west tropical
Africa and the Malay Archipelago, from which, as well as from
Brazil and other South American states, its starch in the form
of tapioca is a staple article of export. The sap of the bitter
cassava root contains hydrocyanic acid, and the root, being
therefore highly poisonous, cannot be eaten in a fresh condition;
while on the other hand the sweet cassava is perfectly innocuous,
and is employed as a table vegetable. Exposure to heat dissi-
pates the poisonous principle, and the concentrated juice is in
that state used as the basis of cassareep and other sauces. From
the bitter cassava roots many different food preparations are
made in Brazil. The roots are preserved for use by being simply
cleaned, sliced and dried; from such dried slices manioc or
cassava meal, used for cassava cakes, &c, is prepared by rasping.
The starch also is separated and used for food under the name
of Brazilian arrowroot; and this, when agglomerated into pellets
on hot plates, forms the tapioca (q.v.) of commerce. Cassava
starch has a stellate hilum, which readily distinguishes it under
the microscope from other starches.
CASSEL, a town of northern France in the department of
Nord, 34 m. N.W. of Lille by rail. Pop. (1906) 1844. It stands
on an isolated hill (515 ft.) from which portions of France,
Belgium and England can be seen, with 32 towns and 100 villages,
including St Omer, Dunkirk, Ypres and Ostend. The former
h6tel de ville (1634), the h6tel de la Noble Cour, once the seat of
the jurisdiction of maritime Flanders, now the town-hall, and
the h6tel des dues d'Halluin are the historic buildings of the
town. Cassel has a communal college. Its industrial establish-
ments include tanneries, oil-mills, salt refineries and breweries,
and there is trade in cattle and butter.
The town, supposed to occupy the site of Castellum Mena-
piorum, was a Roman station, as numerous remains of the
Gallo-Roman period attest, and an important centre of roads.
It is frequently mentioned in the wars of the middle ages, and
was the scene of important battles in 107 1, when Robert, count
of Flanders, vanquished his rival Arnulf; 1328, when Philip
of Valois defeated the Flemish; and 1677, when William of
Orange was defeated by Philip, duke of Orleans, brother of
Louis XIV. General D. R. Vandamme (17 70-1830) was born
in the town.
CASSEL, or Kassel, a city of Germany, capital of the former
electorate of Hesse-Cassel, and, since its annexation by Prussia
in 1866, capital of the province of Hesse-Nassau. Pop. (1885)
64,083; (1905) 120,446. It is pleasantly situated, in a hilly
and well-wooded country, on both sides of the river Fulda,
over which a stone bridge leads to the lower new town, 124 m.
by rail N.N.E. from Frankfort-on-Main. The river is navigable
for barges, and railways connect the town with all parts of
Germany. The streets of the old town are narrow and crooked,
and contain many picturesque gabled houses, generally of the
17th century, but those of the upper and lower new town, and
the three suburbs, are not surpassed by any in Germany. The
principal streets are the Konigs-strasse (5100 ft. long and 60
broad), the Schone Aussicht, and the Stande-platz (180 ft. broad
with four rows of linden trees) . The large Friedrichs-platz is r 000
by 450 ft. in area. In it stands a marble statue of the landgrave
Frederick II. There is a fine view from the open side. The
former residence of the electors (ResidenzsMdss) fronts this
square, as well as the Museum Fridericianum, with a faqade
of Roman-Ionic columns. The museum contains various
valuable collections of curiosities, interesting mosaics, coins,
casts, a library of 230,000 volumes, and valuable manuscripts.
In the cabinet of curiosities there is a complete collection of
clocks and watches from the earliest to the present time. Among
these is the so-called Egg of Nuremberg, a watch made about
1500 by Peter Henlein. Among other public places and build-
ings worthy of notice are the Roman Catholic church, with a
splendid interior; the K5nigs-platz, with a remarkable echo;
the Karls-platz, with the statue of the landgrave Charles; and
the Martins-platz, with a large church — St Martin's — with
twin towers, containing the burial-vaults of the Hessian princes.
The gallery of paintings, housed in a handsome building erected
in 1880 on the Schone Aussicht, contains one of the finest small
collections in Europe, especially rich in the works of Rem-
brandt, Frans Hals and Van Dyck.
The town contains numerous educational institutions, includ-
ing a technical college, a school of painting, a celebrated classical
school, which the emperor William II. attended, and a military
academy. The descendants of the French refugees who founded
the upper new town have a church and hospital of their own.
There are three Roman Catholic churches, an English church,
and two synagogues. Music is much cultivated, and there is an
opera with a first-rate orchestra, of which Ludwig Spohr was
at one time conductor. The opera-house or theatre was built
v. 15 a
458
CASSELL— CASSIANUS
by Jerome Napoleon, but in 1006 money was voted for a new
building on the Auetor. A new Rathaus (town-hall) has been
erected. There are also the Bose Museum, containing collections
of pictures and antiquities of Hessian origin, museums of natural
history and ethnography, an industrial exhibition hall, and an
industrial art school. A handsome Gothic Lutheran church
was erected in 1892-1897, a post office (Renaissance) in 1881,
and new administrative offices and law courts in 1876-1880.
The municipal (or Murhard) library, in the Hanau park, contains
118,000 volumes. The most noticeable of the modern public
monuments are those to the emperor William I. (1808), to the
musician Spohr (1883), and the Lowenbrunnen (1881). In the
Karlsaue, a favourite public promenade lying just below the
Schone Aussicht, are the Orangerie and the marble baths.
Cassel is the headquarters of the XI. German army corps, and
has a large garrison. It is a favourite residence for foreigners
and retired officers and government officials. The industries
embrace engine-building, the manufacture of railway carriages
and plant, scientific instruments, porcelain, tobacco and cigars,
lithography, jute-spinning, iron-founding, brewing and gardening.
On a slope of the Habichtswald Mountains, 3 m. W. of Cassel,
and approached by an avenue, is the summer palace of Wilhelms-
hohe, erected in 1 787-1 794. Napoleon III. resided here, as a
prisoner of war, after the battle of Sedan. The surrounding
gardens are adorned with fountains, cascades, lakes and grottos,
the principal fountain sending up a jet of water 180 ft. high
and 12 ft. in diameter. Here also is an interesting building
called the Lowenburg, erected in 1 793-1 796 in the style of a
fortified castle, and containing among other things portraits
of Tudors and Stuarts. The principal curiosity is the Karlsburg
cascade, which is placed in a broad ravine, thickly wooded on
both sides. A staircase of 900 steps leads to the top. On one
of the landings is a huge rudely-carved stone figure of the giant
Enceladus, and at the top is an octagon building called the
Riesenschloss, surmounted by a colossal copper figure of the
Farnese Hercules, 31 ft. high, whose club alone is sufficiently
capacious to accommodate from eight to ten persons. In differ-
ent parts of the park, and especially from the Octagon, charming
views are obtained. The park was first formed by the landgrave
Frederick II., the husband of Mary, daughter of George II. of
England, and was finished by his successor the landgrave William,
after whom it was named.
The earliest mention of Cassel is in 913, when it is referred to
as Cassala. The town passed from the landgraves of Thuringia
to the landgraves of Hesse in the 13th century, becoming one
of the principal residences of the latter house in the 15th century.
The burghers accepted the reformed doctrines in 1527. The
fortifications of the town were restored by the landgrave Philip
the Magnanimous and his son William IV. during the 16th cen-
tury, and it was greatly improved by the landgrave Charles
( 1 654-1 730), who welcomed many Huguenots who founded the
upper new town. In 1762 Cassel was captured by the Germans
from the French; after this the fortifications were dismantled
and New Cassel was laid out by the landgrave Frederick II.
In 1807 it became the capital of the kingdom of Westphalia; in
18 1 3 it was bombarded and captured by the Russian general
Chernichev; in 1830, 1831 and 1848 it was the scene of violent
commotions; from 1850 to 1851 it was occupied by the Prussians,
the Bavarians and the Austrians; in 1866 it was occupied by the
Prussians, and in 1867 was made the capital of the newly formed
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau.
See Piderit, Geschichte derHaupt- und Residenzstadt Kassel (Kassel,
1882) ; Fr. Mailer, Kassel sett 70 Jahren (2 vols., 2nd ed. t Kassel,
1893); and Hessler, Die Residenzstadt Kassel und ihre Umgebung
(Kassel, 1902),
CASSELL, JOHN (1817-1865), British publisher, was born in
Manchester on the 23rd of January 181 7. His father was the
landlord of a public-house, and John was apprenticed to a joiner.
He was self-educated, gaining by his own efforts a considerable
acquaintance with English literature and a knowledge of French.
He came to London in 1836 to work at his trade, but his energies
at this time were chiefly centred in the cause of temperance,
for which he was an active worker. In 1847 he established
himself as a tea and coffee merchant, and soon after started
a publishing business with the aim of supplying good literature
to the working classes. From the offices of the firm, which
became in 1859 Messrs. Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co., were issued
the Popular Educator (1852-1855), the Technical Educator
(1870-1872), the Magazine of Art (1878-1003), CasseWs Magazine
(from 1852), and numerous editions of standard works. A special
feature of CasselTs popular books was the illustration. At the
time of the Crimean War he procured from Paris the cuts used
in U Illustration, and by printing them in his Family Paper
(begun in 1853) secured a large circulation for it. The firm was
converted in 1883 into a limited liability company, under the
name of Cassell & Company, Limited. John Cassell died in
London on the 2nd of April 1865.
CASSIA (Lat. cassia, Gr. xcurfa), the aromatic bark derived
from Cinnamomum cassia. The greater part of the supply
coming from China, it is sometimes termed Chinese cinnamon.
The bark is much thicker than that of true cinnamon; the taste
is more pungent and the flavour less delicate, though somewhat
similar to that of cinnamon. The properties of cassia bark
depend on the presence of a volatile oil — the oil of cassia, which
is imported in a fairly pure state as an article of commerce from
Canton. Cassia bark is in much more extensive demand on the
continent of Europe than in Great Britain, being preferred to
cinnamon by southern nations. The chief use of both the
oil and bark is for flavouring liqueurs and chocolate, and in
cooking generally. When ground as a spice it is difficult to
distinguish cassia from cinnamon (q.v.), and it is a common
practice to substitute the cheap common spice for the more
valuable article. Cassia Buds, which have a pleasing cinnamon
flavour, are believed to be the immature fruits of the tree which
yields Chinese cinnamon. They are brought in considerable
quantities from Canton, and used as a spice and in confectionery.
Cassia pulp, used as a laxative, is obtained from the pods of
Cassia fistula, or pudding pipe tree, a native of Africa which is
cultivated in both the East and West Indies. Some confusion
occasionally arises from the fact that Cassia is the generic name
of an extensive genus of leguminous plants, which, in addition
to various other medicinal products, is the source of the senna
leaves which form an important article of materia medica.
CASSIA, VIA, an ancient high-road of Italy, leading from
Rome through Etruria to Florentia (Florence); at the nth mile
the Via Clodia (see Clodia, Via) diverged north-north-west,
while the Via Cassia ran to the east of the Lacus Sabatinus and
then through the place now called Sette Vene, where a road,
probably the Via Annia, branched off to Falerii, through Sutrium
(where the Via Ciminia, running along the east edge of the Lacus
Ciminius, diverged from it, to rejoin it at Aquae Passeris, north
of the modern Viterbo 1 ), Forum Cassii, Volsinii, Chisium and
Arretium, its line being closely followed by the modern high-
road from Rome to Florence. The date of its construction
is uncertain: it cannot have been earlier than 187 B.C., 1 when
the consul C. Flaminius constructed a road from Bononia to
Arretium (which must have coincided with the portion of the
later Via Cassia). It is not, it is true, mentioned by any ancient
authorities before the time of Cicero, who in 45 B.C. speaks of
the existence of three roads from Rome to Mutina, the Flaminia,
the Aurelia and the Cassia. A milestone of a.d. 124 mentions
repairs to the road made by Hadrian from the boundary of the
territory of Clusium to Florence, a distance of 86 m.
See Ch. Httlsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclop&die, Hi. 1669.
(T. As.)
CASSIANUS, JOANNES ERBMITA, or Joannes Massxliensis
(?36o-?435), a celebrated recluse, one of the first founders of
monastic institutions in western Europe, was probably born in
1 The Via Traiana Nova, or the (viae) tres Traianae, mentioned
in inscriptions with the Cassia and Clodia as under the same curator,
are not certainly identifiable.
* Having regard to the military importance of Arretium during
the Punic wars, it is difficult to believe that no direct road existed
to this point before 187 B.C.
CASSINI— CASSIODORUS
459
Provence about 360, but he spent the early part of his life in the
monastery of Bethlehem with his friend Germanus, and his
affinities were always Eastern rather than Western. In company
with Germanus he visited Egypt, and dwelt for several years
among the ascetics of the desert near the banks of the Nile.
la 403 he repaired to Constantinople, where he received ordina-
tion as deacon at the hands of Chrysostom. At Marseilles
(after 410) he founded two religious societies — a convent for
nuns, and the abbey of St Victor, which during his time is said
to have contained 5000 inmates. In later times his regulations
enjoyed a high reputation, and were adopted by the monks and
nuns of Port Royal. He was eventually canonized; and a
festival in his honour long continued to be celebrated at Marseilles
on the 25th of July. Cassianus was one of the first and most
prominent of the Semi-Pelagians, maintaining that while man
is by nature sinful, he yet has some good remaining in him,
and that, while the immediate gift of God's grace is necessary
to salvation, conversion may also be begun by the exercise of
man's will. He further asserted that God is always willing to
bestow his grace on all who seek it, though, at the same time,
it is true that he sometimes bestows it without its being sought.
These views have been held by a very large part of the church
from his time, and embrace much of the essence of Arminianism.
The style of Cassianus is slovenly, and shows no literary polish,
but its direct simplicity is far superior to the rhetorical affectations
which disfigure most of the writings of that age. At the request
of Castor, bishopof Apt, he wrote two monumental and influential
treatises on the monastic life. The De Institution* Coenobiorum
(twelve books) describes the dress, the food, the devotional
exercises, the discipline and the special spiritual dangers of
monastic life in the East (gluttony, unchastity, avarice, anger,
gloom, apathy, vanity and pride). The Collationes Patrum,
a series of dialogues with the pious fathers of Egypt, deal with
the way in which these dangers (and others, e.g. demons) may
be avoided or overcome. At the desire of Leo (then arch-
deacon of Rome) he wrote against Nestorius his De Incarnation*
Domini in seven books.
Editions. — Douay (1616) by Alardus Gazaus, with excellent
notes; Migne's Patrol, Lot. vols. xlix. and 1.; M. Petschenig in the
Vienna Corpus Script. Eccles. Lot. (2 vols., 1886-1888). See A.
Harnack, History of Dogma, v. 246 ff., 253 ff.; A. Hoch, Die Lehre
d. Joh. Cassian von Natur und Gnade (Freiburg, 1895) ; W. Moeller,
History of the Chr. Church, i. 368-370.
CASSINI, the name of an Italian family of astronomers, four
generations of whom succeeded each other in official charge of
the observatory at Paris.
Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625-1712), the first of these,
was born at Perinaldo near Nice on the 8th of June 1625.
Educated by the Jesuits at Genoa, he was nominated in 1650
professor of astronomy in the university of Bologna; he observed
and wrote a treatise on the comet of 1652; was employed by the
senate of Bologna as hydraulic engineer; and appointed by
Pope Alexander VII. inspector of fortifications in 1657, and
subsequently director of waterways in the papal states. His
determinations of the rotation-periods, of Jupiter, Mars and
Venus in 1665-1667 enhanced his fame; and Louis XIV.
applied for his services in 1669 at the stately observatory then
in course of erection at Paris. The pope (Clement IX.) re-
luctantly assented, on the understanding that the appointment
was to be temporary; but it proved to be irrevocable. Cassini
was naturalized as a French subject in 1673, having begun work
at the observatory in September 167 1. Between 167 1 and 1684
he discovered four Saturnian satellites, and in 1675 the division
in Saturn's ring (see Saturn); made the earliest sustained
observations of the zodiacal light, and published, in Les £le*ments
de Vastronomie virifiSs (1684), an account of Jean Richer's
(1 630-1 696) geodetical operations in Cayenne. Certain oval
curves which he proposed to substitute for Kepler's ellipses as
the paths of the planets were named after him " Cassinians."
He died at the Paris observatory on the nth of September 171 2.
A partial autobiography left by Giovanni Domenico Cassini was
published by his great-grandson, Count Cassini, in his Mimoires
pour servir a VhisUnre des sciences (18 10). See also C. Wolf, Histoire
de V observatoire de Paris (1902) ; Max. Marie, Histoire des sciences,
t. iv. p. 234; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic, p. 450, &c.
Jacques Cassini (1677-1756), son of Domenico Cassini, was
born at the Paris observatory on the 8th of February 1677,
Admitted at the age of seventeen to membership of the French
Academy of Sciences, he was elected in 1696 a fellow of the
Royal Society of London, and became mattre des comptes in
1706. Having succeeded to his father's position at the obser-
vatory in 1 712, he measured in 17 13 the arc of the meridian
from Dunkirk to Perpignan, and published the results in a
volume entitled De la grandeur el de la figure de la terre (1720)
(see Geodesy). He wrote besides Element d*astronomie (1740),
and died on the 18th of April 1756 at Thury, near Clermont.
The first tables of the satellites of Saturn were supplied by
him in 1716.
See C. Wolf, Histoire de V observatoire de Paris; Max. Marie,
Histoire des sciences, vii. 21a; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic,
p. 4.51; J. C. Houzeau, Bibl. astronomique; J. Delambre, Histoire
de I astronomic auXVIIP siecle, pp. 250-275 (unfairly depreciatory) ;
J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathtmatiques, iv. 145, 248.
Cesar Francois Cassini, or Cassini de Thury (1714-1784),
son of Jacques Cassini, was born at the observatory of Paris on
the 17th of June 17 14. He succeeded to his father's official
employments, continued the hereditary surveying operations,
and began in 1744 the construction of a great topographical
map of France. The post of director of the Paris observatory
was created for his benefit in 1771, when the establishment
ceased to be a dependency of the Academy of Sciences. Cassini
de Thury died at Thury on the 4th of September 1784. His
chief works are: — MSridienne de l f observatoire de Paris (1744),
Description gtom&trique de la terre (1775), and Description
giomitrique de la France (1784).
See C. Wolf, Histoire de V observatoire de Paris, p. 287 ; Max. Marie,
Histoire des sciences, viii. 158; J. Delambre, Histoire de V ' astronomic
au XVIII 9 Steele, pp. 275-309; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic,
P- 45 1 J J* J. de Lalande, Bibliographic astronomique.
Jacques Dominique Cassini, Count (1748-1845), son of
Cesar Francois Cassini, was born at the observatory of Paris on
the 30th of June 1748. He succeeded in 1784 to the directorate
of the observatory; but his plans for its restoration and re-
equipment were wrecked in 1793 by the animosity of the
National Assembly. His position having become intolerable,
he resigned on the 6th of September, and was thrown into prison
in 1704, but released after seven months. He then withdrew to
Thury, where he died, aged ninety-seven, on the 18th of October
1845. He published in 1770 an account of a voyage to America in
1768, undertaken as the commissary of the Academy of Sciences
with a view to testing Pierre Leroy's watches at sea. A memoir in
which he described the operations superintended by him in 1787
for connecting the observatories of Paris and Greenwich by
longitude-determinations appeared in 179 1. He visited England
for the purposes of the work, and saw William Herschel at
Slough. He completed his father's map of France, which was
published by the Academy of Sciences in 1793. It served as the
basis for the Atlas National (1791), showing France in depart-
ments. Count Cassini 's Memoires pour servir d I' histoire de
I 1 observatoire de Paris (1810) embodied portions of an exten-
sive work, the prospectus of which he had submitted to the
Academy of Sciences in 1774. The volume included his tloges
of several academicians, and the autobiography of his great-
grandfather, the first Cassini.
See J. F. S. Devic, Histoire de la vie et des travaux de J. D, Cassini
(1851); J. Delambre, Histoire de V astronomic au XVI IP stick, pp.
309-313; Phil. Mag. 3rd series, vol. xxviii. p. 412; C. Wolf, Histoire
de V observatoire de Paris (1902), p. 234 et passim. (A. M. C.)
CASSIODORUS (not Cassiodorius), the name of a Syrian
family settled at Scyllacium (Squillace) in Bruttii, where it held
an influential position in the 5th century a.d. Its most important
member was Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator
(c. 490-585), historian, statesman, and monk. " Senator "
(not a title) is the name used by himself in his official corre-
spondence. His father held the offices of comes privatarum and
sacrarum largitionum (controller of the emperor's private revenue
and the public exchequer) under Odoacer, and subsequently
460
CASSIOPEIA— CASSITERITE
attached himself to Theodoric, by whom he was appointed
corrector (governor) of Bruttii and Lucania, and pracfectus
praetorio. The son at an early age became consiliarius (legal
assessor) to his father, and (probably in 507) quaestor f an official
whose chief duty at that time consisted in acting as the mouth-
piece of the ruler, and drafting his despatches. In 514 he was
ordinary consul, and at a later date possibly corrector of his
native province. At the death of Theodoric (526) he held the
office of magister officiorum (chief of the civil service). Under
Athalaric he was pracfectus praetorio, a post which he retained
till about 540, after the triumphal entry of Belisarius into
Ravenna, when he retired from public life. With the object of
providing for the transmission of divine and human knowledge
to later ages, and of securing it against the tide of barbarism
which threatened to sweep it away, he founded two monasteries —
Vivarium and Castellum — in his ancestral domains at Squillace
(others identify the two monasteries). The special duty which
he enjoined upon the inmates was the acquisition of knowledge,
both sacred and profane, the latter, however, being subordinated
to the former. He also collected and emended valuable MSS.,
which his monks were instructed to copy, and superintended
the translation of various Greek works into Latin. He further
amused himself with making scientific toys, such as sun-dials
and water-clocks. As he is stated to have written one of his
treatises at the age of ninety-three, he must have lived till
after 580. Whether he belonged to the Benedictine order is
uncertain.
The writings of Cassiodorus evince great erudition, ingenuity
and labour, but are disfigured by incorrectness and an affected
artificiality, and his Latin partakes much of the corruptions of
the age. His works are (1) historical and political, (2) theo-
logical and grammatical.
1. (a) Variae, the most important of all his writings, in twelve
books, published in 537. They^ contain the decrees of Theodoric and
his successors Amalasuntha, Theodahad and Witigis; the regula-
tions of the chief offices of state ; the edicts published by Cassiodorus
himself when pracfectus praetorio. It is the best source of our
knowledge of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (ed. T. Mommsen in
Monumcnta Germaniac Historica: Auctores Antiquissimi, xii., 1894;
condensed English translation by T. Hodgkin, 1886).
(b) Chronica, written at the request of Theodoric's son-in-law
Eutharic, during whose consulship (519) it was published. It is a
dry and inaccurate compilation from various sources, unduly partial
to the Goths (ed. T. Mommsen in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. Ant. xi.
pt. i., 1893).
(c) Panegyrics on Gothic kings and queens (fragments ed. L.
Traube in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. Ant. xii.).
a. (a) De Anima t a discussion on the nature of the soul, at the
conclusion of which the author deplores the auarrel between two
such great peoples as the Goths and Romans, ft seems to have been
published with the last part of the Variae.
(b) Institutions divinarun et humanarum litter arum, an encyclo-
paedia of sacred and profane literature for the monks, and a sketch
of the seven liberal arts. It further contains instructions for using
the library, and precepts for daily life.
(c) A commentary on the Psalms and short notes (complexiones)
on the Pauline epistles, the Acts, and the Apocalypse.
(d) De Orthographic, a compilation made by the author in his
ninety-third year from the works of twelve grammarians, ending
with his contemporary Priscian (ed. H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vii.).
The Latin translations of the Antiquities of Josephus and of the
ecclesiastical histories of Theodoret, Sozomen and Socrates, under
the title of Historic Tripartita (embracing the years 306-439), were
carried out under his supervision.
Of his lost works the most important was the Historic Gothorum,
written with the object of glorifying the Gothic royal house and
proving that the Goths and Romans had long been connected by
ties of friendship. It was published during the reign of Athalaric,
and appears to have brought the histoiy down to the death of
Theoaoric. His chief authority for Gothic history and legend was
Ablavius (Ablabius). The work is only known to us in the meagre
abridgment of Jordanes (ed. T. Mommsen, 1882).
Complete Works. — EdiHo princeps, by G. Fornerius (Paris,
i§79); J- Garet (Rouen, 1679; Venice, 1729), reprinted in J. P.
Migne, Pairotoria Latina, lxix., lxx. On Cassiodorus generally, see
Anecdoton Holaeri, excerpts from a treatise of Cassiodorus, edited
Ftanz (Breslau, 1872); T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, iii.
p. 280, iv. p. 348; A. EberU Allgemeinc GeschichU der LiUcratur des
MitteUdtcrs, i. ; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (En
trans.), § 483; G. A. Simcox, Hist, of Latin Literature (1884); W.
~ Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography;
~o, 52
Sandys in Hist, of Classical Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906); A. OLlens,
Ramsay 1
J. B. Bur
R. W. Cnurch in the Church Quarterly Review, x. (1880);
B. Burv's edition of Gibbon's Decline and Fall, iv. 180, 522;
Cassiodore, conservateur des limes de VantiquiU latine (Paris, 1891);
G. Minasi, M. A. Cassiodoro . . . ricerche storico-critichc (Naples,
1895) » an ^ C. Cipolla in Memoric delta r. Accademia dcllc scienze di
Torino (2nd ser. xliii. pt. 2, 1893); L. M. Hartmann in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyclopddic, iii. pt. 2 (1899), with note on the
musical section of Cassiodorus' Institutiones by C. von Jan.
CASSIOPEIA, in Greek mythology, the wife of Cepheus, and
mother of Andromeda; in astronomy, a constellation of the
northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.)
and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars in
this constellation, Tycho Brahe 46, and Hevelius 37. Its most
interesting stars are: — Nova Cassiopeiae, a " new " star, which
burst out with extraordinary brilliancy in 1572, when it was
observed by Tycho Brahe, but gradually diminished in brightness,
ultimately vanishing in about eighteen months; a-Cassiopeiac
and R-Cassiopeiae are variable stars, the former irregular, the
latter having a long period; ij-Cassiopeiae, a binary star,
having components of magnitudes 3$ and 7}; v-Cassiopeiae,
a double star, one being white and of magnitude 5, the other
blue and of magnitude 7$.
CASSITERIDBS (from the Gr. /co^crlrepos, tin, i.e. "Tin-
islands "), in ancient geography the name of islands regarded as
being situated somewhere near the west coasts of Europe. Hero-
dotus (430 B.C.) had dimly heard of them. Later writers,
Posidonius, Diodorus, Strabo and others, call them smarilfoh
islands off (Strabo says, some way off) the north-west coast of
Spain, which contained tin mines, or, as Strabo says, tin and
lead mines — though a passage in Diodorus derives the name
rather from their nearness to the tin districts of north-west
Spain. While geographical knowledge of the west was still scanty
and the secrets of the tin-trade were still successfully guarded
by the seamen of Gades and others who dealt in the metal, the
Greeks knew only that tin came to them by sea from the far west,
and the idea of tin-producing islands easily arose. Later, when
the west was better explored, it was found that tin actually came
from two regions, north-west Spain and Cornwall. Neither of
these could be called " small islands " or described as off the
north-west coast of Spain, and so the Cassiterides were not
identified with either by the Greek and Roman geographers.
Instead, they became a third, ill-understood source of tin,
conceived of as distinct from Spain or Britain. Modem writers
have perpetuated the error that the Cassiterides were definite
spots, and have made many attempts to identify them. Small
islands off the coast of north-west Spain, the headlands of that
same coast, the Sallies, Cornwall, the British Isles as a whole,
have all in turn been suggested. But none suits the conditions.
Neither the Spanish islands nor the Scilhes contain tin, at least
in serious quantities. Neither Britain nor Spain can be called
" small islands off the north-west of Spain." It seems most
probable, therefore, tha^ the name Cassiterides represents the
first vague knowledge of the Greeks that tin was found overseas
somewhere in or off western Europe.
Authorities. — Herodotus iii. 115; Diodorus v. 21, 22, 38;
Strabo ii. 5, iii. 2, 5, v. 11 ; Pliny, Nat. Hist. iv. 119, vii. 197,
xxxiv. 156-158, are the chief references in ancient literature. T. R.
Holmes, Ancient Britain (1907), appendix, identifies the Cassiterides
with the British Isles. (F. J. H.)
CASSITERITE (from the Gr. KaxroLTepos, tin), the minera-
logical name for tin-stone, the common ore of tin. It con-
sists of tin dioxide, or stannic oxide (SnO s ), and crystallizes
in the tetragonal system. The crystals are usually 4-sided or
8-sided prisms, striated vertically, and terminated by pyramids
(fig. 1). Twins, with characteristic re-entrant angles, such as
figs. 2 and 3, are common. Certain slender prismatic crystals,
with an acute 8-sided pyramid, are known in Cornwall as " spar*
able tin," in allusion to their resemblance to sparable nails,
whilst very slender crystals are termed needle-tin. Occasionally
the mineral occurs in fibrous forms, which pass under the name of
CASSIUS FAMILY
461
" wood-tin," and these, though not unknown in the matrix,
are generally found as rolled pebbles. By the disintegration of
tin-bearing rocks and vein-stones, the cassiterite passes into the
beds of streams as rolled fragments and
grains, or even sand, and is then known
as stream tin or alluvial tin. This detrital
tin-ore was probably used as a source of
the metal before the primitive miners
had learnt to attack the solid tin-bearing
rocks.
Pure cassiterite may be colourless, or
white, as seen in certain specimens from
the Malay Peninsula; but usually the
mineral is brown or even black, the
colour being referred to the presence of
ferric oxide or other impurity. Occasionally the tin-stone is
red. In microscopic sections the colour is often seen to be dis-
posed in zones, following the contour of the crystal. A brown
variety, with rather resinous lustre, is termed " rosin tin."
The usual lustre of crystals of cassiterite is remarkably splendent,
even adamantine. The mineral has a high refractive index,
and strong bi-ref ringence. Certain transparent yellow and brown
specimens, cut as gem-stones, exhibit considerable brilliancy.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
The hardness of cassiterite is 6*5, so that it cannot be scratched
with a knife, and is nearly as hard as quartz. Its specific gravity
is about 7; and in consequence of this high density, the tin-
stone is readily separated during the process of dressing, from all
the associated minerals, except wolframite, which may, however,
be removed by magnetic separators.
Cassiterite usually occurs as veins or impregnations in granitic
rocks, and is especially associated with the quartz-mica rock
called greisen. The usual associates of the tin-stone are quartz,
tourmaline, apatite, topaz, beryl, fluorite, lithia-mica, wolframite,
chalcopyrite, &c. The presence of fluorine in many of these
minerals has led to the opinion that the tin has been derived
in many cases from an acid or granitic magma by the action of
fluorine-bearing vapours, and that cassiterite may have been
formed by the interaction of tin fluoride and water vapour.
Cassiterite occurs as a pseudomorph after orthoclase felspar in
some of the altered granite of Cornwall, and it has occasionally
been found as a cementing material in certain brecciated lodes.
Among the localities yielding cassiterite may be mentioned
Cornwall, Saxony, Bohemia, Brittany, Galicia in Spain; the
Malay peninsula, and the islands of Banca and Billiton; New
South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania. Fine examples of
wood-tin, occurring with topaz, are found in Durango in Mexico.
Deposits of caSsiterite under rather exceptional conditions are
worked on a large scale in Bolivia; and it is notable that cassi-
terite is found in Liassic limestone near Campiglia Marittima in
Tuscany. Cassiterite has been worked in the York region,
Alaska. (F.W.R.*)
CASSIUS, the name of a distinguished ancient Roman family,
originally patrician. Its most important members are the
following.
1. Spumus Cassius, surnamed Vecellinus (Vicellinus, VisceU
linus), Roman soldier and statesman, three times consul,
and author of the first agrarian law. In his first consulate
(502 B.C.) he defeated the Sabines; in his second (493) he renewed
the league with the Latins, and dedicated the temple of Ceres
in the Circus; in his third (486) he made a treaty with the
conquered Hernici. The account of his agrarian law is confused
and contradictory; it is clear, however, that it was intended to
benefit the needy plebeians (see Agrarian Laws). As such it
was violently opposed both by the patricians and by the wealthy
plebeians. Cassius was condemned by the people as aiming at
kingly power, and hurled from the Tarpeian rock. Another
account says he was tried by the family council and put to death
by his own father, who considered his proposal prejudicial
to the patrician interest. According to Livy, his proposal
to bestow a share of the land upon the Latins was regarded
with great suspicion. According to Mommsen (Romische For-
schungen, ii.), the whole story is an invention of a later age,
founded upon the proposals of the Gracchi and M. Livius Drusus,
to which period belongs the idea of sharing public land with the
Latins.
See Livy ii. 33, 41; Dion Halic. v. 49, viii. 69-80; Cicero, Pro
Balbo, 23 (53), De Republica, ii. 27 (49), 35 (60) ; Val. Max. v. 8. 2.
The following Cassii are all plebeians. It is suggested that the
sons of Spurius Cassius either were expelled from, or voluntarily
left, the patrician order, in consequence of their father's
execution.
2. Gaius Cassius Longinus, consul 73 b.c. With his
colleague, Terentius Varro Lucullus, he passed a law (lex Terentia
Cassia) , the object of which was to give authority for the purchase
of corn at the public expense, to be retailed at a fixed price at .
Rome. It is doubtful whether this Cassius (who is often called
by the additional name Varus) is identical with the Varus who
was proscribed by the triumvirs, and put to death at Minturnae
(43). According to Orosius he was killed at the battle of Mutina.
See Cicero, In Verrem, Hi. 70, 75, v. 21; Livy, Epit. 96; Appian,
Bell. Civ. iv. 28; Orosius v. 24.
3. Gaius Cassius Longinus, prime mover in the conspiracy
against Julius Caesar. Little is known of his early life. In
53 B.C. he served in the Parthian campaign under M. Licinius
Crassus, saved the remnants of the army after the defeat at
Carrhae, and for two years successfully repelled the enemy.
In 49 B.C. he became tribune of the plebs. The outbreak of the
civil war saved him from being brought to trial for extortion
in Syria. He at first sided with Pompey, and as commander
of part of his fleet rendered considerable service in the Medi-
terranean. After Pharsalus he became reconciled to Caesar, who
made him one of his legates. In 44 B.C. he became praetor
peregrinus with the promise of the Syrian province for the
ensuing year. The appointment of his junior, M. Junius Brutus,
as praetor urbanus deeply offended him, and he was one of the
busiest conspirators against Caesar, taking an active part in the
actual assassination. He then left Italy for Syria, raised a con-
siderable army, and defeated P. Cornelius Dolabella, to whom
the province had been assigned by the senate.'. /On the formation
of the triumvirate, Brutus and he, with their combined armies,
crossed the Hellespont, marched through Thrace, and encamped
near Philippi in Macedonia. Their intention was to starve out
the enemy, but they were forced into an engagement. Brutus
was successful against Octavian, but Cassius, defeated by M.
Antonius (Mark Antony), gave up all for lost, and ordered his
freedman to slay him. He was lamented by Brutus as " the
last of the Romans," and buried at Thasos. A man of consider-
able ability, he was a good soldier, and took an interest in litera-
ture, but in politics he was actuated by vanity and ambition.
His portrait in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, though vivid, is
scarcely historical.
See Plutarch, Brutus, passim, Crassus , 27, 29, Caesar, 62, 69;
Dio Cassius xl. 28, xlii. 13, xliv. 14, xlvii. 20; Veil. Pat. ii. 46, 56,
58, 69, 70, 87; Cicero, Philippics, xi. 13, 14, ad All. v. 21, xiv. 21,
ad Fam. xi. 3, 15, 16; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. iu,.ii3 f iii. 2, 8, iv.
60-62, 87, 90, 111-113, 132; Caesar, Bell Civ. iii. 101.
4. Quintus Cassius Longinus, the brother or cousin of
the murderer of Caesar, quaestor of Pompey in Further Spain
in 54 B.C. In 49, as tribune of the people, he strongly supported
the cause of Caesar, by whom he was made governor of Further
Spain. He treated the provincials with great cruelty, and his
462
CASSIUS, AVIDIUS— CASSOCK
appointment (48) to take the field against Juba, king of Numidia,
gave him an excuse for fresh oppression. The result was an
unsuccessful insurrection at Corduba. Cassius punished the
leaders with merciless severity, and made the lot of the provincials
harder than ever. At last some of his troops revolted under the
quaestor M. Marcellus, who was proclaimed governor of the
province. Cassius was surrounded by Marcellus in Ulia. Bogud,
king of Mauretania, and M. Lepidus, proconsul of Hither Spain,
to whom Cassius had applied for assistance, negotiated an arrange-
ment with Marcellus whereby Cassius was to be allowed to go
free with the legions that remained loyal to him. Cassius sent his
troops into winter quarters, hastened on board ship at Malaca
with his ill-gotten gains, but was wrecked in a storm at the mouth
of the Iberus (Ebro). His tyrannical government of Spain had
greatly injured the cause of Caesar.
See Dio Cassius xli. 15, 24, xlii. i£, 16, xliii. 29; Livy, Epit.
in ; Appian, B.C. ii. 33, 43; Bellum Alexandrinum, 48-64.
5. Gaius Cassius Longinus (1st century a.d.), Roman jurist,
consul in 30, proconsul of Asia 40-41 » and governor of Syria under
Claudius 45-50. On his return to Rome his wealth and high
character secured him considerable influence. He was banished
by Nero (65) to Sardinia, because among the images of his
ancestors he had preserved that of the murderer of Caesar. He
was recalled by Vespasian, and died at an advanced age. As he
was consul in 30, he must have been born at the latest in the year
3 B.C. Cassius was a pupil of Masurius Sabinus, with whom he
founded a legal school, the followers of which were called Cassiani.
His chief work was the Libri Juris Civilis in ten books, which was
used by the compilers of the Digest of Justinian.
See Tacitus, Annals, xvi. 7-9; Suetonius, Nero, 37; Dio Cassius
lix. 29; Teuffel-Schwabe, Htst. of Roman Literature, § 298, 3.
CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. a.d. 175), Roman general, a Syrian
by birth, lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. He especially
distinguished himself during the Parthian War (a.d. 162-165),
at the conclusion of which he was apparently appointed military
governor of Asia, though the actual extent of his jurisdiction
is doubtful. In 172 he was sent to Egypt, where he put down a
dangerous rising of the Bucolici, the robber herdsmen of the
delta of the Nile, after which he returned to Syria. In 175 the
emperor Aurelius fell ill, and his wife Faustina, to secure her
position in case of his death, offered her hand and the throne
to the successful general. A rumour of Aurelius's death having
reached Syria, Cassius, without waiting for confirmation, pro-
claimed himself emperor; when the report proved false, it was
too late for him to draw back, and he accordingly prepared
for war. The senate declared him a public enemy, although
Aurelius even then expressed the hope that he might have the
opportunity of pardoning him. Deploring the necessity for
taking up arms against his trusted officer, Aurelius set out for
the east. While in Ulyria, he received the news that Cassius
had been slain by his own officers. The murderers offered his
head to Aurelius, who refused to admit them, and ordered its
immediate burial.
See Dio Cassius lxxi. 2-4, 17, 22-28, 30, 31 ; Fronto, Letters, i. 6;
Lives of Marcus Aurelius, Verus and Commodus in the Serif tores
Historiae Augustae, and the special bioeraphy of Avidius Cassius in
the same by Vulcacius Gallicanus. The various letters and docu-
ments in the last-named are generally considered spurious, and the
portions of the narrative founded on them consequently untrust-
worthy. See also article in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, ii.
pt. 2 (1896).
CASSIUS, GAIUS, Latin poet, general and politician, called
Parmensis from his birthplace Parma, was one of the murderers of
Julius Caesar, and after his death joined the party of Brutus
and his namesake Cassius the conspirator. In 43 B.C. he was in
command of the fleet on the coast of Asia, but after the battle
of Philippi joined Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. When Pompeius,
having been defeated in a naval engagement at Naulochus by
the fleet of Octavian under Agrippa, fled to Asia, Cassius went
over to Antony, and took part in the battle of Actium (31).
He afterwards fled to Athens, where he was soon put to death
by Octavian, whom he had offended by writing an abusive letter
(Suetonius, Augustus, 4). Cassius is credited with satires, elegies,
epigrams and tragedies. Some hexameters with the title Cassii
Orpheus are by Antonius Thyiesius,an Italian of the 1 7th century.
Horace appears to have thought well of Cassius as a poet, for
he asks Tibullus whether he intends to compete with the opuscula
(probably the elegies) of Cassius (Epistles , i. 4. 3). The story in
the Horace scholia, that L. Varius Rufus published his famous
tragedy Thyestes from an MS. which he found amongst the papers
of Cassius after his death, is due to a confusion of Cassius's
murderer, Q. Attius Varus, with the tragedian (Appian, B.C. v.
2, 139; Cicero, ad Fam. xii. 13; Veil. Pat. ii. 87; Orosius, vi.
19; see also the diffuse treatise of A. Weichert, De L. Varii et
Cassii Parmensis Vita et Car minibus, 1836). Cassius Parmensis
must not be confused with Cassius Etruscus (Horace, Satires, i.
10. 60), an improviser, who is said to have used enough paper to
furnish his funeral pyre.
CASSIVELAUNUS, or Cassivellattnus, a British chieftain,
ruler df the country north of the Thames, who led the native tribes
against Julius Caesar on his second expedition (54 b.c.) (see
Britain). After several indecisive engagements, Caesar took
the camp of Cassivelaunus, who was obliged to make peace on
condition of paying tribute and giving hostages. But these
promises were not meant to be kept, and it appears certain that
the tribute was never paid. According to Bede (Hist. Eecles. i. 2),
the remains of Cassivelaunus's entrenchment were visible seven
or eight centuries later.
See Caesar, B.G. v. 11-22; Dio Cassius xl. 2, 3; Orosius vi. 9.
6; Eutropius vi. 17; Polvaenus, Strategemata, viii. 23. For the
etymology of the name (which is Celtic in origin, and appears later
as Caswallon) see J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, pp. 289-290 (1904) ; C. I.
Elton, Origins of English History (1890); and Stock's edition of
Caesar, De Bello Gallxco (1898).
CASSOCK (Fr. cosaque, a military cloak), a long-sleeved, close-
fitting robe worn by the clergy and others engaged in ecclesi-
astical functions. The name was originally specially applied
to the dress worn by soldiers and horsemen, and later to the
long garment worn in civil life by both men and women. As
an ecclesiastical term the word " cassock " came into use some-
what late (as a translation of the old names of subtanea, vestis
talaris, toga talaris, or tunica talaris), being mentioned in canon
74 of 1604; and it is in this sense alone that it now survives.
The origin of the word has been the subject of much specu-
lation. It is derived through the French from the Italian
casacca, which Florio (Q. Anna's New World of Words, 161 1)
translates as " a frock, a horseman's cote, a long cote; also a
habitation or dwelling/' and it is usually held that this in turn
is derived from casa, a house (cf. the derivation of " chasuble,"
q.v.). This, however, though possible is uncertain. A Slav
origin for the word has been suggested (Hatzfeld and Darme-
steter, Die. gen. delalanguefranQaise), and the Cossack horseman
may have given to the West both the garment and the name.
Or again, it may be derived from casequin (Ital. casecchino) , rather
than vice versa, and this in turn from an Arabic kazdyand
(Pers. kashdyand), a padded jerkin; the word kasagdn occurring
in Mid. High Ger. for a riding-cloak, and gasygan in O. Fr.
for a padded jerkin (Lagarde in Gott. gelehrte Anzeiger, April 15,
1887, p. 238).
The cassock, though part of the canonical costume of the
clergy, is not a liturgical vestment. It was originally the out-
of-doors and domestic dress of lay-people as well as clergy, and
its survival among the latter when the secular fashions had
changed is merely the outcome of ecclesiastical conservatism.
In mild weather it was the outer garment; in cold weather it
was worn under the tabard or chimere (q.v.) ; sometimes in the
middle ages the name " chimere " was given to it as well as to the
sleeveless upper robe. In winter the cassock was often lined
with furs varying in costliness with the rank of the wearer, and
its colour also varied in the middle ages with his ecclesiastical
or academic status. In the Roman Catholic Church the sub-
tanea (Fr. soutane, Ital. sottana) must be worn by the clergy
whenever they appear, both in ordinary life (except in
Protestant countries) and under their vestments in church.
It varies in colour with the wearer's rank: white for the pope,
red (or black edged with red) for cardinals, purple for bishops,
black for the lesser ranks; members of religious orders, however,
CASSONE— CASTALIA
463
whatever their rank, wear the colour of their religious habit.
In the Church of England the cassock, which with the gown is
prescribed by the above-mentioned canon of 1604 as the canonical
dress of the clergy, has been continuously, though not univer-
sally, worn by the clergy since the Reformation. It has long
ceased, however, to be their every-day walking dress and is
now usually only worn in church, at home, or more rarely by
clergy within the precincts of their own parishes. The custom
of wearing the cassock under the vestments is traceable in
England to about the year 1400.
The old form of English cassock was a double-breasted robe
fastened at the shoulder and probably girdled. The continental,
single-breasted cassock, with a long row of small buttons from
neck to hem, is said to have been first introduced into England
by Bishop Harris of Llandaff (1729-1738). The shortened form
of cassock which survives in the bishop's " apron " was formerly
widely used also by the continental clergy. Its use was for-
bidden in Roman Catholic countries by Pope Pius IX., but it
is still worn by Roman Catholic dignitaries as part of their
out-of-door dress in certain Protestant countries.
See the Report of the sub-committee of Convocation on the Orna-
ments of the Church and its Ministers (London, 1908), and authorities
there cited.
CASSONE* in furniture, the Italian name for a marriage coffer.
The ancient and once almost universal European custom of
providing a bride with a chest or coffer to contain the household
linen, which often formed the major part of her dowry, produced
in Italy a special type of chest of monumental size and artistic
magnificence. The cassoni of the people, although always large
in size, were simple as regards ornament; but those of the nobles
and the well-to-do mercantile classes were usually imposing as
regards size, and adorned with extreme richness. The cassone
was almost invariably much longer than the English chest, and
even at a relatively early period it assumed an artistic finish
such as was never reached by the chests of northern Europe,
except in the case of a few of the royal corbeilles de mariage
made by such artists as Boulle for members of the house of
France. Many of the earlier examples were carved in panels
of geometrical tracery, but their characteristic ornament was
either iniarsia or gesso, or a mixture of the two. Bold and
massive feet, usually shaped as claws, lioncels, or other animals
are also exceedingly characteristic of cassoni, most of which are
of massive and sarcophagus-like proportions with moulded lids,
while many of them are adorned at their corners with figures
sculptured in high relief. The scroll-work inlay is commonly
simple and graceful, consisting of floral or geometrical motives, or
arabesques. The examples coated with gilded gesso or blazoned
with paintings are, however, the most magnificent. They were
often made of chestnut, and decorated with flowers and foliage
in a relief which, low at first, became after the Renaissance very
high and sharp. The panels of the painted cassoni frequently
bore representations of scriptural and mythological subjects,
or incidents derived from the legends of chivalry. Nor was
heraldry forgotten, the arms of the family for which the chest
was made being perhaps emblazoned upon the front. These
chests rarely bear dates or initials, but it is often possible to
determine their history from their armorial bearings.
CASSOWARY (Casuarius), a genus of struthious birds, only
inferior in size to the emeu and ostrich, and, according to Sir R.
Owen, approximating more closely than any other living birds
to the extinct moas of New Zealand. The species are all character-
ized by short rudimentary wings, bearing four or five barbless
shafts, a few inches long, and apparently useless for purposes of
flight, of running, or of defence; and by loosely webbed feathers,
short on the neck, but of great length on the rump and back,
whence they descend over the body forming a thick hair-like
covering. They possess stout limbs, with which they kick in
front, and have the inner toe armed with a long powerful claw.
The common cassowary (Casuarius galeatus) stands 5 ft. high,
and has a horny, helmet-like protuberance on the crown of its
head; the front of the neck is naked and provided with two
brightly-coloured wattles. It is a native of the Island of Ceram,
where it is said to live in pairs, feeding on fruits and herbs, and
occasionally on small animals. The mooruk, or Bennett's
cassowary [Casuarius BennettO), is a shorter and more robust
bird, approaching in the thickness of its legs to the moas. It
differs further from the preceding species in having its head
crowned with a horny plate instead of a helmet. It has only
been found in New Britain, where the natives are said to regard
it with some degree of veneration. When captured by them
shortly after being hatched, and reared by the hand, it soon
becomes tame and familiar; all the specimens which have
reached Europe alive have been thus domesticated by the natives.
The adult bird in the wild state is exceedingly shy and difficult
of approach, and, owing to its great fleetness and strength, is
rarely if ever caught. It eats voraciously, and, like the ostrich,
will swallow whatever comes in its way. (See Emeu.)
CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand.
in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle
Eng. took the place of the A.S. wear pan, cf . Ger. werfen), a throw,
or that which is thrown, or that into which something is thrown.
From these three meanings come the main uses of the word; for
the throwing of dice, with the figurative sense of a chance or
opportunity, as in " at the last cast "; for the throwing of a
fisherman's line in fly-fishing; for hounds spreading out in
search of a lost scent; or, with the further meaning of a twisted
throw or turn, for a slight squint in the eye. " Cast " is applied
to a measure of herrings or other fish, being the amount taken in
two hands to be thrown into a vessel, and similarly to a potter's
measure for a certain quantity of clay; in fishing, to the casting
line of gut with fly attached; to the hard refuse thrown out of the
crop of a bird of prey, and to the coils of earth thrown up by
earth-worms. From the old method, in making calculations, of
using counters, which were thus " thrown " up into a heap, is
probably derived the meaning of " cast " for the " casting up "
of figures in an account. Further, the word is found for a mould
for the casting of metals, and more particularly for the copy of
an original statue or relief taken from a mould; similarly, of
fossils, for the mineral filling of the empty mould left by the
organism. Special uses of the word are also found in the
theatrical term for the assignment of particular parts to the
actors and actresses in a play, and in the many figurative senses
of a type or stamp, as of features or characters.
CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL (1390-145 7), Italian painter of the
Florentine school, was born in 1390, probably at Castagno, in
the district of Mugello, and died in August 1457. He imitated
Masaccio and the naturalists of his time in boldness of attitude,
but was deficient in grace and colouring. His name was for about
four centuries burdened with the heinous charge of murder; it
was said that he treacherously assassinated his colleague,
Domenico Veneziano, in order to monopolize the then recent
secret of oil painting as practised in Flanders by the Van Eycks.
This charge has, however, been proved to be an untruth;
Domenico died four years after Andrea. The latter is commonly
called " Andrea (or Andreino) degF Impiccati " (of the Hanged
Men); this was in consequence of his being commissioned in
1435 to paint, in the Palazzo del Podesta in Florence, the fallen
leaders of the Peruzzi and Albizzi — not (as currently said) the
men of the Pazzi conspiracy, an event which did not occur until
1478, long after this painter's death. One of his principal works
now extant (most of them have perished) is the equestrian figure
of Nicola di Tolentino, in the cathedral of Florence.
CASTAUA, or Fons Castaltus, a celebrated fountain in
Greece, now called the Fountain of St John, which rises in a
chasm of Mount Parnassus, in the neighbourhood of Delphi.
It was sacred to Apollo and the Muses, and its water was used in
the religious purifications of the " Pythian Pilgrims." From its
connexion with the Muses it is sometimes referred to by late
Greek writers (e.g. Lucian, Jup. Trag. 30) and Latin poets (e.g.
Ovid, Am. i. 15. 36) as a source of inspiration, and this has passed
into a commonplace of modern literature. According to some
authorities the nymph Castalia was the daughter of Achelous;
according to others the water of the spring was derived from the
Boeotian Cephissus.
4 6 4
CASTANETS— CASTE
CASTANETS (Fr. castagnettes, Ger. Kastagneiten, Span.
castafluelas), instruments of percussion, introduced through the
Moors by way of Spain into Europe from the East, used for
marking the rhythm in dancing. Castanets, always used in
pairs, one in each hand, consist of two pear or mussel-shaped
bowls of hard wood, hinged together by a silk cord, the loop
being passed over the thumb and first finger. The two halves
are then struck against each other by the other fingers in single,
double or triple beats, giving out series of hollow clicks of
indefinite musical pitch. When intended for use in the orchestra
the pair of castanets is mounted one at each end of a wooden
stick about 8 in. long, which facilitates the playing. Castanets
are also sometimes used in military bands and are then specially
constructed. The two halves are kept open by a slight spring
fixed to a frame attached to the hoop of a side drum, and the
instrument is worked by the drummer with an ordinary drum-
stick. An instance of the use of castanets in opera occurs in the
Habanera in Carmen, A quaint description of castinaUs is
given in Harlcian MS. 2034 (f. 208) at the British Museum
(before 1688) with a pencil sketch which tallies very well with
the above. The MS. is by Randle Holme and forms part of the
Academy of Armoury. Castanets (icp6ra\a) were used by the
ancient Greeks, and also by the Romans (Lat. crotalum, crotala)
to accompany the dances in the Dionysiac and Bacchanalian
rites.
CASTE (through the Fr. from Span, and Port, casta, lineage,
Lat. castus, pure). There are not many forms of social organiza :
tion on a large scale to which the name " caste " has not been
applied in a good or in a bad sense. Its Portuguese origin
simply suggests the idea of family; but before the word came
to be extensively used in modern European languages, it had
been for some time identified with the Brahmanic division of
Hindu society into classes. The corresponding Hindu word is
varna, or colour, and the words gati y kula, gotra, pravara and
karana are also used with different shades of meaning. Wherever,
therefore, a writer has seen something which reminds him of any
part of the extremely indeterminate notion, Indian caste, he has
used the word, without regard to any particular age, race,
locality or set of social institutions. Thus Palgrave 1 maintains
that the colleges of operatives, which inscriptions prove to have
existed in Britain during the Roman period, were practically
castes, because by the Theodosian code the son was compelled
to follow the father's employment, and marriage into a family
involved adoption of the family employment. But these
collegia opificum seem to be just the forerunners of the voluntary
associations for the regulation of industry and trade, the frith-
gilds, and craft-gilds of later times, in which, no doubt, sons had
great advantages as apprentices, but which admitted qualified
strangers, and for which intermarriage was a matter of social
feeling. The history of the formation of gilds shows, in fact,
that they were really protests against the authoritative regulation
of life from without and above. In the Saxon period, at any
rate, there was nothing resembling caste in the strict sense.
" The ceorl who had thriven so well as to have five hides of land
rose to the rank of a thegn; his wergild became 1200 shillings;
the value of his oath and the penalty of trespass against him
increased in proportion; his descendants in the third generation
became gesithcund. Nor was the character of the thriving
defined; it might, so far as the terms of the custom went, be
either purchase, or inheritance, or the receipt of royal bounty.
The successful merchant might also thrive to thegn-right. The
thegn himself might also rise to the rank, the estimation and
status of an earl." 2 It has been said that early German history
is, as regards this matter, in contrast with English, and that true
castes are to be found in the military associations (Genossen-
schaften) which arose from the older class of Dienstmannen, and
in which every member — page, squire or knight — must prove
his knightly descent; the Bauernstand, or rural non-military
population; the Btirgerstand, or merchant-class. The ministry
of the Catholic Church in the West, was, however, never restricted
1 History of Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, 1. 332.
1 Stubbs' Constitutional History of England, i. p. 162.
by blood relation. There is no doubt that at some time or other
professions were in most countries hereditary. Thus Prescott*
tells us that in Peru, notwithstanding the general rule that every
man should make himself acquainted with the various arts,
" there were certain individuals carefully trained to those
occupations which minister to the wants of the more opulent
classes. These occupations, like every other calling and office
in Peru, always descended from father to son. The division of
castes was in this particular as precise as that which existed in
Hindustan or Egypt." Again, Zurita 4 says that in Mexico no
one could carry on trade except by right of inheritance, or by
public permission. The Fiji carpenters form a separate caste,
and in the Tonga Islands all the trades, except tattoo-markers,
barbers and club-carvers are hereditary, — the separate classes
being named matabooles, mooas and tooas. Nothing is more
natural than that a father should teach his son his handicraft,
especially if there be no organized system of public instruction;
it gives the father help at a cheap rate, it is the easiest introduc-
tion to life for the son, and the custom or reputation of the
father as a craftsman is often the most important legacy he has
to leave. The value of transmitted skill in the simple crafts
was very great; and what was once universal in communities
still survives in outlying portions of communities which have
not been brought within the general market of exchange. But
so long as this process remains natural, there can be no question
of caste, which implies that the adoption of a new profession is
not merely unusual, but wrong and punishable. Then, the word
caste has been applied to sacred corporations. A family or a
tribe is consecrated to the service of a particular altar, or all
the altars of a particular god. Or a semi-sacred class, such as the
Brehons or the Bards, is formed, and these, and perhaps some
specially dignified professions, become hereditary, the others
remaining free. Thus in Peru, the priests of the Sun at Cuzco
transmitted their office to their^ons; so did the Quipu-camayoc,
or public registrars, and the amantas and karavecs, the learned
men and singers.' In many countries political considerations,
or distinctions of race, have prevented intermarriage between
classes. Take, for example, the patricians and the plebeians at
Rome, or the Xirapnareci, Aiucowes or irtplouax, and the
EtXcortf at Sparta. In Guatemala it was the law that if any
noble married a plebeian woman he should be degraded to the
caste of mazequal, or plebeian, and be subject to the duties and
services imposed on that class, and that the bulk of his estate
should be sequestered to the king. 6 In Madagascar marriage
is strictly forbidden between the four classes of Nobles, Hovas,
Zarahovas and Andevos, — the lowest of whom, however, are
apparently mere slaves. In a sense slavery might be called the
lowest of castes, because in most of its forms it does permit some
small customary rights to the slave. In a sense, too, the survival
in European royalty of the idea of " equality of birth " (EbenbUr-
tigkeit) is that of a caste conception, and the marriage of one of
the members of a European royal family with a person not of
royal blood might be described as an infraction of caste rule.
Caste in India is a question of more than historical interest.
It is the great obstacle to government in accordance with modern
3 History of Peru, i. 143.
4 Rapport sur les differ entes classes de chefs dans la nouvelle Espagne
(1840), p. 223.
* Something like this is to be found in the Russian notion of chin,
or status according to official hierarchy of ranks, as modified by the
custom of myestnichestvo, by which no one entering the public service
could be placed beneath a person who had been subject to his father's
orders. Hereditary nobility at one time belonged to every servant,
military or civil, above a certain rank, and a family remaining out of
office for two generations lost its rights of nobility; but in 1854 the
privilege was confined to army colonels and state councillors of the
4th class. At one time, therefore, the razryadniya knight, ot special
registers, superseded by Peter the Great's barkhatnaya kniga, or
Velvet Book, contained a complete code of social privilege and pre-
cedence. Peter's ' ' tabel o rangakh ' ' con taincd fourteen classes. The
subject is treated of in the 1600 articles of the ninth volume of the
Russian Code Svod Zakonov. The Russian Nobility, though de-
prived of their exemptions from conscription, personal taxation and
corporal punishment, still retain many advantages in the public
service.
• Juarros, Hist, of Guatemala, Tr. (London, 1823).
CASTE
465
ideas, and to the work of native religious reformers as well as of
Christian missionaries. By some writers caste has been regarded
as the great safeguard of social tranquillity, and therefore as the
indispensable condition of the progress in certain arts and
industries which the Hindus have made. Others, such as James
Mill, have denounced it as fatal to the principle of free competi-
tion and opposed to individual happiness. The latter view
assumes a state of facts which was denied by Colebrooke, one of
the highest authorities on Indian matters. Writing in 1798 he
says, 1 after pointing out that any person unable to earn a sub-
sistence by the exercise of his profession may follow the trade of
a lower caste or even of a higher: " Daily observation shows even
Brahmans exercising the menial profession of a Sudra. We are
aware that every caste forms itself into clubs or lodges, consisting
of the several individuals of that caste residing within a small
distance, and that these clubs or lodges govern themselves
by particular rules or customs or by-laws. But though some
restrictions and limitations, not founded on religious prejudices,
are found among their by-laws, it may be received as a general
maxim that the occupation appointed for each tribe is entitled
merely to a preference. Every profession, with few exceptions,
is open to every description of persons; and the discouragement
arising from religious prejudices is not greater than what exists
in Great Britain from the effects of municipal and corporation
laws. In Bengal the numbers of people actually willing to apply
to any particular occupation are sufficient for the unlimited
extension of any manufacture." This was corroborated by
Elphinstone,* who states that, during a long experience of India,
he never heard of a single case of degradation from caste; and it
is illustrated by the experience of the Indian army, in which men
of all castes unite. 3
The ordinary notion of modern caste is that it involves certain
restrictions on marriage, on profession, and on social intercourse,
especially that implied in eating and drinking together. How
far intermarriage is permitted, what are the effects of a marriage
permitted but looked on as irregular, what are the penalties of a
marriage forbidden, whether the rules protecting trades and
occupations are in effect more than a kind of unionism grown
inveterate through custom, by what means caste is lost, and in
what circumstances it may be regained, — these are questions on
which very little real or definite knowledge exists. Sir H. Risley
regards the absolute prohibition of mixed marriages as now the
essential and most prominent characteristic. It is very remark-
able that the Vedas, on which the whole structure of Brahmanic
faith and morals professes to rest, give no countenance to the
later regulations of caste. Hie only passage bearing on the
subject is in the Purusha Sukta, the coth Hymn of the 10th Book
of the Rigveda Samhita. " When they divided man, how many
did they make him? What was his mouth? what his arms?
what are called his thighs and feet? The Brahmana was his
mouth, the Raganya was made his arms, the Vaisya became his
thighs, the Sudra was born from his feet." Martin Haug finds in
this a subtle allegory that the Brahmans were teachers, the
Kshatriyas the warriors of mankind. But this is opposed to the
simple and direct language of the Vedic hymns, and to the fact
that in the accounts of creation there the origin of many things
besides classes of men is attributed in the same fanciful manner
to parts of the divine person. It is in the Puranas and the Laws
of Manu, neither of which claims direct inspiration, where they
1 Life and Essayt of H. T. Colebrooke, i. p. 104.
2 History of India.
* "The crudities and cruelties of the caste system need not blind
us to its other aspects. There is no doubt that it is the main cause
of the fundamental stability and contentment by which Indian
society has been braced up for centuries against the shocks of
politics and^ the cataclysms of Nature. It provides every man with
his place, his career, his occupation, his circle of friends. It makes
him, at the outset, a member of a corporate body : it protects him
through life from the canker of social jealousy and unfulfilled
aspirations; it ensures him companionship and a sense of com-
munity with others in like case with himself. The caste organization
is to the Hindu his club, his trade union, his benefit society, his
philanthropic society. An Indian without caste, as things stand at
present, is not quite easy to imagine." (Sidney Low, Vision of India,
1906, ch. xv. p. 263).
differ from the letter of the Veda, that the texts are to be found
on which all that is objectionable in caste has been based. Even
in the Vishnu Purana, however, the legend of caste speaks of the
four classes as being at first " perfectly inclined to conduct
springing from religious faith." It is not till after the whole
human race has fallen into sin that separate social duties are
assigned to the classes. The same hymn speaks of the evolution
of qualities of Brahma. Sattva, or goodness, sprang from the
mouth of Brahma; Rajas, or passion, came from his breast;
Tamas, or darkness, from his thighs; others he created from his
feet. For each one of these gunas, or primitive differences of
quality, a thousand couples, male and female, have been created,
to which the distinct heavens, or places of perfection of Prajapati,
Indra, Maruts and Gandharvas are assigned. To the gunas are
related the yugas, or ages: 1st, the Krita, or glorious age of
truth and piety, in which apparently no distinctions, at least no
grades of excellence were known; 2nd, the Treta, or period of
knowledge; 3rd, the Dvapara, or period of sacrifice; 4th, the
Kali, or period of darkness. Bunsen supposes there may be an
historical element in the legend that Pururava, a great conqueror
of the Treta age, founded caste. The yugas are hardly periods of
historical chronology, but there is no doubt that the Vayu
Purana assigns the definite origin of caste to the Treta period.
" The perfect beings of the first age, some tranquil, some fiery,
some active and some distressed, were again born in the Treta,
as Brahmans, &c, governed by the good and bad actions per-
formed in former births." The same hymn proceeds to explain
that the first arrangement did not work well, and that a second
was made, by which force, criminal justice and war were declared
to be the business of the Kshatriyas; officiating at sacrifices,
sacred study and the receipt of presents to belong to the
Brahmans; traffic, cattle and agriculture to the Vaisyas; the
mechanical arts and service to the Sudras. The Ramayana hymn
suggests that in the four great periods the castes successively arrive
at the state of dharma or righteousness. Thus, a Sudra cannot,
even by the most rigorous self-mortification, become righteous in
the period proper to the salvation of the Vaisyas. As the hymn
speaks in the Dvapara age, it speaks of the salvation of Sudras
as future, and not yet possible. Wholly in opposition to the story
of a fourfold birth from Brahma is the legend that the castes
sprang from Manu himself, who is removed by several generations
of gods and demi-gods from Brahma. Then, again, the Santi-
parvan alleges that the world, at first entirely Brahmanic, was
separated into castes merely by the evil works of man. Castehood
consists in the exercise of certain virtues or vices. Munis, or
persons born indiscriminately, frequently rise to the caste of
Brahmans, and the offspring of Brahmans sink to a lower level.
The serpent observes: " If a man is regarded by you as being a
Brahman only in consequence of his conduct, then birth is vain,
until action is shown." But this change of caste takes place only
through a second birth, and not during the life which is spent in
virtue. Another poetical conception of caste birth is expressed
in the Harivamsa. The Brahmans were formed from an imperish-
able element (Akshara), the Kshatriyas from a perishable
element (Kshara), the Vaisyas from alteration, and the Sudras
from a modification of smoke.
The general result of the foregoing texts is that several contra-
dictory accounts have been given of the origin of caste, and that
these are for the most part unintelligible. Caste is described as
a late episode in creation, and as born from different parts of
different gods, from the mortal Manu, from abstract principles,
and from non-entity. It is also described as coeval with creation,
as existing in perfection during the Krita period, and subsequently
falling into sin. It is also said that only Brahmans existed at first,
the others only at later periods. Then the rationalistic theories of
the Santiparvan upset the very foundation of caste, viz. hereditary
transmission of the caste character. 4 It seems clear that when
the Vedas were composed, many persons who were not Brahmans
acted as priests, and saints, the " preceptors of gods," by their
" austere fervour," rose from a lower rank to the dignity of
Brahmanhood. Originally, indeed, access to the gods by prayr
4 Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. i. (1868).
466
CASTE
and sacrifice was open to all classes of the community. As the
Brahmans grow in political importance, they make religion an
exclusive and sacred business. We find them deciding questions
of succession to the throne, and enforcing their decisions. While
in the earlier literature there are several instances of Brahmans
receiving instruction from the hands of Kshatriyas, in the Puranas
and Manu death is made to overtake Kshatriyas who are not
submissive to the Brahmans; and in one case Visvamitra, the
son of Gadhi, actually obtains Brahmanhood as a reward for his
submission. It seems certain that many of the ancient myths
were expressly manufactured by the Brahmans to show their
superiority in birth and in the favour of Heaven to the Kshatriyas
— a poetical effect which is sometimes spoiled by their claiming
descent from their rivals. This brings us to a consideration of
the theories which have been started to account for the appear-
ance of Brahmanic caste, as it is stereotyped in the Laws of Manu.
James Mill, who invariably underestimated the influence on
history of " previous states of society," suggested that the
original division must have been the work of some inspired
individual, a legislator or a social reformer, who perceived the
advantages which would result from a systematic division of
labour. The subordination of castes he accounts for by the
superstitious terror and the designing lust of power which have
so frequently been invoked to explain the natural supremacy of
the religious class. Because the ravages of war were dreaded
most after the calamities sent by heaven, he finds that the
military class properly occupy the second place. This arrange-
ment he apparently contemplates as at no time either necessary
or wholesome, and as finally destroyed by the selfish jealousies
of caste, and by the degradations which the multiplication of
trades made inevitable. Heeren 1 and Klaproth have contended
that the division into castes is founded on an original diversity
of race, and that the higher castes are possessed of superior
beauty. The clear complexion and regular features of the Brah-
mans are said to distinguish them as completely from the Sudras
as the Spanish Creoles were distinguished from the Peruvians.
" The high forehead, stout build, and light copper colour of the
Brahmins and other castes allied to them, appear in strong con-
trast with the somewhat low and wide heads, slight make, and
dark bronze of the low castes" (Stevenson, quoted by Max M tiller,
Chips, ii. p. 327). 1 This explanation is, however, generally
conjoined with that founded on the tradition of conquest by the
higher castes. There is no doubt that the three castes of lighter
colour (traivarnika), the white Brahmans, the red Kshatriyas,
the yellow Vaisyas, are, at least in the early hymns and Brah-
manas, spoken of as the Aryas, the Sanskrit-speaking conquerors,
in contradistinction to the dark cloud of the Turanian aborigines
Dasyus. In fact arya, which means noble, is derived from arya,
which means householder, and was the original name of the
largest caste, now called Vaisyas. The great Sanscrit scholar,
Rudolf von Roth (1821-1895), in his Brahma und die Brah-
manan* held that the Vedic people advanced from their home in
the Punjab, drove the aborigines into the hills, and]took possession
of the country lying between the Ganges, the Jumna and the
Vindhya range. " In this stage of complication and disturbance,"
he said, " power naturally fell into the hands of those who did
not possess any direct authority," i.e. the domestic priests of
the numerous tribal kings. The Sudras he regarded as a con-
quered race, perhaps a branch of the Aryan stock, which immi-
grated at an earlier period into India, perhaps an autochthonous
1 Ideen, i. 610.
* The idea of a conquering white race is strangely repeated in the
later history of India. The Rajputs and Brahmans are succeeded by
the Mussulmans, the Turks, the Afghans. There was an aristocracy
of colour under the Mogul dynasty. But under an Indian climate it
could not last many generations. The Brahmans of southern India
were as black as the lowest castes; the Chandalas are said to be
descended from Brahmans. According to Manu the Chandala must
not dwell within town; his sole wealth must be dogs and asses; his
clothes must consist of the mantles of deceased persons; his dishes
must be broken pots. Surely this vituperative description must
apply to an aboriginal race.
1 Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Band i.
(quoted by Muir, ubi supra).
Indian tribe. The latter hypothesis is opposed to the fact that,
while the Sudra is debarred from sharing three important Vedic
sacrifices, the Bhagasata Purana expressly permits him to
sacrifice " without mantras" and imposes on him duties with
reference to Brahmans and cows which one would not expect in
the case of a nation strange in blood. But unless a previous
subordination of castes among the conquering race be supposed,
it seems difficult to see why the warrior-class, who having
contributed most to the conquest must have been masters of the
situation, should have consented to degradation below the class
of Brahmans. The position of the Sudra certainly suggests
conquest. But are there sound historical reasons for supposing
that Brahmans and Sudras belonged to different nations, or that
either class was confined to one nation? The hypothesis was
held in a somewhat modified form by Meiners, 4 who supposed
that instead of one conquest there may have been two successive
immigrations, — the first immigrants being subdued by the second,
and then forming an intermediate class between their conquerors
and the aborigines; or, if there were no aborigines, the mixture
of the two immigrant races would form an intermediate class.
In the same way Talboys Wheeler 5 suggested that the Sudra
may be the original conquerors of the race now represented by
the Pariahs. Most of these explanations seem rather to describe
the mode in which the existing institutions of caste might be
transplanted from one land to another, from a motherland to its
colonies, and altered by its new conditions. Military conquest,
though it often introduces servitude, does not naturally lead to
the elevation of the priesthood. It is unscientific to assume large
historical events, or large ethnological facts, or the existence of
some creator of social order. 6
As Benjamin Constant 7 points out, caste rests on the religious
idea of an indelible stain resting on certain men, and the social
idea of certain functions being committed to certain classes.
The idea of physical purity was largely developed under the
Mosaic legislation; in fact the internal regulations of the
Essenes (who were divided into four classes) resemble the frivolous
prohibitions of Brahmanism. As the daily intercourse of men
in trade and industry presents numberless occasions on which
the stain of real or fancied impurity might be caught, the power
of the religious class who define the rules of purity and the
penalties of their violation becomes very great. Moreover,
the Hindus are deeply religious, and therefore naturally prepared
for Purohiti or priest-rule. They were also passionately attached
to their national hymns, some of which had led them to victory,
while others were associated with the benign influences of nature.
Only the priest could chant or teach these hymns, and it was
believed that the smallest mistake in pronunciation would draw
down the anger of the gods. But however favourable the con-
ditions of spiritual dominion might be, it seems to have been
by no more natural process than hard fighting that the Brahmans
finally asserted their supremacy. We are told that Parasurama,
the great hero of the Brahmans, " cleared the earth thrice seven
times of the Kshatriya caste, and filled with their blood the five
large lakes of Samauta." Wheeler thinks that the substitution
of blood-sacrifices for offerings of parched grain, clarified butter
and soma wine marks an adaptation by the Brahmans of the great
military banquets to the purposes of political supremacy. It
is not, therefore, till the Brahmanic period of Indian history,
which ends with the coming of Sakya Muni, in 600 B.C., that we
find the caste-definitions of Manu realized as facts. These are
— " To Brahmans he (i.e. Brahma) assigned the duties of reading
* De Origine Castarum (Gd'ttingen).
* History of India, vol. i. (1867-1871).
* For a characteristic appreciation of caste see Comte, Cours de
philosophic positive, vi. c. 8. He regards the hereditary transmission
of functions under the rule of a sacerdotal class as a necessary and
universal stage of social progress, greatly modified by war and
colonization. The morality of caste was, he contends, an improve-
ment on what preceded ; but its permanence was impossible, because
" the political rule of intelligence is hostile to human progress."
The seclusion of women and the preservation of industrial inventions
were features of caste ; and the higher priests were also magistrates,
philosophers, artists, engineers, and physicians.
8 Dela religion, ii. 8.
CASTE
467
the Vedas, of teaching, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice,
of giving alms if they be rich, and if indigent of receiving gifts." l
The duties of the Kshatriya are " to defend the people, to give
alms, to sacrifice, to read the Veda, to shun the allurements of
sensual gratification." The duties of a Vaisya are " to keep
herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to read the
scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and to cultivate
land." These three castes (the twice born) wear the sacred
thread. The one duty of a Sudra is " to serve the before-
mentioned classes without depreciating their worth." 2 The
Brahman is entitled by primogeniture to the whole universe;
he may eat no flesh but that of victims; he has his peculiar
clothes. He is bound to help military and commercial men in
distress. He may seize the goods of a Sudra, and whatever
the latter acquires by labour or succession beyond a certain
amount. The Sudra is to serve the twice born; and even when
emancipated cannot be anything but a Sudra. He may not
learn the Vedas, and in sacrifice he must omit the sacred texts.
A Sudra in distress may turn to a handicraft; and in the same
circumstances a Vaisya may stoop to service. Whatever crime
a Brahman might commit, his person and property were not to
be injured; but whoever struck a Brahman with a blade of grass
would become an inferior quadruped during twenty-one trans-
migrations. In the state the Brahman was above all the
ministers; he was the raja's priest, exempt from taxation, the
performer of public sacrifices, the expounder of Manu, and at
one time the physician of bodies as well as of souls. He is more
liable than less holy persons to pollution, and his ablutions are
therefore more frequent. A Kshatriya who slandered a Brahman
was to be fined 100 panas (a copper weight of 200 grains); a
Vaisya was fined 200 panas; a Sudra was to be whipped. A
Brahman slandering any of the lower castes pays 50, 25 or 12
panas. In ordinary salutations a Brahman is asked whether
his devotion has prospered ; a Kshatriya, whether he has suffered
from his wounds; a Vaisya whether his health is secure; a
Sudra whether he is in good health. 9 In administering oaths
a Brahman is asked to swear by his veracity; a Kshatriya by
his weapons, house or elephant; a Vaisya by his kine, grain
or goods; a Sudra by all the most frightful penalties of perjury.
The Hindu mind is fertile in oaths; before the caste assembly
the Dhurm, or caste custom, is sometimes appealed to, or the
feet of Brahma, or some cow or god or sacred river, or the bel
(the sacred creeper), or the roots of the turmeric plant. The
castes are also distinguished by their modes of marriage. Those
peculiar to Brahmans seem to be — 1st, Brahma, when a daughter,
clothed only with a single robe, is given to a man learned in the
Veda whom her father has voluntarily invited and respectfully
receives; 2nd, Devas or Daiva, when a daughter, in gay attire
is given, when the sacrifice is already begun, to the officiating
1 The great mass of the Brahmans were in reality mendicants, who
lived on the festivals of birth, marriage, and death, and on the fines
exacted for infractions of caste rule. Others had establishments
called Muths, endowed with'Jarir villages. There were two distinct
orders of officiating priests — the Purohita, or family priest, who
performed all the domestic rites, and probably gave advice in secular
matters, and the Guru, who is the head of a religious sect, making
tours of superintendence and exaction, and having the power to
degrade from caste and to restore. In some cases the Guru is recog-
nized as the Mehitra or officer of the caste assembly, from whom he
receives Huks, or salary, and an exemption from house and stamp
taxes, and service as begarree (Steele's Law and Customs of Hindoo
Castes within the DekJian Provinces, 1826; later edition, 1868).
Expulsion from caste follows on a number of moral offences (e.g.
assault, murder, &c), as well as ceremonial offences (e.%. eating
prohibited food, eating with persons of lower caste, abstaining from
funeral rites, having connexion with a low-caste woman). Exclusion
means that it is not allowed to eat with or enter the houses of the
members of the caste, the offender being in theory not degraded but
dead. For some heinous offences, i.e. against the express letter of
the Shasters, no readmission is possible. But generally this depends
on the ability of the out-caste to pay a fine, and to supply the caste
with an expiatory feast of sweetmeats. He has also to go through
the Sashtanyam, or prostration of eight members, and to drink the
Panchakaryam, i.e. drink of the five products of the cow {Description
of People of India, Abb6 J. A. Dubois, Missionary in Mysore, Eng.
Trans., London, 1817; edition by Pope, Madras, 1862).
2 Manu, x. 88-90. 8 Wheeler ii. 533.
priest. The primitive marriage forms of Rashasas or Rachasa,
when a maiden is seized by force from home, while she weeps and
calls for help, is said to be appropriate to Kshatriyas. To the
two lower castes the ceremony of Asura is open, in which the
bridegroom, having given as much wealth as he can afford to the
father and paternal kinsman and to the damsel herself, takes her
voluntarily as his bride. A Kshatriya woman on her marriage
with a Brahman must hold an arrow in her hand; a Vaisya
woman marrying one of the sacerdotal or military classes must
hold a whip; a Sudra woman marrying one of the upper castes
must hold the skirt of a mantle.
How little the system described by Manu applies to the exist-
ing castes of India may be seen in these facts — (1) that there is
no artisan caste mentioned by Manu; (2) that eating with
another caste, or eating food prepared by another caste, is not
said by him to involve loss of caste, though these are now among
the most frequent sources of degradation. The system must
have been profoundly modified by the teaching of Buddha:
" As the four rivers which fall into the Ganges lose their names
as soon as they mingle their waters with the holy river, so all
who believe in Buddha cease to be Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
Vaisyas, and Sudras." After Buddha, Sudra dynasties ruled
in many parts of India, and under the Mogul dynasty the Cayets,
a race of Sudras, had almost a monopoly of public offices. But
Buddha did not wish to abolish caste. Thus it is related that a
Brahman Pundit who had embraced the doctrines of Buddha
nevertheless found it necessary, when his king touched him, to
wash from head to foot. 4 Alexander the Great found no castes
in the Punjab, but Megasthenes had left an account of the ryots
and tradesmen, the military order and the gymnosophists
(including the Buddhist Germanes) whom he found in the country
of the Ganges. 5 From his use of the word gymnosophist it is
probable that Megasthenes confounded the Brahmans with the
hermits or fakirs; and this explains his statement that any
Hindu might become a Brahman. Megasthenes spent some time
at the court of Sandracottus (Chandragupta Maury a), a con-
temporary of Seleucus Nicator. All the later Greeks 6 follow
his statement and concur in enumerating seven Indian castes
— sophists, agriculturists, herdsmen, artisans, warriors, in-
spectors, councillors. On the revival of Brahmanism it was
found that the second and third castes had disappeared, and
that the field was now occupied by the Brahmans, the Sudras,
and a host of mixed castes, sprung from the original twelve,
Unulum and Prutilum, left-hand and right-hand, which were
formed by the crossing of the four original castes. Manu himself
gives a list of these impure castes, and the Ain-i-Akbari (1556-
1605) makes the positive statement that there were then 500
tribes bearing the name of Kshatriya, while the real caste no
longer existed. Most of these subdivisions are really trade-
organizations, many of them living in village-communities, which
trace descent from a pure caste. Thus in Bengal there are the
Vaidya or Baidya, the physicians, who, Manu says, originated
in the marriage of a Brahman father and a Vaisya mother.
As Colebrooke said, Brahmans and Sudras enter into all trades,
but Brahmans (who are profoundly ignorant even of their own
scriptures) have succeeded in maintaining their monopoly of
Vedic learning, which really means a superficial acquaintance
with the Puranas and Manu. Though they have succeeded in
excluding others from sacred employment, only a portion of the
caste are actually engaged in religious ceremonies, in sacred study,
or even in religious begging. Many are privates in the army,
many water-carriers, many domestic servants. And they have,
like other castes, many subdivisions which prevent intimate
association and intermarriage. The ideal Brahman is gone:
the priest " with his hair and beard clipped, his passions sub-
dued, his mantle white, his body pure, golden rings in his ear."
But the hold which caste has on the Hindu minds may, perhaps,
be most clearly seen in the history of the Christian missions and
in comparatively recent times. The Jesuits Xavier and Fra dei
4 Travels of Fah Hian, c. 27. * Strabo, Ind. sec. 59.
•Arrian, Indie, c. 11, 12; Diod. Sic. ii. c. 40, 41; and Strabo
xv. 1.
468
CASTE
Nobili did everything but become Brahmans in order to convert
the south of India — they put on a dress of cavy or yellow colour,
they made frequent ablutions, they lived on vegetables and milk,
they put on their foreheads the sandalwood paste used by the
Brahmans — and Gregory XV. published a bull sanctioning
caste regulations in the Christian churches of India. The
Danish mission of Tranquebar, the German mission of the heroic
Schwarz, whose headquarters were Tanjore, also permitted caste
to be retained by their followers. Even the priests of Buddha,
whose life was a protest against caste, re-erected the system in
the island of Ceylon, where the radis or radios were reduced to
much the same state as the Pariahs. 1 Protestant missions have
made but little progress, even in recent years. The number
of native converts to Christianity rose from 1,246,000 in 1872
to 2,664,000 in 1 901 ; these figures, however, are by themselves
rather misleading, for Christianity appears to have touched
the higher classes in India not at all, only the out-castes.
It is still the general law that to constitute a good marriage
the parties must belong to the same caste, but to unconnected
families. Undoubtedly, however, the three higher castes were
always permitted to intermarry with the caste next below their
own, the issue taking the lower caste or sometimes forming a new
class. A Sudra need not marry a wife of the same caste or sect
as himself. In 187 1 it was decided by the judicial committee
of the privy council that a marriage between a zemindar (land-
owner) of the Malavar class, a subdivision of the Sudra caste,
with a woman of the Vellala class of Sudras is lawful. Generally
also a woman may not marry beneath her own caste. The feeling
is not so strong against a man marrying even in the lowest caste,
for Manu permits the son of a Brahman and a Sudra mother
to raise his family to the highest caste in the seventh generation.
The illegitimacy resulting from an invalid marriage does not
render incapable of caste; at least it does not so disqualify the
lawful children of the bastard. On a forfeiture of caste by either
spouse intercourse ceases between the spouses: if the out-caste
be a sonless woman, she is accounted dead, and funeral rites are
performed for her; if she have a son, he is bound to maintain
her. It is remarkable that the professional concubinage of the
dancing-girl does not involve degradation, if it be with a person
of the same caste. This suggests that whatever may be the
function of caste, it is not a safe guardian of public morality.
The rules as to prohibited degrees in marriage used to be very
strict, but they are now relaxed. An act of 1856 legalized re-
marriage by widows in all the castes, with a conditional forfeit-
ure of the deceased husband's estate, unless the husband has
expressly sanctioned the second marriage. The later Indian
Marriage Act was directed against the iniquitous child marriages;
it requires a minimum age. In many ways the theoretical
inferiority of the Sudra absolves him from the restraints
which the letter of the law lays on the higher castes. Thus a
Sudra may adopt a daughter's or sister's son, though this is
contrary to the general rule that the adopter should be able to
marry the mother of the adopted person. The rule requiring the
person adopted to be of the same caste and gotra or family as the
adopter is also dispensed wi th in the case of Sudras. In fact, it is
only a married person whom a Sudra may not adopt As regards
inheritance the Sudra does not come off so well in competition
with the other castes. " The sons of a Brahamana in the several
tribes have four shares or three or two or one; the children of
a Kshatriya have three portions or two or one; and those of
a Vaisya take two parts or one." This refers to the case per-
mitted by law, and not unknown in practice, of a Brahman
having four wives of different castes, a Kshatriya three, and so
on. But all sons of inferior caste are excluded from property
coming by gift to the father; and a Sudra son is also excluded
from land acquired by purchase. It must be recollected, how-
ever, that under an act of 1850, loss of caste no longer affects
the capacity to inherit or to be adopted. In cases of succession
ab intestate on failure of the preceptor, pupil, and fellow-student
(heirs called by the Hindu law after relatives), a priest, or any
Brahman, many succeed. Where a Sudra is the only son of a
1 Irving, Theory and Practice of Caste (London, 1859).
Brahman, the Sapinda, or next of kin, would take two-thirds
of the inheritance; where he is the only son of any other twice-
born father, the Sapinda would take one-half. Possibly, the rule
of equal division among sons of equal caste did not at first apply
to Brahmans, who, as the eldest, sons of God, would perhaps
observe the custom of primogeniture among themselves. On the
other hand it was laid down in the judicial committee in 1869,
contrary to the collected opinions of the Pundits of the Sudder
court, that, in default of lawful children, the illegitimate children
of the Sudra caste inherit their putative father's estate, and, even
if there be lawful children, are entitled to maintenance out of the
estate. It had previously been decided by Sir Edward Ryan in
1857 that the illegitimate children of a Rajput, or of any other
member of a superior caste, have no right of inheritance even
under will, but a mere right to maintenance, provided the children
are docile. It seems then that the Kshatriya and Vaisya castes,
though in one sense non-existent, still control Hindu succession.
With regard to Persia the Zend Avesta speaks of a fourfold
division of the ancient inhabitants of Iran into priests, warriors,
agriculturists and artificers; and also of a sevenfold division corre-
sponding to the seven amschespands, or servants of Ormuzd. This
was no invention of Zoroaster, but a tradition from the golden
age of Jemshid or Diemschid. The priestly caste of Magi was
divided into Herbeds or disciples, Mobeds or masters, and Destur
Mobeds or complete masters. The last-named were alone entitled
to read the liturgies of Ormuzd; they alone predicted the future
and carried the sacred costi, or girdle, havan, or cup, and barsom,
or bunch of twigs. The Zend word baresma is supposed to be
connected with Brahma, or sacred element, of which the symbol
was a bunch of kusa grass, generally called veda. The Persian
and Hindu religions are further connected by the ceremony
called Homa in the one and Soma in the other. Haug, in his
Tract on the Origin of Brahmanism (quoted by Muir, ubi supra),
maintains that the division in the Zend Avesta of the followers
of Ahura Mazda into Atharvas, Rathaesvas, and Vastrya was
precisely equivalent to the three superior Indian castes. He
also asserts that only the sons of priests (Atharvas) could become
priests, a rule still in force among the Parsis. The Book of Daniel
rather suggests that the Magi were an elective body; and as
regards the secular classes there does not seem to be a trace of
hereditary employment or religious subordination. There is
a legend in the Dabistan of a great conqueror, Mahabad, who
divided the Abyssinians into the usual four castes; and Strabo
mentions a similar classification of the Iberians into kings, priests,
soldiers, husbandmen and menials.
At one time it was the universal opinion that in Egypt there
were at least two great castes, priests and warriors, the functions
of which were transmitted from father to son, the minor pro-
fessions grouped under the great castes being also subject to
hereditary transmission. This opinion was held by Otfried
Mtiller, 2 Meiners of GQttingen, and others. Doubts were first
suggested by Rossellini, and after Champollion had deciphered
the hieroglyphic inscriptions, J. J. Ampere a boldly announced
that there were in Egypt no castes strictly so called; that in
particular the professions of priest, soldier, judge, &c, were not
hereditary; and that the division of Egyptian society was merely
that which is generally found in certain stages of social growth
between the liberal professions and the mechanical arts and
trades. No difference of colour, or indeed of any feature, has been
observed in the monumental pictures of the different Egyptian
castes. From an inspection of numerous tombs, sarcophagi,
and funeral stones, which frequently enumerate the names and
professions of several kinsfolk of the deceased, Ampere concluded
that sacerdotal and military functions were sometimes united
in the same person, and might even be combined with civil
functions; that intermarriage might certainly take place between
the sacred and military orders; and that the members of the
same natural family did frequently adopt the different occupations
which had been supposed to be the exclusive property of the
castes. The tombs of Beni Hassan show in a striking manner the
' Manual of Archaeology.
1 Revue des deux mondes, 15th September 1848.
CASTEL— CASTELAR Y RIPOLL
469
Egyptian tendency to accumulate, rather than to separate,
employments. Occasionally families were set apart for the
worship of a particular divinity. An interesting " section " of
Egyptian society is afforded by a granite monument preserved
in the museum at Naples. Nine figures in bas-relief represent
the deceased, his father, three brothers, a paternal uncle, and the
father and two brothers of his wife. Another side contains the
mother, wife, wife's mother and maternal aunts. The deceased
is described as a military officer and superintendent of buildings;
his elder brother as a priest and architect; his third brother as a
provincial governor, and his father as a priest of Ammon. The
family of the wife is exclusively sacerdotal. Egyptian caste,
therefore, permitted two brothers to be of different castes,
and one person to be of more castes than one, and of different
castes from those to which his father or wife belonged. The lower
employments, commerce, agriculture, even medicine, are never
mentioned on the tombs. The absolute statements about caste
in Egypt, circulated by such writers as Reynier and De Goguet,
have, no doubt, been founded on passages in Herodotus (ii. 143,
164), who mentions seven classes, and makes war an hereditary
profession; in Diodorus Siculus (i. 2-8), who mentions five
classes and a hereditary priesthood; and in Plato, who, anxious
to illustrate the principle of compulsory division of labour, on
which his republic was based, speaks in the Titnaeus of a total
separation of the six classes — priests, soldiers, husbandmen,
artisans, hunters and shepherds. Heeren (ii. 594) does not
hesitate to ascribe the formation of Egyptian caste to the meeting
of different races. According to the chronology constructed
by Bunsen the division into castes began in the period 10,000-
0000, and was completed along with the introduction of animal
worship and the improvement of writing under the third dynasty
in the 6th or 7 th century of the Old Empire. The Scholiast of
Apollonius Rhodius, on the authority of Dicaearchus, in the
Second Book of Hellas, mentions a king, Sesonchosis, who, about
3712 B.C., "enacted that no one should abandon his father's
trade, for this he considered as leading to avarice." Bunsen
conjectures that this may refer to Sesostoris, the lawgiver of
Manetho's third or Memphite dynasty, the eighth from Menes,
who introduced writing, building with hewn stone, and medicine;
possibly, also, to Sesostris, who, Aristotle says (Polit. vii. 1),
introduced caste to Crete. He further observes that in Egypt
there was never a conquered indigenous race. There was one
nation with one language and one religion; the public panegyrics
embraced the whole people; every Egyptian was the child and
friend of the gods. The kings were generally warriors, and latterly
adopted into the sacerdotal caste. Intermarriage was the rule,
except between the swineherds and all other classes. " Every
shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians " (Gen. xlvi. 34).
The comprehensive essay by Sir H. H. Risley in the introductory
volume of the Indian Census Report for 1901 is the best recent account
of caste in India. See also, besides the works mentioned in the
text, Sir Denzil Ibbetson's Report on the Punjab Census (1881); W.
Crooke, Things Indian (1905) and other books by this author on
Indian religion and caste; Senart, Les Castes dans llnde (1806);
Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects (1896). There
is an interesting chapter on the subject in Sidney Low's Vision of
India (1906). See also India, Indian Law, and Hinduism.
CASTEL, LOUIS BERTRAND (1688-1757), French mathe-
matician, was born at Montpellier on the nth of November
1688, and entered the order of the Jesuits in 1703. Having
studied literature, he afterwards devoted himself entirely to
mathematics and natural philosophy. He wrote several scien-
tific works, that which attracted most attention at the time
being his Optique des couleurs (1740), or treatise on the melody
of colours. He endeavoured to illustrate the subject by a
clavecin oculaire, or ocular harpsichord; but the treatise and
the illustration were quickly forgotten. He also wrote Mathb-
matique universelle (1728) and TrailS de physique sur la pesanteur
universelle des corps (1724). He also published a critical account
of the system of Sir Isaac Newton in French in 1743.
CASTELAR Y RIPOLL, EMIUO (183 2-1 899), Spanish states-
man, was born at Cadiz on the 8th of September 1832. At the
age of seven he lost his father, who had taken an active part in
the progressist agitations during the reign of Ferdinand VII.,
and had passed several years as an exile in England. He at-
tended a grammar-school at Sax. In 1848 he began to study
law in Madrid, but soon elected to compete for admittance at
the school of philosophy and letters, where he took the degree
of doctor in 1853. He was an obscure republican student when
the Spanish revolutionary movement of 1854 took place, and the
young liberals and democrats of that epoch decided to hold a
meeting in the largest theatre of the capital. On that occasion
Castelar delivered his maiden speech, which at once placed him
in the van of the advanced politicians of the reign of Queen
Isabella. From that moment he took an active part in politics,
radical journalism, literary and historical pursuits. Castelar
was compromised in the first rising of June 1866, which was
concerted by Marshal Prim, and crushed, after much bloodshed,
in the streets by Marshals O'Donnell and Serrano. A court-
martial condemned him in contumaciam to death by " garote
vil," and he had to hide in the house of a friend until he escaped
to France. There he lived two years until the successful revolu-
tion of 1868 allowed him to return and enter the Cortes for the
first time — as deputy for Saragossa. At the same time he re-
sumed the professorship of history at the Madrid university.
Castelar soon became famous by his rhetorical speeches in the
Constituent Cortes of 1869, where he led the republican minority
in advocating a federal republic as the logical outcome of the
recent revolution. He thus gave much trouble to men like
Serrano, Topete and Prim, who had never harboured the idea
of drifting into advanced democracy, and who had each his own
scheme for re-establishing the monarchy with certain consti-
tutional restrictions. Hence arose Castelar's constant and
vigorous criticisms of the successive plans mooted to place a
Hohenzollern, a Portuguese, the duke of Montpensier, Espartero
and finally Amadeus of Savoy on the throne. He attacked with
relentless vigour the short-lived monarchy of Amadeus, and con-
tributed to its downfall.
The abdication of Amadeus led to the proclamation of the
federal republic. The senate and congress, very largely composed
of monarchists, permitted themselves to be dragged along into
democracy by the republican minority headed by Salmeron,
Figueras, Pi y Margall and Castelar. The short-lived federal
republic from the nth of February 1873 to the 3rd of January
1874 was the culminating point of the career of Castelar, and his
conduct during those eleven months was much praised by the
wiser portion of his fellow-countrymen, though it alienated from
him the sympathies of the majority of his quondam friends in
the republican ranks.
Before the revolution of 1868, Castelar had begun to dissent
from the doctrines of the more advanced republicans, and
particularly as to the means to be employed for their success.
He abhorred bloodshed, he disliked mob rule, he did not approve
of military pronunciamientos. His idea would have been a
parliamentary republic on the American lines, with some traits
of the Swiss constitution to keep in touch with the regionalist
and provincialist inclinations of many parts of the peninsula.
He would have placed at the head of his commonwealth a
president and Cortes freely elected by the people, ruling the
country in a liberal spirit and with due respect for conservative
principles, religious traditions and national unity. Such a
statesman was sure to clash with the doctrinaires, like Salmeron,
who wanted to imitate French methods; with Pi y Margall,
who wanted a federal republic after purely Spanish ideas of
decentralization; and above all with the intransigent and gloomy
fanatics who became the leaders of the cantonal insurrections at
Cadiz, Seville, Valencia, Malaga and Cartagena in 1873.
At first Castelar did his best to work with the other republican
members of the first government of the federal republic. He
accepted the post of minister for foreign affairs. He even went
so far as to side with his colleagues, when serious difficulties
arose between the new government and the president of the
Cortes, Sefior Martos, who was backed by a very imposing
commission composed of the most influential conservative
members of the last parliament of the Savoyard king, which had
47©
CASTELAR Y RIPOLL
suspended its sittings shortly after proclaiming the federal
republic. A sharp struggle was carried on for weeks between
the executive and this commission, at first presided over by
Martos, and, when he resigned, by Salmeron. In the background
Marshal Serrano and many politicians and military men steadily
advocated a coup d'Slat in order to avert the triumph of the
republicans. The adversaries of the executive were prompted
by the captain-general of Madrid, Pavia, who promised the
co-operation of the garrison of the capital. The president,
Salmeron, and Marshal Serrano himself lacked decision at the
last moment, and lost time and many opportunities by which
the republican ministers profited. The federal republicans
became masters of the situation in the last fortnight of April
1873, and turned the tables on their adversaries by making a
pacific bloodless pronunciamiento.
The battalions of the militia that had assembled in the bull-
ring near Marshal Serrano's house to assist the anti-democratic
movement were disarmed, and their leaders, the politicians
and generals, were allowed to escape to France or Portugal.
The Cortes were dissolved, and the federal and constituent
Cortes of the republic convened, but they only sat during the
summer of 1873, long enough to show their absolute incapacity,
and to convince the executive that the safest policy was to
suspend the session for several months.
This was the darkest period of the annals of the Spanish
revolution of 1873-1874. Matters got to such a climax of disorder,
disturbance and confusion, from the highest to the lowest strata
of Spanish society, that the president of the executive, Figueras,
deserted his post and fled the country. Pi y Margall and Sal-
meron, in successive attempts to govern, found no support in
the really important and influential elements of Spanish society.
Salmeron had even to appeal to such well-known reactionary
generals as Pavia, Sanchez, Bregna and Moriones, to assume
the command of the armies in the south and in the north of
Spain. Fortunately these officers responded to the call of the
executive. In less than five weeks a few thousand men properly
handled sufficed to quell the cantonal risings in Cordoba, Sevilla,
Cadiz and Malaga, and the whole of the south might have been
soon pacified, if the federal republican ministers had not once
more given way to the pressure of the majority of the Cortes,
composed of " Intransigentes " and radical republicans. The
president, Salmeron, after showing much indecision, resigned,
but not until he had recalled the general in command in Andalusia,
Pavia. This resignation was not an unfortunate event for the
country, as the federal Cortes not only made Castelar chief of
the executive, though his partisans were in a minority in the
Parliament, but they gave him much liberty to act, as they
decided to suspend the sittings of the house until and January
1874. This was the turning-point of the Spanish revolution,
as from that day the tide set in towards the successive develop-
ments that led to the restoration of the Bourbons.
On becoming the ruler of Spain at the beginning of September
1873, Castelar at once devoted his attention to the reorganization
of the army, whose numbers had dwindled down to about
70,000 men. This force, though aided by considerable bodies
of local militia and volunteers in the northern and western
provinces, was insufficient to cope with the 60,000 Carlists in
arms, and with the still formidable nucleus of cantonalists around
Alcoy and Cartagena. To supply the deficiencies Castelar called
out more than 100,000 conscripts, who joined the colours in less
than six weeks. He selected his generals without respect of
politics, sending Moriones to the Basque provinces and Navarre
at the head of 20,000 men, Martinez Campos to Catalonia with
several thousand, and Lopez Dominguez, the nephew of Marshal
Serrano, to begin the land blockade of the last stronghold of the
cantonal insurgents, Cartagena, where the crews of Spain's only
fleet had joined the revolt.
Castelar next turned his attention to the Church. He renewed
direct relations with the Vatican, and at last induced Pope
Pius IX. to approve his selection of two dignitaries to occupy
vacant sees as well as his nominee for the vacant archbishopric
of Valencia, a prelate who afterwards became archbishop of
Toledo, and remained to the end a close friend of Castelar.
He put a stop to all persecutions of the Church and religious
orders, and enforced respect of Church property. He attempted
to restore some order in the treasury and administration of
finance, with a view to obtain ways and means to cover the
expense of the three civil wars, Carlist, cantonal and Cuban.
The Cuban insurgents gave him much trouble and anxiety, the
famous Virginius incident nearly leading to a rupture between
Spain and the United States. Castelar sent out to Cuba all the
reinforcements he could spare, and a new governor-general,
Jovellar, whom he peremptorily instructed to crush the mutinous
spirit of the Cuban militia, and not allow them to drag Spain
into a conflict with the United States. Acting upon the instruc-
tions of Castelar, Jovellar gave up the filibuster vessels, and those
of the crew and passengers who had not been summarily shot
by General Burriel. Castelar always prided himself on having
terminated this incident without too much damage to the prestige
of Spain.
At the end of 1873 Castelar had reason to be satisfied with
the results of his efforts, with the military operations in the
peninsula, with the assistance he was getting from the middle
classes and even from many of the political elements of the
Spanish revolution that were not republican. On the other
hand, on the eve of the meeting of the federal Cortes, he could
indulge in no illusions as to what he had to expect from the bulk
of the republicans, who openly dissented from his conservative
and conciliatory policy, and announced that they would reverse
it on the very day the Cortes met. Warnings came in plenty, and
no less a personage than the man he had made captain-general of
Madrid, General Pavia, suggested that, if a conflict arose between
Castelar and the majority of the Cortes, not only the garrison
of Madrid and its chief, but all the armies in the field and their
generals, were disposed to stand by the president. Castelar knew
too well what such offers meant in the classic land of pronuncia-
tnientos, and he refused so flatly that Pavia did not renew his
advice. The sequel is soon told. The Cortes met on the 2nd
of January 1874. The intransigent majority refused to listen to
a last eloquent appeal that Castelar made to their patriotism
and common sense, and they passed a vote of censure. Castelar
resigned. The Cortes went on wrangling for a day and night
until, at daybreak on the 3rd of January 1874, General Pavia
forcibly ejected the deputies, closed and dissolved the Cortes,
and called up Marshal Serrano to form a provisional government.
Castelar kept apart from active politics during the twelve
months that Serrano acted as president of the republic. Another
pronunciamiento finally put an end to it in the last week of
December 1874, when Generals Campos at Sagunto, Jovellar
at Valencia, Primo de Rivera at Madrid, and Laserna at Logrono,
proclaimed Alphonso XII. king of Spain. Castelar then went
into voluntary exile for fifteen months, at the end of which
he was elected deputy for Barcelona. He sat in all subsequent
parliaments, and just a month before his death he was elected
as representative of Murcia. During that period he became
even more estranged from the majority of the republicans.
Bitter experience had shown him that their federal doctrines
and revolutionary methods could lead to nothing in harmony
with the aspirations of the majority of Spaniards. He elected,
to use his own words, to defend and to seek the realization of
the substance of the programme of the Spanish revolution of
1868 by evolution, and legal, pacific means. Hence the contrast
between his attitude from 1876 to 1886, during the reign of
Alphonso XII., when he stood in the front rank of the Opposition
to defend the reforms of that revolution against Seftor Canovas,
and his attitude from 1886 to 1 89 1 . In this latter period Castelar
acted as a sort of independent auxiliary of Sagasta and of the
Liberal party. As soon as Castelar saw universal suffrage re-
established he solemnly declared in the Cortes that his task
was accomplished, his political mission at an end, and that he
proposed to devote the remainder of his life to those literary,
historical, philosophical, and economic studies which he had
never neglected even in the busiest days of his political
career. Indeed, it was his extraordinary activity and power of
CASTELFRANCO— CASTELLO, B.
47i
assimilation in such directions that allowed him to keep his
fellow-countrymen so well informed of what was going on in
the outer world. His literary and journalistic labours occupied
much of his time, and were his chief means of subsistence.
He left unfinished a history of Europe in the 19th century.
The most conspicuous of his earlier works were: — A History of
Civilization in the First Five Centuries of Christianity, Recollec-
tions of Italy, Life of Lord Byron, The History of the Republican
Movement in Europe, The Redemption of Slaves, The Religious
Revolution, Historical Essays on ike Middle Ages, The Eastern
Question, Fra Filippo Lip pi, History of the Discovery of America,
and some historical novels. Castelar died near Murcia on the
25th of May 1899, at the age of 66. His funeral at Madrid was
an imposing demonstration of the sympathy and respect of all
classes and parties. (A. E. H.)
CASTELFRANCO NELL 9 EMILIA, a town of Emilia, Italy,
in the province of Bologna, 16 m. N.W. by rail from the town
of Bologna. Pop. (1901) 3163 (town), 13,484 (commune). The
churches contain some pictures by later Bolognese artists. Just
outside the town is a massive fort erected by Urban VIII. in
1628, on the frontier of the province of Bologna, now used as
a prison. Castelfranco either occupies or lies near the site of
the ancient Forum Gallorum, a place on the Via Aemilia
between Mutina and Bononia, where in 43 B.C. Octavian and
Hirtius defeated Mark Antony.
CASTELFRANCO VENETO, a town and episcopal see of
Venetia, Italy, in the province of Treviso, 16 m. W. by rail from
the town of Treviso. Pop. (1901) 5 22 ° (town), 12,551 (com-
mune). The older part of the town is square, surrounded by
medieval walls and towers constructed by the people of Treviso
in 1218 (see Cittadella). It was the birthplace of the painter
Giorgio Barbarelli (H Giorgione, 1477-1512), and the cathedral
contains one of his finest works, the Madonna with SS. Francis
and Liberalis (1504), in the background of which the towers of
the old town may be seen.
CASTELL, EDMUND (1606-1685), English orientalist, was
born in 1 606 at Tadlow, in Cambridgeshire. At the age of fifteen
he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, but afterwards changed
his residence to St John's, on account of the valuable library
there. His great work was the compiling of his Lexicon Hepta-
glotton Hebraicum, Ckaldaicum, Syriacum, Samaritanum, A ethiopi-
cum, Arabicum, et Persicum (1669). Over this book he spent
eighteen years, working (if we may accept his own statement)
from sixteen to eighteen hours a day; he employed fourteen
assistants, and by an expenditure of £12,000 brought himself
to poverty, for his lexicon, though full of the most unusual
learning, did not find purchasers. He was actually in prison
in 1667 because he was unable to discharge his brother's debts,
for which he had made himself liable. A volume of poems
dedicated to the king brought him preferment. He was made
prebendary of Canterbury and professor of Arabic at Cambridge.
Before undertaking the Lexicon Heptaglotton, Castell had helped
Br Brian Walton in the preparation of his Polyglott Bible. His
MSS. he bequeathed to the university of Cambridge. He died
in 1685 at Higham Gobion, Bedfordshire, where he was rector.
The Syriac section of the Lexicon was issued separately at Got-
tingen in 1788 by J. D. Michaelis, who offers a tribute to Castell's
learning and industry. Trier published the Hebrew section in
1790-1792.
CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA (anc. Stabiae), a seaport and
episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples,
17 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Naples. Pop. (1901) town,
26,378; commune, 32,589. It lies in the south-east angle of
the Bay of Naples, at the beginning of the peninsula of Sorrento,
and owing to the sea and mineral water baths (12 different
springs) and its attractive situation, with a splendid view of
Vesuvius and fine woods on the hills behind, it is a favourite
resort of foreigners in spring and autumn and of Neapolitans
in summer. The castle from which it takes its name, on the
hill to the south of the town, was built by the emperor Frederick
II. There are three large churches of the late 18th century.
There are a large royal dockyard and a small-arms factory;
there are also iron works, cotton, flour and macaroni mills. The
value of imports (chiefly coal, wheat, scrap-iron and cheese)
for 1904 was £1,239,048, and the value of exports (chiefly
macaroni and green fruit) £769,100. There is also a sponge
trade, but the former coral trade is depressed. The port was
cleared by 420 vessels of 477,713 tonnage in 1005. An electric
tramway along the coast road to Sorrento was opened in 1905.
CASTELLESI, ADRIANO (c. 1460?-^. 1521?), known also
as Corneto from his birthplace, Italian cardinal and writer,
was sent by Innocent VIII. to reconcile James III. of Scotland
with his subjects. While in England he was appointed (1503),
by Henry VII., to the see of Hereford, and in the following
year to the more lucrative diocese of Bath and Wells, but he
never resided in either. Returning to Rome, he became secre-
tary to Alexander VI. and was made by him cardinal (May 31,
1 503) . A man of doubtful reputation, Alexander's confidant and
favourite, he paid the pope a large sum for his elevation. He
bought a vigna in the Borgo near the Vatican, and thereon
erected a sumptuous palace after designs by Bramante; and it
was here, in the summer of 1503, that he entertained the pope
and Cesare Borgia at a banquet that went on till nightfall despite
the unhealthy season of the year, when ague in its most malignant
form was rife. Of the three, Cardinal Adrian was the first to
fall ill, the pope succumbing a week after. The story of the
poisoning of the pope is to be relegated to the realm of fiction.
Soon after the election of Leo X. the cardinal was implicated
in the conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci against the pope, and
confessed his guilt; but, pardon being offered only on condition
of the payment of 25,000 ducats, he fled from Rome and was
subsequently deposed from the cardinalate. As early as 1504
he had presented his palace (now the Palazzo Giraud-Torlonia)
to Henry VII. as a residence for the English ambassador to the
Holy See; and on his flight Henry VIII., who had quarrelled
with him, gave it to Cardinal Campeggio. Adrian first fled to
Venice. Of his subsequent history nothing is known for certain.
It is said that he was murdered by a servant when on his way
to the conclave that elected Adrian VI. As a writer, he was one
of the first to restore the Latin tongue to its pristine purity;
and among his works are Be Vera PhUosophia ex quatuor docto-
ribus ecclesiae (Bologna, 1507), De Sermone Latino (Basel, 1513),
and a poem, De Venatione (Venice, 1534).
See Polydore Vergil, Anglicae historiae, edited by H. Ellis (London,
1844); and A. Aubery, Histoire ginirale des cardinaux (Paris,
1642). (E. Tn.)
CASTBLU, IONAZ FRANZ (1781-1862), Austrian dramatist,
was born at Vienna on the 6th of March 1781. He studied law
at the university, and then entered the government service.
During the Napoleonic invasions his patriotism inspired him to
write stirring war songs, one of which, Kriegslied fur die-dster-
reichische Armee, was printed by order of the archduke Charles
and distributed in thousands. For this Castelli was proclaimed
by Napoleon in the Moniteur, and had to seek refuge in Hungary.
In 18 1 5 he accompanied the allies into France as secretary to
Count Cavriani, and, after his return to Vienna, resumed his
official post in connexion with the estates of Lower Austria.
In 1842 he retired to his property at Lilienfeld, where, sur-
rounded by his notable collections of pictures and other art
treasures, he for the rest of his life devoted himself to literature.
Castelli's dramatic talent was characteristically Austrian; his
plays were well constructed and effective and satirized unspar-
ingly the foibles of the Viennese. But his wit was too local
and ephemeral to appeal to any but his own generation, and if
he is remembered at all to-day it is by his excellent Gedichte
in niederdsterreichischer Mundart (1828). He died at Lilienfeld
on the 5th of February 1862.
Castelli's Gesammelte Gedichte appeared in 1835 in 6 vols.; a
selection of his Werke in 1843 in 15 vols. (2nd ed. t 1848), followed
by 6 supplementary volumes in 1 858. His autobiography, Memoiren
tneines Lebens, appeared in 1861-1862 in 4 vols.
CASTELLO, BERNARDO (1557-1629), Genoese portrait and
historical painter, born at Albaro near Genoa, was the intimate
friend of Tasso, and took upon himself the task of designing
the figures of the Gerusalemme Liber ata, published in 1592;
472
CASTELLO, G. B.— CASTELLON
some of these subjects were engraved by Agostino Caracci.
Besides painting a number of works in Genoa, mostly in a rapid
and superficial style, Castello was employed in Rome and in
the court of the duke of Savoy.
CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1500 ?-i 569?), Italian
historical painter, was born near Bergamo in 1500 or perhaps
1 509, and is hence ordinarily termed II Bergamasco. He belongs,
however, to the school of Genoa, but does not appear to have
had any family relationship with the other two painters named
Castello, also noticed here. He was employed to decorate the
Nunziata di Portoria in Genoa, the saloon of the Lanzi Palace
at Gorlago, and the Pardo Palace in Spain. His best-known
works are the " Martyrdom of St Sebastian," and the picture
of " Christ as Judge of the World " on one of the vaultings of
the Annunziata. He was an architect and sculptor as well as
painter. In 1567 he was invited to Madrid by Philip II., and
there he died, holding the office of architect of the royal palaces.
The date of death (as of birth) is differently stated as 1569 or
1579.
CAST/ELLO, VALERIO (1625-1659), Italian painter, was the
youngest son of Bernardo Castello (q.v.) . He surpassed his father,
and particularly excelled in painting battle-scenes. He painted
the " Rape of the Sabines," now in the Palazzo Brignole, Genoa,
and decorated the cupola of the church of the Annunziata in the
same city. In these works he is regarded by his admirers as
combining the fire of Tintoretto with the general style of Paolo
Veronese.
CASTELLO BRANCO, CAMILLO, Visconde de Correia
Botelho (1825-1890), Portuguese novelist, was born out of
wedlock and lost his parents in infancy. He spent his early years
in a village in Traz-os-Montes. He learnt to love poetry from
Camoens and Bocage, while Mendes Pinto gave him a lust for
adventure, but he dreamed more than he read, and grew up
undisciplined and proud. He studied in Oporto and Coimbra
with much irregularity, and since his disdain for the intrigues
and miseries of politics in Portugal debarred him from the chance
of a government post, he entered the career of letters to gain
a livelihood. After a spell of journalistic work in Oporto and
Lisbon he proceeded to the Episcopal seminary in the former
city with a view of studying for the priesthood, and during this
period wrote a number of religious works and translated Chateau-
briand. He actually took minor orders, but his restless nature
prevented him from following one course for long and he soon
returned to the world, and henceforth kept up* feverish Hterary
activity to the end. He was created a viscount in 1885 in
recognition of his services to letters, and when his health finally
broke down and he could no longer use his pen, parliament gave
him a pension for life. When, having lost his sight, and suffering
from chronic nervous disease, he died by his own hand in 1890,
it was generally recognized that Portugal had lost the most
national of her modern writers.
Apart from his plays and verses, Castello Branco's works may
be divided into three sections. The first comprises his romances
of the imagination, of which Os mysterios de Lisbon, in the style
of Victor Hugo, is a fair example. The second includes his novels
of manners, a style of which he was the creator and remained
the chief exponent until the appearance of O Crime de Padre
Amaro of Ega de Queiroz. In these he is partly idealist and
partly realist, and describes to perfection the domestic and social
life of Portugal in the early part of the 19th century. The third
division embraces his writings in the domain of history, bio-
graphy and literary criticism. Among these may be cited
Noites de Lamego, Cousas leves e pesadas, Cavar em ruinas,
Memories do Bispo do Grdo Para and Bohemia do Espirilo.
In all, his publications number about two hundred and sixty,
belonging to many departments of letters, but he owes his great
and lasting reputation to his romances. Notwithstanding the
fact that his slender means obliged him to produce very rapidly
to the order of publishers, who only paid him from £30 to £60
a book, he never lost his individuality under the pressure.
Knowing the life of the people by experience and not from
books, he was able to fix in his pages a succession of strongly
marked and national types, such as the brasileiro, the old fidalgo
of the north, and the Minho priest, while his lack of personal
acquaintance with foreign countries and his relative ignorance
of their literatures preserved him from the temptation, so danger-
ous to a Portuguese, of imitating the classical writers of the
larger nations. Among the most notable of his romances are
O Romance de un Homem Rico, his favourite, Retrato de Ricardina,
Amor de Perdicao, and the magnificent series entitled Novellas
do Minho. Many of his novels are autobiographical, like Onde
esid a felicidade, Memories do Carcere and VinganQa. Castello
Branco is an admirable story-teller, largely because he was a
brilliant improvisatore, but he does not attempt character
study. Nothing can exceed the richness of his vocabulary, and
no other Portuguese author has shown so profound a knowledge
of the popular language. Though nature had endowed him with
the poetic temperament, his verses are mediocre, but his best
plays are cast in bold lines and contain really dramatic situations,
while his comedies are a triumph of the grotesque, with a mordant
vein running through them that recalls Gil Vicente.
The collected works of Camillo Castello Branco are published by
the Companhia Editora of Lisbon, and his most esteemed books
have had several editions. The Diccwnario Bibliographico Portuguez,
vol. ix. p. 7 et seq., contains a lengthy but incomplete list of his pub-
lications. See Romance do Romancista, by A. Pimentel, a badly put
together but informing biography; also a study on the novelist by
J. rereira de Sampaio in A Gerac&o Nova (Oporto, 1886); Dr Theo-
philo Braga, As Modernas Ideias na liUeraiura Portngueza (Oporto,
1892); Padre Senna Freitas, Perfil de Camillo Castello Branco (S.
Paulo, 1887); and Paulo Osorio, Camillo, a sua vida, o seu genio, a
sua obra (Oporto, 1908). (E. Pr.)
CASTELLO BRANCO, an episcopal city and the capital of an
administrative district formerly included in the province of
Beira, Portugal; 1560 ft. above the sea, on the Abrantes-Guarda
railway. Pop. (1000) 7288. Numerous Roman remains bear
witness to the antiquity of Castello Branco, but its original name
is unknown. The city is dominated by a ruined castle, and
partly enclosed by ancient walls; its chief buildings are the
cathedral and episcopal palace. Cloth is manufactured, and there
is a flourishing local trade in cork, wine and olive oil. The
administrative district of Castello Branco, which comprises the
valleys of the Zezere, Ocreza and Ponsul, right-hand tributaries
of the Tagus, coincides with the south-eastern part of Beira;
pop. (1000) 216,608; area, 2582 sq.m.
CASTELL6N DE LA PLANA* a maritime province of eastern
Spain, formed in 1833 of districts formerly included in Valencia,
and bounded on the N. by Teruel and Tarragona, £. by the
Mediterranean Sea, S. by Valencia, and W. by Teruel. Pop.
(1900) 310,828; area, 2405 sq. m. The surface of the province
is almost everywhere mountainous, and flat only near the coast
and along some of the river valleys. Even on the coast the
Atalayas de Alcala and the Desierto de las Palmas form two
well-defined though not lofty ridges. The Mijares or Millares
is the principal river, flowing east-south-east from the highlands
of Teruel, between the Sierras of Espina and Espadan towards
the south, and the peak called Pena Golosa (5945 ft.) towards
the north, until it reaches the sea a little south of the capital,
also called Castell6n de la Plana. The Monlleo, a left-hand
tributary of the Mijares; the Bergantes, which flows inland to
join the Guadalope in Teruel; the Cenia, which divides Castell6n
from Tarragona; and a variety of lesser streams, render the
province abundantly fertile. No considerable inlet breaks the
regularity of the coast-line, and there is no first-class harbour.
The climate is cold and variable in the hilly districts, temperate
in winter and very warm in summer in the lowlands. Agricul-
ture, fruit-growing, and especially the cultivation of the vine
and olive, employ the majority of the peasantry; stock-farming
and sea-fishing are also of importance. Lead, zinc, iron and
other ores have been discovered in the province; but in 1903,
out of 129 mining concessions registered, only two were worked,
and their output, lead and zinc, was quite insignificant. The
local industries are mainly connected with fish-curing, paper,
porcelain, woollens, cotton, silk, esparto, brandy and oils.
Wine, oranges and oil are exported to foreign countries and
CASTELLON— CASTELNAUDARY
473
other parts of Spain. The important Barcelona-Valencia
railway skirts the coast, passing through the capital; and the
Calatayud-Sagunto line crosses the southern extremity of the
province. Elsewhere the roads, which are generally indifferent,
form the sole means of communication. Castell6n (29,904),
Villarreal (16,068), the port of Burriana (12,962), and Peniscola
(3142), a town of some historical interest, are described in
separate articles. The other chief towns are Alcala de Chisbert
(6293), Almazora (7076), Benicarl6 (7251), Maella (7335); Onda
(6595), Segorbe (7045), Vail de Ux6 (8643), Villafames (6708)
and Vinaroz (8625).
CASTELL6N DE LA PLANA, the capital of the province
described above, on the Barcelona-Valencia railway, 4 m. from
the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 29,904. The broad and
fertile plain in which Castell6n is built is watered artificially by
a Moorish aqueduct, largely cut through the solid rock, and
supplied by the estuary of the Mijares, 5 m. south-east. The
town is partly encircled by ancient walls; and, although most
of its public buildings are modern, it contains several convents
of early foundation, a curious old bell-tower, 150 ft. high, and a
parish church chiefly noteworthy for a painting in the interior
by Francisco Ribalta, who was born here in the middle of the
16th century. Castell6n has a brisk trade, its manufactures
comprising porcelain, leather, silk, linen, brandy and cork
goods. Its harbour, £1 Grao de Castell6n, about 4 m. east, is
annually entered by some 200 small vessels. A light railway,
which traverses the numerous and profitable orange plantations
on the south-west, connects it with the towns of Almazora,
Villarreal, Burriana and Onda, Under its Moorish rulers
Castellon occupied a hill to the north of its present site; its
removal to the plain by James I. of Aragon (1213-1276) gave
the town its full name, " Castellon of the Plain."
CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE, Sieur de la Mauvjssi£re
(c. 1 520-1 592), French soldier and diplomatist, ambassador to
Queen Elizabeth, was born in Touraine about 1520. He was
one of a large family of children, and his grandfather, Pierre de
Castelnau, was equerry to Louis XII. Endowed with a clear
and penetrating intellect and remarkable strength of memory,
he received a careful education, to complete which he travelled
in Italy and made a long stay at Rome. He then spent some
time in Malta, afterwards entered the army, and made his first
acquaintance with war in the campaigns of the French in Italy.
His abilities and his courage won for him the friendship and pro-
tection of the cardinal of Lorraine, who took him into his service.
In 1557 a command in the navy was given to him, and the
cardinal proposed to get him knighted. This, however, he de-
clined, and then rejoined the French army in Picardy. Various
delicate missions requiring tact and discretion were entrusted
to him by the constable de Montmorency, and these he discharged
so satisfactorily that he was sent by the king, Henry II., to
Scotland with despatches for Mary Stuart, then betrothed to
the dauphin (afterwards Francis II.). From Scotland he passed
into England, and treated with Queen Elizabeth respecting her
claims on Calais (1559), a settlement of which was effected at
the congress of Cateau-Cambr6sis. He was next sent as am-
bassador to the princes of Germany, for the purpose of prevailing
upon them to withdraw their favour from the Protestants.
This embassy was followed by missions to Margaret of Parma,
governess of the Netherlands, to Savoy, and then to Rome, to
ascertain the views of Pope Paul IV. with regard to France.
Paul having died just before his arrival, Castelnau used his
influence in favour of the election of Pius IV. Returning to
France, he once more entered the navy, and served under his
former patron. It was his good fortune, at Nantes, to discover
the earliest symptoms of the conspiracy of Amboise, which he
immediately reported to the government.
After the death of Francis II. (December 1560) he accom-
panied the queen, Mary Stuart, to Scotland, and remained with
her a year, during which time he made several journeys into
England, and attempted to bring about a reconciliation between
Mary and Queen Elizabeth. The wise and moderate counsels
which he offered to the former were unheeded. In 1562, in
consequence of the civil war in France, he returned there. He
was employed against the Protestants in Brittany, was taken
prisoner in an engagement with them and sent to Havre, but
was soon after exchanged. In the midst of the excited passions
of his countrymen, Castelnau, who was a sincere Catholic, main-
tained a wise self-control and moderation, and by his counsels
rendered valuable service to the government. He served at the
siege of Rouen, distinguished himself at the battle of Dreux,
took Tancarville, and contributed in 1563 to the recapture of
Havre from the English.
During the next ten years Castelnau was employed in
various important missions: — first to Queen Elizabeth, to
negotiate a peace; next to the duke of Alba, the new governor
of the Netherlands. On this occasion he discovered the
project formed by the prince of CondS and Admiral Coligny
to seize and carry off the royal family at Monceaux (1567).
After the battle of St Denis he was again sent to Germany
to solicit aid against the Protestants; and on his return
he was rewarded for his services with the post of governor of
Saint-Dizier, and a company of orderlies. At the head of his
company he took part in the battles of Jarnac and Moncontour.
In 1572 he was sent to England by Charles IX. to allay the
excitement created by the massacre of St Bartholomew, and
the same year he was sent to Germany and Switzerland. Two
years later he was reappointed by Henry III. ambassador to
Queen Elizabeth, and he remained at her court for ten years.
During this period he used his influence to promote the marriage
of the queen with the duke of Alencon, with a view especially
to strengthen and maintain the alliance of the two countries.
But Elizabeth made so many promises only to break them that
at last he refused to accept them or communicate them to his
government. On his return to France he found that his chateau
of La Mauvissiere had been destroyed in the civil war; and as
he refused to recognize the authority of the League, the duke of
Guise deprived him of the governorship of Saint-Dizier. He
was thus brought almost to a state of destitution. But on the
accession of Henry IV., the king, who knew his worth, and was
confident that although he was a Catholic he might rely on his
fidelity, gave him a command in the army, and entrusted him
with various confidential missions.
Castelnau died at Joinville in 1592. His Memoir es rank very
high among the original authorities for the period they cover,
the eleven years between 1559 and 1570. They were written
during his last embassy in England for the benefit of his son;
and they possess the merits of clearness, veracity and im-
partiality. They were first printed in 162 1; again, with
additions by Le Laboureur, in 2 vols, folio, in 1659; and a third
time, still further enlarged by Jean Godefroy, 3 vols, folio, in
1 73 1. Castelnau translated into French the Latin work of
Ramus, On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls.
Various letters of his are preserved in the Cottonian and Harleian
collections in the British Museum.
His grandson, Jacques de Castelnau (1620-1658), distin-
guished himself in the war against Austria and Spain during the
ministries of Richelieu and Mazarin, and died marshal of France.
See Hubault, Ambassade de Castelnau en Angleterre (1856);
Relations politiques de la France . . . avec Vficosse au seizihne
siecle, edited by J. B. A. T, Teulet (1862); and De la Ferriere, Les
Projets de manage d' Elisabeth (1883).
CASTELNAUDARY, a town of south-western France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Aude, 22 m. W.N.W.
of Carcassonne, on the Southern railway between that city
and Toulouse. Pop. (1906) 6650. It is finely situated on an
elevation in the midst of a fertile and well-cultivated plain; and
its commercial facilities are greatly increased by the Canal du
Midi, which widens out, as it passes the town, into an extensive
basin surrounded with wharves and warehouses for the timber
used in the upkeep of the canal. The principal buildings are
the law court, the hdtel de ville, and the church of St Michel,
dating from the 14th century; none of these offers any feature
of unusual interest. There are a number of flour-mills, as well
as manufactories of earthenware, tiles and blankets; an extensive
474
CASTELSARRASIN— CASTIGLIONE, G. B.
trade is maintained in lime, gypsum, timber, grain, fruits, wine,
wool, cattle and farm implements, and the building of canal
boats forms an important industry. The public institutions
include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a communal college and a farm school.
Castelnaudary probably represents the ancient town of
Sostomagus, taken during the 5th century by the Visigoths,
who, it is conjectured, rebuilt the town, calling it Castrum
Novum Arianorum, whence the present name. Early in the 13th
century the town was the scene of several struggles during the
war against the Albigenses, between Simon IV., count of Mont-
fort, and Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, and their supporters.
In 1229 it was deprived of its ramparts, and after these had been
rebuilt, it was captured and burned by the Black Prince in 1355,
but again rebuilt in 1366. In 1632 it was the scene of a cavalry
engagement in which the rebel Henry II., duke of Montmorency,
was defeated and captured by the royal troops.
CASTELSARRASIN, a town of south-western France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Tarn-et- Garonne,
12 m. W. of Montauban on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906)
town, 3189; commune, 7496. Castelsarrasin, situated on the
left bank of the lateral canal of the Garonne and about a mile
from the right bank of that river, is surrounded by promenades
occupying the site of the old fortifications. Its chief building is
the brick-built church of St Sauveur, which dates from the 13 th
century. The administrative buildings are modern. The town
has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
college. The principal industrial establishment is the metal-
foundry of Sainte-Marguerite, where copper, tin and other
metals are worked; there are also flour-mills, saw-mills and
dye-works. Trade is in cattle, agricultural produce, wine,
baskets and game.
The name Castelsarrasin appears in the 13th century, when
the village of Villelongue was replaced by the present bastide.
Castrum Cerrucium, Castel-sur-Azine (from the neighbouring
stream, Azine) and Castellum Sarracenum are suggested deriva-
tions, no one of which can be adopted with certainty.
CASH, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1721-1803), Italian poet, was
born of humble parents at Montefiascone, in the states of the
church, in 1 7 21. He rose to the dignity of canon in the cathedral
of his native place, but gave up his chance of church preferment
to satisfy his gay and restless spirit by visiting most of the capitals
of Europe. In 1 782 , on the death of Metastasio, he was appointed
Poeta Cesario, or poet-laureate of Austria, in which capacity he
applied himself with great success to the opera bouffe; but in
1796 he resigned this post, in order that he might not be
hampered by political relations; and he spent the close of his
life as a private gentleman at Paris, where he died in 1803. Casti
is best known as the author of the Novelle galanti, and of Gli
Anitnali parlanti, a poetical allegory, over which he spent eight
years (1 794-1802), and which, notwithstanding its tedious length,
excited so much interest that it was translated into French,
German and Spanish, and (very freely and with additions) into
English, in W. S. Rose's Court and Parliament of Beasts (Lond.,
18 1 9). Written during the time of the Revolution in France, it
was intended to exhibit the feelings and hopes of the people and
the defects and absurdities of various political systems. The
Novelle Galanti is a series of poetical tales, in the ottava rima — a
metre largely used by Italian poets for that class of compositions.
The sole merit of these poems consists in the harmony and purity
of the style, and the liveliness and sarcastic power of many
passages. They are, however, characterized by the grossest
licentiousness; and there is no originality of plot — that,
according to the custom of Italian novelists, being taken from
classical mythology or other ancient legends. Among the other
works of Casti is the Poema Tartaro, a mock-heroic satire on the
court of Catherine II., with which he was personally acquainted.
CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE (1478-1529), Italian diplomatist
and man of letters, was bom at Casanatico near Mantua, and was
educated at Milan under the famous professors Merula and
Chalcondyles. In 1496 he.e@tered the service of Lodovico Sforza,
duke of Milan, returning to Mantua in 1500 when Lodovico was
carried prisoner into France. In 1504 he was attached to the
court of Guidobaldo Malatesta, duke of Urbino, and in 1506 he
was sent by that prince on a mission to Henry VII. of England,
who had before conferred on Federigo Malatesta, " the Good
Duke, 1 ' the most famous mercenary of his age, the order of the
Garter. Guidobaldo dying childless in 1 508, the duchy of Urbino
was given to Francesco Maria della Rovere, for whom Castiglione,
envoy at the court of Leo X. (Medici), obtained the office of
generalissimo of the Papal troops. Charged with the arrangement
of the dispute between Clement VII. (Medici) and Charles V.,
Castiglione crossed, in 1524, into Spain, where he was received
with highest honours, being afterwards naturalized, and. made
bishop of A vila. In 1527, however, Rome was seized and sacked
by the Imperialists under Bourbon, and in July of the same
year the surrender of the castle of Sant' Angelo placed Clement
in their hands. Castiglione had been tricked by the emperor,
but there were not wanting accusations of treachery against
himself. He had, however, placed fidelity highest among the
virtues of his ideal " courtier," and when he died at Toledo in
1529 it was said that he had died of grief and shame at the
imputation. The emperor mourned him as " one of the world's
best cavaliers." A portrait of him, now at the Louvre, was
painted by Raphael, who disdained neither his opinion nor his
advice.
Castiglione wrote little, but that little is of rare merit. His
verses, in Latin and Italian, are elegant in the extreme; his
letters (Padua, 1 769-1 771) are full of grace and finesse. But the
book by which he is best remembered is the famous treatise, 7/
CortegianOy written in 15 14, published at Venice by Aldus in
1528, and translated into English by Thomas Hoby as early as
1 561. This book, called by the Italians II Libro d'oro, and
remarkable for its easy force and undemonstrative elegance of
style no less than for the nobility and manliness of its theories
(see the edition by V. Cian, Florence, 1894), describes the Italian
gentleman of the Renaissance under his brightest and fairest
aspect, and gives a charming picture of the court of Guidobaldo
da Montefeltre, duke of Urbino, " confessedly the purest and
most elevated court in Italy." In the form of a discussion held
in the duchess's drawing-room — with Elizabetta Gonzaga,
Pietro Bembo, Bernardo Bibbiena, Giuliano de' Medici, Emilia
Pia, and Ceretino the Unique among the speakers — the question,
What constitutes a perfect courtier? is debated. With but few
differences, the type determined on is the ideal gentleman of the
present day.
See P. L. Ginguene, Histoire littSraire de V Italic, vi., vii.; J. A.
Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy (London, 1875); C. Hare,
Courts and Camps of the Italian Renaissance (1908); Julia Cart-
wright, B. Castiglione, the Perfect Courtier (1908), with good biblio-
graphy.
CASTIGLIONE, CARLO OTTAVIO, Count (1784-1849), Italian
philologist, was born at Milan of an ancient family. His principal
work was done in connexion with the Arabic and other Oriental
languages, but he also performed good service in several other
departments. In 18 19 he published Monete cufiche del Museo di
Milano, and assisted Cardinal Mai in his Ulphilae partium
ineditarum in Ambrosianis palimpsestis repertarum edilio. A
learned Me' moire giographique et numismatique sur la partie
orientate de la Barbaric appeUe Afrikia par les Arabes appeared
in 1826, and established his reputation. In 1829 he published
by himself the Gothic version of the second epistle of Paul to the
Corinthians; and this was followed by the Gothic version of the
epistle to the Romans, the first epistle to the Corinthians, and
the epistle to the Ephesians in 1834, by Galatians, Philippians,
and 1 Thessalonians in 1835, and by 2 Thessalonians in 1839.
He died at Genoa on the 10th of April 1849.
His Life, by Biondelli, appeared at Milan in 1856.
CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO (1 616-1670), called
in Italy II Grechetto, and in France Le Ben6dette, Italian
painter of the Genoese school, was born in Genoa, and studied
for some time under Vandyck. He painted portraits, historical
pieces and landscapes, but chiefly excelled in fairs, markets and
rural scenes with animals. Noah and the animals entering the
CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE— CASTILE
475
Ark was a favourite subject of his. His paintings are to be found
in Rome, Venice, Naples, Florence, and more especially Genoa
and Mantua. He also executed a number of etchings, which
are spirited, free and full of taste; " Diogenes searching for
a Man " is one of the principal of these. The etchings are
remarkable for light and shade, and have even earned for Cas-
tiglione the name of " a second Rembrandt." The Presepio
(Nativity of Jesus) in the church of San Luca, Genoa, ranks
among his most celebrated paintings, and the Louvre contains
eight characteristic examples. In his closing years he lived in
Mantua, painting for the court; here he received his name of
" Grechetto," from the classic air of his pastorals, and here he
died of gout in 1670. His brother Salvatore and his son Fran-
cesco excelled in the same subjects; and it is thought that many
paintings which are ascribed to Benedetto are only copies after
him, or perhaps originals by his son or brother.
CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE, a town of Lombardy,
Italy, in the province of Mantua, 20 m. N.W. of Mantua by
road. Pop. (1001) 4122 (town), 5040 (commune). It has an
old castle, much altered and restored, especially by the Gonzaga
family of Mantua in the 16th century. During the War of the
Spanish Succession, the French under the duke of Vendome
occupied it; and during the siege of Mantua in 1796, the
Austrians under Wiirmser were defeated here by the French
under Augereau, who was later created by Napoleon duke of
Castiglione.
CASTIGLIONE OLONA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Como, 27 m. N.£. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1001)
1806. The choir of the collegiate church, erected about 1428
by Cardinal Branda Castiglione, contains fine frescoes by
Masolino of Florence: there are other works by the same
master in the baptistery. The tomb of the cardinal (1443) is
good. The church of S. Sepolcro, in the lower part of the town,
has two large stone figures of saints on its facade (of the end
of the 13th century) and, within, painted wooden figures and
the tomb of Guido Castiglione (d. 1485) with fine sculptures
of the school of Amadeo. The palace erected by Cardinal
Castiglione has good terra-cotta decorations.
CASTILE, or Casttlle (Costilla), an ancient kingdom of Spain,
occupying the central districts of the Iberian Peninsula; and
bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, N.E. by the Basque
Provinces and Navarre, £. by Aragon, S.E. by Valencia and
Murcia, S. by Andalusia, W. by Estremadura and Leon, and
N.W. by Asturias. Pop. (1000) 3*708,713; area, 55i3<>7 sq. m.
The name Castile is commonly said to be derived from the
numerous frontier forts (costillos) erected in the middle ages
as a defence against the Moors. The northern part of the
kingdom, which was first freed from Moorish rule, is called
Old Castile (Costilla la Vieja); the southern, acquired later,
is called New Castile (CastiUo la Nueva). These two divisions,
with a third known as North Castile, now rank as military
districts or captaincies-general; but the term " North Castile,"
which covers the northern extremity of Old Castile, is not
generally used. In 1833 Old Castile was divided into the pro-
vinces of A vila, Burgos, Logrofio, Palencia, Santander, Segovia,
Soria and Valladolid; while New Castile was similarly divided
into Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid and Toledo.
The modern progress of commerce, communications, &c. in
these thirteen provinces is described in the separate articles upon
each of them.
Castile extends for about 300 m. from north to south, and
160 m. from east to west. It consists of a vast central plateau,
with an average altitude of about 2500 ft. This plateau has
a natural frontier of high mountains on all sides, except on the
borders of Leon and Murcia; it is also bisected by the Sierra
de Guadarrama and Sierra de Gredos, which extend in a south-
westerly direction across the central districts, and form the
dividing line between Old and New Castile. Geographically
it includes also the high plains of Leon, towards the north-west,
and of Murcia on the south-east. The existing frontier is marked
on the north by the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.); on the east
by the Sierra de la Demanda with its offshoots, and by the
Serrania de Cuenca; on the south by the Sierra Morena; and
on the west by various minor ranges which link together the
three more or less parallel chains of the Sierra de GrSdos, Sierra
de Guadalupe and Sierra Morena. Three great rivers, the
Douro, which traverses Old Castile, with the Tagus and Guadiana,
which respectively drain the central and southern regions of
New Castile, flow westward into Portugal, and finally reach the
Atlantic; while the Ebro, which rises in the north of the king-
dom, skirts the north-eastern frontier on its way to the Medi-
terranean. These rivers are described under their own names.
The climate of Old Castile is healthy, but liable to severe cold
and heat. Snow falls early and lies late in the mountains, and
there is a heavy rainfall in the north-west. New Castile has a
still more rigorous climate, for although the mean annual tem-
perature is about 59° Fahr., the summer heat in the valleys is
peculiarly oppressive, and the highlands are swept by scorching
or icy gales, laden with dust. The rainfall rarely exceeds 10 in. in
a year.
In both the Castiles the central plateau has a naturally fertile
soil, for after rain a luxuriant vegetation appears; but drought
is common, owing to the insufficient volume of the rivers, and
the failure of the Spaniards to extend the fine system of irrigation
which the Moors originated. Certain districts, indeed, in which
a layer of heavy loam underlies the porous and friable surface,
are able to retain the moisture which elsewhere is absorbed.
Such land is found in Palencia, and in the Mesa de Ocana, where
it yields abundant crops; and many of the northern mountains
are well wooded. But vast traces of land are useless except as
pasture for sheep, and even the sheep are driven by the severe
winters to migrate yearly into Estremadura (q.v.). The normal
Castilian landscape is an arid and sterile steppe, with scarcely
a tree or spring of water; and many even of the villages afford
no relief to the eye, for they are built of sunburnt unbaked
bricks, which share the dusty brownish-grey tint of the soil.
Especially characteristic is the great plain of La Mancha (q.v.).
The transformation of Castile from a small county in the north
of what is now Old Castile into an independent monarchy, was
one of the decisive events in the reconquest of Spain from the
Moors. The successful resistance offered by Asturias to the
invaders had been followed by the liberation of Galicia and Leon,
when Ferdinand I. of Castile (103 5-1065), by his marriage
with Sancha, widow of the last king of Leon, was enabled to
unite Leon and Castile in a single kingdom, with its capital* at
Burgos. New territories were annexed on the south, until, after
the capture of Toledo in 1085, and the consequent formation
of a New Castile, the kingdom comprised the whole of central
Spain. Thenceforward its history is inseparable from that of
the whole country; and it is therefore described in full, together
with the language and literature of Castile, under Spain (q.v.).
Castilian, which is the literary language of Spain, and with
certain differences, of Spanish America, is spoken in Old and
New Castile, Aragon, Estremadura, and the greater part of
Leon; in Andalusia it is subject to various modifications of
accent and pronunciation. As there is little, if any, difference
of racial origin, character and physical type, among the in-
habitants of this region, except in Andalusia, and, to a less extent,
in Estremadura, the Castilian is justly regarded as the typical
Spaniard. Among the Castilian peasantry, where education
and foreign influence have never penetrated deeply, the national
character can best be studied. Its intense pride, its fatalistic
indolence and ignorance, its honesty and its bigotry, tempered
by a keen sense of humour, are well-known characteristics.
Apart from the peasant class, Castilians have contributed more
to the development of Spanish art and literature than the in-
habitants of any other region except, perhaps, Andalusia, which
claims to be regarded as supreme in architecture and painting.
Of the two great Spanish universities, Alcaic de Henares belonged
in all respects to Castile, and Salamanca rose to equality with
Paris, Oxford or Bologna, under the purely Castilian influence
of Alphonso X. (1 252-1 284).
For a general description of Castile and its inhabitants, antiquities,
commerce, &c, see Costilla la Nueva, three illustrated volumes in
476
CASTILHO— CASTLE
the series Espaha, by J. M. Quadrado and V. de la Fuente (Barcelona,
1885-1886), and the Guia del antiguo reino de Costilla, by E.Valverde
y Alvarez (Madrid, 1886), which deals with the provinces of Burgos,
Santander, Logrono, Soria, Avila and Segovia. For the history,
see in addition to the works cited under Spain (section History),
Cronicas de los reyes de Costilla, by C. Rosell (Madrid, 1875-1877,
2 vols.) ; Coleccion de las cronicas y memorias de los reyes de Costma
(Madrid, 1779-1787, 7 vols.); and Historia de las cotntnunidades de
Castillo (Madrid, 1897).
CASTILHO, ANTONIO FELICIANO DE (1800-1875), Portu-
guese man of letters, was born at Lisbon. He lost his sight
at the age of six, but the devotion of his brother Augusto, aided
by a retentive memory, enabled him to go through his school
and university course with success; and he acquired an almost
complete mastery of the Latin language and literature. His
first work of importance, the Cartas de Echo e Narciso (182 1),
belongs to the pseudo-classical school in which he had been
brought up, but his romantic leanings became apparent in the
Primavera (1822) and in Amor e Melancholia (1823), two volumes
of honeyed and prolix bucolic poetry. In the poetic legends
A noite de CasteUo (1836) and Cuimes do bardo (1838) Castilho
appeared as a full-blown Romanticist. These books exhibit
the defects and qualities of all his work, in which lack of ideas
and of creative imagination and an atmosphere of artificiality
are ill compensated for by a certain emotional charm, great
purity of diction and melodious versification. Belonging to the
didactic and descriptive school, Castilho saw nature as all
sweetness, pleasure and beauty, and he lived in a dreamland
of his imagination. A fulsome epic on the succession of King
John VI. brought him an office of profit at Coimbra. On his
return from a stay in Madeira, he founded the Revista Universal
Lisbonense, in imitation of Herculano's Panorama, and his
profound knowledge of the Portuguese classics served him well
in the introduction and notes to a very useful publication, the
Livraria Classica Portugueza (1845-1847, 25 vols.), while two
years later he established the " Society of the Friends of Letters
and the Arts." A study on Camoens and treatises on metri-
fication and mnemonics followed from his pen. His praise-
worthy zeal for popular instruction led him to take up the study
of pedagogy, and in 1850 he brought out his Leitura Repentina,
a method of reading which was named after him, and he became
government commissary of the schools which were destined
to put it into practice. Going to Brazil in 1854, he there wrote
his famous " Letter to the Empress." Though Castilho's lack
of strong individuality and his over-great respect for authority
prevented him from achieving original work of real merit, yet
his translations of Anacreon, Ovid and Virgil and the Chave do
Enigma, explaining the romantic incidents that led to his first
marriage with D. Maria de Baena, a niece of the satirical poet
Tolentino, and a descendant of Antonio Ferreira, reveal him
as a master of form and a purist in language. His versions of
Goethe's Faust and Shakespeare's Midsummer Night f s Dream,
made without a knowledge of German and English, scarcely added
to his reputation. When the Coimbra question arose in 1865,
Garrett was dead and Herculano had ceased to write, leaving
Castilho supreme, for the moment, in the realm of letters.
But the youthful Anthero de Quental withstood his claim to
direct the rising generation and attacked his superannuated
leadership, and after a fierce war of pamphlets Castilho was
dethroned. The rise of Joao de Deus reduced him to a secondary
position in the Portuguese Parnassus, and when he died ten years
later much of his former fame had preceded him to the tomb.
See also " Memorias de Castilho" in the Instituto of Coimbra;
Innocencio da Silva in Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez, i. 130
and viii. 132; Latino Coelho's study in the Revista contemporanea
de Portugal e Brazil, vols. i. and ii. ; Dr Theophilo Braga, Historia do
Romantismo (Lisbon, 1880). (E. Pr.)
CASTILLEJO, CRIST6BAL DE (1 490-1 556), Spanish poet,
was born at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1490. In 1518 he left Spain
with Ferdinand of Austria, afterwards emperor, whose private
secretary he eventually became. While residing at Vienna in
1528-1530 he wrote the Historia de Piramo y Tisbe, and dedi-
cated it to Anna von Schaumberg, with whom he had a platonic
love-affair. He seems to have visited Venice, to have been
neglected by his patron, to have fallen ill in 1540, and to have
passed his last years in poverty. He died on the 12th of June
1556, and was buried at Vienna. Castillejo's poems are inter-
esting, not merely because of their intrinsic excellence, but also as
being the most powerful protest against the metrical innova-
tions imported from Italy by Boscan and Garcilaso de la
Vega. He adheres to the native quintillas or to the copies de
pie quebrado, and only abandons these traditional forms when
he indulges in caustic parody of the new school — as in the lines
Contra los que dejan los metros casteUanos. He excels by virtue
of his charming simplicity and his ingenious wit, always keen,
sometimes licentious, never brutal. The urbane gaiety of his
occasional poems is delightfully spontaneous, and the cynical
humour which informs the Didlogo de las condiciones de las
mujeres and the Didlogo de la vida de la carte is impregnated with
the Renaissance spirit. Castillejo is the Clement Marot of
Spain. His plays are lost; the best text of his verses is that
printed at Madrid in 1792.
CASTILLO S0L6RZAN0, ALONSO DE (1584?-! 647?), Spanish
novelist and playwright, is stated to have been baptized at
Tordesillas near Valladolid on 1st October 1584. Nothing is
known of his youth, and he is next heard of at Madrid in
1 619 as a man of literary tastes. While in the service of the
marquis de Villar, he issued his first work, Donaires del Parnaso
(1624-1625), two volumes of humorous poems; his Tardes
enlretenidas (1625) and Jornadas alegres (1626) proved that he
was a novelist by vocation. Shortly afterwards he joined the
household of the marquis de los Velez, viceroy of Valencia, and
published in quick succession three clever picaresque novels:
La Nina de los embustes, Teresa de Manzanares (1634), Las
Aventuras del Bachiller Trapaza (1637), and a continuation
entitled La Garduna de Seville y Anzuelo de las bolsas (1642).
To these shrewd cynical stories he owes his reputation. He
followed the marquis de los Velez in his disastrous campaign
in Catalonia, and accompanied him to Rome, where the defeated
general was sent as ambassador. Castillo Solorzano's death
occurred (probably at Palermo) before 1648, but the exact date
is uncertain. His prolonged absence from Madrid prevented
him from writing as copiously for the stage as he would other-
wise have done; but he was popular as a playwright both at
home and abroad. His Marques del Cigarral and El Mayorozgo
figur&n are the sources respectively of Scarron's Don Jophet
d'Armenie and UH&rUier ridicule. Among his numerous remain-
ing works may be mentioned Las Harptas en Madrid (1633),
Fiestas del Jar din (1634), Los Alivios de Casandra (1640) and the
posthumous Quinta de Laurel (1649); the witty observation of
these books forms a singular contrast to the prim devotion of
his Sagrario de Valencia (1635). His versatility and graceful
style deserve the highest praise. (J. F.-K.)
CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp;
Fr. chdteau and chdtet), a small self-contained fortress, usually
of the middle ages, though the term is sometimes used of pre-
historic earthworks (e.g. Hollingbury Castle, Maiden Castle),
and sometimes of citadels (e.g. the castles of Badajoz and Burgos)
and small detached forts aVarrU in modern times. It is also often
applied to the principal mansion of a prince or nobleman, and
in France (as chfaeau) to any country seat, this use being a relic
of the feudal age. Under its twofold aspect of a fortress and a
residence, the medieval castle is inseparably connected with the
subjects of fortification (see Fortification and Siegecraft)
and architecture (q.v.). An account of Roman and pre-Roman
castella in Britain will be found under Britain.
The word "castle" (castet) was introduced into English
shortly before the Norman Conquest to denote a type of fortress,
then new to the country, brought in by the Norman knights
whom Edward the Confessor had sent for to defend Hereford-
shire against the inroads of the Welsh. Richard's castle, of
which the earthworks remain and which has given its name
to a parish, was erected at this period on the border of Hereford-
shire and Shropshire by Richard Fitz Scrob. The essential
feature of this type was a circular mound of earth surrounded
by a dry ditch and flattened at the top. Around the crest of
CASTLE
477
Section
From Clark's Medieval Military Architecture, by
permission of Bernard Quaritch.
Fig. i. — Plan of Laughton en-le-
Morthen.
its summit was placed a timber palisade. This moated mound
was styled in French matte (latinized moid), a word still common
in French place-names. It is clearly depicted at the time of
the Conquest in the Bayeux tapestry, and was then familiar
on the mainland of western Europe. A description of this earlier
castle is given in the life of John, bishop of Terouanne (Acta
Sanctorum, quoted by G. T. Clark, Medieval Mil. Architecture) :—
" The rich and the noble of that region being much given to
feuds and bloodshed, fortify themselves . . . and by these
strongholds subdue their equals and oppress their inferiors. They
heap up a mound as high as they are able, and dig round it as
broad a ditch as they can. . . . Round the summit of the mound
they construct a palisade of timber to act as a wall. . . .
Inside the palisade they
erect a house, or rather
a citadel, which looks
down on the whole
neighbourhood." St
f** e John, bishop of Terou-
V^Lm™ °+ &&*% anne, died in 1130, and
this castle of Merchem,
built by " a lord of the
town many years be-
fore " may be taken as
typical of the practice of
the nth century. But
in addition to the mound,
the citadel of the for-
tress, there Was usually
c. appended to it a bailey
. or basecourt (and some-
times two) of semilunar
or horseshoe shape, so
that the mound stood a
cheval on the line of the
enceinte. The rapidity
and ease with which it was possible to construct castles of this
type made them characteristic of the Conquest period in England
and of the Anglo-Norman settlements in Wales, Ireland and
the Scottish lowlands. In later days a stone wall replaced the
timber palisade and produced what is known as the shell-keep,
the type met with in the extant castles of Berkeley, Alnwick and
Windsor.
But the Normans introduced also two other types of castle.
The one was adopted where they found a natural rock strong-
hold which only needed adaptation, as at Clifford, Ludlow, the
Peak and Exeter, to produce a citadel; the other was a type
wholly distinct, the high rectangular tower of masonry, of which
the Tower of London is the best-known example, though that of
Colchester was probably constructed in the nth century also.
But the latter type belongs rather to the more settled conditions
of the 1 2th century when haste was not a necessity, and in
the first half of which the fine extant keeps of Hedingham
and Rochester were erected. These towers were originally sur-
rounded by palisades, usually on earthen ramparts, which were
replaced later by stone walls. The whole fortress thus formed
was styled a castle, but sometimes more precisely " tower and
castle," the former being the citadel, and the latter the walled
enclosure, which preserved more strictly the meaning of the
Roman castellum.
Reliance was placed by the engineers of that time simply and
solely on the inherent strength of the structure, the walls of
which defied the battering-ram, and could only be undermined
at the cost of much time and labour, while the narrow apertures
were constructed to exclude arrows or flaming brands.
At this stage the crusades, and the consequent opportunities
afforded to western engineers of studying the solid fortresses
of the Byzantine empire, revolutionized the art of castle-
building, which henceforward follows recognized principles.
Many castles were built in the Holy Land by the crusaders of
the 1 2th century, and it has been shown (Oman, Art of War:
the Middle Ages, p. 529) that the designers realized, first, that a
second line of defences should be built within the main enceinte,
and a third line or keep inside the second line; and secondly, that
a wall must be flanked by projecting towers. From the Byzan-
^FU^UninJ^tFLPlJ
From Oman's History of the Art of War, by
permission of Methuen & Co.
Fig- 3- — Berkeley Castle, late Norman
Shell- Keep.
Fig. 2. — Vertical section of rectangular Norman Keep
(Tower of London).
tine engineers, through the crusaders, we derive, therefore, the
cardinal principle of the mutual defence of all the parts of a
fortress. The donjon of western Europe was regarded as the
fortress, the outer walls
as accessory defences; in
the East each envelope
was a fortress in itself, and
the keep became merely
the last refuge of the
garrison, used only when
all else had been captured.
Indeed the keep, in several
crusader castles, is no
more than a tower, larger
than the rest, built into
the enceinte and serving
with the rest for its
flanking defence, while the fortress was made strongest on the
most exposed front. The idea of the flanking towers (which
were of a type very different from the slight projections of the
shell-keep and rectangular tower) soon penetrated to Europe,
and Alnwick Castle
(1140-1150) shows the
influence of the new
system. But the finest
of all castles of the
middle ages was Richard
Cceur de Lion's fortress
of Chateau Gaillard
(1197) on the Seine near
Les Andelys. Here the
innermost ward was
protected by an elabor-
ate system of strong
appended defences, From 0raan ' s ****** <>\ the aho] War.
which included a strong FlG * 4.-Krak-des-Chevaliers : Plan.
tite-de-pont covering the Seine bridge (see Clark, i. 384, and Oman,
P* 533)- The castle stood upon high ground and consisted of
three distinct enceintes or wards besides the keep, which was
in this case merely a strong tower forming part of the inner-
most ward. The donjon was rarely defended & outrance, and it
478
CASTLE
gradually sank in importance as the outer " wards " grew stronger.
Round instead of rectangular towers were now becoming usual,
the finest examples of their employment as keeps being at
Conisborough in England and at Coucy in France. Against
Fig. 5. — Krak-des-Chevaliers : View.
the relatively feeble siege artillery of the 13th century a well-
built fortress was almost proof, but the mines and the battering
ram of the attack were more formidable, and it was realized that
corners in the stonework of the fortress were more vulnerable
than a uniform curved surface. Chateau Gaillard fell to Philip
Augustus in 1204 after a strenuous defence, and the success of
the assailants was largely due to the wise and skilful employ-
uM«*A*tfer*Mr
K. UnnN flaU
1- fl» Cmimtirwetrp
CjCftafimwrrMin Mr* Am*
9. 7W tttrff o. ftwtem 7«m#
%. 6mt* frtm V* ttrtrpmt*
TT.^^rowfi
x CftwMctMv mn
V U»SCelma*mtk*m*r
Fig. 6.— Chateau Gaillard.
ment of mines. An angle of the noble keep of Rochester was
undermined and brought down by John in 1215.
The next development was the extension of the principle of
successive lines of defence to form what is called the " con-
centric " castle, in which each ward was placed wholly within
another which enveloped it; places thus built on a flat side
(e.g. Caerphilly Castle) became for the first time more formidable
than strongholds perched upon rocks and hills such as Chateau
Gaillard, where the more exposed parts indeed possessed many
successive lines of defence, but at other points, for want of
room, it was impossible to build more than one or, at most, two
walls. In these cases, the fall of the inner ward by surprise,
escalade, vive force, or even
by regular siege (as was
sometimes feasible), en-
tailed the fall of the whole
castle.
The adoption of the con-
centric system precluded
any such mischance, and
thus, even though siege-
engines improved during
the 13th and 14th cen-
turies, the defence, by the
massive strength of the
concentric castle in some
cases, by natural inaccessi-
bility of position in others,
maintained itself superior
to the attack during the
latter middle ages. Its
final fall was due to the
introduction of gunpowder
as a propellant. " In the
14th century the change
begins, in the 15th it is fully developed, in the 16th the feudal
fastness has become an anachronism.*'
The general adoption of cannon placed in the hands of the
central power a force which ruined the baronial fortifications in
a few days of firing. The possessors of cannon were usually-
private individuals of the middle classes, from whom the prince
hired the materiel and the technical workmen. A typical case
will be found in the history of Brandenburg and Prussia (Carlyle,
Frederick the Great, bk. iii. ch. i.), the impregnable castle of
Friesack, held by an intractable feudal noble, Dietrich von
Fig. 7. — Coucy: Plan.
Fig. 8. — Coucy: View.
Quitzow, being reduced in two days by the elector Frederick I.
with " Heavy Peg " (Faule Grete) and other guns hired and
borrowed (February 1414). The beginnings of orderly govern-
ment in Brandenburg thus depended upon the guns, and the
taking of Friesack is, in Carlyle's phrase, " a fact memorable to
every Prussian man." In England, the earl of Warwick in 1464
CASTLE
479
reduced the strong fortress of Bamborough in a week, and in
Germany, Franz von Sickingen's stronghold of Landstuhl,
formerly impregnable on its heights, was ruined in one day by
the artillery of Philip of Hesse (1523). Very heavy artillery was
used for such work, of course, and against lighter natures, some
castles and even fortified country-houses or castellated mansions
managed to make a stout stand
even as late as the Great
Rebellion in England.
The castle thus ceases to be
the fortress of small and ill-
governing local magnates, and
its later history is merged in
that of modern fortification.
But an interesting transitional
type between the medieval
stronghold and the modern
fortress is found in the coast
castles erected by Henry VIII.,
especially those at Deal, San-
down and Walmer (c. 1540),
which played some part in the
events of the 17 th century, and
of which Walmer Castle is still
the official residence of the lord
warden of the Cinque Ports. Viollet-le-Duc, in his Annals of a
Fortress (English trans.), gives a full and interesting account of
the repeated renovations of the fortress on his imaginary site in
the valley of the Doubs, the construction by Charles the Bold of
artillery towers at the angles of the castle, the protection of the
masonry by earthen outworks, boulevards and demi-boulevards,
and, in the 17th century, the final service of the medieval walls
and towers as a pure enceinte de surett. Here and there we find
old castles serving as forts d'arrU or block-houses in mountain
passes and denies, and in some few cases, as at Dover, they
formed the nucleus of purely military places of arms, but normally
the castle falls into ruins, becomes a peaceful mansion, or is
merged in the fortifications of the town which has grown up
around it. In the Annals of a Fortress the site of the feudal
castle is occupied by the citadel of the walled town, for once
again, with the development of the middle class and of commerce
and industry, the art of the engineer came to be displayed chiefly
in the fortification of cities. The baronial " castle " assumes
pari passu the form of a mansion, retaining indeed for long some
capacity for defence, but in the end losing all military character-
istics save a few which survived as ornaments. Examples of
such castellated mansions are seen in Wingfield Manor,Derbyshire,
and Hurstmonceaux, Sussex, erected in the 15th century, and
From Clark's Med. MU. Arch.
Fig. 9. — Beaumaris Castle:
Plan.
From Clark's Med. Mil. Arch.
Fig. 10.-
- Beaumaris Castle: View.
nearly all older castles which survived were continually improved
and altered to serve as residences. (C. F. A.)
Influence of Castles in English History. — Such strongholds as
existed in England at the time of the Norman Conquest seem to
have offered but little resistance to William the Norman, who,
in order effectually to guard against invasions from without as
well as to awe his newly-acquired subjects, immediately began
to erect castles all over the kingdom, and likewise to repair and
augment the old ones. Besides, as he had parcelled out the
lands of the English amongst his followers, they, to protect
From Oman's History of the Art of War.
Fig. 11. — Caerphilly Castle:
Plan.
themselves from the resentment of the despoiled natives, built
strongholds and castles on their estates, and these were multiplied
so rapidly during the troubled reign of King Stephen that the
" adulterine " (i.e. un-
authorized) castles are
said by one writer to have
amounted to 11 15.
In the first instance,
when the interest of the
king and of his barons
was identical, the former
had only retained in his
hands the castles in the
chief towns of the shires,
which were entrusted to
his sheriffs or constables.
But the great feudal re-
volts under the Conqueror
and his sons showed how
formidable an obstacle to
the rule of the king was the
existenceof such fortresses
in private hands, while the people hated them from the first for the
oppressions connected with their erection and maintenance. It
was, therefore, the settled policy of the crown to strengthen the
royal castles and increase their number, while jealously keeping in
check those of the barons. But in the struggle between Stephen
and the empress Maud for the crown, which became largely a war
of sieges, the royal power was relaxed and there was an outburst
of castle-building, without permission, by the barons. These in
many cases acted as petty sovereigns, and such was their tyranny
that the native chronicler describes the castles as " filled with
devils and evil men." These excesses paved the way for the
pacification at the close of the reign, when it was provided that all
unauthorized castles constructed during its course should be
destroyed. Henry II., in spite of his power, was warned by the
great revolt against him that he must still rely on castles, and the
massive keeps of Newcastle and of Dover date from this period.
Under his sons the importance of the chief castles was recog-
nized as so great that the struggle for their control was in the
forefront of every contest. When Richard made vast grants at
his accession to his brother John, he was careful to reserve the
possession of certain castles, and when John rose against the
king's minister, Longchamp, in 1 191 , the custody of castles was the
chief point of dispute throughout their negotiations, and Lincoln
was besieged on the king's behalf, as were Tickhill, Windsor and
Marlborough subsequently, while the siege of Nottingham had to
From Clark's Med. Mil. Arch.
Fig. 12. — Caerphilly Castle : View.
be completed by Richard himself on his arrival. To John, in
turn, as king, the fall of Ch&teau Gaillard meant the loss of Rouen
and of Normandy with it, and when he endeavoured to repudiate
the newly-granted Great Charter, his first step was to prepare
the royal castles against attack and make them his centres of
resistance. The barons, who had begun their revolt by besieging
that of Northampton, now assailed that of Oxford as well and
480
CASTLEBAR— CASTLE-GUARD
seized that of Rochester. The king recovered Rochester after a
severe struggle and captured Tonbridge, but thenceforth there
was a war of sieges between John with his mercenaries and Louis
of France with his Frenchmen and the barons, which was specially
notable for the great defence of Dover Castle by Hubert de Burgh
against Louis. On the final triumph of the royal cause, after
John's death, at the battle of Lincoln, the general pacification
was accompanied by a fresh issue of the Great Charter in the
autumn of 121 7, in which the precedent of Stephen's reign was
followed and a special clause inserted that all " adulterine "
castles, namely those which had been constructed or rebuilt since
the breaking out of war between John and the barons, should be
immediately destroyed. And special stress was laid on this in
the writs addressed to the sheriffs.
In 1223 Hubert de Burgh, as regent, demanded the surrender
to the crown of all royal castles not in official custody, and though
he succeeded in this, Falkes de Breaut6, John's mercenary, burst
into revolt next year, and it cost a great national effort and a
siege of nearly two months to reduce Bedford Castle, which he had
held. Towards the close of Henry's reign castles again asserted,
in the Baron's War, their importance. The Provisions of Oxford
included a list of the chief royal castles and of their appointed
castellans with the oath that they were to take; but the alien
favourites refused to make way for them till they were forcibly
ejected. When war broke out it was Rochester Castle that
successfully held Simon de Montfort at bay in 1264, and in
Pevensey Castle that the fugitives from the rout of Lewes were
able to defy his power. Finally, after his fall at Evesham, it was
in Kenilworth Castle that the remnant of his followers made
their last stand, holding out nearly five months against all the
forces of the crown, till their provisions failed them at the close of
1266.
Thus for two centuries after the Norman Conquest castles had
proved of primary consequence in English political struggles,
revolts and warfare. And, although, when the country was
again torn by civil strife, their military importance was of small
account, the crown's historic jealousy of private fortification was
still seen in the need to obtain the king's licence to " crenellate "
(i.e. embattle) the country mansion.
Bibliography.— G. T. Clark, Medieval Military Architecture in
England (2 vols.), includes a few French castles and is the standard
work on the subject, but inaccurate and superseded on some points
by recent research; Professor Oman's Art of War in the Middle
Ages is a wide survey of the subject, but follows Clark in some of
his errors; Mackenzie, The Castles of England (1897), valuable for
illustrations; Deville, Histoire du Chdteau-GaiUard (1829) and
Chdteau d' Argues (1830); Viollet-le-Duc's Essay on the Military
Architecture of the Middle Ages was translated by M. Macdermott in
i860. More recent studies will be found in J. H. Round's Geoffrey
de Mandeville (1891); " English Castles " (Quarterly Review, July
1894); and " Castles of the Conquest " (Archeologia, lviii., 1902);
St John Hope's " English Castles of the 10th and nth Centuries "
(Archaeol. Journal, lx., 1902); Mrs Armitage's "Early Norman
Castles of England " (Eng. Hist. Review, xix. 1904), and her papers
in Scot. Soc. Ant. Proc. xxxiv., and The Antiquary, July, August,
1906; G. Neilson's " The Motes in Norman Scotland (Scottish
Review, lxiv., 1898); G. H. Orpen, " Motes and Norman Castles in
Ireland " (Eng. Htst. Review, xxi., xxii., 1906-1907). (J. H. R.)
CASTLEBAR, a market town and the county town of Co. Mayo,
Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, on the river and near
the lough of the same name, on the Manulla and Westport branch
of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 3585. The county court buildings and other public
offices occupy a square, and there is a pleasant mall shaded by
fine trees. There are some breweries, and trade in linens and
agricultural produce. The castle, which gives its name to the
town, was a fortress of the De Burgh family; but the town
itself was founded in the reign of James I., and received a charter
from him in 16 13. In 164 1 the castle was held for the parliament
by Sir Henry Bingham, but he was forced to surrender to Lord
Mayo, and fell a victim, with all his garrison, to the fury and
treachery of the besiegers. The massacre was afterwards
avenged in 1653 by the execution of Sir Theobald Burke (by
that time Lord Mayo), who had been in command along with
his father at the siege. In 1798 the town was occupied for some
weeks by the French under General J. J. Humbert, who had
defeated the English under Luke Hutchison in a conflict which
is jocularly styled the " Castlebar Races." The town returned
two members to the Irish parliament until the Union. Four
miles N.E. of Castlebar is Turlough, with a round tower 70 ft
high and 57 ft. in circumference, and other remains.
CASTLECONNELL, a village of Co. Limerick, Ireland, on
the left bank of the Shannon, 8 nu N.E. of Limerick on the
Great Southern & Western railway. It possesses a spa which
was once considerably frequented, but is famous as a centre for
the salmon fishing on the lower Shannon. Castleconnell is so
intimately connected with this sport that it has given its name
to a favourite pattern of fly-rod, in which a movable splice takes
the place of the usual metal joint. The beautiful rapids of
Doonas (avoided by a canal) are in the neighbourhood, and the
surrounding scenery is generally attractive. There are remains
of a castle from which the town took its name, which was the
seat of the kings of Thomond, and was blown up by General
Ginkel at the time of the siege of Limerick (1600).
CASTLE DONINGTON, a town in the Loughborough parlia-
mentary division of Leicestershire, England, 123 J m. N.N.W.
from London, on the Trent Junction and Western branch of the
Midland railway. Pop. (1001) 2514. It lies on the flank of the
hills overlooking the Trent and Soar valleys. There are slight
remains of the castle. The church of St Luke is a fine building
of Early English and later date. Donington Park, a neighbour-
ing mansion, was offered to refugees during the French Revolu-
tion in 1830, and Charles X. availed himself of this retreat.
Hosiery, silk and baskets are manufactured. Castle Donington
is t\ m. west of Kegworth station on the Midland main line.
Kegworth (pop. 2078), on the Soar, has a hosiery and knitting
industry.
CASTLE DOUGLAS, a burgh of barony and police burgh of
Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1001) 3018. It is situated
on Carlingwark Loch, 19$ m. S.W. of Dumfries by the Glas-
gow & South- Western railway. Its auction marts for sheep and
cattle sales are the largest in the south-west of Scotland; at
an autumn sale as many as 15,000 sheep and 1400 cattle are
disposed of in one day. The leading industries comprise the
making of agricultural implements and mineral waters, besides
tanning. The Macmillan Free Church perpetuates the memory
of John Macmillan (d. 1753), the Cameronian, who helped to
found the Reformed Presbyterian Church. He had been chaplain
to Murray of Broughton, and afterwards became minister of
Balmaghie, about 3$ m. N.W. of Castle Douglas. The town
is the chief centre of business in East Galloway, and it is also
resorted to in midsummer for its beautiful scenery and excellent
fishing. Till 1765 it was only a village under the name of
Causewayhead, but the discovery of marl in the lake brought it
some prosperity, and it was purchased in 1792 by Sir William
Douglas and called after him. Since then its progress has been
continuous. Carlingwark Loch contains several islets, on one
of which is a crannog, or ancient lake dwelling.
CASTLEFORD, an urban district in the Osgoldcross parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on
the river Aire near its junction with the Calder, 9 m. S.E.
of Leeds, on the North-Eastern and Lancashire & Yorkshire
railways. Pop. (1901) 17,386. Large glass-bottle and earthen-
ware-jar works, chemical works, and neighbouring collieries
employ the inhabitants. Here was the Roman village or fort of
Lagecium or Legeolium; and though visible remains are wanting,
a number of relics have been discovered.
CASTLE-GUARD, an arrangement under the feudal system,
by which the duty of finding knights to guard royal castles was
imposed on certain baronies, and divided among their knight's
fees. The greater barons provided for the guard of their castles
by exacting a similar duty from their knights. In both cases the
obligation was commuted very early for a fixed money payment,
which, as " castle-guard rent " lasted on to modern times.
See J. H. Round, " Castle-Guard," in Archaeological Journal,
vol. lix., and " Castle- ward and Coinage," in The Commune of
London. (J. H. R.)
CASTLEMAINE— CASTOR AND POLLUX
481
CASTLEMAINE, a town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia,
78 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1001) 5704. The
gold-mines here were among the first discovered in the colony,
and dredging for gold is carried on in Barker's and Forrest creeks,
at the junction of which the town stands. Slate and flagstone
are largely quarried in the district, which also produces wine and
much fruit, especially apples. Castlemaine has a reputation as
a health resort in cases of pulmonary complaints.
CASTLE RISING, a village of Norfolk, England, 4 m. by
road N.E. of King's Lynn. The Norman castle for which it is
famous stands on slightly elevated ground overlooking, to the
west, the low marshy coast of the Wash. Its site is enclosed by
artificial ramparts of earth and a dyke which is crossed by an
ancient bridge. The keep is square and massive, and fairly
perfect, and it is not difficult to reconstruct the arrangement of
the rooms. In some parts, especially the entrance, the Norman
carving is very rich. The foundations of a small chapel with
apsidal eastern termination have been discovered outside the
castle. The village of Castle Rising is the decayed remnant of a
town of no little importance. Its church of St Laurence is late
Norman, with much rich ornamentation; it shows traces of
considerable alterations in the Early English period, but is an
admirable example of the earlier style.
It is a matter of dispute whether Rising was or was not an
early Saxon settlement; in Domesday Book the manor is given
as having belonged to Archbishop Stigand, from whom it had
passed to Odo of Bayeux, whose estates were confiscated in 1088.
Granted to William de Albini, whose son built Rising Castle, it
passed first to Robert de Montalt, and then by sale to Isabel,
queen of England, in 1332, remaining in the possession of the
crown until Henry VIII. exchanged it for other lands with the
duke of Norfolk. In 1269 an inquisition found that the lord had
the return of all writs. In 1275 Robert de Montalt died seised
of the manor and vill with the assize of bread and ale. An
inquisition of 1379, although it makes no mention of the borough,
states that the lord has the rents of assises, and perquisites of
the courts with view of frank-pledge. A mayor is first mentioned
in 1343, and a borough existed in the 15th century. A survey of
1 589-1 590 declared that Castle Rising was an ancient borough by
prescription according to the grant made to Hugh de Albini by
Henry III. In 1 580-1 590 the recorder was chosen by the lord
of the manor. The mayor, the only member of the corporation,
whose sole duty was the holding of the assize of bread and ale,
was chosen by the burgesses and presented at the court leet for
confirmation. Castle Rising became a parliamentary borough
in 1558, but was disfranchised in 1832 and the corporation
abolished in 1835, although a mayor was elected for special
purposes until 1883. Having no manufactures, the trade of the
town depended entirely on its fairs and markets; but these have
been long obsolete.
CASTLETON, a village in the High Peak parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 17 m. W.S.W. of Sheffield, and
2 m. from Hope station on a branch of the Midland railway.
Pop. (1901) 547. Lying itself at an elevation of about 600 ft.,
it is surrounded on the north, west and south by hills from 1400
to 1700 ft in height, rising sharply, and in parts precipitously.
The village is celebrated for its situation in the midst of the wild
Peak country, for the caves and mines in the neighbourhood, and
for the Castle of the Peak, the ruins of which are strongly placed
on a cliff immediately above the village. The Peak Cavern or
Devil's Hole, penetrating this cliff, is the most magnificent in
Derbyshire. For many generations the entrance to this cave
has served as a workshop, held free of rent, to families employed
in rope and twine making. Speedwell Cavern is not far distant,
at the entrance to the fine pass of Winnats, by which Castleton
and the Vale of Hope are approached from the west. The
beauties of this cavern, in which occurs the so-called bottomless
pit, are in part readily accessible by boat, but the approach to
the inner or Cliff cavern is so difficult that it has rarely been
explored. Among several other caves is that known as the
Blue John Mine, from the decorative fluorspar called " Blue
John " which is obtained here. The church of St Edmund,
Castleton, retains a fine Norman chancel arch, and the vestry
contains a valuable library. At Brough near Castleton was a
Roman fort, established to hold in check the hillmen of the Peak.
It was connected by roads with Buxton, Manchester and Rother-
ham. The Castle of the Peak, or Peveril Castle, is famous
through Sir Walter Scott's novel Peveril of the Peak, Early
earthworks, which, extending from below the castle in a semi-
circle, enclosed the town, can still in great part be traced.
Before the Conquest the site was held by Gernebern and Hundinc,
and was granted by the Conqueror to William PevereU, by whom
the castle was built. On the forfeiture of William PevereU,
grandson of the first holder, it was granted by Henry II. to
Prince John who, in 1204, made Hugh Nevill governor of the
castle. In 1216 William Ferrers, earl of Derby, took it from
the rebellious barons, and was made governor by Henry III.,
who in 1223 granted a charter for a weekly market at the town.
In 1328 the castle was given to John of Gaunt on his marriage
with Blanche of Lancaster, and thus became parcel of the duchy
of Lancaster. The castle has often been used as a prison, and
from its position was almost impregnable.
CASTLETOWN (Manx, Bully Coshtel), a town of the Isle
of Man, 10 m. S.W. of Douglas, by the Isle of Man railway.
Pop. (1001) 1975. It is picturesquely situated on both sides of
a small harbour formed by the outflow of the Silver Burn into
Castletown Bay. It was the legal capital of the island until
1862. In the centre of the town stands Castle Rushen, which
is said to owe its foundation to the Danish chief, Guthred, in
947-960, though the existing building, which is remarkably well
preserved, probably dates from the 14th century. Until the
1 8th century it was the residence of the lords of Man, and until
1 89 1 served as a prison. The massive keep is square, and is
surrounded by an outer wall, with towers and a moat. The
council chamber and court-house were built in 1644. In the
neighbourhood of the castle is the old House of Keys, where the
members of the Manx parliament held their sessions until the
removal of the seat of government to Douglas. A lofty Doric
column commemorates Cornelius Smelt, lieutenant-governor
of the island (d. 1832), near which there is a remarkable sun-dial
with thirteen faces, dating from 1720. King William's College,
situated a mile to the north-east of the town, was opened in
1833; but a complete restoration was rendered necessary by
fire in 1844, and it was subsequently enlarged. It is the chief
educational establishment in the island. At Hango Hill near
the town William Christian, receiver-general, who had sur-
rendered the castle, and with it the island, to the parliamentary
forces in 1651, was executed in 1663 at the instance of the
countess of Derby, who had undertaken to defend it for the
king. A small shipping trade is maintained.
CASTOR and POLLUX (Gr. UoXudeOtcrp), in Greek and
Roman mythology, the twin sons of Leda, and brothers of Helen
and Clytaemnestra. They were also known under the name
of Dioscuri (AUxricopoi, later Atowoupot, children of Zeus), for,
according to later tradition, they were the children of Zeus and
Leda, whose love the god had won under the form of a swan.
In some versions Leda is represented as having brought forth
two eggs, from one of which were born Castor and Pollux, from
the other Helen. In another account, Zeus is the father of
Pollux and Helen, Tyndareus (king of Sparta) of Castor and
Clytaemnestra. In Homer, Castor, Pollux and Clytaemnestra
are said to be the children of Tyndareus and Leda, Helen the
daughter of Leda by Zeus. The Dioscuri were specially rever-
enced among people of Dorian race, and were said to have
reigned at Sparta, where also they were buried. They were
also worshipped, especially in Athens, as lords and protectors
(Apcikes, dvaKTes). Sailors in a storm prayed to them (Horace,
Odes, i. 3) and sacrificed a white lamb, whereupon they were
wont to appear in the form of fire at the masthead (probably
referring to the phenomenon of St Elmo's fire), and the storm
ceased. Later, they were confounded with the Samothracian
Cabeiri. In battle they appeared riding on white horses and
gave victory to the side they favoured. They were the patrons
of hospitality, and founded the sacred festival called Theoxenia.
v. 16
4&2
CASTOR OIL— CASTREN
They presided over public games, Castor especially as the horse-
tamer, Pollux as the boxer; but both are represented as riding
on horseback or driving in a chariot. In Sparta their ancient
symbol was two parallel beams (Steam), connected by cross-bars,
which the Spartans took with them into the field (Plutarch, De
FraUrno Amore, i; Herodotus v. 75); later, they were repre-
sented by two amphorae with snakes twined round them.
Their most important exploits were the invasion of Attica, to
rescue their sister Helen from Theseus; their share in the hunting
of the Calydonian boar (see Meleager) and the Argonautic
expedition, and their battle with the sons of Aphareus, brought
about by a quarrel in regard to some cattle, in which Castor,
the mortal (as the son of Tyndareus), fell by the hand of Idas.
Pollux, finding him dead after the battle, implored Zeus to be
allowed to die with him; this being impossible by reason of his
immortality, Pollux was permitted to spend alternately one day
among the gods, the other in Hades with his brother. Accord-
ing to another fable, the god marked his approval of their love
by placing them together in the sky, as the Twins or the morning
and evening star (Hyginus, Poet. Astronom. ii. 22). Like the
Asvins of the Veda, the bringers of light in the morning sky,
with whom they have been identified, the Dioscuri are repre-
sented as youthful horsemen, naked or wearing only a light
chlamys. Their characteristic attribute is a pointed egg-shaped
cap, surmounted by a star.
Though their worship was perhaps most carefully observed
among people of Dorian origin, Castor and Pollux were held
in no small veneration at Rome. It was the popular belief in
that city from an early period that the battle of Lake Regillus
had been decided by their interposition (Dion. Halic. vi. 13).
They had fought, it was said, armed and mounted, at the head
of the legions of the commonwealth, and had afterwards carried
the news of the victory with incredible speed to the city. The
well in the Forum at which they alighted was pointed out, and
near it rose their ancient temple, in which the senate often held
its sittings. On the 15th of July, the supposed anniversary of
the battle, a great festival with sumptuous sacrifices was cele-
brated in their honour, and a solemn parade of the Roman
knights {transvectio equitum), who looked upon the Dioscuri as
their patrons, took place. (Apollodorus iii. 10. 7, 11. 2; Homer,
Odyssey, xi. 209; Hyginus, Fab. 77. 155; Pindar, Nem. x. 60,
80 and schol.; Diod. Sic. iv. 43; Plutarch, Theseus, 32, 33;
Theocritus, Idyll, xxii.)
See Maurice Albert, Le Culte de Castor et PoUux en Italie (1883),
with special descriptions and representations in art, on coins, vases
and statues; S. Eitrem, " Die g&ttlichen Zwillinge bei den Griechen "
De Cultu Dioscurorum apud Graecos (Bonn, 1804); L.
Acvins oder arische Dioskuren (Munich, 1876); J. R. Harris, The
Dioscuri in the Christian Legends (1903), and The Cult of the Heavenly
Twins (1906) ; W. Helbig, " Die Castores als Schutzgotter des
romischen Equitatus," in Hermes, xl. (1905); C. Jaisle, Die Dio-
skuren als Retter zur See bei Griechen und Romern, und ihr Fortleben
in christlichen Legenden (Tubingen, 1007); L. Preller, Griechische
und romische Mvthologie; articles by A. Furtwangler in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie, and by M. Albert in Daremberg and Saglio's
Dictionnaire des anttquitSs.
CASTOR OIL, the fixed oil obtained from the seeds of the
castor oil plant or Palma Christi, Ricinus communis, belonging
to the natural order Euphorbiaceae. The botanical name is
from Lat. ricinus, a tick, from the form and markings of the seed.
The plant is a native of tropical Africa, but it has been introduced,
and is now cultivated in most tropical and in the warmer
temperate countries. In size it varies from a shrubby plant to a
tree of from 30 to 40 ft. in height according to the climate in
which it grows, being arborescent in tropical latitudes. On
account of its very large beautiful palmate-peltate leaves, which
sometimes measure as much as 2 ft. in diameter, it is cultivated
as an ornamental plant. In the south of England, with the habit
of an annual, it ripens its seeds in favourable seasons; and it has
been known to come to maturity as far north as Christiania in
Norway. Plants are readily grown from seed, which should be
sown singly in small pots and placed in heat early in March. The
young plants are kept under glass till early in June when they
are hardened and put out. The fruit consists of a three-celled
capsule, covered externally with soft yielding prickles, and each
cell develops a single seed. The seeds of the different cultivated
varieties, of which there are a great number, differ much in size
and in external markings; but average seeds are of an oval
laterally compressed form, with their longest diameter about
four lines. They have a shining, marble-grey and brown, thick,
leathery outer coat, within which is a thin dark-coloured brittle
coat. A large distinct leafy embryo lies in the middle of a dense,
oily tissue (endosperm). The seeds contain a toxic substance,
which makes them actively poisonous; so much so that three
have been known to kill an adult.
The oil is obtained from the seeds by two principal methods —
expression and decoction — the latter process being largely used
in India, where the oil, on account of its cheapness and abundance
is extensively employed for illuminating as well as for other
domestic and medicinal purposes. The oil exported from
Calcutta to Europe is prepared by shelling and crushing the
seeds between rollers. The crushed mass is then placed in hempen
cloths and pressed in a screw or hydraulic press. The oil which
exudes is mixed with water and heated till the water boils, and
the mucilaginous matter in the oil separates as a scum. It is
next strained, then bleached in the sunlight, and stored for
exportation. A considerable quantity of castor oil of an excellent
quality is also made in Italy; and in California the manufacture
is conducted on an extensive scale. The following is an outline
of the process adopted in a Californian factory. The seeds are
submitted to a dry heat in a furnace for an hour or thereby, by
which they are softened and prepared to part easily with their oil.
They are then pressed in a large powerful screw-press, and the
oily matter which flows out is caught, mixed with an equal
proportion of water, and boiled to purify it from mucilaginous
and albuminous matter. After boiling about an hour, it is
allowed to cool, the water is drawn off, and the oil is transferred
to zinc tanks or clarifiers capable of holding from 60 to 100
gallons. In these it stands about eight hours, bleaching in the
sun, after which it is ready for storing. By this method 100 lb
of good seeds yield about 5 gallons of pure oiL
Castor oil is a viscid liquid, almost colourless when pure,
possessing only a slight odour, and a mild yet highly nauseous
and disagreeable taste. Its specific gravity is -96, a little less
than that of water, and it dissolves freely in alcohol, ether and
glacial acetic acid. It contains palmitic and several other fatty
acids, among which there is one — ricinoleic acid — peculiar to
itself. This occurs in combination with glycerin, constituting
the greater part of the bulk of the oil.
The active principle to which the oil owes its purgative
properties has not been isolated. It is, indeed, probable that it
is formed in the intestine, as a result of some decomposition as
yet unknown. The dose is from a drachm to an ounce. The
pharmacopoeial mixture is best avoided, being almost uniquely
nauseous. By far the best way to administer the oil is in capsules .
It acts in about five hours, affecting the entire length of the bowel,
but not increasing the flow of bile except in very large doses.
The mode of its action is unknown. The oil will purge when
rubbed into the skin or injected per rectum. It is an invaluable
drug in temporary constipation and whenever a mild action is
essential, as in pregnancy. It is extremely useful for children
and the aged, but must not be employed in cases of chronic
constipation, which it only aggravates, whilst relieving the
symptoms.
CASTRfiN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER (1813-1853), Finnish
ethnologist and philologist, was born at Tervola, in the parish of
Kemi in Finland, on the 20th of November (December 2, 1813).
His father, Christian Castren, parish minister at Rovaniemi,
died in 1825; and Matthias passed under the protection of
his uncle, Mathias Castr€n, the kindly and learned incumbent of
Kemi. At the age of twelve he was sent to school at Uleaborg,
and there he helped to maintain himself by teaching the younger
children. On his removal to the Alexander University at
Helsingforsin 1830, he first devoted himself to Greek and Hebrew
CASTRENSIS— CASTRO, INEZ DE
483
with the intention of entering the church; but his interest was
soon excited by the language of his native country, and he even
began before his course was completed to lay the foundations of a
work on Finnish mythology. The necessity of personal explora-
tions among the still unwritten languages of cognate tribes soon
made itself evident; and in 1838 he joined a medical fellow-
student, Dr. Ehrstrttm, in a journey through Lapland. In the
following year he travelled in Russian Karelia at the expense of
the Literary Society of Finland; and in 1841 he undertook, in
company with Dr Elias Lonnrot, the great Finnish philologist, a
third journey, which ultimately extended beyond the Ural as far
as Obdorsk, and occupied a period of three years. Before start-
ing on this last expedition he had published a translation into
Swedish of the Finnish epic of Kalevala; and on his return he
gave to the world his Elementa grammatices Syrjaenae and
Elementa grammatices Tscheremissae, 1844. No sooner had he
recovered from the illness which his last journey had occasioned
than he set out, under the auspices of the Academy of St Peters-
burg and the Helsingfors University, on an exploration of the
whole government of Siberia, which resulted in a vast addition
to previous knowledge, but seriously affected the health of the
adventurous investigator. The first-fruits of his collections
were published at St Petersburg in 1849 m the form of a Versuch
einer ostjakischen Sprachlehre. In 1850 he published a treatise
De affixis personalibus linguarum Altaicarum, and was appointed
professor at Helsingfors of the new chair of Finnish language and
literature. The following year saw him raised to the rank of
chancellor of the university; and he was busily engaged in what
he regarded as his principal work, a Samoyedic grammar, when
he died on the 7th of May 1853.
Five volumes of his collected works appeared from 1852 to 1858,
fdlken; and (5) Smarre afhandltngar ock akademiska dissertaiioner,
A German translation was published by Anton Schiefner, who was
also entrusted by the St Petersburg Academy with the editing of
his manuscripts, which had been left to the Helsingfors University
and which were subsequently published.
CASTRBNSIS, PAULUS, an Italian jurist of the 14th century.
He studied under Baldus at Perugia, and was a fellow-pupil
with Cardinal Zabarella. He was admitted to the degree of
doctor of civil law in the university of Avignon, but it is uncertain
when he first undertook the duties of a professor. A tradition,
which has been handed down by Panzirolus, represents him as
having taught law for a period of fifty-seven years. He was
professor at Vienna in 1300, at Avignon in 1394, and at Padua
in 1429; and, at different periods, at Florence, at Bologna and at
Perugia. He was for some time the vicar-general of Cardinal
Zabarella at Florence, and his eminence as a teacher of canon
law may be inferred from the language of one of his pupils, who
styles him " f amosissimus juris utriusque monarca." His most
complete treatise is his readings on the Digest, and it appears from
a passage in his readings on the Digestum Vetus that he delivered
them at a time when he had been actively engaged for forty-five
years as a teacher of civil law. His death is generally assigned
to 1436, but it appears from an entry in a MS. of the Digestum
Vetus, which is extant at Munich, made by the hand of one of
his pupils who styles him " praeceptor meus," that he died on
the 20th of July 1441.
CASTRES, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Tarn, 29 m. S.S.E. of
Albi on a branch line of the Southern railway. Pop. (1906)
town, 19,864; commune, 28,272. Castres, the busiest and most
populous town of its department, is intersected from north to
south by the Agout; the river is fringed by old houses the
upper stories of which project over its waters. Wide boulevards
traverse the west of the town, which is also rendered attractive
by numerous fountains fed by a fine aqueduct hewn in the rock.
The church of St Benolt, once a cathedral, and the most im-
portant of the churches of Castres, dates only from the 17th and
1 8th centuries. The h6tel de ville, which contains a museum
and the municipal library, occupies the former bishop's palace,
designed by Jules Mansart in the 17th century; the Romanesque
tower beside it is the only survival of an old Benedictine abbey.
The town possesses some old mansions of which the h6tel de
Nayrac, of the Renaissance, is of most interest. Castres has a
sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch
of the bank of France and two hospitals. There are also
communal colleges for boys and girls, a school of artillery
and school of draughtsmanship. The industrial establishments
include manufactories of earthenware and porcelain and metal-
foundries, and tanning, leather-dressing, turnery, the making
of wooden shoes and furniture, the weaving of woollen and other
fabrics, dyeing, and the manufacture of machinery, paper and
parchment are carried on.
Castres grew up round a Benedictine abbey, which is believed
to have been founded in the 7th century. It was a place of con-
siderable importance as early as the 12th century, and ranked
as the second town of the Albigenses. During the Albigensian
crusade it surrendered of its own accord to Simon de Montfort;
and in 1356 it was raised to a countship by King John of France.
On the confiscation of the possessions of the D'Armagnac family,
to which it had passed, it was bestowed by Louis XI. on Boffilo
del Giudice, but the appointment led to so much disagreement
that the countship was united to the crown by Francis I. in 1519.
In the wars of the latter part of the 16th century the inhabitants
sided with the Protestant party, fortified the town, and estab-
lished an independent republic. They were brought to terms,
however, by Louis XIII., and forced to dismantle their fortifica-
tions; and the town was made the seat of the chambre de Vidit,
or chamber for the investigation of the affairs of the Protestants,
afterwards transferred to Castelnaudary (in 1679). The bishopric
of Castres, which had been established by Pope John XXII. in
13 17, was abolished at the Revolution.
CASTRO, INEZ DE (d. 1355), mistress, and perhaps wife, of
Peter I. (Pedro), king of Portugal, called C0U0 de Garza, i.e.
"Heron's Neck," was born in Spanish Galicia, in the earlier years
of the 14th century. Tradition asserts that her father, Don
Pedro Fernandez de Castro, and her mother, Dona Aldonca
Soares de Villadares, a noble Portuguese lady, were unmarried,
and that Inez and her two brothers were consequently of bastard
birth. Educated at the semi-Oriental provincial court of Juan
Manuel, duke of Pefiafiel, Inez grew up side by side with Costanca,
the duke's daughter by a scion of the royal house of Aragon,
and her own cousin. After refusing several crowned heads
in marriage, Costanca was at last persuaded to accept the hand
of the infante Dom Pedro, son of Alphonso the Proud, king of
Portugal. In 134 1 the two girls left Pefiafiel; Costanca's marriage
was celebrated in the same year, and the young infanta and
her cousin went to reside at Lisbon, or at Coimbra, where Dom
Pedro conceived that luckless and furious passion for Inez which
has immortalized them.
The morality of the age was lax, and more especially so in
Spain and Portugal, where the looseness of the marriage tie
and the example of the Moors encouraged polygamy. Pedro's
connexion par amours with Inez would of itself have aroused
no opposition. He might even have married her, after the death
of his wife in childbirth in 1345. According to his own assurance
he did marry her in 1354. But by that time the rising power
of the Castro family had created the most brutal hatred among
their rivals, both in Spain and Portugal. Alvaro Gonzales,
Pedro Coelho, and Diogo Lopes Pacheco persuaded the king,
Alphonso, that his throne was in danger from an alliance between
his son and the Castros, and with all the brutality of the age
they urged the king to remove the danger by murdering the poor
woman. The old king listened, refused, wavered and ended by
yielding. He went in secret to the palace at Coimbra, where
Inez and the infante resided, accompanied by his three familiars,
and by others who agreed with them. The beauty and tears
of Inez disarmed his resolution, and he turned to leave her;
but the gentlemen about him had gone too far to recede. Inez
was stabbed to death and was buried immediately in the church
of Santa Clara.
4 8 4
CASTRO, J. DE— CASTRO Y BELLVIS
The infante raised at once the flag of revolt against his father,
and was only appeased by the concession of a large share in the
government. The three murderers of Inez were sent out of the
kingdom by Alphonso, who knew his son too well not to be aware
that the vengeance would be tremendous as the crime. They
took refuge in Castile. In 1357, however, Alphonso died, and
the infante was crowned king of Portugal. Peter the Cruel, his
nephew, reigned over Castile; and the murderers were given
up as soon as required. Diogo Lopes escaped through the grati-
tude of a beggar to whom he had formerly done a kindness;
but Coelho and Gonzales were executed, with horrible tortures,
in the very presence of the king.
The story of the exhumation and coronation of the corpse
of Inez has often been told. It is said that to the dead body,
crowned and robed in royal raiment, and enthroned beside the
king, the assembled nobles of Portugal paid homage as to their
queen, swearing fealty on the withered hand of the corpse. The
gravest doubts, however, exist as to the authenticity of this
story; Fernao Lopes, the Portuguese Froissart, who is the great
authority for the details of the death of Inez, with some of the
actors in which he was acquainted, says nothing of the ghastly
ceremony, though he tells at length the tale of the funeral honours
that the king bestowed upon his wife. Inez was buried at Alcoba&a
with extraordinary magnificence, in a tomb of white marble,
surmounted by her crowned statue; and near her sepulchre
Pedro caused his own to be placed. The monument, after re-
peatedly resisting the violence of curiosity, was broken into
in 18 10 by the French soldiery; the statue was mutilated, and
the yellow hair was cut from the broken skeleton, to be preserved
in reliquaries and blown away by the wind. The children of
Inez shared her habit of misfortune. From her brother, however,
Alvaro Perez de Castro, the reigning house of Portugal directly
descends.
See Fernao Lopes, Chronica del Rey Dom Pedro (1735) ; Camoens,
Os Lusiadas; Antonio Ferreira's Ines de Castro, — the first regular
tragedy of the Renaissance after the Sofonisba of Trissino ; Luis
Velez de Guevara, Reinar despues de morir, an admirable play;
and Ferdinand Denis, Chronigues chevaleresques de VEspagne et au
Portugal. _
CASTRO, JOAO DE (1 500-1 548), called by Camoens Castro
Forte, fourth viceroy of the Portuguese Indies, was the son of
Alvaro de Castro, civil governor of Lisbon. A younger son, and
destined therefore for the church, he became at an early age a
brilliant humanist, and studied mathematics under Pedro
Nunez, in company with the infante Dom Luis, son of Emanuel
the First, with whom he contracted a life-long friendship. At
eighteen he went to Tangier, where he was dubbed knight by
Duarte de Menezes the governor, and there he remained several
years. In 1535 he accompanied Dom Luis to the siege of Tunis,
where he had the honour of refusing knighthood and reward at
the hands of the great emperor Charles V. Returning to Lisbon,
he received from the king the small commandership of Sao
Pablo de Salvaterra in 1538. He was exceedingly poor, but his
wife Lenor de Coutinho, a noble Portuguese lady, admired and
appreciated her husband sufficiently to make light of their
poverty. Soon after this he left for the Indies in company with
his uncle Garcia de Noronha, and on his arrival at Goa enlisted
among the aventureiros, " the bravest of the brave," told off
for the relief of Diu. In 1 540 he served on an expedition under
Estevao da Gama, by whom his son, Alvaro de Castro, a child
of thirteen, was knighted, out of compliment to him. Returning
to Portugal, Joao de Castro was named commander of a fleet,
in 1543, to clear the European seas of pirates; and in 1545 he
was sent, with six sail, to the Indies, in the room of Martin de
Sousa, who had been dismissed the viceroyalty. The next three
years were the hardest and most brilliant, as they were the last,
of his life — years of battle and struggle, of glory and sorrow, of
suffering and triumph. Valiantly seconded by his sons (one
of whom, Fernao, was killed before Diu) and by Joao Masca-
renhas, Joao de Castro achieved such popularity by the over-
throw of Mahmud, king of Gujarat, by the relief of Diu,
and by the defeat of the great army of the Adil Khan, that
he could contract a very large loan with the Goa merchants on
the simple security of his moustache. These great deeds were
followed by the capture of Broach, by the complete subjugation
of Malacca, and by the passage of Antonio Moniz into Ceylon;
and in 1 547 the great captain was appointed viceroy by Jofto III.,
who had at last accepted him without mistrust. He did not live
long to fill this charge, expiring in the arms of his friend, St
Francis Xavier, on the 6th of June 1 548. He was buried at Goa,
but his remains were afterwards exhumed and conveyed to
Portugal, to be reinterred under a splendid monument in the
convent of Bemfica.
See Jacinto Freire de Andrade, Vida de D. Joao de Castro (Lisbon,
1651), English translation by Sir Peter Wyche (1664); Diogo de
Couto, D t codas da Asia, vi. The Roteiros or logbooks of Castro's
voyages in the East (Lisbon, 1833, 1843 and 1872) are of great
interest.
CASTROGIOVANNI (Arab. Kasr-Yam, a corruption of
Castrum Ennae), a town and episcopal see of the province of
Caltanisetta, Sicily, 95 m. by rail S.E. of Palermo, and 56 m. W.
of Catania, situated 2605 ft. above sea-level, almost in the centre
of the island, and commanding a magnificent view of the interior.
Pop. (1901) 25,826. Enna was one of the cities of the Sicels, and
the statement of Stephanus Byzantinus that it was colonised
by Syracuse in 664 B.C. is improbable. The question is dis-
cussed by E. Pais, Atakta (Pisa, 1891), 63. It does not appear
in history before the time of Dionysius I. of Syracuse, who,
after unsuccessful attempts, finally acquired possession of it by
treachery about 397 B.C. Its natural position rendered it a
fortress of great importance, and it is frequently mentioned in
subsequent history. In 134-132 it was the headquarters of the
slave revolt, and was only reduced by treachery. Cicero speaks
of it as a place of some importance, but in imperial times it
seems to have been of little account. In a.d. 837 the Saracens
attempted to take it, but without success; and it was again
only by treachery that they were able to take it in 859. In
1087 it fell into the hands of the Normans; and the existing
remains of fortifications are entirely medieval. There are
indeed no remains of earlier days. The cathedral, founded in
1307, is of some interest. There are no remains of the famous
temple of Demeter, from which Verres, as Cicero tells us, re-
moved the bronze statue of the goddess. The lake of Pexgtts,
where Persephone, according to one of the myths, was carried
off by Hades, lies 4 m. to the south. The myth itself must have
had some local origin, but has had so much Greek detail grafted
upon it that the very names of the earlier Sicel deities have
been displaced.
CASTRO URDIALES, a seaport of northern Spain, in the
province of Santander, situated on the bay of Biscay and at
the head of a branch railway connected with the Bilbao-San-
tander line. Pop. (1870) about 3500; (100°) *4>i9i- Castro
Urdiales is a modern town, although its castle and parish church
date from the middle ages. It was destroyed by the French in
1813, but speedily rebuilt and fortified. Its rapid rise in popu-
lation and prosperity dates from the increased development
of iron-mining and railway communication which took place
after 1879. Its chief industries are iron-mining, fishing, and the
preservation of fish, especially sardines, in oil. Between 1804
and 1904 the exports of iron ore rose from 277,200 tons to
516,574 tons.
CASTRO T BELLVIS, GUILLfiN DE (1569-1631), Spanish
dramatist, was a Valencian by birth, and early enjoyed a re-
putation as a man of letters. In 1591 he became a member
of a local literary academy called the Noctumos. At one time a
captain of the coast-guard, at another the proteg6 of Benavente,
viceroy of Naples, who appointed him governor of Scigliano,
patronized by Osuna and Olivares, Castro was nominated a
knight of the order of Santiago in 1623. He settled at Madrid
in 1626, and died there on the 28th of July 163 1 in such poverty
that his funeral expenses were defrayed by charity. He pro*
bably made the acquaintance of Lope de Vega at the festivals
(1620-1622) held to commemorate the beatification and canon-
ization of St Isidore, the patron saint of Madrid. On the latter
occasion Castro's octavos were awarded the first prize. Lope de
Vega dedicated to him a celebrated play entitled Las Almenas
CASTRUCCIO— CASUISTRY
485
de Toro (1619), and when Castro's Comedies were published In
1618-1621 he dedicated the first volume to Lope de Vega's
daughter. The drama that has made Castro's reputation is
Las Mocedades del Cid (1 599?), to the first part of which Corneille
was largely indebted for the materials of his tragedy. The two
parts of this play, like all those by Castro, have the genuine
ring of the old romances; and, from their intense nationality,
no less than for their primitive poetry and flowing versification,
were among the most popular pieces of their day. Castro's
Fuerza de la costumbre is the source of Love's Care, a play as-
cribed to Fletcher. He is also the reputed author of El Prodigio
de los Monies, from which Calder6n derived El Mdgico prodigioso.
Las Mocedades del Cid (Toulouse, 1890) and Ingratitud de amor
(Philadelphia, 1899) have been well edited by £. Merimee and H. A.
Rennert respectively.
CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI DE6LI ANTELMINELLI (1281-
1328), duke of Lucca, was by birth a Lucchese, and by descent
and training a Ghibelline. Being exiled at an early age with
his parents and others of their faction by the Guelphs, then in
the ascendant, and orphaned at nineteen, he served as a con-
dottiere under Philip IV. of France in Flanders, later with the
Visconti in Lombardy, and in 1313 under the Ghibelline chief,
Uguccione della Faggiuola, lord of Pisa, in central Italy. He
assisted Uguccione in many enterprises, including the capture
of Lucca (13 14) and the victory over the Florentines at Monte-
catini (1315). An insurrection of the Lucchese having led to
the expulsion of Uguccione and his party, Castruccio regained
his freedom and his position, and the Ghibelline triumph was
presently assured. Elected lord of Lucca in 1316, he warred
incessantly against the Florentines, and was at first the faithful
adviser and stanch supporter of Frederick of Austria, who made
him imperial vicar of Lucca in 1320. After the battle of
Muhlbach he went over to the emperor Louis the Bavarian,
whom he served for many years. In 1325 he defeated the
Florentines at Altopascio, and was appointed by the emperor
duke of Lucca, Pistoja, Volterra and Luni, and two years later
he captured Pisa, of which he was made imperial vicar. But,
subsequently, his relations with Louis seem to have grown less
friendly and he was afterwards excommunicated by the papal
legate in the interests of the Guelphs. At his death in 1328 the
fortunes. of his young children were wrecked in the Guelphic
triumph.
Niccdbfr Machiavelli's Life of Castruccio is a mere romance; it
was translated into French, with notes, by Dreux de Radier in 1 753.
See Niccold Negrini, Vita di Castruccio (Modena, 1496) ; Winkler s
Castruccio, Herzog von Lucca (Berlin, 1897); also Gino Capponi's
Storia diFirense, and G. Sforza, Castruccio Castracani deglt Antel-
minelli mLunigiana (Modena, 1891); S. de Sismondi, Htstoire des
ripubliques italiennes (Brussels, 1838).
CASTRUM MINERVAE (mod. Castro), an ancient town of the
Sallentini in Calabria, 10 m. south of Hydruntum, with an
ancient temple of Minerva, said to have been founded by Ido-
meneus, who formed the tribe of the Sallentini from a mixture
of Cretans, IUyrians and Italian Locrians. It is also said to have
been the place where Aeneas first landed in Italy, the port of which
he named Tortus Veneris. The temple had lost some of its
importance in Strabo's day.
CASUARINA, a genus of trees containing about 30 species,
chiefly Australian, but a few Indo-Malayan. The long whip-like
green branches are longitudinally grooved, and bear at the nodes
whorls of small scale-leaves, the shoots resembling those of
Equisetum (horse-tail). The flowers are unisexual; the stamin-
ate are borne in spikes, each flower consisting of a central stamen
which is surrounded by two scale-like perianth-leaves. The
pistillate are borne in dense spherical heads; each flower stands
in the axil of a bract and consists of two united carpels flanked
by a pair of bracteoles; the long styles hang out beyond the
bracts, and the one-chambered ovary contains two ovules.
In the fruit the bracteoles form two woody valves between
which is a nut; the aggregate of fruits resemble small cones.
Pollen is transferred by the wind to the long styles. The pollen-
tube does not penetrate the ovule through die micropyle but
enters at the opposite end — the chalaza. This anomaly was
discovered by Dr M. Treub (see Annal. Jardin Botan.Buitenzorg,
x. 1891), and is associated with a peculiar development of the
ovule, and an increased number and peculiar form of the embryo-
sacs (nacrospores). Treub proposed to separate Casuarina
as a distinct group of Angiosperms, and suggested the following
arrangement: —
r \Dicotyledons.
Angiospermae-j oro S amae J Monocotyledons.
[Chalazogamae (Casuarina).
The names of the two subdivisions recall the manner of entrance
of the pollen-tube. More recent investigations, chiefly by
Nawaschin and Miss Benson, on members of the orders Betu-
laceae, Fagaceae, Juglans and Ulmus, showed a recurrence
in a greater or less degree of the various anomalies previously
observed in Casuarina, and suggest that the affinity of Casuarina
is with these orders of Dicotyledons.
The wood is very hard, and several species are valuable timber
trees. From a fancied resemblance of the wood to that of the
oak these trees are known as " oaks," and the same species has
different names in different parts such as " she-oak," " swamp-
oak," "shingle-oak," "river-oak," "iron-wood,"" beef-wood, "&c.
See J. H. Maiden, Useful Native Plants of Australia (London and
Sydney, 1889).
CASUISTRY (from the Lat. casus, a point of law), the art of
bringing general moral principles to bear on particular actions.
It is, in short, applied morality; anybody is a casuist who
reflects about his duties and tries to bring them into line with
some intelligible moral standard. But morality at different
times has worn very different dresses. It has sometimes been
thought of as an outward law, sometimes as an inward disposi-
tion; and each of these rival conceptions has developed a
casuistical method of its own. Believers in law have put their
trust in authority or logic; while believers in disposition chiefly
look to our instinctive faculties — conscience, common-sense or
sentiment. The legal is the older group, and to it the name of
casuist is often exclusively reserved, generally with the implica-
tion that its methods are too purely technical to commend
themselves to mankind at large. But common-sense and con-
science are quite as definite guides as logic or authority; and
there seems no good reason for refusing to give the name of
casuistry to their operations.
The casuistry of primitive man is uncompromisingly legal.
His morality is not yet separated from his religion; and religion
for him means the cult of some superior being — the king or priest
of his tribe — whose person is charged with a kind of sacred
electricity. ' ' His divinity is a fire, which ,under proper restrain ts ,
confers endless blessings; but if rashly touched, or allowed
to break bounds, it burns or destroys what it touches. Hence
the disastrous effects supposed to follow a breach of taboo;
the offender has thrust his hand into the divine fire, which shrivels
up and consumes him on the spot " (Frazer, The Golden Bough,
i. 169). Elaborate rules are accordingly drawn up to secure
the maximum of benefit, and the minimum of inconvenience,
from this sacred fire; and in the application of these rules does
savage casuistry consist. At a higher stage of civilization the
god is no longer present in person but issues to his worshippers
categorical commands. These logic must seize upon and develop
as far as they will go; for the breach of some trifling consequence
of a rule might mean the loss of the deity's favour. Hence the
rise of sacred books among most Eastern peoples. On the
Jewish Decalogue, for instance, follows the law, and on the law
the rabbinical schools. Some of these will be stricter, and some
laxer; but on the whole all tend to " aggravate " the law —
down to the point of forbidding the faithful to wear a girdle,
or to kill a noxious insect on the Sabbath. Though indeed
we might look nearer home than the Talmud for similar absur-
dities; most Puritan communities could furnish strange freaks
of Sabbatarian casuistry. Nor have the Catholics been one
whit behind them. Their scholastic doctors gravely discuss
whether — since water is the " matter " of baptism — a soul
can be made regenerate by milk, or rose-water or wine.
At the opposite pole stood ancient Greece. Here ceremonial
4 86
CASUISTRY
casuistry found no place, because there were no sacred books.
" Among the Greeks writing never attained the consecration of
religion. No system of doctrine and observance, no manuals
containing authoritative rules of morality, were ever transmitted
in documentary form. In conduct they shrank from formulae.
Unvarying rules petrified action; the need of flexibility! of
perpetual adjustment, was strongly felt " (Butcher, The Greek
Genius, p. 182). For this reason their interest in ethical specu-
lations was all the keener; their great thinkers were endlessly
engaged in settling what the relation ought to be between duty
and self-interest. Ought one to swallow up the other — and, if
so, which should prevail? Or was it possible to patch up a
compromise between them? The great Stoic philosophers
took the austerest line, and held that duty should always and
everywhere be our only law. But it was one thing to enunciate
such magnificent theories in a lecture, and quite another to
apply them in the market-place. Casuistry came to the aid of
average human nature — that is to say, pupils began to confront
the master with hard cases taken from daily life. And more
than one master was disposed to make large — even startlingly
large — concessions to the exigencies of practice. This concrete
side of moral philosophy came specially into evidence when
Stoicism was transplanted to Rome. Cicero's De Officiis abounds
in the kind of question afterwards so warmly discussed by Dr
Johnson and his friends. Is it ever right to tell a lie? May a
lawyer defend a client whom he knows to be guilty? In selling
my goods, is it enough not to disguise their shortcomings, or
ought I candidly to admit them? Seneca even made the
discussion of such problems into a regular discipline, claiming
that their concrete character gave an interest in morality to
those who had no love for abstractions; while they prevented
those who had from losing themselves in the clouds. And M.
Thamin maintains that, if his heroes did not form great characters,
at any rate they taught the Roman child to train its conscience.
But, then, Cicero and Seneca took common-sense as their guide.
They decided each problem on its merits, looking more to the
spirit than to the letter, and often showing a practical sagacity
worthy of Johnson himself. Quite in the great doctor's spirit is
Cicero's counsel to his son, to hear what the philosophers had
to say, but to decide for himself as a man of the world. Such
advice could not be grateful to the philosophers themselves —
then a definite professional class, not unlike the "spiritual
directors " of a later Rome, who earned their bread by smoothing
away the doubts of the scrupulous on all matters intellectual
and moral. Their great weapon was their logic; and a logician,
as Pascal says, must be very unfortunate or very stupid if he
cannot manage to find exceptions to every conceivable rule.
In their hands casuistry became the art of finding such exceptions.
From the Greek sophists they borrowed ingenious ways of
playing off one duty against another, or duty in general against
self-interest — leaving the doubter in the alternative of neglecting
the one and being a knave, or neglecting the other and being a
fool. Or else they raised a subtle distinction between the act
and the intention. To get drunk for the sake of the drink was
the mark of a beast; but wine was a powerful stimulant to the
brain, and to fuddle oneself in order to think great thoughts was
worthy of a sage. No doubt these airy paradoxes were not
always seriously taken; but it is significant that a common
Roman proverb identified "philosophizing" (philosophatur)
with thinking out some dirty trick.
Christianity swept the whole discussion on to a higher plane.
All the stress now fell on the disposition, not on the outward act.
The good deeds of a just man were a natural consequence of his
justice; whereas a bad man was no whit the better, because he
now and then deviated into doing right. Actions, in short,
were of no account whatever, apart from the character that
produced them. " All things are lawful unto me," said St Paul,
" but all are not expedient." And St Augustine sums the
whole matter up in the famous phrase: " Have charity, and do
as thou wilt." Narrow-minded Christian consciences, however,
could not stay long on this level; law was so very much more
satisfying a guide than vague, elusive charity. And law in
plenty was forthcoming, so soon as the Church developed the
discipline of public confessions followed by appropriate penances
for each fault. At first the whole proceeding was informal and
impulsive enough; but by the 7th century it had grown
thoroughly stereotyped and formal. Libri PoemUntiales began
to appear-— detailed lists of all possible sins, with the forfeit to
be exacted from each. As public penance finally decayed, and
auricular confession took its place, these were superseded by
the Summae de Poenitentia, — law-books in the strictest sense.
These were huge digests of all that popes, councils, primitive
fathers had decided on every kind of question pertaining to the
confessional — what exactly is a sin, what kind of questions the
priests must ask, under what conditions he could give absolution.
As such, they were eagerly welcomed by the clergy; for a single
magistrate, sitting in secret without appeal, necessarily grasps
at whatever will lighten his burden of responsibility. Nor was
their complexity a stumbling-block. The medieval mind was
only too prone to look on morality as a highly technical art,
quite as difficult as medicine or chancery law — a path where
wayfaring men were certain to err, with no guide but their
unsophisticated conscience. What could they possibly do but
cling to their priest with a " blind and unexpressed faith " ?
Against this state of things the Reformation was a violent
protest. Catholicism increasingly took for granted that a man
imperilled his soul by thinking for himself; Protestantism
replied that he could certainly lose it, if he left his thinking to
another. For it is to the individual conscience that God speaks;
through the struggles of the individual conscience He builds up
a strong and stable Christian character. " A man may be a
heretic in the truth," says Milton in his Areopagilica (1644),
" if he believes things only because his pastor says so, or the
Assembly so determines, without knowing other reason, though
his belief be true, yet the very truth he holds becomes his heresy.
There is not any burden that some would not gladher post off
to another than the charge and care of their religion. A wealthy
man, addicted to his pleasures and his profits, finds religion to be
a traffic so entangled, and of so many piddling accounts, that
of all mysteries he cannot skill to keep a stock going upon that
trade. What does he therefore but resolve to give over toiling,
and find himself some factor, to whose care and conduct he may
commit the whole managing of his religious affairs — some divine
of note and estimation that must be. To him he adheres, resigns
the whole warehouse of his religion with all the locks and keys
into his custody, and indeed makes the very person of that man
his religion. So that a man may say his religion is now no more
within himself, but is become a dividual moveable, which goes or
comes near him, according as that good man frequents the house. "
Twelve years after the AreopagUica appeared Pascal's
Provincial Letters (1656-^657). These deal with the casuists
of the Counter-Reformation in the spirit of Milton, laying espe-
cial stress on the artificiality of their methods and the laxity
of their results. Not, of course, that they meant deliberate
evil; Pascal expressly credits them with good intentions. But
they were drawn, almost to a man, from Italy or Spain, the
two countries least alive to the spirit of the Reformation;
and most of them were Jesuits, the order that set out to be
nothing Protestantism was, and everything that Protestantism
was not. Hence they were resolutely opposed to any idea of
reform; for to begin making changes in the Church's system
would be a tacit admission that Luther had some show of
reason on his side. On the other hand, they would certainly
lose their hold on the laity, unless some kind of change were
made; for many of the Church's rules were obsolete, and
others far too severe to impose on the France of Montaigne
or even the Spain of Cervantes. Thus caught between two fires
the casuists developed a highly ingenious method, not unlike
that of the Roman Stoics, for eviscerating the substance of a
rule while leaving its shadow carefully intact. The next step
was to force the confessors to accept their lax interpretation
of the law; and this was accomplished by their famous theory
of probabttism — first taught in Spain about 1580. This made
it a grave sin in the priest to refuse absolution, whenever there
CASUS BELLI— CAT
4S7
was some good reason for giving it even when there were other
and better reasons for refusing it This principle does not
deserve all the abuse that has been lavished upon it. It secured
uniformity in the confessional, and thereby protected the
penitent from the caprices of individual priests; and by de-
priving these of responsibility, it forced the penitent back on
himself. But the gain was more than counterbalanced by the
evil The less the Church could expect from its penitents, the
more it was driven to trust to the miraculous efficiency of sacra-
mental grace. Once get a sinner to confession, and the whole
work was done. However bad his natural disposition, the
magical words of absolution would make him a new man. As
for most penitents, all they cared for was to scrape through by
the skin of their teeth. Casuistry might insist that it only
proposed to fix the minimum of a minimum, and beg them for
their soul's sake to aim a little higher. Human nature seldom
resists the charms of a fixed standard — least of all when it is
applied by a live judge in a visible court. If the priest must be
satisfied with little, why be at the trouble of offering more?
For this reason, probabilism found vigorous opponents in
Bossuet and other eminent divines; and various of its excesses
were condemned by the popes during the latter half of the
17th century. After a long eclipse it was finally re-established,
though in a very modified form, by Alfonso Liguori about the
middle of the 18th century.
In Protestant countries casuistry shrank and dwindled,
though works on the subject continued to be written both in
Germany and England during the 17th century. The best known
of the Anglican books is Jeremy Taylor's Duetor DubUcntium
(1660). But the Frotestant casuist never pretended to speak
authoritatively; all he did was to give his reasons, and leave
the decision to the conscience of his readers. " In all this
discourse," says Bishop Sanderson, one of the best of the
English writers, " I take it upon me not to write edicts, but to
give my advice." Very soon, however, these relics of casuistry
were swept away by the rising tide of common-sense. The
1 8th century loved to discuss hard cases of conscience, as a
very cursory glance at Fielding's novels (1742-1751) or BoswelTs
Life of Johnson (1701) will show. But the age was incurably
suspicious of attempts to deal with such difficulties on any
kind of technical system. Pope was never tired of girding at
" Morality by her false guardians drawn,
Chicane in fun, and casuistry in lawn " ;
while Fielding has embodied the popular conception of a casuist
in Parson Thwackum and Philosopher Square, both of whom
only take to argument when they want to reason themselves
out of some obvious duty. Still more outspoken is the Savoy-
ard vicar in the £mile (1762) of Jean Jacques Rousseau:
" Whence do I get my rules of action? I find them in my
heart. All I feel to be good is good; all I feel to be evil is evil.
Conscience is the best of casuists; it is only when men wish
to cheat it that they fly to logical quibbles." Extravagant
as this sentiment sounds, it paved the way to better things.
The great object of 17th-century moralists had been to find
some general principle from which the whole of ethics could be
deduced; common-sense, by turning its back on abstract
principles of every kind, forced the philosophers to come down
to the solid earth, and start by inquiring how the world does
make up its mind in fact. During the last two centuries de-
duction has gone steadily out, and psychology come in. Ethics
have become more distinctively a science, instead of an awkward
hybrid between a science and an art; their business has been
to investigate what moral conduct is, not to lay down the law
as to what it ought to be. Hence they deliberately refuse to
engage in casuistry of the old-fashioned sort. Further, it is
increasingly felt that ethical judgments do not depend on
reason alone, but involve every element in our character; and
that the real problem of practical morality is to establish a
harmonious balance between the intelligence and the feelings
— to make a man's " I think this is right " correspond with his
" I feel that it is so." Whether systematic training can do
anything to make the attainment of this balance easier is a
question that has lately engaged the attention of many educa-
tional reformers; and whatever future casuistry may still have
before it would seem to lie along the lines indicated by them.
There is an excellent study of the ancient casuists by M. Raymond
Thamin, Un Problhne moral dans Vantiquite (Paris, 1884). For the
Roman Catholic casuists see DolHnger und Reusch, J&oralstreUig-
keiten im siebzehnien Jahrhundert (2 vols., Nordlingen, 1889), and
various articles (" Casuistik," " Ethik," " Moralsysteme," ozc.) in
Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexicon (Freiburg, 1880-1806). See
also the editions of Pascal's Provincial Letters, by John de Soyres
(with English notes, Cambridge, 1880), and A. Molinier (2 vols.,
Paris, 1 891). The Anglican casuists are discussed in Whewell,
Lectures on Moral Philosophy (London, 1862). For general reflec-
tions on the subject see the appendix to Jowett's edition of the
Epistle to the Romans (London, 1855). Most modern text-books on
ethics devote some attention to the matter — notably F. H. Bradley
in his Ethical Studies (London, 1876). See also Hastings Rashdall,
Theory of Good and Evil (2 vols., Oxford, 1907). (St. C.)
CASUS BELLI, the technical term for cases in which a state
holds itself justified in making war, if a certain course to which
it objects is persisted in. Interference with the full exercise
of a nation's rights or independence, an affront to its dignity,
an unredressed injury, are instances of casus belli. Most of the
new compulsory treaties of arbitration entered into by Great
Britain and other states exclude from their application cases
affecting the " vital interests " or " national honour " of the
contracting states. These may therefore be considered as a sort
of definition of casus belli in so far as the high contracting
parties to them are concerned.
CAT, 1 properly the name of the well-known domesticated
feline animal usually termed by naturalists Felis domesHca, but
in a wider sense employed to denote ail the more typical members
of the family Felidae. According to the New English Dictionary,
although the origin of the word " cat " is unknown, yet the name
is found in various languages as far back as they can be traced.
In old Western Germanic it occurs, for instance, so early as from
a.d. 400 to 450; in old High German it is chatza or cater o, and in
Middle German kattaro. Both in Gaelic and in old French it is
cat, although sometimes taking the form of chater in the latter;
the Gaelic designation of the European wild cat being cat fiad-
haich. In Welsh and Cornish the name is cath. If Martial's
cattae refer to this animal, the earliest Latin use of the name
dates from the 1st century of our era. In the work of Palladius
on agriculture, dating from about the year a.d. 350, reference is
made to an animal called catus or coitus, as being useful in
1 The word " cat " is applied to various objects, in all cases an
application of the name of the animal. In medieval siegecraft the
" cat " (Med. Lat. chattus or gattus, chatta or gotta, in Fr. chat or chat-
chasteil) was a movable pent-house used to protect besiegers when
approaching a wall or gateway, for the purpose of sapping, mining
or direct attack, or to cover a ram or other battering-engine. The
word is also sometimes applied to a heavy timber fitted with iron
spikes or projections to be thrown down upon besiegers, and to the
large work known as a " cavalier." " Cat " or cat-head," in
nautical usage, is the projecting beam on the bows of a ship used to
clear the anchor from the sides of the vessel when weighed. The
stock of the anchor rests on the cat-head when hung outside the
ship. The name is also used of a type of a vessel, now obsolete,
and formerly used in the coal and timber trade on the north-east
coast of England; it had a deep waist and narrow stem; it is still
applied to a small rig of sailing boats, with a single mast stepped
far forward, with a fore and aft sail. Among other objects also
known by the name of " cat " is the small piece of wood pointed at
either end used in the game of tip-cat, and the instrument of punish-
ment, generally known as the " cat o' nine tails." This consists of
a handle of wood or rope, about 18 in. long, with nine knotted cords
or thongs. The multiplication of thongs for purposes of flogging is
found in the old Roman flagellum, a scourge, which had sometimes
three thongs with bone or bronze knots fastened to them. The
11 cat " was the regular instrument with which floggings were per-
formed in the British army and navy. Since the abolition of flogging
in the services, the use of the cat is now restricted to certain classes
of offenders in military prisons (Army Act 1 88 1, § 133). In the
English criminal law, where corporal punishment is ordered by the
court for certain criminal offences, the " cat " is used only where
the prisoner is over sixteen years of age. It may not be U3ed except
when actually ordered in the sentence, and must be of a pattern
approved by a secretary of state. Further floggings are inflicted
with the " cat " upon convicted prisoners for breaches of discipline
in prison. They must be ordered by the visitors of the prison and
confirmed by the home secretary.
4 88
CAT
granaries for catching mice. This usage, coupled with the
existence of a distinct term in Gaelic for the wild species, leaves
little doubt that the word " cat " properly denotes only the
domesticated species. This is confirmed by the employment in
Byzantine Greek of the term kLttos or Karra to designate
domesticated cats brought from Egypt. It should be added that
the aSXovpof of the Greeks, frequently translated by the older
writers as " cat," really refers to the marten-cat, which appears
to have been partially domesticated by the ancients and em-
ployed for mousing.
As regards the origin of the domesticated cats of western
Europe, it is well known that the ancient Egyptians were in the
habit of domesticating (at least in some degree) the Egyptian
race of the African wild cat (Felts ocreata maniculata), and also
of embalming its remains, of which vast numbers have been
found in tombs at Beni Hasan and elsewhere in Egypt. These
Egyptian cats are generally believed by naturalists to have had
a large share in the parentage of the European breeds, which
have, however, in many cases been crossed to a greater or less
extent with the European wild cat (F. calus).
One of the features by which the Egyptian differs from the
European wild cat is the longer and less bushy tail; and it has
been very generally considered that the same feature is character-
istic of European domesticated cats. According, however, to Dr
E. Hamilton, " the measurement of a number of tails of the
[European] wild cat and of the domestic cat gives a range
between n in. and i4§ in., the longer length being quite as often
found in the wild cats as in the domestic. The bushy appearance
depends entirely on the length of the fur, and accords with the
thick fur of the rest of the body of the wild cat, while in the
domestic race the fur both on the body and tail is thinner and
softer."
' Possibly those domesticated cats with unusually short and
bushy tails may have a larger share of European wild-cat blood;
while, conversely, such wild cats as show long tails may have a
cross of domesticated blood.
More importance was attached by Dr A. Nehring of Berlin
(SB. Ges. Naturfor., Berlin, 1887) to the colour of the soles of
the hind-feet as a means of determining the relationship of the
domesticated cat of Europe. According to his observations, in
the Egyptian wild cat the pads of the toes are wholly black,
while the black extends back either continuously or in long
stripes as far as the calcaneum or heel-bone. In the European
wild cat, on the other hand, the black is limited to a small round
spot on the pads, while the colour of the hair as far back as the
heel-bone is yellowish or yellowish-grey. Since in all domesticated
cats retaining the colouring of the wild species the soles of the
hind-feet correspond in this particular with the Egyptian rather
than with the European wild cat, the presumption is in favour of
their descent from the former rather than from the latter.
Later, Dr Nehring (op. cit. 1889) came to the conclusion that
the domesticated cat has a dual parentage, one stock coming
from south-eastern Asia and the other from north-eastern Africa;
in other words, from a domesticated Chinese cat (itself derived
from a wild Chinese species) on the one hand, and from the
Egyptian cat on the other. The ordinary domesticated cats of
Europe are, however, mainly of African origin, although they
have largely crossed, especially in Germany (and probably also in
Great Britain), with the wild cat. The same author was likewise
of opinion that the domestication or taming of various species of
wild cats took place chiefly among nationalities of stationary or
non-nomadic habits who occupied themselves with agricultural
pursuits, since it would be of vital importance that their stores
of grain should be adequately protected from the depredations
of rats and mice.
The foregoing opinion as to the dual parentage of our domestic-
ated cats receives support from observations made many years
ago by E. Blyth, which have recently been endorsed and amplified
by R. I. Pocock (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1907). According to
these observations, two distinct types of so-called tabby cats are
recognizable. In the one the pattern consists of narrow vertical
stripes, and in the other of longitudinal or obliquely longitudinal
stripes, which, on the sides of the body, tend to assume a spiral
or sub-circular arrangement characteristic of the blotched tabby.
This latter type appears to be the true " tabby "; since that word
denotes a pattern like that of watered silk. One or other of these
types is to be found in cats of almost all breeds, whether Persian,
short-haired or Manx; and there appear to be no intermediate
stages between them. Cats of the striped type are no doubt
descended from the European and North African wild cats;
but the origin of cats exhibiting the blotched pattern appears to
be unknown. As it was to a cat of the latter kind that Linnaeus
gave the name of Felis coins, Pocock urges that this title is not
available for the European wild cat, which he would call Felis
sylvestris. Without accepting this proposed change in nomen-
clature, which is liable to lead to confusion without any com-
pensating advantage, it may be suggested that the blotched
tabby type represents Dr Nehring's presumed Chinese element
in the cat's parentage, and that the missing wild stock may be
one of the numerous phases of the leopard-cat (F. bengalensis),
in some of which an incipient spiral arrangement of the markings
may be noticed on the shoulder.
As to the introduction of domesticated cats into Europe, the
opinion is very generally held that tame cats from Egypt were
imported at a relatively early date into Etruria by Phoenician
traders; and there is decisive evidence that these animals were
established in Italy long before the Christian era. The progeny
of these cats, more or less crossed with the indigenous species,
thence gradually spread over Europe, to become mingled at some
period, according to Dr Nehring's hypothesis, with an Asiatic
stock. The earliest written record of the introduction of
domesticated cats into Great Britain dates from about a.d. 936,
when Hywel Dda, prince of South Wales, enacted a law for their
protection. " The Romans," writes Dr Hamilton, " were
probably the original introducers of this cat, and as the final
evacuation of Britain by that nation took place under the
emperor Valentinian about a.d. 436, the period of its introduc-
tion may certainly be dated some 500 years previous to the Welsh
chronicle and even much earlier." It is added that the remains
of cats from Roman villas at Silchester and Dursley are probably
referable to the domesticated breed.
Before proceeding to notice some of the different types of
domesticated cats, a few lines may be devoted to the wild
European species, F. calus. Beyond stating that in colour it
conforms very closely to the striped phase of domesticated tabby,
it will be unnecessary to describe the species. Its geographical
range was formerly very extensive, and included Great Britain,
France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, Bohemia,
Hungary, Poland, Transylvania, Galicia, the Caucasus as far as
the Caspian, southern Russia, Italy, Spain, Greece, Rumania,
B ulgaria, Servia, and portions of central and northern Asia. " At
the present time," observes Dr Hamilton, " the wild cat has
become almost extinct in many of the above districts. Examples
may perhaps occasionally still be found in the uninhabited
forests of Hungary and Transylvania, and occasionally in Spain
and Greece, as well as in the Caucasus and in some of the Swiss
cantons, but the original race has in most countries interbred
with the domestic cat wherever the latter has penetrated." In
Great Britain wild cats survive only in some of the Scottish
forests, and even there it is difficult to decide whether pure-bred
specimens are extant. Remains of the wild cat occur in English
caverns; while from those of Ireland (where the wild species has
apparently been unknown during the historic period) have been
obtained jaws and teeth which it has been suggested are referable
to the Egyptian rather than to the European wild cat. Such a
determination is, however, extremely hazardous, even if it be
admitted that the remains of cats from the rock-fissures of
Gibraltar pertain to Felis ocreata. 4
The favourite haunts of the wild cat are mountain forests
where masses or rocks or cliffs are interspersed with trees, the
crevices in these rocks or the hollow trunks of trees affording
sites for the wild cat's lair, where its young are produced and
reared. In the Spanish plains, however, the young are often
produced in nests built in trees, or among tall bamboos in
CAT
Plate I.
Fig. i.— SKINS OF THE BLOTCHED DOMESTIC CAT,
SHOWING SOME OF THE VARIATIONS TO WHICH
THE PATTERN IS LIABLE. fCf. Fig. 5 on Plate II.)
Fig. 2.— SKINS OF THE STRIPED DOMESTIC CAT, GIV-
ING THE "TICKED" BREED AND A PARTIALLY
ALBINO SPECIMEN. (Cf. Fig. 4 on Plate II.)
Fig. 3.— SKINS OF THE EUROPEAN WILD CAT, FROM
ROSS-SHIRE, SCOTLAND. (Cf. Fig. 1 on Plate II.)
Note — Of the two types of colouration found in modern domestic cats, the striped type obviously corresponds to the original
wild cat as seen in various parts of North Europe to-day. The origin of the blotched as a special type is wholly unknown.
(Photos from Plates VIII., IX., and X., P. Z. 5., 1907, by permission of the Zoological Society of London.)
V 488.
Plate II.
CAT
U
UJ
PI
<
U
Q
CATABOLISM— CATACLYSM
489
cane-brakes. " To fight like a wild cat " is proverbial, and wild
cats are described as some of the most ferocious and untamable
of all animals. How far this untamable character lends sup-
port to the view of the origin of our domesticated breeds has
not yet been determined. Hares, rabbits, field-mice, water-
rats, rats, squirrels, moles, game-birds, pigeons, and small
birds, form the chief food of the wild cat.
Apart from the above-mentioned division of the striped
members of both groups into two types according to the pattern
of their markings, the domesticated cats of western Europe
are divided into a short-haired and a long-haired group. Of
these, the former is the one which bears the closest relationship
to the wild cats of Africa and of Europe, the latter being an
importation from the East. The striped (as distinct from the
blotched) short-haired tabby is probably the one most nearly
allied to the wild ancestors, the stripes being, however, to a
great extent due to the European wild cat. In one direction
the tabby shows a tendency to melanism which culminates in
complete blackness, while in the other direction there is an
equally marked tendency to albinism; grey cats, which may
be regarded as tabbies whose stripes have disappeared, forming
the connecting link between the tabby and the white cat. A
mixture of the melanistic with the albinistic type will of course
give rise to parti-coloured cats. A third colour-phase, the
" erythristic " or red, is represented by the sandy cat, the
female of which takes the form of the " tortoise-shell," char-
acterized, curiously enough, by the colour being a blend of black,
white, and sandy. The so-called orange tabby is one phase of
the erythristic type.
As to long-haired cats, there appear originally to have been
two closely-allied strains, the Angora and the Persian, of which
the former has been altogether replaced in western Europe by
the latter. That these long-haired cats have an ancestry, to
some extent at any rate distinct from the ordinary short-haired
breeds, is practically certain, and it has been suggested that
they are derived from the " manul " cat, or Pallas's cat (Felts
manid), of the deserts of central Asia, which is a long-haired
and bushy-tailed species with comparatively slight striping.
The fact that in tabby Persians the body-markings are never
so strong as in the short-haired breeds is in some degree con-
firmatory of this, as suggesting descent from a nearly whole-
coloured type. At the present day, however, Persians exhibit
nearly all the colour and pattern types of the short-haired
breeds, the " orange Persian " representing the erythristic
phase.
Turning to the tailless or so-called Manx cats, in which the tail
should be represented merely by a tuft of hair without any
remnant of bone, it seems that the strain is to be met with in
many parts of Russia, and there is a very general opinion that
it originally came from Japan or some other far eastern country.
Throughout Japan, China, Siam, and the Malay countries, normal
long-tailed cats are indeed seldom seen. Instead of these are
cats with more or less abbreviated tails, showing in greater or
less degree a decided kink or bend near the tip. In other cases
the tail is of the short curling type of that of a bulldog; some-
times it starts quite straight, but divides in a fork-like manner
near the tip; and in yet other instances it is altogether wanting,
as in the typical Manx cats.. These kink-tailed or tailless cats
are moreover smaller in size than the ordinary short-tailed breeds,
with rather longer hair, whose texture approaches that of rabbit-
fur, and a cry said to be like that of the jungle-cat (F. chaus)
of India and Africa, and more dog-like habits. Unless the jungle-
cat, which is a nearly whole-coloured species, can claim the
position, the ancestry of these Manx-Malay cats is still unknown.
Kink-tailed cats, it should be added, are also known from
Madagascar.
Among the domesticated cats of India a spotted type of
colouring, with a more or less decided tendency for the spots
to coalesce into stripes, is very noticeable; and it is probable
that these cats are derived from the spotted Indian desert-cat
(F. ornata), with a certain amount of crossing from other species.
The so-called F. torquata of India is probably based on cats of
this type which have reverted to the wild state. Other Indian
cats with a tawny or fulvous type of colouring are probably the
more or less modified descendants of the jungle-cat. From the
same stock may be derived the Abyssinian breed, in which the
ears are relatively large and occasionally tipped with long hairs
(thus recalling the tufted ears of the jungle-cat). The colour is
typically reddish-brown, each individual hair being " ticked "
like that of a wild rabbit, whence the popular name of " bunny
cat" Another African breed is the Mombasa cat, in which
the hair is reported to be unusually short and stiff.
By far the most remarkable of all the Old World domesticated
breeds is, however, the royal Siamese cat, which almost certainly
has an origin quite distinct from that of the ordinary European
breeds; this being rendered evident not only by the peculiar
type of colouring, but likewise by the cry, which is quite un-
mistakable. Siamese cats, may have the tail either straight
or kinked, but whether the latter feature belongs of right to
the breed, or has been acquired by crossing with the ordinary
black and tabby kink-tailed cats of the country, is not known.
In the royal Siamese breed the head is rather long and pointed,
the body also elongated with relatively slender limbs, the coat
glossy and close, the eyes blue, and the general colour some
shade of cream or pink, with the face, ears, feet, under-parts, and
tail chocolate or seal-brown. There is however a wholly
chocolate-coloured strain in which the eyes are yellow. The
most remarkable feature about the breed is that the young are
white. " The kittens," observes a lady writer, " are born
absolutely white, and in about a week a faint pencilling comes
round the ears, and gradually all the points come. At four or
five months they are lovely, as generally they retain their baby
whiteness, which contrasts well with their almost black ears,
deep-brown markings, and blue eyes." In constitution these
cats are extremely delicate. The blue eyes and the white coat
of the kitten indicate that the Siamese breed is a semi-albino,
which when adult tends towards melanism, such a combination
of characters being apparently unknown in any other animal.
If the frequent presence of a kink in the tail be an inherent
feature, the breed is evidently related to the other kink-tailed
Malay cats which, as already stated, have a cry differing from
that of European cats. Should this be so, then if the ordinary
Malay cats are the descendants of the jungle-cat, we shall have
to assign the same ancestry to the Siamese breed.
Although definite information on this point is required, it
seems probable that the southern part of North America and
South America possessed certain native domesticated breeds of
cats previous to the European conquest of the country; and
if this be so, it will be obvious that these breeds must be derived
from indigenous wild species. One of these breeds is the Para-
guay cat, which when adult weighs only about three pounds,
and is not more than a quarter the size of an ordinary cat.
The body is elongated, and the hair, especially on the tail, short,
shiny and close. This small size and elongated form suggest
origin from the jaguarondi (F. jaguarondt), a chestnut-coloured
wild species; but information appears to be lacking with
regard to the colouring of the domesticated breed. Another
South American breed is said to be free from the hideous " cater-
wauling " of the ordinary cat. In old days New Mexico was the
home of a breed of hairless cats, said to have been kept by the
ancient Aztecs, but now well-nigh if not completely extinct.
Although entirely naked in summer, these cats developed in
winter a slight growth of hair on the back and the ridge of the
tail.
Literature. — St George Mivart, The Cat (London, 1881); R.
Lydekker, "Cats," in AUeris Naturalists' Library (1888); F.
Hamilton, The Wild Cat of Europe (London, 1896) ; Frances Simpson,
The Book of the Cat (London, 1903). (R. L,*)
CATABOLISM, or Katabolism (Gr. icarA, down, |3oX^, a
throw), the biological term for the reverse of anabolism, namely
the breaking down of complex into simpler substances, destructive
metabolism (see Physiology).
CATACLYSM (Gr. KaTcuckwrfiM, a deluge), a great flood or
deluge (q. v.). The term is used in geology to denote an
v. 16 a
49°
CATACOMB
overwhelming catastrophe which has produced sudden changes
in the earth's surface; and also, figuratively, of any great and
violent change which sweeps away the existing social or political
order.
CATACOMB, a subterranean excavation for the interment
of the dead or burial-vault. In this sense the word " catacomb "
has gained universal acceptance, and has found a place in most
modern Languages. The original term, cotacumbae, however,
had no connexion with sepulture, but was simply the name of a
particular locality in the environs of Rome. It was derived from
the Greek Kara and K6/i0q, " a hollow/' and had reference to the
natural configuration of the ground. In the district that bore
this designation, lying close to the Appian Way, the basilica of
San Sebastiano was erected, and the extensive burial-vaults
beneath that church — in which, according to tradition, the
bodies of the apostles St Peter and St Paul rested for a year and
seven months previous to their removal to the basilicas which
bear their names — were, in very early times, called from it
coemeUrium ad catacumbas, or catacumbas alone. From the
celebrity of this cemetery as an object of pilgrimage its name
became extensively known, and in entire forgetfulness of the
origin of the word, cotacumbae came to be regarded as a generic
appellation for all burial-places of the samejrind. This extension
of the term to Christian burial-vaults generally dates from the
9th century, and obtained gradual currency through the Christian
world. The original designation of these places of sepulture is
crypta or cocmeterium.
The largest number of Christian catacombs belong to the 3rd
and the early part of the 4th centuries. The custom of sub-
terranean interment gradually died out, and entirely ceased with
the sack of Rome by Alaric, a.d. 410. " The end of the catacomb
graves," writes Mommsen (Cont. Rev., May 187 1), " is intimately
connected with the end of the powerful city itself. . . . Poverty
took the place of wealth, . . . the traditions of the Christian
tomb-architects sank into utter insignificance, and the expanse
of the wasted Campagna now offered room enough to bury the
few bodies, without having to descend as once far down below the
surface of the earth." The earliest account of the catacombs,
that of St Jerome narrating his visits to them when a schoolboy
at Rome, about a.d. 354, shows that interment in them was even
then rare if it had not been altogether discontinued; and the
poet Prudentius's description of the tomb of the Christian
martyr Hippolytus, and the cemetery in which it stood, leads us
to the same conclusion. With the latter part of the 4th century
a new epoch in the history of the catacombs arose — that of
religious reverence. In the time of Pope Damasus, a.d. 366-384,
the catacombs had begun to be regarded with special devotion,
and had become the resort of large bands of pilgrims, for whose
guidance catalogues of the chief burial-places and the holy men
buried in them were drawn up. Some of these lists are still
extant. 1 Pope Damasus himself displayed great zeal in adapting
the catacombs to their new purpose, restoring the works of art
on the walls, and renewing the epitaphs over the graves of the
martyrs. In this latter work he employed an engraver named
Furius Philocalus, the exquisite beauty of whose characters
enables the smallest fragment of his work to be recognized at a
glance. This gave rise to extensive alterations in their con-
struction and decoration, which has much lessened their value
as authentic memorials of the religious art of the 2nd and 3rd
centuries. Subsequent popes manifested equal ardour, with the
same damaging results, in the repair and adornment of the
catacombs, and many of the paintings covering their walls,
which have been assigned to the period of their original construc-
tion, are really the work of these later times. The catacombs
1 The most important of these lists are the two Itineraries belonging
to the first half of the 7th century, in the Salzburg library. One
still earlier, but less complete, appears in the NotiHa Urbis Romae,
under the title Index Coemeteriorum. Another Itinerary, preserved at
Einsiedeln, printed by Mabillon, dates from the latter half of the
same century. That found in the works of William of Malmesbury
(Hardy's ed. vol. ii. pp. 539-544) appears to be copied from it, or
both may be from the same source. De Rossi gives a comparative
table of these Itineraries and other similar lists.
shared in the devastation of Rome by the Goths under Vitjges
in the 6th century and by the Lombards at a later period; and
partly through the spoliation of these barbarian invaders, partly
through the neglect of those who should have been their guardians,
they sank into such a state of decay and pollution that, as the
only means of preserving the holy remains they enshrined from
further desecration, Pope Paul I., in the latter part of the 8th
century, and Pope Paschal, at the beginning of the 9th, entered
upon the work of the translation of the relics, which was
vigorously carried on by successive pontiffs until the crypts were
almost entirely despoiled of their dead. The relics having been
removed, the visits of pilgrims naturally ceased, and by degrees
the very existence of those wonderful subterranean cemeteries
was forgotten. Six centuries elapsed before the accidental
discovery of a sepulchral chamber by some labourers digging
for pozzolana earth (May 31, 1578) revealed to the amazed
inhabitants of Rome " the existence," to quote a contemporary
record, " of other cities concealed beneath their own suburbs."
Baronius, the ecclesiastical historian, was one of the first to visit
the new discovery, and his Annals in more than one place
evidence his just appreciation of its importance. The true
" Columbus of this subterranean world," as he has been aptly
designated, was the indefatigable Antonio Bosio (d. 1629), who
devoted his life to the personal investigation of the catacombs,
the results of which were given to the world in 1632 in a huge
folio, entitled Roma sotterranea, profusely illustrated with rude
but faithful plans and engravings. This was republished in a
Latin translation with considerable alterations and omissions by
Paolo Aringhi in 1651; and a century after its first appearance
the plates were reproduced by Giovanni Bottari in 1737, and
illustrated with great care and learning. Some additional
discoveries were described by Marc Antonio Boldetti in his
Osservazioni, published in 1720; but, writing in the interests of
the Roman Church with an apologetic, not a scientific object,
truth was made to bend to polemics, and little addition to our
knowledge of the catacombs is to be gained from his other-
wise important work. The French historian of art, Seroux
d'Agincourt, 1825, by his copious illustrations, greatly facilitated
the study of the architecture of the catacombs and the works of
art contained in them. The works of Raoul Rochette display a
comprehensive knowledge of the whole subject, extensive
reading, and a thorough acquaintance with early Christian art
so far as it could be gathered from books, but he was not an
original investigator. The great pioneer in the path of inde-
pendent research, which, with the intelligent use of documentary
and historical evidence, has led to so vast an increase in our
acquaintance with the Roman Catacombs, was Padre Marchi
of the Society of Jesus. His work, Monumenti delle arti christiane
primitive, is the first in which the strange misconception,
received with unquestioning faith by earlier writers, that the
catacombs were exhausted sand-pits adapted by the Christians
to the purpose of interment, was dispelled, and the true history
of their formation demonstrated. Marchi's line of investigation
was followed by the Commendatore De Rossi, and his brother
Michele, the former of whom was Marchi's fellow-labourer
during the latter part of his explorations; and it is to them that
we owe the most exhaustive scientific examination of the whole
subject. The Catacombs of Rome are the most extensive with
which we are acquainted, and, as might be expected in the centre
of the Christian world, are in many respects the most remarkable.
No others have been so thoroughly examined and illustrated.
These may, therefore, be most appropriately selected for descrip-
tion as typical examples.
Our description of the Roman Catacombs cannot be more
appropriately introduced than by St Jerome's account of his
visits to them in his youth, already referred to, which, ^^
after the lapse of above fifteen centuries, presents a ^^^
most accurate picture of these wonderful subterranean
labyrinths. " When I was a boy," he writes, " receiving my
education in Rome, I and my schoolfellows used, on Sundays,
to make the circuit of the sepulchres of the apostles and martyis.
Many a time did we go down into the catacombs. These are
CATACOMB
491
excavated deep in the earth, and contain, on either hand as you
enter, the bodies of the dead buried in the wall. It is all so dark
there that the language of the prophet (Ps. lv. 15) seems to be
fulfilled, ' Let them go down quick into hell.' Only occasionally
is light let in to mitigate the horror of the gloom, and then not
so much through a window as through a hole. You take each
step with caution, as, surrounded by deep night, you recall the
words of Virgil —
"Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent." l
In complete agreement with Jerome's vivid picture the visitor
to the Roman Catacombs finds himself in a vast labyrinth of
narrow galleries, usually from 3 to 4 ft. in width, interspersed
with small chambers, all excavated at successive levels, in the
they reach seven storeys), and communicate with one another
by stairs cut out of the living rock. Light and air are introduced
by means of vertical shafts (luminaria) running up to the outer
air, and often serving for several storeys. The drawing (fig. 3)
from Northcote gives a very correct idea of these galleries, with
the tiers of graves pierced in the walls. The doorways which
are seen interrupting the lines of graves are those of the family
sepulchral chambers, or cubictda, of which we shall speak more
particularly hereafter.
The graves, or loculi, as they are commonly designated, were,
in the Christian cemeteries, with only a few exceptions (Padre
Marchi produces some from the cemetery of St Ciriaca, Monutn.
primitiv. tav. xiv. xliii. xliv.), parallel with the length of the
A. Entrance from the Basilica of St Agnes.
I, 2. Ancient staircases leading to the first
storey.
3. Corridors from the staircases.
4. Two ruined staircases leading to the
lower storey.
5. Steps of the rock.
Fig. 1. — Plan of part of the Cemetery of Sant* Agnese. (From Martigny.)
6. Air-shafts, or luminaria. 13.
7. Ruined vault.
8. Blind ways. 14- 1 7.
9. Passages built up or ruined. 18-32.
10. Passages obstructed by landslips. 33.
11. Unfinished passage. 34.
12. Passages destitute of tombs. 35.
Narrow apertures between adjoining
galleries.
Arcosolia.
Cubicula. [two chairs.
Chapel with vestibule and apse, and
Double chapel with three chairs.
Large chapel in five divisions.
strata of volcanic rock subjacent to the city and its environs,
and constructed originally for the interment of the Christian
dead. The galleries are not the way of access to the cemeteries,
but are themselves the cemeteries, the dead being buried in long
low horizontal recesses, excavated in the vertical walls of the
passages, rising tier above tier like the berths in a ship, from
a few inches above the floor to the springing of the arched ceiling,
to the number of five, six or even sometimes twelve ranges.
These galleries are not arranged on any definite plan, but, as
will be seen from the plan (fig. 1), they intersect one another
at different angles, producing an intricate network which it is
almost impossible to reduce to any system. They generally run
in straight lines, and as a rule preserve the same level. The
different storeys of galleries lie one below the other (fig. 2) to the
number of four or five (in one part of the cemetery of St Calixtus
1 Hieron., Comment, in Esech. lib. xx. c. 40. The translation is
Dean Burgon's.
gallery. In the pagan cemeteries, on the other hand, the
sepulchral recess as a rule entered the rock like an oven at right
angles to the corridor, the body being introduced endways.
The plan adopted by the Christians saved labour, economized
space, and consulted reverence in the deposition of the corpse.
These loculi were usually constructed for a single body only.
Some, however, were formed to contain two, three, or four, or
even more corpses. Such recesses were known respectively
as bisomiy trisomi, quadrisomi, &c, terms which often appear
in the sepulchral inscriptions. After the introduction of the body
the loculi were closed with the greatest care, either with slabs of
marble the whole length of the aperture, or with huge tiles, three
being generally employed, cemented together with great exactness
so as to prevent the escape of the products of decomposition
(fig. 4). Where any epitaph was set up— an immense number
are destitute of any inscription at all — it is always painted or
engraved on these slabs or tiles. In the earlier interments the
492
CATACOMB
epitaph is usually daubed on the slab in red or black paint. In
later examples it is incised in the marbles, the letters being
rendered clearer by being coloured with vermilion. The enclosing
slab very often bears one or more Christian symbols, such as the
Fig. 2. — Section of Galleries at different levels. (From Seroux
d'Agincourt.)
dove, the anchor, the olive-branch, or the monogram of Christ
(figs. 5,6). The palm branch, which is also of frequent occurrence,
is not an indisputable mark of the last resting-place of a martyr,
being found in connexion with epitaphs of persons dying natural
deaths, or those prepared by persons in their lifetime, as well
as in those of little children, and even of pagans. Another
frequent concomitant of these catacomb interments, a small
glass vessel containing traces of the sediment of a red fluid,
embedded in the cement of the locidus (fig. 7), has no better
claim. The red matter proves to be the remains of wine, not of
blood; and the conclusion of the ablest archaeologists is that
Fig. 3. — View of a Gallery. '
the vessels were placed where they are found, after the euchar-
istic celebration or agape on the day of the funeral or its
anniversary, and contained remains of the consecrated elements
as a kind of religious charm. Not a few of the slabs, it is dis-
covered, have done double duty, bearing a pagan inscription
on one side and a Christian one on the other. These are known
as opisthographs. The bodies were interred wrapped in linen
cloths, or swathed in bands, and were frequently preserved
by embalming. In the case of poorer interments the destruction
of the body was, on the contrary, often accelerated by the use
of quicklime.
Interment in the wall-recess or loculus, though infinitely the
most common, was not the only mode employed in the catacombs.
Fig. 4. — Loculi. (From de Rossi.)
Other forms of very frequent recurrence are the table-tomb and
arched tomb, or arcosolium. From the annexed woodcuts it will
be seen that these only differ in the form of the surmounting
recess. In each case the arched tomb was formed by an oblong
chest, either hollowed out of the rock, or built of masonry, and
closed with a horizontal slab. But in the table-tomb (fig. 8) the
recess above, essential for the introduction of the corpse, is
square, while in the arcosolium (fig. 9), a form of later date, it is
semicircular. Sarcophagi are also found in the catacombs, but are
Figs. 5 and 6. — Loculi. (From de Rossi.)
of rare occurrence. They chiefly occur in the earlier cemeteries,
and the costliness of their construction confined their use to the
wealthiest classes — e.g. in the cemetery of St Domitilla, herself
a member of the imperial house. Another unfrequent mode of
interment was in graves like those of modern times, dug in the
floor of the galleries (Marchi, u.s., tav. xxi. xxvi.). Table-tombs
and arcosolia are by no means rare in the corridors of the cata-
combs, but they belong more generally to the cubicula, or family
vaults, of which we now proceed to speak.
These cubicula are small apartments, seldom more than 12 ft.
square, usually rectangular, though sometimes circular or
7. — Glass Bottles. (From Bosio.)
polygonal, opening out of the main corridors. They are not
unfrequently ranged regularly along the sides of the galleries, the
doors of entrance, as may be seen in a previous illustration (fig. 3),
following one another in as orderly succession as the bedchamber
doors in the passage of a modern house. The roof is sometimes
CATACOMB
flat, but is more usually vaulted, and sometimes rises into a
cupola. Both the roof and the walls are almost universally
coated with stucco and covered with fresco paintings — in the
earlier works merely decorative, in the later always symbolical
or historical. Each side of the cubiculum, except that of the
entrance, usually contains a recessed tomb, either a table-tomb
or an arcosolium. That facing the entrance was the place of
greatest honour, where in many instances the remains of a
martyr were deposited, whose tomb, according to primitive
usage, served as an altar for the celebration of the eucharist.
This was sometimes, as in the Papal crypt of St Calixtus
(fig. 10), protected
from irreverence by
lattice work {tran-
sennae) of marble.
The cubiculum was
originally designed
for the reception
of a very limited
number of dead.
But the natural de-
sire to be buried
near one's relatives
caused new tombs
to be cut in the
walls, above and
around and behind
the original tombs,
the walls being thus completely honeycombed with loculi,
sometimes as many as seventy, utterly regardless of the paint-
ings originally depicted on the walls. Another motive for
multiplying the number of graves operated when the cubiculum
contained the remains of any noted saint or martyr. The
Christian antiquary has cause continually to lament the de-
struction of works of art due to this craving. One of the most
perfect examples of early Christian pictorial decoration, the so-
called "Dispute with the Doctors," in the catacomb of Calixtus,
the " antique style of beauty " of which is noticed by Kugler,
has thus suffered irreparable mutilation, the whole of the lower
part of the picture having been destroyed by the excavation
of a fresh grave-recess (Bottari, vol. ii. tav. 15). The plates of
De Rossi, Perret, and, indeed, all illustrations of the catacombs,
exhibit frequent examples of the same destructive superstition.
The illustrations (figs. 11 and 12), taken from De Rossi's great
work, representing two of the cubicula in the cemetery of St
Calixtus, show the general arrangement of the loculi and the
Fig. 8.— Table-tomb.
Fig. 9. — Arcosolia. (From Bosio.)
character of the frescoes which ornament the walls and roof.
These paintings, it will be seen, are simply decorative, of the
same style as the wall-paintings of the baths, and those of
Pompeii.
Each cubiculum was usually the burying-place of some one
family, all the members of which were interred in it, just as in
the chantry-chapels connected with medieval churches. In them
493
was celebrated the funeral-feast on the day of burial and on its
anniversary, as well as the eucharist, which was the invariable
accompaniment of funerals in the primitive church (Bingham,
Fig. 10. — Restoration of the Papal Crypt, Cemetery of St Calixtus.
(From de Rossi.)
Orig. Eccl. bk. xxiii. c. Hi. 12). The funeral-banquet descended
to the Christian church from pagan times, and was too often
profaned by heathen licence. St Augustine, in several passages,
inveighs against those who thus by " gluttony and insobriety
buried themselves over the buried," and " made themselves
Fig. 11. — Cubiculum in Cemetery of St Calixtus. (From de Rossi.)
drunk in the chapels of the martyrs, placing their excesses to the
score of religious reverence for the dead " (August., De Mor.
Eccl. Cathol. c. 34; Contr. Faust, lib. xx. c. 21; Confess, lib. vi.
c. 2). Some curious frescoes representing these funeral-feasts,
found in the cubicula which were the scene of them, are
49+
CATACOMB
reproduced by Bosio (pp. 355, 391) and others. A romantic air
has been thrown over these burial chapels by the notion that they
were the places of worship used by the Christians in times of
Fig. 12. — Cubiculum in the Cemetery of St Calixtus.
(From de Rossi.)
persecution. This to a certain extent is doubtless true, as in the
case of the chapel of Santa Priscilla, where the altar or stone
coffin of a martyr remains, with a small platform behind it for
the priest or bishop to stand upon. But that they can have been
so used to any large extent is rendered impossible by their limited
dimensions, as none of them could hold more than fifty or sixty
persons. In some of the catacombs, however, there are larger
halls and connected suites of chapels which may possibly have
been constructed for the purpose of congregational worship
during the dark periods when the public exercise of the Christian
religion was made penal. The most remarkable of these is in
the cemetery of Sant* Agnese (see plan, fig. 13). It consists of
five rectangular compartments, three on one side of the corridor
13- — Plan of a supposed Church, Catacomb of Sant' Agnese.
(From Marchi.)
and two on the other, connected by a passage intersecting the
gallery at right angles. Two of the five compartments are
supposed to have been assigned to male, and two to female wor-
shippers, the fifth, at the extremity of the whole, being reserved
for the altar and its ministers. In the centre of the end-wall
stands a stone chair (fig. 14), considered to have been the
episcopal cathedra, with a bench for the clergy on each side.
There is no trace of an altar, which may, Marchi thinks, have
been portable. The walls of the compartments are occupied by
arched sepulchral recesses, above and below which are tiers of
ordinary graves or loculi. The arrangements are certainly such
as indicate a congregational purpose, but the extreme narrowness
of the suite, and still more of the passage which connects the two
divisions, must have rendered it difficult for any but a small
number to take any intelligent part in the services at the same
time. Although the idea of the use of the catacombs for religious
worship may have been pressed too far, there can be no doubt
that the sacred rites of the church
were celebrated within them. We have
already spoken of the eucharistic cele-
brations of which the cubicula were the
scene; and still existing baptisteries
prove that the other sacrament was also
administered there. The most remark-
able of these baptisteries is that in the
catacomb of San Pontianus (fig. 15).
Ten steps lead down to a basin of
sufficient depth for immersion, supplied
by a spring. Some of the subterranean
chambers contain armed seats and Chair. Catacomb of
benches cut out of the tufa rock. These Sant' Agnese.
are supposed by Marchi and others to indicate schoolrooms,
where the catechumens were instructed by the bishop or
presbyters. But this theory wants verification. It is impossible
not to be struck with the remarkable analogy between these
rock-hewn chairs and those discovered in the Etruscan tombs, of
the purpose of which no satisfactory explanation has been given.
Very exaggerated statements have been made as to the
employment of the catacombs as dwelling-places by the Christians
in times of persecution. We have, however, sufficient Theories of
evidence that they were used as places of refuge from <*• u— of
the fury of the heathen, in which the believers — <*•«*«-
especially the bishops and clergy, who would naturally
be the first objects of attack — might secrete themselves until the
storm had blown over. This was a purpose for which they were
14. — Bishop's
Fig. 15. — Baptistery of San Pontianus. (From Perret.)
admirably adapted both by the intricacy of their labyrinthine
passages, in which any one not possessing the clue would be
inevitably lost, and the numerous small chambers and hiding-
places at different levels which might be passed unpercejv^^
the dark by the pursuers. As a rule also the cat****"'
CATACOMB
495
more than one entrance, and frequently communicated with an
arenaria or sand-quarry; so that while one entrance was carefully
watched, the pursued might escape in a totally different direction
by another. But, to quote J. H. Parker, " the catacombs were
never intended, nor fit for, dwelling-places, and the stories of
persons living in them for months are probably fabulous. Accord-
ing to modern physicians it is impossible to live many days in
the caves of pozzolana in which many of the catacombs are
excavated." Equally exaggerated are the statements as to the
linear and lateral extent of the catacombs, and their inter-
communication with one another. Without resorting to this
exaggeration, Mommsen can speak with perfect truth of the
"enormous space occupied by the burial vaults of Christian
Rome, not surpassed even by the cloacae or sewers of Republican
Rome," but the data are too vague to warrant any attempt to
define their dimensions. Marchi has estimated the united length
of the galleries at from 800 to 900 m., and the number of inter-
ments at between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000; Martigny's estimate
is 587 m.; and Northcote's, lower still, at " not less than 350 m."
The idea of general intercommunication is negatived by the
fact that the chief cemeteries are separated by low ground or
valleys, where any subterranean galleries would be at once
filled with water.
It now remains to speak of the history of these subterranean
burial-places, together with the reasons for, and mode of, their
construction. From the period of the rediscovery of the cata-
combs in the 16th century till comparatively recent times a
gigantic fallacy prevailed, repeated by writer after writer,
identifying the Christian burial-places with disused sand-pits.
It was accepted as an unquestionable fact by every one who
undertook to describe the catacombs, that the Christians of
Rome, finding in the labyrinthine mazes of the exhausted
arenariae, which abounded in the environs of the city, whence
the sand used in building had been extracted, a suitable place
for the interment of their martyred brethren, where also the
sacred rites accompanying the interment might be celebrated
without fear of interruption, took possession of them and used
them as cemeteries. It only needed a comparison of the theory
with the visible facts to refute it at once, but nearly three
centuries elapsed before the independence of the arenariae and
the catacombs was established. The discovery of this inde-
pendence is due to Marchi. Starting with the firmest belief in
the old traditional view, his own researches by degrees opened
his eyes to the truth, now universally recognized, that the cata-
combs were exclusively the work of the Christians, and were
constructed for the interment of the dead. It is true that a
catacomb is often connected with the earlier sand-quarry, and
starts from it as a commencement, but the two are excavated
in different strata, suitable to their respective purposes, and
their plan and construction are so completely unlike as to
render any confusion between them impossible.
The igneous formation of which the greater part of the Roman
Campagna is, in its superior portion, composed, contains three
strata known under the common name of tufa, — the " stony,"
" granular," and " sandy " tufa, — the last being commonly
known as pozzolana. 1 The pozzolana is the material required
for building purposes, for admixture with mortar; and the
sandpits are naturally excavated in the stratum which supplies
it. The stony tufa (tufa litoide) is quarried as building-stone.
The granular tufa is useless for either purpose, containing too
much earth to be employed in making mortar, and being far
too soft to be used as stone for building. Yet it is in this stratum,
and in this alone, that the catacombs are constructed; their
engineers avoiding with equal care the solid stone of the tufa
litoide and the friable pozzolana, and selecting the stratum of
medium hardness, which enabled them to form the vertical walls
of their galleries, and to excavate the loculi and cubicula without
severe labour and also without fear of their falling in. The
annexed illustration (fig. 16) from MarcM's work, when compared
with that of the catacomb of Sant* Agnese already given, presents
1 In Rome the three strata are known to geologists as tufa litoide,
tufa granolare and pozzolana*
to the eye the contrast between the wide winding irregulai
passages of the sand-pit, calculated for the admission of a horse
and cart, and the narrow rectilinear accurately-defined galleries
of the catacomb. The distinction between the two is also
plainly exhibited when for some local or private reasons an
ancient arenaria has been transformed into a cemetery. The
modifications required to strengthen the crumbling walls to
support the roof and to facilitate the excavation of loculi,
involved so much labour that, as a rule, after a few attempts,
the idea of utilizing an old quarry for burial purposes was
abandoned.
Another equally erroneous idea was that these vast burial-
places of the early Christians remained entirely concealed from
the eyes of their pagan neighbours, and were constructed not
only without the permission of the municipal authorities but
without their cognizance. Nothing can be farther from the truth.
Such an idea is justly stigmatized by Mommsen as ridiculous, and
reflecting a discredit as unfounded as it is unjust on the imperial
police of the capital. That such vast excavations should have
been made without attracting attention, and that such an im-
mense number of corpses could have been carried to burial in
perfect secrecy is utterly impossible. Nor was there any reason
why secrecy should have been desired. The decent burial of the
dead was a matter especially provided for by the Roman laws.
No particular mode was prescribed. Interment was just as legal
as cremation,and
had, in fact, been
universally prac-
tised by the
Romans until the
later days of the
republic. * The
bodies of the
ScipiosandNasos
were buried in
still existing cata-
combs; and if the
Christians pre-
ferred to adopt
that which Minu-
cius Felix calls
" the better, and more ancient custom of inhumation "
(Octavius, c. 2), there was absolutely nothing, to quote the words
of Northcote (Roma sotterran. pp. 56, 61), " either in their social
or religious position to interfere with their freedom of action.
The law left them entire liberty, . . . and the faithful did but
use their liberty in the way that suited them best, burying their
dead according to a fashion to which many of them had been long
accustomed, and which enabled them at the same time to follow
in death the example of him who was also their model in life."
Interment in rock-hewn tombs, " as the manner of the Jews is to
bury," had been practised in Rome by the Jewish settlers for a
considerable period anterior to the rise of the Christian Church.
A Jewish catacomb, now lost, was discovered and described by
Bosio (Rom, sott. p. 141), and others are still accessible. They
are to be distinguished from Christian catacombs only by the
character of their decorations, the absence of Christian symbols
and the language of their inscriptions. There would, therefore,
be nothing extraordinary in the fact that a community, always
identified in the popular heathen mind with the Jewish faith,
should adopt the mode of interment belonging to that religion.
Nor have we the slightest trace of any official interference with
Christian burials, such as would render secrecy necessary or
desirable. Their funerals were as much under the protection of
the law, which not only invested the tomb itself with a sacred
character, but included in its protection the area in which it
stood, and the cella memoriae or chapel connected with it, as those
of their heathen fellow-citizens, while the same shield would be
thrown over the burial-clubs, which, as we learn from Tertullian
* Cicero is our authority for the burial of Marius, and for Sulla's
being the first member of the Gens Cornelia whose dead body was
burnt (De Legg. ii. 22).
Fig. 16. — Arenaria beneath the Cemetery of
Calixtus.
496
CATACOMB
(A polog. c. 39), were common among the early Christians, as over
those existing among the heathen population of Rome.
We may then completely dismiss the notion of there being any
studied secrecy in connexion with the early Christian cemeteries,
and proceed to inquire into the mode of their formation.
tomJt fet i, Almost without exception, they had their origin in
small burial areas, the property of private persons or
of families, gradually ramifying and receiving additions of one
subterranean storey after another as each was required for inter-
ments. The first step would be the acquisition of a plot of ground
either by gift or purchase for the formation of a tomb. Christians
were not beyond the pale of the law, and their faith presented no
hindrance to the property being secured to them in perpetuity.
To adapt the ground for its purpose as a cemetery, a gallery was
run all round the area in the tufa rock at a convenient depth
below the surface, reached by staircases at the corners. In the
upright walls of these galleries locidi were cut as needed to receive
the dead. When these first four galleries were full others were
mined on the same level at right angles to them, thus gradually
converting the whole area into a net-work of corridors. If a
family vault was required, or a burial chapel for a martyr or
person of distinction, a small square room was excavated by the
side of the gallery and communicating with it. When the
original area had been mined in this way as far as was consistent
with stability, a second storey of galleries was begun at a lower
level, reached by a new staircase. This was succeeded by a third,
or a fourth, and sometimes even by a fifth. When adjacent burial
areas belonged to members of the same Christian confraternity,
or by gift or purchase fell into the same hands, communications
were opened between the respective cemeteries, which thus spread
laterally, and gradually acquired that enormous extent which,
" even when their fabulous dimensions are reduced to their right
measure, form an immense work." 1 This could only be executed
by a large and powerful Christian community unimpeded by
legal enactments or police regulations, " a living witness of its
immense development corresponding to the importance of the
capital/' But although, as we have said, in ordinary times
there was no necessity for secrecy, yet when the peace of the
Church was broken by the fierce and often protracted persecutions
of the heathen emperors, it became essential to adopt precautions
to conceal the entrance to the cemeteries, which became the
temporary hiding-places of the Christian fugitives, and to baffle
the search of their pursuers. To these stormy periods we may
safely assign the alterations which may be traced in the staircases,
which are sometimes abruptly cut off, leaving a gap requiring
a ladder, and the formation of secret passages communicating
with the arenariae y and through them with the open country.
When the storms of persecution ceased and Christianity had
become the imperial faith, the evil fruits of prosperity were not
slow to appear. Cemetery interment became a regular trade
in the hands of the fossores, or grave-diggers, who appear to have
established a kind of property in the catacombs, and whose
greed of gain led to that destruction of the religious paintings with
which the walls were decorated, for the quarrying of fresh loculi,
to which we have already alluded. Monumental epitaphs record
the purchase of a grave from the fossores, in many cases during
the lifetime of the individual, not unfrequently stating the price.
A very curious fresco, found in the cemetery of Calixtus, preserved
by the engravings of the earlier investigators (Bottari, torn. ii. p.
126, tav. 00), represents a " fossor " with his lamp in his hand
and his pick over his shoulder, and his tools lying about him.
Above is the inscription, " Diogenes Fossor in Pace depositus."
It is unnecessary to enter on any detailed description of the
frescoes which cover the walls and ceilings of the burial-chapels in
the richest abundance. It must suffice to say that the earliest
examples are only to be distinguished from the mural decorations
employed by their pagan contemporaries (as seen at Pompeii and
1 Mommsen's chosen example of an ancient burial-chamber, ex-
tending itself into a catacomb, or gathering subterranean additions
round it till a catacomb was established, is that of the cemetery
of St Domitilla, traditionally identified with a granddaughter of
Vespasian, and the catacomb of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo on the
Appian and Ardeatine way.
elsewhere) by the absence of all that was immoral or idolatrous,
and that it was only very slowly and timidly that any distinctly
religious representations were introduced. These were
at first purely symbolical, meaningless to any but a
Christian eye, such as the Vine, the Good Shepherd, the
Sheep, the Fisherman, the Fish, &c Even the personages of ancient
mythology were pressed into the service of early Christian art,
and Orpheus, taming the wild beasts with his lyre, symbolized
the peaceful sway of Christ; and Ulysses, deaf to the Siren's
song, represented the Believer triumphing over the allurements
of sensual pleasure. The person of Christ appeared but rarely,
and then commonly simply as the chief personage in an historical
picture. The events depicted from the life of Christ are but
few, and always conform rigidly to the same traditional type.
The most frequent are the miracle at Cana, the multiplication
of the loaves and fishes, the paralytic carrying his bed, the healing
of the woman with the issue of blood, the raising of Lazarus,
Fig. 17. — Fresco Ceiling. (From Bosio.)
The subjects, beginning at the top and going to the right, are —
(1) The paralytic carrying his £5) Jonah swallowed by the fish.
bed. (6) Jonah vomited forth.
(2) The seven baskets full of (7) Moses striking the rock.
fragments. (8) Noah and the dove.
£3) Raising of Lazarus. In the centre, the Good
(4) Daniel in the lions' den. Shepherd.
Zacchaeus, and the triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The
Crucifixion, and subjects from the Passion, are never represented.
The cycle of Old Testament subjects is equally limited. The
most common are the history of Jonah as a type of the Resurrec-
tion, the Fall, Noah receiving the dove with the olive branch,
Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac, Moses taking off his shoes, David
with the sling, Daniel in the lions' den, and the Three Children
in the fiery furnace. The mode of representation is always con-
ventional, the treatment of the subject no less than its choice
being dictated by an authority to which the artist was compelled
to bow. All the more valuable of these paintings have been
produced in J. H. Parker's series of photographs taken in the
catacombs by the magnesium light. 2 Wilpert's great work, in
which these frescoes are reproduced in colours, now enables
the student even better to distinguish the styles of different
centuries and follow the course of artistic development or decay.
Beyond Rome and its suburbs the most remarkable Christian
catacombs are those in the vicinity of Naples, described by
Pelliccia (De Christ. Eccl. Polit. vol. iv. Dissert. 5), and in separate
treatises by Bellerman and Schultze. Plans of them are also
given by Agincourt in his great work on Christian art. These
1 Parker's invaluable series of Roman photographs may be seen
at the library of the Victoria and Albert museum, at the Ashm©"^
museum and the Bodleian library, Oxford.
CATACOMB
497
catacombs differ materially from those of Rome. They were
certainty originally stone-quarries, and the hardness of the rock
has made the construction practicable of wide, lofty
corridors and spacious halls, very unlike the narrow
galleries and contracted chambers in the Roman
cemeteries. The mode of interment, however, is the
same as that practised in Rome, and the loculi and arcosolia
differ by little in the two. The walls and ceilings are covered
Cmtm-
comhsot
Fig. i 8. — Fresco Ceiling. (From Bosio.)
The subjects, beginning at the bottom and going to the right, are —
(i) Moses striking the rock. (4) Abraham's sacrifice.
(2) Noah and the dove. (5) The miracle of the loaves.
(3) The three children in the furnace.
with fresco paintings of different dates, in some cases lying
one over the other. This catacomb contains an unquestionable
example of a church, divided into a nave and chancel, with a
rude stone altar and bishop's seat behind it.
At Syracuse also there are very extensive catacombs known
as " the Grottos of St John." They are also figured by Agincourt,
Syncum* ¥*^ Scribed by Denon {Voyage en Sicile et Malte)
and Fuhrer. There is an entire underground city with
several storeys of larger and smaller streets, squares and cross
ways, cut out of the rock; at the intersection of the cross ways
Fig. 19. — Plan of the Catacombs of St John, Syracuse.
are immense circular halls of a bottle shape, like a glass-house
furnace, lighted by air shafts. The galleries are generally very
narrow, furnished on each side with arched tombs, and com-
municating with family sepulchral-chambers closed originally
by locked doors, the marks of the hinges and staples being still
visible. The walls are in many places coated with stucco adorned
with frescoes, including palms, doves, labara and other Christian
symbols. The ground-plans (figs,
19, 20), from Agincourt, of the
catacomb and of one of the cir-
cular halls, show how widely this
cemetery differs in arrangement from
the Roman catacombs. The fre-
quency of blind passages and of
circular chambers will be noticed, as
well as the very large number of
bodies in the cruciform recesses,
apparently amounting in one in-
stance to nineteen. Agincourt re-
marks that this cemetery " gives an
idea of a work executed with design
and leisure, and with means very
Fig. 20.—Plan of Circular
Hall, Catacombs of St John,
Syracuse. (From Agincourt.)
Tmormlntu
different from those at
command in producing the catacombs of Rome."
Denon also describes catacombs at Malta near the ancient
capital of the island. The passages were all cut in a close-
grained stone, and are very narrow, with arched ceilings, Malta.
running very irregularly, and ramifying in all direc-
tions. The greater part of the tombs stand on either side of
the galleries in square recesses (like the table-tombs of the Roman
catacombs), and are rudely fashioned to imitate sarcophagi.
The interments are not nearly so numerous as in other catacombs,
nor are there any vestiges of painting, sculpture or inscriptions.
At Taormina in Sicily is a Saracenic catacomb, also
figured by Agincourt. The main corridor is 12 ft.
wide, having three or more ranges of loculi on either side, running
longitudinally into the rock, each originally closed by a stone
bearing an inscription.
Passing to Egypt, a
small Christian catacomb
at Alexandria is Bm ^ 4
described and
figured by de Rossi. 1 The
loculi here also are set end-
ways to the passage. The
walls are abundantly deco-
rated with paintings, one
of a liturgical character.
But the most extensive
catacombs at Alexandria
are those of Egypto-Greek
origin, from the largest of
which, according to Strabo
(lib. xvii. p. 795), the
quarter where it is placed
had the name of the
Necropolis. The plan, it
will be seen, is remarkable
for its regularity (figs. 21,
22). Here, too, the graves
run endways into the rock.
Other catacombs in the
vicinity of the same city are described by Pocock and other
travellers, and are figured by Agincourt.
Subterranean cemeteries of the general character of those
described are very frequent in all southern and eastern countries.
A vast necropolis in the
environs of Saida, the
ancient Sidon, SUoa ^
is described in
Renan's Mission en Phi-
nicie, and figured in Tho-
bois's plates. It consists
of a series of apartments
approached by staircases,
1 Bulletino di archaeologia cristiana,
1865. See also Authorities, below.
Fig. 21. — Plan of Catacomb at
Alexandria. (From Agincourt.)
Fig. 22. — Section of a Gallery in Cata-
comb at Alexandria. (From Agincourt.)
November 1864, August
49»
CATACOMB
the sides pierced with sepulchral recesses running lengthwise
into the rock.
The rock-hewn tombs of Etruria scarcely come under the
category of catacombs, in the usual sense, being rather in-
dependent family burial-places, grouped together in
a necropolis. They are, however, far too remarkable
to be altogether passed over. These sepulchres are
usually hollowed out of the face of low cliffs on the
side of a hill. They often rise tier above tier, and are some-
times all on the same level " facing each other as in streets,
and branching off laterally into smaller lanes or alleys "; and
Roc*-
tomb* of
Btmrlm.
Fig. 23. — Plan of a Tomb at Cervetri. (From Dennis.)
occasionally forming " a spacious square or piazza surrounded
by tombs instead of houses " (Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of
Etruria, ii. 31). The construction of the tombs commonly
keeps up the same analogy between the cities of the living and
those of the dead. Their plan is for the most part that of a
house, with a door of entrance and passage leading into a central
chamber or atrium, with others of smaller size opening from it,
each having a stone-hewn bench or triclinium on three of its
sides, on which the dead, frequently a pair of corpses side by
side, were laid as if at a banquet. These benches are often
hewn in the form of couches with pillows at one end, and the
legs carved in relief. The ceilings have the representation of
beams and rafters cut in the rock. In some instances arm-chairs,
carved out of the living rock, stand between the doors of the
chambers, and the walls above are decorated with the semblance
of suspended shields. The walls are often covered with paintings
in a very simple archaic style, in red and black. As a typical
example of the Etruscan tombs we give the plan and section
(figs. 23, 24) of the Grotta delta Sedia at Cervetri from Dennis
(pp. 32, 35). The tombs in some instances form subterranean
groups more analogous to the general idea of a catacomb. Of
this nature is the very remarkable cemetery at Poggio Gaiella,
near Chiusi, the ancient Clusium, of a portion of the principal
storey of which the woodcut (fig. 25) is a plan. The most re-
markable of these sepulchral chambers is a large circular hall
about 25 ft. in diameter, supported by a huge cylindrical pillar
Fig. 24. — Section of the Tomb of the Seats and Shields, Cervetri.
(From Dennis.)
hewn from the rock. Opening out of this and the other chambers,
and connecting them together, are a series of low winding passages
or cuniculi, just large enough for a man to creep through on all
fours. No plausible suggestion has been offered as to the purpose
of these mysterious burrows, which cannot fail to remind us of
the labyrinth which, according to Varro's description as quoted
by Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi. c. 19, § 4), was the distinguishing
mark of Porsena's tomb, and which have led some adventurous
archaeologists to identify this sepulchre with that of the great
king of Etruria (Dennis, u.s., pp. 303 ff.). (E. V.; O. M. D.)
Modern Discoveries.— la 1873 was discovered, near the ceme-
tery of St Domitilla, the semi-subterranean basilica of Santi
Nereo ed Achflleo, 100 ft. by 60 ft. This is now covered with a
roof, and the fallen columns have been raised up. The lower
Fig. 25. — Plan of a portion of the principal 9torey in the Poggio
Gajella. (From Dennis.)
part of a pillar, which once supported a baMachino over the altar,
still preserves the name Agilleus, and beneath it a bas-relief
of the martyr, with his hands bound, receiving his death-blow
from the executioner. The base of a similar column has only
feet in the same attitude, and probably bore the name Nereus.
In a grave in the apse was found a large fragment of an inscrip-
tion, composed by Pope Damasus, but set up by his successor
Siricius, which, from the note-book of a Salzburg pilgrim of the
8th century, can be completed thus: —
Militiae nomen dederant saevum
Officium pariter spectantes juss
Praeceptis pulsante metu servi
Mira fides rerum subito posue
Conversi fugiunt ducis impia castr
Projiciunt clvpeos faleras tel
Confessi gaudent Christi portar
Credite per Damasum possit quid
tie 1
ATYB^
gerebant
anni
kb pa* "\ati
RE FVttORR^ m
A REUXOVV
AQ. CUVBNTA
E TKIVMPO*
GLORIA CHKtSTtl
Nereus (see Rom. xvi. 15) and Achilleus, said to have been
baptized by St Peter, refused to do the bidding of Domitian as
praetorians, and entering the service of Flavia Domitilla, suffered
martyrdom with their mistress Petronilla, of the Aurelian family
closely connected with the Flavii, and the spiritual daughter of
St Peter, who was buried in a sarcophagus with the inscription . —
AVRELIAE • PETRONILLAE • FIL • DVLCISSIMAE
This is now in St Peter's, but was probably originally behind the
apse of this basilica, for there is a fresco of her in an arccsolium,
with a matron named Veneranda. The original entrance to the
cemetery leads directly into a spacious corridor with no loculi t
but recesses for sarcophagi, and decorations of the classical style
of the 2nd century. From this a wide staircase leads directly
down to a chamber, discovered in March 188 1, of a very early
date. Within an arcosolium is a tablet set up by " Aurelius
Ampliatus and his son Gordian, to Aurelia Bonifatia, his in-
comparable wife, a woman of true chastity, who lived 25 years,
2 months, 4 days, and 2 hours." The letters are of the 2nd
century; but above the arcosolium was found a stone with
great letters, 5 or 6 in. high: "Ampliati, the tomb of Ampli-
atus." Now Ampliatus is a servile name: how comes it to be
set up with such distinction in the sepulchre of the Flavii ?
Romans xvi. 8 supplies the answer: " Salute Ampliatus, most
CATACOMB
499
beloved to me in the Lord." Be Rossi thinks the identification
well grounded (Bullettino, 1881, p. 74). Epitaphs of members
of the Flavian family have been found here, and others stating
that they are put up u Ex indulgentia flaviae domttillae
vespasiani neptis." So that De Rossi did not hesitate to com-
plete an inscription on a broken stone thus: —
De Rossi began his excavations in the cemetery of Santa
Priscilla in 1851, but for thirty years nothing but what had been
described by Bosio came to light. In 1 880 he unearthed a portion
near the Cappella Greca, and found galleries that had not been
touched since they were filled in during the Diocletian perse-
cution. The loculi were intact and the epitaphs still in their
places, so that " they form a kind of museum, in which the
development, the formulae, and the symbolic figures of Christian
epigraphy, from its origin to the end of the 3rd or 4th century,
can be notified and contemplated, not in artificial specimens
as in the Lateran, but in the genuine and living reality of their
original condition." (Bullett., 1884, p. 68). Many of the names
mentioned in St Paul's Epistles are found here: Phoebe, Prisca,
Aquilius, Felix Ampliatus, Epenetus, Olympias, Onesimus,
Philemon, Asyncritus, Lucius, Julia, Caius, Timotheus, Tychicus,
Crescens, Urbanus, Hermogenes, Tryphaena and Trypho(sa)
on the same stone. Petrus, a very rare name in the catacombs,
is found here several times, both in Greek and in Latin. The
neighbouring Coemeterium Ostrianum was anciently known as
" Pons S. Petri/ 9 " ubi Petrus baptizawt," " ubi Petrus prius
sedit" This cemetery derives its name from Priscilla, mother
of Pudens, who is said to have given hospitality to St Peter the
Apostle. We are reminded of St Paul, and of his friends Aquila
and Prisca, by a monument erected by an imperial freedman
who was praepositvs tabernacvlorvm — chief tentmaker.
In 1888 a corridor was discovered which had at one time been
isolated from the rest of the cemetery. It had no loculi, but
recesses in the wall to receive sarcophagi. At the end of the
corridor there was a large chamber, 23 ft. by 13 ft., once lined
with marble and the ceiling covered with mosaic, a few fragments
of which still remain. The only tomb here was a sarcophagus,
of which the broken front bears the letters which show it to have
been the epitaph of one of the Acilian family: —
ACILIO GLABRIONl FILIO
In the vicinity are fragments of the epitaphs of Manius Acilius
and Priscilla, of Quintus Acilius and Caia Acilia in Greek,
another Greek inscription " Acilius Rufinus mayest thou live
in God." After careful examination of the nine Acillii, who were
consuls, De Rossi concludes that this was the resting-place of
that Acilius Glabrio, consul with Trajan, a.d. 91, who in the
year of his consulate was compelled by Domitian to fight with
beasts in the arena, and then banished and put to death in 95.
The question of his Christianity seems settled by the discovery
of the sepulchre of these Christian Acilii. From this crypt a
staircase led up to the basilica in which Pope Silvester was
buried, and the whole plan of which was laid bare by De Rossi.
The tomb of St Silvester could be identified, and that of Pope
Siricius "at his feet," as the pilgrim noted (Bullett., 1890,
pp. 106-119).
Just before De Rossi's death, Mgr. Wilpert discovered in the
Cappella Greca a painting of the " Fractio Panis " or eucharistic
feast, which he cleansed from the dust with which it had been
covered. The picture of the Blessed Virgin and Child, which De
Rossi ascribed to the 2nd, if not to the 1st century, has received
an unexpected proof of its antiquity. In 1890 the floor of the
gallery in which it stands was excavated, and another floor was
found to be 6 ft . below its supposed level. The loculi in this lower
portion were intact, with inscriptions of the and century still in
their places, proving that the niche in which that picture was
painted must have been considerably older than the lowering of
the floor. A flight of iron steps enables the visitor now to examine
this venerable specimen of early Christian art.
After the death of De Rossi, one of his pupils, H. Stevenson,
since dead, discovered in 1896 a small subterranean basilica in
the catacomb of Santi Pietro e Marcellino on the Via Labicana,
with pious acclamations on the plaster similar to those in the
Papal crypt in St Calixtus. Near the well-known subterranean
chapel in the Coemeterium Ostrianum was discovered by Mgr.
Crostarosa, in 1877, another chapel, in which Signor Armellini
found traces of St Emerentiana, foster-sister of St Agnes. Near
this a whole region of galleries has been brought to light with
loculi intact.
Explorations conducted in the cemetery of Domitilla in 1897-
1898 brought to light a fine double crypt with frescoes represent-
ing Christ seated between six male and female saints; also an
inscription relating to a new saint (Eulalius) in a cubiculum of
the 3rd century. In 1800-1900 were discovered two opposite
cubicula in the catacomb of Santi Pietro e Marcellino. These
were unknown to Bosio, and are both covered with frescoes, the
vault being in one case decorated with the scene which represents
Christ seated among the apostles and pronouncing sentence upon
the defunct. An inscription discovered in 1900 on the site of the
ancient cemetery of St Ciriaca, and dating from a.d. 405, states
that one Euryalus bought a site ad mensam beaH martyris
Laurentii from a certain fossor whose name has been erased.
This is interesting as an example of what was known as memoriae
damnatio or the blotting out of a name on account of some
dishonourable action. From the end of the 4th to the first half
of the 5th century, the fossores had the privilege of selling sites,
which frequently led to grave abuses. In 1 901-1902 excavations
in the cemetery of Santa Priscilla, near the Cappella Greca,
revealed a polygonal chamber. This may have originally been
the nymphaeum of the great villa of the Acilii Glabriones, the
hypogaeum of which was discovered by De Rossi near this spot in
1888. It may have been used as a burial-place for martyrs, and
Professor Marucchi is inclined to see in it the sepulchral chapel
of Pope Marcellinus, who died in a.d. 304 during the persecutions
of Diocletian. In 1902, in that part of the Via Ardeatina which
passes between the cemeteries of Calixtus and Domitilla, was
discovered a crypt with frescoes and the sanctuary of a martyr:
it is thought that this, rather than a neighbouring crypt brought
to light in 1897, may prove to be the sepulchral crypt of SS.
Marcus and MarceUianus. In a cubiculum leading out of a
gallery in the vicinity there was also discovered an interesting
impression in plaster of an inscription of the mother of Pope
Damasus, beginning:
HIC DAMASI MATER POSVIT LAVREN[TIA MEMBRA].
In the same year building operations in the Via di Sant* Onofrio
revealed the presence of catacombs beneath the foundations:
examination of the loculi showed that no martyrs or illustrious
persons were buried here.
In 1903 a new cemetery with frescoes came to light on the Via
Latina, considered by Marucchi to have belonged to a heretical
sect. In the same year the Jewish cemetery on the Via Portuense,
known to Bosio but since forgotten, was rediscovered. The
subterranean basilica of SS. Felix and Adauctus, discovered by
Boldetti and afterwards choked up with ruins, was cleared again:
the crypt, begun by Damasus and enlarged by Siricius, contains
frescoes of the 6th- 7th centuries.
A good plan of the catacombs at Albano (at the 15th milestone
of the Appian way), discovered by Boldetti and described by De
Rossi, has been published by Marucchi (Nuovo Bulletino di
archeologia cristiana, 1902, pp. 89 ff.). In 1904 a small sub-
terranean cemetery was discovered at Anagnia. Catacombs
have also been recently discovered on the site of Hadrumetum
near Sousse in Tunisia. (* W. R. B.; O. M. D.)
Authorities. — The classical work on the catacombs of Rome is
G. B. De Rossi's Roma solterranea, on which most of the accounts
in other languages than Italian have been based. The fine volume
py Mgr. Wflpert, Le PHture delle catacombe romane (Rome, 1903),
in which all the important frescoes are reproduced in colours, is to
be regarded as an addition to the Roma soUerranea. All new
5oo
CATAFALQUE— CATALONIA
discoveries made by the active Commissions di archeologia sacra are
chronicled with as little delay as possible in the Nuovo Bulletino de
archeologia cristiana published in Rome.
The most recent accounts of the catacombs are to be found in the
following books: — Armellini, Gli Antichi CimiUri crisiiani di Rama e
a" Italia (Rome, 1893) ; O. Marucchi, Le Catacambe romane (Rome,
1003; also translated into French), Manuale di epigrafia cristiana
(Milan, 1904); M. Besnier, Les Catacombes de Rome (Paris, 1909).
Among the older works are: Bosio, Roma sotterranea, Severano's
edition (1632), and Aringhi's edition (1651); Boldetti, Osservazioni
sopra i cimtteri dei sanii martiri (Rome, 1720) ; Bottari, Sculture e
pitture sagre, &c. (Rome, 1737-1754); Seroux d'Agincourt, Histoire
de Vart par les monuments (Pans, 1823; German ed., 1840); G.
Marchi, Monumenti delle arti cristiane primitive (Rome, 1844) ' ^ aou ^
Rochette, Tableau des catacombes de Rome (2nd ed., Pans, 1853);
Perret, Les Catacombes de Rome (Paris, 1855) — a sumptuous folio
work, but not always accurate; Roller, Les Catacombes deRome
(Paris, 1881); V. Schultze, Die Katakomben (Leipzig, 1882).
Works written in English are: Northcote and Brownlow, Roma
sotterranea (London, 1869; based upon De Rossi); Wharton
Marriott, The Testimony of the Catacombs (London, 1870); J. H.
Parker, The Archaeology of Rome: the Catacombs ; Smith and
Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, s.v. " Catacombs ";
R. Lanciani, Pagan and Christian Rome (London, 1892) ; W. Lowry,
Christian Art and Archaeology, ch. ii. (London, 1901; a useful
introduction to the subject); H. Gee, " The Church in the Cata-
combs," in W. Lefroy's Lectures in Ecclesiastical History (1896);
Th. Mommsen, in the Contemporary Review, May 187 1.
Accounts of the catacombs will also be found in the encyclopaedias
and manuals published under the following names: Martigny,
Perate, F. X. Kraus (Realencyklopddie and Geschichte der christlichen
Kunst), Reusens, V. Schultze and C. M. Kauffmann, and in the large
new Dictionnaire d'archiologie chrStienne et liturgie, published at
Paris under the editorship of Dom F. Cabrol.
The catacombs at Naples are described in C. F. Bellermann, Ober
die dltesten christlichen Begrdbnisstdtten und besonders die Kata-
komben zu Neapel (Hamburg, 1839); Armellini, as above, and
V. Schultze, Die Katakomben von San Gennaro dei Poveri in Neapel
(Jena, 1877).
For the catacombs in Malta, A. A. Caruana, Ancient Pagan Tombs
and Christian Cemeteries in the Islands of Malta (Malta, 1898), and
A. Mayr, " Die altchristlichen Begrabnisstatten auf Malta," in
Romiscne Quartalschrift, vol. xv. pp. 216 and 352 (Rome, 1901),
may be consulted.
The fullest account of the Sicilian catacombs is given by J. Fiihrer,
Forschungen zur Sicilia sotterranea (Munich, 1897); and D. C.
Barrecca, Le Catacombe di San Giovanni in Siracusa (Syracuse, 1906).
A catacomb of the 5th century, discovered at Kertch in South
Russia, is described by J. Kulakovsky in Materials for Russian
Archaeology (St Petersburg, 1896; a publication of the Russian
Imperial Archaeological Commission), but it is written in Russian,
as also is the account by V. Latyshev, in Vizantieski Vremennik,
vol. vi. pp. 337 ff. (St Petersburg, 1899).
The catacombs at Hadrumetum (Sousse) are described by A. F.
Leynard, Les Catacombes d'Hadrumete, deuxietne campagne defouilles
(1904-1905). See also Revue Tunisienne (1905), p. 250.
For the catacombs of Alexandria, Neroutsos Bey, VAncienne
Alexandrie, may be consulted in addition to De Kossi's article
mentioned in the text. (O. M. D.)
CATAFALQUE (a word of unknown origin, occurring in various
forms in many European languages, meaning a funeral scaffold
or temporary stage), a movable structure of wood sometimes
richly decorated, erected temporarily at funeral ceremonies
in a church to receive the coffin or effigy of the deceased; also
an open hearse or funeral car.
CATALANI, ANGELICA (1 780-1849), Italian opera-singer,
daughter of a tradesman at Sinigaglia, was educated at the
convent of Santa Lucia at Gubbio, where her magnificent
soprano voice, of extraordinary compass and purity, soon
became famous. In 1795 sne made her d6but on the stage at
Venice, and from that moment every impresario in Europe was
anxious to engage her. For nearly thirty years she sang at all
the great houses, receiving very large fees; her first appearance
in London being at the King's theatre in 1806. She remained
in England, a prima donna without a serious rival, for seven
years. Then she was given the management of the opera in
Paris, but this resulted in financial failure, owing to the incapacity
and extravagance of her husband, Captain Valabr&gue, whom
she married in 1806. But her continental tours continued to
be enormously successful, until she retired in 1828. She settled
at Florence in 1830, where she founded a free singing school for
girls; and her charity and kindness were unbounded. She died
of cholera in Paris on the 1 2th of June 1849.
CATALEPSY (from Gr. ica?dXi^ts, a seizure), a term applied
to a nervous affection characterized by the sudden suspension
of sensation and volition, accompanied with a peculiar rigidity
of the whole or of certain muscles of the body. The subjects
of catalepsy are in most instances females of highly nervous
temperament. The exciting cause of an attack is usually mental
emotion operating either suddenly, as in the case of a fright, or
more gradually in the way of prolonged depression. The symp-
toms presented vary in different cases, and even in the same indi-
vidual in different attacks. Sometimes the typical features of the
disease are exhibited in a state of complete insensibility, together
with a statue-like appearance of the body which will retain
any attitude it may be made to assume during the continuance
of the attack. In this condition the whole organic and vital
functions appear to be reduced to the lowest possible limit
consistent with life, and to such a degree as to simulate actual
death. At other times considerable mental excitement will
accompany the cataleptic symptoms, and the patient will sing
or utter passionate exclamations during the fit, being all the
while quite unconscious. The attack may be of short duration,
passing off within a few minutes. It may, however, last for many
hours, and in some rare instances persist for several days; and
it is conceivable that in such cases the appearances presented
might be mistaken for real death, as is alleged to have occasion-
ally happened. Catalepsy belongs to the class of functional
nervous disorders (see Muscle and Nerve: Pathology) in which
morbid physical and psychical conditions are mixed up. Al-
though it is said to occur in persons in perfect health, careful
inquiry will usually reveal some departure from the normal state,
as is shown by the greater number of the recorded cases. More
particularly is this true of females, in whom some form of
menstrual derangement is generally found to have preceded
the cataleptic affection. Catalepsy is sometimes associated with
epilepsy and with grave forms of mental disease. In ordinary
cases, however, the mental phenomena bear close resemblance
to those witnessed in hysteria. In many of the subjects of
catalepsy there appears to be a remarkable weakness of the will,
whereby the tendency to lapse into the cataleptic state is not
resisted but rather in some measure encouraged, and attacks
may thus be induced by the most trivial circumstances.
CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. jcardXcryos, a register,
from KaraKkyav, to enrol or pick out), a list or enumeration,
generally in alphabetical order, of persons, things, &c, and
particularly of the contents of a museum or library. A catalogue
raisonnte is such a list classified according to subjects or on some
other basis, with short explanations and notes. (See also articles
Bibliography and Bibliology, and Libraries.)
CATALONIA (Catalufta) } a captaincy-general, and formerly
a province of Spain, formerly also a principality of the crown
of Aragon; bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, W. by Aragon,
S. by Valencia, and E. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900)
1,966,382; area, 12,427 sq. m. The triangular territory of
Catalonia forms the north-eastern corner of the Iberian Peninsula.
A full account of the physical features, and of the modern
development of commerce, communications, &c, in this area
is given in the articles on the four provinces Barcelona, Gerona,
Lerida and Tarragona, into which Catalonia was divided in 1833.
The coast, which is partly sandy, partly rocky, extends about
240 m.; its chief harbours are those of the capital, Barcelona,
of Matar6, of Rosas and of Tarragona. The surface is much
broken by spurs of the Pyrenees, the direction of which is
generally south. Running south-west to north-east, and united
on the north with one of the offsets of the Pyrenees, is the range
of the Sierra Llena, which bisects Catalonia, and forms its
central watershed. The principal rivers are the Ter, the Llobre-
gat, and the Ebro (q.v.), which all run into the Mediterranean.
None of them is navigable. The climate, in spite of frequent
mists and rains, sudden changes of temperature, and occasional
great mid-day heat, is healthy and favourable to vegetation.
The dwarf-palm, orange, lime, and olive grow in the warmer
tracts; and on the higher grounds the thorn-apple, pomegranate,
myrtle, esparto and heaths flourish. These is much woodland,
CATALPA— CATALYSIS
Soi
but meadows and pastures are rare. Maize, millet, rye, flax,
liquorice and fruits of all sorts — especially nuts, almonds,
oranges, figs, walnuts and chestnuts — are produced. Wheat
sufficient for one-fourth of the population is grown, and the vine
is extensively cultivated. Few cattle, but numbers of sheep,
goats and swine are reared. Game is plentiful, and the fisheries
on the coast are excellent. The wines are for the most part
rough and strong, though some are very good, especially when
matured. They are much used to adulterate those of Oporto,
or, after undergoing the blending operation termed compage,
are passed off as Bordeaux wines in France. The best of them,
priorato, is chiefly known in England, under the disguise of
second or third-rate port; it was much used in the military
hospitals of America during the Civil War.
The Catalonians are a frugal, sharp-witted, and industrious
people, having much national pride, and a strong revolutionary
spirit. They are distinct in origin from the other inhabitants of
Spain, from whom they differ in their dialect and costume. In
their great energy and their love of enterprise they resemble the
Basques. Irrigation, careful husbandry and railroad communica-
tions have much developed the resources of their country, in
themselves excellent; and there are many manufacturing towns
and industrial establishments.
Catalonia was one of the first of the Roman possessions in
Spain, and formed the north-eastern portion of Hispania
Tarraconensis. About 470 it was occupied by the Alans and
Goths. It was conquered by the Moors in 7 1 2, but these invaders
were in turn dispossessed by the Spaniards and the troops of
Charlemagne in 788. Catalonia was subsequently ruled by
French counts, who soon, however, made themselves independent
of France. By the marriage of Count Raymond Berenger IV.
of Barcelona with Petronilla of Aragon, Catalonia became
annexed to Aragon; but this union was frequently severed.
In 1640, when Philip IV. attempted to deprive Catalonia of its
rights and privileges, it gave itself up to Louis XIII. of France.
It was restored to Spain in 1659, and was once more occupied by
the French from 1694 to 1697. Under Philip V. Catalonia, in
1 7 14, was deprived of its cortes and liberties. From 1808 to
18 1 3 it was held by France. It was the scene of civil war in 1823,
and of important revolutionary operations in the Carlist wars.
The history and literature of Catalonia have been closely studied,
and in many cases the results of research are published in the Catalan
language. See Catalufta, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza e
historia (2 vols, of the illustrated series Espana), by P. Pifferrer,
F. Pi Margall, and A. A. Pijoan (Barcelona, 1884); Historia de
Catalufta, by V. Balaguer (11 vols., Madrid, 1886, &c); Historia
de CataluHa, by A. Bori y Fontesta (Barcelona, 1898); Origines
historicos de CataluHa, by J. Balari y Jovany (Barcelona, 1899);
Coleccio dels monografias de Catalunya, by J. Reig y Vilardell (Barce-
lona, 1890); Historia del derecko en Catalonia, Mallorca y Valencia,
by B. Oliver (Madrid, 1 876-1 880); and Antigua marina catalana,
by F. de Bofarull y Sans (Barcelona, 1898). The Revista catalana
(Catalan Review), published at Barcelona from 1889, contains many
valuable papers on local affairs. See also Spain : sections Language,
Literature and History, and Barcelona.
CATALPA, in botany, a genus belonging to the family Bignoni-
aceae and containing about ten species in America and eastern
Asia. The best known is Catalpa bignonioides, a native of the
eastern United States which is often cultivated in parks and
gardens. It is a stately tree with large heart-shaped pointed
leaves and panicles of white bell-shaped flowers streaked with
yellow and brown purple.
CATALYSIS (from the Gr. fcarA, down, and \veiv, to loosen),
in chemistry, the name given to chemical actions brought about
by a substance, termed the " catalyst," which is recovered
unchanged after the action. The term was introduced by
Berzelius, who first studied such reactions. It is convenient to
divide catalytic actions into two groups: — (1) when the catalyst
first combines with one of the reaction components to form a
compound which immediately reacts with the other components,
the catalyst being simultaneously liberated, and free to react
with more of the undecomposed first component; and (2), when
the catalyst apparently reacts by mere contact. The theory of
catalysis is treated under Chemical Action; in this article
mention will be made of some of the more interesting examples.
A familiar instance of a catalytic action is witnessed when a
mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide is heated
to 350°, oxygen being steadily liberated, and the manganese
dioxide being unchanged at the end of the reaction. The action
may be explained as follows: — part of the chlorate reacts with
the manganese dioxide to form potassium permanganate,
chlorine and oxygen, the chlorine subsequently reacting with
the permanganate to produce manganese dioxide, potassium
chloride and oxygen, thus
2KC10 8 +2MnO* = 2KMn0 4 +Cl 2 +0 2 = 2KCl+2Mn0 2 +302.
This explanation is supported by the facts that traces of chlorine
are present in the gas, and the pink permanganate can be
recognized when little dioxide is used. Other oxides bring about
the same decomposition at temperatures below that at which
the chlorate yields oxygen when heated alone; but since such
substances as kaolin, platinum black and some other finely
powdered compounds exercise the same effect, it follows that the
explanation given above is not quite general. Another example
is Deacon's process for the manufacture of chlorine by passing
hydrochloric acid gas mixed with air over heated bricks which
had been previously impregnated with a copper sulphate solution.
The nitrous gases employed in the ordinary chamber process of
manufacturing sulphuric acid also act catalytically. Mention
may be made of the part played by water vapour in conditioning
many chemical reactions. Thus sodium will not react with dry
chlorine or dry oxygen; carbon, sulphur and phosphorus will
not burn in perfectly dry oxygen, neither does nitric oxide give
red fumes of the peroxide. In organic chemistry many catalytic
actions are met with. In the class of reaction known as " con-
densations," it may be found that the course of the reaction is
largely dependent upon the nature of some substance which
acts catalytically. One of the most important is the Friedel
and Craft's reaction, in which an aromatic compound combines
with an alkyl haloid in the presence of aluminium, zinc or
ferric chloride. It seems in this, as in other cases, that addition
compounds are first formed which subsequently react with the
re-formation of the catalyst The formation of benzoin from
benzaldehyde in the presence of potassium cyanide is another
example; this action has been investigated by G. Bredig and
Stern (Zeit. Elcktrocketn., 1904, 10, p. 582).
The second class of catalytic actions, viz. those occasioned
by the presence of a metal or some other substance which under*
goes no change, is of especial interest, and has received much
attention. The accelerating influence of a clean platinum plate
on the rate of combination of hydrogen and oxygen was studied
by Faraday. He found that with the pure gases the velocity
of reaction increased until the mixture exploded. The presence
of minute quantities of carbon monoxide, carbon disulphide,
sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrochloric acid inhibited the
action; in the case of the first two gases, there is no alteration
of the platinum surface, since the plate brings about combination
when removed to an atmosphere of pure hydrogen and oxygen;
with the last two gases, however, the surface is altered, since
the plate will not occasion the combination when placed in the
pure gases. M. Bodenstein (Zeit. phys. Chem., 1904, 46, p. 725)
showed that combination occurs with measurable velocity at
ordinary temperatures in the presence of compact platinum.
More energetic combination is observed if the metal be finely
divided, as, for instance, by immersing asbestos fibres in a
solution of platinum chloride and strongly heating. The
" spongy " platinum so formed brings about the combination
of ammonia and oxygen to form water and nitric acid, of nitric
oxide and hydrogen to form ammonia (see German Patent, 1005,
157,287), and of sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form sulphur
trioxide. The last reaction, which receives commercial applica-
tion in the contact process of sulphuric acid manufacture, was
studied by M. Bodenstein and W. Pohl (Zeit. Elektrocketn.,
1905, 11, p. 373), who found that the equilibrium followed the
law of mass-action (see also F. W. Ktister, Zeit. anorg. Ckem.,
1904, 42, p. 453, R. Lucas, Z;it. Elektrochem., 1005, 11, p. 457)-
Other metals, such as nickel, iron, &c, can also react as catalysts,
5°4
CATARACT— CATASTROPHE
On coming into action the machine was laid for direction and
elevation. The block and with it the bowstring was next forced
back against the resistance of the twisted skeins to the rear end
of the trough, this being effected by a windlass attachment.
The trigger being then pressed or struck with a hammer, the
bowstring was released from the block, the stiff arms were
violently brought back to the frame by the untwisting of the
skeins, and the arrow was propelled through the centre " window "
with great velocity. A small machine of the type described
weighed about 85 ft), and sent a " three-span " (26-in.) arrow
weighing J ft) at an effective man-killing velocity somewhat
over 400 yds.
The ballista was considerably larger and more expensive than
this. In Scipio's siege train, at the attack of New Carthage
(Livy xxvi. 47. 5), the number of the ballistae was only one-sixth
that of the catapults. In the ballista the rear end of the trough
(which projected in front of the frame) always rested upon the
ground, or rather was fixed to the framework of the pedestal —
which was a heavy trestle construction — and the trough was
thus restricted to the angle of elevation, giving the maximum
range (45 ). Even so the range was not appreciably greater than
that of a catapult, and in the case of the largest ballistae (ninety-
pounder) it was much less. These enormous engines, which, once
in position, could not be laid on any fresh target, were used
for propelling beams and stones rather than for shooting arrows,
that is, more for the destruction of material than for man-killing
effect. The skeins that supplied the motive force of all these
engines were made of the sinews of animals, twisted rawhide,
horsehair rope, and, in at least one celebrated case, of women's
hair. In 146 B.C. , the authorities of Carthage having surrendered
their engines to the Romans in the vain hope of staying their
advance, new ones were hurriedly constructed, and the women
and virgins of the city cut off their hair to supply the needed skeins.
The modern implement known as a " catapult " is formed by
a forked stick, to the forks of which are attached the ends of a
piece of elastic. To the middle of this elastic a pocket is fitted
to contain a bullet or small stone. In use the forked stick is
held in the left hand and the pocket drawn back with the right.
Aim is taken and, the pocket being released, the missile flies
through the fork of the stick. Though classed as a toy, this
weapon can do considerable execution among birds, &c, when
skilfully used. The name of " catapult " has also been given to
a bowling machine which is used for cricket practice.
CATARACT (from the Lat. form cataracta of the Gr. Karappajcrrp,
a floodgate, or waterfall, p-operly something which rushes down),
a downpour of water, a waterfall. The earliest use in English
is of a floodgate or portcullis, and this survives in the name of a
disease of the eye (see Eye : Eye Diseases) , in which the crystalline
lens becomes opaque, and forms an apparent grating over the
eye. The term is also used of a device to regulate the strokes in
certain types of steam-engine.
CATARGIU (or Catargi), LASCAR (1823-1859), Rumanian
statesman, was born in Moldavia in November 1823. He
belonged to an ancient Walachian family, one of whose members
had been banished in the 17th century by Prince Matthew
Bassaraba, and had settled in Moldavia. Under Prince Gregory
Ghica (1 840-1856), Catargiu rose to be prefect of police at Jassy.
In 1857 he became a member of the Divan ad hoc of Moldavia,
a commission elected in accordance with the treaty of Paris
(1856) to vote on the proposed union of Moldavia and Walachia.
His strongly conservative views, especially on agrarian reform,
induced the Conservatives to support him as a candidate for
the throne in 1859. During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-
1866), Catargiu was one of the Opposition leaders, and received
much assistance from his kinsman, Barbu Catargiu (b. 1807),
a noted journalist and politician, who was assassinated at
Bucharest on the 20th of June 1862. On the accession of Prince
Charles in May 1866, Lascar Catargiu became president of the
council, or prime minister; but, finding himself unable to co-
operate with his Liberal colleagues, I. C. Bratianu and C. A.
Rosetti, he resigned in July. After eight more ministerial
changes, culminating in the anti-dynastic agitation of 1870-
187 1, Catargiu formed, for the first time in Rumanian history,
a stable Conservative cabinet, which lasted until 1876. His
policy, which averted revolution and revived the popularity
of the crown, was regarded as unpatriotic and reactionary by
the Liberals, who resumed office in 1876; and a proposal to
impeach the whole Catargiu cabinet was only withdrawn in 1878.
Catargiu remained in opposition until 1889, when he formed
another cabinet, taking the portfolio of the Interior; but this
administration fell after seven months. In the Florescu ministry
of March 1891 he occupied the same position, and in December
he again became president of the council, retaining office until
1895. During this period he was responsible for several useful
reforms, chiefly financial and commerciaL He died suddenly
at Bucharest on the nth of April 1899.
CATARRH (from the Gr. Karappeiv, to flow down), a term
principally employed to describe a state of irritation of the
mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, or what is called
in popular language a " cold." It is the result of infection by
a micro-organism in one or more of various predisposing con-
ditions, damp, chill, fatigue, &c. The complaint usually begins
as a nasal catarrh or coryza (Gr. icSpvs, head), with a feeling of
weight about the forehead and some degree of difficulty in
breathing through the nose, increased on lying down. Fits of
sneezing accompanied with a profuse watery discharge from the
nostrils and eyes soon follow, while the sense of smell and to some
extent that of taste become considerably impaired. There is
usually present some amount of sore throat and of bronchial
irritation, causing hoarseness and cough. Sometimes the vocal
apparatus becomes so much inflamed (laryngeal catarrh) that
temporary loss of voice results. There is always more or less
feverishness and discomfort, and frequently an extreme sensitive-
ness to cold. After two or three days the symptoms begin to
abate, the discharge from the nostrils and chest becoming thicker
and of purulent character, and producing when dislodged
considerable relief to the breathing. On the other hand the
catarrh may assume a more severe aspect and pass into some
form of pulmonary inflammation (see Bronchitis) or influenza
When the symptoms are first felt it is well to take a good
purge, and to encourage free perspiration by a hot bath, some
diaphoretic drug, as spirits of nitrous ether, being taken before
retiring to bed. Some of the older school of physicians still pin
their faith to a dose of Dover's powder. When the cold mani-
fests itself by aches and pains in back and limbs, aspirin
taken three or four times in the first twenty-four hours will
often act like magic. Locally a snuff made of menthol 1 part,
ammonium chloride 3 parts and boracic acid 2 parts will relieve
the discomfort of the nose. Also, remembering the microbic
origin of the disease, gargling and nasal syringing should be re-
peated at intervals. As soon as the attack shows signs of sub-
siding, a good tonic and, still better, a change of air are very
helpful.
The term catarrh is used in medical nomenclature in a wider
sense to describe a state of irritation of any mucous surface in
the body, which is accompanied with an abnormal discharge
of its natural secretion, hence the terms gastric catarrh, intes-
tinal catarrh, &c.
See also Respiratory System: Pathology, and Digestive
Organs, Pathology of.
CATARRHINE APE, the term used to describe those apes
which have the nostrils approximated, the aperture pointing
downward, and the intervening septum narrow; distinguishing
features of both the lower " doglike " apes (Cynomorpha) and
the higher " manlike " apes (Anthropomorpha). The Catarrhini
are restricted entirely to the Old World, and include the gorilla,
the chimpanzee and orang-utan.
CATASTROPHE (Gr. jcarewrpo^, from jcarewrpe^iv, to over-
turn), a term of the ancient Greek drama for the change in the
plot which leads up to the conclusion. The word is thus used
of any sudden change, particularly of a violent or disastrous
nature, and in geology of a cataclysm or great convulsion of
the earth's surface.
CATAUXI— CATECHISM
505
CATAUXI, a numerous cannibal tribe of South American
Indians of the Purus river district, Brazil. They are a fine war-
like race, with remarkably clear complexions and handsome
features; round wrists and ankles they wear rings of twisted
hair. They cultivate mandioc, and make pottery and bark
canoes.
CATAWBAS (from the Choctaw for " divided "), a tribe of
North American Indians of Siouan stock; formerly the dominant
people of South Carolina. Some of their divisions extended
into North Carolina. They are now almost extinct, but were
at one time able to send nearly 2000 " braves " into battle.
In the American War of Independence they furnished a valuable
contingent to the South Carolina troops. They then occupied
a number of small towns on the Catawba river, but they after-
wards leased their land and removed to the territory of the
Cherokees, with whom they had been formerly at war. There,
however, they did not long remain, but returned to a reservation
in their original district. Their affinities have not been very
clearly made out, and by Albert Gallatin they were grouped
with the Cherokees, Choctaws, Muskogees and Natchez. A
vocabulary of sixty of their words was published by Horatio
Hale in vol. ii. of the Transactions of the American Ethnological
Society in 1848; and a much fuller list — about 300 — collected
by Oscar M. Lieber, the geologist, in 1856, made its appearance
in vol. ii. of Collections of the South Carolina Historical Society,
1858. Of the one hundred Catawbas still said to be surviving,
few, if any, can claim to be full-blooded. They are in the
Catawba Reservation in York county, South Carolina. The
name is familiar in connexion with the white American wine,
the praises of which have been sung by Longfellow. The grape
from which the wine is obtained was first discovered about 1801,
near the banks of the Catawba river, and named by Major Adlum
in 1828, but it is now cultivated extensively in Illinois, Ohio
and New York, and especially on the shores of Lake Erie.
See alao Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
CATCH THE TEN, sometimes called Scotch Whist, a game
played with a pack of 36 cards, from ace, king, queen to six in
each suit, the ace being highest both in play and cutting. In
trumps, however, the knave ranks highest. Any number from
two to eight may play. If an even number, partners are cut for;
if odd, each plays for himself. An odd number of players sit as
they like; four players sit as at whist; six playing in two sides
sit so that no two partners shall be next each other; six playing
three sides sit so that two opponents shall divide each pair;
eight are arranged in alternate pairs. After cutting, the cards
are dealt according to the number of players. The last card
is turned up for the trump. When five or seven play, the six
of spades is usually omitted; when eight play, the four sixes are
thrown out. The eldest hand leads any card he chooses and
all must follow suit if able, the penalty for a revoke being the
loss of the game. The tricks are not kept separate but gathered
in by one player for his side. At the end of the deal there are
six hands of six cards on the table. The players first play out
the first two hands, next the second two and finally the last two,
the trump card remaining on the table until the first four hands
are played out. The game is 41 points, the object of the play
being to win the cards which have a special value. These are,
with their values: knave of trumps n, ace of trumps 4, king
of trumps 3, queen of trumps 2, ten of trumps 10. All other
cards have no counting value. As the ten can be taken by any
other honour the object is to " catch the ten."
CATECHISM (from Gr. Kxvnrx*w> teach by word of mouth), a
compendium of instruction (particularly of religious instruction)
arranged in the form of questions and answers. The custom
of catechizing, common to all civilized antiquity, was followed
in the schools of Judaism and in the Early Church, where it helped
to preserve the Gospel narrative (see Catechumen).
The catechism as we know it is intended primarily for children
and uneducated persons. Its aim is to instruct, and it differs
from a creed or confession in not being in the first instance an
act of worship or a public profession of belief. The first regular
catechisms seem to have grown out of the usual oral teaching
of catechumens, and to have been compiled in the 8th and 9th
centuries. Among them the work of Notker Labeo and of Kero,
both monks of St Gall, and that of Ottfried of Weissenburg in
Alsace deserve mention. But it is not until the first stirrings of
revolt against the hierarchy, which preceded the Reformation,
that they became at all widespread or numerous. The Waldenses
of Savoy and France, the Brethren (small communities of evan-
gelical dissenters from the medieval faith) of Germany, and the
Unitas Fratrum of Bohemia all used the same catechism (one
that was first printed in 1408, and which continued to be pub-
lished till 1530) for the instruction of their children. It was
based on St Augustine's Enchiridion, and considers (a) Faith,
i.e. the Creed, (b) Hope, i.e. the Lord's Prayer, and (c) Love,
i.e. the Decalogue.
The age of the Reformation gave a great stimulus to the
production of catechisms. This was but natural at a time
when the invention of printing had thrown the Bible open to
all, and carried the war of religious opinion from the schools
into the streets. The adherents of the " old " and the " new "
religions alike had to justify their views to the unlearned as
well as to the learned, and to give in simple formulas their
reasons for the faith that was in them. Moreover, in the uni-
versal unrest and oversetting of all authority, Christianity itself
was in danger of perishing, not only as the result of the cultured
paganism of the Renaissance, but also through the brutish
ignorance of the common folk, deprived now of their traditional
religious restraints. To the urgency of this peril the reformers
were fully alive; and they sought its remedy in education.
" Let the people be taught," said Luther, " let schools be opened
for the poor, let the truth reach them in simple words in their
own mother tongue, and they will believe."
Catechisms of the Chief Religious Communions. — (a) Evangelical
(Lutheran and Reformed) . — It was the ignorance of the peasantry,
as revealed by the horrors of the Peasants' War of 1524-25, and
his pastoral visitation of the electorate of Saxony 1 525-1 527,
that drew the above exclamation from Luther, and impelled him
to produce his two famous catechisms (1529). In 1520 he
had brought out a primer of religion dealing briefly with the
Decalogue, the Creed and the Lord's Prayer; and Justus Jonas,
Johannes Agricola and other leaders had done something of the
same kind. Now all these efforts were superseded by Luther's
Smaller Catechism meant for the people themselves and especially
for children, and by his Larger Catechism intended for clergy
and schoolmasters. These works, which did much to mould the
character of the German people, were set among the doctrinal
standards of the Lutheran Church and powerfully influenced
other compilations. The Smaller Catechism, with the Augsburg
Confession, was made the Rule of Faith in Denmark in 1537.
In this same year (1537) John Calvin at Geneva published
his catechism for children. It was called Instruction and
Confession of Faith for the Use of the Church of Geneva (a reprint
edited by A. Rilliet and T. Dufour was published in 1878), and
explained the Decalogue, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer
and the Sacraments. Though it was meant, as he said, to give
expression to a simple piety rather than to exhibit a profound
knowledge of religious truth, it was the work of a man who
knew little of the child mind, and, though it served as an admir-
able and transparent epitome of his famous Institutes, it was too
long and too minute for the instruction of children. Calvin came
to see this, and in 1542, after his experience in Strassburg,
drafted a new one which was much more suitable for teaching
purposes, though, judged by modern standards, still far beyond
the theological range of childhood. It was used at the Sunday
noon instruction of children, on which Calvin laid much stress,
and was adopted and similarly used by the Reformed Church of
Scotland. The Reformed churches of the Palatinate, on the
other hand, used the Heidelberg Catechism (1 562-1 563), "sweet-
spirited, experiential, clear, moderate and happily-phrased,"
mainly the work of two of Calvin's younger disciples, Kaspar
Olevianus and Zacharias Ursinus. Tlie Heidelberg Catechism,
set forth by order of the elector, is perhaps the most widely
accepted symbol of the Calvinistic faith, and is noteworthy for its
506
CATECHISM
emphasis on the less controversial aspects of the Genevan theo-
logy. As revised by the synod of Itort in 1619, this catechism
became the standard of most of the Reformed churches of
central Europe, and in time of the Dutch and German Reformed
churches of America. Other compilations were those of Oecolam-
padius (Basel, 1526), Leo Juda (Zurich, 1534)1 and BuUinger
(Zurich, 1555). In France, after Calvin's day, the Reformed
church used besides Calvin's book the catechisms of Louis
Capell (1619), and Charles Drelincouxt (1642), and at the present
time Bonnefon's Nouveau CaUchisme Hementaire (14th ed., 1900)
seems most in favour. In Scotland both Calvin's Geneva
Catechism and then the Heidelberg Catechism were translated
by order of the General Assembly and annotated. In 1 592 these
were superseded by that of John Craig, for a time the colleague
of John Knox at the High Church, Edinburgh.
Since 1648 the standard Presbyterian catechisms have been
those compiled by the Westminster Assembly, presented
to parliament in 1647, and then authorized by the General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland (July 1648) and by the
Scottish parliament (January 1649). The Larger Catechism is
" for such as have made some proficiency in the knowledge of
the Christian religion," but is too detailed and minute for
memorizing, and has never received anything like the reception
accorded to the Shorter Catechism, which is " for such as are of
weaker capacity." The work was done by a committee presided
over first by Herbert Palmer, master of Queens', Cambridge,
and then by Anthony Tuckney, master of Emmanuel. The
scriptural proof texts were added at the request of the English
parliament. In his negotiations with the parliament in 1648
Charles I. offered to license the printing of the catechism, but,
as the negotiations were broken off, this was not done. The
Shorter Catechism, after a brief introduction on the end, rule and
essence of religion, is divided into two parts: — I. The doctrines
we are to believe ( 1 ) concerning the nature of God, (2) concerning
the decrees of God and their execution — (a) in creation and
providence, (b) in the covenant of works, (c) in the covenant of
grace; II. The duties we are to perform (1) in regard to the moral
law, (2) in regard to the gospel — (a) inward duties, i.e. faith and
repentance, (b) outward duties as to the Word, the sacraments
and prayer. It has 107 questions and answers, while that of the
Anglican Church has but 24, grouping as it does the ten com-
mandments and also the petitions of the Lord's Prayer, instead
of dealing with them singly. Though the Shorter Catechism,
closely associated as this has been from the first with Scottish
public elementary education, has had very great influence in
forming and training the character of Presbyterians in Scotland,
America and the British colonies, it is, like most other catechisms
drawn up by dogmatic theologians, more admirable as an epitome
of a particular body of divinity than as an instruction for the
young and the unlearned. Its use is now generally preceded by
something more adapted to the child-mind, and this is true also
in other communions and in the case of other catechisms.
(b) Roman Catholic. — There was no universal catechism
published by the Latin Church before the council of Trent, but
several provincial councils, e.g. in Germany and Scotland
(where Archbishop Hamilton's catechism appeared in 1552 and
was ordered to be read in church by the parish priest), moved in
self-defence along the lines already adopted by the reformers.
The council of Trent in 1563 resolved on an authoritative work
which was finally carried through by two small papal commis-
sions, and issued in 1566 by Pius V. (Eng. trans, by Donovan,
Dublin, 1829). Being uncatechetical in form and addressed to
the clergy rather than to the people, it missed its intention, and
was superseded by others of less exalted origin, especially by those
of the Jesuit Peter Canisius, whose Summa Doctrinae et Institu-
tion's Christianae (1 554) and its shorter form (1556) were already
in the field. The catechisms of Bellarmine (1603) and Bossuet
(1687) had considerable vogue, and a summary of the former
known as Schema de Parvo was sanctioned by the Vatican
council of 1870. But the Roman Catholic Church as a whole
has never had any one official catechism, each bishop being
allowed to settle the matter for his own diocese. In England
the Roman Catholic bishops have agreed em the use of triftft is
known as " The Penny Catechism," which is very lucid and weM
constructed.
(c) Orthodox Eastern Church. — Peter Mogilas, metropolitan
of Kiev, drew up in 1643 the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic
and Apostolic Eastern Church. This bulwark against the en-
croachments of the Jesuits and the Reformed Church was
standardized by the synod of Jerusalem in 1672. A smaller
catechism was drawn up by order of Peter the Great in 1723.
The catechisms of Levshin Platon (1762) and V. D. Philaret
(1839), each in his day metropolitan of Moscow, are bulky
compilations which cannot be memorized, though there is a
short introductory catechism prefaced to Philaret's volume
(Eng. trans, in Blackmore's Doctrine of the Russian Church,
1845). These works are not to any extent in the hands of the
people, but are used by the Russian clergy and schoolmasters
as guides in giving instruction. The Coptic and Armenian
churches also have what H. Bonar describes as " mere pretences
at catechisms."
(d) Anglican* — The catechism of the Church of England is
included in the Book of Common Prayer between the Orders
for Baptism and Confirmation. It has two parts: (i.) the bap-
tismal covenant, the Creed, the Decalogue and the Lord's
Prayer, drawn up probably by Cranmer 1 and Ridley in the time
of Edward VI., and variously modified between then (1549) and
1 661; (ii.) the meaning of the two sacraments, written on the
suggestion of James I. at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604
by John Overall, then dean of St Paul's, and afterwards bishop
successively of Coventry and Lichfield and of Norwich. This
supplement to what had become known as the Shorter Catechism
established its use as against the longer one, King Edward
Vlth's CaUchisme t which had been drawn up in 1553 by John
Ponet or Poynet, bishop of Winchester, and then revised and
enlarged in 1570 by Alexander Nowell, Overall's predecessor as
dean of St Paul's. The Anglican catechism with occasional
modification, especially in the sacramental section, is used not
only in the Church of England but in the Episcopal churches of
Ireland, Scotland, the British dominions and the United States
of America. By the rubric of the Prayer Book and by the 59th
canon of 1603 the clergy are enjoined to teach the catechism
in church on Sundays and holidays after the second lesson at
Evening Prayer. This custom, long fallen into disuse, has
largely been revived during recent years, the children going to
church for a special afternoon service of which catechizing
is the chief feature. Compared with the thoroughness of most
other catechisms this one seems very scanty, but it has a better
chance of being memorized, and its very simplicity has given it
a firm hold on the inner life and conscience of devout members
of the Anglican communion throughout the world.
(e) Other Communions. — Almost every section of the church,
e.g. the Wesleyan Methodist, has its catechism or catechisms,
but in addition to those already enumerated only a few need be
mentioned. The Socinians embodied their tenets in the larger
and smaller works drawn up by Fausto Sozzini and Schmalz,
and published at Rakow in Poland in 1605 ; 2 modern Unitarians
have modern catechisms. The Quakers or Friends possess a
kind of catechism said to have been written by George Fox in
1660, in which father and son are respectively questioner and
answerer, and an interesting work by Robert Barclay, in which
texts of Scripture form the replies. Congregationalists for some
time used Isaac Watts's Catechisms for Children and Youth
(1730), since superseded by the manuals of J. H. Stowell, J. H.
Riddette and others. In 1898 the National Council of the
Evangelical Free Churches in England and Wales published
1 Cranmer had published a separate and larger catechism on the
basis of the work of Justus Jonas in 1548 ; note also Allen's Gate-
chisme, A Christen Instruccion of the Principall Pointes of Christen
Religion (1551).
1 A Latin edition in 1609 was dedicated to James I. of England.
The British Houses of Parliament passed a resolution ordering all
copies of it to be publicly burned, and again in 1652 when another
edition appeared. An English translation, probably by John Bidle,
was printed in Amsterdam and widely circulated.
CATECHU— CATECHUMEN
5°7
an Evangelical Free Church Catechism, the work of a committee
(convened by Rev. Hugh Price Hughes) comprising Congregation-
alists, Baptists, Methodists (Wesleyan, Primitive and others),
and Presbyterians, and thus representing directly or indirectly the
beliefs of sixty or seventy millions of avowed Christians in all parts
of the world, a striking example of inter-denominational unity.
More remarkable still in some respects is The School Catechism,
issued in 1007 by a conference of members of the Reformed
churches in Scotland, which met on the invitation of the Church
of Scotland. In its compilation representatives of the Episcopal
Church in Scotland co-operated, and the book though "not
designed to supersede the distinctive catechisms officially recog-
nized by the several churches for the instruction of their own
children/' certainly " commends itself as suitable for use in
schools where children of various churches are taught together. 1 '
Catechisms have a strong family likeness. In the main they are
expositions of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Decalogue, and
thus follow a tradition that has come down from the days when
Cyril of Jerusalem delivered his catechetical Lectures. Even when
(as in the Shorter Westminster Catechism and the School Catechism)
the Creed is simply printed as an appendix, or where (as in the Free
Church Catechism) it is not mentioned at all, its substance is dealt
with. The order in which these three main themes are treated is by
no means constant. The Heidelberg and Westminster Catechisms
are of a more logical and independent character. The former is
based on the Epistle to the Romans, and deals with the religious
life as (1) Repentance, (2) Faith, (3) Love. Under these heads it
discusses respectively the sin and misery of men, the redemption
wrought by Christ (here are included the Creed and the Sacraments),
and the grateful service of the new life (the Decalogue).
It may be noted that Sir Oliver Lodge has adopted the
catechetical form in his book, The Substance of Faith Allied with
Science (1907), which is described as " a catechism for parents and
teachers."
See Ehrenfeuchter, Gesehichte des Kateckismus (1857); P. Schaff,
of Common Prayer , pp. 207-208 ; E. A. Knox, Pastors and Teachers
(1902), chs. iii. and iv.; W. Beveridge, A Short History of the West-
minster Assembly (i9°4)» ch. x. (A. J. G.)
CATECHU, or Cutch (Malay, kachu), an extract obtained
from several plants, its chief sources being the wood of two
species of acacia (A. catechu and A. suma), both natives of India.
This extract is known as black catechu. A similar extract,
known in pharmacy as pale catechu (Catechu pallidum), and
in general commerce as gambir, or terra japonica, is produced
from the leaves of Uncaria gambir and U. acida, cinchonaceous
plants growing in the East Indian Archipelago. A third product
to which the name catechu is also applied, is obtained from
the fruits of the areca or betel palm, Areca catechu.
Ordinary black catechu is usually imported in three different
forms. The first and best quality, known as Pegu catechu,
is obtained in blocks externally covered with large leaves; the
second and less pure variety is in masses, which have been
moulded in sand; and the third consists of large cubes packed
in coarse bags. The wood of the two species of Acacia yielding
catechu is taken for the manufacture when the trees have attained
a diameter of about 1 ft. The bark is stripped off and used for
tanning, and the trunk is split up into small fragments, which
are covered with water and boiled. When the extract has be-
come sufficiently thick it is cast into the forms in which the
catechu is found in commerce. Catechu so prepared is a dark
brown, or, in mass, almost black, substance, brittle, and having
generally a shining lustre. It is astringent, with a sweetish
taste. In cold water it disintegrates, and in boiling water,
alcohol, acetic acid and strong caustic alkali it is completely dis-
solved. Chemically it consists of a mixture of a peculiar variety
of tannin termed catechu-tannic acid with catechin or catechuic
acid, and a brown substance due to the alteration of both these
principles. Catechu-tannic acid is an amorphous body soluble
in cold water, while catechin occurs in minute, white, silky,
needle-shaped crystals, which do not dissolve in cold water.
A very minute proportion of quercetin, a principle yielded by
quercitron bark, has been obtained from catechu.
Gambir, which is similar in chemical composition to ordinary
catechu, occurs in commerce in the form of cubes of about an
inch in size, with a pale brown or yellow colour, and an even
earthy fracture. For the preparation of this extract the plants
above mentioned are stripped of their leaves and young twigs,
and these are boiled down in shallow pans. The juice is strained
off, evaporated, and when sufficiently concentrated is cast into
shallow boxes, where, as it hardens and dries, it is cut into small
cubes.
Gambir and catechu are extensively employed in dyeing and
tanning. For dyeing they have been in use in India from the
most remote period, but it was only during the 19th century
that they were placed on the list of European dyeing substances.
Catechu is fixed by oxidation of the colouring principle, catechin,
on the cloth after dyeing or printing; and treated thus it yields
a variety of durable tints of drabs, browns and olives with
different mordants (see Dyeing). The principal consumption
of catechu occurs in the preparation of fibrous substances exposed
to water, such as fishing-lines and nets, and for colouring stout
canvas used for covering boxes and portmanteaus under the name
of tanned canvas. Black catechu is official in most pharma-
copoeias except that of Great Britain, in which pale catechu is
the official drug. The actions and uses of the two are similar,
but black catechu is the more powerful. The dose is from five
to twenty grains. The pulvis catechu compositus contains catechu
and kino, and may be given in doses twice as large as those
named. The drug has the actions and uses of tannic acid, but
owing to the relative insolubility of catechu-tannic acid, it is
more valuable than ordinary tannic acid in diarrhoea, dysentery
and intestinal haemorrhage.
CATECHUMEN (Lat. catechumenus, Gr. KaTrjxobjievos,
instructed, from Kanjx^ to teach orally), an ecclesiastical
term applied to those receiving instruction in the principles of
the Christian religion with a view to baptism. As soon as
Christianity became a missionary religion, it was found necessary
to make arrangements for giving instruction to new converts.
At the beginning the Apostles themselves seem to have under-
taken this duty, and the instruction was apparently given after
baptism, for in Acts ii. 41, 42, we are told that " they that
gladly received the word were baptized . . . and they continued
stedfastly in the Apostles' teaching." There are two instances
in the New Testament where reference is made to individual
instruction in this technical sense. Luke (i. 4) in dedicating the
third Gospel to Theophilus tells him that his aim in writing the
book was " that thou mightest have certainty in the things in
which thou has been instructed " (tcarrixfflip)> an d w6 are told
that Apollos was instructed (icaTijx'Jpaw) " in the way of the
Lord" (Acts xviii. 25).
With the development of Christianity the instruction became
more definite and formal. It is probable that the duty of
instructing converts was assigned to " the teachers," who are
ranked by Paul immediately after the Apostles and prophets
(1 Cor. xii. 28), and occupied an important position in the
Christian ministry. In the Didache, or Teaching of the Apostles,
we have an excellent illustration of the teaching which was
given to candidates for baptism in early times. There can be
little doubt that the Didache was used as a manual for cate-
chumens for several centuries. Athanasius (Festal Epistles, 30),
for instance, says that " it was appointed by the Fathers to be
read by those who are just recently coming to us, and wish to be
instructed in the word of godliness " (Ka-nix&rOai rb» ttj*
dxrtfieiat Xbryov). The instruction prescribed by the Didache
is very largely ethical, and stands in striking contrast to the
more elaborate doctrinal teaching which came into vogue in
later days. The Shepherd of Her mas too is another book which
seems to have been used for the purpose of catechesis, for
Eusebius says that it " was deemed most necessary for those
who have need of elementary instruction " (Eccles. Hist.w. 3-6).
With the rise of theological controversy and the growth of
heresy catechetical instruction became of vital importance to
the Church, and much greater importance was attached to it.
After the middle of the 4th century it was regarded as essential
that the candidate for baptism should not only be acquainted
5 o8
CATEGORY
with the spiritual truths and ethical demands which form the
basis of practical Christianity, but should also be trained in
theology and the interpretation of the creeds. Two books have
been preserved which throw a striking light upon the trans-
formation which had taken place in the conception of catechesis;
(i) the Catechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem; (2) the
De rudibus Catechizandis of Augustine. Cyril's Lectures may be
termed the Pearson on the Creed of the 4th century. He takes
each article separately, discusses it clause by clause, explains
the meaning of each word, and jus tines each statement from
Scripture. Augustine's treatise was written at the request of a
catechist, named Deogratias, who had asked him for advice.
After replying to the question of Deogratias, and giving sundry
counsels as to the best method of interesting catechumens,
Augustine concludes by giving a model catechetical lecture,
in which he covers the whole of biblical history, beginning from
the opening chapters of Genesis, and laying particular stress on
the doctrinal parts of Scripture. Cyril and Augustine differ, as
we should expect, in the doctrines which they select for emphasis,
but they both agree in requiring a knowledge of sound doctrine
on the part of the candidates.
In spite of the numerous references to catechumens in Patristic
literature, our knowledge of the details of the system is often
very deficient, and upon some points there is considerable
diversity of opinion amongst experts. The following are the
most important questions which come under consideration.
i. The Classification of Catechumens. — Bingham and many of the
older writers held that there were four classes of catechumens,
representing different stages in the process of instruction: (a) " The
inquirers " whose interest in Christianity had been sufficiently aroused
to make them desire further information, and who received private
and individual instruction from the teachers before they were
admitted into the second class, (b) " The hearers " (auaientes),
who were admitted into the Church for the purpose of listening to
sermons and exhortations, (c) The prostrati or genu flectentes, who
were allowed also to take part in the prayers, (d) The electi or
competentes, who had completed the period of probation and were
deemed ready to receive baptism. Modern scholars, however, for
the most part, deny that there is sufficient basis to justify this
elaborate classification, and think that its advocates have confused
the catechumenate with the system of penance. The evidence does
not seem to warrant more than two classes, (a) the audientes t who
were in the initial stages of their training, (b) the competentes, who
were qualified for baptism.
2. The Relation of Catechumens to the Church. — Catechumens were
allowed of course to attend church services, but at a certain point
were dismissed with the words " Ite catechumeni, missa est." The
moment at which the dismissal took place cannot be exactly deter-
mined, and it is not clear whether the catechumens were allowed to
remain for a portion of the Communion service, and if so, whether as
spectators or as partial participants. A passage in Augustine seems
to imply that in some way tney shared in the Sacrament, " that
which they (the catechumens) receive, though it be not the Body of
Christ, is yet an holy thing and more holy than the common food
which sustains us, because it is a Sacrament " (De peccatorum meritis,
ii. 42). The explanation of these words has occasioned considerable
controversy. Many scholars hold (and this certainly seems the
most natural interpretation) that consecrated bread was taken from
the Eucharist and given to the catechumens. Bingham, however,
maintains that the reference is not to the consecrated bread, but to
salt, which was given to them as a symbol " that they might learn
to purge and cleanse their souls from sin."
3. The Duration of the Training. — Various statements with regard
to the duration of the catechumenical training are found in ecclesi-
astical authorities. The Apostolical Constitutions, for instance, fix
it at three years; * the synod of Elvira at two. 1 The references in
the Fathers, however, imply that for practical purposes it was
limited to the forty days of Lent. Very probably, however, the
forty days of actual instruction were preceded by a period of
probation.
4. The Relation between the Catechumenate and Baptism. — Cate-
chetical instruction was designed as a preliminary to baptism.
There were two directions, however, in which this purpose was
enlarged: (a) We have no reason to suppose that when infant
baptism was introduced, those who had been baptized in infancy
were excluded from the catechetical training, or that instruction
was deemed unnecessary in their case, though as a matter of fact
we have no definite reference to their admission. The custom of
postponing baptism, which was very general in the 4th and 5th
centuries, probably made such cases more rare than is generally
supposed, and so accounts for the absence of any allusion to them
1 A post. Constit. viii. 2.
• Canon 42.
in connexion with the catechumenate. (6) We have no reason to
suppose that the instruction given in the famous catechetical schools
of Alexandria and Carthage was restricted to candidates for baptism.
There is no doubt that " catechetical " is used in a much wider sense
when applied to the lectures of Origen than when used of the
addresses of Cyril of Jerusalem. The " instruction " of Orieen was
given to all classes of Christians, and not merely to those who were
in the initial stages.
5. Characteristics of the Catechumenical Training. — Besides in-
struction there were some other important features connected
with the catechumenate. (a) The duty of confession was impressed
on the candidates, (b) The ceremony of exorcism was often per-
formed in order to free the catechumen from evil spirits, (c) At a
certain point in the training the creed and the doctrine of the Sacra-
ments were delivered to the candidates by the bishop with much
impressive ceremonial. This teaching constituted the holy secret "
or mystery " (disciplina arcani) of Christianity, and could only be
imparted to those who were qualified to receive it. The acquisition
of this arcanum was regarded as the most essential element in the
catechetical discipline, and marked off its possessors from the rest
of the world. There can be little doubt that this conception of the
" Holy Secret M came into the Church originally from the Greek
mysteries, and that much of the ceremonial connected with the
catechumenate and baptism was derived from the same source.
Authorities. — Cynl, Catecheses; Gregory of Nyssa, Oratio
Catechetica; Chrysostom, Catecheses ad iuuminandos; Augustine,
De rudibus CaUchizandis ; Mayer, Geschichte des Katechumenats . . .
in den ersten seeks Jahrhunderten (1868) ; S. Cheetham, The Mysteries ,
Pagan and Christian. (H. T. A.)
CATEGORY (Gr. KavtryopLa, " accusation "), a term used
both in ordinary language and in philosophy with the general
significance of " class " or " group." In popular language it
is used for any large group of similar things, and still more
generally as a mere synonym for the word " class." The word
was introduced into philosophy as a technical term by Aristotle,
who, however, several times used it in its original sense of
" accusation." He also used the verb Karrryop&v, to accuse,
in the specific logical sense, to predicate; to Karqyopovnepop
becomes the predicate; and icanryoptic^ xporcum may be
translated as affirmative proposition. But though the word thus
received a new signification from Aristotle, it is not on that
account certain that the thing it was taken to signify was equally
a novelty in philosophy. In fact we find in the records of
Oriental and early Greek thought something corresponding to
the Aristotelian classification.
Our knowledge of Hindu philosophy, and of the relations in
which it may have stood to Greek speculation, scarcely enables us
to give decisive answers to various questions that natur- j^,,^
ally arise on observation of their many resemblances (see «^ito #0 p*y
an article by Richard Garbe in Monist, iv. 176-193). Yet
the similarity between the two is so striking that, if not historically
connected, they must at least be regarded as expressions of similar
philosophic needs. The Hindu classification to which we specially
refer is that of Kanada, who lays down six categories, or classes of
existence, a seventh being generally added by the commentators.
The term employed is Paadrtka, meaning " signification of a word."
This is in entire harmony with the Aristotelian doctrine, the cate-
gories of which may with truth be described as significations of
simple terms, tA Kara firfitfdav <nnyir\oKfjp \ey6iitpa. The six
categories of Kanada are Substance, Quality, Action, Genus, In-
dividuality, and Concretion or Co-inherence. To these is added
Non-Existence, Privation or Negation. Substance is the permanent
substance in which Qualities exist. Action, belonging to or inhering
in substances, is that which produces change, Genus belongs to
substance, qualities and actions; there are higher and lower genera.
Individuality, found only in substance, is that by which a thing is
self -existent and marked off from others. Concretion or Co-inherence
denotes inseparable or necessary connection, such as that between
substance and quality. Under these six classes, yhtnj rod Bptos,
Kanada then proceeds to range the facts of the universe.'
Within Greek philosophy itself there were foreshadowings of the
Aristotelian doctrine, but nothing so important as to warrant the
conclusion that Aristotle was directly influenced by it. q^^^
Doubtless the One and Many, Being and Non- Being, of the ptaoaopty.
Eleatic dialectic, with their subordinate oppositions, may
be called categories, but they are not so in the Aristotelian sense,
and have little or nothing in common with the later system. Their
1 For details of this and other Hindu systems see H. T. Colebrooke,
Miscellaneous Essays (1837; new ed., E. B. Coweli, 1875); H. H.
Wilson, Essays and Lectures on the_Religions of the Hindus (1861-
1862); Momer Williams, Indian Wisdom (4th ed., 1893); A.
~ ~ ~ ~ % " " " h of
. „ E.
Gough's Vaiseskika-Sutras (Benares, 1873), and Philosophy of the
Upanishads (London, 1882, 1891); Max Mailer, Sanskrit Literature,
and particularly his appendix to Thomson's Laws of Thought.
CATEGORY
509
starting-point and results are wholly diverse. Nor does it appear
necessary to do more than mention the Pythagorean table of
principles, the number of which is supposed to have given rise to the
decuple arrangement adopted by Anstotle. The two classifications
have nothing in common; no term in the one list appears in the
other; and there is absolutely nothing in the Pythagorean principles
which could have led to the theory of the categories. 1
One naturally turns to Plato when endeavouring to discover the
genesis of any Aristotelian doctrine, and undoubtedly there are in
jgifo. the Platonic writings many detached discussions in which
the matter of the categories is touched upon. Special
terms also are anticipated at various times, e.g. iroi&njs in the
Theaetetus, TtHtlv and rik<rxw in the Gorgias, and irpbs ti in the
Sophist. 2 But there does not seem to be anything in Plato which
one could say gave occasion directly and of itself to the Aristotelian
doctrine ; and even when we take a more comprehensive view of the
Platonic system and inquire what in it corresponds to the widest
definition of categories, say as ultimate elements of thought and
existence, we receive no very definite answer. The Platonic dialectic
never worked out into system, and only in two dialogues do we get
anything like a list of ultimate or root-notions. In the Sophist*
Being, Rest and Motion (rb bv airrb xal vrhavt tcai Klmpris are
laid down as /tiyurra tw» yiv&v* To these are presently added
the Same and the Other (rainbv teal dartpov), and out of the con-
sideration of all five some light is cast upon the obscure notion of
Non-Being (rb m^ bv). In the same dialogue (262 seq.) is found the
important distinction of Ivopa and fan*, noun and verb. The
Philebus presents us with a totally distinct classification into four
elements — the Infinite, the Finite, the Mixture or Unity of both
and the Cause of this unity (rb feropor, rb rckpas, if obn/uZa, ij atria).
It is at once apparent that, however these classifications are related
to one another and to the Platonic system, they lie in a different
field from that occupied by the Aristotelian categories, and can
hardly be said to have anything in common with them.
The Aristotelian doctrine is most distinctly formulated in the
short treatise Kanryopiai, which generally occupies the first place
Aristotie. among the books of the Organon. The authenticity of
the treatise was doubted in early times by some of the
commentators, and the doubts have been revived by such scholars
as L. Spengel and Carl Prantl. On the other hand, C. A. Brandis,
H. Bomtz, and Ed. Zeller are of opinion that the tract is substantially
Aristotle's. The matter is hardly one that can be decided either
pro or con with anything like certainty ; but this is of little moment,
for the doctrine of the categories, even of the ten categories, does not
stand or fall with only one portion of Aristotle's works.
It is surprising that there should yet be so much uncertainty as
to the real significance of the categories, and that we should be in
nearly complete ignorance as to the process of thought by which
Aristotle was led to the doctrine. On both points it is difficult to
extract from the matter before us anything approaching a satis-
factory solution. The terms employed to denote the categories
have been scrutinized with the utmost care, but they give little help.
The most important — *. rod brros or iijs oiiotas, yhnj toO bvros or r&v
6rT(ov, ybntj simply, rb TpQra or rb Kotrd irp&ra, al *rS<rets, or al
fttcupfocts — only indicate that the categories are general classes
into which Being as such may be divided, that they are summa
genera. The expressions ykrq r&v tcanryopUav and cxh^OLta r&v k.,
which are used frequently, seem to lead to another and somewhat
different view. Karqyopla being taken to mean that which is predi-
cated, yktni t&v jc would signify the most general classes of predicates,
the framework into the divisions of which all predicates must come.
To this interpretation there are objections. The categories must be
carefully distinguished from predicables; in the scholastic phrase-
ology the former refer to first intentions, the latter to second intentions,
i,e. the one denote real, the other logical connexion. Further, the
categories cannot without careful explanation be defined as predi-
cates; they are this and something more. The most important
category, obola, in one of its aspects cannot be predicate at all.
In the Karrjyoplai Aristotle prefixes to his enumeration a gram-
matico-logical disquisition on homonyms and synonyms, and on the
elements of the proposition, i.e. subject and predicate. He draws
attention to the fact that things are spoken of either in the connexion
known as the proposition, e.g. " a man runs," or apart from such
connexion, e.g. " man " and " runs." He then proceeds, " Of
things spoken of apart from their connexion in a proposition (r&v
jcctrd fiTjdtfiiav ov/itX/hc^p Xtyopkratw), each signifies either Substance
(oMa), or Quantity (mtrbv), or Quality (xxhSvJ, or Relation (irpbs rt),
or Where (i.e. Place, irw), or When (i.e. Time, rort), or Position
(xct00<u),or Possession (lx«w)t or Action (wouuv), or Passion {-wkax^v).
oMcl, the first category, is subdivided into rpdmi ohcla or primary
substance, which is defined to be rbbe n, the singular thing in which
properties inhere, and to which predicates are attached, and debrtpai
1 The supposed origin of that theory in the treatise *€pl rod xavrbs,
ascribed to Archytas (q.v.) t has been proved to be an error. The
treatise itself dates in all probability from the Neo-Pythagorean
schools of the 2nd century a.d.
* Prantl, Gcs. der Logik, i. 74-75 ; F. A. Trendelenburg, Kate-
gorienlehre, 209. n.
* Soph. 254 d.
oMcu, genera or species which can be predicated of primary
substances, and are therefore ob<rta only in a secondary sense.
Nevertheless, they too, after a certain fashion, signify the singular
thing, rbbe n (K. p. 3 b 12, 13). It is this doctrine of icp&rn oMa
that has raised doubts with regard to the authenticity of the Kanr-
yoplcu. But the tenfold classification, which has also been captiously
objected to, is given in an acknowledged writing of Aristotle's (see
Topica, i. 9, p. 103 b 20). 4 At the same time it is at least remarkable
that in two places where the enumeration seems intended to be
complete (Met. p. 1017 a 25; An. Fos. i. 22, p. 83 a 21), only eight
are mentioned, lx«j» and *&o6ai being omitted. In other passages 1
six, five, four, and three are given, frequently with some addition,
such as Ktd al AXXcu «. It is also to be observed that, despite oJ[
this wavering, distinct intimations are given by Aristotle tnat he
regarded his list as complete, and he uses phrases which would seem
to indicate that the division had been exhaustively carried out.
He admits certainly that some predicates which come under one
category might be referred to another, but he declines to deduce all
from one highest class, or to recognize any relation of subordination
among the several classes.
The full import of the categories will never be adequately reached
from the point of view taken up in the Kanryopiai, which bears all
the marks of an early and preliminary study. For true understand-
ing we must turn to the Metaphysics, where the doctrine is handled at
large. The discussion of Being in that work starts with a distinction
that at once gives us a clue, rb lv is spoken of in many ways; of
these four are classified — t* bv icard cviifafaKos, rb bv fa a\n9ts, rb
tv byvafiet koI kvtpyda, and rb bv *ard rd ^xh/*o.ra Ttav KarrryopUov.
It is evident from this that the categories can be regarded
neither as purely logical nor as purely metaphysical elements.
They indicate the general forms or ways in which Being can be
predicated; they are determinations of Being regarded as an object
of thought, and consequently as matter of speech. It becomes
apparent also why the analysis of the categories starts from the
singular thing, for it is the primary form under which all that is
becomes object of knowledge, and the other categories modify or
qualify thiB real individual. Hdvra tt rb yiyvbptva inrb rk twos
ylyvtrai koX he rums nal rL Tb M rl Xky<a koB 1 iKOtrrrfv Kartryoplav' $ yap
rbbe $ vwrbv fl mubv $ tov (Met. p. 1032 a 13-15)- • • • The
categories, therefore, are not logical forms, but real predicates;
they are the general modes in which Being may be expressed. The
definite thing, that which comes forward in the process from poten-
tiality to full actuality, can only appear and be spoken of under forms
of individuality, quality, quantity and so on. The nine later
categories all denote entity in a certain imperfect fashion.
The categories then are not to be regarded as heads of predicates,
the framework into which predicates can be thrown. They are real
determinations of Being — aUgemeine Bestimmtheiten, as Hegel calls
them. They are not summa genera of existences, still less are they
to be explained as a classification of namable things in general.
The objections Mill has taken to the list are entirely irrelevant,
and would only have significance if the categories were really — what
they are not — an exhaustive division of concrete existences. Grote's
view (Aristotle, L 108) that Aristotle drew up his list by examining
various popular propositions, and throwing the different predicates
into genera, " according as they stood in different logical relation
to the subject," has no foundation. The relation of the predicate
category to the subject is not entirely a logical one; it is a relation
of real existence, and wants the essential marks of the prepositional
form. The logical relations of rb tv are provided for otherwise than
by the categories.
Aristotle has given no intimation of the course of thought by which
he was led to his tenfold arrangement, and it seems hopeless to dis-
cover it. Trendelenburg in various essays has worked out the idea
that the root of the matter is to be found in grammatical considera-
tions, that the categories originated from investigations into gram-
matical functions, and that a correspondence will oe found to obtain
between categories and parts of speech. Thus, Substance corre-
sponds to noun substantive, Quantity and Quality to the adjective,
Relation partly to the comparative degree and perhaps to the pre-
position, When and Where to the adverbs of time and place, Action
to the active, Passion to the passive of the verb, Position (*c?00<u)
to the intransitive verb, lx*w to the peculiar Greek perfect. That
there should be a very close correspondence between the categories
and grammatical elements is by no means surprising; that the one
were deduced from the other is both philosophically and historically
improbable. Reference to the detailed criticisms of Trendelenburg
by Ritter, Bonitz, and Zeller will be sufficient.
Aristotle has also left us in doubt on another point. Why should
there be only ten categories? and why should these be the ten?
Kant and Hegel, it is well known, signalize as the great defect in the
Aristotelian categories the want of a principle, and yet some of
Aristotle's expressions would warrant the inference that he had a
principle, and that he thought his arrangement exhaustive. The
leading idea of all later attempts at reduction to unity of principle,
4 Against this passage even Prantl can raise no objection of any
moment; see Ges. der Logik, i. 206. n.
6 See Bonitz, Index Aristotelicus, s.v., and Prantl, Ges. der Logik,
i. 207.
CATERAN— CAT-FISH
The mechanical properties of the curves are treated in the article
Mechanics, where various forms are illustrated. The simple catenary
is shown in the figure* The cartesian equation referred to the axis
and directrix is y*c cosh (x/c) or
y = Jc(f*/« +«-*/«) ; other forms are
s=c sinh (x/c) and /=^ , +^» s
being the arc measured from the
vertex; the intrinsic equation is
s—c tan ^. The radius of curva-
ture and normal are each equal to
csec*^.
The surface formed by revolving
the catenary about its directrix
is named the alysseide. It is a
minimal surface, i.e. the catenary
solves the problem: to find a
curve joining two given points,
which when revolved about a line
co-planar with the points traces
a surface of minimum area (see
Variations, Calculus of).
The involute of the catenary
is called the tractory, tractrix or
antifriction curve ; it has a cusp at the vertex of the catenary, and
is asymptotic to the directrix. The cartesian equation is
x« V (<?-/)+*<: log [ [c- V (*-*))/!*+ V (c»+y))],
and the curve has the geometrical property that the length of its
tangent is constant. It is named the t factory, since a weight placed
on the ground and drawn along by means of a flexible string by a
person travelling in a straight line, the weight not being in this
line, describes the curve in question. It is named the antifriction
curve, since a pivot and step having the form of the surface generated
by revolving the curve about its vertical axis wear away equally (see
Mechanics: Applied).
CATERAN (from the Gaelic ceathairne, a collective word
meaning " peasantry "), the band of fighting men of a Highland
clan; hence the term is applied to the Highland, and later to any,
marauders or cattle-lifters.
CATERHAM, an urban district in the Wimbledon parlia-
mentary division of Surrey, England, 20 m. S. of London by the
South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 9486. It lies
in a healthy, hilly district, and has grown in modern times from
a village into a large residential town. There are large barracks
in the neighbourhood, and the Metropolitan lunatic asylum is
close to the town.
CATERPILLAR* the popular name of the larva of various
insects, particularly of butterflies and moths (see Lepidoptera,
Hexapoda, Metamorphosis). The word appears first in the
form caterpyl (Promptorium Parvulorum, about the middle of
the 15th century). This may be the original form, with the
addition of -or or -cr\ if so, it represents the O. Fr. chate-
pelose or ckatepeleuse, i.e. "hairy-cat " (chat, cat, and pelouse,
hairy, Lat. pUosus), a name applied to the hairy caterpillar, and
also according to Cotgrave to a weevil. The use of " cat " in
this connexion is paralleled by the Swiss name for a caterpillar,
teufelskatz, and the popular English name for the blossom of
the willow, " catkin," somewhat resembling a caterpillar (cf.
" palmer ") ; the modern French is chenille, Latin canicula, a
little dog. The termination of the word seems to have been early
connected with "piller," a robber, plunderer from the de-
structive habits of the larva, cf. Joel i. 4 — " That which the
palmer- worm hath left, hath the locust eaten." The spelling
"caterpillar," a 17th century corruption, has been the usual
form since Johnson.
CATESBY, ROBERT (1573-1605), English conspirator, son of
Sir William Catesby of Lapworth in Warwickshire, a prominent
recusant who was a descendant of Sir William Catesby, speaker
of the House of Commons in 1484, executed by Henry VII. after
the battle of Bos worth, was born in 1573, and entered Gloucester
Hall (now Worcester College), Oxford, in 1586. He possessed
a considerable estate, and was said to be wild and extravagant in
his youth. In 1596 he was one of those arrested on suspicion
during an illness of Queen Elizabeth. In 1601 he took part in
the rebellion of Essex, was wounded in the fight and imprisoned,
but finally pardoned on the payment of an enormous fine, to
obtain which he was forced to sell a portion of his property.
In 1602 he despatched Thomas Winter and the Jesuit Tesimond
alias Greenway to Spain to induce Philip III. to organize an
invasion of England, and in 1603, after James's accession, he was
named as an accomplice in the " Bye Plot." Catesby was a
man of great beauty of person, " above 2 yards high," says
Father Gerard, " and though slender, yet as well-proportioned
to his height as any man one should see." He possessed a clear
head and unflinching courage, and with a strong determination
and fascinating manner mastered the minds of his associates
and overpowered all opposition. He was, however, headstrong,
wilful and imprudent, fit for action, but incapable of due delibera-
tion, and entirely wanting in foresight. Exasperated by his
personal misfortunes and at the repressive measures under which
his co-religionists were suffering, and blinded by a religious zeal
which amounted to fanaticism, he was now to be the chief in-
stigator of the famous Gunpowder Plot, which must in any event
have brought disaster upon the Roman Catholic cause. The idea
of some great stroke seems to have first entered his mind in
May 1603. About the middle of January 1604 he imparted his
scheme of blowing up the Parliament House to his cousin
Thomas Winter, subsequently taking in Guy Fawkes and several
other conspirators and overcoming all fears and scruples. But
it was his determination, from which he would not be shaken,
not to allow warning to be given to the Roman Catholic peers
that was the actual cause of the failure of the plot. A fatal
mistake had been made in imparting the secret to Francis
Tresham (q.v.), in order to secure his financial assistance; and
there is scarcely any doubt that he was the author of the cele-
brated letter to his brother-in-law, Lord Monteagle, which
betrayed the conspiracy to the government, on the 26th of
October. On receiving the news of the letter on the 28tB,
Catesby exhibited extraordinary coolness and fortitude, and
refused to abandon the attempt, hoping that the government
might despise the warning and still neglect precautions; and
his confidence was strengthened by Fawkes's report that nothing
in the cellar had been touched or tampered with. On the 2nd
of November his resolution was shaken by Tresham 's renewed
entreaties that he would flee, and his positive assurance that
Salisbury knew everything. On the evening of the 3rd, however,
he was again, through Percy's insistence, persuaded to stand
firm and hazard the great stroke. The rest of the story is told
in the article Gunpowder Plot. Here it need only be said that
Catesby, after the discovery of the conspiracy, fled with his
fellow-plotters, taking refuge ultimately at Holbeche in Stafford-
shire, where on the night of the 8th of November he was over-
taken and killed. He had married Catherine, daughter of
Thomas Leigh of Stoneleigh, Warwickshire, and left one son,
Robert, who inherited that part of the family estate which had
been settled on Catesby's mother and was untouched by the
attainder, and who is said to have married a daughter of
Thomas Percy.
CAT-FISH, the name usually applied to the fishes of the
family Siluridae, in allusion to the long barbels or feelers about
the mouth, which have been compared to the whiskers of a cat.
The Siluridae are a large and varied group, mostly inhabitants
of fresh waters; some of them by their singular form and
armature are suggestive of the Devonian mailed fishes, and were
placed at one time in their vicinity by L. Agassiz. Even such
authorities as T. H. Huxley and E. D. Cope were inclined to
ascribe ganoid affinities to the Siluridae; but this view has
gradually lost ground, and most modern ichthyologists, if not all,
have adopted the conclusions of M. Sagemehl, who has placed the
Siluridae near the carps and Characinids in the group Ostariophysi.
The Silurids and Cyprinids may be regarded as two parallel
series derived from some common stock which cannot have been
very different from the existing Characinids. In spite of the
archaic appearance of some of its members, the family Siluridae
does not appear to extend far back in time, its oldest known
representative being the Bucklandium diluvii of the Lower
Eocene (London Clay) of Sheppey. A great number of forms
were placed by Cuvier and his successors in the family SUuridae 9
which has since been broken up by T. Gill and other American
authors into several families, united under the name of Nemato-
gnathi. A middle course appears the more reasonable to the
CAT-FISH
5i3
present writer, who has divided the Siluridae of Cuvier into
three families, with the following definitions: —
Siluridae — ribs attached to strong parapophyses; operculum
well developed.
Loricariidae — ribs sessile; parapophyses absent; operculum
more or less developed.
Aspredinidae — ribs sessile; strong parapophyses; operculum
absent.
These three families may be defined among the Ostariophysi
by having the parietal bones fused with the supraoccipital, no
symplectic, the body naked or with bony scutes, the mouth
usually toothed, with barbels, and usually an adipose dorsal fin.
The Siluridae embrace more than one thousand species, spread
over the fresh waters of all parts of the world, but mostly from
between the tropics. They are absent from western Europe and
north-west Africa, and from North America west of the Rocky
Mountains, but this deficiency has been made good by now, the
introduction of Amiurus nebulosus and allied species in various
parts of continental Europe and California having proved
a success. Only a few forms are marine (Plotosus, Arius,
Galeichthys).
The species which has given the name to the whole family is
the " Wels " of the Germans, Silurus glanis, the largest European
fresh-water fish, inhabiting the greater part of Europe from the
Rhine eastwards and north of the Alps. Its head is large and
broad, its mouth wide, furnished with six barbels, of which those
Fig. i.— The " Wels " (Silurus glanis).
of the upper jaw are very long. Both jaws and the palate are
armed with broad bands of small closely-set teeth, which give the
bones a rasp-like appearance. The eyes are exceedingly small.
The short body terminates in a long, compressed, muscular tail,
and the whole fish is covered with a smooth, scaleless, slippery
skin. Specimens of 4 and 5 ft. in length, and of 50 to 80 lb in
weight, are of common occurrence, and the fish grows to 10 ft.,
with a weight of 400 lb, in the Danube. Its food consists
chiefly of other bottom-feeding fishes, and in inland countries
it is considered one of the better class of food fishes. Stories
about children having been found in the stomach of very
large individuals are probably inventions. An allied species
(S. aristotelis) is found in Greece.
The Clarias and Heterobranckus of Africa and south-eastern
Asia have an elongate, more or less eel-shaped body, with long
dorsal and anal fins, and are known to be able to live a long time
out of water, being provided with an accessory dendritic breath-
ing organ situated above the gills. Some species live in burrows
during the dry season, crawling about at night in search of food.
The common Nile species, the " Harmoot " (Clarias lazera), occurs
abundantly in the Lake of Galilee and was included in, if not
chiefly aimed at, by the Mosaic law which forbade the Jews to
eat scaleless fishes, a prohibition which has been extended to
eels in spite of the obvious presence of minute scales in the
latter.
The Saccobranchus of India and Ceylon, a genus more nearly
related to Silurus f have also an accessory organ for breathing
atmospheric air. It consists of a long sac behind the gill-cavity,
extending far back on each side of the body under the muscles.
In the majority of the Siluridae, called by A. Gunther the
Proteropterae, a section extremely numerous in species, and
represented throughout the tropics, the dorsal fin consists of a
short-rayed and an adipose portion, the former belonging to the
abdominal vertebral column; the anal is always much shorter
than the tail. The gill-membranes are not confluent with the
skin of the isthmus; they have a free posterior margin. When a
nasal barbel is present, it belongs to the posterior nostril. This
section includes among many others the genus Bagrus, of which
the bayad (B. bayad) and docmac (B. doctnac) frequently come
under the notice of travellers on the Nile; they grow to a length
of 5 ft. and are eaten.
Of the " cat-fishes " of North America (Amiurus), locally called
" bull-heads " or " horned-pouts," with eight barbels, some
twenty species are known. Some of them are valued as food,
especially one which is abundant in the ponds of New England,
and capable of easy introduction into other localities (A.
nebulosus). Others which inhabit the great lakes (A. nigricans)
and the Mississippi (A, ponder osus) often exceed the weight of
100 lb. Platy stoma and Pimelodus people the rivers and lakes
of tropical America, and many of them are conspicuous in this
fauna by the ornamentation of their body, by long spatulate
snouts, and by their great size.
The genus Arius is composed of a great number of species and
has the widest distribution of all Silurids, being represented in
almost all tropical countries which are drained by large rivers.
Most of the species live in salt water. They possess six barbels,
and their head is extensively osseous on its upper surface; their
dorsal and pectoral spines are generally developed into powerful
weapons. Bagarius, one of the largest Silurids of the rivers
of India and Java, exceeding a length of 6 ft., differs from
Arius in having eight barbels and the head covered with skin.
R. Semon has made observations in Queensland on the habits
of Arius australis, which builds nests in the sandy bed of the
Burnett river. These nests consist of circular basin-like ex-
cavations about 20 in. in diameter, at the bottom of which the
eggs are laid and covered over by several layers of large stones.
In the marine and estuarine species of Arius, Galeichthys and
Osteogeniosus, the male, more rarely the female, carries the eggs
in the mouth and pharynx; these eggs, few in number, are
remarkably large, measuring as much as 17 or 18 millimetres in
diameter in Arius commusonii, a fish 3 or 4 ft. in length.
The common North American Amiurus nebulosus also takes
care of its eggs, which are deposited beneath protecting objects
at the bottom of the water, failing which both parents join in
excavating a sort of nest in the mud. The male watches over
the eggs, and later leads the young in great schools near the shore,
seemingly caring for them as the hen for her chickens.
In the Siluridae Stenobranchiae of Gunther the dorsal fin con-
sists of an adipose portion and a short-rayed fin which belongs to
the abdominal vertebral column, and, like the adipose fin, may
be sometimes absent. The gill-membranes are confluent with
the skin of the isthmus. The Silurids belonging to this section are
either South American or African. Among the former we notice
specially the genus Doras, which is distinguished by having a
series of bony scutes along the middle of the side. The narrow-
Fig. 2. — Synodontis xiphias.
ness of their gill-openings appears to have developed in them
a habit which has excited the attention of all naturalists who
have visited the countries bordering upon the Atlantic rivers
of tropical America, viz. the habit of travelling during seasons
of drought from a piece of water about to dry up to ponds of
greater capacity. These journeys are occasionally of such a
length that the fish have to travel all night; they are so numerous
v. T 7
5H
CAT-FISH
that the Indians fill many baskets of them. J. Hancock supposes
that the fish carry a small supply of water with them in their
gill-cavity, which they can easily retain by closing their branchial
apertures. The same naturalist adds that they make regular
nests, in which they cover up their eggs with care and defend
them — male and female uniting in this parental duty until the
eggs are hatched. SynodotUis is an African genus and common
in the Nile, where the various species are known by the name
of " Shal." They frequently occur among the representations
of animals left by the ancient Egyptians. The upper part of their
Fig. 3. — Malopterurus electricus.
head is protected by strong osseous scutes, and both the dorsal
and pectoral fins are armed with powerful spines. Their mouth
is small, surrounded by six barbels, which are more or less
fringed with a membrane or with branched tentacles.
The curious fact of some species of SynodotUis having the
lower parts darker than the upper, some being whitish above
and blackish beneath, appears to be connected with their habit
of swimming in a reversed position, the belly turned upwards.
This habit, known to the ancient Egyptians, who have frequently
represented them in that attitude, has been described by
E. Geoffroy, who says they nearly constantly swim on their
back, moving quite freely forwards and sidewards; but if
alarmed, they revert to the normal position to escape more
rapidly.
The electric cat- or sheath-fishes {Malopterurus) have been
referred to the same section. Externally they are at once
recognized by the absence of a rayed dorsal fin, of which only a
rudiment remains as a small interneural spine concealed below
the skin. The entire fish is covered with soft, villose skin,
an osseous defensive armour having become unnecessary
in consequence of the development of a powerful electric
apparatus, the strength of which, however, is exceeded
by that of the electric eel and the large species of
Torpedo.
The electric organ of Malopterurus differs essentially
from that of other fishes provided with such batteries,
being part of the tegumentary system instead of being
derived from the muscles. It consists of rhomboidal cells
of a fine gelatinous substance immediately under the
skin. It is put into action by a single ganglionic cell at
the anterior extremity of the spinal cord. Contrary to
what takes place in other electric fishes, the current
proceeds from the head to the tail.
The electric cat-fish, which grows to a length of 3 ft.
in the Congo, has a wide distribution in Africa, extend-
ing from the Nile to the Zambezi and from the Senegal
to the Congo. It was well known to the ancient
Egyptians, who have depicted it in their mural paintings
and elsewhere, and an account of its electric properties
was given by an Arab physician of the 12th century;
then as now the fish was known under the suggestive
name of Rood or Raash, which means " thunder."
Gtinther's SUuridae Branchicolae comprise the smallest
and least developed members of the family; they are
referred to two genera only from South America, Stego-
philus and Vandellia, the smallest of which does not exceed
the length of 2 in. Their body is soft, narrow, cylindrical
and elongate; the dorsal and anal fins short; the vent Fig.
far behind the middle of the length of the body; gill-
membranes confluent with the skin of the isthmus. Each
maxillary is provided with a small barbel; and the gill-covers
are armed with short stiff spines. Their small size notwith-
standing, these Silurids are well known to the Brazilians, who
accuse them of entering and ascending the urethra of persons while
bathing, causing inflammation and sometimes death. Some
certainly live parasitically in the gill-cavity of large Silurids,
and F. Silvestri has observed Stegopkilus insidiosus to suck the
blood in the gills of Platystoma coruscans, a Silurid growing to
a length of 6 ft.
The mailed cat-fish of the South American genus CalHchihys
Fig. 4. — Callickthys armatus, from the upper Amazons.
(Natural size.)
builds regular nests of grass on leaves, sometimes placed in a
hole scooped out in the bank, in which they cover their eggs
and defend them, male and female sharing in this parental
duty. In the allied Corydoras a lengthy courtship takes place,
followed by an embrace, during which the female receives the
seminal fluid in a sort of pouch formed by the folded membranes
of her ventral fins; immediately after, five or six eggs are
produced and received in the pouch, to be afterwards carefully
placed in a secluded spot. This operation is repeated many
times, until the total number of eggs, about 250, have been
deposited. In accordance with these pairing habits, the pectoral
spines of the male, which are used in amplexation, are larger
and stronger than those of the female. These fish are mono-
gamous, and both parents remain
by the side of the nest, furiously
attacking any assailant.
The allied family Loricariidat
$.—Loricaria lanceolate, from the upper Amazons. (Natural size.)
is entirely confined to the fresh waters of Central and South
America. C. T. Regan, who has recently published an
elaborate monograph of them, recognizes 189 species, referred
to 17 genera. Many of them are completely mailed; but
all have in common a short-rayed dorsal fin, with the
CATGUT— CATHARS
5i5
ventrals below or rarely in front of it. Their gill-openings
are reduced to a short slit. The first group of this, section
comprises alpine forms of the Andes, without any armature,
and with a very broad and pendent lower lip. They have been
referred to several genera (Stygogenes, Arges, Brontes, Astro-
bkpus), but are collectively called " prenadillas " by the natives,
who state that they live in subterranean craters within the
bowels of the volcanoes of the Andes, and are ejected with
streams of mud and water during eruptions. These fishes may,
however, be found in surface waters at all times, and their
appearance in great quantities in the low country during volcanic
Fig. 6. — Abdomen of Aspredo batrachus, with the ova attached;
at a the ova are removed, to show the spongy structure of the skin,
and the processes filling the interspaces between the ova. (Natural
size.)
eruptions can be accounted for by numbers being killed by the
sulphuretted gases which escape during an eruption and by their
being swept down with the torrents of water issuing from the
volcano. The lowland forms have their body encased in large
scutes, either rough, scale-like, and arranged in four or five series
(Chaetostomus), or polished, forming broad rings round the
slender and depressed tail (Loricaria, fig. 5). They are mostly
of small size.
In certain of the mailed genera the secondary sexual differences
may be very pronounced, and have given rise to many nominal
species. The shape of the snout may differ according to the sex,
and its margin may be beset with tentacles in the male, whilst
it frequently happens that the head of the latter is margined
with spines or bristles which are either absent or considerably
shorter in the female.
The Aspredinidae, which are also closely related to the SUuridae,
are represented by four genera and eighteen species from South
America. Aspredo batrachus (fig. 6), of the Guianas, the largest
form, reaching to about a foot in length, deserves notice from
the manner in which the female carries her eggs attached to the
belly and paired fins, in a single layer, each egg being connected
with the skin by a cup-shaped pedunculate base supplied with
blood-vessels and coated with a layer of epithelium, the forma-
tion of which is still unexplained. (G. A. B.)
CATGUT, the name applied to cord of great toughness and
tenacity prepared from the intestines of sheep, or occasionally
from those of the horse, mule and ass. Those of the cat are not
employed, and therefore it is supposed that the word is properly
kitgut, kit meaning " fiddle," and that the present form has arisen
through confusion with £#=cat. The substance is used for the
strings of harps and violins, as well as other stringed musical
instruments, for hanging the weights of clocks, for bow-strings,
and for suturing wounds in surgery. To prepare it the intestines
are cleaned, freed from fat, and steeped for some time in water,
after which their external membrane is scraped off with a blunt
knife. They are then steeped for some time in an alkaline ley,
smoothed and equalized by drawing out, subjected to the
antiseptic action of the fumes of burning sulphur, if necessary
dyed, sorted into sizes, and twisted together into cords of
various numbers of strands according to their uses. The best
strings for musical instruments are imported from Italy (" Roman
strings ") ; and it is found that lean and ill-fed animals yield
the toughest gut.
CATHA, the khat of the Arabs, a shrub widely distributed
and much cultivated in Arabia and tropical Africa from Abyssinia
to the Cape. The dried leaves are used for the preparation of a
kind of tea and also as tobacco. The plant is a member of the
natural order Celastraceae, a family of shrubs and trees found
in temperate and tropical climates and represented in Britain by
the spindle-tree (Euonymus europaeus).
CATHARS (Cathari or Cathamsts), a widespread heretical
sect of the middle ages. They were the d£bris of an early
Christianity, scattered in the 10th to 14th centuries over East
and West, having their analogues in the Mahommedan world
as well. In the East they were called Bogomils (q.v.) and
Paulicians; in the West, Patarenes, Tixerands (i.e. Weavers),
Bulgars, Concorricii, Albanenscs, Albigeois, &c; in both,
Cathars and Manicheans. This article relates to the Western
Cathars, as they appear (1) in the Cathar Ritual written in
Provencal and preserved in a 13th-century MS. in Lyons,
published by C16dat, Paris, 1888; (2) in Bernard Gtri's Practica
inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis f edited by Canon C. Douais,
Paris, 1886; and (3) in the prods verbal of the inquisitors'
reports. Some were downright dualists, and believed that there
are two gods or principles, one of good and the other of evil,
both eternal; but as a rule they subordinated the evil to the
good. All were universalists in so far as they believed in the
ultimate salvation of all men. 1
Their tenets were as follows: — The evil god, Satan, who inspired
the malevolent parts of the Old Testament, is god and lord of
this world, of the things that are seen and are temporal, and
especially of the outward man which is decaying, of the earthen
vessel, of the body of death, of the flesh which takes us captive
under the law of sin and desire. This world is the only true
purgatory and hell, being the antithesis of the world eternal,
of the inward man renewed day by day, of Christ's peace and
kingdom which are not of this world. Men are the result of a
primal war in heaven, when hosts of angels incited by Satan
or Lucifer to revolt were driven out, and were imprisoned in
terrestrial bodies created for them by the adversary. But
there are also celestial bodies, bodies spiritual and not natural.
These the angel souls left behind in heaven, and they are
buildings from God, houses not made with hands, tunics eternal.
1 A certain Peter (Doc. Doat., 22, p. 98) declared that could he but get
hold of the false and perfidious God of the Catholics who created a
thousand men in order to save a single one and damn all the rest, he
would break him to pieces and tear him asunder with his nails and
spit in his face.
5 i6
CATHARS
Imprisoned in the garment of flesh, burdened with its sin, souls
long to be clothed upon with the habitations they left in heaven.
So long as they are at home in the body, they are absent from
the Lord. They would fain be at home with the Lord, and
absent from the body, for which there is no place in heaven
since flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor
corruption inherit incorruption. There is no resurrection of the
flesh. The true resurrection is the spiritual baptism bequeathed
by Christ to the boni homines. How shall man escape from
his prison-house of flesh, and undo the effects of his fall? For
mere death brings no liberation, unless a man is become a new
creation, a new Adam, as Christ was; unless he has received the
gift of the spirit and become a vehicle of the Paraclete. If a
man dies unreconciled to God through Christ, he must pass
through another cycle of imprisonment in flesh; perhaps in
a human, but with equal likelihood in an animal's body. For
when after death the powers of the air throng around and
persecute, the soul flees into the first lodging of clay that it
finds. 1 Christ was a life-giving spirit, and the boni homines, the
" good men," as the Cathars called themselves, are his ambas-
sadors. They alone have kept the spiritual baptism with fire
which Christ instituted, and which has no connexion with the
water baptism of John; for the latter was an unregenerate
soul, who failed to recognize the Christ, a Jew whose mode of
baptism with water belongs to the fleeting outward world and
is opposed to the kingdom of God. It would be interesting to
trace Bardesanes and the Syriac Hymn of the Soul in all
this.
The Cathars fell into two classes, corresponding to the Baptized
and the Catechumens of the early church, namely, the Perfect,
who had been " consoled," i.e. had received the gift of the
Paraclete; and the credentes or Believers. The Perfect formed
the ordained priesthood, were women no less than men, and
controlled the church; they received from the Believers un-
questioning obedience, and as vessels of election in whom the
Holy Spirit already dwelt, they were adored by the faithful,
who were taught to prostrate themselves before them whenever
they asked for their prayers. For none but the Consoled had
received into their hearts the spirit of God's Son, which cries
" Abba, Father." They alone were become adopted sons, and
so able to use the Lord's Prayer, which begins, " Our Father,
which art in heaven." The Perfect alone knew God and could
address him in this prayer, the only one they used in their
ceremonies. The mere credens could at best invoke the living
saint, and ask him to pray for him.
All adherents of the sect seem to have kept three Lents in
the year, as also to have fasted Mondays, Wednesdays and
Fridays of each week; in these fasts a diet of bread and water
was usual. But a credens under probation for initiation, which
lasted at least one and often several years, fasted always. The
life of a Perfect was so hard, and, thanks to the inquisitors, so
fraught with danger, that most Believers deferred the rite until
the death-bed, as in the early centuries many believers deferred
baptism. The rule imposed complete chastity. A husband
at initiation left his wife, committing her " to God and the
gospel" ; a wife her husband. A male Perfect could not lay his
hand on a woman without incurring penance of a three-days'
fast. All begetting of children is evil, for Adam's chambering
with Eve was the forbidden fruit. It is good for a man not to
touch a woman; a man's relations with his own wife are merely
a means of fornication, and marriage and concubinage are
indistinguishable as against the kingdom of God, in which
there is no marrying or giving in marriage. Those only have
been redeemed from earth who were virgins, undefiled with
women. The passages of the New Testament which seem to
connive at the married relation were interpreted by the Cathars
as spoken in regard of Christ and the church. The Perfect must
also leave his father and mother, and his children, for a man's
foes are they of his own household. The family must be sacri-
1 Here we have a doctrine of metempsychosis which seems of
Indian origin (see Asceticism). But Julius Caesar (deB.G. vi. 13)
attests this belief among the ancient Druids of Gaul.
need to the divine kinship. He mat loveth father or mother
more than Christ is not worthy of him, nor he that loveth more
his son or daughter. The Perfect takes up his cross and follows
after Christ.
Next he must abstain from all flesh diet except fish. He may
not even eat cheese or eggs or milk, for they, like meat, are pro-
duced per viam genet aiionis sen coitus. Everything that is
sexually begotten is impure. Fish were supposed to be born
in the water without sexual connexion, and on the basis of this
old physiological fallacy the Cathars equally with the Catholic
framed their rule of fasting. And there was yet another reason
why the Perfect should not eat animals, for a human soul might
be doing time in its body. Nor might a Perfect or one in course
of probation kill anything, for the Mosaic commandment applies
to all life. He might not lie nor take an oath, for the precept
" Swear not at all " was, like the rest of the gospel, taken seriously.
This was the chief of their " anarchist doctrines." *
The Cathar rites, which remain to us in a manual of the sect,
"recall," says the Abb6 Guiraud, no too favourable a witness,
" those of the primitive church with a truth and precision the
more striking the nearer we go back to the apostolic age." The
medieval inquisitor saw in them an aping of the rites of the
Catholic church as he knew them; but they were really, says the
same authority, " archaeological vestiges (i.e. survivals) of the
primitive Christian liturgy. In the bosom of medieval society
they were the last witness to a state of things that the regular
development of Catholic cult had amplified and modified.
They resemble the erratic blocks which lost amid alien soils
recall, where we find them, the geological conditions of earlier
ages. This being so, it is of the deepest interest to study the
Cathar cult, since through its rites we can get a glimpse of those
of the primitive church, about which want of documents leaves
us too often in the dark."
The central Cathar rite was consolametUum, or baptism with
spirit and fire. The spirit received was the Paraclete derived
from God and sent by Christ, who said, " The Father is greater
than I." Of a consubstantial Trinity the Cathars naturally had
never heard. Infant baptism they rejected because it was un-
scriptural, and because all baptism with water was an appanage
of the Jewish demiurge Jehovah, and as such expressly rejected
by Christ.
The consolamentum removes original sin, undoes the sad effects
of the primal fall, clothes upon us our habitation which is from
heaven, restores to us the lost tunic of immortality. A Consoled
is an angel walking in the flesh, whom the thin screen of death
alone separates from Christ and the beatific vision. The rite was
appointed by Christ, and has been handed down from generation
to generation by the boni homines.
The long probation called " abstinence " which led up to it
is a survival of the primitive catechumenate with its scrutinies.
The prostrations of the credens before the Perfect were in their
manner and import identical with the prostrations of the cate-
chumen before the exorcist. We find the same custom in the
Celtic church of St Columba. Just as at the third scrutiny
the early catechumen passed a last examination in the Gospels,
Creed and Lord's Prayer, so after their year of abstinence the
credens receives creed and prayer; the allocution with which
the elder " handed on " this prayer is preserved, and of it the
Abbe" Guiraud remarks that, if it were not in a Cathar ritual,
one might believe it to be of Catholic origin. It is so Christian
in tone, he quaintly remarks elsewhere, that an inquisitor might
have used it quite as well as a heretic. In it the Perfect addresses
the postulant, as in the corresponding Armenian rite, by the name
of Peter; and explains to him from Scripture the indwelling
of the spirit in the Perfect, and his adoption as a son by God.
The Lord's Prayer is then repeated by the postulant after
the elder, who explains it clause by clause; the words pants
2 The Abbe Guiraud remarks that in refusing to take oaths the
Cathars " contraried the social principles on which the constitutions
of all states repose," and congratulates himself that society is not
yet so thoroughly " laicized " as to have given up oaths in the most
important acts of social life.
CATHAY— CATHCART, SIR G.
5^7
superstantiaUs tang interpreted not of the material but of the
spiritual bread, which consists of the Words of Life.
There followed the Renunciation, primitive enough in form,
but the postulant solemnly renounced, not Satan and his works
and pomp, but the harlot church of the persecutors, whose
prayers were more deadly than desirable. He renounced the
cross which its priests had signed on him with their chrism,
their sham baptisms and other magical rites. Next followed the
spiritual baptism itself, consisting of imposition of hands, and
holding of the' Gospel on the postulant's head. The elder begins a
fresh allocution by citing Matt, xxviii. 19, Mark xvi. 15, 16, John
iii. 3 (where the Cathars' text must originally have omitted in
v. 5 the words " of water and," since their presence contradicts
their argument). Acts ix. 17, 18, viii. 14-17, are then cited; also
John xx. 21-23, Matt. xvi. 18,19, Matt, xviii. 18-20, for the Perfect
One receives in this rite power to bind and loose. The Perfect's
vocation is then defined: he must not commit adultery nor
homicide, nor lie, nor swear any oath, nor pick and steal, nor do
unto another that which he would not have done unto himself.
He shall pardon his wrongdoers, love his enemies, pray for them
that calumniate and accuse him, offer the other cheek to the
smiter, give up his mantle to him that takes his tunic, neither
judge nor condemn. Asked if he will fulfil each of these, the
postulant answers: " I have this will and determination. Pray
God for me that he give me his strength."
The next episode of the rite exactly reproduces the Roman
confiteor as it stood in the 2nd century; " the postulant says:
* Parcite nobis. For all the sins I have committed, in word or
thought or deed, I come for pardon to God and to the church
and to you all.' And the Christians shall say: ' By God and by
us and by the church may they be pardoned thee, and we pray
God that he pardon you them.' "
Theie follows the act of " consoling." The elder takes the
Gospel off the white cloth, where it has lain all through the
ceremony, and places it on the postulant's head, and the other
good men present place their right hands on his head; they
shall say the parcias (spare), and thrice the " Let us adore the
Father and Son and Holy Spirit," and then pray thus: " Holy
Father, welcome thy servant in thy justice and send upon
him thy grace and thy holy spirit." Then they repeat the
" Let us adore," the Lord's Prayer, and read the Gospel
(John i. 1-17).
This was the vital part of the whole rite. The credens is now a
Perfect one. He is girt with the sacred thread round his naked
body under the breasts. Where the fear of the persecutor was
absent he was also dad in a black gown. The Perfect ones
present give him the kiss of peace, and the rite is over. This
part of the rite answers partly to the Catholic confirmation of
a baptized person, partly to the ordination of a pope of Rome or
Alexandria. The latter in being ordained had the Gospel laid on
their heads, and the same feature occurs in old Gallican and
Coptic rites of otdaining a bishop.
Thus the Cathar ritual, like that of the Armenian dissenters
(see Paulicians), reflects an age when priestly ordination was
not yet differentiated from confirmation. " Is it not curious,"
says the Abb6 Guiraud, " to remark that the essential rite of the
consolamentum is in effect nothing but the most ancient form of
Christian ordination?"
The Cathar Eucharist was equally primitive, and is thus
described by a contemporary writer in a 13th-century MS. of the
Milan Library:—" The Benediction of bread is thus performed
by the Cathars. They all, men and women, go up to a table, and
standing up say the ' Our Father.' * And he who is prior among
them, at the close of the Lord's Prayer, shall take hold of the
bread and say: ' Thanks be to the God of our Jesus Christ.
May the Spirit be with us all.' And after that he breaks and
distributes to all. And such bread is called bread blessed, al-
though no one believes that out of it is made the body of Christ.
1 Cf. S. Gregorii Ep. ix. 12 (26): " Mos apostolorum fuit ut ad
ipsam solumraodo orarionem oblationis hostiam consecrarent. "
C" The custom of the apostles was to use no other prayer but tbe
Lord's in consecrating tne host of the offering.")
The Albanenses, however, deny that it can be blessed or sanctified,
because it is corporeal " (i.e. material).
As Tertullian relates of his contemporaries in the 2nd century,
so the Cathars would reserve part of their bread of blessing and
keep it for years, eating of it occasionally though only after
saying the Benedicite. The Perfect kept it wrapped up in a bag
of pure white cloth, tied round the neck,* and sent it long distances
to regions which through persecution they could not enter. On
the death-bed it could even, like the Catholic Viaticum, take the
place of the rite of Consolamentum, if this could not be performed.
Once a month this solemn rite of breaking bread was held, the
credentes assisting. The service was called apparellamentum,
because a table was covered with a white cloth and the Gospel
laid on it. The Perfect were adored, and the kiss of peace was
passed round.
The influence of Catharism on the Catholic church was
enormous. To counteract it celibacy was finally imposed on
the clergy, and the great mendicant orders evolved; while the
constant polemic of the Cathar teachers against the cruelty,
rapacity and irascibility of the Jewish tribal god led the church
to prohibit the circulation of the Old Testament among laymen.
The sacrament of " extreme unction " was also evolved by way
of competing with the death-bed consolamentum.
Authorities — J. J. I. Ddllinger, Beitrage zur Sektengeschichte
Munchen, 1890) ; Jean Guiraud, Questions d'histoire (Paris, 1906) ;
F. C. Conybeare, The Key of Truth (Oxford, 1898); Henry C. Lea,
History of the Inquisition (New York, 1888) ; C. Douais, V Inquisition
(Paris, 1906), and his Les Hiritiques du midi au XIII* siecte (Paris,
1 891); Les Albigeois (Paris, 1879); al 80 Practica Inquisitionis (of
Bernard Gui or Guidon), (Paris, 1886) ; L. Cledat, Le Nouveau Testa-
ment, traduit au XIII siecle en langue provengale, suivi d'un rituel
cathare (Paris, 1887) ; E. Cunitz in Beitrdge zu den theol. Wissensch.
(1852), vol. iv.; P. van Limborch, Ltber Sententiarum Inquis.
Tholos. 1307-1323 (Amsterdam, 1602) ; Hahn, Gesch. der Ketzer im
M. A. (Stuttgart, 1845) ; Ch. Schmidt, Histoire et doctrine de la secte
des Cathares (Paris, 1849); A. Lombard, Pauliciens bulgares et
Bons-Hommes (Geneva, 1879); Fredericq, Corpus documentorum
haer. pravitatis Neerlandicae (Gent, 1 889-1 896); Felix Tocco,
" Nuovi document! " in Archie, dl studi ital. (1901), and his VEresia
net medio evo (Florence, 1881) ; P. Flade, Das rcmische Inquisitions-
verfahren in Deutschland (Leipzig, 1902) ; Ch. Molinier, Rapport
sur une mission en Italie," in Archives scientifiques de Paris, torn. 14
(1888); C. H. Haskins, " Robert le Bougre, in American Hist. Rev.
(1902). (F. C. C.)
CATHAY, the name by which China (q.v.) was known to medi-
eval Europe and is still occasionally referred to in poetry, as in
Tennyson's " Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay."
It is derived from Khitai, or Khitat, the name which was properly
that of the kingdom established by the Rhitan conquerors in the
northern provinces of China about a.d. 007, which after the fall
of this dynasty in 11 25 remained attached to their former
territory, and was subsequently applied by the nations of Central
Asia to the whole of China. Thus " Kitai " is still the Russian
name for China. The name penetrated to Europe in the 13th
century with the fame of the conquests of Jenghiz Khan. After
the discovery of southern China by European navigators Cathay
was erroneously believed to be a country to the north of China,
and it was the desire to reach it that sent the English adventurers
of the 16th century in search of the north-east passage.
CATHCART, SIR GEORGE (1 794-1854), English soldier, third
son of the 1st Earl Cathcart, was born in London on the 12th of
May 1 794. He was educated at Eton and Edinburgh University.
In 18 10 he entered the army, and two years later accompanied
his father to Russia as aide-de-camp. With him he joined the
Russian headquarters in March 18 13; and he was present at all
the great battles of that year in Germany, and of the following
year in France, and also at the taking of Paris. The fruits of his
careful observation and critical study of these operations
appeared in the Commentaries on the war in Russia and Germany
1812-1813, a plain soldier-like history, which he published in
1850. After the peace of 1814 he accompanied his father to the
congress of Vienna. He was present at Quatre Bras and at
Waterloo, as an aide-de-camp to the duke of Wellington, and
remained on the staff till the army of occupation quitted France.
* Cf. Duchesne, Origines, ed. 1898, p. 177.
5>8
CATHCART, LORD— CATHEDRAL
Reappointed almost immediately, he accompanied the duke to
the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelie and Verona, and in 1826 to
Prussia. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1826, he was placed on
half-pay in 1834. He was recalled to active service in 1838, and
sent as commander of the King's Dragoon Guards to Canada,
where he played an important part in suppressing the rebellion
and pacifying the country. In 1844 he returned to England,
and two years later was appointed deputy-lieutenant of the
Tower, a post which he held up to the time of his promotion to
major-general in 1851. In March 1852 he succeeded Sir Harry
Smith as governor and commander-in-chief at the Cape, and
brought the Kaffir war, then in progress, to a successful conclu-
sion. He promulgated the first constitution of Cape Colony, and
conducted operations against the Basuto. Cathcart was made a
K.C.B. and received the thanks of both Houses for his services
(1853). In December 1853 he was made adjutant-general of the
army, but never entered upon his duties, being sent out to the
Crimean War as soon as he arrived in England. He was even
given a dormant commission entitling him to the chief command
in case of accident to Lord Raglan, and the highest hopes were
fixed on him as a scientific and experienced soldier. But these
hopes were not to be fulfilled ; for he fell at the battle of Inkerman
(November 5, 1854). His remains, with those of other officers,
were buried on Cathcart's Hill. Sir George Cathcart married in
1824 Lady Georgiana Greville, who survived him, and by whom
he had a family.
See CoVburris Untied Service Magazine, January 1855; ^ one '
spondence of the Hon. Sir George Cathcart relative to Kaffrana (1856) ;
A. W. Kinglake's Invasion of the Crimea, vol. v.
CATHCART, WILLIAM SCHAW CATHCART, ist Earl
(1755-1843), English soldier and diplomatist, was born at Peter-
sham on the 17th of September 1755, and educated at Eton.
In 1 771 he went to St Petersburg, where his father, Charles,
9th Baron Cathcart (1721-1776), a general in the army, was
ambassador. From 1773 to 1777 he studied law, but after
succeeding to the barony in 1776 he obtained a commission in
the cavalry. Proceeding to America in 1777, he had before the
close of his first campaign twice won promotion on the field of
battle. In 1778 he further distinguished himself in outpost
work, and at the battle of Monmouth he commanded an irregular
corps, the " British Legion," with conspicuous success; for a
time also he acted as quartermaster-general to the forces in
America. He returned home in 1780, and in February 1781 was
made captain and lieutenant-colonel in the Coldstream Guards.
He was elected a representative peer for Scotland in 1788, and
in 1792 he became colonel of the 29th foot. He served with
distinction in the campaigns in the Low Countries, 1 793-1 795,
in the course of which he was promoted major-general; and in
1801 he was made a lieutenant-general, having in the meanwhile
received the appointments of vice-admiral of Scotland (1795),
privy councillor (1798), and colonel of the 2nd Life Guards
^1797). From 1803 to 1805 Lord Cathcart was commander-in-
chief in Ireland, and in the latter year he was sent by Pitt in
command of the British expedition to Hanover (see Napoleonic
Campaigns). After the recall of this expedition Cathcart
commanded the forces in Scotland until 1807, when he was
placed in charge of the expedition to Copenhagen, which sur-
rendered to him on the 6th of September. Four weeks later
he was created Viscount Cathcart of Cathcart and Baron
Greenock of Greenock in the peerage of the United Kingdom,
resuming the Scottish command on his return from the front.
On the 1 st of January 181 2 he was promoted to the full rank of
general, and a few months later he proceeded to Russia as am-
bassador and military commissioner. In the latter capacity he
served with the headquarters of the allies throughout the War
of Liberation (181 2-18 14) ; his success in the delicate and difficult
task of maintaining harmony and devotion to the common cause
amongst the generals of many nationalities was recognized after
the war by his elevation to the earldom (July 18 14). He then
went to St Petersburg, and continued to hold the post of am-
bassador until 1820, when he returned to England. He died at
his estate near Glasgow on the 16th of June 1843.
His son, Charles Murray Cathcart, 2nd earl (1 783-1859),
succeeded to the title in 1843. He entered the 2nd life Guards
in 1800, and saw active service under Sir James Craig in the
Mediterranean, 1805-1806. In 1807 he became by courtesy
Lord Greenock. He took part in the Walcheren expedition
of 1809 as a major, and as a lieu tenant-colonel served at Barossa,
Salamanca and Vittoria. He had already gained staff experience,
and he now served under Graham in Holland, 1814, as quarter-
master-general. He was present at Waterloo, and for his ser-
vices received the C.B. and several foreign orders. During the
peace he became deeply interested in scientific pursuits, and a
new mineral discovered by him in 1841 was named Greenockite.
His later military services included the chief command in Canada
during a period of grave unrest (1846-1849). He retired from
active service in 1859, becoming a full general just before his
death. The title passed to his son and grandson as 3rd and
4th earls.
CATHCART, a parish situated partly in Renfrewshire and
partly in Lanarkshire, Scotland. The Renfrewshire portion
has the larger area (2387 acres), but the smaller population (737S)»
the area of the Lanarkshire portion being 745 acres and the
population (1901) 20,083. The industries include paper-making,
dyeing and sandstone quarrying, but limestone and coal have
also been worked. The parish includes the town of Cathcart
(pop. 4808), and the villages of Old and New Cathcart, but much
of it, though outside the city boundaries, is practically continu-
ous with some of the southern suburbs of Glasgow, with which
there is communication by electric tram and the Caledonian
railway's circular line. The White Cart flows through the
parish. In the 12th century Cathcart became a barony of the
Cathcarts, who derived the title of their lordship (1460) and
earldom (1814) from it. On the Queen's Knowe, a hillock near
the ruins of Cathcart Castle, a memorial marks the spot where
Queen Mary watched the progress of the battle of Langside
(1568), the site of which lies within the parish.
CATHEDRAL, more correctly "cathedral church" (ecclesia
cathedralis), the church which contains the official " seat " or
throne of a bishop — cathedra, one of the Latin names for this,
giving us the adjective " cathedral." The adjective has gradu-
ally, for briefness of speech, assumed the character of a sub-
stantive, but though an instance of this (strictly incorrect) use
of the word as a substantive has been found as far back as 1587,
it became common only at the end of the 18th, or first half of
the 19th, century. One of the earliest instances of the term
ecclesia cathedralis is said to occur in the acts of the council of
Tarragona in 516. Another name for a cathedral church is
ecclesia mater, indicating that it is the mother church. As being
the one important church, it was also known as ecclesia major.
This is the formal expression used by Archbishop Walter Gray
of York (1 216-1255), and it is preserved in modern times by the
name of " La Majeure" by which the old cathedral church of
Marseilles is popularly known. Again, as the chief house of
God, the cathedral church was the Domus Dei, and from this
name the German Domkirche, or Dom, is derived, as also the
Swedish Domkyrka, and the Italian Duomo.
History and Organization. — It was early decreed that the
cathedra of a bishop was not to be placed in the church of a
village, but only in that of a city. There was no difficulty as
to this on the continent of Europe, where towns were numerous,
and where the cities were the natural centres from which Chris-
tianity was diffused among the people who inhabited the sur-
rounding districts. In the British islands, however, the case
was different; towns were few, and owing to other causes,
instead of exercising jurisdiction over definite areas or districts,
many of the bishops were bishops of tribes or peoples, as the
bishops of the south Saxons, the west Saxons, the Somersaetas
and others. The cathedra of such a bishop was often migratory,
and was at times placed in one church, and then another, and
sometimes in the church of a village. In 1075 a council was held
in London, under the presidency of Archbishop Lanfranc,
which, reciting the decrees of the council of Sardica held in 347
and that of Laodicea held in 360 on this matter, ordered the
CATHEDRAL
5^9
bishop of the south Saxons to remove his see from Selsey to
Chichester; the Wilts and Dorset bishop to remove his cathedra
from Sherborne to Old Sarum, and the Mercian bishop, whose
cathedra was then at Lichfield, to transfer it to Chester. Traces
of the tribal and migratory system may still be noted in the
designations of the Irish see of Meath (where the result has been
that there is now no cathedral church) and Ossory, the cathedral
church of which is at Kilkenny. Some of the Scottish sees were
also migratory.
By the canon law the bishop is regarded as the pastor of the
cathedral church, the parochia of which is his diocese. In view
of this, canonists speak of the cathedral church as the one
church of the diocese, and all others are deemed chapels in their
relation to it.
Occasionally two churches jointly share the distinction of
containing the bishop's cathedra. In such case they are said
to be con-cathedral in relation to each other. Instances of this
occurred in England before the Reformation in the dioceses of
Bath and Wells, and of Coventry and Lichfiejd. Hence the double
titles of those dioceses. In Ireland an example occurs at Dublin,
where Christ Church and St Patrick's are jointly the cathedral
churches of that diocese. In France the bishop of Couserans
(a see suppressed at the Revolution) had two con-cathedral
churches at St Lizier, and the bishop of Sisteron (a see also
suppressed) had a second throne in the church of Forcalquier
which is still called " La Con-cath6drale." Other instances
might be named. In the case of York the collegiate churches
of Beverley, Ripon and Southwell were almost in the same
position, but although the archbishop had a stall in each he had
no diocesan cathedra in them, and the chapters were not united
with that of the metropolitical church in the direct government
of the diocese, or the election of the archbishop, nor had they
those other rights which were held to denote the cathedral
character of a church.
Cathedral churches are reckoned as of different degrees of
dignity: (1) the simple cathedral church of a diocesan bishop,
(2) the metropolitical church to which the other diocesan cathedral
churches of a province are suffragan, (3) the prima tial church
under which are ranged metropolitical churches and their
provinces, (4) patriarchal churches to which primatial, metro-
political, and simple cathedral churches alike owe allegiance.
The title of " primate " was occasionally conferred on metro-
politans of sees of great dignity or importance, such as Canterbury,
York, Rouen, &c, whose cathedral churches remained simply
metropolitical. Lyons, where the cathedral church is still
known as " La Primatiale," and Lund in Sweden, may be cited
as instances of churches which were really primatial. Lyons
had the archbishops of Sens and Paris and their provincial
dioceses subject to it till the Revolution, and Lund had the
archbishop of Upsala and his province subject to it. As with
the title of primate, so also that of " patriarch" has been
conferred on sees such as Venice and Lisbon, the cathedral
churches of which are patriarchal in name alone. The cathedral
church of St John Lateran, the cathedral church of the pope as
bishop of Rome and patriarch of the West, alone in western
Europe possesses potentially a patriarchal character. Its
formal designation is " Patriarchalis Basilica, Sacrosancta
Romana Cathedralis Ecclesia Later anensis"
The removal of a bishop's cathedra from a church deprives
that church of its cathedral dignity, although often the name
clings in common speech, as for example at Antwerp, which was
deprived of its bishop at the French Revolution.
The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral
church is obscure, and as in each case local considerations
affected its development, all that can be attempted is to give
a general outline of the main features which were more or less
common to all. Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy
formed a kind of religious community, which, in no true sense a
monastery, was nevertheless often called a monasterium. The
word had not the restricted meaning which it afterwards acquired.
Hence the apparent anomaly that churches like York and
Lincoln, which never had any monks attached to them, have
inherited the name of minster or monastery. In these early
communities the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings,
and were not infrequently married. In the 8th century, however,
Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (743-766), compiled a code of rules
for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely
accepted in Germany and other parts of the continent, gained
little acceptance in England. According to Chrodegang*s rule
the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy
a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special
officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of
the Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was
bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088, introduced it into England,
and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church,
but it was not followed for long there, or elsewhere in England.
During the two centuries, roughly bounded by the years 000
and 1 100, the cathedral clergy became more definitely organized,
and were also divided into two classes. One was that of a
monastic establishment of some recognized order of monks,
very often that of the Benedictines, while the other class was
that of a college of clergy, living in the world, and bound by no
vows, except those of their ordination, but governed by a code
of statutes or canons. Hence the name of " canon " given to
them. In this way arose the distinction between the monastic
and secular cathedral churches. In England the monastic
cathedral churches were Bath, Canterbury, Carlisle, Coventry,
Durham, Ely, Norwich, Rochester, Winchester and Worcester,
all of them Benedictine except Carlisle, which was a church of
Augustinians. The secular churches were Chichester, Exeter,
Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, St Paul's (London), Salisbury,
Wells, York, and the four Welsh cathedral churches. In Ireland
all were secular except Christ Church, Dublin (Augustinian),
and Down (Benedictine), and none, even in their earliest days,
were ever, it is believed, churches of recognized orders of monks,
except the two named. In Scotland St Andrew's was Augus-
tinian, Elgin (or Moray), Glasgow and Aberdeen were always
secular, and ordered on the models of Lincoln and Salisbury.
Brechin had a community of Culdees till 1372, when a secular
chapter was constituted. The cathedral church of Galloway,
at Whithorn, of English foundation, was a church of Praemon-
stratensians. In Germany, as in England, many of the cathedral
churches were monastic. In Denmark all seem to have been
Benedictine at first, except B6rglum, which was Praemon-
stratensian till the Reformation. The others were changed to
churches of secular canons. In Sweden, Upsala was originally
Benedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered
that each of the cathedral churches of Sweden should have a
chapter of at least fifteen secular canons. In France monastic
chapters were very common, but nearly all the monastic cathedral
churches there had been changed to churches of secular canons
before the 1 7 th century. One of the latest to be so changed was
that of Seez, in Normandy, which was Augustinian till 1547,
when Pope Paul III, dispensed the members from their vows,
and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. The chapter
of Senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even
later, but the majority were secularized about the time of the
Reformation.
In the case of monastic cathedral churches there were no
dignitaries, the internal government was that of the order to
which the chapter belonged, and all the members kept perpetual
residence. The reverse of this was the case with the secular
chapters; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor,
treasurer, &c, soon came into being, for the regulation and good
order of the church and its services, while the non-residence of
the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the
rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of
" vicars," who officiated for them at the services of the church.
Abroad, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have
been the provost (praepositus, Probst, &c), who was charged, not
only with the internal regulation of the church, and oversight
of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but
was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions
of the church. The latter often mainly engaged his attention,
5*o
CATHEDRAL
to the neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and
complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much
mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his
spiritual duties. This led, in many cases, to the institution of a
new officer called the " dean," who had charge of that portion
of the provost's duties which related to the internal discipline of
the chapter and the services of the church. In some cases the
office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued, the
provost, who was also occasionally archdeacon as well, remaining
head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly
followed in Germany. In England the provost was almost un-
known. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter
of Wells, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the other
dignities, and the provost became simply the steward of certain
of the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of
Beverley was the most notable instance of such an officer in
England, but at Beverley he was an external officer with no
authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir
and no vote in chapter. The provost of Eton, introduced by
Henry VI., occupied a position most nearly approaching that
of a foreign cathedral provost. In Germany and in Scandinavia,
and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of France,
the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but
the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of
one hundred and thirty-six cathedral churches existing at the
Revolution, thirty-eight only, and those either on the borders
of Germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head
of the chapter. In others the provost existed as a subordinate
officer. There were two provosts at Autun, and Lyons and
Chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers.
The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral
church comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in
addition to the canons. The dean (decanus)seems to have derived
his designation from the Benedictine dean who had ten monks
under his charge. The dean, as already noted, came into
existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal manage-
ment of the church and chapter. In England the dean was the
head of all the secular cathedral churches, and was originally
elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop.
He is president of the chapter, and in church has charge of the
due performance of the services, taking specified portions of them
by statute on the principal festivals. He sits in the chief stall
in the choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on enter-
ing the choir at the west. Next to the dean (as a rule) is the
precentor (primicerius, cantor, &c), whose special duty is that of
regulating the musical portion of the services He presides in
the dean's absence, and occupies the corresponding stall on the
left side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at
St Paul's, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second
and occupies what is usually the precentor's stall. The third
dignitary is the chancellor (scholasticus, ecoldtre, capiscol,
magistral, &c), who must not be confounded with the chancellor
of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is
charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity
lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct
slovenly readers. He is often the secretary and librarian of the
chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor he is president
of the chapter. The easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the
choir, is usually assigned to him. The fourth dignitary is the
treasurer (custos, sacrista, cheficier) . He is guardian of the fabric,
and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and his
duty was to provide bread and wine for the eucharist, and
candles and incense, and he regulated such matters as the
ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of
the chancellor. These four dignitaries, occupying the four
corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the
" quatuor majores per zonae " of the church. In many cathedral
churches there were additional dignitaries, as the praelector,
subdean, vice-chancellor, succentor-canonicorum, and others,
who came into existence to supply the places of the other absent
dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular
churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the
monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous
residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary
canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or
endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds
of the church. For the most part the canons also speedily
became non-resident, and this led to the distinction of resi-
dentiary and non-residentiary canons, till in most churches the
number of resident canons became definitely limited in number,
and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the
common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only,
although by their non-residence they did not forfeit their position" '
as canons, and retained their votes in chapter like the others.
This system of non-residence led also to the institution of vicars
choral, each canon having his own vicar, who sat in his stall
in his absence, and when the canon was present, in the stall
immediately below, on the second form. The vicars had no
place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable except for
offences, were the servants of their absent canons whose stalls
they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Abroad they
were often called demi-prebendaries, and they formed the has
chceur of the French churches. As time went on the vicars
were themselves often incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter,
or college, under the supervision of the dean and chapter.
There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral
chapters and those of the secular canons, in their relation to the
bishop or diocese. In both cases the chapter was the bishop's
consilium which he was bound to consult on all important matters
and without doing so he could not act. Thus, a judicial decision
of a bishop needed the connrmation of the chapter before it could
be enforced. He could not change the service books, or " use "
of the church or diocese, without capitular consent, and there are
many episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a diocesan
chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by
the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's
council in ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, not
in England only, but on the continent also. In its corporate capa-
city the chapter takes charge sede vacante of a diocese. In Eng-
land, however (except as regards Salisbury and Durham), this
custom has never obtained, the two archbishops having, from time
immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respec-
tive provinces. When, however, either of the sees of Canterbury
or York is vacant, the chapters of those churches take charge, not
only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and incidentally,
therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province which may be
vacant at the same time.
All the English monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by
Henry VIII., and, except Bath and Coventry, were refounded by
him as churches of secular chapters, with a dean as the head, and
a certain number of canons ranging from twelve at Canterbury
and Durham to four at Carlisle, and with certain subordinate
officers as minor canons, gospellers, epistolers, &c. The precentor-
ship in these churches of the " New Foundation," as they are
called, is not, as in the secular churches of the " Old Foundation,"
a dignity, but is merely an office held by one of the minor canons.
English cathedral churches, at the present day,, may be
classed under four heads: (i) the old secular cathedral churches
of the " Old Foundation," enumerated in the earlier part of this
article; (2) the churches of the " New Foundation " of Henry
VIH., which are the monastic churches already specified,, with
the exception of Bath and Coventry; (3) the cathedral churches
of bishoprics founded by Henry VIII., viz. Bristol, Chester,
Gloucester, Oxford and Peterborough (the constitution of the
chapters of which corresponds to those of the New Foundation) ;
(4) modern cathedral churches of sees founded since 1836, viz.
(a) Manchester, Ripon and Southwell, formerly collegiate churches
of secular canons; (b) St Albans and Southwark, originally
monastic churches; (c) Truro, Newcastle and Wakefield,
formerly parish churches, (d) Birmingham and Liverpool,
originally chstrict churches. The ruined cathedral church of
the diocese of Sodor (i.e. the Southern Isles) and Man,, at Peel
in the latter island, appears never to have had a chapter of clergy
attached to it.
CATHEDRAL
52i
Authorities. — Frances, De ecclesiis cathedralibus (Venice, 1698) ;
Bordenave, VEstat des Mises cathkdrales (Paris, 1643) ; Van Espen,
Supplement HI., cap. 5 ; Hericourt, Les Loix ecclSsiastiques de France
(Paris, 1756); La France ecclSsiastique (Paris, 1790); Daugaard,
OmdeDanskeKlostre i Middelalderen (Copenhagen, 1830) ; Hinschius,
Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken u. Protestanten in Deutschland, ii.
(Berlin, 1878); Walcott, Cathedralia (London, 1865); Freeman,
Cathedral Church of Wells (London, 1870) ; Benson, The Cathedral
(London, 1878); Bradshaw and Wordsworth, Lincoln Cathedral
Statutes (Camb., 1894). (T. M. F.)
Architecture. — From the architectural point of view there is
no special treatment as regards dimensions or style for a cathedral
other than that required for a church or abbey, as there are cases
when the former are comparatively small buildings (like the old
cathedral at Athens), and some parish churches and abbeys are
larger than many cathedrals. In recent times, indeed, some
English abbeys or minsters, such as those of Ripon, Manchester,
St Albans and
Southwell, partly
on account of
their dimensions,
have been raised
to the rank of
cathedrals, in
consequence of
the demand for
additional sees ;
others, such as
those of Bristol,
Gloucester, Ox-
ford, Chester and
Peterborough, be-
came cathedrals
only on the dis-
solution of the
monasteries by
Henry VIII.
Under the head-
ings Nave, Aisle,
Choir, Apse,
Chevet, and
Lady-Chapel, the
principal arrange-
ments of the plan
of a cathedral are
dealt with, and
its architectural
features, such as
TowERand Spire,
Porch, Tripor-
ium, Clerestory
and Vault, are
separately de-
fined; while in the
article Architec-
ture the evolution of the various styles in England, France,
Germany, Italy and Spain, is set forth. It is only necessary
here to deal with the development of the eastern end of English
and foreign cathedrals, as it was in those that the greatest
changes from the middle of the nth century to the close of the
1 6th century took place.
The earliest extended development of the eastern end of the
cathedral is that which was first set out in Edward the Confessor's
church at Westminster, probably borrowed from the ancient
church of St Martin at Tours; in this church, dating probably
from the 10th century, two new elements are found, (1) the carry-
ing of the choir aisle round a circular apse so as to provide a
processional aisle round the eastern end of the church, and (2) five
apsidal chapels, constituting the germ of the chevet, which
transformed the eastern terminations of the French cathedrals
in the 12th and 13th centuries. It is only within recent times
that the foundations of the early church at Tours with its choir
aisle and chapels have been traced under the existing church.
Fig. 1. — Plan of Canterbury Cathedral.
In Edward the Confessor's church (1050) there were probably
only three chapels and a processional aisle; in the next example
at Gloucester (1089) were also three chapels, two of which, on the
north and south sides of the aisle, still remain; the same is found
in Canterbury (1096-1107) and Norwich (1089-1119), the
eastern chapel in all three cases having been taken down to
make way for the Lady-chapel in Gloucester and Norwich, and
for the Trinity chapel in Canterbury cathedral (fig. 1). The
semicircular aisle is said to have existed in the Anglo-Norman
cathedral of Winchester, but the eastern end being square, two
chapels were arranged filling the north and south ends, and an
apsidal chapel projecting beyond the east wall. This semi-
circular processional aisle with chevet chapels was the favourite
type of plan in the Anglo-Norman cathedrals, and was followed
up to about the middle of the 12th century, when the English
builders in some cases returned to the square east end instead of
the semicircular apsidal termination. The earliest example of
this exists in Romsey Abbey (c. 1130), where the processional
1 1 n »
1 1 .i. 1 * r* ,1 * | g
v, I V :
i i Y V V Y i i * ■ ' «-
Fig. 2.— Plan of Salisbury Cathedral.
path crosses behind the presbytery, there being eastern apsidal
chapels in the axis of the presbytery aisle and a central rectangular
chapel beyond. A similar arrangement is found in Hereford
cathedral, and exists in Winchester, Salisbury (fig. 2), Durham,
St Albans, Exeter, Ely, Wells and Peterborough, except that in
all those cases (except Wells) the eastern chapels are square
ended; in Wells cathedral the most eastern chapel (the Lady-
chapel) has a polygonal termination; in Durham (fig. 3), the
eastern chapels are all in one line, constituting the chapel of the
nine altars, which was probably borrowed from the eastern end of
Fountains Abbey. It should be noted that in some of the above
the original design has been transformed in rebuilding; thus in
St Albans, Durham, York and Exeter cathedrals, there was no
eastern ambulatory but three parallel apses, in some cases
rectangular externally. In Southwell, Rochester, Ely and
Chester, there was no processional path or ambulatory round the
east end; in Carlisle no eastern chapels; and in Oxford only one
central apse. In Ely cathedral (fig. 4) the great central tower
built by the first Norman abbot (1082-1094) fell down in 1321,.
carrying with it portions of the adjoining bays of the nave,
transept and choir: instead of attempting to rebuild the tower,
v. 17 a
522
CATHEDRAL
Alan of Walsingfaam conceived the idea of obtaining a much
larger area in the centre of the cathedral, and instead of rebuild-
ing the piers of the tower he took as the base of his design a central
octagonal space, the width of which was equal to that of nave
and aisles, with wide arches to nave, transepts and choir, and
smaller arches across the octagonal sides; from shafts in the
eight pier angles, ribs in wood project forward and carry a smaller
octagon on which the lantern rests. Internally the effect of this
central octagon is of great beauty and originality, and it is the
only instance of such a feature in English Gothic architecture.
(See Architecture, Plate VIII., fig. 82.)
The earliest example of the chevet is probably to be found
in the church of St Martin at Tours; this was followed by others
Prom Rickman's Styles of Architecture.
Fig. 3. — Plan of Durham Cathedral.
at Tournus, Clermont-Ferrand, Auxerre, Chartres, Le Mans
and other churches built during the great church-building
period of the nth century. In the still greater movement in
the 12th century, when the episcopacy, supported by the eman-
cipated communes, undertook the erection of cathedrals of
greater dimensions and the reconstruction of others, in some
cases they utilized the old foundations, as in Chartres (fig. 5),
Coutances and Auxerre cathedrals, while in others (as at Le
Mans) they extended the eastern termination, much in the
same way as in many of the early examples in England, with
this important difference, that when the apsidal east end was
given up (about the middle of the 12th century) in favour of the
square east end in England, the French, on the other hand,
developed it by doubling the choir aisles and adding to the
number of extra chapels; thus in Canterbury, Norwich and
Gloucester, there were only three apsidal chapels in the chevet,
whereas in Noyon (11 50), Soissons (1190)) Reims (12 12), Tours,
Seez, Bayeux (1230), Clermont (1275), Senlis, Limoges, Albi
and Narbonne cathedrals there were five; in Amiens, Le Mans
and Beauvais, there were seven apsidal chapels, and in Chartres
cathedral nine. Double aisles round the choir, of which there
are no examples in England, are found in the cathedrals of
Paris, Bourges and
Le Mans; the
cathedral of Sens
(fig. 6) (1144-1168)
possesses one feat-
ure which is almost
unique, viz. the
coupled columns of
the alternate bays
of nave and choir
and of the apse;
and these were
introduced into
the chapel of the
Trinity in Canter-
bury cathedral,
probably from the
designs of William
of Sens, by his suc-
cessor William the
Englishman. The
square east end
found no favour in
France — Laon,
Poiters and Dol be-
ing the only cathe-
dral examples; and
of the triapsal
arrangement, viz.
with apses in the
axes of the choir
aisle and a central
apse, the only ex-
ample is that of the
cathedral of Autun.
The immense de-
velopment given to
the eastern limb -. M m , _. « . , ,
~( ♦ k * Vra^^u FlG - 4-— Plan of Ely Cathedral,
of the r rencn
cathedrals was some-
times obtained at the
expense of the nave, so
that, notwithstanding
the much greater
dimensions compared
with English examples,
in the latter the naves
are much longer and
consist of more bays
than those in France.
In one of the French
cathedrals, Bourges,
there is no transept;
on the other hand there
are many examples in
j] which this part of the
church is emphasized
by having aisles on
each side, as at Laon,
Soissons, Chartres,
Reims, Amiens, Rouen
and Clermont cathe-
drals. Transept aisles
in England are found
in Ely, York, Wells
and Winchester cathe-
drals, in the last being
carried round the south
Fig. 5 .-Plan of Chartres Cathedral. and north ? nds of £ e
transept; aisles on the
east side of the transept only, in some cases probably for
CATHELINEAU
523
additional altars, exist in Durham, Salisbury, Lichfield, Peter-
borough and Ripon cathedrals; and on the north side only in
Hereford cathedral. In Rouen cathedral, east of the transept
aisles, there are apsidal chapels, which with the three chapels in
the chevet make up the usual number. The cathedral of Poitiers
has been referred to as an example of a square east end, but a
sort of compromise has been made by the provision of three
segmental apses, and there are no windows in the east front;
the most remarkable divergence from the usual design is found
here in the absence of any triforium or clerestory, owing to the
fact that the vault of the aisles is nearly as high as that of the
nave, so that it constitutes an example of what in Germany
(where there are many) are called H alien Kirchen; the light
being obtained through the aisle windows only gives a gloomy
effect to the nave. Another departure from the usual plan is
that found in Albi cathedral (1350), in which there are no aisles,
their place being taken by chapels between the buttresses which
were required to resist the thrust of the nave vault, the widest
in France. The cathedral is built in brick and externally has
the appearance of a fortress. In the cathedrals of the south-
west of France, where the naves are covered with a series of
domes— as at Cahors, Angouleme and St Front de PSrigueux—
Fig. 6.— Plan of Sens Cathedral.
Fig. 7. — Plan of Angouleme
Cathedral.
the immense piers required to carry them made it necessary to
dispense with aisles. The cathedral of Angouleme (fig. 7)
consists of a nave covered with three domes, a transept of great
length with lofty towers over the north and south ends, and an
apsidal choir with four chevet chapels. In St Front de Pe>igueux
(1150), based on St Mark's at Venice, the plan consists of nave,
transept and choir, all of equal dimensions, each of them, as
well as the crossing, vaulted over with a dome, while originally
there was a simple apsidal choir.
Returning now to the great cathedrals in the north of France,
we give an illustration (fig. 8) of Amiens cathedral (from Viollet
le Due's Diclionnaire raisontU) which shows the disposition of a
cathedral, with its nave-arches, triforium, clerestory windows
and vault, the flying buttresses which were required to carry the
thrust of the vault to the outer buttresses which flanked the
aisle walls, and the lofty pinnacles which surmounted them.
In this case there was no triforium gallery, owing to the greater
height given to the aisles. In Notre Dame at Paris the triforium
was nearly as high as the aisles; in large towns this feature gave
increased accommodation for the congregation, especially on the
occasion of great fetes, and it is found in Noyon, Laon, Senlis
and Soissons cathedrals, built in the latter part of the 12th
century; later it was omitted, and a narrow passage in the
thickness of the wall only represented the triforium; at a
still later period the aisles were covered with a stone
pavement of slight fall so as to allow of loftier clerestory
windows.
The cathedrals in Spain follow on the same lines as those in
France. The cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is virtually a
copy of St Sernin
at Toulouse, con-
sisting of nave
and aisles, tran-
septs and aisles,
and a choir with
chevet of five
chapels; at Leon
there is a chevet
with five apsidal
chapels, and at
Toledo an east end
with double aisles
round the apse
with originally
seven small apsi-
dal chapels, two
of them rebuilt at
a very late period.
At Leon, Barce-
lona and Toledo
the processional
passage round the
apse with apsidal
chapels recalls the
French disposi-
tion, there being
a double aisle
around the latter,
but in Leon and
Toledo cathedrals
the east end is
masked externally
by other buildings,
so that the beauty
of the chevet is entirely lost. At Avila and Salamanca (old
cathedral) the triapsal arrangement is adopted, and the same
is found in the German cathedrals, with one important excep-
tion, the cathedral of Cologne, which was based on that of
Amiens, the comparative height of the former, however, being
so exaggerated that scale has been lost, and externally it has
the appearance of an overgrown monster.
Under the headings Vault, Flying Buttress, Pinnacle,
Clerestory and Triforium, definitions are given of these chief
components of a cathedral or church; but as their design varies
materially in almost every example, without a very large number
of drawings it would be impossible to treat them more in detail.
The perspective view, taken from Viollet le Due's dictionary, of the
interior of the nave of Amiens cathedral illustrates the principal
features, viz. the vault (in this case quadripartite, with flying
buttresses and pinnacle), the triforium (in this case limited to a
narrow passage in the thickness of the wall), and the nave-arches,
with the side aisles, beneath the windows of which is the decorative
arcade. (R. p. s.)
CATHELINEAU, JACQUES (1759-1793), French Vendean
chieftain during the Revolution, was born at Tin-en-Manges, in
the country now forming the department of Maine-et-Loire.
He became well known in the country of Anjou, over which he
travelled as a pedlar and dealer in contraband goods. His
physical strength and his great piety gave him considerable
ascendancy over the peasants, who surnamed him " the saint of
Anjou." In the first years of the Revolution, Cathelineau
listened to the exhortations of Catholic priests and royalist
Imigris, and joined the insurrection provoked by them against
the revolutionary government. Collecting a band of peasants
and smugglers, he took the chateau of Gallais, where he cap-
tured a cannon, christened by the Vendeans the " Missionary ";
he then took the towns of Chemilte, Cholet, Vihiers and
Chalonnes (March 1793). His companions committed atrocities
which brought upon them terrible reprisals on the part of the
Fig. 8. — Perspective of Amiens Cathedral.
5H
CATHERINE, SAINT
Republicans. Meanwhile Cathelineau's troops increased, and he
combined with the other Vendean chiefs, such as N. Stofflet and
Gigot d'Elbee, taking the towns of Beaupreau, Fontenay and
Saumur. The first successes of the Vendeans were due to the fact
that the Republicans had not expected an insurrection. When
the resistance to the insurgents became more serious, differences
arose among their leaders. To avoid these rivalries, it is thought
that Cathelineau was named generalissimo of the rebels, though
his authority over the undisciplined troops was not increased by
the new office. In 1793 all the Royalist forces tried to capture
Nantes. Cathelineau entered the town in spite of the resistance of
General J. B. C. Canclaux, but he was killed, and the Vendean
army broke up. Numerous relatives of Cathelineau also perished
in the war of La Vendee. His grandson, Henri de Cathelineau,
figured in the war of 1870 between France and Germany (see
also Vendue; Chouans).
See C. Port, 1 Vie de J. Cathelineau (1882) ; " La Legende de Cathe-
lineau " in the review La Revolution francaise, vol. xxiv. ; Les
Origines de la Vendee (Paris, 1888, 2 vols.) ; Dictionnaire historiyue
de Maine-et-Loire; Cretineau-Toly, Histoire de la VendSe militatre;
Tb. Muret, Vie populaire de Cathelineau (1845). (R. A.*)
CATHERINE, SAINT. The Roman hagiology contains the
record of six saints of this name. 1. St Catherine of Alex-
andria, Virgin and Martyr, whose day of commemoration
recurs on the 25th of November, and in some places on the 5th of
March. 2. St Catherine of Sweden, a daughter of St Bridget,
who died abbess of Watzen in March 1381, and is commemorated
on the 22nd of that month. 3. St Catherine of Siena, 1347-
1380, whose festal day is observed on the 30th of April. 4. St
Catherine of Bologna, 1413-1463, a visionary, abbess of
the convent of the Poor Clares in Bologna, canonized by Pope
Benedict XIII., and commemorated throughout the Franciscan
order on the 9th of March. 5. St Catherine of Genoa, 1 who
belonged to the noble family of Fieschi, was born about 1 447 , spent
her life and her means in succouring and attending on the sick,
especially in the time of the plague which ravaged Genoa in 1497
and 1501, died in that city in 15 10, was beatified by Clement V.
in 1675 and canonized by Clement XII. in 1737; her name was
placed in the calendar on the 22nd of July by Benedict XIV.
6. St Catherine de' Ricci, of Florence, daughter of a wealthy
merchant prince, was born in 1522, became a nun in the convent
of the Dominicans at Prato in 1536, and died in 1589. She was
famous during her life-time for the weekly ecstasy of the Passion,
during which in a trance she experienced the sufferings of the
Holy Virgin contemplating the Passion of her Son. She was
canonized in 1746 by Benedict XIV., who fixed her festal day on
the 13th of February. In Celtic and English martyrologies
(November 25) there is also commemorated St Catherine Audley
(c. 1400), a recluse of Ledbury, Hereford, who was reputed for
piety and clairvoyance.
Of two of these saints, St Catherine of Alexandria, the St
Catherine par excellence, and St Catherine of Siena, something
51 more must be said. Of the former history has little or
Cmthertme, nothing to tell. The Maronite scholar, Joseph Simon
vkjiamnd Assemani (1 687-1 768), first identified her with the
mMrtyfm royal and wealthy lady of Alexandria (Eusebius,
Hist. Eccl. viii. 14)* who, for refusing the solicitations of the
emperor Maximinus, was deprived of her property and banished.
But Rufinus (Hist. Eccl. viii. 17) called this lady Dorothea, and
the old Catherine legend, as recorded in the Roman martyrology
and by Simeon Metaphrastes, has quite other features. Accord-
ing to it Catherine was the daughter of King Konetos, eighteen
years old, beautiful and wise. During the persecution under
Maximinus she sought an interview with the emperor, upbraided
him for his cruelties, and adjured him to give up the worship of
false gods. The angry tyrant, unable to refute her arguments
himself, sent for pagan scholars to argue with her, but they were
discomfited. Catherine was then scourged and cast into
prison, and the empress was sent to reason with her; but the
dauntless virgin converted not only the empress but the Roman
1 See the study in Baron Fr. von Hugel's Mystical Element in
Religion (1909).
general and his soldiers who had accompanied her. Maximinus
now ordered her to be broken on the wheel; but the wheel was
shattered by her touch. The headsman's axe proved more fatal,
and the martyr's body was borne by angels to Mount Sinai,
where Justinian I. built the famous monastery in her honour.
Another development of the legend is that in which, having
rejected many offers of marriage, she was taken to heaven in
vision and betrothed to Christ by the Virgin Mary.
Of all these marvellous incidents very little, by the universal
admission of Catholic scholars, has survived the test of modern
criticism. That St Catherine actually existed there is, indeed,
no evidence to disprove; and it is possible that some of the
elements in her legend are due to confusion with the story of
Hypatia (q.v.), the neo-platonic philosopher of Alexandria, who
was done to death by a Christian mob. To the men of the middle
ages, in any case, St Catherine was very real; she was ranked with
the fourteen most helpful saints in heaven, and was the constant
theme of preachers and of poets. Her festival was celebrated in
many places with the utmost splendour, and in certain dioceses in
France was a holy day of obligation as late as the beginning of the
17th century. Numberless chapels were dedicated to her, and in
nearly all churches her statue was set up, the saint being repre-
sented with a wheel, her instrument of torture, and sometimes
with a crown and a book. The wheel being her symbol she
was the patron saint of wheelwrights and mechanics; as the
confounder of heathen sophistry she was invoked by theologians,
apologists, preachers and philosophers, and was chosen as the
patron saint of the university of Paris; as the most holy and
illustrious of Christian virgins she became the tutelary saint of
nuns and virgins generally. So late as the 16th century, Bossuet
delivered a panegyric upon her, and it was the action of Dom
Deforis, the Benedictine editor of his works, in criticizing the
accuracy of the data on which this was baaed, that first dis-
credited the legend. The saint's feast was removed from the
Breviary at Paris about this time, and the devotion to St Catherine
has since lost its earlier popularity. See Leon Clugnet's article
in the Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. iii. (London, 1908).
St Catherine of Siena was the youngest of the twenty-five
children of Giacomo di Benincasa, a dyer, and was born, with a
twin-sister who did not survive her birth, on the st
25th of March 1347. A highly sensitive and imagin- Cmthmtt—
ative child, she very early began to practise asceticism • /Sfcfl *
and see visions, and at the age of seven solemnly dedicated her
virginity to Christ. She was attracted by what she had heard of
the desert anchorites, and in 1363-1364, after much struggle,
persuaded her parents to allow her to take the habit of the
Dominican tertiaries. For a while she led at home the life of a
recluse, speaking only to her confessor, and spending all her time
in devotion and spiritual ecstasy. Her innate humanity and
sound sense, however, led her gradually to return to her place in
the family circle, and she began also to seek out and help the
poor and the sick. In 1368 her father died, and she assumed the
care of her mother Lapa. During the following years she became
known to an increasingly wide circle, especially as a peacemaker,
and entered into correspondence with many friends. Her
peculiarities excited suspicion, and charges seem to have been
brought against her by some of the Dominicans to answer
which she went to Florence in 1374, soon returning to Siena to
tend the plague-stricken. Here first she met the Dominican
friar, Raimondo of Capua, her confessor and biographer.
The year 1375 found Catherine entering on a wider stage. At
the invitation of Piero Gambacorti, the ruler of the republic of
Pisa, she visited that city and there endeavoured to arouse
enthusiasm for the proposed crusade, urging princes and presi-
dents, commanders and private citizens alike to join in " the
holy passage." To this task was added that of trying to keep
Pisa and Lucca from joining the Tuscan League against the
pope. It was at Pisa, in the church of Santa Cristina, on the
fourth Sunday in Lent (April 1), while rar>tjgbn*i* gl orv bcfeM
communion, that Catherine's ^^Ther hands, feet and heart,
her, viz. the stigmata orijnpr£?£ ^^ rccelve d by Christ atnis
of the wounds corresponding
CATHERINE I.
525
crucifixion. The marks, however, were at her prayer not made
visible. There is no need to doubt the reality of Catherine's
exaltation, but it should be remembered that she and her circle
were Dominicans, and that the stigmata of St Francis of Assisi
were considered the crowning glory of the saint, and hitherto the
exclusive boast of the Franciscans. The tendency observable in
many of the austerities and miracles attributed to St Catherine to
outstrip those of other saints, particularly Francis, is especially
remarkable in this marvel of the stigmata, and so acute became
the rivalry between the two orders that Pope Sixtus IV., himself
a Franciscan, issued a decree asserting that St Francis had an
exclusive monopoly of this particular wonder, and making it
a censurable offence to represent St Catherine receiving the
stigmata.
In the year 1376, the 29th of Catherine's life, Gregory XI. was
living and holding the papal court at Avignon. He was the last
of seven French popes in succession who had done so, and had
perpetuated for seventy-three years what ecclesiastical writers
are fond of terming "the Babylonian captivity of the church."
To put an end to this absenteeism, and to bring back the papacy
to Italy was the cherished and anxious wish of all good Italians,
and especially of all Italian churchmen. Petrarch had urgently
pressed Urban V., Gregory's immediate predecessor, to accom-
plish the desired change; and Dante had at an earlier date
laboured to bring about the same object. But these and all the
other influences which Italy had striven to bring to bear on the
popes had hitherto failed to induce them to return. In these
circumstances Catherine determined to try her powers of per-
suasion and argument, attempting first by correspondence to
reconcile Gregory and the Florentines, who had been placed under
an interdict, and then going in person as the representative of
the latter to Avignon, where she arrived on the 18th of June.
Gregory empowered her to treat for peace, but the Florentine
ambassadors were first tardy and then faithless. Nothing
daunted, Catherine herself besought Gregory, who, indeed,
was himself so minded, to return, and he did so, in September
(taking the sea route from Marseilles to Genoa), though perhaps
intending only to make a temporary stay in Italy. Catherine
went home by land and stayed for a month in Genoa with
Madonna Orietta Scotti, a noble lady of that city, at whose house
Gregory had a long colloquy with her, which encouraged him to
push on to Rome. To this year, 1376, belongs the admission to
Catherine's circle of disciples of Stefano di Corrado Maconi, a
Sienese noble distinguished by a character full of charm and
purity, and her healing of the bitter feud between his family
and the Tolomei. Another family quarrel, that of the Salimbeni
at Rocca D'Orcia, was ended by her intervention in 1377. This
year also she turned the castle of Belcaro, which had been given
to her, into a monastery.
Meanwhile the returned pope was not having an easy time.
Besides perpetuating the strife with his enemies he was alienating
his friends, and finding it increasingly difficult to pay his mer-
cenaries. He vented his anger upon Catherine, who reproved
him for minding temporal rather than spiritual things, but in
the beginning of 1378 sent her on an embassy to Florence and
especially to the Guelph party. While she was urging the
citizens to make peace with the pope there came the news of
his death. During the troubles that ensued in Florence Catherine
nearly lost her life in a popular tumult, and sorely regretted not
winning her heart's desire, " the red rose of martyrdom." Peace
was signed with the new pope, Urban VI., and Catherine, having
thus accomplished her second great political task, went home
again to Siena. Thence on the outbreak of the schism Urban
summoned her to Rome, whither, somewhat reluctantly, she
journeyed with her now large spiritual family in November.
Once arrived she gave herself heartily to Urban's cause, and
wore her slender powers out in restraining his impatient temper,
quieting the revolt of the people of Rome, and trying to win for
Urban the support of Europe. After prolonged and continual
suffering she died on the 29th of April 1380.
Catherine of Siena lived on not only in her writings but in her dis-
ciples. During her abort course she gathered round her a devoted
company of men and women trained to labour for the reformation of
the individual, the church and the state. Her death naturally broke
up the fellowship, but its members did not cease their activity and
kept up what mutual correspondence was possible. Among them
were Fra Raimondo, who became master-general of the Dominicans,
William Flete, an ascetically-minded Englishman from Cambridge,
Stefano Maconi, who joined the Carthusians and ultimately became
prior-general, and the two secretaries, Neri di Landoccio and Fran-
cesco Malavolti. The last of her band, Tommaso Caffarini, died in
1434, but the work was taken up, though in other shape, by Savon-
arola, between Francis of Assisi and whom Cathenne forms the
connecting link.
Catherine's works consist of (1) a treatise occupying a closely-
printed quarto volume, which Fra Raimondo describes as " a
dialogue between a soul, which asked four questions of the Lord, and
the same Lord, who made answer and gave instruction in many
most useful truths," (2) letters, and (3) prayers. The dialogue is
entitled, The Book of Divine Doctrine, given in person by God the
Father, speaking to the mind of the most glorious and holy virgin
Catherine of Siena, and written down as she dictated it in the vulgar
tongue, she being the while entranced, and actually hearing what God
spoke in her. The work is declared to have been dictated by the
saint in her father's house in Siena, a little before she went to Rome,
and to have been completed on the 13th of October 1378. The book
ige on the essence of mysticism, the union of the
opens with ai
soul with God in love, and the bulk of it is a compendium of the
spiritual teachings scattered throughout her letters. There is more
monologue than dialogue. The book has a significant place in the
history of Italian literature. "In a language which is singularly
poor in mystical works it stands with the uwina Commedia as one of
the two supreme attempts to express the eternal in the symbolism
of a day, to paint the union of the soul with the supra-sensible while
still imprisoned in the flesh." The prayers (twenty-six in all) are
mostly mystical outpourings repeating the aspirations found in her
other writing's. Of more interest are the letters, nearly four hundred
in number, and addressed to kings, popes, cardinals, bishops, con-
ventual bodies, political corporations and private individuals;
Their historical importance, their spiritual fragrance and their
literary value combine to put their author almost on a level with
Petrarch as a 14th century letter-writer. Her language is the purest
Tuscan of the golden age of the Italian vernacular, and with spon-
taneous eloquence she passes to and fro between spiritual counsel,
domestic advice and political guidance.
Authorities. — The sources for the personal life of Catherine of
Siena are (1) the Vita or Legenda, Fra Raimondo's biography written
1384-1395, first published in Latin at Cologne, 1555, and widely
translated; (2) the Processus, a collection of testimonies and letters
by those of her followers who survived in 141 1, and had to justify
the reverence paid to the memory of one yet uncanonized ; (3) the
Supplementum to Raimondo's Vita, compiled by Tommaso Caffarini
in 1414; (4) the Legenda abbreviata, Caffarini's summary of the Vita,
translated into beautiful Italian by Stefano Maconi ; (5) the Letters,
of which the standard edition is that of Girolamo Gigli (2 vols..
Siena, 17 13, Lucca, 1721). A selection of these has been published
in English by V. D. Scudder (London, J905)* A complete biblio-
graphy is given in E. G. Gardner's Saint Catherine efi Siena (London,
1907), a monumental study dealing with the religion, history and
literature of the 14th century in Italy as they centre " in the work
and personality of one of the most wonderful women that have ever
livecL"
CATHERINE I. (1683-1727), empress of Russia. The true
character and origin of this enigmatical woman were, until
quite recently, among the most obscure problems of Russian
history. It now appears that she came of a Lithuanian stock,
and was one of the four children of a small Catholic yeoman,
Samuel Skovronsky; but her father died of the plague while
she was still a babe, the family scattered, and little Martha was
adopted by Pastor Gluck, the Protestant superintendent of the
Marienburg district. Frau Gluck finally rid herself of the girl
by marrying her to a Swedish dragoon called Johan. A few
months later, the Swedes were compelled by the Russians to
evacuate Marienburg, and Martha became one of the prisoners
of war of Marshal Sheremetev, who sold her to Prince Menshikov,
at whose house, in the German suburb of Moscow, Peter the
Great first beheld and made love to her in his own peculiar
fashion. After the birth of their first daughter Catherine,
Peter made no secret of their relations. He had found, at last,
the woman he wanted, and she soon became so indispensable
to him that it was a torment to be without her. The situation
was regulated by the reception of Martha into the Orthodox
Church, when she was rechristened under the name of Catherine
Alekseyevna, the tsarevich Alexius being her godfather, by the
bestowal upon her of the title Gosudaruinya or sovereign (17 10),
526
CATHERINE II.
and, finally (1711), by her public marriage to the tsar, who
divorced the tsaritsa Eudoxia to make room for her. Henceforth
the new tsaritsa was her husband's inseparable companion. She
was with him during the campaign of the Pruth, and Peter
always attributed the successful issue of that disastrous war to
the courage and sang-froid of his consort. She was with him, too,
during his earlier Caspian campaigns, and was obliged on this
occasion to shear off her beautiful hair and wear a close-fitting
fur cap to protect her from the rays of the sun.
By the ukaz of 1722 Catherine was proclaimed Peter's suc-
cessor, to the exclusion of the grand-duke Peter, the only son of
the tsarevich Alexius, and on the 7th of May 1724 was solemnly
crowned empress-consort in the Uspensky cathedral at Moscow,
on which occasion she wore a crown studded with no fewer than
2564 precious stones, surmounted by a ruby, as large as a pigeon's
egg, supporting a cross of brilliants. Within a few months of
this culminating triumph, she was threatened with utter ruin by
the discovery of a supposed liaison with her gentleman of the
bedchamber, William Mons, a handsome and unscrupulous
upstart, and the brother of a former mistress of Peter. A danger-
ously familiar but perfectly innocent flirtation is, however, the
worst that can fairly be alleged against Catherine on this occasion.
So Peter also seemed to have thought, for though Mons was
decapitated and his severed head, preserved in spirits, was
placed in the apartments of the empress, she did not lose Peter's
favour, attended him during his last illness, and closed his eyes
when he expired (February 28, 1725). She was at once raised
to the throne by the party of progress, as represented by Prince
Menshikov and Count Tolstoy, whose interests and perils were
identical with those of the empress, before the reactionary party
had time to organize opposition, her great popularity with the
army powerfully contributing to her success. The arch-prelates
of the Russian church, Theodosius, archbishop of Novgorod, and
Theophanes, archbishop of Pskov, were also on her side for very
much the same reason, both of them being unpopular innovators
who felt that, at this crisis, they must stand or fall with Tolstoy
and Menshikov.
The great administrative innovation of Catherine's reign was
the establishment of the Verkhavny Tainy Sovyet, or supreme
privy council, by way of strengthening the executive, by con-
centrating affairs in the hands of a few persons, mainly of the
party of Reform ( Ukaz of February 26, 1 7 26) . As to the foreign
policy of Catherine I. (principally directed by the astute Andrei
Osterman), if purely pacific and extremely cautious, it was, never-
theless, dignified, consistent and independent. Russia, by the
mere force of circumstances, now found herself opposed to Eng-
land, chiefly because Catherine protected Charles Frederick, duke
of Holstein, and George I. found that the Schleswig-Holstein
question might be reopened to the detriment of his Hanoverian
possessions. Things came to such a pass that, in the spring of
1 7 26, an English squadron was sent to the Baltic and cast anchor
before Reval. The empress vigorously protested, and the fleet
was withdrawn, but on the 6th of August Catherine acceded to
the anti-English Austro-Spanish league. Catherine died on the
16th of May 1727. Though quite illiterate, she was an un-
commonly shrewd and sensible woman, and her imperturbable
good nature under exceptionally difficult circumstances, testifies
equally to the soundness of her head and the goodness of her
heart.
See Robert Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great, chs. ii.-iii.
(London, 1897); The First Romanovs % ch. xiv. (London, 1905).
(R. N. B.)
CATHERINE II. (17 20-1 706), empress of Russia, was the
daughter of Christian Augustus, prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and
his wife, Johanna Elizabeth of Hotetein-Gottorp. The exact
date and place of her birth have been disputed, but there appears
to be no reason to doubt that she was right in saying that
she was born at Stettin on the and of May 1729. Her father,
who succeeded to the principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1746 and
died in 1747, was a general in the Prussian service, and, at the
time of her birth, was military commandant at Stettin. Her
baptismal name was Sophia Augusta Frederica. In accordance
with the custom then prevailing in German princely families,
she was educated chiefly by French governesses and tutors.
In 1744 she was taken to Russia, to be affianced to the grand'
duke Peter, the nephew of the empress Elizabeth (9.0.) , and her
recognized heir. The princess of Anhalt-Zerbst was the daughter
of Christian Albert, bishop of Liibeck, younger brother of
Frederick IV., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter's paternal grand-
father. The choice of her daughter as wife of the future tsar
was the result of not a little diplomatic management in which
Frederick the Great took an active part, the object being to
strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia, to weaken
the influence of Austria and to ruin the chancellor Bestuzhev,
on whom Elizabeth relied, and who was a known partisan
of the Austrian alliance. The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely
through the flighty intervention of the princess of Anhalt-
Zerbst, a clever but very injudicious woman. But Elizabeth
took a strong liking to the daughter, and the marriage was finally
decided on. The girl had spared no effort to ingratiate herself,
not only with the empress, but with the grand-duke and the
Russian people. She applied herself to learning the language
with such zeal that she rose at night and walked about her
bedroom barefoot repeating her lessons. The result was a severe
attack of congestion of the lungs in March 1744. During the
worst period of her illness she completed her conquest of the
good-will of the Russians by declining the religious services of a
Protestant pastor, and sending for Simon Todorskiy, the orthodox
priest who had been appointed to instruct her in the Greek form
of Christianity. When she wrote her memoirs she represented
herself as having made up her mind when she came to Russia
to do whatever had to be done, and to profess to believe whatever
she was required to believe, in order to be qualified to wear the
crown. The consistency of her character throughout life makes
it highly probable that even at the age of fifteen she was mature
enough to adopt this worldly-wise line of conduct. Her father,
who was a convinced Lutheran, was strongly opposed to his
daughter's conversion, and supplied her with books of controversy
to protect her Protestantism. She read them, and she listened
to Todorskiy, and to other advisers who told her that the Russian
crown was well worth a mass, or that the differences between
the Greek and Lutheran churches were mere matters of form.
On the 28th of June 1744 she was received into the Orthodox
Church at Moscow, and was renamed Catherine Alexeyevna.
On the following day she was formally betrothed, and was
married to the archduke on the 21st of August 1745 at St
Petersburg.
At that time Catherine was essentially what she was to remain
till her death fifty-one years later. It was her boast that she
was as " frank and original as any Englishman." If she meant
that she had a compact character, she was right. She had decided
on her line in life and she followed it whole-heartedly. It was
her determination to become a Russian in order that she might
the better rule in Russia, and she succeeded. She acquired a
full command of all the resources of the language, and a no less
complete understanding of the nature of the Russian people.
It is true that she remained quite impervious to religious in-
fluences. The circumstances of her conversion may have helped
to render her indifferent to religion, but their influence need not
be exaggerated. Her irreligion was shared by multitudes of
contemporaries who had never been called upon to renounce one
form of Christianity and profess belief in another in order to
gain a crown. Her mere actions were, like those of other and
humbler people, dictated by the conditions in which she lived.
The first and the most important of them was beyond all question
the misery of her married life. Her husband was a wretched
creature. Nature had made him mean, the smallpox had made
him hideous, and his degraded habits made him loathsome.
And Peter had all the sentiments of the worst kind of small
German prince of the time. He had the conviction that his
princeship entitled him to disregard decency and the feelings of
others. He planned brutal practical jokes, in which blows
had always a share. His most manly taste did not rise above the
kind of military interest which has been defined as " corporal's
CATHERINE II;
527
mania/' the passion for uniforms, pipeclay, buttons, the " tricks
of parade and the froth of discipline. " He detested the Russians,
and surrounded himself with Holsteiners. For ten years the
marriage was barren, and the only reason for supposing that the
future tsar Paul (q.v.), who was born on the 2nd of October 1754,
was the son of Peter, is the strong similarity of their characters.
Living in the grossly animal court of the empress Elizabeth,
bound to a husband whom she could not but despise and detest,
surrounded by suitors, and entirely uninfluenced by religion,
Catherine became and remained perfectly immoral in her sexual
relations to men. The scandalous chronicle of her life was the
commonplace of all Europe. Her male favourites were as openly
paraded as the female favourites of King Louis XV. It may be
said once and for all that her most trusted agents while she was
still grand-duchess, and her chief ministers when she became
empress, were also her lovers, and were known to be so.
For some time after the marriage, the young couple were
controlled by the empress Elizabeth, who appointed court
officials to keep a watch on their conduct; but before long these
custodians themselves had become the agents of Catherine's
pleasures and ambition. After the birth of Paul she began to
take an active part in political intrigues. Her abilities forced
even her husband to rely on her judgment. When in difficulty
he ran to her and flattered her with the name of Madame La
Ressource — Madame Quick Wit — which did not prevent him from
insulting and even kicking her when the immediate need of her help
was over. In 1 7 58 he endeavoured to turn the empress Elizabeth
against her, and for a time Catherine was in danger. She faced
the peril boldly, and reconquered her influence over the sovereign,
but from this time she must have realized that when the empress
was dead she would have to defend herself against her husband.
That Peter both hated and dreaded her was notorious. The
empress Elizabeth died on the 5th of January 1762. The grand
duke succeeded without opposition as Peter III. His behaviour
to his wife continued to be brutal and menacing, and he went on
as before offending the national sentiment of the Russian people.
In July he committed the insane error of retiring with his Hol-
steiners to Oranienbaum, leaving his wife at St Petersburg.
On the 13th and 14th of that month a " pronunciamiento "
of the regiments of the guard removed him from the throne and
made Catherine empress. The history of this revolt is still
obscure. It has naturally been said that she organized the
mutiny from the first, and some plausibility is conferred on this
belief by the fact that the guards were manipulated by the four
Orlov brothers. The eldest, Gregory, was her recognized chief
lover, and he was associated with his brother Alexis in the office
of favourite. On the other hand, there does not appear to
have been any need for organization. The hatred felt for Peter
III. was spontaneous, and Catherine had no need to do more
than let it be known that she was prepared to profit by her
husband's downfall. Peter, who behaved with abject cowardice,
was sent to a country house at Ropcha, where he died on the 15th
or 18th of July of official " apoplexy." The truth is not known,
and Frederick the Great at least professed long afterwards
to believe that Catherine had no immediate share in the murder.
She had no Deed to speak. Common-sense must have shown the
leaders of the revolt that they would never be safe while Peter
lived, and they had insults to avenge.
The mere fact that Catherine II., a small German princess
without hereditary claim to the throne, ruled Russia from .1762
to 1796 amid the loyalty of the great mass of the people, and the
respect and admiration of her neighbours, is sufficient proof of
the force of her character. Her title to be considered a great
reforming ruler is by no means equally clear. Voltaire and the
encyclopaedists with whom she corresponded, and on whom she
conferred gifts and pensions, repaid her by the grossest flattery,
while doing their best to profit by her generosity. They made her
a reputation for " philosophy," and showed the sincerity of their
own love of freedom by finding excuses for the partition of
Poland. There is a very great difference between Catherine II.
as she appears in the panegyrics of the encyclopaedists and
Catherine as she appears in her correspondence and in her acts.
Her foreign admirers amused her, and were useful in spreading her
reputation. The money they cost her was a small sum in com-
parison to the £12,000,000 she lavished on her long series of
lovers, who began with Soltykov and Stanislaus Poniatowski
(q.v:) before she came to the throne, and ended with the youthful
Platon Zubov, who was tenant of the post at her death. She
spent money freely on purchasing works of art and curios.
Yet she confessed with her usual candour that she had no taste
for painting, sculpture or music. Her supposed love of literature
does not appear to have amounted to more than a lively curiosity,
which could be satisfied by dipping into a great number of books.
She had a passion for writing, and produced not only a mass of
letters written in French, but pamphlets and plays, comic and
serious, in French and Russian. One on the history of Oleg,
the more or less legendary Varangian, who was guardian to the
son of Rurik, was described by her as an " imitation of Shake-
speare." The scheme is not unlike that of a " chronicle play."
Her letters are full of vivacity, of colour, and at times of insight
and wit, but she never learnt to write either French or German
correctly. The letters to Voltaire attributed to her are not hers,
and were probably composed for her by Andrei Shuvalov. The
philosophers and encyclopaedists who, by the mouth of Diderot,
complimented Catherine on being superior to such female
affectations as modesty and chastity, flattered her to some
extent even here. She enforced outward decency in her house-
hold, was herself temperate in eating and drinking, and was by
no means tolerant of disorderly behaviour on the part of the ladies
of her court. They flattered her much more when they dwelt
on her philanthropy and her large share of the enlightenment of
the age. She was kind to her servants, and was very fond of
young children. She was rarely angry with people who merely
contradicted her or failed to perform their service in her household.
But she could order the use of the knout and of mutilation as
freely as the most barbarous of her predecessors when she
thought the authority of the state was at stake, and she did employ
them readily to suppress all opinions of a heterodox kind, whether
in matters of religion or of politics, after the beginning of the
French Revolution. Her renowned toleration stopped short of
allowing the dissenters to build chapels, and her passion for
legislative reform grew cold when she found that she must begin
by the emancipation of the serfs. There were exceptions even
to her personal kindness to those about her. She dropped her
German relations. She kept a son born to her shortly before the
palace revolution of 1762, whose paternity could not be attributed
to Peter, at a distance, though she provided for him. He was
brought up in a private station under the name of Bobrinski.
She was a harsh mother to her son Paul. It seems highly probable
that she intended to exclude him from the succession, and to
leave the crown to her eldest grandson Alexander, afterwards
the emperor Alexander I. Her harshness to Paul was probably
as much due to political distrust as to what she saw of his
character. Whatever else Catherine may have been she was
emphatically a sovereign and a politician who was in the last
resort guided by the reason of state. She was resolved not to
allow her authority to be disputed by her son, or shared by him.
As a ruler, Catherine professed a great contempt for system,
which she said she had been taught to despise by her master
Voltaire. She declared that in politics a capable ruler must be
guided by " circumstances, conjectures and conjunctions."
Her conduct was on the surface very unstable. In a moment
of candour she confessed that she was a great commenceuse —
that she had a mania for beginning innumerable enterprises
which she never pursued This, however, is chiefly true of her
internal administration, and even there it should be qualified.
Many of her beginnings were carried on by others and were not
barren. Her foreign policy was as consistent as it could be
considering the forces she had to contend against. It was
steadily aimed to secure the greatness and the safety of Russia.
There can be no question that she loved her adopted country
sincerely, and had an affection for her people, and an opinion of
their great qualities which she did not hesitate to express in
hyperbolical terms. Her zeal for the reputation of the Russians
528
CATHERINE DE' MEDICI
was almost comically shown by the immense trouble she took
to compile an answer to the Voyage en SiMrie of the French
astronomer Chappe d'Auteroche. The book is in three big
quartos, and Catherine's answer — which was never finished — is
still larger. Chappe d'Auteroche had discovered that Siberia
was not a paradise, and had observed that the Russians were
dirty in their habits, and that masters whipped their servants,
male and female. Her patriotism was less innocently shown by
her conquests. Yet it may be doubted whether any capable
ruler of Russia could have abstained from aggressions at the
expense of the rights of the Saxon family in Courland, of Poland,
and of Turkey (see Russia: History). It does seem now to
be clearly proved that the partition of Poland was not suggested
by her, as has been frequently asserted. Catherine would have
preferred to control the country through a vassal sovereign of
the type of Stanislaus Poniatowski, the old lover whose election
she secured in 1763. Poland was incapable of maintaining its
independence at the time of the first partition (1772), and the
division of the unhappy country was forced on by Austria and
Prussia. In the case of the second partition in 1793, she did
show herself to be very unscrupulous. Her opposition to the
reform of the Polish government was plainly due to a wish to
preserve an excuse for further spoliation, but her conduct was
less cruel and base than that of Prussia.
Catherine had adhered to her husband's policy of a Prussian
alliance. While Frederick the Great lived she was impressed
by his ability. But the Prussian alliance became hateful to
her, and her later correspondence with Grimm overflows with
contempt of his successor Frederick William II., who is always
spoken of by her as " Brother Gu." Her exasperation with the
affectations of the Prussian king was unquestionably increased
by her discovery that he would not be induced to apply himself
to a crusade against the French Revolution, which by employing
all his forces would have left Russia free to annex the whole of
what remained of Poland. But at least she did not enter into
a solemn engagement to defend the Poles who were engaged in
reforming their constitution, and then throw them over in order
to share in the plunder of their country.
Catherine's Turkish policy was at first marked by a certain
grandiosity. When the Turks declared war in 1768 in order to
support Poland, which they looked upon as a necessary buffer
state, she retaliated by the great Greek scheme. For a time it
was a pet idea with her to revive the Greek empire, and to plant
the cross, with the double-headed Russian eagle at Constantinople.
She formed a corps of Greek cadets, caused her younger grandson
to be christened Constantine, and began the policy of presenting
Russia to the Christian subjects of the Porte as their deliverer.
In pursuit of this heroic enterprise, which excited the loud
admiration of Voltaire, she sent a fleet under Alexis Orlov into
the Mediterranean in 1770. Orlov tempted the Greeks of the
Morea to take up arms, and then left them in the lurch. When
Catherine found herself opposed by the policy of France and
England, and threatened by the jealousy of Prussia and Austria,
she dropped the Greek design, observing to Voltaire that the
descendants of the Spartans were much degenerated. The
introduction into the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji of 1774 of a
clause by which the Porte guaranteed the rights of its Christian
subjects, and of another giving Russia the right to interfere on
behalf of a new Russian church in Constantinople, advertised
the claim of the tsars to be the natural protectors of the Orthodox
in the Ottoman dominions; but when she took up arms again in
1788 in alliance with Joseph II. (q.v.) t it was to make a mere war
of conquest and partition. The Turkish wars show the weak
side of Catherine as a ruler. Though she had mounted the
throne by a military revolt and entered on great schemes of
conquest, she never took an intelligent interest in her army.
She neglected it in peace, allowed it to be shamefully administered
in war, and could never be made to understand that it was not in
her power to improvise generals out of her favourites. It is
to her credit that she saw the capacity of Suvarov, yet she never
had as much confidence in him as she had in Potemkin, who may
have been a man of genius, but was certainly no general. She
took care never to have to deal with a disciplined opponent,
except the Swedes, who beat her, but who were very few.
It was the misfortune of Catherine that she lived too long.
She disgraced herself by living with her last lover, Zubov, when
she was a woman of sixty-seven, trusting him with power and
lavishing public money on him. The outbreak of the French
Revolution stripped off the varnish of philosophy and philanthropy
which she had assumed in earlier years. She had always enter-
tained a quiet contempt for the French writers whom she flattered
and pensioned, and who served her as an advertising agency in
the west. When the result of their teaching was seen in Paris,
good-natured contempt was turned to hatred. She then became
a persecutor in her own dominions of the very ideas she had
encouraged in former years. She scolded and preached a crusade,
without, however, departing from the steady pursuit of her own
interests in Poland, while endeavouring with transparent
cunning to push Austria and Prussia into an invasion of France
with all their forces. Her health began to break down, and it
appears to be nearly certain that towards the end she suffered
from hysteria of a shameful kind. It is plain that her intellect
had begun to fail just before her death, for she allowed the
reigning favourite, Platon Zubov, to persuade her to despatch
his brother Valerian, with the rank of field marshal and an army
of 20,000 men, on a crack-brained scheme to invade India by way
of Persia and Tibet. The refusal of the king of Sweden to marry
into her family unless the bride would become a Lutheran is
said to have thrown her into a convulsion of rage which hastened
her death. On the 9th of November 1796, she was seized by
a fit of apoplexy, and died on the evening of the 10th.
All other accounts of Catherine II. have been superseded by
Waliszewski's two volumes, Le Roman d'une imphatrice (Paris, 1893}
and A utour d'un Trdne: Catherine II. , ses caUaoorateurs, ses amis, ses
favoris (Paris, 1894). The original sources for the history of her
policy and her character are to be found in the publications of the
Imperial Russian Historical Society, vols, i.-cix. (St Petersburg),
begun in 1867; her private and official correspondence will be
found in vols. 1., ii., iv., v., vi., vii., viii., ix., x., xni., xiv., xv., xvii.,
xx., xxiii., xxxii., xxxiii., xxxvi., xlii., xliii., xlvii., xlviii., Ii.,
lvii., lxvii., lxviii., lxxxvii., xcvii., xcviii., cvii., cxv., cxviii.
CATHERINE DE' MEDICI (1510-1589), queen of France,
the wife of one French king and the mother of three, was born at
Florence in 15 19. She was a daughter of Lorenzo II. de' Medici
and a French princess, Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne. Having
lost both her parents at an early age, Catherine was sent to a
convent to be educated; and she was only fourteen when she
was married (1533) at Marseilles to the duke of Orleans, after-
wards Henry II. It was her uncle, Pope Clement VII., who
arranged the marriage with Francis I. Francis, still engaged
in his lifelong task of making head against Charles V., was only
too glad of the opportunity to strengthen his influence in the
Italian peninsula, while Clement, ever needful of help against
his too powerful protector, was equally ready to hold out a
bait. During the reign of Francis, Catherine exercised no in-
fluence in France. She was young, a foreigner, a member of
a state that had almost no weight in the great world of politics,
had not given any proof of great ability, and was thrown into
the shade by more important persons. For ten years after her
marriage she had no children. In consequence, a divorce
began to be talked of at court; and it seemed not impossible
that Francis, alarmed at the possible extinction of the royal
house, might listen to such a proposal. But Catherine had the
happiness of bringing him grandchildren ere he died. During
the reign of her husband, too (1547-1559), Catherine lived a
quiet and passive, but observant life. Henry being completely
under the influence of his mistress, Diane de Poitiers, she had
little authority. In 1552, when the king left the kingdom for the
campaign of Metz, she was nominated regent, but with very
limited powers. This continued even after the accession of her
son Francis II. Francis was under the spell of Mary Stuart,
and she, little disposed to meddle with politics on her own account,
was managed by her uncles, the cardinal of Lorraine and the
duke of Guise. The queen-mother, however, soon grew weary
of the domination of the Guises, and entered upon a course of
secret opposition. On the 1st of April 1560 she placed in the
CATHERINE OF ARAGON
529
chancellorship Michel de l'H6pital (q.v.), who advocated the policy
of conciliation.
On the death of Francis (5th of December 1560), Catherine
became regent during the minority of her second son, Charles
IX., and now found before her a career worthy of the most
soaring ambition. She was then forty-one years old, but,
although she was the mother of nine children, she was still very
vigorous and active. She retained her influence for more than
twenty years in the troubled period of the wars of religion.
At first she listened to the moderate counsels of l'Hopital in
so far as to avoid siding definitely with either party, but
her character and the habits of policy to which she had been
accustomed, rendered her incapable of any noble aim. She had
only one virtue, and that was her zeal for the interests of her
children, especially of her favourite third son, the duke of Anjou.
Like so many of the Italians of that time, who were almost
destitute of a moral sense, she looked upon statesmanship in
particular as a career in which finesse, lying and assassination
were the most admirable, because the most effective weapons.
By habit a Catholic, but above all things fond of power, she
was determined to prevent the Protestants from getting the
upper hand, and almost equally resolved not to allow them to
be utterly crushed, in order to use them as a counterpoise to the
Guises. This trimming policy met with little success: rage and
suspicion so possessed men's minds, that she could no longer
control the opposing parties, and one civil war followed another
to the end of her life. In 1 567, after the " Enterprise of Meaux,"
she dismissed PH6pital and joined the Catholic party. But,
having failed to crush the Piotestant rebellion by arms, she
resumed in 1570 the policy of peace and negotiation. She con-
ceived the project of marrying her favourite son, the duke of
Anjou, to Queen Elizabeth of England, and her daughter Margaret
to Henry of Navarre. To this end she became reconciled with
the Protestants, and allowed Coligny to return to court and to
re-enter the council. Of this step she quickly repented. Charles
IX. conceived a great affection for the admiral and showed signs
of taking up an independent attitude. Catherine, thinking her
influence menaced, sought to regain it, first by the murder of
Coligny, and, when that had failed, by the massacre of St Bartholo-
mew (q.v.). The whole of the responsibility for this crime,
therefore, rests with Catherine; unlike the populace, she had
not even the excuse of fanaticism. This responsibility, however,
weighed but lightly on her; while her son was overwhelmed
with remorse, she calmly enjoyed her short-lived triumph.
After the death of Charles in 1574, and the succession of Anjou
under the name of Henry III., Catherine pursued her old policy
of compromise and concessions; but as her influence is lost in
that of her son, it is unnecessary to dwell upon it. She died on
the 5th of January 1589, a short time before the assassination
of Henry, and the consequent extinction of the House of Valois.
In her taste for art and her love of magnificence and luxury,
Catherine was a true Medici; her banquets at Fontainebleau in
1564 were famous for their sumptuousness. In architecture
especially she was well versed, and Philibert de l'Orme relates
that she discussed with him the plan and decoration of her palace
of the Tuileries. Catherine's policy provoked a crowd of pamph-
lets, the most celebrated being the Discpurs merveilleux de la
vie, actions et dSportemens de la reine Catherine de MHicis, in
which Henri Estienne undoubtedly collaborated.
See Lettres de Catherine de MSdicis, edited by Hector de la Ferriere
(Paris, 1880, seq.), in the Collection de documents inedits sur Vhistoire
de France; A. von Reunion t, Die Jugend Caterinas de 1 Medici
(1854; French translation by A. Baschet, 1866); H. Bouchot,
Catherine de MSdicis (Paris, 1899). For a more complete biblio-
graphy see Ernest Lavisse, Histoire de France (vol. v., by H. Le-
monnier, and vol. vi„ by J. H. Mariejol, 1904- 1905). See also Miss
E. Sichel's books, Catherine de' Medici and the French Reformation
(1905), and The Later Years of Catherine de* Medici (1908).
CATHERINE OF ARAGON (1485-1536), queen of Henry VIII.
of England, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, was
born on the 15th or 16th of December 1485. She left Spain in
1 501 to marry Arthur, prince of Wales, eldest son of King Henry
VTL, and landed at Plymouth on the 2nd of October. The wed-
ding took place on the 14th of November in London, and soon
afterwards Catherine accompanied her youthful husband to
Wales, where, in his sixteenth year, the prince died on the 2nd
of April 1502. On the 25th of June 1503, she was formally
betrothed to the king's second son, Henry, now prince of Wales,
and a papal dispensation for the alliance was obtained. The
marriage, however, did not take place during the lifetime of
Henry VII. Ferdinand endeavoured to cheat the English king
of the marriage portion agreed upon, and Henry made use of the
presence of the unmarried princess in England to extort new
conditions, and especially to secure the marriage of his daughter
Mary to the archduke Charles, grandson of Ferdinand, and after-
wards Charles V. Catherine was thus from the first the unhappy
victim of state politics. Writing to Ferdinand on the 9th of
March 1509, she describes the state of poverty to which she was
reduced, and declares the king's unkindness impossible to be
borne any longer. 1 On the old king's death, however, a brighter
prospect opened, for Henry VIII. decided immediately on
marrying her, the wedding taking place on the nth of June and
the coronation on the 24th. Catherine now enjoyed a few years
of married happiness; Henry showed himself an affectionate
husband, and the alliance with Ferdinand was maintained against
France. She was not without some influence in state affairs.
During Henry's invasion of France in 15 13 she was made regent;
she showed great zeal and ardour in the preparations for the
Scottish expedition, and was riding towards the north to put
herself at the head of the troops when the victory of Flodden
Field ended the campaign. The following year an affectionate
meeting took place between the king and queen at Richmond
on the return of the former. Ferdinand's treachery, however,
in making a treaty with France roused Henry's wrath, and his
angry reproaches fell upon his unfortunate wife; but she took
occasion in 1520, during the visit of her nephew Charles V. to
England, to urge the policy of gaining his alliance rather than
that of France. Immediately on his departure, on the 31st of
May 1520, she accompanied the king to France, on the celebrated
visit to Francis I., called from its splendour the Field of the
Cloth of Gold; but in 1522 war was declared against France
and the emperor again welcomed to England. In 152 1 she is
represented by Shakespeare as pleading for the unfortunate
duke of Buckingham.
These early years of happiness and of useful influence and
activity had, however, been gradually giving way to gloom and
disappointment. Between January 15 10 and November 1518
Catherine gave birth to six children (including two princes), who
were all stillborn or died in infancy except Mary, born in 1516,
and rumour did not fail to ascribe this series of disasters to the
curse pronounced in Deuteronomy on incestuous unions. In
1526 the condition of Catherine's health made it highly improb-
able that she would have more children. No woman had ever
reigned in England, alone and in her own right, and to avoid
a fresh dispute concerning the succession, and the revival of the
civil war, a male heir to the throne was a pressing necessity.
The act of marriage, which depended for its validity on the decision
of the ecclesiastical courts, had, on account of the numerous
dissolutions and dispensations granted, not then attained the
security since assured to it by the secular law. For obtaining
dissolutions of royal marriages the facilities were especially
great. Pope Clement VII. himself permitted such a dissolution
in the case of Henry's own sister Margaret, in 1528, proposed later
as a solution of the problem that Henry should be allowed
two wives, 2 and looked not unfavourably, with the same aim,
on the project for marrying the duke of Richmond to Mary,
a brother to a sister. 8 In Henry's case also the irregularity of
a union, which is still generally reprobated and forbidden in
Christendom, and which it was very doubtful that the pope had
the power to legalize, provided a moral justification for a dissolu-
tion which in other cases did not exist. It was not therefore the
immorality of the plea which obstructed the papal decree in
1 Col. of State Pap., England and Spain, i. 469.
* Letters and Papers, iv. 6627, 6705, and app. 261.
* lb. iv. 5072.
53°
CATHERINE OF ARAGON
Henry's favour, but the unlucky imprisonment at this time of
Clement VII. at the hands of Charles V., Catherine's nephew,
which obliged the pope, placed thus " between the hammer and
the anvil," to pursue a policy of delay and hesitation. Nor was
the immorality of Henry's own character the primary cause of
the project of divorce. Had this been so, a succession of mis-
tresses would have served as well as a series of single wives.
The real occasion was the king's desire for a male heir. But,
however clear this may be, the injustice done to Catherine was
no less cruel and real. Rumours, probably then unfounded,
of an intended divorce had been heard abroad as early as 1524.
But the creation in 1525 of the king's illegitimate son Henry,
as duke of Richmond — the title borne by his grandfather Henry
VII — and the precedence granted to him over all the peers as
well as the princess Mary, together with the special honour paid
at this time by the king to his own half-sister Mary, were the
first real indications of the king's thoughts. In 1526, and
perhaps earlier, Wolsey had been making tentative inquiries
at Rome on the subject. In May 1527 a collusive and secret
suit was begun before the cardinal, who, as legate, summoned
the king to defend himself from the charge of cohabitation with
his brother's wife; but these proceedings were dropped. On the
22nd of June Henry informed Catherine that they had been
living in mortal sin and must separate. During Wolsey's absence
in July at Paris, where he had been commissioned to discuss
vaguely the divorce and Henry's marriage with Renee, daughter
of Louis Xn., Anne Boleyn is first heard of in connexion with the
king, his affection for her having, however, begun probably as
early as 1523, and the cardinal on his return found her openly
installed at the court. In October 1528 the pope issued a
commission to Cardinal Campeggio and Wolsey to try the
cause in England, and bound himself not to revoke the case to
Rome, confirming his promise by a secret decretal commission
which, however, was destroyed by Campeggio. But the trial
was a sham. Campeggio was forbidden to pronounce sentence
without further reference to Rome, and was instructed to create
delays, the pope assuring Charles V. at the same time that the
case should be ultimately revoked to Rome. 1
The object of all parties was now to persuade Catherine to
enter a nunnery and thus relieve them of further embarrassment.
While Henry's envoys were encouraged at Rome in believing
that he might then make another marriage, Henry himself gave
Catherine assurances that no other union would be contemplated
in her lifetime. But Catherine with courage and dignity held
fast to her rights, demanded a proper trial, and appealed not only
to the bull of dispensation, the validity of which was said to be
vitiated by certain irregularities, but to a brief granted for the
alliance by Pope Julius II. Henry declared the latter to be a
forgery, and endeavoured unsuccessfully to procure a declaration
of its falsity from the pope. The court of the legates accordingly
opened on the 31st of May 1529, the queen appearing before
it on the 18th of June for the purpose of denying its jurisdiction.
On the 21st both Henry and Catherine presented themselves
before the tribunal, when the queen threw herself at Henry's
feet and appealed for the last time to his sense of honour, recalling
her own virtue and helplessness. Henry replied with kindness,
showing that her wish for the revocation of the cause to Rome
was unreasonable in view of the paramount influence then
exercised by Charles V. on the pope. Catherine nevertheless
persisted in making appeal to Rome, and then withdrew. After
her departure Henry, according to Cavendish, Wolsey's bio-
grapher, praised her virtues to the court. " She is, my lords,
as true, as obedient, as conformable a wife as I could in my
phantasy wish or desire. She hath all the virtues and qualities
that ought to be in a woman of her dignity or in any other of
baser estate." On her refusal to return, her plea was overruled
and she was adjudged contumacious, while the sittings of the
court continued in her absence. Subsequently the legates paid
her a private visit of advice, but were unable to move her from
her resolution. Finally, however, in July 1529, the case was,
according to her wish, and as the result of the treaty of Barcelona
1 Cal. of Stale Pap., England and Spain, iii. pt. ii. 779.
and the pope's complete surrender to Charles V., revoked by the
pope to Rome: a momentous act, which decided Henry's
future attitude, and occasioned the downfall of the whole papal
authority in England. On the 7 th of March 1530 Pope Clement
issued a brief forbidding Henry to make a second marriage,
and ordering the restitution of Catherine to her rights till the
cause was determined; while at the same time he professed to
the French ambassador, the bishop of Tarbes, his pleasure
should the marriage with Anne Boleyn have been already made,
if only it were not by his authority. 2 The same year Henry
obtained opinions favourable to the divorce from the English,
French and most of the Italian universities, but unfavourable
answers from Germany, while a large number of English peers
and ecclesiastics, including Wolsey and Archbishop Warham,
joined in a memorial to the pope in support of Henry's cause.
Meanwhile, Catherine, while the great question remained
unsolved, was still treated by Henry as his queen, and accom-
panied him in his visits in the provinces and in his hunting
expeditions. On the 31st of May 1531 she was visited by thirty
privy councillors, who urged the trial of the case in England, but
they met only with a firm refusal. On the 14th of July Henry
left his wife at Windsor, removing himself to Woodstock, and
never saw her again. In August she was ordered to reside at
the Moor in Hertfordshire, and at the same time separated from
the princess Mary, who was taken to Richmond. In October
she again received a deputation of privy councillors, and again
refused to withdraw the case from Rome. In 1532 she sent the
king a gold cup as a new year's gift, which the latter returned,
and she was forbidden to hold any communication with him.
Alone and helpless in confronting Henry's absolute power, her
cause found champions and sympathizers among the people,
among the court preachers, and in the House of Commons, while
Bishop Fisher had openly taken her part in the legatine trial.
Subsequently Catherine was removed to Bishops Hatfield,
while Henry and Anne Boleyn visited Francis I. Their marriage,
anticipating any sentence of the nullity of the union with
Catherine, took place after their return about the 25 th of January
i533> i' n consequence of Anne's pregnancy. On the 10th of May
Cranmer, for whose consecration as archbishop of Canterbury
Henry had obtained bulls from Rome, opened his court, and
declared on the 23rd the nullity of Catherine's marriage and the
validity of Anne's. On the 10th of August the king caused
proclamation to be made forbidding her the style of queen; but
Catherine refused resolutely to yield the title for that of princess-
dowager. Not long afterwards she was removed to Buckden
in Huntingdonshire. Here her household was considerably
reduced, and she found herself hemmed in by spies, and in fact
a prisoner. In July she had refused Henry the loan of a certain
rich cloth, which had done service at the baptism of her children,
for the use of Anne Boleyn 's expected infant; and on the birth of
Elizabeth and the refusal of Mary to give up the title of princess,
the latter's household was entirely dismissed and she herself
reduced to the position of attendant in Elizabeth's retinue. A
project for removing Catherine from Buckden to Somersnam,
an unhealthy solitude in the isle of Ely, with a still narrower
maintenance, was only prevented by her own determined resist-
ance. The attempt in November to incriminate the queen in
connexion with Elizabeth Barton failed. She passed her life
now in religious devotions, taking strict precautions against the
possibility of being poisoned. On the 23rd of March 1534 the
pope pronounced her marriage valid, but by this time England
had thrown off the papal jurisdiction, the parliament had trans-
ferred Catherine's jointure to Anne Boleyn, and the decree had
no effect on Catherine's fortunes. She refused to swear to the
new act of succession, which declared her marriage null and Anne's
infant the heir to the throne, and soon afterwards she was re-
moved to Kimbolton, where she was well treated. On the 21st
of May she was visited by the archbishop of York and Tuns tall,
bishop of Durham, who threatened her with death if she per-
sisted in her refusal, but only succeeded in confirming her re-
solution. She was kept in strict seclusion, separated from Mary
2 Cal. of State Pap., Foreign and Dom., iv. 6290.
CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA—CATHERINE OF VALOIS 531
and from all outside communications, and in December 1535
her health gave way, her death taking place on the 8th of January
1536, not without suspicions of poison, which, however, may be
dismissed. She was buried by the king's order in Peterborough
cathedral. Before her death she dictated a last letter to Henry,
according to Polydore Vergil, expressing her forgiveness, begging
his good offices for Mary, and concluding with the astounding
assurance — " I vow that mine eyes desire you above all things."
The king himself affected no sorrow at her death, and thanked
God there was now no fear of war.
Catherine is described as " rather ugly than otherwise; of
low stature and rather stout; very good and very religious;
speaks Spanish, French, Flemish, English; more beloved by
the islanders than any queen that has ever reigned." She was
a woman of considerable education and culture, her scholarship
and knowledge of the Bible being noted by Erasmus, who
dedicated to her his book on Christian Matrimony in 1526.
She endured her bitter and undeserved misfortunes with extra-
ordinary courage and resolution, and at the same time with
great womanly forbearance, of which a striking instance was
the compassion shown by her for the fallen Wolsey.
Bibliography. — See the article in Diet of Nat. Biog. by J.
Gairdner, and those on Henry VIII. and Wolsey, where the case
is summed up very adversely to Henry, and The Divorce of Catherine
of Aragon, by J. A. Froude (1891), where it is regarded from the
contrary aspect; Henry VIII., by A. F. Pollard (1905); Cambridge
Mod. History (1903)* ii- 416 et seq. and bibliographies, p. 789; The
Wives of Henry VIII., by M. Hume (1905). (P. C. Y.)
CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA (1638-1705), queen consort of
Charles II. of England, daughter of John IV. of Portugal, and
of Louisa de Gusman, daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia,
was born on the 15/25 of November 1638 at Villia Vioosa.
She was early regarded as a useful medium for contracting an
alliance with England, more necessary than ever to Portugal
after the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 whereby Portugal was
ostensibly abandoned by France. Negotiations for the marriage
began during the reign of Charles I., were renewed immediately
after the Restoration, and on the 23rd of June, in spite of Spanish
opposition, the marriage contract was signed, England securing
Tangier and Bombay, with trading privileges in Brazil and the
East Indies, religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and
two million Portuguese crowns (about £300,000) ; while Portugal
obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty
of worship for Catherine. She reached England on the 13th of
May 1662, but was not visited by Charles at Portsmouth till the
20th. The next day the marriage was solemnized twice, accord-
ing to the Roman Catholic and Anglican usages. Catherine
possessed several good qualities, but had been brought up in a
conventual seclusion and was scarcely a wife Charles would have
chosen for himself. Her personal charms were not potent enough
to wean Charles away from the society of his mistresses, and in
a few weeks after her arrival she became aware of her painful
and humiliating position as the wife of the selfish and licentious
king. On the first presentation to her of Lady Castlemaine,
Charles's mistress en titre, whom he insisted on making lady of
her bedchamber, she fainted away. She withdrew from the
king's society, and in spite of Clarendon's attempts to moderate
her resentment, declared she would return to Portugal rather
than consent to a base compliance. To overcome her resistance
nearly the whole of her Portuguese retinue was dismissed. She
was helpless, and the violence of her grief and anger soon changed
to passive resistance, and than to a complete forbearance and
complaisance which gained the king's regard and favour. In
the midst of Charles's debauched and licentious court, she lived
neglected and retired, often deprived of her due allowance, having
no ambitions and taking no part in English politics, but keeping
up rather her interest in her native country.
As the prospect diminished of her bearing children to Charles,
several schemes were set on foot for procuring a divorce on
various pretexts. As a Roman Catholic and near to the king's
person Catherine was the special object of attack by the inventors
of the Popish Plot. In 1678 the murder of Sir Edmund Berry
Godfrey was ascribed to her servants, and Titus Oates accused
her of a design to poison the king. These charges, of which the
absurdity was soon shown by cross-examination, nevertheless
placed the queen for some time in great danger. On the 28th
of November Oates accused her of high treason, and the Commons
passed an address for her removal and that of all the Roman
Catholics from Whitehall. A series of fresh depositions were
sent in against her, and in June 1679 it was decided that she
must stand her trial; but she was protected by the king, who in
this instance showed unusual chivalry and earned her gratitude.
On the 17th of November Shaftesbury moved in the House of
Lords for a divorce to enable the king to marry a Protestant
and have legitimate issue; but he received little support, and
the bill was opposed by Charles, who continued to show his wife
"extraordinary affection." During the winter the calumnies
against the queen were revived by Fitzharris, who, however, before
his execution in 168 1 confessed to their falsity; and after the
revival of the king's influence subsequent to the Oxford parlia-
ment, the queen's position was no more assailed.
During Charles's last illness in 1685 she showed great anxiety
for his reconciliation with the Romish Church, and it was
probably effected largely through her influence. She exhibited
great grief at his death. She afterwards resided at Somerset
House and at Hammersmith, where she had privately founded a
convent. She interceded with great generosity, but ineffectu-
ally, for Monmouth the same year. On the 10th of June 1688 she
was present at the birth of the prince of Wales and gave evidence
before the council in favour of the genuineness of the child. She
was still in England at the Revolution, having delayed her return
to Portugal to prosecute a lawsuit against the second earl of
Clarendon, formerly her chamberlain. She maintained at first
good terms with William and Mary; but the practice of her
religion aroused jealousies, while her establishment at Somerset
House was said to be the home of cabals against the government;
and in 1691 she settled for a short time at Euston. She left
England finally with a train of one hundred persons in March
1692, travelling through France and arriving at Lisbon on the
20th of January 1693 . She took up her residence at the palace of
Bemposta, built by herself, near Lisbon. In 1703 she supported
the Methuen Treaty, which cemented still further the alliance
between Portugal and England, and in 1704 she was appointed
regent of Portugal during the illness of her brother King
Pedro EL, her administration being distinguished by several
successes gained over the Spaniards. She died on the 31st of
December 1705, bequeathing her great wealth, the result of long
hoarding, after the payment of divers charitable legacies, to
King Pedro; and was buried with great ceremony and splendour
at Belem.
See L. C. Davidson, Catherine of Braganza (1908).
CATHERINE OF VALOIS (1401-1437), queen of Henry V. of
England, daughter of Charles VI. of France by his wife Isabel
of Bavaria, was born in Paris on the 27th of October 1401.
The lunacy of her father and the depravity of her mother were
serious drawbacks to Catherine, and her only education was
obtained in a convent at Poissy. About 1408 a marriage was
suggested between the princess and Henry, prince of Wales,
afterwards Henry V., who renewed this proposal after he became
king in March 1413. In addition to the hand of Catherine,
however, the English king asked for a large dowry both in
money and lands, and when these demands were rejected war
broke out. Once or twice during short intervals of peace the
marriage project was revived, and was favoured by Queen
Isabel. When peace was eventually made at Troyes in May
1420 Henry and Catherine were betrothed, and the marriage took
place at Troyes on the 2nd of June 1420. Having crossed to
England with Henry, the queen was crowned in Westminster
Abbey on the 23rd of February 142 1, and in the following
December gave birth to a son, afterwards King Henry VI. She
joined Henry in France in May 1422, returning to England
after his death in the succeeding August. Catherine's name
soon began to be coupled with that of Owen Tudor, a Welsh
gentleman, and in 1428 Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, secured
the passing of an act to prevent her from marrying without the
532
CATHETUS— CATHOLIC
consent of the king and council. It appears, however, that by
this time Catherine and Tudor were already married. They
lived in obscurity till 1436, when Tudor was imprisoned, and
Catherine retired to Bermondsey Abbey, where she died on
the 3rd of January 1437. Her body was buried in the Lady
chapel of Westminster Abbey, and when the chapel was pulled
down during the reign of Henry VII., was placed in Henry Ws
tomb. It lay afterwards under the Villiers monument, and in
1878 was re-buried in Henry Ws chantry. By Tudor Catherine
had three sons and a daughter. Her eldest son by this marriage,
Edmund, was created earl of Richmond in 1452, and was the
father of Henry VII.
See Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, vol. iii.
(London, 1877).
CATHETUS (Gr. k6.$€tos, a perpendicular line), in architecture
the eye of the volute, so termed because its position is determined,
in an Ionic or voluted capital, by a line let down from the point
in which the volute generates.
CATHOLIC (Gr. KaJMuitfx, general, universal), a designation
adopted in the 2nd century by the Christian Church to indicate
Christendom as a whole, in contrast with individual churches.
With this idea went the notions that Christianity had been
diffused throughout the whole earth by the apostles, and that
only what was found everywhere throughout the church could
be true. The term thus in time became full of dogmatic and
political meaning, connoting, when applied to the church, a
universal authoritative and orthodox society, as opposed to
Gnostic and other " sects " (cf. the famous canon of Vincent of
Lerins a.d. 434; quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus
creditum est). The term " Catholic " does not occur in the old
Roman symbol; but Professor Loofs includes it in his recon-
struction, based on typical phrases in common use at the time
of the ante-Nicene creeds of the East. In the original form of
the Nicene creed itself it does not occur; but in the creed of
Jerusalem (348), an amplification of the Nicene symbol, we find
" one Holy Catholic Church," and in the revision by Cyril of
Alexandria (362) " Catholic and Apostolic Church " (see Creeds).
Thus, though the word " Catholic " was late in finding its way
into the formal symbols of the church, it is clear that it had long
been in use in the original sense defined above. It must be
borne in mind, however, that the designation " Catholic " was
equally claimed by all the warring parties within the church at
various times; thus, the followers of Arius and Athanasius
alike called themselves Catholics, and it was only the ultimate
victory of the latter that has reserved for them in history the
name of Catholic, and branded the former as Arian.
With the gradual development and stereotyping of the creed
it was inevitable that the term " Catholic " should come to
imply a more narrowly defined orthodoxy. In the Eastern
churches, indeed, the conception of the church as the guardian of
" the faith once delivered to the saints " soon overshadowed
that of interpretation and development by catholic consent,
and, though they have throughout claimed the title of Catholic,
their chief glory is that conveyed in the name of the Holy
Orthodox Church. In the West, meanwhile, the growth of the
power of the papacy had tended more and more to the inter-
pretation of the word " catholic " as implying communion with,
and obedience to, the see of Rome (see Papacy); the churches
of the East, no less than the heretical sects of the West, by
repudiating this allegiance, had ceased to be Catholic. This
identification of " Catholic " with " Roman " was accentuated
by the progress of the Reformation. The Reformers themselves,
indeed, like other dissidents and reformers before them, did not
necessarily repudiate the name of Catholic; they believed, in
fact, in Catholicism, i.e. the universal sanction of their beliefs,
as firmly as did the adherents of " the old religion "; they
included the Catholic creeds, definitions formulated by the
universal church, in their service books; they too appealed, as
the fathers of Basel and Constance had done, from the papal
monarchy to the great ecclesiastical republic. The Church of
England at least, emphasizing her own essential catholicity,
retained in her translations of the ancient symbols the word
" catholic " instead of replacing it by " universal." But the
appeal to the verbally inspired Bible was stronger than that to a
church hopelessly divided; the Bible, and not the consent of
the universal church, became the touchstone of the reformed
orthodoxy; in the nomenclature of the time, " evangelical "
arose in contradistinction to " Catholic," while, in popular
parlance, the " protest " of the Reformers against the " corrup-
tions of Rome " led to the invention of the term " Protestant,"
which, though nowhere assumed in the official titles of the older
reformed churches, was early used as a generic term to include
them all.
" Catholic " and " Catholicism " thus again changed and
narrowed their meaning; they became, by universal usage,
identified definitely with " Romanist " and the creed and
obedience of Rome. Even in England, where the church
retained most strongly the Catholic tradition, this distinction of
" Protestant" and " Catholic" was clearly maintained, at least
till the " Catholic revival " in the Church of England of the 19th
century. On the continent of Europe the equivalent words
(e.g. Ger. Katholik, Katkolizismus; Fr. catholique, Catholicism*)
are even more definitely associated with Rome; they have lost
the sense which they still convey to a considerable school of
Anglicans. The dissident " Catholic " churches are forced to
qualify their titles: they are " Old Catholics " (Alt~Katholiken)
or " German Catholics " (Deutsch-Katholiken). The Church of
Rome alone, officially and in popular parlance, is " the Catholic
Church" (katholische Kirche, iglise catholique), a title which
she proudly claims as exclusively her own, by divine right, by
the sanction of immemorial tradition, and by reason of her
perpetual protest against the idea of " national " churches,
consecrated by the Reformation (see Church History, and
Roman Catholic Church). The additional qualification of
" Roman " she tolerates, since it proclaims her doctrine of the
see of Rome as the keystone of Catholicism; but to herself
she is " the Catholic Church," and her members are " Catholics."
Yet to concede this claim and surrender without qualification
the word " Catholic " to a connotation which is at best only
universal in theory, is to beg several very weighty questions.
The doctrine of the Catholic Church, i.e. the essential unity and
interdependence of " all God's faithful people scattered through-
out the world," is common to all sections of Christians. The
creed is one; it is the interpretation that differs. In a somewhat
narrower sense, too, the Church of England at least has never
repudiated the conception of the Catholic Church as a divinely
instituted organization for the safe-guarding and proclamation
of the Christian revelation. She deliberately retained the
Catholic creeds, the Catholic ministry and the appeal to
Catholic antiquity (see England, Church of). A large section
of her members, accordingly, laying stress on this side of her
tradition, prefer to call themselves " Catholics." But, though
the invention of the terms " Roman Catholic " and " Roman
Catholicism " early implied the retention by the English Church
of her Catholic claim, her members were never, after the Reforma-
tion, called Catholics; even the Caroline divines of the 17th
century, for all their " popish practices," styled themselves
Protestants, though they would have professed their adherence
to " the Catholic faith " and their belief in " the Holy Catholic
Church."
Clearly, then, the exact meaning of the term varies according
to those who use it and those to whom it is applied. To the
Romanist " Catholic " means " Roman Catholic "; to the high
Anglican it means whatever is common to the three " historic "
branches into which he conceives the church to be divided —
Roman, Anglican and Orthodox; to the Protestant pure and
simple it means either what it does to the Romanist, or, in
expansive moments, simply what is " universal " to all Christians.
In a yet broader sense it is used adjectivally of mere wideness or
universality of view, as when we speak of a man as " of catholic
sympathies " or " catholic in his tastes."
The name of Catholic Epistles is given to those letters (two of
Peter, three of John, one of James, one of Jude) incorporated
in the New Testament which (exoept 2 and 3 John) are not, like
CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH— CATILINE
533
those of St Paul, addressed to particular individuals or churches,
but to a larger and more indefinite circle of readers. (See
Bible: New Testament, Canon.)
, The title of Catholicus (koBoXuUhs) seems to have been used
under the Roman empire, though rarely, as the Greek equivalent
of canstdaris and praefectus. Thus Eusebius (Hist. ted. viii. 23)
speaks of the catholicus of Africa (ko$o\lk6v rip *A<t>pacrj9).
As an ecclesiastical title it was used to imply, not universal
(ecumenical), but a great and widespread jurisdiction. Thus
the bishop of the important see of Seleucia (Bagdad), though
subordinate to the patriarch of Antioch, had the title of
Catholicus and power to consecrate even archbishops; and on the
division of the see there were two Catholici under the patriarch
of Antioch. In Ethiopia, too, there were Catholici with less
extensive powers, subject to the patriarch of Alexandria. The
title now survives, however, only as that of the head of the
Armenian Church (q.v.). A bishop's cathedral church is, how-
ever, in Greek the Catholicon.
An isolated use of the word " catholic " as a secular legal
term survives in Scots law; a catholic creditor is one whose debt
is secured over several or over all of the subjects belonging to
the debtor.
CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH, THE, a religious com-
munity often called " Irvingites," though neither actually
founded nor anticipated by Edward Irving (q.v.). Irving's
relation to this community was, according to its members,
somewhat similar to that of John the Baptist to the early
Christian Church, i.e. he was the forerunner and prophet of the
coming dispensation, not the founder of a new sect; and indeed
the only connexion which Irving seems to have had with the
existing organization of the Catholic Apostolic body was in
" fostering spiritual persons who had been driven out of other
congregations for the exercise of their spiritual gifts." Shortly
after Irving's trial and deposition (1831), certain persons were,
at some meetings held for prayer, designated as " called to be
apostles of the Lord " by certain others claiming prophetic
gifts. In the year 1835, six months after Irving's death, six
others were similarly designated as " called " to complete the
number of the " twelve," who were then formally " separated,"
by the pastors of the local congregations to which they belonged,
to their higher office in the universal church on the 14th of
July 1835. This separation is understood by the community
not as " in any sense being a schism or separation from the one
Catholic Church, but a separation to a special work of blessing
and intercession on behalf of it." The twelve were afterwards
guided to ordain others — twelve prophets, twelve evangelists, and
twelve pastors, " sharing equally with them the one Catholic
Episcopate," and also seven deacons for administering the tem-
poral affairs of the church catholic. The apostles were the
channels of the Holy Ghost and the mysteries of God, and the
authoritative interpreters of " prophetic utterance "; their
teaching was brought home to the people by the " evangelists."
The function of the prophets was to explain scripture and exhort
to holiness, that of the " pastors " is explained by their title.
The central episcopacy of forty-eight was regarded as " indicated
by prophecy," being foreshown in the forty-eight boards of the
Mosaic tabernacle. For ecclesiastical purposes the church uni-
versal is under their charge in twelve tribes; for Christendom
is considered to be divided into twelve portions or tribes, each
tribe being under the special charge of an apostle and his co-
ministers, and the seat of the Apostolic College being at Albury,
near Guildford. This is an ideal outline which has never been
fulfilled. There has never been a " central episcopacy " of
forty-eight. The " apostles " alone always held the supreme
authority, though, as their number dwindled, " coadjutors "
were appointed to assist the survivors, and to exercise the
functions of the " apostolate." The last " apostle " died on
the 3rd of February 1901.
For the service of the church a comprehensive book of liturgies
and offices was provided by the " apostles." It dates from 1842
and is based on the Anglican, Roman and Greek liturgies.
Lights, incense, vestments, holy water, chrism, and other
adjuncts of worship are in constant use. The ceremonial in its
completeness may be seen in the church in Gordon Square,
London, and elsewhere. The daily worship consists of " matins "
with " proposition " (or exposition) of the sacrament at 6 a.m.,
prayers at 9 a.m. and 3 p.m., and " vespers " with " proposition "
at s p.m. On all Sundays and holy days there is a " solemn
celebration of the eucharist " at the high altar; on Sundays
this is at 10 a.m. On other days " low celebrations " are held in
the side-chapels, which with the chancel in all churches correctly
built after apostolic directions are separated or marked off from
the nave,by open screens with gates. The community has always
laid great stress on symbolism, and in the eucharist, while reject-
ing both transubstantiation and consubstantiation, holds strongly
to a real (mystical) presence. It emphasizes also the " pheno-
mena " of Christian experience and deems miracle and mystery
to be of the essence of a spirit-filled church.
Each congregation is presided over by its " angel " or bishop
(who ranks as angel-pastor in the Universal Church); under him
are four-and-twenty priests, divided into the four ministries of
" elders, prophets, evangelists and pastors," and with these are
the deacons, seven of whom regulate the temporal affairs of the
church — besides whom there are also " sub-deacons, acolytes,
singers, and door-keepers." The understanding is that each
elder, with his co-presbyters and deacons, shall have charge
of 500 adult communicants in his district; but this has been
but partially carried into practice. This is the full constitution
of each particular church or congregation as founded by the
" restored apostles," each local church thus " reflecting in its
government the government of the church catholic by the angel
or high priest Jesus Christ, and His forty-eight presbyters in
their fourfold ministry (in which apostles and elders always
rank first), and under these the deacons of the church catholic."
The priesthood is supported by tithes; it being deemed a duty
on the part of all members of the church who receive yearly
incomes to offer a tithe of their increase every week, besides the
free-will offering for the support of the place of worship, and for
the relief of distress. Each local church sends " a tithe of its
tithes " to the " Temple," by which the ministers of the Uni-
versal Church are supported and its administrative expenses
defrayed; by these offerings, too, the needs of poorer churches
are supplied. It claims to have among its clergy many of the
Roman, Anglican and other churches, the orders of those
ordained by Greek, Roman and Anglican bishops being recog-
nized by it with the simple confirmation of an " apostolic act."
The community has not changed recently in general constitution
or doctrine. It does not publish statistics, and its growth during
late years is said to have been more marked in the United States
and in certain European countries, such as Germany, than in
Great Britain. There are nine congregations enumerated in
The Religious Life of London (1904).
For further details of doctrines, ritual, &c, see R. N. Boeworth,
Restoration of Apostles and Prophets, Readings on the Liturgy, The
Church and Tabernacle, and The Purpose of God in Creation and
Redemption (6th ed. f 1888) ; G. Miller, Htstory and Doctrines of
Irvingtsm (1878).
CATILINE [Lucius Sergius Catilina] (c. 108-62 B.C.), a
member of an ancient but impoverished patrician family of
Rome, the prime mover in the conspiracy known by his name.
He appears in history first as a supporter of Sulla, and during
the proscription he was conspicuous for his greed and cruelty.
He slew his inoffensive brother-in-law with his own hand, and
tortured and mutilated the much-loved Marius Gratidianus.
He was believed to have made away with his wife and his son to
win the profligate and wealthy Aurelia Orestilla; it was even
suspected that he had been guilty of an intrigue with the Vestal
Fabia. In 77 he was quaestor, in 68 praetor, and in 67-66
governor of Africa. His extortions and subsequent impeachment
by P. Clodius Pulcher having disqualified him as a candidate
for the consulship, he formed a conspiracy, in which he was
joined by young men of all classes, even Crassus and Caesar,
according to rumour, being implicated. The new consuls were
to be murdered on the 1st of January; but the plot — the
534
CATINAT— CATLIN
execution of which was deferred till the 5th of February — failed
in consequence of the impatience of Catiline, who gave the signal
too hastily. Soon after, Catiline, having bribed both judges
and accuser, was acquitted in the trial for extortion. His scheme
was forthwith immensely widened. The city was to be fired,
and those who opposed the revolution were to be slain; all debts
were to be cancelled; and there was to be a proscription of all
the wealthy citizens. Among the conspirators were many men
of the first rank and influence. Arms and money were collected,
soldiers were enlisted, and the assistance of the slaves was sought.
But Catiline's hopes were again disappointed; once more he
failed to obtain the consulship (64); and, moreover, it soon
became apparent that one of the new consuls, Cicero, was myste-
riously able to thwart all the schemes of the conspirators. He
was, in fact, informed of every detail, through Fulvia, the mis-
tress of Curius, one of the plotters,who was himself soon persuaded
to turn informer. The other consul, C. Antonius, in whom Catiline
hoped to find a supporter, was won over and got out of the way
by Cicero, who resigned the province of Macedonia in his favour.
Before the next comitia consularia assembled, the orator had
given so impressive a warning of the danger which was impending,
that Catiline was once more rejected (63), and the consuls were
invested with absolute authority. Catiline now resolved upon
open war; preparations were set on foot throughout Italy,
especially in Etruria, where the standard of revolt was raised
by the centurion C. Manlius (or Mallius), one of Sulla's veterans.
A plan to murder Cicero in his own house on the morning of the
7th of November was frustrated. On the next day Cicero at-
tacked Catiline so vigorously in the senate (in his first Catilinarian
oration) that he fled to his army in Etruria. Next day Cicero
awoke the terror of the people by a second oration delivered in
the forum, in consequence of which Catiline and Manlius were
declared public enemies, and the consul Antonius was despatched
with an army against them. Meanwhile the imprudence of the
conspirators in Rome brought about their own destruction.
Some deputies from the Allobroges, who had been sent to Rome
to obtain redress for certain grievances, were approached by
P. Lentulus Sura, the chief of the conspirators, who endeavoured
to induce them to join him. After considerable hesitation, the
deputies decided to turn informers. The plot was betrayed to
Cicero, at whose instigation documentary evidence was obtained,
implicating Lentulus and others. They were arrested, proved
guilty, and on the 5th of December condemned to death and
strangled in the underground dungeon on the slope of the Capitol.
This act, which was opposed by Julius Caesar and advocated by
CatO Uticensis (and, indirectly, by Cicero), was afterwards
vigorously attacked as a violation of the constitution, on the
ground that the senate had no power of life and death 6ver a
Roman citizen. Thus a heavy blow was dealt to the cause of
Catiline, who, in the beginning of 62, saw his legions, only
partially armed and diminished by desertion, shut in between
those of Metellus Celer and C. Antonius. Near Pistoria he
hazarded battle with the forces of the latter, but was completely
defeated in a desperate encounter. He himself, fighting with the
utmost bravery, rushed into the ranks of the enemy and met his
death.
Such was the conspiracy of Catiline and the character of its
author, as we find them in the speeches of Cicero, and the histories
of Sallust and Dio Cassius (see also Plutarch, Cicero; Veil. Pat.
ii. 35; Florus iv. 1; Appian, B.C. ii. 6; Eutropius yi. 15). It
must not be forgotten, however, that our authorities were all
members of the aristocratic party. Some of the incidents given
as facts by Dio Cassius are manifest absurdities; and Cicero
paid more regard to the effect than to the truthfulness of an
accusation. We find him at one time admitting that Catiline
had almost persuaded him of his honesty and merit, and even
seeking a political union with him; at another, when his alliance
had been rejected and an election was at hand, declaiming
against him as a murderer and a profligate. Lastly, though
Sallust's vivid narrative is consistent throughout, it is obvious
that he cherished very bitter feelings against the democratic
party. Nevertheless, we cannot regard Catiline as an honest
enemy of the oligarchy, or as a disinterested champion of the
provincials. It is held by some historians that there was at the
time on the part of many of the Roman nobles a determination to
raise themselves to power, despite the opposition of the senate;
others with greater probability maintain that Catiline's object
was simply the cancelling of the huge debts which he and his
friends had accumulated. Catiline, by his bravery, his military
talents, his vigorous resolution, and his wonderful power over
men, was eminently qualified as a revolutionary leader. He is
the subject of tragedies by Ben Jonson and P. Crebillon, and of
the Rome sauvte of Voltaire.
See P. Merimee, Etudes sur la guerre sociale et la conjuration de
Catiline (1844) ; E. Hagen, Catilina (1854), with introductory dis-
cussion of the authorities; E. S. Beesley, " Catiline as a Party
Leader" (Fortnightly Review, June 1865), in defence of Catiline;
C. John, Die Entstehungsgeschtchte der catilinarischenVerschwdrung
(1876), a critical examination of Sallust's account; E. von Stern,
Catilina und die Parteikdmpfe in Rom 66-63 (1883), with bibliography
in preface ; C. Thiaucourt, Etude sur la conjuration de Catiline (1887),
a critical examination of Sallust's account and of his object in
writing it; J. E. Blondel, Histoire Sconomiaue de la conjuration de
Catiline (1893), written from the point of view of a political econo-
mist; Gaston Boissier, La Conjuration de Catiline (1905), and Cicero
and his Friends (Eng. trans.) ; Tyrrell and Purser's ed. of Cicero's
Letters (index vol. s.v. " Sergius Catilina ") ; J. L. Strachan Davidson,
Cicero (1894), ch. v.; Warde Fowler's Caesar (1892); see also art.
Rome: History, The Republic.
CATINAT, NICOLAS (1637-1712), marshal of France, entered
the Gardes Francaises at an early age and distinguished himself
at the siege of Lille in 1667. He became a brigadier ten years
later, martchal de camp in 1680, and lieutenant-general 1688. He
served with great credit in the campaigns of 16 76-1 6 78 in
Flanders, was employed against the Vaudois in 1686, and after
taking part in the siege of Philipsburg at the opening of the War
of the League of Augsburg, he was appointed to command the
French troops in the south-eastern theatre of war. In 1600 he
conquered Savoy, and in 1691 Nice; the battle of Staffarda,
won by him over the duke of Savoy in 1600, and that of Marsaglia
in 1693, were amongst the greatest victories of the time. In
1696 Catinat forced the duke to make an alliance with France.
He had in 1693 been made a marshal of France. At the be-
ginning of the war of the Spanish Succession, Catinat was placed
in charge of operations in Italy, but he was much hampered by
the orders of the French court and the weakness of the forces for
their task. He suffered a reverse at Carpi (1701) and was soon
afterwards superseded by Villeroy, to whom he acted as second-
in-command during the campaign of Chiari. He died at St
Gra tien in 1 7 1 2 . His memoirs were published in 1 8 1 9.
See E. de Broglie, Catinat, 1637-1712 (Paris, 1902).
CATLIN. GEORGE (1706-1872), American ethnologist, was
born at Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, in 1796. He was educated
as a lawyer and practised in Philadelphia for two years; but
art was his favourite pursuit, and forsaking the law he established
himself at New York as a portrait painter. In 1832, realizing
that the American Indians were dying out, he resolved to rescue
their types and customs from oblivion. With this object he
spent many years among the Indians in North and South
America. He lived with them, acquired their languages, and
studied very thoroughly their habits, customs and mode of life,
making copious notes and many studies for paintings. In 1840*
he came to Europe with his collection of paintings, most of which
are now in the National Museum, Washington, as the Catlin
Gallery; and in the following year he published the Manners,
Customs and Condition of the North American Indians in two
volumes, illustrated with 300 engravings. This was followed
in 1844 by The North American Portfolio, containing 25 plates
of hunting scenes and amusements in the Rocky Mountains and
the prairies of America, and in 1848 by Eight Years' Travels
and Residence in Europe. In 1861 he published a curious little
volume, in " manugraph," entitled The Breath of Life, on the
advantage of keeping one's mouth habitually closed, especially
during sleep; and in 1868, Last Rambles amongst the Indians of
the Rocky Mountains and the Andes. He died in Jersey City,
New Jersey, on the 22nd of December 1872.
CATO
535
CATO, DIONYSIUS, the supposed author of the Dumysii
Catonis Disticha de Moribus ad Fftium. The name usually given
is simply Cato, an indication of the wise character of the maxims
inculcated, but Dionysius is added on the authority of a MS.
declared by Scaliger to be of great antiquity. This MS. also
contains Priscian's translation of the Periegesis of the geographer
Dionysius Periegetes; this has probably led to the Disticha
also being attributed to him. In the middle ages the author
on the Disticha was supposed to be Cato the Elder, who wrote a
Carmen de Moribus, but extracts from this in Aulus Gellius
show that it was in prose. Nothing is really known of the author
or date of the Disticha; it can only be assigned to the 3rd or
4th century a.d. It is a small collection of moral apophthegms,
each consisting of two hexameters, in four books. They are
monotheistic in character, not specially Christian. The diction
and metre are fairly good. The book had a great reputation in
the middle ages, and was translated into many languages;
it is frequently referred to by Chaucer, and in 1483 a translation
was issued from Caxton's press at Westminster.
Editions by F. Hauthal (1869), with full account of MSS. and
early editions, and G. N6methy (1895), with critical notes; see also
F. Zarncke, Der deutsche Cato (1852), a history of middle age German
translations; J. Nehab, Der altenglische Cato (1879); E. Bischoff,
Prolegomena turn sogenannten Dionysius Cato (1893), in which the
name is discussed ; F. Plessis, PoSsie latine (1009), 663 ; for medieval
translations and editions see Teuffel, HisU of Roman Lit. § 398, 3.
CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (934-149 B.C.), Roman statesman,
surnamed " The Censor," Sapiens, Priscus, or Major (the Elder),
to distinguish him from Cato of Utica, was born at Tusculum.
He came of an ancient plebeian family, noted for some military
services, but not ennobled by the discharge of the higher civil
offices. He was bred, after the manner of his Latin forefathers,
to agriculture, to which he devoted himself when not engaged
in military service. But, having attracted the notice of L.
Valerius Flaccus, he was brought to Rome, and became success-
ively quaestor (204), aedile (199), praetor (198), and consul (195)
with his old patron. During his term of office he vainly opposed
the repeal of the lex Oppia, passed during the Second Punic War
to restrict luxury and extravagance on the part of women.
Meanwhile he served in Africa, and took part in the crowning
campaign of Zama (202) . He held a command in Sardinia, where
he first showed his strict public morality, and again in Spain,
which he reduced to subjection with great cruelty, and gained
thereby the honour of a triumph (194) . In the year 191 he acted
as military tribune in the war against Antiochus III. of Syria,
and played an important part in the battle of Thermopylae,
which finally delivered Greece from the encroachments of the
East. His reputation as a soldier was now established; hence-
forth he preferred to serve the state at home, scrutinizing the
conduct of the candidates for public honours and of generals
in the field. If he was not personally engaged in the prosecution
of the Scipios (Africanus and Asiaticus) for corruption, it was
his spirit that animated the attack upon. them. Even Africanus,
who refused to reply to the charge, saying only, " Romans,
this is the day on which I conquered Hannibal," and was absolved
by acclamation; found it necessary to retire self-banished to his
villa at Literaum. Cato's enmity dated from the African
campaign when he quarrelled with Scipio for his lavish distribu-
tion of the spoil amongst the troops, and his general luxury and
extravagance.
Cato had, however, a more serious task to perform in opposing
the spread of the new Hellenic culture which threatened to destroy
the rugged simplicity of the conventional Roman type. He
conceived it to be his special mission to resist this invasion.
It was in the discharge of the censorship that this determination
was most strongly exhibited, and hence that he derived the title
(the Censor) by which he is most generally distinguished. He
revised with unsparing severity the lists of senators and knights,
ejecting from either order the men whom he judged unworthy of it,
either on moral grounds or from their want of the prescribed
means. The expulsion of L. Quinctius Flamininus for wanton
cruelty was an example of his rigid justice. His regulations
against luxury were very stringent. He imposed a heavy tax
upon dress and personal adornment, especially of women, and
upon young slaves purchased as favourites. In 181 he supported
the lex Orchia (according to others, he first opposed its introduc-
tion, and subsequently its repeal), which prescribed a limit to the
number of guests at an entertainment, and in 169 the lex Voconia,
one of the provisions of which was intended to check the accumu-
lation of an undue proportion of wealth in the hands of women.
Amongst other things he repaired the aqueducts, cleansed the
sewers, prevented private persons drawing off public water for
their own use, ordered the demolition of houses which encroached
on the public way, and built the first basilica in the forum near
the curia. He raised the amount paid by the publican for the
right of farming the taxes, and at the same time diminished the
contract prices for the construction of public works.
From the date of his censorship (184) to his death in 149,
Cato held no public office, but continued to distinguish himself
in the senate as the persistent opponent of the new ideas. He was
struck with horror, along with many other Romans of the graver
stamp, at the licence of the Bacchanalian mysteries, which he
attributed to the fatal influence of Greek manners; and he
vehemently urged the dismissal of the philosophers (Carneades,
Diogenes and Critolaus), who came as ambassadors from Athens,
on account of the dangerous nature of the views expressed by
them. He had a horror of physicians, who were chiefly Greeks.
He procured the release of Polybius, the historian, and his fellow-
prisoners, contemptuously asking whether the senate had nothing
more important to do than discuss whether a few Greeks should
die at Rome or in their own land. It was not till his eightieth
year that he made his first acquaintance with Greek literature.
Almost his last public act was to urge his countrymen to the
Third Punic War and the destruction of Carthage. In 157 be
was one of the deputies sent to Carthage to arbitrate between
the Carthaginians and Massinissa, king of Numidia. The
mission was unsuccessful and the commissioners returned home.
But Cato was so struck by the evidences of Carthaginian pros-
perity that he was convinced that the security of Rome depended
on the annihilation of Carthage. From this time, in season
and out of season, he kept repeating the cry: " Delenda est
Carthago."
To Cato the individual life was a continual discipline, and
public life was the discipline of the many. He regarded the
individual householder as the germ of the family, the family
as the germ of the state. By strict economy of time he accom-
plished an immense amount of work; he exacted similar appli-
cation from his dependents, and proved himself a hard husband,
a strict father, a severe and cruel master. There was little
difference apparently, in the esteem in which he held his wife
and his slaves; his pride alone induced him to take a warmer
interest in his sons. To the Romans themselves there was little
in this behaviour which seemed worthy of censure; it was
respected rather as a traditional example of the old Roman
manners. In the remarkable passage (xxxix. 40) in which Livy
describes the character of Cato, there is no word of blame for
the rigid discipline of his household.
Cato perhaps deserves even more notice as a literary man than
as a statesman or a soldier. He was the first Latin prose writer
of any importance, and the first author of a history of Rome
in Latin. His treatise on agriculture (De Agricultura or De Re
Rustica) is the only work by him that has been preserved; it
is not agreed whether the work we possess is the original or
a later revision. It contains a miscellaneous collection of rules
of good husbandry, conveying much curious information on the
domestic habits of the Romans of his age. His most important
work, Origines, in seven books, related the history of Rome from
its earliest foundations to his own day. It was so called from
the second and third books, which described the rise of the
different Italian towns. His speeches, of which as many
as 150 were collected, were principally directed against the
young free-thinking and loose-principled nobles of the day.
He also wrote a set of maxims for the use of his son (Praecepta
ad Filium), and some rules for everyday life in verse (Carmen
de Moribus). The collection of proverbs in hexameter verse,
53 6
CATO
extant under the name of Cato, probably belongs to the 4th
century a.d. (See Cato, Dionysius.)
Authorities. — There are lives of Cato by Cornelius Nepos,
Plutarch and Aurelius Victor, and many particulars of his career
and character are to be gathered from Livy and Cicero. See also
F D. Gerlach, Marcus Fortius Cato der Censor (Basel, 1869) ; G.
Kurth, Colon Vancien (Bruges, 1872); J. Cortese, De M. Porcii
CaUmis vita, operibus, et lingua (Turin, 1883); F. Marcucci, Studio
critico suUe Opere di Catone tl Maggiore (1902). The best edition of
the De AgricuUura is by H. Keil (1884-1891), of the fragments of the
Qrigines by H. Peter (1883) in Historicorum Romanorum Frag-
menta, of the fragments generally by H. Jordan (i860); see also
J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (1874) J
M. Schanz, Geschichte der romtschen Litteratur (18Q8); article in
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Bioqrapny; Mommsen,
Hist, of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. iii. ch. xi and xiv.; Warde Fowler,
Social Life at Rome (1909).
CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.C.), Roman philosopher,
called Uticensis to distinguish him from his great-grandfather,
" the Censor." On the death of his parents he was brought up
in the house of his uncle, M. Livius Drusus. After fighting
with distinction in the ranks against Spartacus (72 B.C.), he
became a military tribune (67), and served a campaign in Mace-
donia, but he never had any enthusiasm for the military pro-
fession. On his return he became quaestor, and showed so much
zeal and integrity in the management of the public accounts
that he obtained a provincial appointment in Asia, where he
strengthened his reputation. Though filled with disgust at the
corruption of the public men with whom he came in contact, he
saw much to admire in the discipline which Lucullus had en-
forced in his own eastern command, and he supported his claims
to a triumph, while he opposed the inordinate pretensions of
Pompey. When the favour of the nobles gained him the tribune-
ship, he exerted himself unsuccessfully to convict L. Licinius
Murena (2), one of their chief men, of bribery. Cicero, who de-
fended Murena, was glad to have Cato's aid when he urged the
execution of the Catilinarian conspirators. Cato's vote on this
matter drew upon him the bitter resentment of Julius Caesar,
who did his utmost to save them.
Cato had now become a great power in the state. Though
possessed of Httle wealth and no family influence, his unflinch-
ing resolution in the cause of the ancient free state rendered
him a valuable instrument in the hands of the nobles. He vainly
opposed Caesar's candidature for the consulship in 59, and his
attempt, in conjunction with Bibulus, to prevent the passing
of Caesar's proposed agrarian law for distributing lands
amongst the Asiatic veterans, proved unsuccessful. Nevertheless,
although his efforts were ineffectual, he was still an obstacle
of sufficient importance for the triumvirs to desire to get rid of
him. At the instigation of Caesar he was sent to Cyprus (58)
with a mission to depose its king, Ptolemy (brother of Ptolemy
Auletes), and annex the island. On his return two years later
he continued to struggle against the combined powers of the
triumvirs in the city, and became involved in scenes of violence
and riot. He succeeded in obtaining the praetorship in 54,
and strenuously exerted himself in the hopeless and thank-
less task of suppressing bribery, in which all parties were
equally interested. He failed to attain the consulship, and
had made up his mind to retire from the arena of civic
ambition when the civil war broke out in 49. Feeling that the
sole chance for the free state lay in conceding an actual supremacy
to Pompey, whom he had formerly vigorously opposed, he
did not scruple to support the unjust measures of the nobles
against Caesar. At the outset of the war he was entrusted with
the defence of Sicily, but finding it impossible to resist the
superior forces of C. Scribonius Curio, who had landed on the
island, he joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium. When his chief
followed Caesar to Thessaly he was left behind in charge of the
camp, and thus was not present at the battle of Pharsalus.
After the battle, when Pompey abandoned his party, he separated
himself from the main body of the republicans, and conducted
a small remnant of their forces into Africa. After his famous
march through the Libyan deserts, he shut himself up in Utica,
and even after the decisive defeat at Thapsus (46), in spite of
the wishes of bis followers, he determined to keep the gates closed
till he had sent off his adherents by sea. While the embarkation
was in progress he continued calm and dignified; when the last
of the transports had left the port he cheerfully dismissed bis
attendants, and soon afterwards stabbed himself.
He had been reading, we are told, in his last moments Plato's
dialogue on the immortality of the soul, but his own philosophy
had taught him to act upon a narrow sense of immediate duty
without regard to the future. He conceived that he was placed
in the world to play an active part, and when disabled from
carrying out his principles, to retire gravely from it He had
lived for the free state, and it now seemed his duty to perish
with it. In politics he was a typical doctrinaire, abhorring
compromise and obstinately blind to the fact that his national
ideal was a hopeless anachronism. From the circumstances of
his life and of his death, he has come to be regarded as one of the
most distinguished of Roman philosophers, but he composed no
works, and bequeathed to posterity no other instruction than
that of his example. The only composition by him which we
possess is a letter to Cicero {Ad Fam. xv. 5), a polite refusal of
the orator's request that he would endeavour to procure him
the honour of a triumph. The school of the Stoics, which took
a leading part in the history of Rome under the earlier emperors,
looked to him as its saint and patron. It continued to wage
war against the empire, hardly less openly than Cato himself
had done, for two centuries, till at last it became actually seated
on the imperial throne in the person of Marcus Aurelius. Im-
mediately after his death Cato's character became the subject
of discussion; Cicero's panegyric Cato was answered by Caesar
in his Anticato. Brutus, dissatisfied with Cicero's work, pro-
duced another on the same subject; in Lucan Cato is repre-
sented as a model of virtue and disinterestedness.
See Life by Plutarch, and compare Addison's tragedy. Modern
biographies by H. Wartmann (Zurich, 1859), and F. D. Gerlach
(Basel, 1866) ; C. W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later
Republic, Cato . . . (1902) ; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (En$. trans.),
bk. v. ch. v.; article in Smith's Dictionary of Classical Biography;
Gaston Boissier, Cicero and his Fricids (Eng. trans., 1897), esp.
pp. 277 foil. ; Warde Fowler, Social Life at Rome (1909).
CATO, PTJBUUS VALERIUS, Roman poet and grammarian,
was born about 100 B.C. He is of importance as the leader
of the " new " school of poetry (poeiae novi, pccbrepoi, as
Cicero calls them). Its followers rejected the national epic
and drama in favour of the artificial mythological epics and
elegies of the Alexandrian school, and preferred Euphorion of
Chalcis to Ennius. Learning, that is, a knowledge of Greek
literature and myths, and strict adherence to metrical rules were
regarded by them as indispensable to the poet. The ve&rtpot
were also determined opponents of Pompey and Caesar. The
great influence of Cato is attested by the lines: —
" Cato grammaticus, Latina Siren,
Qui solus legit ac facit poetas." 1
Our information regarding his life is derived from Suetonius
(De Grammaticis, 11). He was a native of Cisalpine Gaul,
and lost his property during the Sullan disturbances before he
had attained his majority. He lived to a great age, and during
the latter part of his life was in very reduced circumstances.
He was at one time possessed of considerable wealth, and owned
a villa at Tusculum which he was obliged to hand over to his
creditors. In addition to grammatical treatises, Cato wrote a
number of poems, the best-known of which were the Lydia and
Diana. In the Indignatio (perhaps a short poem) he defended
himself against the accusation that he was of servile birth. It
is probable that he is the Cato mentioned as a critic of Lucilius in
the lines by an unknown author prefixed to Horace, Satires, i. zo.
Among the minor poems attributed to Virgil is one called Dirae
(or rather two, Dirae and Lydia). The Dirae consists of impreca-
tions against the estate of which the writer has been deprived, and
where he is obliged to leave his beloved Lydia; in the Lydia, on
the other hand, tne estate is regarded with envy as the possessor of
his charmer. Joseph Justus Scaliger was the first to attribute the
poem (divided into two by F. Jacobs) to Valerius Cato, on the ground
1 " Cato, the grammarian, the Latin siren, who alone reads aloud
the works and makes the reputation of poets."
CATS—CATTANEO
537
that he had lost an estate and had written a Lydia. The question
has been much discussed ; the balance of opinion is in favour of the
Dirae being assigned to the beginning of the Augustan age, although
so distinguished a critic as O. Ribbeck supports the claims of Cato
to the authorship. The best edition of these poems is by A. F.
Nake (1847), with exhaustive commentary and excursuses; a clear
account of the question will be found in M. Schanz's Geschichte der
romischen Litter atur; for the " new " school of poetry see Mommsen,
Hist, of Rome, bk. v. ch. xii. ; F. Plessis, PoSsie latine (1909), 188.
CATS, JACOB (1577-1660), Dutch poet and humorist, was
born at Brouwershaven in Zeeland on the 10th of November
1577. Having lost his mother at an early age, and being adopted
with his three brothers by an uncle, Cats was sent to school at
Zierikzee. He then studied law at Leiden and at Orleans, and,
returning to Holland, he settled at the Hague, where he began
to practise as an advocate. His pleading in defence of a wretched
creature accused of witchcraft brought him many clients and
some reputation. He had a serious love affair about this time,
which was broken off on the very eve of marriage by his catching
a tertian fever which defied all attempts at cure for some two
years. For medical advice and change of air Cats went to
England, where he consulted the highest authorities in vain.
He returned to Zeeland to die, but was cured mysteriously by
a strolling quack. He married in 1602 a lady of some property,
Elisabeth von Valkenburg, and thenceforward lived at Gryps-
kerke in Zeeland, where he devoted himself to farming and
poetry. His best works are: Emblemata or Minnebeelden with
Maegdenplicht (16 18); Spiegel van den ouden en nieuwen Tip
(1633); Houwelijck . . . (1625); Seljstrijt (1620); Ouderdotn,
Buitem leven . . . en Hofgedachten op Sorgvliet (1664); and
Gedachten op slapelooze nachten (1661). In 162 1, on the expiration
of the twelve years' truce with Spain, the breaking of the dykes
drove him from his farm. He was made pensionary (stipendiary
magistrate) of Middelburg; and two years afterwards of Dort.
In 1627 Cats came to England on a mission to Charles I., who
made him a knight. In 1636 he was made grand pensionary of
Holland, and in 1648 keeper of the great seal; in 1651 he
resigned his offices, but in 1657 he was sent a second time to
England on what proved to be an unsuccessful mission to Crom-
well. In the seclusion of his villa of Sorgvliet (Fly-from-Care),
near the Hague, he lived from this time till his death, occupied in
the composition of his autobiography (Eighty-two Years of My
Life j first printed at Leiden in 1734) and of his poems. He died
on the 1 2th of September 1660, and was buried by torchlight,
and with great ceremony, in the Klooster-Kerk at the Hague.
He'is still spoken of as " Father Cats " by his countrymen.
Cats was contemporary with Hooft and Vondel and other
distinguished Dutch writers in the golden age of Dutch literature,
but his Orangist and Calvinistic opinions separated him from
the liberal school of Amsterdam poets. He was, however,
intimate with Constantin Huygens, whose political opinions
were more nearly in agreement with his own. For an estimate
of his poetry see Dutch Literature. Hardly known outside
of Holland, among his own people for nearly two centuries he
enjoyed an enormous popularity. His diffuseness and the
antiquated character of his matter and diction, have, however,
come to be regarded as difficulties in the way of study, and he
is more renowned than read. A statue to him was erected at
Brouwershaven in 1829.
See Jacob Cats, Complete Works (1 790-1 800, 19 vols.), later
editions by van Vloten (Zwolle, 1858-1866; and at Schiedam,
1 869-1 870); Pigott, Moral Emblems, with Aphorisms, &c, from
Jacob Cats (i860); and P. C. Witsen Gejisbek, Het Leven en de
Verdienstetfyan Jacob Cats ( 1 829) . Southey has a very complimentary
reference to Cats in his " Epistle to Allan Cunningham.
CATS-EYE, a name given to several distinct minerals, their
common characteristic being that when cut with a convex surface
they display a luminous band, like that seen by reflection in the eye
of a cat. (1) Precious cat's-eye, oriental cat's-eye or chrysoberyl
cat's-eye. This, the rarest of all, is a chatoyant variety of chryso-
beryl (q.v.), showing in the finest stones a very sharply defined
line of light. One of the grandest known specimens was in the
Hope collection of precious stones, exhibited for many years at
the Victoria and Albert Museum. (2) Quartz cat's-eye. This
is the common form of cat's-eye, in which the effect is due to the
inclusion of parallel fibres of asbestos. Like the chrysoberyl, it
is obtained chiefly from Ceylon, but though coming from the
East it is often called "occidental cat's-eye" — a term intended
simply to distinguish it from the finer or " oriental " stone. It
is readily distinguished by its inferior density, its specific gravity
being only 2-65, whilst that of oriental cat's-eye is as high as 3-7.
A greenish fibrous quartz, cut as cat's-eye, occurs at Hof and some
other localities in Bavaria. (3) Crocidolite cat's-eye, a beautiful
golden brown mineral, with silky fibres, found in Griqualand
West, and much used in recent years as an ornamental stone,
sometimes under the name of " South African cat's-eye."
It consists of fibrous quartz, coloured with oxide of iron, and
results from the alteration of crocidolite (q.v.). It is often
distinguished as" tiger's-eye "(or more commonly" tiger-eye "),
whilst a blue variety, less altered, is known as " hawk's-eye."
By the action of hydrochloric acid the colour of tiger's-eye may
to a large extent be removed, and a greyish cat's-eye obtained.
(4) Corundum cat's-eye. In some asteriated corundum (see
Asteria) the star is imperfect and may be reduced to a luminous
zone, producing an indistinct cat's-eye effect. According to the
colour of the corundum the stone is known as sapphire cat's-eye,
ruby cat's-eye, topaz cat's-eye, &c. (F. W. R.*)
CATSKILL, a village and the county-seat of Greene county,
New York, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, 33 m.
S. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 4920; (1900) 5484; of whom 657
were foreign-born; (19 10) 5296. It is served by the West
Shore railway, by several lines of river steamboats, and by
the Catskill Mountain railway, connecting it with the popular
summer resorts in the Catskill mountains. A ferry connects
with Catskill station (Green dale) on the east side of the Hudson.
The village is in a farming country, and manufactures woollen
goods and bricks, but it is best known as a summer resort, and
as the principal gateway to the beautiful Catskill Mountain region.
The Recorder, a weekly newspaper, was established here in 1792
as the Packet. The first settler on the present site of Catskill
was Derrick Teunis van Vechten, who built a house here in 1680.
The vi'lage was not incorporated until 1806.
See J. D. Pinckney, Reminiscences of Catskill (Catskill, 1868).
CATSKILL (formerly Kaatskil) MOUNTAINS, a group of
moderate elevation pertaining to the Alleghany Plateau, and not
properly included in the Appalachian system of North America
because they lack the internal structures and the general parallel-
ism of topographic features which characterize the Appalachian
ranges. The group contains many summits above 3000 ft.
elevation and half a dozen approaching 4000, Slide Mountain
(4205 ft.), and Hunter Mountain (4025 ft.), being the only ones
exceeding that figure. The bottom lands along the creeks
which drain the mountains, together with rolling uplands rising
to elevations of from 1500 to 2000 ft., are under cultivation, the
mountain slopes being forested or devoted to grazing. The pure
and cool atmosphere attracts summer visitors, for whose accom-
modation many hotels have been built, some of which have
become celebrated. Stoney Clove and Kaaterskill Clove are pic-
turesque gorges, the former being traversed by a railway, and the
latter containing three cascades having a total fall of about 300 ft.
The growing need of New York City for an increased water-
supply has driven her engineers to the Catskills, where several
great reservoirs have been projected to supplement those of the
Croton watershed.
CATTANEO, CARLO (1801-1869), Italian philosopher and
patriot. A repubHcan in his convictions, during his youth he
had taken part in the Carbonarist movement in Lombardy.
He devoted himself to the study of philosophy, hoping to re-
generate the Italian people by withdrawing them from romanticism
and rhetoric, and turning their attention to the positive sciences.
He expounded his ideas in a review founded by him at Milan
in 1837, called 77 Politecnico. But when the revolution of 1848
broke out he threw himself heart and soul into the fray, and
became one of the leading spirits of the insurrection against the
Austrians, known as the Five Days of Milan (March 18-22, 1848).
Together with Terzaghi, Cernuschi and Clerici he formed a
538
CATTARO— CATTERMOLE
council of war which, having its headquarters at Casa Taverna,
directed the operations of the insurgents. He was second to none
in self-sacrificing energy and heroic resolution. When on the
1 8th of March Field Marshal Radetzky, feeling that the position
of the Austrian garrison was untenable, sounded the rebels as
to their terms, some of the leaders were inclined to agree to an
armistice which would give time for the Piedmontese troops to
arrive (Piedmont had just declared war), but Cattaneo insisted
on the complete evacuation of Lombardy. Again on the 21st,
Radetzky tried to obtain an armistice, and Durini and Borromeo
were ready to grant it, for it would have enabled them to re-
organize the defences and replenish the supplies of food and
ammunition, which could only last another day. But Cattaneo
replied: "The enemy having furnished us with munitions thus
far, will continue to furnish them. Twenty-four hours of
victuals and twenty-four hours of hunger will be many more
hours than we shall need. This evening, if the plans we have
just arranged should succeed, the line of the bastions will be
broken. At any rate, even though we should lack bread, it is
better to die of hunger than on the gallows." On the expulsion
of the Austrians the question arose as to the future government of
Milan and Italy. Cattaneo was an uncompromising republican
and a federalist; so violent was his dislike of the Piedmontese
monarchy that when he heard that King Charles Albert had been
defeated by the Austrians, and that Radetzky was marching
back to reoccupy Milan, he exclaimed: " Good news, the Pied-
montese have been beaten. Now we shall be our own masters;
we shall fight a people's war, we shall chase the Austrians out
of Italy, and set up a Federal Republic." When the Austrians
returned Cattaneo had to flee, and took refuge at Lugano, where
he gave lessons, wrote his Storia delta Rivoluzione del 1848, the
Arckivio triennale delle cose d' Italia (3 vols., 1850-1855), and
then early in i860 he started the PolUecnico once more. He
bitterly attacked Cavour for his unitarian views, and for the
cession of Nice and Savoy. In i860 Garibaldi summoned him
to Naples to take part in the government of the Neapolitan
provinces, but he would not agree to the union with Piedmont
without local autonomy. After the union of Italy he was
frequently asked to stand for parliament, but always refused
because he could not conscientiously take the oath of allegiance
to the monarchy. In 1868 the pressure of friends overcame
his resistance, and he agreed to stand, but at the last moment
he drew back, still unable to take the oath, and returned to
Lugano, where he died in 1 869. As a writer Cattaneo was learned
and brilliant, but far too bitter a partisan to be judicious, owing
to his narrowly republican views; his ideas on local autonomy
were perhaps wise, but, at a moment when unity was the first
essential, inopportune.
Bibliography. — A. and J. Mario, Carlo Cattaneo (Florence,
1884); E* Zanoni, Carlo Cattaneo nella vita e nelle opere (Rome,
1898); see also his own Opere edite ed inedite (7 vols., Florence,
1 881-1892), Scritti politici ed efistolari (3 vols., Florence, 1892-
1901), Scrttti storici, leUerari (Milan, 1898, &c.).
CATTARO (Serbo-Croatian Kotor), the chief town of an
administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1000) of
town, 3021; of commune, 5418. Cattaro occupies a narrow
ledge between the Montenegrin Mountains and the Bocche di
Cattaro, a winding and beautiful inlet of the Adriatic Sea. This
inlet expands into five broad gulfs, united by narrower channels,
and forms one of the finest natural harbours in Europe. Teodo,
on the outermost gulf, is a small naval port. Cattaro is strongly
fortified, and about 3000 troops are stationed in its neighbourhood.
On the seaward side, the defensive works include Castelnuovo
(Erceg Novi), which guards the main entrance to the Bocche.
On the landward side, the long walls running from the town
to the castle of San Giovanni, far above, form a striking feature
in the landscape; and the heights of the Krivoscie or Crevoscia
(KrivoHje), a group of barren mountains between Montenegro,
Herzegovina and the sea, are crowned by small forts. Cattaro
is divided almost equally between the Roman Catholic and
Orthodox creeds. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
with a small cathedral, a collegiate church and several convents.
The transit trade with Montenegro is impeded by high tariffs
on both sides of the frontier. Foreign visitors to Montenegro
usually land at Cattaro, which is connected by steamer with
Trieste and by road with Cettigne. The railway from Ragusa
terminates at Zelenika, near Castelnuovo.
There are many interesting places on the shores of the Bocche.
Castelnuovo is a picturesque town, with a dismantled 14th-
century citadel, which has, at various times, been occupied
by Bosnians, Turks, Venetians, Spaniards, Russians, French,
English and Austrians. The orthodox convent of St Sava,
standing amid beautiful gardens, was founded in the 16th cen-
tury, and contains many fine specimens of 17th-century silver-
smiths' work. There is a Benedictine monastery on a small
island opposite to Perasto (Perast), 8 m. east of Castelnuovo.
Perasto itself was for a time an independent state in the 14th
century. Rhizon, the modern hamlet of Risano, close by, was
a thriving " Illyrian " city as early as 229 B.C., and gave its
name to the Bocche, then known as Rhizonicus Sinus. Rhizon
submitted to Rome in 168 B.C., and about the same time
Ascrivium, or Ascruvium, the modern Cattaro, is first mentioned
as a neighbouring city. Justinian built a fortress above Ascrivium
in a.d. 535, after expelling the Goths, and a second town probably
grew up on the heights round it, for Constantine Porphyro.
genitus, in the 10th century, alludes to " Lower Cattaro " (t6
k6.tu AeK&repa). The city was plundered by the Saracens in
840, and by the Bulgarians in 1102. In the next year it was
ceded to Servia by the Bulgarian tsar Samuel, but revolted, in
alliance with Ragusa, and only submitted in 1184, as a protected
state, preserving intact its republican institutions, and its right
to conclude treaties and engage in war. It was already an epis-
copal see, and, in the 13th century, Dominican and Franciscan
monasteries were established to check the spread of Bogomilism.
In the 14th century the commerce of Cattaro rivalled that of
Ragusa, and provoked the jealousy of Venice. The downfall of
Servia in 1389 left the city without a guardian, and, after being
seized and abandoned by Venice and Hungary in turn, it passed
under Venetian rule in 1420. It was besieged by the Turks 10
1 538 and 1657, visited by plague in 1572, and nearly destroyed by
earthquakes in 1 563 and 1667. By the treaty of Campo-Formio
in 1797 it passed to Austria; but in 1805, by the treaty of
Pressburg, it was assigned to Italy, and was united in 1810
with the French empire. In 18 14 it was restored to Austria by
the congress of Vienna. The attempt to enforce compulsory
military service, made and abandoned in 1869, hut finally
successful in 1881, led to two short-lived revolts among the
Krivoscians, during which Cattaro was the Austrian head-
quarters.
See G. Gelcich (GelS£), Memorie storiche suite Bocche di Cattaro
(Zara, 1880).
CATTEGAT, or Kattegat (Scand. " cat's-throat "), a strait
forming part of the connexion between the Baltic and the North
Seas. It lies north and south between Sweden and Denmark,
and connects north with the Skagerrack and south through the
Sound, the Great Belt and the Little Belt with the Baltic Sea. Its
length is about 1 50 m. and its extreme breadth about 90 m.
CATTERMOLE, GEORGE (1800-1868), English painter,
chiefly in water-colours, was born at Dickleburgh, near Diss,
Norfolk, in August 1800. At the age of sixteen he began working
as an architectural and topographical draughtsman; afterwards
he contributed designs to be engraved in the annuals then so
popular; thence he progressed into water-colour painting,
becoming an associate of the Water- Colour Society in 1822, and a
full member in 1833. In 1850 he withdrew from active connexion
with this society, and took to painting in oil. His most fertile
period was between 1833 and 1850. At the Paris exhibition of
1855 he received one of the five first- class gold medals awarded
to British painters. He also enjoyed professional honours in
Amsterdam and in Belgium. He died on the 24th of July 1868.
Among his leading works are " The Murder of the Bishop of
Liege " (15th century), " The Armourer relating the Story of
the Sword," " The Assassination of the Regent Murray by
Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh," and (in oil) "A Terrible Secret."
CATTLE
539
He was largely employed by publishers, illustrating the Waverley
Navels and the Historical Annual of his brother the Rev. Richard
Cattermole (his scenes from the wars of Cavaliers and Roundheads
in this series are among his best engraved works), and many
other volumes besides. Cattermole was a painter of no incon-
siderable gifts, and of great facility in picturesque resource;
he was defective in solidity of form and texture, and in realism
or richness of colour. He excelled in rendering scenes of chivalry,
of medievalism, and generally of the romantic aspects of the past.
CATTLE (Norman Fr. catcl, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth
or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable
property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider
meaning as " chattel " or " chattle "), a general term for the cows
and oxen of agricultural use. For the zoological account, see
Bovtoae, and the subordinate articles there referred to; for
details concerning dairy-farming, see Dairy.
Oxen appear to have been among the earliest of domesticated
animals, as they undoubtedly were among the most important
agents in the growth of early civilization. They are mentioned
in the oldest written records of the Hebrew and Hindu peoples,
and are figured on Egyptian monuments raised over 3000 years
B.c; while remains of domesticated specimens have been found
in Swiss lake-dwellings along with the stone implements and other
relics of Neolithic man. In infant communities a man's wealth
was measured by the number and size of his herds — Abraham,
it is said, was rich in cattle — and oxen for a long period formed,
as they still do among many savage or semi-savage tribes, the
favourite medium of exchange between individuals and com-
munities. After the introduction of a metal coinage into ancient
Greece, this method of exchange was commemorated by stamping
the image of an ox on the new money; while the connexion be-
tween cattle and coin as symbols of wealth has left its mark on
the languages of Europe, as is seen in the Latin word pecunia
and the English " pecuniary," derived from pecus, cattle. The
value attached to cattle in ancient times is further shown by
the Bull figuring among the signs of the zodiac; in its worship
by the ancient Egyptians under the title of Apis; in the venera-
tion which has always been paid to it by the Hindus, according
to whose sacred legends it was the first animal created by the
three divinities directed by the supreme Deity to furnish the
earth with animated beings; and in the important part it played
in Greek and Roman mythology. The Hindus were not allowed
to shed the blood of the ox, and the Egyptians could only do so
in sacrificing to their gods. Both Hindus and Jews were for-
bidden to muzzle it when treading out the corn; to destroy it
wantonly was a crime among the Romans, punishable with exile.
Breeds. — There exist in Britain four interesting remnants of
what were at one time numerous enclosed herds of ancient
forest cattle, 1 with black or red points, in parks at Chillingham,
Cadzow, Vaynol (near Bangor, North Wales) and Chartley.
A few of the last have been removed to Woburn. Other repre-
sentatives of old stock are — a resuscitated white Welsh breed
with black points, derived from white specimens born of black
Welsh cows; several herds of a white polled breed with black
points; a herd of the ancient Polled Suffolk Dun, an excellent
milking breed; a White Belted Galloway and a White Belted
Welsh breed; the old Gloucester breed at Badminton, with a
white rump, tail and underline, related to the now extinct
Glamorgan breed; the Shetland breed; and a few herds of
Dutch cattle preserved for their superior milking powers.
The prominent breeds of cattle in the British Isles * comprise
the Shorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon,
South Devon, Sussex, Welsh, Longhorn, Red Polled, Aberdeen-
Angus, Galloway, West Highland, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey,
Kerry and Dexter.
The Shorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon,
South Devon, Sussex, Longhorn and Red Polled breeds are
native to England; the Aberdeen- Angus, Galloway, Highland
1 Rev. T. Storer, The Wild White Cattle of Great Britain (1879).
• See Wallace's Farm Live Stock of Great Britain (1907), Low's
Breeds of the Domestic A nimals of the British Isles ( 1 842, illustrated, and
1845), and E. V. Wilcox's Farm Animals (1907), an American work.
and Ayrshire breeds to Scotland; and the Kerry and Dexter
breeds to Ireland. The Jersey and Guernsey breeds — often
spoken of as Channel Islands cattle — belong to the respective
islands whose names they bear, and great care is taken to keep
them isolated from each other. The term Alderney is obsolete,
the cattle of Alderney being mainly a type of the Guernsey breed.
Among breeds well known in the United States 9 and not
mentioned above, the more important are the Holsteins, large
black and white cattle highly valued for their abundant milk
production, and the Dutch Belted breed, black with a broad
white band round the body, also good milkers.
The Shorthorn 9 is the most widely distributed of all the breeds
of cattle both at home and abroad. No census of breeds has ever
been taken in the United Kingdom, but such an enumeration
would show the Shorthorn far to exceed in numbers any other
breed, whilst the great majority of cross-bred cattle contain
Shorthorn blood. During the last quarter of the 18th century,
the brothers Charles Colling (1751-1836) and Robert Colling
(1740-1820), by careful selection and breeding, improved the
cattle of the Teeswater district in the county of Durham. If the
Shorthorn did not originate thus, it is indisputable that the efforts
of the Collings 4 had a profound influence upon the fortunes of
the breed. It is still termed the Durham breed in most parts of
the world except the land of its birth, and the geographical
name is far preferable, for the term " shorthorn " is applicable
to a number of other breeds. Other skilled breeders turned their
attention to the Shorthorns and established famous strains,
the descendants of which can still be traced. By Thomas Booth,
of Killerby and Warlaby in Yorkshire (1777), the " Booth "
strains of Shorthorns were originated; by Thomas Bates, of
Kirklevington in Yorkshire, the " Bates " families 5 (1800).
The Shorthorn is sometimes spoken of as the ubiquitous
breed, its striking characteristic being the ease with which it
adapts itself to varying conditions of soil, climate and manage-
ment. It is also called the " red, white and roan." The roan
colour is very popular, and dark red has its supporters, as in the
case of the Lincolnshire Red Shorthorns) white is not in favour,
especially abroad. The Shorthorn breed is more noted for its
beef-making than for its milk-yielding properties, although
the non-pedigree milking Shorthorn of the north of England is
an excellent cow with dual-purpose qualifications of the first
order. An effort is being made to restore milking qualities to
certain strains of pedigree blood.
The culmination of what may be termed the Booth and Bates
period was in the year 1875, when the sales took place of Lord
Dunmore's and William Torr's herds, which realized extraordinary
prices. In that black year of farming, 1879, prices were declining,
and they continued to do so till within the last few years of the
close of the 19th century, when there set in a gradual revival,
stimulated largely by the commercial prosperity of the country.
The result of extremely high prices when line-bred animals
were in fashion was a tendency to breed from all kinds of animals
that were of the same tribe, without selection. A deterioration set
in, which was aggravated by the overlooking of the milking prop-
erties. Shorthorn breeders came to see that change of blood was
necessary. Meanwhile, for many years breeders in Aberdeenshire
had been holding annual sales of young bulls and heifers from
their herds. The late Amos Cruickshank began his annual
sales in the 'forties, and the late W. T. Talbot- Crosbie had annual
sales from his Shorthorn herd in the south-west of Ireland for a
number of years. Many Aberdeen farmers emigrated to Canada,
and bought Shorthorn calves in their native county to take with
them. The Cruickshanks held their bull sales at that time,
and many of their animals were bought by the small breeders
in Canada. This continued until 1875, when the Cruickshanks
had so much private demand that they discontinued their public
sales. Subsequently, when Cruickshank sold his herd privately
* Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1822). Sec.
E. J. Powell, 12 Hanover Square, London, W.
4 C. J. Bates, " The Brothers Colling," Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1899).
8 C. J. Bates, Thomas Bates and the Kirklevington Shorthorns: a
Contribution to the History of Pure Durham Cattle (Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, 1897).
54°
CATTLE
to James Nelson & Sons for exportation, the animals could not
all be shipped, and W. Duthie, of Collynie, Aberdeenshire, bought
some of the older cows, whilst J. Deane Willis, of Bapton Monar,
Wilts, bought the yearling heifers. Duthie thereupon resumed
the sales that the Cruickshanks had relinquished, his averages
being £30 in 1892, about £50 in 1893-1894, and £80 in 1895.
These prices advanced through English breeders requiring a
little change of blood, and also through the increasing tendency
to exhibit animals of great substance, or rather to feed animals
for show. The success of this movement strengthened the
demand, whilst an inquiry for his line of blood arose in the
United States and Canada. A faithful contemporary history of
the Shorthorn breed is to be found in Thornton's Circular,
published quarterly since 1868; see also J. Sinclair, History of
Shorthorn Cattle (1907); R. Bruce, Fifty Years among Shorthorns
(1907); A. H. Sanders, Shorthorn Cattle (Chicago, 1901).
The Lincolnshire Red Shorthorns are the best dual-purpose
cattle-r-for milk and meat — that possess a pedigree record, in
the United Kingdom, and their uniform cherry red colour has
brought them into high favour in tropical countries for crossing
with the native breeds.
The Hereford breed is maintained chiefly in Herefordshire
and the adjoining counties. Whilst a full red is the general
colour of the body, the Herefords are distinguished by their
white face, white chest and abdomen, and white mane. The legs
up to the knee or hock are also often white. As a protection
against the sun in a hot climate dark spots on the eyelids or
round the orbits are valuable. The horns are moderately long.
Herefords, though they rear their own calves, have acquired but
little fame as dairy cattle. They are very hardy, and produce
beef of excellent quality. Being docile, they fatten easily and
readily, and as graziers' beasts they are in high favour.
When the Bates' Shorthorn bubble burst in America about
1877, the Hereford gradually replaced the Shorthorn of the
western ranches, and it is now the most numerous ranch animal
in the United States and Canada. The bulls beat the bulls of
all other breeds in " rustling " capacity.
In America the ranch-bred Herefords have got too small
in the bone in recent years, and Shorthorns, chiefly of the Scottish
type, are being introduced to increase their size by crossing.
In the " feed lot " a well-bred Hereford steer feeds more quickly
than either a Shorthorn or an Aberdeen-Angus.
In Queensland, Hereford cattle bred from the " Lord Wilton "
strain by Robert Christison of Lammermoor have for years been
triumphant as beef-producers in competition with the Shorthorn.
When these are quartered in the ordinary butchers' fashion, the
hind-quarters outweigh the fore-quarters, which is a reversal
of the prevailing rule.
North Devons. — The " Rubies of the West," as they are termed
from their hue, are reared chiefly in Devon and Somerset.
The colour is a whole red, its depth or richness varying with the
individual, and in summer becoming mottled with darker spots.
The Devons stand somewhat low; they are neat and compact,
and possess admirable symmetry. Although a smaller breed than
the Shorthorn or the Hereford, they weigh better than either.
The horns of the female are somewhat slender, and often curve
neatly upwards. Being fine-limbed, active animals, they are
well adapted for grazing the poor pastures of their native hills,
and they turn their food to the best account, yielding excellent
beef. They have not yet attained much celebrity as milch kine,
for, though their milk is of first-class quality, with a few notable
exceptions, its quantity is small. Latterly, however, the milking
qualities have received more attention from breeders, whose
object is to qualify the Devon as a dual-purpose breed.
The South Devon or South Hams cattle are almost restricted
to that southern part of the county of Devon known as the Hams,
whence they are also called " Hammers." With a somewhat
ungainly head, lemon-yellow hair, yellow skin, and large but
hardly handsome udder, the South Devon breed more resembles
the Guernsey, with which it is supposed to be connected, than
the trim-built cattle of the hills of North Devon. The cows
are large, heavy milkers, and produce excellent butter. They
are rarely seen outside their locality except when they appear
in the showyards.
The Sussex breed resembles the North Devon in many respects,
but it is bigger, less refined in appearance, less graceful in outline,
and of a deeper brown-chestnut colour than the " dainty Devon,"
as the latter may well be called when compared with them.
As a hardy race, capable of thriving on poor rough pastures,
the Sussex are highly valued in their native districts, where they
were rapidly improved before the end of the 19th century. They
are essentially a beef-producing breed, the cows having little
reputation as milkers. By stall-feeding they can be ripened
for the butcher at an early age. Sussex cattle are said to "die
well," that is, to yield a large proportion of meat in the best
parts of the carcase.
In the Welsh breed of cattle black is the prevailing colour,
and the horns are fairly long. They do not mature very rapidly,
but some of them grow eventually into great ponderous beasts,
and their beef is of prime quality. The cows often possess
considerable reputation as milkers. As graziers' beasts Welsh
cattle are well known in the midland counties of England, where,
under the name of " Welsh runts," large herds of bullocks are
fattened on the pastures or " topped up " in the yards in winter.
All the remaining strains of Welsh cattle were recognized as one
breed in 1904, when the Welsh Black Cattle Society united into
one register the Herd Books of North and South Wales.
The Longhorn or " Dishley " breed of cattle is one of the most
interesting historically. It was with Longhorns that Robert
Bake well, of Dishley, Leicestershire (17 26-1 795), showed his
remarkable skill as an improver of cattle in the middle of the
18th century. 1 At one period Longhorns spread widely over
England and Ireland, but, as the Shorthorns extended their
domain, the Longhorns made way for them. They are big,
rather clumsy animals, with long drooping horns, which are
very objectionable in these days of cattle transport by rail and
sea. They are slow in coming to maturity, but are very hardy.
The bullocks feed up to heavy weights, and the cows are fair
milkers. No lover of cattle can view these quaint creatures
without a feeling of satisfaction that the efforts made to resusci-
tate a breed which has many useful qualities to commend it
have been successful, and that the extinction which threatened
it in the 'eighties of last century is no longer imminent. In 1907
there were twenty-two Longhorn herds containing about four
hundred registered cattle located mainly in the English midlands
and Man.
The Red Poll breed, though old, has only come into promi-
nence within recent years. They were known as the East Anglian
Polls, and later as the Norfolk and Suffolk Polled cattle, being
confined chiefly to these two counties. They are symmetrically
built, of medium size, and of uniformly red colour. They have
a tuft of hair on the poll. As dairy cattle, they are noted for the
length of the period during which they continue in milk. Not
less are they valued as beef-producers, and, as they are hardy
and docile, they fatten readily and mature fairly early. Hence,
like the Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, they may claim to be a
dual-purpose breed. As beef cattle they are always seen to
advantage at the Norwich Christmas cattle show, held annually
in November.
The Aberdeen- Angus, a polled, black breed, the cows of which
are often termed " Doddies," belongs to Aberdeenshire and
adjacent parts of Scotland, but many herds are maintained in
England and some in Ireland. The steers and heifers fed for
the butcher attain great weight, make first-class show beasts,
and yield beef of excellent quality. The cross between the Short-
horn and the Aberdeen- Angus is a favourite in the meat markets
and at fat-stock competitions.
The Galloways are named from the district, Kirkcudbright and
Wigtonshire, in the south-west of Scotland, to which they are
native. Like the Aberdeen-Angus cattle, they are hornless, and
normally of a black colour. But, with a thicker hide and shaggy
hair, suited to a wet climate, they have a coarser appearance than
the Aberdeen-Angus, the product of a less humid region, though
1 Housman, " Robert Bakewell," Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1894).
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it approaches the latter in size. Galloways yield superior beef,
but mature less rapidly than the Aberdeen- Angus. They make
admirable beasts for the grazier, and the cross between the Gallo-
way and the white Shorthorn bull, known as a " Blue Grey,"
is much sought after by the grazier and the butcher.
The West Highland or Kyloe breed are perhaps the most
hardy and picturesque of British cattle. Their home is amidst
the wild romantic scenery of the Highlands and the Western
Isles of Scotland, though Highland bullocks with long, spreading
curved horns may be seen in English parks. They have not
made much progress towards early maturity, but their slowly
ripened beef is of the choicest quality. The colour of their thick
shaggy hair varies from white and light dun to tawny yellow of
many shades, and black.
The Ayrshires are the dairy breed of Scotland, where they have
considerably overstepped the limits of the humid western county
whence they take their name. They are usually of a white and
brown colour, the patches being well defined. The neat, shapely,
upstanding horns are characteristic. The Ayrshires are under
medium size and move gracefully, and the females display the
wedge-shape typical of dairy cows. They are a hardy breed,
and, even from poor pastures, give good yields of milk, especially
useful for cheese-making purposes. The milking powers of the
breed are being improved under a system of milk-testing and
records supported by the Highland and Agricultural Society.
The Jerseys are graceful, deer-like cattle, whose home is in the
island of Jersey, where, by means of stringent regulations
against the importation of cattle, the breed has been kept pure
for many generations. As its milk is especially rich in fat (so
rich that it requires to be diluted with a little water before it
can be safely fed to calves), the Jersey has attained a wide
reputation as a butter-producing breed. It is a great favourite
in England, where many pure-bred herds exist. The colours
most preferred are " whole " fawns of many shades. The light
silver-grey, which was in high repute in England in the early
'seventies of the 19th century, is out of favour. Browns and
brindles are rarely seen. The grey zone surrounding the black
muzzle gives the appearance designated " mealy-mouthed." The
horns are short, and generally artificially curved inwards; the
bones are fine. The best milch cows have a yellowish circle
round the eye, and the skin at the extremity of the tail is of a
deep yellow, almost orange colour. The cows are gentle and
docile when reared in close contact with human beings, but the
bulls, despite their small size, are often fierce.
Guernsey cattle are native to the islands of Guernsey, Alderney,
Sark and Herm. They are kept pure by importation restrictions.
Herds of pure-bred Guernseys also exist in the Isle of Wight and
in various counties of England and Scotland. They have not the
refined and elegant appearance of the Jerseys, which, however,
they exceed in size. They are usually of a rich yellowish-brown
colour, patched with white, in some cases their colour almost
meriting the appellation of " orange and lemon." The yellow
colour inside the ears is a point always looked for by judges.
The cows, large-bellied and narrow in front, are truly wedge-
shaped, the greatly developed udder adding to the expanse of
the hinder part of the body. They yield an abundance of milk,
rich in fat, and are excellent butter-producers. The horns are
yellow at the base, curved, and not coarse. The nose is flesh-
coloured and free from black markings.
The Canadian breed, black with a narrow brown stripe down
the back and a light ring round the muzzle, are descended from
old Brittany cattle imported into Canada by French settlers
three hundred years ago, and are in consequence related to the
Channel Islands cattle. They are remarkably hardy and good
milkers, and it is claimed they produce butter fat at 2 c. a lb
less cost than any other breed.
The Kerry is a breed of small black cattle belonging to the
south-west of Ireland, whence they have spread into many parts,
not only of their native land, but of England as well. Although
they are able to subsist on the toughest and scantiest of fare,
and are exceedingly hardy, the cows are, nevertheless, excellent
milkers, and have acquired celebrity as a dairy breed. The
colour is black, but the cows sometimes have a little white on the
udder. The horns are white, with black tips, and are turned
upwards. The Kerry is active and graceful, long and lithe in
body, and light-limbed. On the rich pastures of England it has
increased considerably in size.
The Dexter breed is reputed to take its name from one Dexter,
agent of Maude, Lord Hawarden, who is credited with having
established it by selection and breeding from the best mountain
types of the Keny. Until recently it was called the Dexter-
Kerry. It is smaller and more compact than the Kerry, shorter
in the leg, and intoed before and behind. Whilst valuable as
a beef-making animal, it is equally noted for its milk-producing
capacity. Black is the usual colour, but red is also recognized,
with, in either case, a little white. When of a red colour, the
appearance of the animal has been aptly compared to that of
a grand Shorthorn viewed through the wrong end of a telescope.
The Keny and the Dexter are readily distinguishable. The
Kerry has a gay, light, deer-like head and horn, light limbs and
thin skin. The Dexter has coarser limbs, a square body, flat
back, thick shoulder, short neck, and head and horn set on low.
A herd of Dexter-Shorthorns was founded by Major Barton at
Straff an, Ireland, in i860, in which prominent characteristics
of the two breeds have been permanently blended so that they
breed true to type.
As milk-producers, and therefore as dairy cattle, certain strains
of the Shorthorn (registered as well as non-pedigree), the
Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, South Devon, Longhorn, Red Polled,
Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Kerry and Dexter breeds have
acquired eminence. Such breeds as the Shorthorn, Lincolnshire
Red Shorthorn, South Devon, Welsh, Red Polled and Dexter
are claimed as useful beef-makers as well as milk-producers,
and are classified as dual-purpose animals. The others belong
to the beef-producers. As regards colour, red is characteristic
of the Lincolnshire Shorthorn, the Hereford, Devon, Sussex
and Red Polled. Black is the dominating colour of the Welsh,
Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Kerry and Dexter. A yellowish hue
is seen in the West Highland, Guernsey and South Devon breeds.
Various shades of fawn colour are usual in Jersey cattle and also
appear among v Highlanders. The Herefords, though with red
bodies, have white faces, manes, and dewlaps, whilst white
prevails to a greater or less extent in the Shorthorn, Longhorn
and Ayrshire breeds. The Shorthorn breed is exceedingly
variable in colour; pure-bred specimens may be red, or white,
or roan, or may be marked with two or more of these colours,
the roan resulting from a blending of the white and red. Black
is not seen in a pure-bred Shorthorn. The biggest and heaviest
cattle come from the beef-making breeds, and are often cross-bred.
Very large or heavy beasts, if pure-bred, usually belong to one
or other of the Shorthorn, Hereford, Sussex, Welsh, West High-
land, Aberdeen-Angus and Galloway breeds. The Devon,
Red Polled and Guernsey are medium-sized cattle; the Ayrshires
are smaller, although relatively the bullocks grow larger than
bulls or cows. The Jerseys are small, graceful cattle, but the
smaller type of Kerries, the Dexters and the Shetlanders furnish
the smallest cattle of the British Isles.
See generally the Herd Books of the various breed societies.
(W. Fr.; R. W.)
Rearing and Feeding} — A calf at birth scales from one-twelfth
to one-fourteenth the weight of the dam. A sucking calf of one
of the large breeds should gain 3 lb per day for the first month,
2-s lb for the second, and 2 lb during the later calf period.
Colostrum, or first-day milk after calving, contains more than
five times the albuminoid compounds found in average cows'
milk. In the course of three or four days it gradually becomes
normal in composition, although the peculiar flavour remains
a few days longer. Nature has specially prepared it for the young
1 See E. Wolff, Farm Foods, by H. H. Cousins (189S) ; A. D. Hall,
Rothamsted Experiments (1905); R. Warineton, Chemistry of the
Farm (15th ed., 1902); W. A. Henry, Feeds and Feeding (1907);
H. W. Mumford, Beef Production (1907); H. P. Armsby, Animal
Nutrition (2nd ed., 1906); T. Shaw, Animal Breeding (1903); R-
Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain (4th ed., 1907).
542
CATULLUS
calf with extremely nourishing and also laxative properties,
and it is of practically no value for any other purpose. Normal
cows' milk has an albuminoid ratio slightly narrower than
i : 4-colostrum i : -71. [The ratio is arrived at by adding
to the percentage of milk-sugar, possessing about the food
equivalent of starch, the fat multiplied by 2*268, and dividing
by the total albuminoids — all digestible.]
Common nutrient ratios for older animals are stated in the follow-
ing table of food standards by Dr Emil Wolff : —
Food Consumed per Day.
Dry.
Digestible.
Live
Weight.
Organic
Matter.
Albu-
minoid.
Fats.
Carbo-
Hydrates.
Albuminoid
Ratio.
Calves, growing, 2 to 3 months
Young cattle „ 3 to 6 „
„ » 6 to 12 „
12 to 18
18 to 24
Oxen in complete rest . ...
„ fattening, ist period
„ „ 2nd period
3rd period . . .
Milch cows
lb
150
300
500
700
850
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
lb
3*3
70
12-0
16*8
20*4
27-5
27-0
26-0
250
24-0
lb
o-6
i-o
1-2
14
1-4
07
2-5
30
2-7
2-5
lb
030
030
0.30
0-28
0*26
015
0-50
0-70
o«6o
0-40
lb
2-1
4"i
6-8
91
103
8-o
150
14-8
14-8
125
lb
I : 47
1 :5
1 :6
1 :7
1 :8
1 : 12
1 :6 5
1 :5'5
1 :6
1 =5'4
Digestible albuminoid nitrogen is the scarcest and consequently
the costliest ingredient in food-stuffs, but, since the introduction of
vegetable proteid made by Mitchell's process from the castor bean,
an easy and inexpensive means of balancing cattle food ratios is
available. By this means the manurial value of the excrement is
increased. The calculations necessary in arriving at a ratio are
simplified by the employment of Jefters's calculator (Plainsboro,
N.J.).
There are three common methods of rearing calves. (1) The
calf sucks its mother or foster-mother. This is the natural method
and the best for the show-yard and for early fattening purposes;
but it is the most expensive, and the calves, if not handled,
grow up wild and dangerous. Store stock may be also raised by
putting two calves to one cow and weaning at three months old;
a second pair in turn yielding place to a single calf. (2) Full
milk from the cow at about oo° F. is given alone until the latter
part of the milk period; then the calf is trained to eat supple-
mentary foods to preserve the calf-fat after weaning. A large
calf at first receives daily three quarts of milk at three meals.
The amount is increased to 2 gallons by the end of the fourth
week, and to 2 J gallons at 3 months, when gradual weaning begins.
Linseed cake meal is specially suitable for such calves. (3) The
calf receives full milk from the mother for one to two weeks, or
better, for three to four weeks; then it is slowly transferred to
fortified separated milk or milk substitutes. Cod-liver oil, 2 oz.
daily, is a good substitute for butter fat. In America cotton-seed
oil, £ oz. to the quart of milk, or an equivalent of oleomargarine
heated to 1 io° F. and churned with separated milk, has produced
a live-weight-increase of 2 lb daily. Linseed simmered to a jelly
and added to separated milk gives good results. Moderate
amounts are easily digested. Oatmeal or maize meal containing
10 % of linseed meal does well, later, at less cost. Milk substitutes
and calf meals require close attention in preparation, and would
not fetch the prices they do if feeders possessed the technical
knowledge necessary to select and mix common foods. Ground
cake or linseed meal is, after a time, better given dry than cooked,
being then better masticated and not so liable to produce in-
digestion.
Grass or fine hay in racks is provided when the calf can chew
the cud. As cattle get older, live- weight-increase grows less.
Smithfield weights * show that a good bullock up to a year old
will increase 2 lb daily, a two-year-old if ft>, and a three-year-old
a little over ij ft).
Cattle feeding on a farm consume crude produce that is in-
convenient to market, and make farmyard manure; but there
is frequently no profit left. To secure the balance on the right
1 E. J. Powell, History of the Smithfield Club from 1798 to 1900
(1902).
side the inlaid price per live cwt. requires to be 5s. less than the
sale price — say 32s. per cwt. for lean cattle, and 37s. per cwt.
for the animal when sold fat and capable of producing 60%
of dressed beef. The ordinary animal yields only about 57 %. A
well-bred fattening bullock begins with 2 lb qf cake and meal
per day, increasing to 8 lb at the end of five months (6 lb on
an average), and receives $ cwt. of roots and 12 lb of straw;
at an average cost of about 4s. 3d. per imperial stone or 50s. per
cwt. of dressed carcase. Heifers feed faster than bullocks, and
age tells on the rate at which an
animal will mature: a three-year-
old will develop into prime beef
more quickly and easily than a
two-year-old. It is difficult to
produce " baby beef " at a profit,
and it can only be done with
picked animals of the best flesh-
producing breeds, which cannot be
bought at a price per cwt. below
the finished sale price, for animals
producing baby beef must from
start to finish (under two years
old) be at all times fit to go to
the fat market. It is true that
a very young animal can give a
better account of food than an older one, but this advantage
is counterbalanced by the tendency to grow rather than to
fatten. (See also Agriculture.)
In cold and stormy districts cattle thrive best in covered courts,
but in a mild climate they do equally well in open yards with
shelter-sheds. The more air they get the less liable they are to
tuberculosis — example Lincolnshire and the drier south-eastern
counties. The ideal method of house-feeding cattle is singly in
boxes 10 ft. square, where they are undisturbed, and where the
best manure is made because it is not washed by rain.
On the finest British grazing lands two lots of cattle are fed in
one season. The first is finished early in July, having, without
artificial feeding, laid on eight to nine stones of beef. The second
lot requires three or four pounds of undecorticated cotton cake
each towards the end of September and in October when grass
begins to fail. (R. W.)
CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?8 4 -54 B.C.), the greatest
lyric poet of Rome. As regards his names and the dates of his
birth and death, the most important external witness is that of
Jerome, in the continuation of the Eusebian Chronicle, under
the year 87 B.C., " Gaius Valerius Catullus, scriptor lyricus
Veronae nascitur," and under 57 B.C., " Catullus xxx. aetatis
anno Romae moritur." There is no controversy as to the gentile
name, Valerius. Suetonius, in his Life of Julius Caesar (ch. 73),
mentions the poet by the names " Valerium Catullum." Other
persons who had the cognomen Catullus belonged to the Valerian
gens, e.g. M. Valerius Catullus Messalinus, a delator in the reign
of Domitian, mentioned in the fourth satire of Juvenal (L 113) . —
11 Et cum mortifero prudens Veiento Catullo."
Inscriptions show, further, that Valerius was a common name
in the native province of Catullus, and belonged to other
inhabitants of Verona besides the poet and his family (Schwabe,
Quacstiones Cafullianae, p. 27). Scholars have been divided in
opinion as to whether his praenomen was Gaius or Quintus, and
in the best MSS. the volume is called simply Catulli Veronensis
liber. For Gaius we have the undoubted testimony, not only of
Jerome, which rests on the much earlier authority of Suetonius,
but also that of Apuleius. In support of Quintus a passage was
quoted from the Natural History of Pliny (xxxvii. 6, 81). But
the praenomen Q. is omitted in the best MSS., and in other
passages of the same author the poet is spoken of as " Catullus
Veronensis." The mistake may have arisen from confusion with
Q. Catulus, the colleague of Marius in the Cimbric War, himself
also the author of lyrical poems. Allusions in the poems show
that the date of his death given by Jerome (57 B.C.) is wrong,
and that Catullus survived the second consulship of Pompey
(55 B.C.) (cf. lv. 6, cxiii. 2), and was present in August of the
CATULLUS
543
following year at the prosecution of Vatinius by Licinius Calvus
(cf. liii.). The allusion in Hi. 3 —
" Per consulatum peierat Vatinius,"
does not prove that Catullus must have lived to see the consulship
bestowed on Vatinius in the end of 47 B.C. but only that Vatinius,
after being praetor in 55 B.C., was in the habit of boasting of the
certainty of his attaining the consulship, as Cleopatra was in
the habit of confirming her most solemn declarations by appealing
to her hope of one day administering justice in the Capitol (cf.
Haupt, " Quaestiones Catullianae," Opuscula, vol. i. 1875).
There is then nothing to prove that Catullus lived beyond the
month of August 54 B.C. Some of the poems (as xxxvii. and Hi.)
may have been written during his last illness. If he died in
54 B.C. or early in 53 B.C., Catullus must either have been born
later than 87 B.C., or have lived to a greater age than thirty.
Catullus is described by Ovid as " hedera iuvenalia cinctus
Tempora" (Amor, iii. 9. 61),-— a description somewhat more
suitable to a man who dies in his thirtieth year than to one who
dies three or four years later. Further, the age at which a man
dies is more likely to be accurately remembered than the
particular date either of his death or of his birth, and the common
practice of recording the age of the deceased in sepulchral
inscriptions must have rendered a mistake about this less likely
to occur. It seems, therefore, on the whole, most likely that
Jerome's words " xxx. aetatis anno " are correct, and that
Catullus was born in 84 B.C.
The statement that he was born at Verona is confirmed by
passages in Ovid and Martial. Pliny the elder, who was born at
Como, speaks of Catullus in the preface to his Natural History,
as his " countryman " (conterraneus), and the poet speaks of
Verona as his home, or at least his temporary residence, in more
than one place. His occasional residence in his native place is
further attested by the statement of Suetonius (Julius Caesar,
73), that "Julius Caesar accepted the poet's apology for his
scurrilous verses upon him, invited him to dine with him on the
same day, and continued his intimacy with his father as before. 1 '
As this incident could only have happened during the time that
Julius Caesar was pro-consul, the scene of it must have been in
the Cisalpine province, and at the house of the poet's father, in
or near Verona. The verses apologized for were those contained
in poems zxix. and lvii., the former of which must have been
written after Caesar's invasion of Britain, so that this interview
probably took place in the winter of 55-54 B.C. The fact that
his father was the host of the great pro-consul, and lived on terms
of intimacy with him, justifies the inference, that he was, in
wealth and rank, one of the principal men of the province. The
only other important statement concerning the poet's life which
rests on external authority is that of Apuleius, that the real name
of the Lesbia of the poems was Clodia. Another, which concerns
the reputation which he enjoyed after his death, is given in the
Life of AUicus by Cornelius Nepos (12. 4). It is to the effect that
he regarded Lucretius and Catullus as the two greatest poets
of his own time.
The poems of Catullus ccnsist of 116 pieces, varying in length
from 2 to 408 lines, the great mass of them being, however, short
pieces, written in lyric, iambic or elegiac metre. The arrange-
ment cannot be the poet's; it is neither chronological nor in
accordance with the character of the topics. The shorter poems,
lyric or iambic, are placed first, next the longer epithalamia,
(most being written in hexameters) amongst which the AUis
is inserted and then those written in the elegiac metre. But,
though no chronological order is observed, yet internal evidence
enables us to determine the occasions on which many of the
poems were written, and the order in which they followed one
another. They give a very vivid image of various phases of the
poet's life, and of the strong feelings with which persons and
things affected him. They throw much light also on the social
life of Rome and of the provincial towns of Italy in the years
preceding the outbreak of the second civil war. In this respect
they may be compared with the letters of Cicero.
The poems extend over a period of seven or eight years, from
61 or 62 till 54 B.C. Among the earliest are those which record
the various stages of the author's passion for Lesbia. It is in
connexion with this passion that he is generally mentioned, or
alluded to, by the later Roman poets, such as Propertius, Ovid,
Juvenal and Martial. Her real name, as we learn from Apuleius,
was Clodia. The admiration of Catullus for Sappho, the Lesbian
poetess, which is clearly indicated by the imitation of her language
in his fifty-first and sixty-second poems, affords an obvious
explanation of the Greek name which he gave to his Roman
mistress. Clodia was the notorious sister of Publius Clodius
Pulcher, and in the year 56 she charged M. Caelius Rufus, after
tiring of him, as she had of Catullus, with an attempt to poison
her. It was in defence of Rufus that Cicero described the spell
she exercised over young men, in language which might have
been applied to her previous relations with the youthful poet,
as well as those with the youthful orator and politician.
Poems concerning Lesbia occur among both the earliest and
the latest of those contained in the series. They record the
various stages of passion through which Catullus passed, from
absolute devotion and a secure sense of returned affection,
through the various conditions of distrust and jealousy, attempts
at renunciation, and short-lived " axnoris integrationes," through
the " odi et amo " state, and the later state of savage indignation
against both Lesbia and his rivals, and especially against Caelius
Rufus, till he finally attains, not without much suffering and loss,
the last state of scornful indifference. Among the earliest of
the poems connected with Lesbia, and among those written in
the happiest vein, are ii. and iii., and v. and vii. The 8th, " Miser
Catulle, desinas ineptire," perhaps the most beautiful of them
all, expresses the first awakening of the poet to a sense of her
unworthiness, before the gentler have given place to the fiercer
feelings of his nature. His final renunciation is sent in a poem
written after his return from the East, with a union of imaginative
and scornful power, to his two butts, Furius and Aurelius (xi.,
" Furi et Aureli, comites Catulli "), who, to judge by the way
Catullus writes of them, appear to have been hangers-on upon
him, who repaid the pecuniary and other favours they received
by giving him grounds for jealousy, and making imputations
on his character (cf. xv., xvi., xviii., xxiii.).
The intrigue of Caelius Rufus with Lesbia began in 59 or 58
B.C. It was probably in the earlier stages of this liaison that the
68th poem was written, from which it appears that Catullus,
at the time living at Verona, and grieving for the recent death of
his brother in the Troad, had heard of Lesbia's infidelity, and, in
consideration of her previous faithlessness in his favour, was not
inclined to resent it very warmly. Two other poems in the
series express the grief which Catullus felt for the death of his
brother, — one, the 65th, addressed to the orator Hortensius,
who is there, as in some of Cicero's letters, called Hortalus or
Ortalus, and sent to him along with the Coma Berenices (lxvi.),
a translation of a famous elegy of Callimachus. The other poem
referring to this event (ci.) must have been composed some years
later, probably in 56 B.C., when Catullus visited his brother's
tomb in the Troad, on his return from Bithynia. Between 59
and 57 B.C. most of the lampoons on Lesbia and her numerous
lovers must have been written (e.g. xxxvii., xxxix., &c). Some,
too, of the poems expressive of his more tender feelings to her,
such as viii. and lxxvi. belong also to these years; and among
the poems written either during this period or perhaps in the
early and happier years of his liaison, some of the most charming
of his shorter pieces, expressing the affection for his young friends
Verannius and Fabullus (ix., xii., xiii.), may be included.
In the year 57 the routine of his life was for a short time broken
by his accompanying the propraetor C. Memmius, the friend to
whom Lucretius dedicates his great poem, as one of his staff,
to the province of Bithynia. His object was probably to better
his fortunes by this absence from Rome, as humorous complaints
of poverty and debt (xiii., xxvi.) show that his ordinary means
were insufficient for his mode of life. He frankly acknowledges
the disappointment of these hopes, and still more frankly his
disgust with his chief (x., xxviii.). Some of the most charming
and perfect among the shorter poems express the delight with
which the poet changed the dulness and sultry climate of the
5+4
CATULLUS
province for the freedom and keen enjoyment of his voyage
home in his yacht, built for him at Amastris on the Euxine,
and for the beauty and peace of his villa on the shores of Lake
Benacus, which welcomed him home " wearied with foreign
travel." To this period and to his first return to Rome after his
visit to his native district belong the poems xlvi., ci., iv., xxxi.
and x., all showing by their freshness of feeling and vivid truth
of expression the gain which the poet's nature derived from his
temporary escape from the passions, distractions and animosities
of Roman society. Two poems, written in a very genial and
joyous spirit, and addressed to his younger friend Licinius
Calvus (xiv. and 1.), who is ranked as second only to himself
among the lyrical poets of the age, and whose youthful promise
pointed him out as likely to become one of the greatest of Roman
orators, may, indeed, with most probability be assigned to these
later years (xiv.). From the expression " Odissem te odio
Vatiniano," in the third line of xiv., it may be inferred that the
poem was written not earlier than December (the " Saturnalia ")
of the year 56 B.C., as it was early in that year, as we learn from
a letter of Cicero to his brother Quintus (ii. 4. i), that Cfclvus
first announced his intention of prosecuting Vatinius. The
short poem numbered liii. would be written in August 54 B.C.
The poems which have left the greatest stain on the fame of
Catullus — those " referta contumeliis Caesaris," the licentious
abuse of Mamurra,and probably some of those personal scurrilities
addressed to women as well as men, or too frank confessions,
which posterity would willingly have let die, may well have been
written in the last years of his life, under the influence of the
bitterness and recklessness induced by his experience. It cannot
be determined with certainty whether the longer and more
artistic pieces, which occupy the middle of the volume — the
£/^7/r(ziafniwmincelebrationof themarriageofManliusTorquatus,
the 62nd poem, written in imitation of the Epithalamia of
Sappho, " Vesper adest: iuvenes, consurgite "; the Attis, and the
Epic Idyll representing the marriage festival of Peleus and Thetis
—belong to the earlier or the later period of the poet's career.
If the person addressed in the first part of the 68th is the Manlius
of the Epithalamium, and the lines from 3 to 8 —
" Naufragum ut eiectum . . . pervigilat,"
refer to the death of Vinia, it would follow that the first Epitha-
lamium was written some time before that poem, and thus belongs
to the earlier time. While the translations of Sappho, —
" Ille mi par esse deo videtur,"
and of Callimachus (lxvi.), —
" Omnia qui magni dispexit lumina mundi,"
belong to the earlier period, the Attis and the Peleus and Thetis ;
although perhaps suggested by the treatment of the same or
similar subjects in Greek authors, are executed with such power
and originality as declare them to be products of the most
vigorous stage in the development of the poet's genius. That his
genius came soon to maturity is a reason for hesitation in assign-
ing any particular time between 62 and 54 B.C. for the composition
of the AUis and of that part of the Epithalamium (" Peliaco
quondam prognatae vertice pinus ") which deals with the
main subject of the poem. But the criticism of Munro in his
edition of Lucretius, which shows similarities of expression
that cannot be mere casual coincidences, between the Ariadne-
episode in the Epithalamium of Catullus (from line 52 to 266)
and the poem of Lucretius, leaves little doubt that that portion
at least of the poem was written after the publication of the
De return natura, in the winter of 55-54 B.C.
No ancient author has left a more vivid impression of himself
on his writings than Catullus. Coming to Rome in early youth
from a distant province, not at that time included within the
limits of Italy, he lived as an equal with the men of his time of
most intellectual activity and refinement, as well as of highest
social and political eminence. Among those to whom his poems
are addressed, or who are mentioned in them, we find the names
of Hortensius, Cicero, Cornelius Nepos, Licinius Calvus, Helvius
Cinna and Asinius Pollio, then only a youth (xii. 8). Catullus
brought into this circle the genius of a great poet, the social
vivacity of a vigorous nature, the simplicity and sincerity of an
unambitious, and the warmth of an affectionate disposition.
He betrays all the sensitiveness of the poetic temperament, but
it is never the sensitiveness of vanity, for he is characterized by
the modesty rather than the self-confidence which accompanies
genius, but the sensitiveness of a heart which gives and expects
more sympathy and loyalty in friendship than the world either
wants or cares to give in return. He shows also in some of his
Lighter pieces the fastidiousness of a refined taste, intolerant of
all boorishness, pedantry, affectation and sordid ways of life.
The passionate intensity of his temperament displays itself with
similar strength in the outpourings of his animosity as of his
love and affection. It was, unfortunately, the fashion of the
time to employ in the expression of these animosities a licence
of speech and of imputation which it is difficult for men living
under different social conditions to understand, still more
difficult to tolerate. Munro has examined the 29th poem —
" Quis hoc potest videre, quia potest pati,"
the longest and most important of the lampoons on Caesar and
Mamurra, and shown with much learning and acuteness the
motives and intention of Catullus in writing them. Had Julius
Caesar really believed, as Suetonius, writing two hundred years
afterwards, says he did, that " an eternal stigma had been cast
upon him by the verses concerning Mamurra," we should
scarcely apply the word magnanimity to his condonation of the
offence. But these verses survive as a memorial not of any
scandal affecting Julius Caesar which could possibly have been
believed by his contemporaries, but of the licence of speech
which was then indulged in, of the jealousy with which the
younger members of the Roman aristocracy, who a little later
fought on the side of Pompey, at that time regarded the ascend-
ancy both of the " father-in-law and the son-in-law," and the
social elevation of some of their instruments, and also, to a
certain extent, of the deterioration which the frank and generous
nature of Catullus underwent from the passions which wasted,
and the faithlessness which marred his life.
The great age of Latin poetry extends from about the year
60 B.C. till the death of Ovid in 17 a.d. There are three marked
divisions in this period, each with a distinct character of its own:
the first represented by Lucretius and Catullus, the second by
Virgil and Horace, the last by Ovid. Force and sincerity are the
great characteristics of the first period, maturity of art of the
second, facility of the last. The educating influence of Greek
art on the Roman mind was first fully experienced in the Cicer-
onian age, and none of his contemporaries was so susceptible of
that influence as Catullus. With the susceptibility to art he
combined a large share of the vigorous and genial qualities of the
Italian race. Like most of his younger contemporaries, he
studied in the school of the Alexandrine poets, with whom the
favourite subjects of art were the passion of love, and stories
from the Greek mythology, which admitted of being treated in a
spirit similar to that in which they celebrated their own experi-
ences. It was under this influence that Catullus wrote the Coma
Berenices, the 68th poem, which, after the manner of the Alex-
andrines, interweaves the old tale of Protesilaus and Laodamia
with the personal experiences of the poet himself, and the
Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis, which combines two pictures
from the Greek mythology, one of the secure happiness of mar-
riage, the other of the passionate despair of love betrayed. In
this last poem Catullus displays a power of creative pictorial
imagination far transcending that displayed in any of the extant
poetry of Alexandria. We have no means of determining what
suggested the subject of the Attis to Catullus, whether the previous
treatment of the subject by some Greek writer, some survival
of the myth which he found still existing during his residence
among the " Phrygii Campi," or the growth of various forms of
Eastern superstition and fanaticism, at Rome, in the last age of
the Republic. Whatever may have been its origin, it is the
finest specimen we possess, in either Greek or Latin literature,
of that kind of short poem more common in modern than ancient
times, in which some situation or passion entirely alien to the
writer, and to his own age, is realized with dramatic intensity.
c^imus— <;aub >
545
But the-genius of Catullus is, perhaps, evea happier in the direct
expression of personal feeling than in artistic creation, or the
reproduction of tales and situations from mythology. The
warmth, intensity and sincerity of his own nature are the
sources of the inspiration in these poems. The most elaborate
and one of the finest of them is the EpUhalamium in honour of
the marriage of a member of the old house of Manlius Torquatus
with Vinia Aurunculeia, written in the glyconic in combination
with the pherecratean metre. To this metre Catullus imparts
a peculiar lightness and grace by making the trochee, instead
of the spondee as in Horace's glyconics and pherecrateans, the
first foot in the line. His elegiac metre is constructed with
less smoothness and regularity than that of Ovid and Tibullus
or even of Propertius, but as employed by him it gives a true
echo to the serious and plaintive feelings of some of his poems,
while it adapts itself, as it did later in the hands of Martial,
to the epigrammatic terseness of his invective. But the perfec-
tion of the art of Catullus is seen in his employment of those
metres which he adapted to the Latin tongue from the earlier
poets of Greece, the pure iambic trimeter, as in iv, —
" Phaselus ille quern videtis hospites,"
the scazon iambic, employed in viii. and xxxi. —
" Paeainsularum, Sirmio, insularumque,"
and the phalecian hendecasyuabic, a slight modification of the
Sapphic line, which is his favourite metre for the expression of
his more joyful moods, and of his lighter satiric vein. The Latin
language never flowed with such ease, freshness and purity as in
these poems. Their perfection consists in the entire absence of
all appearance of effort or reflection, and in the fulness of life and
feeling, which gives a lasting interest and charm to the most
trivial incident of the passing hour. In reference to these poems
Munro has said with truth and force: " A generation had yet to
pass before the heroic attained to its perfection; while he
(Catullus) had already produced glyconics, phalecians and
iambics, each * one entire and perfect chrysolite, 7 ' cunningest
patterns' of excellence, such as Latium never saw before or
after, — Alcaeus, Sappho, and the rest then and only then having
met their match."
The work of Catullus has not come down to us intact, as is shown
by lacunae and quotations in ancient writers which cannot now be
found in his poems. Out of the MSS. only three have claims to
intrinsic importance. The oldest and best appears to be the Bodleian
(Canon. 30). But little inferior is the Sangermanensis (Par. 14137).
Of the third, the Romanus, we shall be better able to judge when its
discoverer, Prof. W. G. Hale, has published his collation. None of
these MSS. are older than the 14th century. One poem, 62, is,
however, preserved in a MS. of the 9th century (the Thuaneus,
Par. 8071). Prof. R. Ellis's discovery of the Bodleian MS. and E.
Baehrens's recognition of its value opened a new chapter in the
history of the text. Ellis's contributions comprise an indispensable
commentary (ed. 2, 1889), an elaborate critical edition (ed. 2, 1878)
and an English translation (1871) in the metres of the original.
The text in the Oxford series, published in 1905, is inferior to those
specified below. Baehrens's edition, 2 volumes (text 1876, the
second edition by K. P. Schulze is a misnomer; and Latin com-
mentary 1885) is still of value. Amongst other editions with critical
or explanatory notes or both may be mentioned those of A. Riese
(1884), L. Schwabe (1886, with index terborum), B. Schmidt (1887),
t. P. Postgate (1889, text differing little from that in the new Corpus
Foetarum), E. Benoist and E. Thomas, with French translation by
Rostand (2 vols., 1882-1890), S. G. Owen (1893, an Edition de luxe),
W. T. Merrill (1893, Boston, U.S.A., with succinct English notes),
A. Palmer (1896, one of the best of this scholar's works) ; M. Haupt s
text of the three poets Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, edited by
J. Vahlen, reached its sixth edition in 1904. Of the numerous
contributions to the textual and literary criticism of the poems may
be named the papers in M. Haupt's Opuscula, L. Schwabe 's Quaes-
Hones CatuUianae (1862), B. Schmidt's Prolegomena, H. A. J. Munro's
Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878; second edition by
information see Teuffel's History of Roman Literature (tr. by Warre),
§ 214, or the more recent accounts by M. Schanz, Gescnichte der
romischen Litteratur, i. §§ 102-106, and Frederic Plessis, La PoSsie
laUne (1909), pp. I43-I73- (W. Y. S.; X.)
CATULUS, the name of a distinguished family of ancient Rome
of the gena Lutatia. The following are its most important
members.
z. Gaius Lutatius Catulus, Roman commander . during
the First Punic War, consul 242 B.C. He was sent with # fleet
of 200 ships to Sicilian waters, and almost without opposition
occupied the harbours of Lilybaeum and Drepanum. A hurriedly
equipped fleet sent out from Carthage under Hanno was inter-
cepted by the praetor Publius Valerius Falto and totally defeated
(battle of the Aegates Islands, March 10, 241). Catulus, who
had been wounded at Drepanum, took no part in the operations,
but on his return to Rome was accorded the honour of a triumph,
which against his will he shared with Valerius. (See Punk
Waks: First, ad fin.).
2. Quintus Lutatius Catulus, Roman general and consul
with Marius in 102 B.C. In the war against the Cimbri and
Teutones he was sent to defend the passage of the Alps but
found himself compelled to retreat over the Po, his troops
having been reduced to a state of panic (see Majrius, Gaius).
In 101 the Cimbri were defeated on the Raudine plain, near
Vercellae, by the united armies of Catulus and Marius. The
chief honour being ascribed to Marius, Catulus became his
bitter opponent. He sided with Sulla in the civil war, was
included in the proscription list of 87, and when Marius declined
to pardon him, committed suicide. He was distinguished as an
orator, poet and prose writer, and was well versed in Greek
literature. He is said to have written the history of his consul-
ship and the Cimbrian War after the manner of Xenophon; two
epigrams by him have been preserved, one on Roscius the
celebrated actor (Cicero, De NaL Deorum, i. 28), the other of, an
erotic character, imitated from Callimachus (Gellius xix. 9).
He was a man of great wealth, which he spent in beautifying
Rome. Two buildings were known as " Monumenta Catuli ":
the temple of For tuna hujusce diet, to commemorate the day of
Vercellae, and the Porticus Catuli, built from the sale of the
Cimbrian spoils.
See Plutarch, Marius, Sulla; Appian, B.C. i. 74; Veil. Pat.
ii. 21; Florus iii. 21; Val. Max. vi. 3, ix. 13; Cicero, De Oratore,
iii. 3. 8, Brutus, 35.
3. Quintus Lutatius Catulus (c. 120-61 B.C.), sometimes
called Capitolinus, son of the above, consul in 102. He inherited
his father's hatred of Marius, and was a consistent though
moderate supporter of the aristocracy. In 78 he was consul with
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who after the death of Sulla proposed
the overthrow of his constitution, the re-establishment of the
distribution of grain, the recall of the banished, and other
democratic measures. Catulus vigorously opposed this, and a
temporary compromise was effected. But Lepidus, having
levied troops in his province of Transalpine Gaul, returned to
Rome at the head of an army. Catulus defeated him at the
Mulvian bridge and near Cosa in Etruria, and Lepidus made his
escape to Sardinia, where he died soon afterwards. In 67 and 66
Catulus unsuccessfully opposed, as prejudicial to constitutional
freedom, the Gabinian and Manilian laws, which conferred
special powers upon Pompey (q.v.). He consistently opposed
Caesar, whom he endeavoured to implicate in the Catilinarian
conspiracy. Caesar, in return, accused him of embezzling public
money during the reconstruction of the temple on the Capitol,
and proposed to obliterate his name from the inscription and
deprive him of the office of commissioner for its restoration.
Catulus's supporters rallied round him, and Caesar dropped the
charge. . Catulus was the last princeps senatus of republican
times; he held the office of censor also, but soon resigned, being
unable to agree with his colleague Licinius Crassus. Although
not a man of great abilities, Catulus exercised considerable
influence through his political consistency and his undoubted
solicitude for the welfare of the state.
See Sallust, Catilina, 35. 49; Dio Cas8iu9 xxxvi. 13; Plutarch.
Crassus; Suetonius, Caesar, 15.
CAUB, or Kaub, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau^ on the right bank of the Rhine, 28 m. N.W.
from Wiesbaden, on the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to
Cologne. Pop. 2 200. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangeli-
cal church, and a statue of Blucher. The trade mainly consists of
the wines of the district. On a crag above the town stands the
v. 18
546
CAUCA— CAUCASIA
imposing ruin of Gutenfels, and facing it, on a rock in the middle
of the Rhine, the small castle Pfalz, or Pfalzgrafenstein, where,
according to legend, the Palatine countesses awaited their
confinement, but which in reality served as a toll-gate for
merchandise on the Rhine.
Caub, first mentioned in the year 983, originally belonged to
the lords of Falkenstein, passed in 1277 to the Rhenish Pala-
tinate, and attained civic rights in 1324. Here Blucher crossed
the Rhine with the Prussian and Russian armies, on New Year's
night 1813-1814, in pursuit of the French.
CAUCA, a large coast department of Colombia, South
America, lying between the departments of Bolivar, Antioquia,
Caldas and Tolima on the E., and the Pacific Ocean and Panama
on the W., and extending from the Caribbean Sea S. to the
department of Narifio. Pop. (1005, estimate) 400,000; area
26,930 sq. m. Although Cauca was deprived of extensive
territories on the upper Caqueta and Putumayo, and of a large
area bordering on Ecuador in the territorial redistribution of
1005, it remained the largest department of the republic. The
Western Cordillera, traversing nearly its whole length from south
to north, and the Central Cordillera, forming a part of its eastern
frontier, give a very mountainous character to the region. It in-
cludes, besides, the fertile and healthful valley of the upper Cauca,
the hot, low valley of the Atrato, and a long coastal plain on
the Pacific. The region is rich in mines and valuable forests,
but its inhabitants have made very little progress in agriculture
because there are not adequate transportation facilities. The
capita] of the department was Popayin at its southern extremity,
with an estimated population in 1905 of 10,000, other important
towns are Cali (16,000), Buga, Cartago and Buenaventura.
CAUCASIA, or Caucasus, a governor-generalship of Russia,
occupying the isthmus between the Black Sea and the Sea of
Azov on the west and the Caspian Sea on the east, as well as
portions of the Armenian highlands. Its northern boundary
is the Kuma-Manych depression, a succession of narrow, half-
desiccated lakes and river-beds, only temporarily filled with
water and connecting the Manych, a tributary of the Don, with
the Kuma, which flows into the Caspian. This depression is
supposed to be a relic of the former post-Pliocene connexion
between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and is accepted by most
geographers as the natural frontier between Europe and Asia,
while others make the dividing-line coincide with the principal
water-parting of the Caucasus mountain system. The southern
boundary of Caucasia is in part coincident with the river Aras
(Araxes), in part purely conventional and political. It was
shifted several times during the 19th century, but now runs
from a point on the Black Sea, some 20 m. south of Batum, in a
south-easterly and easterly direction to Mt. Ararat, and thence
along the Aras to within 30 m. of its confluence with the Kura,
where it once more turns south-east, and eventually strikes the
Caspian at Astara (30 35' N.) . This large territory, covering an
area of 180,843 sq. m., and having in 1897 9,248,695 inhabitants
(51 per sq. m.) , may be divided into four natural zones or sections:
— (i.) the plains north of the Caucasus mountains, comprising
the administrative division of Northern Caucasia; (ii.) the
Caucasus range and the highlands of Daghestan; (iii.) the
valleys of the Rion and the Kura, between the Caucasus range
and the highlands of Armenia; and (iv.) the highlands of
Armenia.
(i.) The plains of Northern Caucasia, which include most of the
provinces of Kubafi and Terek and of the government of Stavropol,
slope gently downwards from the foot of the Caucasus range towards
the Kiima-Manych depression. It is only in their centre that they
reach altitudes of as much as 2000-2500 ft. e.g. in the Stavropol
" plateau," which stretches northwards, separating the tributaries
of the Kubafi from those of the Terek and the Kuma. Towards the
foothills of the Caucasus they are clothed with thick forests, while
in the west they merge into the steppes of south Russia or end in
marshy ground, choked with reeds and rushes, in the delta of the
KubaA. In the north and east they give place, as the Manych and
the coasts of the Caspian are approached, to arid, sandy, stony
steppes. The soil of these plains is generally very fertile and they
support a population of nearly 2,800,000 Russians, composed of
Cossacks and peasant immigrants, settled chiefly along tne rivers
and grouped in large, wealthy villages. They carry on agriculture —
wheat-growing on a large scale — with the aid of modern agricultural
machines, and breed cattle and horses. Vines are extensively
cultivated on the low levels, and a variety of domestic trades are
prosecuted in the villages. The higher parts of the plains, which are
deeply trenched by the upper tributaries of the rivers, are inhabited
by various Caucasian races — Kabardians and Cherkesses (Cir-
cassians) in the west, Ossetes in the middle, and several tribal
elements from Daghestan, described under the general name of
Chechens, in the east; while nomadic Nogai Tatars and Turkomans
occupy the steppes.
(ii.) The Caucasus range runs from north-west to south-east from
the Strait of Kerch to the Caspian Sea for a length of 000 m., with a
varying breadth of 30 to 140 m., and covers a surface of 12,000 sq. m.
The orographical characteristics of the Caucasus are described in
detail under that heading.
(iii.) The combined vaJkys of the Rion and the Kura, which inter-
vene between the Caucasus and the Armenian highlands, and stretch
their axes north-west and south-east respectively, embrace the most
populous and most fertile parts of Caucasia. They correspond
roughly with the governments of Kutais, Tiflis, Elisavetpol and
Baku, and have a population of nearly 3,650,000. The two valleys
are separated by the low ridge of the Suram or Meskes mountains.
Spurs from the Caucasus and from the Armenian highlands fill up
the broad latitudinal depression between them. Above (i.e. west of)
Tiflis these spurs so far intrude into the valley that it is reduced to a
narrow ?strip in breadth. But below that city it suddenly widens
out, and the width gradually increases through the stretch of 350 m.
to the Caspian, until in the Mugan steppe along that sea it measures
100 m. in width. The snow-clad peaks of the main Caucasus,
descending by short, steep slopes, fringe the valley on the north,
while an abrupt escarpment, having the characteristics of a border
ridge of the Armenian Highlands, fronts it on the south. The floor of
the valley slopes gently eastwards, from 1200 ft. at Tiflis to 500 ft.
in the middle, and to 85 ft. below normal sea-level beside the Caspian.
But the uniformity of the slope is interrupted by a plateau (2000-
3000 ft. in altitude) along the southern foothills of the east central
Caucasus, in the region known as Kakhetia, drained by the Alazan,
a left-hand tributary of the Kura. The deep, short gorges and glens
which seam the southern slopes of the Caucasus are inhabited by
Ossetes, Tushes, Pshavs and tChevsurs in the west, and by various
tribes of Lesghians in the east. In these high and stony valleys
every available patch of ground is utilized lor the cultivation of
barley, even up to altitudes of 7000 and 8000 ft. above the level of
the sea; but cattle-breeding is the principal resource of the moun*
taineers, whose little communities are often separated from one
another by passes, few of which are lower than 10,000 ft. The
steppes along the bottom of the principal valley are for the most part
too dry to be cultivated without irrigation. It is only in Kakhetia,
where numerous mountain streams supply the fields and gardens of
the plateau of Alazan, that wheat, millet and maize are grown,
and orchards, vineyards and mulberry plantations are possible.
Lower down the valley cattle- breeding is the chief source of wealth,
while in the small towns and villages of the former Georgian kingdom
various petty trades, exhibiting a high development of artistic taste
and technical skill, are widely diffused. The slopes of the Armenian
highlands are clothed with fine forests, and the vine is grown at their
base, while on the wide-stretching steppes the Turko-Tatars pasture
cattle, horses and sheep. The lower part of the Kura valley assumes
the character of a dry steppe, the rainfall not reaching 14 in. annually
at Baku, and it is still less in the Mugan steppe, though quite abun-
dant in the adjacent region of Lenkoran. The vegetation of the
steppe is on the whole scanty. Trees are generally absent, except
for thickets of poplars, dwarf oaks and tamarisks alone the course of
the Kura, the delta of which is smothered under a jungle of reeds and
rushes. The Mugan steppe is, however, in spite of its dryness, a
more fertile region in virtue of the irrigation practised ; but the Kura
has excavated its bed too deeply to admit of that being done along
its course. The Lenkoran district, sometimes called Talysh, on the
western side of the Kizil-Agach bay, is blessed with a rich vegetation,
a fertile soil, and a moist climate.
The inhabitants of the Kura valley consist principally of Iranian
Tates and Talyshes, of Armenians and Lesghians, with Russians,
Jews and Arabs. This conjoint valley of the Rion-Kura was in
remote antiquity the site of several Greek colonial settlements,
later the seat of successive kingdoms of the Georgians, and for cen-
turies it has formed a bulwark against hostile invasions from the
south and east. It b still inhabited chiefly by Georgian tribes—
Gurians, Imeretians, Mingrelians, Svanetians — in the basin of the
Rion, and by Georgians intermingled with Armenians in the valley of
the Kura, while the steppes that stretch away from the lower course
of the latter river are ranged over by Turko-Tatars. ^ Mingrelia and
Imeretia (valley of Rion) are the gardens of Caucasia, but the high
valleys of Svanetia, farther north on the south slopes of the Caucasus
mountains, are wild and difficult of access. In the cultivated parts
the land is so exceedingly fertile and productive that it sells for
almost fabulous prices, and its value is still further enhanced by
the discovery of manganese and copper mines in the basin of the
Rion, and of the almost inexhaustible supplies of naphtha and
petroleum at Baku in the Apsheron pemnsula. The principal
products of the soil are mentioned lower down, while the general
CAUCASIA
547
character of the vegetation is indicated under Caucasus: Western
Caucasus. In the basin of the Rion, in that of the Chorokh (which
runs off the Pontic highlands into the Black Sea south of Batum), and
on the Black Sea littoral from Batum northwards to Sukhum-kaleh,
and beyond, the climate is extremely hot and the rainfall heavy
(see under Climate below). It is in this valley that the principal
towns (except Vladikavkaz at the north foot of the Caucasus) of
Caucasia are situated, namely, Baku (179,133 inhabitants in 1900),
Tiflis (160,645 in 1897), Kutais (32,492), and the two Black Sea ports
of Batum (28,512) and Poti (7666).
(iv.) The highlands of Armenia are sometimes designated the
Minor Caucasus, Little Caucasus and Anti-Caucasus. But to use
such terms for what is not only an independent, but also an older,
orographical formation than the Caucasus tends to perpetuate
contusion in geographical nomenclature. The Armenian highlands,
which run generally parallel to the Caucasus, though at much lower
elevations (5000-6000 ft.), are a plateau region, sometimes quite flat,
sometimes gently undulating, clothed with luxuriant meadows and
mostly cultivable. From it rise double or triple ranges connected
by cross-ridges and spined with outer spurs. These double and triple
ranges, which have a general elevation of 8500-10,000 ft., stretch
from the south-east angle of the Black Sea, 400 m. south-eastwards
to the Kara-dagh and Salavat mountains in north Persia, and the
latter link them on to the Elburz mountains that skirt the southern
end of the Caspian Sea. Various names are given to the different
parts of the constituent ranges, or, perhaps more correctly, elongated
groups of mountains. The Ajar, Akhalt-sikh and Meskes or Tnalety
groups in the west are succeeded farther east by the Somkhet,
Murguz, Ganji and Karabakh sections, forming the southern rim
of the Kura basin, while parallel with them, but farther south, run
the Mokry, Miskhan, Akmangan and Paltapin ranges, marking the
northern edge of the Aras drainage area. These two sets of parallel
ranges are linked together transversely by the cross-ridges of
Bezobdal, Pambak, Shah-dagh and Gok-cha. From this last
branches off the highest range in the entire series, namely, the
Zangezur, which soars up to 10,000 ft. above the left bank of the
Aras. From it again there shoot away at right angles, one on each
side, the ranges of the Dar-alagcz and Bergushet. These highlands
exhibit very considerable evidences of volcanic activity both in
remote geological periods and also since the Tertiary epoch. Large
areas are overlain with trachyte, basalt, obsidian, tuff and pumice.
The most conspicuous features of the entire reeion, Mount Ararat
(16,030 ft.) and Mount Alagoz (13,440 ft.), are both solid masses of
trachyte ; and both rise above the limits of perpetual snow. Extinct
volcanoes are numerous in several of the ranges, e.g. Akmangan,
Mokry, Karabakh and Egri-dagh (see below). It is in this region
of the Armenian highlands that the largest lakes of Caucasia are
situated, namely, the Gok-cha or Sevanga (540 sq. m. in area) at an
altitude of 6340 ft., the Chaldir-gol (33 sq. m.) at 6520 ft., and several
smaller ones, such as the gols of Khozapin, Khopchalu, Arpa, Topo-
ravan and Tabiztskhur, all situated between 6500 and 7000 ft.
above sea-level. The principal water-divide in this highland region
is, however, the range of Egri-dagh (Ararat), which just south of
ao° S. forms for 100 m. the boundary between Russian and Turkish
Armenia, having Ararat at its eastern extremity and the extinct
volcano of Kessa-dagh (11,260 ft.) at its western. Its importance
lies in the fact that it divides the streams which flow into tne Black
Sea and Caspian from those which make their way into the Persian
Gulf. The Egri-dagh possesses a sharply defined crest, ranges at a
general elevation of 8000 ft., is bare of timber, scantily supplied
with water, and rugged and deeply fissured.
The transverse water-parting between the Black Sea and the
Caspian begins on the south side of the main range of the Caucasus,
at Mount Zikara (12,560 ft.), a little south-west of Kasbek, and
runs south-west along the sinuous crests of the Racha, Suram or
Meskes (3000-5000 ft.), Vakhan (10,000-11,000 ft.), Arzyan (7000-
10,000 ft.), and its continuation the Soganluk, thus linking the
Caucasus ranges with those of the Armenian highlands. This line
of heights separates the basins of the Chorokh and the Rion (Black
Sea) from those of the Aras and the Kura (Caspian Sea). North of
the Caucasus ranges the water-divide between these two seas
descends from Mount Elbruz along the Sadyrlar Mountains (1 1,000
ft*), and Anally sinks into the Stavropol *' plateau " (1600 ft.). But
the main axis of the transverse upheavals would appear to be con*
tinued in a north-eastern direction in %he Andi and other parallel
ranges of Daghestan, as stated under Caucasus.
The population in this region consists principally of Armenians,
Tatars, Turks, Kurds, Ossetes, Greeks, with Persians, Tates and a
few Russians (see particulars below).
Climate. — Owing in part to the great differences in altitude
in different regions of Caucasia and in part to the directions in
which the mountain ranges run, and consequently the quarters
towards which their slopes face, the climate varies very greatly
according to locality. Generally speaking, it may be character-
ized as a climate of extremes on the Armenian highlands, in4fe%
Kura valley and in northern Caucasia, and as maritime ana
genial in Lenkoran, on the Black Sea coastlands, and in the
valley of the Rion. The greatest recorded range oi temperature
is at Erivan (altitude 3 230 ft.) , namely, of 64 between a January
average of 14-9° and an August average of 78-8° F. At Sukhum-
kaleh, on the Black Sea, the corresponding range is only 27*3°,
between a January average of 48*8° and an August average of
76-1°. The highest mean temperatures for the whole year are
those of Lenkoran (6o»3°) and of Sukhum-kaleh and Poti (about
58 ), and the lowest at Ardahan (5840 ft), in the province of
Kars, namely, 37-9°, and at Gudaur (7245 ft.), a few miles south
of Kasbek, namely, 38-6°. The following table gives particulars
of temperature averages at a few typical places: —
Place.
Altitude.
Annual
Mean.
January
Mean.
Mean.
Stavropol
Vladikavkaz
Gudaur
Baku
Tiflis
Batum
Sochi
Lenkoran
Erivan
2030
2345
7*45 .
on Caspian
1490
on Black Sea
on Black Sea
on Caspian
3I70
470°
473°
38-6°
58-o°
55*o^
5 ? ,0 o
56-3*
603*
51 •<>•
24-0°
234*
20 '3°
38-0"
3 2 '°!
42-0°
40-3°
39'0°
15-0°
70-0°
68o°
57*!
8oo°
76.5:
76-1°
6o.6°
75-o°
In respect of precipitation the entire region of Caucasia may
be divided into two strikingly contrasted regions, a wet and a
dry. To the former belong the Black Sea littoral, where the
rainfall averages 59 to 93 in. annually, and the valleys that open
upon it or are exposed to winds blowing off it, in which the
rainfall varies, however, from 20 in. (Abbas-tuman, Borzhom)
to 60 (Kutais). In Lenkoran also the rainfall averages 40 to 50
in. in the year. Between 16 and 40 in. fall as a rule at the
northern foot of the Caucasus (Mozdok, Pyatigorsk) and in the
Kura valley (Tiflis, Novo-bayazet). On the Armenian highlands
and on the steppes north of Pyatigorsk the rainfall is less than
1 2 in. annually, and even in some places less than 8 in., e.g. at
the foot of Ararat. Most rain falls at Batum and at Lenkoran in
the autumn, in northern Caucasia and in Transcaucasia in spring
and summer, but in the vicinity of the Sea of Azov in winter.
Flora and Fauna. — Plant-life, in such a mountainous country
as Caucasia, being intimately dependent upon aspect and
altitude, is treated under Caucasus. The wild animals of
Caucasia are for the most part the same as those which frequent
the mountainous parts of central Europe, though there is also an
irruption of Asiatic forms, e.g. the tiger (in Lenkoran only),
panther, hyaena and jackal. The more important of the carni-
vores which haunt the forests, valleys and mountain slopes are
the bear (Ursus arctos) f wolf, lynx, wild cat and fox (Vulpes
melanotus). The wild boar occurs around Borzhom. The
aurochs (Bos urus) appears to exist still in the forests of the
western Caucasus. Of interest for sportsmen, as well as serving
as prey for the carnivores, are red deer, goats (Capra pallasit
and C. aegagrus) y chamois, roebuck, moufflon (Oris musimon),
argali or Asiatic wild sheep (O. Amman), another species of
sheep in O. gmelini y and fallow deer (Capreolus pigargus) in
northern Caucasus only. Rodents are numerous, the mouse
(M us sylvaticus) is very destructive, and beavers are met with in
places. The birds of prey are the same as those of central
Europe, and include the sea eagle, alpine vulture (Gyps fulvus),
buzzard, kites (Gypallus barbatus and MUvus ater), hawks
(e.g. Astur nisus) , goshawk (A . palumbarius) , fish-hawk (Pandion
halia&tus) and owls. Among the smaller birds may be enumer-
ated finches, the siskin, bullfinch, pipit, titmouse, wagtail, lark,
fine-crested wren, hedge-sparrow, corn- wren, nut-hatch, starling,
swallow, martin, swift, thrush, butcher bird, shrike, dipper,
yellow-hammer, ortolan and a warbler (Accentor alpinus). The
game birds consist of grouse, blackcock, moorhen, quail and
partridge. The pheasant derives its name from the ancient
name (Phasis) of the Rion.
In the seas and rivers about 190 species of fishes have been
enumerated. Of these, 115 species are Mediterranean, 30 are com-
mon to the Caspian Sea, and the remaining species are peculiar to
the Black Sea. The most useful economically are several species of
sturgeon and of herring, trout, barbel, chubb, bream, ray, sea-dace,
5.48
CAUCASIA
carp, anchovy. Insects abound, especially Coleoptera. Plies,
lice, gadflies and mosquitoes are the worst of the insect plagues.
There are several snakes, including the viper (Pelias berus).
Ethnology. — The population of Caucasia is increasing rapidly.
In 1897 it numbered 9,291,090, of whom 4,886,230 were males
and 4,404,867 were females. The most densely-peopled provinces
were Kutais and Tiflis, each with 80 inhabitants to the square
mile; the thinnest the Black Sea government (20$ per sq. m.),
Terek (31), and Kars (39). Of the total population 3,725,543
lived in northern Caucasia and 5,564,547 in Transcaucasia
(including Daghestan). In the latter territorial division there
exists a great disproportion between the sexes, namely, to every
100 males only 86 females; indeed in the Black Sea government
there are only 65-5 females to every 100 males. Ethnologically
the population belongs to a great variety of races. The older
authorities asserted that these numbered as many as 150, or even
300; the more recent researches of Baron P. V. Uslar, F. Anton
von Schiefner, Zagursky, and others have greatly reduced this
number; but even then there are not less than fifty represented.
According to the languages spoken the populations of Caucasia
admit of being classified as follows, 1 according to Senator N.
Trointsky, president of the Russian Census Committee for 1897.
Aryans 4,901412
Slavs 3,183,870
Great Russians
Little Russians
White Russians
Poles
Germans 47,391
Greeks 100,299
Rumanians 7,232
French and Italians 1,435
Lithuanians 6,687
Lithuanians proper
Letts
Iranians 3i5>6o5
Persians
Talyshes
Tates
Ossetes
Kurds 99,836
Armenians 1,116,461
1,829,793
1,305,463
19,642
25,"7
5,121
i,5H
13.929
34,994
95,056
I7l,7i6
46,739
1,902,142
Gypsies
Semites
Jews
Ckaldaeans (Aisors)
Ural-Altaians
Finns
Esthonians
Turko-Tatars
Tatars
Osmanli Turks
Nogai Tatars
Turkomans
Bashkirs
Chuvashes
Kirghiz
Sarts
Karachais
Kumyks
Kara-papaks
Kalmucks
Caucasians .... 2,439,071
Georgians (including Imeretians, Gur-
lans, Svanetians, Lazes, Mingrel-
ians, &c.)
Circassians
Cherkesses (Adigheh) and Kabardians
Abkhasians
Chechens
Chechens proper ....
Ingushes*
Kistines
Lesghians
Avaro-Andians
Darghis
Kunns
Udins
Others
3.041
40,498
5,353
7422
1,879,908
4,281
1.352,455
274,318
600,514
1,509,785
139,419
64,048*
24,522
953
411
98
158
27,222
83,408
29,902
14,409
144,847
72.103
226,496
47,409
413
212,692
130,209
159,213
7,100
91,300
1 Premier Recensement general de la population de I empire de Russie,
ed. N. Trointsky (St Petersburg, 1905,2 vols.), in Russian and French.
* Although the Ingushes speak a Chechen, dialect, they have
recently been proved to be, anthropologically, quite a distinct race.
Religion. — Most of the Russians and the Georgians belong to
the Orthodox Greek Church (over 4,000,000 in all); but con-
siderable numbers (estimated at nearly 1 22,000, though in reality
probably a good many more) are Nonconformists of different
denominations. The Georgian Lazes are, however, Mussulmans.
The Armenians are Christians, mostly of the national Gregorian
Church (979,566), though 34,000 are Roman Catholics. The
Caucasian races (except the Gregorians), together with the Turks
and Tatars, are Mussulmans of the Sunnite sect (2,021,300), and
the Iranian races mostly Mussulmans of the Shiite sect (884,100).
The Kalmucks and other Mongolic tribes are Lamaists (20,300),
and some of the Kurds profess the peculiar tenets of the
Yezids.
Industries. — The principal occupation of the settled inhabitants
is agriculture and of the nomadic the breeding of live stock,
including camels. The cultivation of the soil is, however,
attended in many parts with great difficulties owing to the
scanty rainfall and the very primitive implements still in use,
and in the valley of the Kura heavy losses are frequently incurred
from depredations by locusts. But where irrigation is employed
the yield of crops is excellent. Rye and wheat are the most im-
portant crops harvested in northern Caucasia, but oats, barley
and maize are also cultivated, whereas in Transcaucasia the
principal crops are maize, rice tobacco and cotton. The rice is
grown chiefly in the valley of the Kura and in Lenkoran; the
tobacco in the Rion valley and on the Black Sea coastlands, also
to some extent in Kuban; and the cotton in the eastern provinces.
Various kinds of fodder crops are grown in Transcaucasia, such
as hay, rye-grass and lucerne. It is estimated that nearly
54,000 acres are under vineyards in northern Caucasia and some
278,000 acres in Transcaucasia, the aggregate yield of wine being
30 million gallons annually. The best wine grows in Kakhetia,
a district lying north-east and east of Tiflis; this district alone
yields nearly 8 million gallons annually. Large numbers of
mulberry trees are planted for rearing silkworms, especially in
Kutais, Erivan, Elisavetpol (Nukha) and Baku (Shemakha);
the groves occupy nearly x 50,000 acres, and the winding of the
silk gives employment to large numbers of the population.
Melons and water-melons are also important objects of cultiva-
tion. Sunflowers are very extensively grown for oil in the
government of Kuban and elsewhere, and also some flax.
Liquorice is an article of export. Many varieties of fruit
are grown, especially good being the apricots, peaches, walnuts
and hazel nuts. A limited area (not more than n 50 acres)
of the Black Sea coast between Sukhum-kaleh and Batum is
planted with the tea-shrub, which succeeds very well. In the
same district bamboos, ramie-fibre and attar (otto) of roses
are cultivated.
The mining industry is growing rapidly in importance in spite of
costly and deficient means of communication, want of capital,
and lack of general initiative. So far the principal developments
of the industry have been in the governments of Kutais, Batum,
Elisavetpol and Kuban. Copper ore is extracted above the
Murgul river (some 30 m. south of Batum), at Akhtala south of
Tiflis, and at Kedabek in Elisavetpol; manganese to a consider-
ably greater extent (over 400,000 tons annually) at Chiaturi in
the Kvirila valley in Kutais. Steam coal of good quality is
reported to exist about 30 m. inland from the open roadstead of
Ochemchiri in Kutais, but it is not mined. About 50,000 tons of
coal of very poor quality are, however, extracted annually, and the
same quantity of salt in the Armenian highlands and in Kuban.
Small quantities of quicksilver, sulphur and iron are obtained.
But all these are insignificant in comparison with the mineral oil
industry of Baku, which in normal times yields annually between
ten and eleven million tons of crude oil (naphtha). A good deal
of this is transported by gravitation from Baku to Batum on the
Black Sea by means of a pipe laid overland. The refined oil is
exported as kerosene or petroleum, the heavier refuse (mazut) is
used as fuel. Naphtha is also obtained, though in much smaller
quantities, in Terek and Kuban, in Tiflis and Daghestan*
Numerous mineral springs (chalybeate and sulphurous) exist
both north and south of the Caucasus ranges, e.g. at Pyatigorsk,
CAUCASIA
549
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Zhelesnovodsk, Essentuki, and Kislovodsk in Terek, and at
Tiflis, Abbastuman and Borzhom in the government of
Tiflis.
Manufacturing industry is confined to a few articles and
commodities, such as cement, tea, tin cans (for oil), cotton goods,
oil refineries, tobacco factories, flour-mills, silk-winding mills
(especially at Shusha and Jebrail in the south of Elisavetpol),
distilleries and breweries. On the other hand, the domestic in-
dustries are extensively carried on and exhibit a high degree of
technical skill and artistic taste. Carpets (especially at Shusha) ,
silk, cotton and woollen goods, felts and fur cloaks are made,
and small arms in Daghestan and at Tiflis, Nukha and Sukhum-
kaleh; silversmiths' work at Tiflis, Akhaltsikh and Kutais;
pottery at Elisavetpol and Shusha; leather shoe-making at
Alexandropol, Nukha, Elisavetpol, Shusha and Tiflis; saddlery
at Sukhum-kaleh and Ochemchiri on the Black Sea and at Temir-
khan-shura in Daghestan; and copper work at Derbent and
Alexandropol. But industries of every description were most
seriously crippled by the spirit of turbulence and disorder which
manifested itself throughout Transcaucasia in the years 1004-
1906, accentuated as they were further by the outbreak of the
long-rooted racial enmities between the Armenians and the Tatars,
especially at Baku in 1905.
Commerce. — The exports through the Black Sea ports of
Batum, Poti and Novo-rossiysk average in value a little over
£10,000,000 annually, though showing a tendency to increase
slightly. By far the most important commodity is petroleum,
fully one-half of the total value. In addition large quantities are
shipped at Baku direct for the Volga and the Transcaspian port
of Krasnovodsk. The export that comes next in value is silk,
and after it may be named wheat, barley, manganese ore, maize,
wool, oilcake, carpets, rye, oats, liquorice and timber. The
import trade reaches nothing like the same value, and what there
is is confined almost entirely to Batum. The annual average
value may be put at not quite £2,000,060, machinery and tin-plate
being a long way the most important items. There is further a
small transit trade through Transcaucasia from Persia to the
value of less than half a million sterling annually, and chiefly in
carpets, cocoons and silk, wool, rice and boxwood; and further
a sea-borne trade between Persia and Caucasian ports (Baku
and Petrovsk) to the value of over i| millions sterling in
alL The very extensive internal trade with Russia can only be
mentioned.
Railways. — The principal approach to Caucasia from Russia by
rail is the line that runs from Rostov-on-Don to Vladikavkaz at
the foot of the central Caucasus range. Thence, or rather from
the junction of Beslan, 14 m. north of Vladikavkaz, the main line
proceeds east of Petrovsk on the Caspian, and from Petrovsk
skirts the shore southwards as far as Baku, the distance from
Vladikavkaz to Baku being 414 m. This railway, together with
the driving roads over the Caucasus mountains via the Mamison
pass (the Ossetic military road) and the Darial pass (the Georgian
military road),, and the route across the Black Sea to Poti or
Batum are the chief means of communication between southern
Russia and Transcaucasia. Baku and Batum (also Poti) are
connected by another main line, 560 m. long, which traverses
the valleys of the Kura and the Rion, south of the Caucasus.
From Tiflis, nearly midway on this last line, a railway proceeds
south as far as Erivan (254 m.), with a branch to Kars (48 m.).
The Erivan line is being: continued into Persia, namely, to
Tabriz via Julf a on the Aras.
History. — To the ancient Greeks Caucasia, and the mighty
range which dominates it, were a region of mystery and romance.
It was there that they placed the scene of the sufferings of Prome-
theus (vide Aeschylus, Prometheus Vinctus), and there, in the
land of Colchis, which corresponds to the valley of the Rion, that
they sent the Argonauts, to fetch the golden fleece. Outside the
domain of myth, the earliest connexion of the Greeks with that
part of the world would appear to have been through the mari-
time colonies, such as Dioscurias, which the Milesians founded on
the Black Sea coast in the 7th century B.C. For more than
two thousand years the most powerful state in Caucasia was that
of Georgia (q.v.), the authentic history of which begins with its
submission to Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. The southern
portion of Transcaucasia fell during the 1st century B.C. under
the sway of Armenia, and with that country passed under the
dominion of Rome, and so eventually of the Eastern empire.
During the 3rd century a.d. Georgia and Armenia were invaded
and in great part occupied by the Khazars, and then for more
than a thousand years the mountain fastnesses of this border-
land between Europe and Asia were the refuge, or the resting-
place, of successive waves of migration, as people after people
and tribe after tribe was compelled to give way to the pressure
of stronger races harassing them in the rear. The Huns, for
instance, and the Avars appeared in the 6th century, and the
Mongols in the 13th. In the roth century bands of Varangians
or Russified Scandinavians sailed out of the Volga and coasted
along the Caspian until they had doubled the Apsheron peninsula,
when they landed and captured Barda, the chief town of Caucasian
Albania.
But, apart from Georgia, historical interest in Caucasia centres
in the long and persistent attempts which the Russians made
to conquer it, and the heroic, though unavailing, resistance
offered by the mountain races, more especially the Circassian
and Lesghian tribes. Russian aggression began somewhat
early in the 18th century, when Peter the Great, establishing
his base at Astrakhan on the Volga, and using the Caspian for
bringing up supplies and munitions of war, captured Derbent
from the Persians in 1722, and Baku in the following year.
But these conquests, with others made at the expense of Persia,
were restored to the latter power after Peter's death, a dozen
years later. At that period the Georgians were divided into
various petty principalities, the chief of which were Imeretia
and Georgia (Kharthlia), owing at times a more or less shadowy
allegiance to the sultan of the Ottoman Turks at Constantinople.
In 1770, during the course of a war between Russia and Turkey,
the Russians crossed over the Caucasus and assisted the Imere-
tians to resist the Turks, and from the time of the ensuing peace
of Kuchuk-kainarji the Georgian principalities looked to their
powerful northern neighbour as their protector against the
southern aggressors the Turks. In 1783 George XIII., prince of
Georgia and Mingrelia, formally put himself under the suzerainty
of Russia, and after his death Georgia was converted (1801)
into a Russian province. The same fate overtook Imeretia nine
years later. Meanwhile the Russians had also subdued the
Ossetes (1802) and the Lesghian tribes (1803) of the middle
Caucasus. By the peace of Gulistan in 1813 Persia ceded to
Russia several districts in eastern Caucasia, from Lenkoran
northwards to Derbent. Nevertheless the mountain tribes who
inhabited the higher parts of the Caucasus were still independent,
and their subjugation cost Russia a sustained effort of thirty
years, during the course of which her military commanders were
more than once brought almost to the point of despair by the
tenacity, the devotion and the adroitness and daring which the
mountaineers displayed in a harassing guerilla warfare. The
animating spirit of their resistance was Shamyl (Samuel), a
chief and priest of the Lesghians, who, a Mahommedan, pro-
claimed a " holy war " against the " infidel " aggressors. At
first the Russians were able to continue their policy of conquest
and annexation without serious check. After acquiring the
northern edge of the Armenian plateau, partly from Persia in
1828 and partly from Turkey in 1829, Russia crushed a rising
which had broken out in the Caspian coast districts of Daghestan
on the north of the Caucasus. This took place during the years
1 831-183 2. The next seven years were occupied with the sub-
jugation of the Abkhazians along the Black Sea coast, and of
other Circassian tribes in the west. Meanwhile Shamyl had
roused the Lesghian tribes farther east and begun his twenty
years' struggle for freedom, a struggle which called forth the
sympathy and admiration of nearly the whole of Europe. More
than once he escaped, in a manner that seemed little short of
marvellous, out of the hands of the Russians when they held him
closely invested in some mountain fastness, as at Himry in 1 331,
at Akhulgo in 1839, and again at. the same stronghold in 1849.
550
CAUCASUS
The general who at last broke the back of the long opposition of
the prophet-chief of the Lesghians was Prince Baryatinsky, who
after three years of strenuous warfare succeeded in capturing
Shamyrs stronghold of Weden, and then in surrounding that
chieftain himself on the inaccessible rocky platform of Gunib
in the heart of Daghestan. There the hitherto indomitable
champion of Caucasian independence was forced to surrender to
the Russians on the 6th of September 1859. Nevertheless the
spirit of resistance in these stubborn mountaineers was not finally
broken until 1864, when the Russians eventually stifled all op-
position in the difficult valleys and glens of the western Caucasus.
But this was followed, during the next fourteen years, by the
wholesale emigration of thousands upon thousands of Circassians,
who sought an asylum in Turkish territory, leaving their native
region almost uninhabited and desolate, a condition from which
it has not recovered even at the present day. During the Russo-
Turkish War of 1877-78 the self -exiled Circassians and other
Caucasian mountaineers, supported by a force of 14,000 Turks,
made a determined attempt to wrest their native glens from the
power of Russia; but, after suffering a severe defeat at the hands
of General Alkhazov, the Turks withdrew, and were accompanied
by some 30,000 Abkhasians, who settled in Asia Minor. A few
months later the Lesghians in Daghestan, who had risen in
revolt, were defeated and their country once more reduced to
obedience. By the ensuing peace of Adrianople, Russia still
further enlarged her Transcaucasian territories by the acquisition
of the districts of Kars, Batum and Ardahan. After a peaceful
period of a quarter of a century the Armenian subjects of
Russia in Transcaucasia were filled with bitterness and discontent
by the confiscation of the properties of their national (Gregorian)
church by the Russian treasury. Nor were their feelings more
than half allayed by the arrangement which made their ecclesias-
tics salaried officers of the Russian state. This ferment of unrest,
which was provoked in the years 1903-1904, was exacerbated
in the winters that followed by the renewed outbreak of the
century-long racial feud between the Tatars and the Armenians at
Baku and other places. In fact, nearly the whole of the region
between the Caucasus and the Perso-Turkish frontier on the
south, from the Caspian Sea on the one side to the Black Sea on
the other, was embroiled in a civil war of the most sanguinary
and ruthless character, the inveterate racial animosities of the
combatants being m both cases inflamed by religious fanaticism.
Complete anarchy prevailed at the worst centres of disorder, as
Baku and Batum, the imperial authorities being more powerless
to preserve even the semblance of order than they were in the
interior of Russia. Many of the oil wells at Baku were burned,
and massacres took place at that town, at Shusha, at Erivan,
at Tiflis, at Batum, at Jebrail and at other places. An end was
put to these disorders only by the mutual agreement of the two
contestants, alike horrified and exhausted by the fierce outburst
of passion, in September 1905. (J. T. Be.)
CAUCASUS, a mountain range of Asia, wholly within the
Russian empire, stretching north-west to south-east from the
Strait of Kerch (between the Black Sea and Sea of Azov) to the
Caspian Sea, over a length of 900 m., with a breadth varying
from 30 to 140 m. In its general character and conformation the
Caucasus presents a closer analogy with the Pyrenees than with
the Alps. Its general uniformity of direction, its comparatively
narrow width, and its well-defined limits towards both south and
north are all features which it has in common with the former.
The range of the Caucasus, like that of the Pyrenees, maintains
for considerable distances a high average elevation, and is not
cleft by deep trenches, forming natural passes across the range,
such as are common in the Alps. In both ranges, too, some of the
highest summits stand on spurs of the main range, not on the
main range itself; as Mont Perdu and Maladetta lie south of the
main backbone of the Pyrenees, so Mount Elbruz and Kasbek,
Dykh-tau, Koshtan-tau, Janga-tau and Shkara — all amongst
the loftiest peaks of the Caucasus— stand on a subsidiary range
north of the principal range or on spurs connecting the two. On
the other hand, it is interesting to compare the arrangement of
the drainage waters of the Caucasus with those of the Alps. In
both orographical systems the principal rivers start nearly ail
together from a central nucleus, and in both cases they radiate
to opposite quarters of the compass; but whereas in the Alps
the Rhone and the Rhine, flowing south-west and north-east
respectively, follow longitudinal valleys, and the Aar and the
Ticino, flowing north-west and south-east respectively, follow
transverse valleys, in the Caucasus the streams which flow
south-west and north-east, namely, the headwaters of the
Rion and the Terek, travel along transverse valleys, and
those of the Kura and the Kuban, flowing south-east and
north-west respectively, traverse longitudinal valleys. For
purposes of description it is convenient to consider the range
in four sections, a western, a middle with two subsections, and
an eastern.
1. Western Caucasus. This section, extending from the
Strait of Kerch to Mount Elbruz in 42 40' E., is over 420 m.
long, and runs parallel to the north-east coast of the Black Sea
and at only a short distance from it Between the main range
and the sea there intervene at least two parallel ranges separated
by deep glens, and behind it a third subsidiary parallel range,
likewise separated by a deep trough-like valley, and known as
the Bokovoi Khrebet. All these ranges are shorn through trans-
versely by numerous glens and gorges, and, the rainfall being
heavy and the exposure favourable, they are densely clothed
with vegetation. Many of the spurs or broken segments of ranges
thus formed abut steeply upon the Black Sea, so that this
littoral region is on the whole very rugged and not readily
accessible, especially as the general elevations are considerable.
The seaward flanking ranges run up to 4000 ft. and more, and in
many places shoot out cliffs which overhang the coast some
2000-3000 ft. sheer, while the main range gradually ascends to
10,000-12,000 ft. as it advances eastwards, the principal peaks
being Fisht (8040 ft.), Oshten (9210 ft.), Shuguz (10,640 ft.), and
Psysh (12,425 ft.). And whereas the main range is built up of
hard eruptive or crystalline rocks, the subsidiary chains are
composed of softer (Cretaceous and Tertiary) laminated forma-
tions, which easily become disintegrated and dislocated. The
snow-line runs here at about 9000 ft on the loftiest summits, and
east of Oshten the crest of the main range is capped with
perpetual snow and carries many hanging glaciers, while larger
glaciers creep down the principal valleys. The passes lie at
relatively great altitudes and are few in number, so that
although the northern versants of the various ranges all have
a tolerably gentle slope, communication between the Black
Sea and the valley of the Kuban, and the low steppe country
beyond, is the reverse of easy. The more important passes,
proceeding from west to east, are Pshekh (5435 ft.) west of
Oshten, and Shetlib (6060 ft) east of Oshten, Pseashka
(6880 ft.) east of Shuguz, Sanchar (7990 ft.) west of Psysh;
and between the last-named mountain .and Elbruz, facilitating
communication between Sukhum-Kaleh (and the coast as
far as Poti) and the upper valley of the Kuban, are the
passes of Marukh (11,500 ft), Klukhor (9450 ft) and Nakhar
(9615 ft.).
Flora. — The southern exposure of this littoral region, the
shelter afforded against the bitter winds of the north by the
lofty Caucasus range, and the copious rainfall all combine to
foster a luxuriant and abundant vegetation. The most dis-
tinguishing feature of the flora of this region is the predominance
of arborescent growths; forests cover in fact 56% of the area,
and are not only dense but laced together with climbing and
twining plants. The commonest species of trees are such as
grow in central Europe, namely, ash, fir, pine, beech, acacia,
maple, birch, box, chestnut, laurel, holm-oak, poplar, elm, time,
yew, elder, willow, oak. The common box is especially prevalent,
but the preponderating species are Coniferoe, including the
Caucasian species Pinus halepensis and P. insignis. The com-
monest firs are Abies nordtnanma and A. orientalis. There are
two native oaks, Quercus poniicus and Q. sessiliflora. A great
variety of shrubs grow on these slopes of the western Caucasus,
chiefly the following species, several of which are indigenous —
Rhododendron ponticum, Azalea pontica, AristoUUa maqui, Agate
CAUCASUS
55*
amaycana, Cephalaria tatarica, Coloneaster pyracantka, Citrus
aurantiutn, Diospyros ebenum, Ficus carica, IUicium anisatum,
Ligustrumcaucasicum, Punica granatum, Philadelphia coronarius,
Pyrus salicifolia, Rhus cotinus and six species of Viburnum.
Aquatic plants thrive excellently and occur in great variety.
The following purely Caucasian species also grow on the coast —
five species of spearwort, three of saxifrage, Aster caucasica,
Dioscorea caucasica, Echinops raddeanus, Hedera colchica, Helle-
borus caucasica and Peucedanum caucasicum. Here too are
found many of the more beautiful open-air flowering plants of
a shrubby character, e.g. magnolia, azalea, camellia, begonia
and paulownia. Among the cultivated trees and shrubs the
most valuable economically are the vine, peach, pomegranate,
fig, olive (up to 1500 ft. above sea-level), chestnut, apricot, apple,
pear, plum, cherry, melon, tea (on the coast between Sukhum-
Kaleh and Batum), maize (yielding the staple food of the inhabi-
tants), wheat (up to 6000 ft.), potatoes, peas, currants, cotton,
rice, colza and tobacco. Before the Russian conquest the native
inhabitants of this region were Kabardians, Circassians (Adigheh)
and Abkhasians, also a Circassian race. But half a million of
these people being Mahommedans, and refusing to submit to
the yoke of Christian Russia, emigrated into Turkish territory
List of Peaks in the west central Caucasus, with their altitudes, names and dates of mountaineers
who have climbed them.
Name of Peak.
Elbruz, £. peak
Elbruz, W. peak
Donguz-orun .
Altitude
in Feet.
Shtavler
Ledosht-tau
Hevai
Lakra-tau . . .
Ushba, N.E. peak
Ushba, S.W. peak
Ushba, both peaks
Sultran-kol-bashi
Bak ...
Gulba . . .
Salynan-bashi .
Shikildi-tau
Bshedukh . .
UUu-tau-chana.
Adyr-su-bashi .
Sullu-kol-bashi.
Tikhtengen .
Gestoia . .
Tetnuld .
Adish or Katuyn-tau
Janga-tau, E. peak
Janga-tau, E. and W,
peaks .
Shkara
Ailama .
UUu-auz
Dykh-tau l . .
Koshtan-tau' .
Mishirghi-tau, E. peak
Laboda
Tsikhvarga, E. peak
„ W. peak
Karagom-khokh or
Burdshula .
Adai-khokh
TepK ....
Kasbek . .
Gimarai-khokh
Laila, N, peak
Lai la, middle peak
Laila, S. peak
Khamkhakhi-khokh
18,3*5
18,465
14,600
13,105
12,580
13.055
12,185
J 5.400
15,410
12,495
",739
12,500
14,700
14,170
14,010
13,800
H.335
13,970
15,135
15,940
15,920
16,295
16,525
,,
W. peak,
16,660
17,040
14,855
15,350
17,050
16,875
16,350
14,170
13,575
13,575
14,295
15,275
14,510
16,545
15*670
13,045
13.155
13,105
14,065
By whom ascended.
1 Formerly the Koshtan-tau.
D. W. Freshfield, A. W. Moore and C. Tucker
F. C. Grove, H. Walker and F. Gardiner
C. P. Woolley
G. Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller
Donkin and H. Fox
Helbling, Reichert and Weber
Ficker, W. R. Rickmers, Scheck and Wigner
Schuster and Wigner
Schuster and Wigner
Rolleston and Longstaf?
Cockin
Helbling, Schulze, Reichert, Schuster and
Weber
Distel, Leuchs and Pfann
Grove, Walker and Gardiner
Collier, Solly and Newmarch
Fresh field
Cockin and H. W. Holder
Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber
Distel, Leuchs and Pfann
Rolleston and Longstaff
Holder, Cockin and Woolley
Merzbacher and Purtscheller
Rolleston and Longstaff
C. T. Dent and Donkin
Freshfield
Merzbacher and Purtscheller
Holder and Woolley
Cockin
Merzbacher and Purtscheller
Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber
Cockin
Woolley
V. Sella
Cockin, Holder and Woolley
Woolley
Woolley
Dent and Woolley
V. Sella
Holder and Cockin
Holder and Cockin
Holder and Cockin
V. Sella
Freshfield, Moore and Tucker
Woolley
Merzbacher
V. Sella
Merzbacher
Freshfield and Powell
V. Sella
Merzbacher and Purtscheller
M. de Dechy
between 1864 and 1878, and the country where they had lived
remained for the most part unoccupied until after the beginning
of the 20th century. Then, however, the Russian government
held out inducements to settlers, and these have been responded
to by Russians, Greeks, Armenians and Rumanians, but the
process of repeopling the long deserted territory is slow and
difficult. The coast-line is remarkably regular, there being no
deep bays and few seaports. The best accommodation that
these latter afford consists of more or less open roadsteads, e.g.
Novo-rossiysk, Gelenjik, Anapa, Sukhum-Kaleh, Poti and
Batum. Along the coast a string of summer bathing resorts is
springing up similar to those that dot the south-east coast of
the Crimea. The most promising of these little seaside places
are Anapa, Gelenjik and Gagry.
2. Middle Caucasus: (a) Western Half.— This sub-section,
with a length of 200 m., reaches from Mount Elbruz to Kasbek
and the Pass of Darial. It contains the loftiest summits of the
entire range, fully a dozen exceeding Mont BJanc in altitude (see
table below).
In addition to the peaks enumerated in the table, the following
also exist between Elbruz and Kasbek all exceeding 13,000 ft. in
altitude: Dong-osenghi, 14,265 ft.; Kurmychi, 13,310 ft.; Ullu-
kara-tau, 14,070 ft.; Jailyk, 17,780 ft.;
Sarikol-bashi, 13,965 ft.; Dumala-tau,
14,950 ft.; Sugan-tau, 14.730 ft.;
Tiutiu-bashi, 14,500 ft.; Nuamkuam,
J3.975 ft.; Zurungal, 13,915 ft.;
Mala-tau, 14,950 ft.; Tiutiun-tau,
15.115 ft.; Khrumkol-tau, 14,653 ft.;
Bubis-khokh, 14,500 ft.; Giulchi,
14,680 ft. ; Doppakh, 14,240 ft. ; Nak-
hashbita-khokh, 14,405 ft.; Shan-
khokh, 14.335 ft.; Mishirghi-tau (W.
peak), 16,410 ft.; Fytnargyn-tau,
13.790 ft.; Gezeh-tau, 14,140 ft.; and
tber, 14,460 ft.
Date.
1 Formerly the Dykh-tau.
1868
1874
1889
1890
1888
1903
1903
1903
1903
1003
1888
1003
1003
1874
1894
1887
1888
1003
1903
1003
1896
1890
1003
1886
1887
1890
1888
1888
1800
1903
1888
1889
1888
1888
1888
1889
1895
1890
1890
1890
1890
1896
1868
1889
1890
1896
1890
1889
1889
1890
1884
The crest of the main range runs
continuously at an altitude exceed-
ing 10,000 ft., but even it is surpassed
in elevation by the secondary range
to the north, the Bokovoi Khrebet.
These two ranges are connected by
more than half a dozen short trans-
verse spurs or necks, inclosing as
many cirques or high cauldron glens.
Besides the Bokovoi Khrebet several
other short subsidiary ranges branch
off from the main range at acute
angles, lifting up high montane glens
between them; for instance, the two
ranges in Svanetia, which divide, the
one the river (glen) Ingur from the
river (glen) Tskhenis-Tskhali,and the
other the river (glen) Tskhenis-
Tskhali from the rivers (glens)
Lechkhum and Racha.Down all these
glens glacier streams descend, until
they find an opportunity to pierce
through the flanking ranges, which
they do in deep and picturesque
gorges, and then race down the
northern slopes of the mountains to
enter the Terek or the Kuban, or
down the southern versant to join
the Rion or the Kura. Amongst all
these high glens there is a remark-
able absence of lakes and waterfalls;
nor are there down in the lower
valleys at the foot of the mountains,
as one would naturally expect in a
region so extensively glaciated, any
sheets of water corresponding to the
Swiss lakes. In this section of the
Caucasus the loftiest peaks do not
$$?
CAUCASUS
as a rule rise on the main range, but in many Cases on the short
spurs that link it with the Bokovoi Khrebet and other subsidiary
ranges.
" The central chain of the Caucasus," writes Mr Douglas W.
Freshfield, 1 " consists of a number of short parallel or curved horse-
shoe ridges, crowned with rocky peaks and enclosing basins filled by
the news of great glaciers. ... On either side of the main chain
the same succession is repeated, with one important difference. On
the north the schists come first, sometimes rising into peaks and
ridges in a state of ruin . . . but more often worn to rolling downs;
then the limestone range — writing-desk mountains that turn their
steep fronts to the central snows; lastly low Cretaceous foothills,
that sink softly into the steppe* But on the south side the crystal-
line rocks are succeeded by a broad belt of slates, as to the age of
which the evidence is at present conflicting and the opinion of
geologists divided. East of Adai-khokh, by what seems a strange
freak of nature, the granitic [main] range is rent over and over again
to its base by gorges, the watershed being transferred to the parallel
chain of clay slates . . . which has followed it from the Black Sea,
le
[ = Tskhenis-Tskhali]
chain spread (to the north) broad, smooth, grassy downs, the pastures
of the Turk and the Ossete. . . . Their ridges attain to 9000 to
10,000 ft. They are composed of friable crystalline schists. . . .
Beyond these schists rises a broken wall of limestone, cleft to the
base by gorges, through which flow the mountain torrents, and
capped by pale precipitous battlements, which face the central
chain at a height of 11,000 to 12,000 ft. Beyond, again, lies a broad
furrow, or ' longitudinal fold/ as geologists call it, parallel to the
ridges, and then rises the last elevation, a belt of low calcareous
hills, on which, here and there among the waves of beech forest,
purple or blue with distance, a white cuff retains its local colour and
shines like a patch of fresh snow. Beyond, once more beyond,
spreads the Scythian steppe, not the dead level of Lombardy, but
an expanse of long low modulations, which would be reckoned hills
in our home counties, seamed by long shining ribbons, which mark
the courses of the tributaries of the Terek. . . . Southwards too,
immediately under the snows, we find ' crystalline schists,' smooth
grassy heights, separated by shallow trenches, which form the lesser
undulations of the three basins, the drei Langenhochthdler ImerUiens
of Dr Radde. These basins or ' longitudinal folds ' are enclosed on
the south by the long hiph ridge of dark slates, which extends
parallel to the crystalline [main] chain from the neighbourhood of
Sukhum-Kale to the Krestovaya Gora [pass of Darial.] Behind this
slate crest spreads a confused multitude of hills, Jurassic and Cre-
taceous in their formation. . . . Their outer edge, distant some
jo to 40 m. from the snows, is marked by a limestone belt, lower and
ess continuous than that on the north, which frames the gorges of
the Rion, and rises in the Kuamli (6552 ft.) and Nakarala (4774 ft.)
near Kutais, its best known elevations." 2 It may be added that,
south of the central watershed, the strata, both Mesozoic and
Palaeozoic, are compressed, crumpled, faulted and frequently over-
folded, with their apices pointing to the south.
Glaciers. — As a rule the snow-line runs at 9500 to 10,000 ft.
on the northern face and 1000 ft. higher on the southern face.
It is estimated that there are in all over nine hundred glaciers
in this section of the range, and although they often rival those
of the Alps in size, they do not descend generally to such low
altitudes as the latter. The best known are the Bezingi or UUu,
between Dykh-tau and Janga-tau, io£ m. long, covering an
area of 31 sq. m., and descending to 6535 ft. above sea-level;
Leksyr, situated south of Adyr-su-bashi, 7J m. long, 19 sq. m.
in area, and creeping down to as low as 5690 ft., this being the
lowest point to which any glacier descends on the south side of
the range; Tseya or Zea, descending 6 m. from the Adai-khokh
to an altitude of 6730 ft.; Karagom, from the same mountain,
9§ m. long, 14 sq. m. in area and reaching down to 5790 ft.,
the lowest on the north side; Dyevdorak or Devdorak, from
Kasbek, 2 \ m. long, its lower end at 7530 ft.; Khaldeh or Geresho
4 J m. long, from Shkara and Janga-tau; Tuyber from Tetnuld,
6} m. long, area 21 sq. m., and reaching down to 6565 ft. ; Tsanner
or Zanner, the same length and the same area, but stopping short
240 ft. higher, likewise given off by Tetnuld; while between that
peak, Adish and Gestola originates the Adish or Lardkhat
glacier, 5 m. long and terminating at 7450 ft. The total area
covered by glaciers in the central Caucasus is estimated at 625
to 650 sq. m., the longest being the Maliev on Kasbek, 36 m.
long; but according to the investigations of M. Rossikov several
1 Exploration -of the Caucasus (2nd ed., 1902), i. 30-31.
* Op. cit. i. 35-36.
of the largest glaciers are shrinking or retreating, the Tseya
at the rate of something like 40-45 ft. per annum.
Passes. — It is in this section that the entire mountain system
is narrowest, and here it is that (apart from the " gate " at
Derbent close beside the Caspian) the principal means of com-
munication exist between north and south, between the steppes
of southern Russia and the highlands of Armenia and Asia Minor.
These means of communication are the passes of Darial and
Mamison. Over the former, which lies immediately east of
Kasbek, runs the Georgian military road (made 1811-1864)
from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis, cutting through the mountains by
a gorge (8 m. long) of singular beauty, shut in by precipitous
mountain walls nearly 6000 ft. high, and so narrow that there is
only just room for the carriage-road and the brawling river
Terek side by side. The pass by which this road crosses the
main range, farther south, is known as the Krestovaya Gora
(Mountain of the Cross) and lies 7805 ft. above sea-level. The
Mamison Pass, over which runs the Ossetic military road (made
passable for vehicles in i889)from the Terek(below Vladikavkaz)
to Kutais in the valley of the Rion, skirting the eastern foot of the
Adai-khokh, lies at an altitude of 9270 ft. and is situated a little
south of the main range. Scarce any of the remaining passes
in this west-central region are better than mountain paths;
horses can traverse the best of them only during a few weeks in
the height of summer. They mostly range at altitudes of oooo-
12,500 ft., and between the pass of Nakhar in the west and that
of Mamison in the east there is not a single pass below 10,000 ft.
The best known in this section are the three Baksan passes of
Chiper (10,800 and 10,720 ft.), Bassa (0950 ft.) and Donguz-orun
(10,490 ft.), south of Elbruz; those of Becho (11,070 ft.),
Akh-su (12,465 ft.), Bak (10,220 ft.), Adyr-su (12,305 ft.) and
Bezingi (10,090 ft.), between Elbruz and Dykh-tau; and those
of Shari-vizk (11,560 ft.), Edena, Pasis-mta or Godivizk (11,270
ft.), Shtulu-vizk (10,860 ft.), Fytnargyn (11,130 ft), between
Dykh-tau and Adai-khokh; the Bakh-fandak (9570 ft.), between
Adai-khohk and Kasbek; and the two Karaul passes (11,680
and 11,270 ft.) and Gurdzi-vizk (10,970 ft.), connecting the valley
of the Urukh with that of the Rion. The most frequented pass
in Svanetia is that of Latpari (9260 ft.) , situated in the first of the
southern subsidiary ranges mentioned above, and thus connect-
ing the valley of the Ingur with the valley of theTskhenis-Tskhali.
Flora. — In this section of the range again the southern slopes
are clothed with vegetation of remarkable luxuriance and
richness, more especially in the region of Svanetia (42°-43° E.).
Not only are the plants bigger than they grow in the Alps, but
the blossoms are more abundant. Here again forests of Coniferae
predominate, especially on the northern and eastern slopes;
and the other distinguishing features of the flora are gigantic
male ferns (Aspidiumfilix-mas), Paris incompleta (a member of
the Trilliaceae), Usnea or tree-moss, box, holly (Ilex aqui folium),
Lilium monadelphum and many of the familiar herbaceous
plants which flower in English gardens, though here they grow
to an altogether extraordinary size — " monkshoods, Cephalaria,
Mulgedia and groundsels, among which men on horseback might
play at hide and seek without stooping" (E. Levier). Other
prominent species are Campanula, Pyrethrum, aconite, CephaAis,
speedwell, Alchemilla sericea, Centaur ea macrocephala t Primula
grandis and a species of primrose. And the great height (13,000
ft.) at which the flowering plants blossom is not less remarkable
than the great beauty and abundance of the flowers. Species
which grow on both the northern and the southern slopes
ascend 2000 ft. higher on the latter than on the former. Walnuts
grow up to an altitude of 5400 ft., the vine and mulberry up to
3250 ft., the lime and ash to 4000 ft. The forests extend to the
upper end of the limestone gorges. Above that the crystalline
schists are bare of tree vegetation. The upper limit of arborescent
vegetation is considered to run at 7000-7500 ft., of shrubs such
as rhododendrons at 8500 ft., and of pasture-lands up to 0000 ft.
The principal cultivated varieties of plants in this section are
wheat, rye, oats, barley, beans, millet and tobacco.
3. Middle Caucasus: (b) Eastern Part. — In this sub-section,
which stretches from Kasbek and the Darial gorge eastwards to
CAUCASUS
553
the Baba-dagh in 48 25' E., a distance of 230 m., the Caucasus
attains its greatest breadth. For the whole of that distance the
main range keeps at an average elevation of 10,000 ft., though
the peaks in many instances tower up 2000 to nearly 5000 ft.
higher, the altitudes increasing towards the east. As the main
range approaches the Caspian its granite core gradually disappears ,
giving place to Palaeozoic schists, which spread down both the
northern and the southern slopes. The glaciers too decrease in
the same proportion both in magnitude and in extent Here the
principal peaks, again found for the most part on the spurs and
subsidiary ranges, are the Tsmiakom-khokh (13,570ft.), Shan-tau
(14,530 ft), Kidenais-magali (13,840 ft.), Zilga-khokh (1 2,645 f *•)>
Zikari (12,565 ft.), Choukhi (12,110 ft), Julti-dagh (12,430 ft.),
Alakhun-dagh (12,600 ft.) and Maghi-dagh (12,445 ft). On the
main range itself stand Borbalo (10,175 ft.), Great Shavi-kildeh
(12,325 ft.), Murov (11,110 ft), Ansal (11,740 ft), Ginor-roso
(11,120 ft), while farther east come Trfan-dagh (13,765 ft.) and
Bazardyuz or Kichen (14,727 ft.). In the same direction, but
again outside the main range, lie Shah-dagh (13,955 ft.), Shalbuz
(13,675 ft.) and Malkamud (12,750 ft).
But the most noteworthy feature of this section is the broad
highland region of Daghestan, which flanks the main range on the
north, and sinks down both eastwards to the Black Sea and
northwards to the valley of the Terek. On the north-west this
rugged highland region is well defined by the distinctive trans-
verse ridge of Andi, which to the east of Kasbek strikes off from
the Caucasus range almost at right angles. The rest of the
Daghestan region consists of a series of roughly parallel folds, of
Jurassic or Cretaceous age, ranging in altitudes from 7500 up to
12,500 ft., separated from one another by deep gorge-like river
glens which cut it up into a number of arid, treeless plateaus
which have something of the appearance of independent ranges,
or rather elongated tablelands of a mountainous character.
The most prominent of these tablelands is Bash-lam, which
stretches east and west between the Chanti Argun and the
Andian Koisu, both tributaries of the Terek. Upon it rise the
conspicuous peaks of Tebulos-mta (14,775 ft.), Tugo-mta
r ( I 3»795 ft-)> Komito-tavi or Kachu (14,010 ft.), Donos-mta
(1.V560 ft.), Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.), Kvavlos-mta or Kolos-mta
(13,080 ft), Motshekh-tsferi (13,140 ft) and Galavanas-tsferi
(13,260 ft.). Farther ea^t come the Bogos tableland, stretching
from south-south-west to east-north-east between the Andian
Koisu and the Avarian Koisu and rising to over 13,400 ft. in
several peaks, e.g. Antshovala(i3,44oft), Botshokh-meer (13,515
ft.), Kosara-ku (13,420 ft.) and Addala-shuogchol-meer (13,580
ft); and the Dyulty tableland) reaching 12,400 ft. between the
Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu. On some of these
peaks again there is a considerable amount of glaciation, more
particularly on the slopes of Dikios-mta, where the glaciers
descend to 7700 ft. on the north side and to 8350 ft on the
south side. In this section of the Caucasus the passes run
somewhat lower than those between Elbruz and Kasbek, though
still at Appreciable heights, fully equal to those that lead up
from the Black Sea to the valley of the Kuban in the western
section of the range. The best known are the Krestovaya Gora
(7805 ft.) on the Georgian military road, south of Darial; Kodor
(9300 ft.) and Satskheni, leading up from Telav in the upper
valley of the Alazan; and Gudur (10,120 ft.) and Salavat
(9280 ft.), carrying the Akhty military road from the valley of
the Samur up past the Shah-dagh and the Bazar-dyusi to the
valley of the Alazan.
The flora of this section bears a general resemblance to that
farther west Ample details will be found in Dr G. Radde'*
(1831-1903) monographs on Daghestan, quoted at the end of
the present article.
4. The Eastern Section of the Caucasus gradually dies
away east of Baba-dagh (11,930 ft.) towards the Caspian,
terminating finally in the peninsula of Apsheron. It is, however,
continued under the waters of the Caspian, as stated in the
article on : that sea, and reappears on its eastern side in the
Kopet-dagh, which skirts the north-east frontier of Persia. In
this section of the Caucasus no peak exceeds 9000 ft. in altitude
and the crest of the main range retains no snow. The most
frequented pass, that of Alty-agach, necessitates a climb of not
more than 4355 ft.
Slopes of Range. — Between the northern and the southern
sides of the range there is quite as great a difference in climate,
productions and scenery as there is between the Swiss and the
Italian sides of the Alps. In the south-western valleys and on the
south-western slopes of the Caucasus, where a heavy rainfall is
combined with a warm temperature, magnificent forests clothe
the mountain-sides and dip their skirts into the waters of the
Black Sea. There not only the littoral from (say) Sukhum-Kaleh
to Batum but the inland parts of the basin of the Rion will
bear comparison with any of the provinces of Italy in point of fer-
tility, and in richness and variety of products. But farther
inland, upon proceeding eastwards towards Tiflis, a great change
becomes noticeable on the other side of the transverse ridge of
the Suram or Meskes mountains. Arid upland plains and
parched hillsides take the place of the rich verdure and luxuriant
arborescent growth of Imeretia, Svanetia and Mingrelia, the
districts which occupy the valleys of the Ingur and Rion and the
tributaries of the latter. A very similar change likewise becomes
noticeable in the higher regions of the Caucasus Mountains
upon proceeding north of the pass of Mamison, which separates
the head-waters of the Rion from those of the Ardon, an important
tributary of the Terek. The valleys of the two streams last
mentioned, and of others that flow in the same direction, are
almost wholly destitute of trees, but where the bare rock .does
not prevail, the mountain slopes are carpeted with grass. Fresh-
field's description of the valley of the Terek above Kasbek will
apply pretty generally to all the valleys that descend on that
face of the range: " treeless valleys, bold rocks, slopes of
forbidding steepness (even to eyes accustomed to those of the
Alps), and stonebuilt villages, scarcely distinguishable from the
neighbouring crags." But, austere and unattractive though
these valleys are, the same epithets cannot be applied to the
deep gorges by which in most cases the streams make their
escape through the northern subsidiary range. These defiles are
declared to be superior in grandeur to anything of the kind in
the Alps. That of Darial (the Terek) is fairly well known, but
those of the Cherek and the Urukh, farther west, are stated to
be still more magnificent. And not only do the snow-clad
ranges and the ice-panoplied peaks which tower up above them
surpass the loftiest summits of the Alps in altitude; they also
in many cases excel them in boldness and picturesqueness of
outline, and equal the most difficult of them in steepness and
relative inaccessibility.
Hydrography. — Nearly all the larger rivers of Caucasia have
their sources in the central parts of the Caucasus range. The
short, steep, torrential streams of Mdzimta, Pzou, Bzyb and
Kodor drain the country west of Elbruz. The Ingur, Tskhenis-
Tskhali, Rion and its tributaries (e.g. the Kvirila) are longer, but
also in part torrential; they drain the great glacier region
between Elbruz and Kasbek. The Rion is the Phasis of the
ancients and flows through the classic land of Colchis, associated
with the legends of Medea and the Argonauts. The Lyakhva
and Aragva, tributaries of the Kura, carry off the waters of
the main range south of Kasbek, and other tributaries, such as
the Yora and the Alazan, collect the surplus drainage of the
main Caucasus range farther east. The other large river of this
region, the Aras, has its sources, not in the Caucasus range, but
on the Armenian highlands a long way south-west of Ararat.
The rivers which go down from the central Caucasus northwards
have considerably longer courses than those on the south side
of the range, partly as a consequence of the gentler versant and
partly also because of the great distances to which the steppes
extend across which they make their way to the sea. The most
important of these are the Kuban and the Terek; but it is the
latter that picks up most of the streams which have their sources
among the central glaciers, e.g. the Malka, Baksan, Chegem,
Cherek, Urukh, Ardon, all confined to deep narrow glens until
they quit the mountains. The Kuma, which alone pursues an
independent course through the steppes, farther north than the
v. 18 a
554
CAUCASUS
Terek, has its sources, not in the main ranges of the Caucasus,
but in an outlying group of mountains near Pyatigorsk, the
highest summit of which, Besh-tau, does not exceed 4600 ft.
But its waters become absorbed in the sands of the desert
steppes before they reach the Caspian. Of the streams that
carve into chequers the elevated plateau or highland region of
Daghestan four are known by the common name of the Koisu,
being distinguished inter se as the Andian Koisu, the Avarjan
Koisu, the Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu, which all
unite to form the Sulak. The only other stream deserving of
mention in this province is the Samur. Both rivers discharge
their waters into the Caspian; as also does the Zumgail, a small
stream which drains the eastern extremity of the Caucasus
range in the government of Baku.
Volcanic Evidences. — Ancient, but now extinct, volcanic
upheavals are pretty common at the intersections of the main
range with the transverse ranges; of these the most noteworthy
are Elbruz and Kasbek. The town of Shemakha, near the eastern
end of the system, was the scene of volcanic outbreaks as late
as 1859, 1872 and 1902; while in the adjacent peninsula of
Apsheron mud volcanoes exist in large numbers. All along the
northern foot of the system hot mineral springs gush out at
various places, such as Pyatigorsk, Zhelesnovodsk, Essentuki
and Kislovodsk; and the series is continued along the north-
eastern foot of the highlands of Daghestan, e.g. Isti-su, Eski-
endery, Akhta, In this connexion it may also be mentioned
that similar evidences of volcanic activity characterize the
northern border of the Armenian highlands on the southern
side of the Rion-Kura depression, in the mountains of Ararat,
Alagoz, Akmangan, Samsar, Godoreby, Great and Little Abull,
and in the mineral springs of Borzhom, Abbas-tuman, Sleptzov,
Mikhailovsk and Tiflis. (J. T. Be.; P. A. K.)
Geology. — The general structure of the Caucasus is comparatively
dimple. The strata are folded so as to form a fan. In the centre of
the fan lies a band of crystalline rocks which disappears towards
the east. Beneath it, on both sides, plunge the strongly folded
Palaeozoic and Jurassic schists. On the northern flank the folded
beds are followed by a zone of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds which
rapidly assume a gentle inclination towards the plain. On the south
the corresponding zone is affected by numerous secondary folds
which involve the Sarmatian or Upper Miocene deposits. In the
eastern part of the chain the structure is somewhat modified. The
crystalline band is lost. The northern Mesozoic zone is very much
broader, and is thrown into simple folds like those of the Jura. The
southern Mesozoic zone is absent, and the Palaeozoic zone sinks
abruptly in a series of faulted steps to the plain of the Kura, beneath
which no doubt the continuation of the Mesozoic zone is concealed.
The geological sequence begins with the granite and schists of the
central zone, which form a band extending from Fisht on the west
to a point some distance beyond Kasbek on the east. Then follow
the Palaeozoic schists and slates. Fossils are extremely rare in
these beds; Buthotrephis has long been known, and doubtful traces
of Catamites and ferns have been found, but it was not until 1897
that undoubted Palaeozoic fossils were obtained. They appear to
indicate a Devonian age. Upon the Palaeozoic beds rest a series of
Mesozoic deposits, beginning with the Lias and ending with the
Upper Cretaceous. Whether the series is continuous or not is a
matter of controversy. F. Loewinson-Lessing states that there is a
more or less marked discordance between the Lias and the Upper
Jurassic and between the latter and the Cretaceous; E. Fournier
Kasbek
.north are nearly horizontal but on the south are in part included in
the folds — the Eocene and Miocene being folded, while the later
beds, though sometimes elevated, are not affected by the folding.
The final folding of the chain undoubtedly occurred at the close of
the Miocene period. That there were earlier periods of folding is
almost equally certain, but there is considerable difference of opinion
as to their dates. The difference in character of the Jurassic beds
on the two sides of the chain appears to indicate that a ridge existed
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in that period. The last phase in the history of the Caucasus was
marked oy the growth of the great volcanoes of Elbruz and Kasbek,
which stand upon the old rocks of the central zone, and by the
outflow of sheets of lava upon the sides of the chain. The cones
themselves are composed largely of acid andesites, but many of the
lavas are augite andesites and basalts. There seem to have been two
periods of eruption, and as some of the lavas have flowed over
Quaternary gravels, the latest outbursts must have been of very
recent date.
Near the northern foot of the Caucasus, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of the hot mineral springs of Pyatigorsk, a group of hills
of igneous rocks rises above the plain. They are laccolites of trachytic
rock, and raised the Tertiary beds above them in the form of blisters.
Subsequent denudation has removed the sedimentary covering and
exposed the igneous core. (P. La.)
Bibliography. — Of the older works the following are still useful:
A. von Haxthausen, Transkaukasia (2 vols., Leipzig, 1856); A.
Petzholdt, Der Kauhasus (2 vols., Leipzig, 1 866-1867); M. G. von
Thielmann, Travels in the Caucasus (En?, trans., 2 vols., London,
1875) ; F. C. Grove, The Frosty Caucasus (London, 1875) ; G. Radde,
Reisen im mingrelischen Hochgebirge (Tiflis, 1866) and Vier VortrSge
iiber den Kauhasus (Gotha, 1874) J E. Favre, Reckerches giologiques
dans la partie centrals de la chains du Caucase (Geneva, 1875);
Batsevich, Simonovich and others, Mat. dlya geologiy Kavki
(Tiflis, 1873 seq.) ; O. Schneider, NaturwissenschafUiche Beitrage zur
Kenntnis der Kaukasusldnder (Dresden, 1879), and J. Bryce, Trans-
caucasia (London, 1878). The more important amongst the more
recent books are D. W. Fresh field, Exploration of the Caucasus
(2nd ed., 1902, 2 vols., London; A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in
the Alps and Caucasus (London, 1895); H. Aoich, Geologische
Forschungen in den kaukasischen Landern (3 vols., Vienna. 1878-
1887), Aus kaukasischen Ldndern (2 vols., Vienna, 1896), and " Ver-
gleichende Grundziige des Kaukasus wie der armenischen und
nordpersischen Gebirge," in M&m. Acad. Sc. S^PStersb. (ser. 6,
Vladikavkaz Lars '-" -"1 -"-'' • Vfile
imNaiit of Vlariikaokan b- Upper Jurassic; cm Moraine terrace; d» Folded lias stales; e » Upper Jurassic; f- Paleoioic schists; ^Greenstone dukes; hmGranlU;
efm $*efs$; 1 - Andesites; k « Jurassic?; 1 - Pliocene (Nageiftuh); m « Miocene; n « Oligocone; r « Nuttiporc limestone 4% conglomerate.
Horizontal Scale 1:560,000. Vertical Scale i:»io,ooo.
F Loftwlmoft. Letting
asserts that there exists a very strongly marked unconformity at
the base of the Tithonian, and other writers have expressed other
views. In general the Upper Jurassic beds are much more calcareous
on the north flank of the chain than they are on the south. The
Mesozoic beds are followed by the Tertiary deposits, which on the
Math, el Phys. f vii. 359-534); R. von Erckert, Der Kaukasus und
seine Volker (Leipzig, 1887); E. Chantre, Recherches anthropo-
logiques dans le Caucase (4 vols., Lyons and Paris, 1885-1887); C.
von Hahn, Aus dem Kauhasus (Leipzig, 1892), Kaukasische Reisen
und Studien (Leipzig, 1896), and Bitder aus dem Kaukasus (Leipzig,
CAUCHOIS-LEMAIRE— CAUCHY
555
lOoo); V. Sella and D. Vallino, Nel Caucaso Centrals (Turin, 1800);
K. Koch, Der Kankasus (Berlin, 1882); C. Phiilipps Woolley,
Savage Soanetia (2 vols., London, 1883); E. Levier, A trovers le
Caucase (Paris, ed. 1905), especially valuable for botany ; G. Merz-
bacher, A us den Hochregionen des Kaukasus (2 vols., Leipzig, 1901) ;
A. Fischer, Zwei Kaukasische Expeditionen (Berne, 1891); E.
Founder, Description gtologique du Caucase central (Marseilles,
1896); G. Radde, Reisen an der persisch-russischen Grenze. Talysch
und seine Bewohner (Leipzig, 1886), Die Fauna und Flora des sudwest-
lichen Kaspigebiets (Leipzig, 1886), Karabagh (Gotha, 1890), and Aus
den daghestanischen Hochatpen (Gotha, 1887); and Count J. Zichy,
Voyages au Caucase (2 vols., Budapest, 1897). F. Loewinson-Lessing
has an account of the geology of the district along the military road
from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis in the Guide des Excursions du VII*
Congres gSol. internal. (St Petersburg, 1897). N » Y - Dmnik writes
on the fauna in Bull. Soc* Imphiale des Naturalistes de Moscou (1901) ;
J. Mourier on the folk-tales in Contes tt Ugendes du Caucase (1888) ;
and on modern history G. Baumgarten, Seckzig Jahre des kauka-
sischen Krieees (Leipzig, 1861). But a very great amount of most
valuable information about the Caucasus is preserved in articles in
encyclopaedias and scientific periodicals, especially the Izvestia and
Zapiskt of the Russian and Caucasian geographical societies, in
P. P. Semenov's Geographical Dictionary (in Russian, 5 vols., St
Petersburg, 1863-1884), and in the Russkiy encyklopedicheskiy slovar
(1894}, and in the Kavkazskiy kalendar (annually at Tiflis). See also
G. Radde and E. Koenig, Der Nordfuss des Daghestan und das
vorlagernde Tiefland bis zur Kuma " (Erganzungsheft No. 117 to
Petermanns Mitteilungen), and " Das Ostufer des Pontus und seine
kulturelle Entwickelung im Verlaufe der letzten 30 Jahre " (Erean-
zungsheft No. 112 of the same); by V. Dingelstedt in Scot. Geog.
Mae. — "Geography of the Caucasus Ouly 1889) ;" The Caucasian
Highlands " (Tune 1895); " The Hydrography of the Caucasus "
(Tune 1809); Yl The Riviera of Russia " (June 1904). " The Small
Trades of the Caucasus " (March 1892) ; and " Caucasian Idioms "
(June 1888). The best map is that of the Russian Genera! Staff on
the scale of 1 : 210,000 (ed. 1895-1901). 0- T- Bb.; P. A. K.)
CAUCHOIS-LEMAIRE, LOUIS FRANCOIS AUGUSTE (1780-
1861), French journalist, was born in Paris on the 28th of August
1789. Towards the end of the First Empire he was proprietor
of the Journal de la UtUrature tt des arts, which he transformed
at the Restoration into a political journal of Liberal tendencies,
the Nainjaune, in which Louis XVIII. himself had tittle satirical
articles secretly inserted. After the return from Elba the Ifain
jaune became Bonapartist and fell into discredit. It was sup-
pressed at the second Restoration. Cauchois-Lemaire then threw
himself impetuously into the Liberal agitation, and had to take
refuge in Brussels in 1816, and in the following year at the Hague,
whence he was expelled for publishing an Appel a V opinion
pubHque tt awx Atats Generaux en faveur des patriotes francais.
Returning to France in 1&19, he resumed the struggle against
the ultra-royalist party with such temerity that he was con-
demned to one year's imprisonment in 1821 and fifteen months'
imprisonment in 1827. After the revolution of July i$3*> he
refused a pension of 6000 francs offered to him by King Louis
Philippe, on the ground that he wished to retain his independence
even in his relations with a government which he had helped to
establish. He made a bitter attack upon the Plrier ministry in
his journal Bon sens, and in 1836 was one of the founders of a
new opposition journal, the Steele. He soon, however, abandoned
journalism for history and, having no private means, in 1840
accepted the post of head of a department in the Royal
Archives. Of a Histoirt de la Revolution de JuiUet, Which he
then undertook, he published only the first volume (2842),
which contains a historical: summary of the Restoration and
a preliminary sketch of the democratic movement. He died in
Paris on the oth of August 1 861.
CAUCHON, PIERRE (d. 1442), French bishop, was born near
Reims in the latter half of the 14th century. We find him
rector of the university of Paris in October 1397. In 1413 he
joined the Burgundian faction, and was exiled by the parle-
ment of Paris. But on the triumph of his party this decree was
annulled, and Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, gave him a
canonry at Bcauvais, sent him to the council of Constance,
procured him the post of maitre des requites in 141 8, and finally in
1420 had him made bishop of Beauvais. But the people were
hostile to him, and he was driven from his bishopric in 1420;
whereupon he attached himself to the English court, and in
143 1 endeavoured to procure the surrender of Reims to the
English, so that Henry VI. might be crowned there. In this he
failed, and Henry was crowned in Paris on the 17th of December
143 1 by Henry Beaufort, cardinal bishop of Winchester, assisted
by the bishops of Beauvais and Noyon. On the 24th of May
1430, Joan of Arc having been taken prisoner at Compiegney
within the limits of his diocese, Cauchon acted as her accuser,
and demanded the right of judging her. Joan was taken to
Rouen, whither Catotaftrfollowed her, having been driven from
Beauvais. He conducted the trial with marked partiality
and malevolence, condemned the maid to imprisonment for life,
and then, under pressure from the populace and the English,
had recourse to fresh perfidies, declared Joan a relapsed heretic,
excommunicated her, and handed her over to the secular arm on
the 30th of May 143 1. As, in consequence of this, it was inv
possible for him to return to his own diocese, he obtained the
bishopric of Lisieux in 1432 by favour of the king of England.
He assisted at the council of Basel in i435> » nd dkd suddenly
on the 18th of December 1442. Excommunicated posthumously
by Pope Calixtus IV., his body was exhumed and thrown in the
common sewer.
See Cerf, " Pierre Cauchon de Sommievre, chanoine de Reims et
de Beauvais, eveque de Beauvais et de Lisieux, son origine, ses
dignites, sa mort et sa sepulture," in the Iransactions of the
Academy of Reims (1 896-1 898).
CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, Bason (1789-1857), French
mathematician, was born at Paris on the 21st of August 1789,
and died at Sceaux (Seine) on the 23rd of May 1857. Having
received his early education from his father Louis Francois
Cauchy (1760-1848), who held several minor public appoint-
ments and counted Lagrange and Laplace among his friends,
Cauchy entered ficole Centrale du Pantheon in 1802, and
proceeded to the ficole Polytechnique in 1805, and to the ficole
des Ponts et Chaussees in 1807. Having adopted the profession
of an engineer, he left Paris for Cherbourg in 1810, but returned
in 181 3 on account of his health, whereupon Lagrange and
Laplace persuaded him to renounce engineering and to devote
himself to mathematics. He obtained an appointment at the
£coie Polytechnique, which, however, he relinquished in 1830
on the accession of Louis Philippe, finding it impossible to take
the necessary oaths. A short sojourn at Freiburg in Switzerland
was followed by his appointment in 1831 to the newly-created
chair of mathematical physics at the university of Turin. In
1833 the deposed king Charles X. summoned him to be tutor to
his grandson, the duke of Bordeaux, an appointment which
enabled Cauchy to travel and thereby become acquainted with
the favourable impression which his investigations had made.
Charles created him a baron in return for his services. Returning
to Paris in 1838, he refused a proffered chair at the College de
France, but in 1848, the oath having been suspended, he resumed
his post at the ficole Polytechnique, and when the oath was
reinstituted after the coup (Pilot of 185 1, Cauchy and Arago
were exempted from it. A profound mathematician, Cauchy
exercised by his perspicuous and rigorous methods a great
influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings
cover the entire range of mathematics and mathematical physics.
Cauchy had two brothers: Aiexandre Laubent (1792-
1857), who became a president of a division of the court of appeal
in 1847, & n d a judge of the court of cassation in 1849; and
EugAne Francois (1802-1877), a publicist who also wrote
several mathematical works.
The genius of Cauchy was promised In his simple solution of the
problem of Apollonius, i.e. to describe a circle touching three given
circles, which he discovered in 1805, his generalization of Euler's
theorem on polyhedra in 181 1, and in several other elegant problems.
More important is his memoir on wave-propagation which obtained
the Grand Prix of the Institut in 1816. His greatest contributions
to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which
he introduced. These are mainly embodied in his three great
treatises, Cours d? analyse de VEcole Polytechnique (1821); Le Calcul
infinitesimal (1823) ; Lecons sur les applications du calcul infinitisimal
d la gionUtrie (1 826-1 828) ; and also in his courses of mechanics (for
the ficole Polytechnique), higher algebra (for the Faculte des
Sciences), and of mathematical physics (for the College de France).
His treatises apd contributions to scientific journals (to the number
I of 789) contain investigations on the theory of series (where he
developed with perspicuous skill the notion of cortvergency), on the
theory of numbers and complex quantities, the theory of groups and
556
CAUCUS— CAULAINCOURT ,
substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations and
determinants. He clarified the principles of the calculus by develop-
ing them with the aid of limits and continuity, and was the first
to prove Taylor's theorem rigorously, establishing his well-known
form of the remainder. In mechanics, he made many researches,
substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical displace-
ments for the principle of the continuity of matter. In optics, he
develooed the wave theory, and his name is associated with the simple
dispersion formula. In elasticity, he 6ri£ittatie*Jthe theory of stress,
ana his results are nearly as valuable as those of S. D. Poisson. His
collected works, CEuvres completes d'Augustin Cauchy, have been
published in 27 volumes.
See C. A. Valson, he Baron Augustin Cauchy: savie et ses travaux
(Paris, 1868).
CAUCUS, a political term used in America of a special form
of party meeting, and in Great Britain of a system of party
organization. The word originated in Boston, Massachusetts,
in the early part of the 18th century, when it was used as the
name of a political club, the " Caucus " or " Caucas " club.
Here public matters were discussed, and arrangements made for
local elections and the choosing of candidates for offices. The
first mention of the club in contemporary documents occurs in
the diary of John Adams in 1763, but William Gordon (History
of the Independence of the United States of America, 1788) speaks
of the Caucus as having been in existence some fifty years before
the time of writing (1774), and describes the methods used for
securing the election of the candidates the club had selected.
The derivation of the word has been much disputed. It
was early connected with " caulkers," and it was supposed
referred to meetings of the caulkers in the dockyard at Boston
in 1770, to protest against the action of the British troops, or
with a contemptuous allusion to the lower class of workmen
frequenting the club. This is, however, a mere guess, and does
not agree with the earlier date at which the club is known to have
existed, nor with the accounts given of it. That it was a fanciful
classical name for a convivial club, derived from the late Greek
jcauxos, a cup, is far-fetched, and the most plausible origin is
an Algonquin word kauhkaw-was, meaning to talk. Indian
words and names have been popular in America as titles for
societies and clubs; cf. " Tammany " (see Notes and Queries.
sixth series, vols. xL and xii.). In the United States "caucus"
is used strictly of a meeting either of party managers or of party
voters. Such might be a " nominating caucus," either for
nominating candidates for office or for selecting delegates for
a nominating convention. The caucus of the party in Congress
nominated the candidates for the offices of president and vice-
president from 1800 till 1824, when the convention system was
adopted, and the place of the local " nominating caucus " is
taken by the " primaries " and conventions. The word is used
in America of the meetings of a party in Congress and other
legislative bodies and elsewhere which decide matters of policy
and plan campaigns. " Caucus " came first into use in Great
Britain in 1878. The Liberal Association of Birmingham (see
Liberal Party) was organized by Mr Joseph Chamberlain and
Mr F. Schnadhorst on strict disciplinary lines, more particularly
with a view to election management and the control of voters
on the principle of " vote as you are told." This managing body
of the association, known locally as the " Six Hundred," became
the model for other Liberal associations throughout the country,
and the Federation of Liberal Associations was organized on the
same plan. It was to this supposed imitation of the American
political " machine " that Lord Beaconsfield gave the name
" caucus," and the name came to be used, not in the American
sense of a meeting, but of a closely disciplined system of party
organization, chiefly used as a stock term of abuse applied by
opponents to each other's party machinery.
CAUDBBEC-EN-CAUX, a town of France, in the department
of Seine-Infe>ieure, 27 m. W.N.W. of Rouen by the Ouest-Etat
railway. Pop. (1906) 2 141. It is situated on the right bank of
the Seine, the tidal wave of which (mascaret) can be well seen at
this point. The chief interest of the town lies in its church, a
building of the 15th and the early 16th centuries. Round its
top run balustrades formed of Gothic letters, which read as part
of the Magnificat. Its west portal, the decoration of the spire
of the tower, and its stained glass are among the features which
make it one of the finest churches of the Rouen diocese. The
town also possesses several old houses. Its industries include
tanning and leather-currying, and there is trade in grain. The
port has a small trade in coal, live-stock and farm produce.
CAUDINE FORKS (Furculae Caudinae), a pass in Samnium,
famous for the disaster which befell the Roman army in the
second Samnite War (321 B.C.). Livy (ix. 2) describes it as
formed by two narrow wooded gorges, between which lay a plain,
grassy and well-watered, but entirely enclosed by mountains.
Through this plain the road (later the Via Appia) led. The
Romans, marching from Calatia to the relief of Luceria, entered
the valley unopposed, but found the exit blocked by the enemy;
on marching back they saw that the entrance and the hills
surrounding the plain were also occupied, and there was no way
of escape. The plain which lies west of Caudium ( Mon tesarchio)
seems, despite the older views, to be the only possible site for
such a disaster to an army of as many as 40,000 men; and there
is no doubt that the Romans wished to leave it by the defile on
the east, through which later ran the Via Appia to Beneventum.
The existence of three ancient bridges on the line of the modern
road renders it impossible to suppose that its course can be
essentially different from that of the ancient, though Hiilsen
makes the two diverge considerably after passing Mon tesarchio.
There are, however, two possible entrances — one on the north
by Moiano, and one on the west by Arpaia; the former seems
to answer better to Livy's description (via alia per cavam rupem),
while the latter is the shortest route, having been, later on,
followed by the Via Appia, and bore the name Furculae Caudinae
in the middle ages.
See C. Hiilsen in Paniy-Wissowa, Realencyclefcdie, in. (1802).
(T. As.)
CAUDLE (through the O. Fr. caudel, from the Med. Lat.
caldeUum, a diminutive of caldum, a warm drink, from calidus >
hot), a drink of warm gruel, mixed with spice and wine, formerly
given to women in childbed.
CAUL (from O. Eng. caUe, Fr. cale, a cap), a close-fitting
woman's cap, especially one made of network worn in the 16th
and 17th centuries; hence the membranous covering to the
heart or brain, the omentum, or the similar covering to the
intestines, and particularly, a portion of the amnion, which is
sometimes found remaining round the head of a child after birth.
To this, called in Scotland " sely how," holy or lucky hood,
many superstitions have been attached; it was looked on as a
sign of good luck, and when preserved, was kept as a protection
against drowning.
CAULAINCOURT, ARM AND AUGUSTIN LOUIS, Marquis
de (1 773-1827), French general and diplomatist, was born of a
noble family. He early entered the army, did not emigrate in
the revolution, but was deprived of his grade as captain in 1793
and served in the ranks. In 1795, through the protection of
L. Hoche, he became captain again, was colonel in the Army of
the Rhine in 1 790-1 800, and after the peace of Lun6ville (1801)
was sent to St Petersburg to negotiate an understanding between
Russia and France. On his return he was named aide-de-camp
of the First Consul. He was employed to seize some agents of the
English government in Baden in 1804, which led to the accusa-
tion that he was concerned in the arrest of the due d'Enghien, an
accusation against which he never ceased to protest. After the
establishment of the empire he received various honours and the
title of duke of Vicenza (1808). Napoleon sent him in 1807 as
ambassador to St Petersburg, where Caulaincourt tried to
maintain the alliance of Tilsit, and although Napoleon's ambition
made the task a difficult one, Caulaincourt succeeded in it for
some years. In 181 1 he strongly advised Napoleon to renounce
his proposed expedition to Russia. During the war he accom-
panied the emperor, and was one of those whom Napoleon took
along with him when he suddenly abandoned his army in Poland
to return to Paris (December 1812). I>««!f m *» "X' ^i7~i™«*':,.
empire, Caulaincourt wa. ch.rged with all the d.plomatic
negotiations. He signed the armist.ee of Ptaints, June 1813,
represented France at the congress of Prague, in August 1813, at
the congress of Chatillon, in February 1814, and concluded the
CAUWCULUS-^CAUSATION
557
treaty of Fontainebleaupn the ioth of April 1814. During the
first Restoration, Caulaincouxt lived in obscure retirement.
When Napoleon returned from Elba, he became minister of
foreign affairs, and tried to persuade Europe of the emperor's
peaceful intentions. After the second Restoration, Caulaincourt's
name was on the list of those proscribed, but it was erased on
the personal intervention of Alexander I. with Louis XVIII.
Caulaincouxt 's memoirs appeared under the title Souvenirs du due
de Vicence in 1 837-1840. See A. Vandal, NapoUon e% Alexandre
(Paris, 1891-1895); Tatischeff, Alexandre I' r et Napoleon (Paris,
1892); H. Houssaye,jt8i4 (Paris, 1888), and 1815 (Paris, 1893).
CAULICULUS (from Lat. caulis, a stalk), in architecture, the
stalks (eight in number) with two leaves from which rise the
helices or spiral scrolls of the Corinthian capital to support the
abacus.
CAULON (Gr. Kavkwia), a town of the district of the Bruttii,
Italy, on the east coast. Its exact site is uncertain (though the
name has been given to a modern village), and depends on the
identification of the river Sagras. It was the southernmost of
the Achaean colonies, founded either by Croton or direct from
Greece itself. In the 7th century it was allied with Croton and
Sybaris, and its coins, which go back to 550 B.C., prove its
Importance. It took the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian
War. In 388 B.C. it was destroyed by Dionysius, but soon after-
wards restored. It was captured during the invasion of Pyrrhus
by Campanian troops. Strabo speaks of it as deserted in his time.
The erection of the lighthouse at Capo Stilo, on the site of one of
the medieval guard towers of the coast, led to the discovery of a
wall of Greek origin, and close by of a number of terra-cottas,
belonging perhaps to a temple erected in honour of the deities of
the sea. Other remains were found at Fontanelle, 2§ m. away,
including the fragment of a capital of an archaic Greek temple
(P. Orsi in Nofaie degli Scavi, 1891 , 61). These buildings may be
connected with the Caulon or a village dependent on it. (T. As.)
CAUSATION or Causality (Lat. causa, derived perhaps from
the root cav-, as in caveo, and meaning something taken care of;
corresponding to Gr. atria), a philosophical term for the opera-
tion of causes and for the mental conception of cause as operative
throughout the universe. The word " cause " is correlative to
" effect." Thus when one thing B is regarded as taking place in
consequence of the action of another thing A, then A is said to be
the cause of B , and B the effect of A. The philosophical problems
connected with causation are both metaphysical and psycho-
logical. The metaphysical problem is part of the whole theory of
existence. If everything is to be regarded as causally related
with simultaneous and prior things or actions, it follows logically
that the investigation of existence must, by hypothesis, be a
regress to infinity, i.e. that we cannot conceive a beginning to
existence. This explanation has led to the postulate of a First
Cause, the nature of which is variously explained. The empirical
school sees no difficulty in assuming a single event; but such a
theory seems to deny the validity of the original hypothesis.
Theologians assert a divine origin in the form of a personal self-
existent creator, while some metaphysical schools, preferring an
impersonal First Cause, substitute the doctrine of the Absolute
(q.v.). All the explanations are alike in this respect, that at a
certain point they pass from the sphere of the senses, the physical
world, to a metaphysical sphere in which the data and the
intellectual operation of cognizing them are of a totally different
quality. For example, the causal connexion between drunken-
ness and alcohol is not of the same observable character as that
which is inferred between the infinite First Cause and the whole
domain of sense-given phenomena.
A second metaphysical problem connected with causation
arises when we consider the nature of necessity. It is generally
assumed when two things are spoken of as cause and effect that
their relation is a necessary one, or, in other words, that given the
cause the effect must follow. The arguments connected with
this problem belong to psychological discussions of causation.
It is sufficient here to state that, in so far as causation is regarded
as necessary connexion, it can form no part of a purely empirical
theory of existence. The senses can say only that in all observed
cases B has followed A, and this does not establish necessary
connexion. The idea of causation is a purely intellectual (a
priori) one.
The psychological problems connected with causation refer
(1) to the origin of the conception in our minds; (2) to the
validity of the conception. As regards the origin of the concep-
tion modern psychological analysis does not carry us beyond the
doctrine of Locke contained in his chapter on " Power " (Essay,
bk. ii. ch. 21), wherein he shows that the idea of power is got
from the knowledge of our own activity. " Bodies by their
causes," he says, " do not afford us so clear and distinct an idea of
active power as we have from reflection on the operation of our
minds. " Putting Locke's doctrine into modern language, we may
say that a man has the conception of cause primarily because he
himself is a cause. The conception thus obtained we " project,"
that is, transfer to external objects, so far as we may find it useful
to do so. Thus it is by a sort of analogy that we say that the sun
is the " cause " of daylight. The rival theory to Locke's is that
of Hume (Treatise, bk. i.) f who derives the conception from the
unaided operation of custom. When one object, A, has been
noticed frequently to precede another object, B, an association
between A and B is generated; and by virtue of this association,
according to Hume, we say that A is the cause of B. The weak-
ness of this account is that many invariable successions, such aa
day and night, do not make us regard the earlier members of the
successions as causing the later; while in numberless cases we
assert a causal connexion between two objects from a single
experience of them.
We may proceed now to consider the validity of the conception
of causation, which has been attacked from two sides. From
the side of absolute idealism it is argued that the conception of
cause, as involving a transition in time, cannot be ultimately
valid, since the time-relation is not ultimately real. Upon this
view (ably stated in Professor Bosanquet's Logic, bk. i. ch. 6)
the more we know of causes and effects the less relevant becomes
the time-relation and the nearer does the conception of cause
and effect approach to another conception which is truly valid,
the conception of ground and consequence. This means that,
viewed from the standpoint of science, a draught of alcohol
causes intoxication in no other sense than the triangularity of
a triangle causes the interior angles to be equal to two right
angles. This argument ceases to have cogency so soon as we
deny its fundamental proposition that the time-relation is not
ultimately real, but is irrelevant from the standpoint of science.
This is a sheer assertion, contrary to all ordinary experience,
which we have as much right to deny as the absolute idealists
to affirm. It is only plausible to those who are committed to
the Hegelian view of reality as consisting of a static system of
universals, a view which has long been discredited in Germany,
its native land, and is fast losing ground in England. Against
the Hegelians we must maintain that the common distinction
between " ground " and " cause " is perfectly justifiable.
Whereas "ground" is an appropriate term for the relations
within a static, simultaneous system, " cause " is appropriate
to the relations within a dynamic, successive system.
From the other side the validity of causation has been attacked
in the interests of the naturalism of the mechanical sciences.
J. S. Mill argues that, scientifically, the cause of anything is the
total assemblage of the conditions that precede its appearance,
and that we have no right to give the name of cause to one of
them exclusively of the others. The answer to this is that Mill
fails to recognize that cause is a conception which we find useful
in our dealings with nature, and that whatever concep-
tions we find useful we are justified in using. Among the
conditions of an event there are always one or two that stand
in specially close relation to it from our point of view; e.g. the
draught of alcoholic liquor is more closely related to the man's
drunkenness than is the attraction of the earth's gravity, though
that also must co-operate in producing the effect. Such closely
related conditions we find it convenient to single out by a term
which expresses their analogy to the cause of causes, human
volition.
55*
CAUSEWAY— CAUSTIC
These are the questions respecting causation which are matters
of present controversy; there are in addition many other points
which belong to the controversies of the past. Among the most
important are Aristotle's classification of causes into material,
formal, efficient and final, set forth in his Physics and elsewhere,
and known as his doctrine of the Four Causes; Geulincx's
Occasional Causes, meant as a solution of certain difficulties
in the cosmology of Descartes; Leibnitz's law of Sufficient
Reason; and Kant's explanation of cause and effect as an a
priori category of the understanding, intended as an answer to
Hume's scepticism, but very much less effective than the line
of explanation suggested by Locke.
The following is a list of the various technical terms connected
with causation which have been distinguished by logicians and
psychologists.
The four Aristotelian causes are: (i) Material cause (OX17),
the material out of which a thing is made; the material cause
of a house is the bricks and mortar of which it is composed.
(2) Formal cause {ethos, X070S, rd ri ty elvai), the general
external appearance, shape, form of a thing; the formal cause
of a triangle is its triangularity. (3) Efficient cause (dpx4 TVS
Kivfyrews), the alcohol which makes a man drunk, the pistol-
bullet which kills. This is the cause as generally understood in
modern usage. (4) Final cause (liXos, t6 ov fraa), the object
for which an action is done or a thing produced; the final cause
of a commercial man's enterprise is to make his livelihood (see
Teleology). This last cause was rejected by Bacon, Descartes
and Spinoza, and indeed in ordinary usage the cause of an action
in relation to its effect is the desire for, and expectation of, that
effect on the part of the agent, not the effect itself. The Proxi-
mate cause of a phenomenon is the immediate or superficial as
opposed to the Remote or Primary cause. Plurality of Causes
is the much criticized doctrine of J. S. Mill that a fact may be
the uniform consequent of several different antecedents. Causa
essendi means the cause whereby a change is what it is, as opposed
to the causa cognoscendi, the cause of our knowledge of the
event; the two causes evidently need not be the same. An
object is called causa immanens when it produces its changes
by its own activity; a causa transiens produces changes in some
other object. Causa sui is a term applied to God by Spinoza
to denote that he is dependent on nothing and has no need of
any external thing for his existence. Vera causa is a term used
by Newton in his Principia, where he says, " No more causes of
natural things are to be admitted than such as are both true and
sufficient to explain the phenomena of those things "; verae
causae must be such as we have good inductive grounds to believe
do exist in nature, and do perform a part in phenomena analogous
to those we would render an account of.
CAUSEWAY, a path on a raised dam or mound across marshes
or low-lying ground; the word is also used of old paved highways,
such as the Roman military roads. " Causey " is still used
dialectically in England for a paved or cobbled footpath. The
word is properly " causey-way," from causey, a mound or dam,
which is derived, through the Norman-French caucie (cf . modern
chaussie), from the late Latin via calciata, a road stamped firm
with the feet (cakare, to tread).
CAUSSES (from Lat. calx through local Fr. caous, meaning
u lime "), the name given to the table-lands lying to the south
of the central plateau of France and sloping westward from the
Cevennes. They form parts of the departments of Lozere,
Aveyron, Card, H6rault, Lot and Tarn-et-Garonne. They are
of limestone formation, dry, sterile and treeless. These char-
acteristics are most marked in the east of the region, where the
Causse de Sauveterre, the Causse M6jan, the Causae Noir and
the Larzac flank the CeVennes. Here the Causse M6jan, the
most deserted and arid of all, reaches an altitude of nearly
4200 ft. Towards the west the lesser causses of Rouergue and
Quercy attain respectively 2950 ft. and 1470 ft. Once an uninter-
rupted table-land, the causses are now isolated from one another
by deep rifts through which run the Tarn, the Dourbie, the
Jonte and other rivers. The summits are destitute of running
water, since the rain as it falls either sinks through the permeable
surface soil or runs into the fissures and chasms, some of great
depth, which are peculiar to the region. The inhabitants
(Caussenards) of the higher causses cultivate hollows in the
ground which are protected from the violent winds, and the
scanty herbage permits of the raising of sheep, from the milk
of which Roquefort cheeses are made. In the west, where the
rigours of the weather are less severe, agriculture is more easily
carried on.
CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL, ARMAND-PIERRE (1795-1871),
French orientalist, was born in Paris on the 13th of January
1795. His father, Jean Jacques Antoine Caussin de Perceval
(r 7 59-1835), was professor of Arabic in the College de France.
In 1 8 14 he went to Constantinople as a student interpreter, and
afterwards travelled in Asiatic Turkey, spending a year with the
Maronites in the Lebanon, and finally becoming dragoman at
Aleppo. Returning to Paris, he became professor of vulgar
Arabic in the school of living Oriental languages in 1821, and
also professor of Arabic in the College de France in 1833. In
1849 he was elected to the Academy of Inscriptions. He died
at Paris during the siege on the 15th of January 187 1.
Caussin de Perceval published (1828) a useful Grammaire
arabe vulgaire, which passed through several editions (4th ed.,
1858), and edited and enlarged Elie Bocthor's 1 Dictionnaire
francais-arabe (2 vols., 1828; 3rd ed., 1864); but his great
reputation rests almost entirely on one book, the Essai sur
Vhistoire des Arabes avant VIslamisme, pendant Vfyoque de
Mahomet (3 vols., 1 847-1 849), in which the native traditions as
to the early history of the Arabs, down to the death of Mahommed
and the complete subjection of all the tribes to Islam, are brought
together with wonderful industry and set forth with much learn-
ing and lucidity. One of the principal MS. sources used is the
great Kit&b aUAghdni (Book of Songs) of Abu Faraj, which has
since been published (20 vols., Boulak, 1868) in Egypt; but no
publication of texts can deprive the Essai, which is now very
rare, of its value as a trustworthy guide through a tangled mass
of tradition.
CAUSTIC (Gr. kchxttikSs, burning), that which burns. In
surgery, the term is given to substances used to destroy living
tissues and so inhibit the action of organic poisons, as in bites,
malignant disease and gangrenous processes. Such substances
are silver nitrate (lunar caustic), the caustic alkalis (potassium
and sodium hydrates), zinc chloride, an acid solution of mercuric
nitrate, and pure carbolic acid. In mathematics, the " caustic
surfaces " of a given surface are the envelopes of the normals
to the surface, or the loci of its centres of principal curvature.
In optics, the term caustic is given to the envelope of luminous
rays after reflection or refraction; in the first case the envelope is
termed a catacaustic, in the second a diacaustic. Catacaustics
are to be observed as bright curves when light is allowed to fall
upon a polished riband of steel, such as a watch-spring, placed
on a table, and by varying the form of the spring and moving
the source of light, a variety of patterns may be obtained. The
investigation of caustics, being based on the assumption of the
rectilinear propagation of light, and the validity of the experi-
mental laws of reflection and refraction, is essentially of a geo-
metrical nature, and as such it attracted the attention of the
mathematicians of the 17th and succeeding centuries, more
notably John Bernoulli, G. F. de 1'Hopital, E. W. Tschirnhausen
and Louis Carre'.
The simplest case of a caustic curve is when the reflecting surface
is a circle, and the luminous rays emanate from a point on the
circumference. If in fig. 1 AQP be the reflecting circle, cmaatica
having C as centre, P the luminous point, and rQ any b
incident ray, and we join CQ. it follows, by the law of the ^f^cn^a,
equality of the angles of incidence and reflection, that the
reflected ray OR 16 such that the angles RQC and CQPare equal;
to determine the caustic, it is necessary to determine the envelope of
this line. This may be readily accomplished geometrically or
analytically, and it will be found that the envelope is a cardioid
(a. v.), i.e. an epicycloid in which the radii of the lixed and rolling
circles are equal. When the rays are parallel, the reflecting surface
1 filie Bocthor (1 784-1 821) was a French orientalist of Coptic
origin. He was the author of a TraitS des conjugaisons written in
Arabic, and left his Dictionary in MS.
CAUTERETS— CAUVERY
559
remaining circular, the question can be similarly treated, and it is
found that the caustic is an epicycloid in which the radius of the fixed
circle is twice that of the ro!!fn$ circle (fig. 2). The geometrical
method is also applicable when it is required to deft
termine the caustic
after any number of reflections at a spherical surface of rays, which
are either parallel or diverge from a point on the circumference. In
both cases the curves are epicycloids; in the first case the radii of •
the rolling and the fixed circles are a(2n-i)/4* and a/2*, and in the
second, an/(2n+l) and «/(2«-f-i), where a is the radius of the mirror
and n the number of reflections.
The Cartesian equation to the caustic produced by reflection at a
circle of rays diverging from any point was obtained by Joseph Louis
Lagrange; it may be expressed in the form
\(4C*-a*)(?+?)-2a*cx-a*<*\*=27a i (*f(**+?--<*)*,
where a is the radius of the reflecting circle, and c the distance of the
luminous point from the centre of the circle. The polar form is
\(u+p) cos M }+((«-£) sin ft i»(**)f, where p and k are the re-
ciprocals of c and a, and u the reciprocal of the radius vector of any
point on the caustic. When c — a or =<x> the curve reduces to the
cardioid or the two cusped epicycloid previously discussed. Other
forms are shown in figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. These curves were traced by
the Rev. Hammet Holditch (Quart. Jour. Math. vol. i.).
Secondary caustics are orthotomic curves having the reflected or
refracted rays as normals, and consequently the proper caustic curve,
being the envelope of the normals, is their evolute. It is usually the
case that the secondary caustic is easier to determine than thecaustic,
and hence, when determined, it affords a ready means for deducing
the primary caustic. It may be shown by geometrical considerations
that the secondary caustic is a curve similar to the first positive pedal
of the reflecting curve, of twice the linear dimensions, with respect
to the luminous point. For a circle, when the rays emanate from
any point, the secondary caustic is a Ltmacon, and hence the primary
caustic is the evolute of this curve.
The simplest instance of a caustic by refraction (or diacaustic) is
when luminous rays issuing from a point are refracted at a straight
Hne. It may be shown geometric-
ally that the secondary
caustic, if the second by
medium be less refrac-
Fig. 6.
a>c>Ka
tive than the first, is an
ellipse having the luminous point
for a focus, and its centre at the
foot of the perpendicular from the
luminous point to the refracting
line. The evolute of this ellipse
is the caustic required. If the
second* medium be more highly
refractive than the first, the secondary caustic is a hyperbola having
the same focus and centre as before, and the caustic is the evolute
of this curve. When the refracting curve is a circle and the rays
emanate from any point, the locus of the secondary caustic is a
Cartesian oval, and the evolute of this curve is the required dia-
caustic. These curves appear to have been first discussed by
Gergonne. For the caustic by refraction of parallel rays at a circle
reference should be made to the memoirs by Arthur Cay ley.
References.— Arthur Caytey's " Memoirs on Caustics " in the
Phil. Trans, for 1857, vol. 147, and 1867, vol. 157, are especially
to be consulted. Reference may also be made to R. S. Heath's
Geometrical Optics and R. A. Herman's Geometrical Optics (1900).
CAUTERETS, a watering-place of south-western France in
the department of Hautes-Pyrenees, 20 m. S. by W. of Lourdes
by rail. Pop. (1906) 1030. It lies in the beautiful valley of the
Gave de Cauterets, and is well known.. for its copious thermal.
springs. They are chiefly characterized by the presence of
sulphur and silicate of soda, and are used in the treatment of
diseases of the respiratory organs, rheumatism, skin diseases
and many other maladies. Their temperature varies between
75 and 137 F. The springs number twenty-four, and there
axe nine bathing establishments. Cauterets is a centre for ex-
cursions, the Monn6 (8935 ft.), the Cabaliros (7655 ft.), the
Pic de Chabarrou (9550 ft.), the Vignemaie (10,820 ft.), and
other summits being in its neighbourhood.
CAUTIN, a province of southern Chile, bounded N. by Arauco,
Malleco and Bio-Bio, E. by Argentina, S. by Valdivia, and W.
by the Pacific. Its area is officially estimated at 5832 sq. m.
Cautin lies within the temperate agricultural and forest region
of the south, and produces wheat, cattle, lumber, tan-bark
and fruit. The state central railway from Santiago to Puerto
Montt crosses the province from north to south, and the Cautin,
or Imperial, and Token rivers (the latter forming its southern
boundary) cross from east to west, both affording excellent
transportation facilities. The province once formed part of the
territory occupied by the Araucanian Indians, and its present
political existence dates from 1887. Its population (1905) was
96,139, of whom a large percentage were European immigrants,
principally Germans, The capital is Temuco, on the Rio Cautin ;
pop. (1895) 7078. The principal towns besides Temuco are
Lautaro (3139) and Nueva Imperial (9179), both of historic
interest because they were fortified Spanish outposts in the long
struggle with the Araucanians.
GAUTLEY, SIR PROBT THOMAS (1802-1871), English
engineer and palaeontologist, was born in Suffolk in 1802. After
some years' service in the Bengal artillery, which he joined in
1 819, he was engaged on the reconstruction of the Doab canal,
of which, after it was opened, he had charge for twelve years
(183 1-1843) . In 1840 he reported on the proposed Ganges canal,
for the irrigation of the country between the rivers Ganges,
Hindan and Jumna, which was his most important work. This
project was sanctioned in 1841, but the work was not begun till
1843, and even then Cautley found himself hampered in its
execution by the opposition of Lord Ellcnborougb. From 1845
to 1848 he was absent in England owing to ill-health, and on his
return to India he was appointed director of canals in the North-
western Provinces. After the Ganges canal was opened in 1854
he went back to England, where he was made K.C.B., and from
1858 to 1868 he occupied a seat on the council of India. He died
at Sydenham, near London, on the 25th of January 1871. In
i860 he published a full account of the making of the Ganges
canal, and he also contributed numerous memoirs, some written
in collaboration with Dr Hugh Falconer, to the Proceedings of
the Bengal Asiatic Society and the Geological Society of London
on the geology and fossil remains of the Sivalik Hills.
CAUVERY, or Kaveri, a river of southern India. Rising in
Coorg, high up amid the Western Ghats, in 12 25' N. lat. and
75° 34' E. long., it flows with a general south-eastern direction
across the plateau of Mysore, and finally pours itself into the Bay
of Bengal through two principal mouths in Tanjore district.
Its total length is 472 m., the estimated area of its basin 27,700
sq. m. The course of the river in Coorg is very tortuous. Its bed
is generally rocky; its banks are high and covered with luxuriant
vegetation. On entering Mysore it passes through a narrow
gorge, but presently widens to an average breadth of 300 to
400 yds. Its bed continues rocky, so as to forbid all navigation;
but its banks are here bordered with a rich strip of cultivation.
In its course through Mysore the channel is interrupted by
twelve anicuts or dams for the purpose of irrigation. From the
most important of these, known as the Madadkatte, an artificial
channel is led to a distance of 72 m«, irrigating an area of 10,000
acres, and ultimately bringing a water-supply into the town of
Mysore. In Mysore state the Cauvery forms the two islands of
Seringapatam and Sivasamudram, which vie in sanctity with the
island of Seringam lower down in Trichinopoly district. Around
the island of Sivasamudram are the celebrated falls of the Cauvery,
unrivalled for romantic beauty. The river here branches into
two channels, each of which makes a descent of about 200 m.
5 6 °
CAVA DEI TIRRENI— CAVAIGNAC
in a succession of rapids and broken cascades. After entering
the Madras presidency, the Cauvery forms the boundary between
the Coimbatore and Salem districts, until it strikes into Trichi-
nopoly district. Sweeping past the historic rock of Trichinopoly,
it breaks at the island of Seringam into two channels, which
enclose between them the delta of Tanjore, the garden of southern
India. The northern channel is called the Coleroon (Kolidam) ;
the other preserves the name of Cauvery. On the seaward face
of its delta are the open roadsteads of Negapatam and French
Karikal. The only navigation on any portion of its course is
carried on in boats of basket-work. It is in the delta that the
real value of the river for irrigation becomes conspicuous. This is
the largest delta system, and the most profitable of all the works
in India. The most ancient irrigation work is a massive dam
of unhewn stone, 1080 ft. long, and from 40 to 60 ft. broad,
across the stream of the Cauvery proper, which is supposed to
date back to the 4th century, is still in excellent repair,
and has supplied a model to British engineers. The area of the
ancient system was 669,000 acres, the modern about 1,000,000
acres. The chief modern work is the anicut across the Coleroon,
2250 ft. long, constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton between 1836
and 1838. The Cauvery Falls have been utilized for an electric
installation, which supplies power to the Kolar gold-mines and
light to the city of Mysore.
The Cauvery is known to devout Hindus as Dakshini Ganga,
or the Ganges of the south, and the whole of its course is holy
ground. According to the legend there was once born upon
earth a girl named Vishnumaya or Lopamudra, the daughter of
Brahma; but her divine father permitted her to be regarded as
the child of a mortal, called Kavera-muni. In order to obtain
beatitude for her adoptive father, she resolved to become a
river whose waters should purify from all sin. Hence it is that
even the holy Ganges resorts underground once in the year to
the source of the Cauvery, to purge herself from the pollution
contracted from the crowd of sinners who have bathed in her
waters.
CAVA DEI TIRRENI, a town and episcopal see of Campania,
Italy, in the province of Salerno, 6 m. N. W. by rail from the town
of Salerno. Pop. (1901) town, 761 1; commune, 23,415. It lies
fairly high in a richly cultivated valley, surrounded by wooded
hills, and is a favourite resort of foreigners in spring and autumn,
and of the Neapolitans in summer. A mile to the south-west
is the village of Corpo di Cava (1970 ft.), with the Benedictine
abbey of La Trinity della Cava, founded in 1025 by St Alferius.
The church and the greater part of the buildings were entirely
modernized in 1796. The old Gothic cloisters are preserved.
The church contains a fine organ and several ancient sarcophagi.
The archives, now national property, include documents and
MSS. of great value (e.g. the Codex Legum Longobardorum of
1004) and fine incunabula. The abbot is keeper, and also head
of a boarding school.
See M. Morcaldi, Codex Diplomaticus Cavensis (Naples and Milan,
1873-1893).
CAVABDIUM, in architecture, the Latin name for the central
f hall or court within a Roman house, of which five species are
described by Vitruvius. (1) The Tuscanicum responds to the
greater number apparently of those at Pompeii, in which the
timbers of the roof are framed together, so as to leave an open
space in the centre, known as the compluvium; it was through
this opening that all the light was received, not only in the hall
itself, but in the rooms round. The rain from the roof was
collected in gutters round the compluvium, and discharged from
thence into a tank or open basin in the floor called the impluvium.
(2) In the tetrastylon additional support was required in conse-
quence of the dimensions of the hall; this was given by columns
placed at the four angles of the impluvium. (3) Corinthian is the
term given to the species where additional columns were required.
(4) In the displuviatum the roofs, instead of sloping down towards
the compluvium, sloped outwards, the gutters being on the outer
walls; there was still an opening in the roof, and an impluvium
to catch the rain falling through. This species of roof, Vitruvius
states, is constantly in want of repair, as the water does not easily
run away, owing to the stoppage in the rain-water pipes. (5)
The ustudinalum was employed when the hall was small and
another floor was built over it; no example of this type has been
found at Pompeii, and only one of the cavaedium displuviatum.
CAVAGNARI, SIR PIERRE LOUIS NAPOLEON (1 841-1879),
British military administrator, the son of a French general by
his marriage with an Irish lady, was born at Stenay, in the
department of the Meuse,x>n the 4th of July 1 841 . He neverthe-
less obtained naturalization as an Englishman, and entered the
military service of the East India Company. After passing
through the college at Addiscombe, he served through the Oudh
campaign against the mutineers in 1858 and 1859. In 1861 he
was appointed an assistant commissioner in the Punjab, and in
1877 became deputy commissioner of Peshawar and took part
in several expeditions against the hill tribes. In 1878 he was
attached to the staff of the British mission to Kabul, which the
Afghans refused to allow to proceed. In May 1879, after the
death of the amir Shere AM, Cavagnari negotiated and signed
the treaty of Gandamak with his successor, Yakub Khan. By
this the Afghans agreed to admit a British resident at Kabul,
and the post was conferred on Cavagnari, who also received the
Star of India and was made a K.C.B. He took up his residence
in July, and for a time all seemed to go well, but on the 3rd of
September Cavagnari and the other European members of the
mission were massacred in a sudden rising of mutinous Afghan
troops. (See Afghanistan.)
CAVAIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTS (1762-1829), French politician,
was born at Gotrrdon (Lot). He was sent by his department
as deputy to the Convention, where he associated himself with
the party of the Mountain and voted for the death of Louis XVI.
He was constantly employed on missions in the provinces, and
distinguished himself by his rigorous repression of opponents
of the revolution in the departments of Landes, Basses-Pyr6n6es
and Gers. With his colleague Jacques Pinet (1754-1844) he
established at Bayonne a revolutionary tribunal with authority
in the neighbouring towns. Charges of cruelty were preferred
against him by a local society before the Convention in 1795,
but were dismissed. He had represented the Convention in the
armies of Brest and of the Eastern Pyrenees in 1793, and in
1795 he was sent to the armies of the Moselle and the Rhine.
He filled various minor administrative offices, and in 1806 became
an official at Naples in Murat's government. During the Hundred
Days he was prefect of the Somme. At the restoration he was
proscribed as a regicide, and spent the last years of his life at
Brussels, where he died on the 24th of March 1839. His second
son was General Eug&ne Cavaignac (q.v.).
The eldest son, El£onore Louis Godefroi Cavaignac (1801-
!845), was, like his father, a republican of the intransigeant type.
He was bitterly disappointed at the triumph of the monarchical
principle after the revolution of July 1830, in which he had taken
part. He took part in the Parisian risings of October 1830, 1832
and* 1 834. On the third occasion he was imprisoned, but escaped
to England in 1835. When he returned to France in 1841 he
worked on the staff of La Rtforme, and carried on an energetic
republican propaganda. In 1843 he became president of the
Society of the Rights of Man, of which he had been one of the
founders in 1832. He died on the 5th of May 1845. The re-
cumbent statue (1847) of Godefroi Cavaignac on his tomb at
Montmartre (Paris) is one of the masterpieces of the sculptor
Francois Rude.
Jean Baptiste's brother, Jacques-Mame, Vicomte Cavaignac
(i773 _I 85S), French general, served with distinction in the army
under the republic and successive governments. He commanded
the cavalry of the XI. corps in the retreat from Moscow, and
eventually became Vicomte Cavaignac and inspector-general
of cavalry.
CAVAIGNAC. LOUIS EUGENE (1802-1857), French general,
son of J. B. Cavaignac, was born at Paris on the 15th of October
1802. After going through the usual course of study for the
military profession, he entered the army as an engineer officer
in 1824, and served in the Morea in 1828, becoming captain in
the following year. When the revolution of 1830 broke out
CAVAILLON— CAVALIER, J.
561
he was stationed at Arras, and was the first officer of his regiment
to declare for the new order of things. In 183 1 he was removed
from active duty in consequence of his declared republicanism,
but in 1832 he was recalled to the service and sent to Algeria.
This continued to be the main sphere of his activity for sixteen
years, and he won especial distinction in his fifteen months 1
command of the exposed garrison of Tlemcen, a command for
which he was selected by Marshal Clausel (1836-1837), and in
the defence of Cherchel (1840), Almost every step of his pro-
motion was gained on the field of battle, and in 1844 the due
d'Aumale himself asked for Cavaignac's promotion to the rank
of marechal de camp. This was made in the same year, and
he held various district commands in Algeria up to 1848, when
the provisional government appointed him governor-general
of the province with the rank of general of division. The post
of minister of war was also offered to Cavaignac, but he refused
it owing to the unwillingness of the government to quarter troops
in Paris, a measure whkh the general held to be necessary for
the stability of the new r6gime. On his election to the National
Assembly, however, Cavaignac returned to Paris. When he
arrived on the 17th of May he found the capital in an extremely
critical state. Several ententes had already taken place, and by
the 22nd of June 1848 a formidable insurrection had been
organized. The only course now open to the National Assembly
was to assert its authority by force. Cavaignac, first as minister
of war and then as dictator, was called to the task of suppressing
the revolt. It was no light task, as the national guard was
untrustworthy, regular troops were not at hand in sufficient
numbers, and the insurgents had abundant time to prepare
themselves. Variously estimated at from 30,000 to 60,000 men,
well armed and organized, they had entrenched themselves
at every step behind formidable barricades, and were ready to
avail themselves of every advantage that ferocity and despair
could suggest to them. Cavaignac failed perhaps to appreciate
the political exigencies of the moment; as a soldier he would
not strike his blow until his plans were matured and his forces
sufficiently prepared. When the troops at last advanced in three
strong columns, every inch of ground was disputed, and the
government troops were frequently repulsed, till, fresh regiments
arriving, he forced his way to the Place de la Bastille and crushed
the insurrection in its headquarters. The contest, which raged
from the 23rd to the morning of the 26th of June, was without
doubt the bloodiest and most resolute the streets of Paris have
ever seen, and the general did not hesitate to inflict the severest
punishment on the rebels.
Cavaignac was censured by some for having, by his delay,
allowed the insurrection to gather head; but in the chamber
he was declared by a unanimous vote to have deserved well of
his country. After laying down his dictatorial powers, he
continued to preside over the Executive Committee till the
election of a regular president of the republic. It was expected
that the suffrages of France would raise Cavaignac to that
position. But the mass of the people, and especially the rural
population, sick of revolution, and weary even of the moderate
republicanism of Cavaignac, were anxious for a stable govern-
ment. Against the five and a half million votes recorded for
Louis Napoleon, Cavaignac received only a million and a half.
Not without chagrin at his defeat, he withdrew into the ranks
of the opposition. He continued to serve as a representative
during the short remainder of the republic. At the coup d'ttat
of the 2nd December 1 851 he was arrested along with the other
members of the opposition; but after a short imprisonment at
Ham he was released, and, with his newly-married wife, lived
in retirement till his death, which took place at Ourne (Sarthe)
on the 28th of October 1857.
His son, Jacques Marie Eugene Godefeoi Cavaignac
(1853-1005), French politician, was born in Paris on the 21st of
May 1853. He made public profession of his republican prin-
ciples as a schoolboy at the Lycee Charlemagne by refusing
in 1867 to receive a prize at the Sorbonne from the hand of the
prince imperial. He received the military medal for service in
the Franco-Prussian War, and in 1872 entered the Ecole
Poly technique. He served as a civil engineer in Angouleine until
188 1, when he became master of requests in the council of state.
In the next year he was elected deputy for the arrondissement
of Saint-Calais (Sarthe) in the republican interest. In 1885-
1886 he was under-secretary for war in the Henri Brisson
ministry, and he served in the cabinet of £mile Loubet (1892)
as minister of marine and of the colonies. He had exchanged his
moderate republicanism for radical views before he became
war minister in the cabinet of Leon Bourgeois (1895-1896).
He was again minister of war in the Brisson cabinet in July
1898, when he read in the chamber a document which definitely
incriminated Captain Alfred Dreyfus. On the 30th of August,
however, he stated that this had been discovered to be a forgery
by Colonel Henry, but he refused to concur with his colleagues
in a revision of the Dreyfus prosecution, which was the logical
outcome of his own exposure of the forgery. Resigning his port-
folio, he continued to declare his conviction of Dreyfus's guilt,
and joined the Nationalist group in the chamber, of which he
became one of the leaders. He also was an energetic supporter
of the Ligue de la Patrie Francaise. In 1899 Cavaignac was an
unsuccessful candidate for the presidency of the republic. He
had announced his intention of retiring from political life when
he died at his country-seat near Flee (Sarthe) on the 25th of
September 1905. He wrote an important book on the Formation
de la Prusse contemporaine ( 2 vols., 1 891- 1898), dealing with
the events of 1806-1813.
CAVAILLON, a town of south-eastern France in the depart-
ment of Vaucluse, 20 m. S.E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906)
town, 5760; commune, 9952. Cavaillon lies at the southern
base of Mont St Jacques on the right bank of the Durance above
its confluence with the Coulon. It has a h6tel de ville of the
1 8th century, a church of the 1 2th century, dedicated to St V6ran,
and the mutilated remains of a triumphal arch of the Roman
period. The town is an important railway junction and the
commercial centre of a rich and well-irrigated plain, which pro-
duces melons and other fruits, early vegetables (artichokes,
tomatoes, celery, potatoes), and other products in profusion.
Silk-worms are reared, and silk is an important article of trade.
The preparation of preserved vegetables, fruits and other pro-
visions, distilling, and the manufacture of straw hats and
leather are carried on. Numerous minor relics of the Roman
period have been found to the south of the present town, on the
site of the ancient Cabeftio, a place of some note in the territory
of the Cavares. In medieval and modern history the town has
for the most part followed the fortunes of the Comtat Venaissin,
in which it was included. Till the time of the Revolution it
was the see of a bishop, and had a large number of monastic
establishments.
CAVALCANTI, GUIDO (c. 1 250-1300), Italian poet and
philosopher, was the son of a philosopher whom Dante, in the
Inferno, condemns to torment among the Epicureans and
Atheists; but he himself was a friend of the great poet. By
marriage with Beatrice, daughter of Farinata Uberti, he became
head of the Ghibeilines; and when the people, weary of continual
brawls, aroused themselves, and sought peace by banishing the
leaders of the rival parties, he was sent to Sarzana, where he
caught a fever, of which he died. Cavalcanti has left a number
of love sonnets and canzoni, which were honoured by the praise
of Dante. Some are simple and graceful, but many are spoiled
by a mixture of metaphysics borrowed from Plato, Aristotle
and the Christian Fathers. They are mostly in honour of a
French lady, whom he calls Mandetta. His Canzone oVAmore
was extremely popular, and was frequently published; and his
complete poetical works are contained in Giunti's collection
(Florence, 1527; Venice, 1 531-153 2). He also wrote in prose on
philosophy and oratory.
See D. G. Rossetti, Dante and his Circle (1874).
CAVALIER, JEAN (1681-1740), the famous chief of the
Camisards (q.v.), was born at Mas Roux, a small hamlet in the
commune of Ribaute near Anduze (Gard), on the 28th of
November 1681. His father, an illiterate peasant, had been
compelled by persecution to become a Roman Catholic along
5^2
CAVALIER
with his family, but his mother brought him up secretly in the
Protestant faith. In his boyhood he became a shepherd, and
about his twentieth year he was apprenticed to a baker.
Threatened with prosecution for his religious opinions he went
to Geneva, where he passed the year 1701; he returned to the
C6vennes on the eve of the rebellion of the Camisards, who by
the murder of the Abb6 du Chayla at Pont-de-Monvert on the
night of the 24th of July 1702 raised the standard of revolt.
Some months later he became their leader. He showed himself
possessed of an extraordinary genius for war, and Marshal
Viilars paid him the high compliment of saying that he was as
courageous in attack as he was prudent in retreat, and that by
his extraordinary knowledge of the country he displayed in the
management of his troops a skill as great as that of the ablest
officers. Within a period of two years he was to hold in check
Count Victor Maurice de Broglie and Marshal Montrevel,
generals of Louis XIV., and to carry on one of the most
terrible partisan wars in French history.
He organized the Camisard forces and maintained the most
severe discipline. As an orator he derived his inspiration from
the prophets of Israel, and raised the enthusiasm of his rude
mountaineers to a pitch so high that they were ready to die
with their young leader for the sake of liberty of conscience.
Each battle increased the terror of his name. On Christmas day
1702 he dared to hold a religious assembly at the very gates of
Alais, and put to flight the local militia which came forth to
attack him. At Vagnas, on the 10th of February 1703, he
routed the royal troops, but, defeated in his turn, he was com-
pelled to find safety in flight. But he reappeared, was again
defeated at Tour de Bellot (April 30) , and again recovered himself,
recruits flocking to him to fill up the places of the slain. By a
long series of successes he raised his reputation to the highest
pitch, and gained the full confidence of the people. It was in
vain that more rigorous measures were adopted against the
Camisards. Cavalier boldly carried the war into the plain,
made terrible reprisals, and threatened even Nimes itself. On
the 16th of April 1704 he encountered Marshal Montrevel
himself at the bridge of Nages, with 1000 men against 5000, and,
though defeated after a desperate conflict, he made a successful
retreat with two-thirds of his men. It was at this moment
that Marshal Viilars, wishing to put an end to the terrible
struggle, opened negotiations, and Cavalier was induced to
attend a conference at Pont d'Avene near Alais on the nth of
May 1704, and on the 16th of May he made submission at Ntmes.
These negotiations, with the proudest monarch in Europe, he
carried on, not as a rebel, but as the leader of an army which
had waged an honourable war. Louis XIV. gave him a com-
mission as colonel, which Viilars presented to him personally,
and a pension of 1200 livres. At the same time he authorized
the formation of a Camisard regiment for service in Spain under
his command.
Before leaving the C6vennes for the last time he went to Alais
and to Ribaute, followed by an immense concourse of people.
But Cavalier had not been able to obtain liberty of conscience,
and his Camisards almost to a man broke forth in wrath against
him, reproaching him for what they described as his treacherous
desertion. On the 21st of June 1704, with a hundred Camisards
who were still faithful to him, he departed from Nimes and
came to Neu-Brisach (Alsace), where he was to be quartered.
From Dijon he went on to Paris, where Louis XIV. gave him
audience and heard his explanation of the revolt of the C6vennes.
Returning to Dijon, fearing to be imprisoned in the fortress of
Neu-Brisach, he escaped with his troop near Montbeliard and
took refuge at Lausanne. But he was too much of a soldier to
abandon the career of arms. He offered his services to the duke
of Savoy, and with his Camisards made war in the Val d'Aosta.
After the peace he crossed to England, where he formed a
regiment of refugees which took part in the Spanish expedition
under the earl of Peterborough and Sir Cloudesley Shovel in
May 1705. At the battle of Almansa the Camisards found
themselves opposed to a French regiment, and without firing
the two bodies rushed one upon the other. Cavalier wrote
later (July 10, 1707): " The only consolation that remains to
me is that the regiment I had the honour to command never
looked back, but sold its life dearly on the field of battle. I
fought as long as a man stood beside me and until numbers
overpowered me, losing also an immense quantity of blood
from a dozen wounds which I received." Marshal Berwick
never spoke of this tragic event without visible emotion.
On his return to England a small pension was given him and
he settled at Dublin, where he published Memoirs of the Wars
of the Civennes under Col. Cavalier, written in French and trans-
lated into English with a dedication to Lord Carteret (1726).
Though Cavalier received, no doubt, assistance in the publica-
tion of the Memoirs, it is none the less true that he provided the
materials, and that his work is the most valuable source for the
history of his life. He was made a general on the 57th of October
i735> and on the 25th of May 1738 was appointed lieutenant-
governor of Jersey. Writing in the following year (August 26,
1739) he says: " I ajn overworked and weary; I am going to
take the waters in England so as to be in a fit condition for the
war against the Spaniards if they reject counsels of prudence."
He was promoted to the rank of major-general on the 2nd of
July 1739, and died in the following year. In the parochial
register of St Luke's, Chelsea, there is an entry: " Burial a.d.
1740, May 18, Brigadier John Cavalier. ,,
There is a story which represents him as the fortunate rival
of Voltaire for the hand of Olympe, daughter of Madame Dunoyer,
author of the Lettres gal antes. During his stay in England he
married the daughter of Captain de Ponthieu and Marguerite
de la Rochefoucauld, refugees living at Portading^on. Males-
herbes, the courageous defender of Louis XVI., bears the follow-
ing eloquent testimony to this young hero of the Cevennes: —
" I confess," he says, " that this warrior, who, without ever having
served, found himself by the mere gift of nature a great general,
— this Camisard who was bold to punish a crime in the presence
of a fierce troop which maintained itself by little crimes — this
coarse peasant who, when admitted at twenty years of age into
the society of cultivated people, caught their manners and won
their love and esteem, this man who, though accustomed to a
stormy life, and having just cause to be proud of his success,
had yet enough philosophy in him by nature to enjoy for thirty-
five years a tranquil private life — appears to me to be one of
the rarest characters to be found in history."
For a more detailed account see F. Puaux, Vie de Jean Cavalier
{1868); David C. A, Agnew, Protestant Exiles from France, ii. 54-66
(Lond., 1 871) ; Charvey, Jean Cavalier: nouveaux documents intdits
(1884). Eug&ne Sue popularized the name of the Camisard chief in
Jean Cavalier ou Us fanatiques des Civennes (1840). (F. Px.)
CAVALIER, a horseman, particularly a horse-soldier or one of
gentle birth trained in knightly exercises. The word is taken
from one of the French words which derived ultimately from
the Late Lat. caballarius, a horseman, from Lat. caballus,
properly a pack-horse, which gave the Fr. cheval, a chevalier.
This last word is the regular French for " knight," and is chiefly
used in English for a member of certain foreign military or other
orders, particularly of the Legion of Honour. Cavalier in English
was early applied in a contemptuous sense to an overbearing
swashbuckler — a roisterer or swaggering gallant. In Shakespeare
(2 Henry IV. v. iii. 62) Shallow calls Bardolph's companions
" cavaleros." " Cavalier " is chiefly associated with the Royalists,
the supporters of Charles I. in the struggle with the Parliament
in the Great Rebellion. Here again it first appears as a term of
reproach and contempt, applied by the opponents of the king.
Charles in the Answer to the Petition (June 13, 1642) speaks of
cavaliers as a " word by what mistake soever it seemes much in
disfavour." Further quotations of the use of the word by the
Parliamentary party are given in the New English Dictionary.
It was soon adopted (as a title of honour) by the king's party,
who in return applied Roundhead to their opponents, and at the
Restoration the court party preserved the name, which survived
till the rise of the term Tory (see Whig and Tory). The term
" cavalier " has been adopted from the French as a term in
fortification for a work of great command constructed in the
CAVALIERE— CAVALRY
563
interior of a fort, bastion or other defence, so as to fire over the
main parapet without interfering with the fire of the latter. A
greater volume of fire can thus be obtained* but the great height
of the cavalier makes it an easy target for a besieger's guns.
CAVAUBRE, BMIUO DEL, 16th-century Italian musical
composer, was born in Rome about 1550 of a noble family.
He held a post at the court of Ferdinand L of Tuscany from
1588 to 1597, and during his residence at Florence was on terms
of intimacy with J. Peri, 0. Rinuccini, G. Cactini and the rest
of the Bardi circle. In 1597 he returned to Rome, and became
connected with the Congregation of the Oratory founded by St
Philip Neri. Herein 1600 was performed Cavaliere's contribution
to the musical reformation initiated by his circle of friends in
Florence — La Rapprtsentazione di Anima e di Corpo, a sacred
drama, which is regarded as the first example of what is now
called oratorio. It is generally supposed that he was no longer
living when the work was performed, but some authorities assign
1602 as the date of his death.
Cavaliere's style is more facile than that of Peri and Caccini,
but he is inferior to them in depth of musical expression. He
is, however, important as being the first to apply the new monodic
style to sacred music, and as the founder of the Roman school
of the 17th century which included Maazocchi, Carissimi and
Alessandro Scarlatti.
See also H. Goldachmidt, Studden but Geschichte der italienischen
Oper im 17. Jakrhundert, Band i.
CAVALU, FRANCESCO (1509^-1676), Italian musical com-
poser, was born at Crema in 1509 or 1600. His veal name was
Pier Francesco Caletti-Bruni, but he is better known by that of
Cavalli, the name of his patron, a Venetian nobleman. He
became a singer at St Mark's in Venice in 1617, second organist in
1639, first organist in 1665, and in 1668 maestro di cappeUa.
He is, however, chiefly important for his operas. He began to
write for the stage in 1639 (Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo), and soon,
established so great a reputation that he was summoned to Pads
in 1660 to produce an opera (Serse) at the Louvre in honour of
the marriage of Louis XIV. He visited Paris again in 1662,
bringing out his Ercoie Amante. His death occurred in Venice
on the 14th of January 1676. Twenty-seven opens of Cavalli
are still extant, most of them being preserved in the library of
St Mark at Venice. Monteverde had found opera a musico-
b'terary experiment, and left it a magnificent dramatic spectacle.
Cavalli succeeded in making opera a popular entertainment
He reduced MonteveroV a extravagant orchestra to more practical
limits, introduced melodious arias into his music and popular
types into his libretti. His operas have all the characteristic
exaggerations and absurdities of the 17 th century, but they have
also a remarkably strong sense of dramatic effect as well as a
great musical facility, and a grotesque humour which was
characteristic of Italian grand opera down to the death of
Alessandro Scarlatti,
CAVALUNI, PIETBO (c 1279-1364), Italian painter, born in
Rome, was an artist of the earliest epoch of the modern Roman
school, and was taught painting and mosaic by Giotto while
employed at Rome; it is believed that he assisted his master in
the mosaic of the Navkella or ship of St Peter* in the porch of the
church of that saint. He also studied under, the CosKnati. Lanzi
describes him as an adept in both arts, and mentions with appro-
bation his grand fresco of a Crucifixion at Assiai, still in tolerable
preservation; he was, moreover, versed in architecture and in
sculpture. According to George Vertue, it is highly probable
that Cavallini executed, in 1279, the mosaics and other orna-
ments of the tombof Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey.
He would thus be the " Petrus Civis Romanus " whose name is
inscribed on the shrine; but a comparison of dates invalidates
this surmise. He died in 1344, at the age of eighty-five, in the
odour of sanctity, having in his later years been a man of eminent
piety. He is said to have carved for the Basilica of San Paolo
fuori le Mura, close to Rome, a crucifix which spoke in 1370 to a
female saint. Some highly important works by Cavallini in the
church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome, have been recently
discovered.
CAVALLO, TIBERIUS (1740-1809), Anglo-Italian electrician
and natural philosopher, was born on the 30th of March 1749 at
Naples, where his hither was a physician. In 1771 he came to
England with the intention of pursuing a mercantile career, but
he soon turned his attention to scientific work. Although he
made several ingenious improvements in scientific instruments,
his mind was rather imitative and critical than creative. He
published numerous works on different branches of physics,
including A Complete Treatise on Electricity (1777), Treatise on
the Nature and Properties of Air and other permanently Elastic
Fluids (1781), History and Practice of Aerostation ^785), Treatise
on Magnetism (1787), Elements of Natural and Experimental
Philosophy (1803), Theory and Practice of Medical Electricity
(1780), and Medical Properties of Factitious Air (1798). He died
in London on the 21st of December 1809.
CAVALLOTTI, FELICE (1842-1808), Italian politician, poet
and dramatic author, was born at Milan on the 6th of November
1842. In i860 and 1866 he fought with the Garibaldian Corps,
but first attained notoriety by his anti-monarchical lampoons in
the Gazzetta di Milano and in the Gaaettina Rosa between 1866
and 1872. Elected to parliament as deputy for Corteolona in
the latter year, he took the oath of allegiance after having
publicly impugned its validity. Eloquence and turbulent com-
bativeness in and out of parliament secured for him the leader-
ship of the extreme Left on the death of Bertani in 1886.
During his twelve years' leadership his party increased in number
from twenty to seventy, and at the time of his death his parlia-
mentary influence was greater than ever before. Though am-
bitious and addicted to defamatory methods of personal attack
which sometimes savoured of political blackmail, Cavallotti's
eloquent advocacy of democratic reform, and apparent generosity
of sentiment, secured for him a popularity surpassed by that of
no contemporary save Crispi. Services rendered in the cholera
epidemic of 1885, his numerous lawsuits and thirty-three duels,
his bitter campaign against Crispi, and his championship of
French interests, combined to enhance his notoriety and to
increase his political influence. By skilful alliances with the
marquis di Rudini he more than once obtained practical control
of the Italian government, and exacted notable concessions
to Radical demands. He was killed on the 6th of March 1898
in a duel with Count Macola, editor of the conservative Gazetta
di V enema, whom he had assailed with characteristic intemper-
ance of language. By his death the house of Savoy lost a re*
lentless foe, and the revolutionary elements in Italy a gifted,
if not entirely trustworthy, leader. (H. W. S.)
CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Katallerie or Reiterei, derived
ultimately from late Lat. cabaUus, horse), a word which came
into use in military literature about the middle of the 16th
century as applied to mounted men of all kinds employed for
combatant purposes, whether intended primarily for charging in
masses, in small bodies, or for dismounted fighting. By degrees,
as greater refinement of terminology has become desirable, the
idea has been narrowed down until it includes only " horsemen
trained to achieve the purpose of their commander by the com-
bined action of man and horse," and this definition will be found
to cover the whole field of cavalry activity, from the tasks
entrusted to the cavalry " corps " of 10,000 sabres down to the
missions devolving on isolated squadrons and even troops.
History. — The evolution of the cavalry arm has never been
uniform at any one time over the surface of the globe, but has
always been locally modified by the conditions of Bmffy
each community and the stage of intellectual develop- «*«* *t
ment to which at any given moment each had attained, mount**
The first condition for the existence of the arm WUTlon *
being the existence of the horse itself, its relative scarcity
or the reverse and its adaptability to its environment in
each particular district have always exercised a preponderating
influence on the development of cavalry organization and
tactics. The indigenous horses of Europe and Asia being
very small, the first application of their capabilities for war
purposes seems everywhere to have been as draught animals
for chariots, the construction of which implies not only the
5^4
CAVALRY
existence of level surfaces, perhaps of actual roads, but a very
considerable degree of mechanical skill in those who designed and
employed them. The whole of the classical and Oriental mytho-
logies, together with the earliest monuments of Egypt, Assyria
and India, are convincing on this point. Nowhere can we find
a trace either of description or delineation of animals physically
capable of carrying on their backs the armed men of the period.
All the earliest allusions to the use of the horse in war either
point directly to the employment as a draught animal, or where
not specific, as in the description of the war-horse in Job, they
would apply equally well to one harnessed to a chariot as to one
ridden under the saddle.
The first trace of change is to be found, according to Prof.
Wm. Ridgeway (Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse,
p. 243), in an Egyptian relief showing Nubians mounted on
horses of an entirely different breed, taller and more powerful
than any which had gone before them. These horses appear
to have come from the vicinity of Dongola, and the strain still
survives in the Sudan. The breed is traced into Arabia, where
only second-rate horses had been reared hitherto, and thence
to different parts of Europe, where eventually centres of cavalry
activity developed. The first detailed evidence of the existence
of organized bodies of mounted men is to be found in Xenophon,
whose instructions for the breaking, training and command
of a squadron remain almost as a model for modern practice.
Their tactical employment, however, seems still to have been
relatively insignificant, for the horses were still far too small
and too few to deliver a charge with sufficient momentum to
break the heavy armed and disciplined hoplites. The strain of
ancient battle was of an entirely different order to that of
modern fighting. In the absence of projectiles of sufficient
range and power to sweep a whole area, the fighting was entirely
between the front ranks of the opposing forces. When a front
rank fighter fell, his place was immediately taken by his comrade
in the rear, who took up the individual combat, excited by his
comrade's fate but relatively fresh in mind and muscle. This
process of feeding the fight from the rear could be protracted
almost indefinitely. If then, as a consequence of a charge, a
few mounted men did penetrate the ranks, they encountered
such a crowd of well-protected and fresh swordsmen that they
were soon pulled off their ponies and despatched. Now and
again great leaders, Alexander, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus,
for instance, succeeded in riding down their opponents, but in
the main, and as against the Roman infantry in particular,
mounted troops proved of very little service on the battlefield.
It was, however, otherwise in the sphere of strategy. There,
information was of even greater importance, because harder to
obtain, than it is nowadays, and the army which could push out
its feelers to the greater distance, surround its enemy and
intercept his communications, derived nearly the same advan-
tages as it does at present. Hence both sides provided them-
selves with horsemen, and when these met, each in the per-
formance of their several duties, charges of masses naturally
ensued. This explains the value attaching in the old days to the
possession of horse-flesh and the rapid spread of the relatively
new Dongola or African strain over the then known world.
The primitive instinct of aboriginal man is to throw stones
or other missiles for purposes of defence (apes will throw anything
they can find, but they never use sticks) ; hence, as the Romans
penetrated ever farther amongst the barbarian tribes, their
horsemen in first line found ever-increasing need for protection
against projectiles. But the greater the weight of armour
carried, the greater the demands upon the endurance of the
horse. Then, as the weight-carrying breed was expensive
and, with the decay of the Roman Empire, corruption and
peculation spread, a limit was soon placed on the multiplication
of charging cavalry, and it became necessary to fall back on
the indigenous pony, which could only carry a rider from place
to place, not charge. Thus there was a gradual levelling down
of the mounted arms, the heavy cavalry becoming too heavy to
gallop and the light not good enough for united action. Against
such opponents, the lighter and better mounted tribesmen of
Asia found their task easy. They cut off the supplies of the
marching infantry, filled up or destroyed the wells, &c, and
thus demonstrated the strategic necessity of superior mobility.
With the decay of civilization discipline also disappeared,
and, as discipline consists essentially in the spirit of self-sacrifice
for the good of the community, its opposite, self-preservation,
became the guiding principle. This in turn led to the increase
of armour carried, and thence to the demand for heavier horses,
and this demand working through several centuries led ulti-
mately to the breeding of the great weight-carrying animals on
whose existence that of medieval chivalry depended. These
horses, however, being very costly and practically useless for
general purposes, could only become the property of the wealthy,
who were too independent to feel the need of combination, and
preferred to live on the spoliation and taxation of the weak.
This spoliation eventually impelled the weaker men to combine,
and at first their combination took the form of the construction
of fortified places, against which mounted men were powerless.
On the other hand, expense put a limit to the area which fortifica-
tions could enclose, and this again limited the supplies for the
garrison. Horsemen sweeping the country for miles around had
no difficulty in feeding themselves, and the surrender of all
beleaguered places through starvation was ultimately inevitable,
unless food could be introduced from allied towns in the vicinity.
It was of no use to introduce fighting men only into a place
which primarily required food (cf. Lucknow, 1857) to protract
its resistance. Hence some means had to be found to surround
the supply-convoys with a physically impenetrable shield, and
eighteen-foot pikes in the hands of powerful disciplined soldiers
met the requirements. Against eight to ten ranks of such men
the best cavalry in the world, relying only on their swords,
were helpless, and for the time (towards the close of the 15th
century) infantry remained masters of the field on the continent
of Europe.
England meanwhile had developed on lines of her own. Thanks
to her longbowmen and the military genius of her leaders, she
might have retained indefinitely the command of the continent
had it not been for the invention of gunpowder, which, though
readily accepted by the English for sieges in France, proved the
ultimate cause of their undoing. It was the French who developed
the use of siege artillery most rapidly, and their cavalry were not
slow to take the hint; unlike the longbow and the crossbow, the
pistol could be used effectively from horseback, and presently
the knights and their retainers, having the deepest purses,
provided themselves with long pistols in addition to their lances
and swords. These weapons sent a bullet through any armour
which a foot-soldier could conveniently carry, or his commander
afford, and if anything went wrong with their mechanism (which
was complicated and uncertain) the speed of his horse soon
carried the rider out of danger. A new form of attack against
infantry, introduced by the French at Cerisoles, 1544, thus
developed itself. A troop or squadron, formed in from twelve
to sixteen ranks, trotted up to within pistol shot of the angle of
the square to be attacked and halted; then each rank in suc-
cession cantered off man by man to the left, discharging his pistol
at the square as he passed, and riding back to his place behind the
column to reload. This could be prolonged indefinitely, and
against such tactics the infantry were powerless. The stakes
carried by English archers to check the direct charge of horse-
men became useless, as did also chevaux de frise, though the
latter (which originated in the 14th century) continued to be
employed by the Austrians against the swiftly-charging Turks
till the close of the 17 th century. Thus it became necessary to
devise some new impediment which, whilst remaining mobile,
would also give cover and an advantage in the final hand-to-
hand shock. The problem was solved in Bohemia, Poland and
Moravia (Hussite wars, about 1420), where, distances being great
and the country open, greater mobility and capacity in the
convoys became essential. Great trains of wagons were placed
in charge of an infantry escort, of which a part had become
possessed of firearms, and these moved across country in as
many as twelve parallel lines drilled to form laagers, as nowadays
CAVALRY
565
in South Africa. Again the cavalry proved helpless, and for
nearly a century in central Europe the word " Wagenbwg "
(wagon-fortress) became synonymous with " army." Then an
unfortunate inspiration came to the wagon-men. A large gun
was relatively cheaper to manufacture, and more effective
than a small one. To keep their assailants at a distance, they
mounted wall-pieces of about one-inch bore on their wagons.
For a moment the balance inclined in their favour, but the
cavalry were quick to see their advantage in this new idea, and
they immediately followed suit. They, too, mounted guns on
wheels, and, as their mobility gave them choice of position, they
were able to concentrate their fire against any side of the laager,
and again ultimate surrender was the only way out of the
defenders' dilemma.
The interesting problem thus raised was never finally solved,
for the scene of action now shifted to western Europe, to the
valley of the Po, and more particularly to the Netherlands,
where fortresses were closer together and the clayey nature of
the Rhine delta had already made paved roads necessary. Then,
the Wagenburg being no longer needed for the short transits
between one fortified town and another, the infantry reasserted
themselves. Firearms having been much improved in the interval
the spearmen (pikemen) had already (about 1515) learnt to
protect themselves by musketeers trained to take advantage of
cover and ground somewhat in the same fashion as the modern
skirmisher. These musketeers kept light guns at a distance
from their pikemen, but dared not venture far out, as their fire
was altogether inadequate to stop a rush of horsemen; when the
latter threatened to intervene, they had to run for safety to the
squares of pikemen, whom they assisted in turn by keeping
the cavalry beyond pistol range. Hence the horsemen had to
fail back upon more powerful guns, and these, being slow and
requiring more train, could be most economically protected by
infantry (see also Artillery).
Thus about the close of the 16th century western armies
differentiated themselves out into the still existing three types —
cavalry, artillery and infantry. Moreover, each type
was subdivided, the cavalry becoming heavy, medium
and dragoons. At this period there was nothing to
disturb the equilibrium of two contending forces except
the characters of their respective leaders. The mercenary element
had triumphed everywhere over the feudal levies. The moral
qualities of all were on the same indifferent level, and battles in
the open followed one recognised course. Neither army being
able to outmarch the other, both drew up masses of pikes in
parallel lines. The musketeers covered the deployment of the
heavy guns on either side, the cavalry drew up on the wings and
a strictly parallel fight ensued, for in the absence of a common
cause for which men were willing to die, plunder was the ruling
motive, and all control and discipline melted in the excitement
of the contest.
It is to the growth of Protestantism that cavalry owes its next
great forward leap. To sweep the battlefield, it was absolutely
essential that men should be ready to subordinate selfish con*
8iderations to the triumph of their cause. The Roman Catholicism
of the day gave many loopholes for the evasion of clear duty,
but from these the reformed faith was free, and it is to the
reawakened sense of duty that Gustavus Adolphus appealed.
This alone rendered combination amongst his subordinate
leaders possible, and on this power of combination all his victories
depended. Other cavalry soldiers, once let loose in the charge,
could never be trusted to return to the field, the prospective
plunder of the enemy's baggage being too strong a temptation;
but the king's men could be depended on, and once brought
back in formed bodies, they rode over the enemy's skirmishers
and captured his batteries. Then the equilibrium of force
was destroyed, and all arms combined made short work of the
opposing infantry alone (Breitenfeld, 163 1). But the Swedish
king perished with his work half done, and matters reverted to
their former condition until the appearance of Cromwell, another
great leader capable of animating his men with the spirit of
devotion, again rendered the cavalry arm supreme. The essence
17th-
century
of his success lay in this, that bis men were ready everywhere
and always to lay down their lives for their common cause.
Whether scouting 70 m. to the front of their army, or fighting
dismounted to delay the enemy at defiles or to storm fortified
strongholds, or charging home on the battlefield, their will
power, focused on, and in turn dependent on, the personality
of their great leader, dominated all human instincts of fear,
rapacity or selfishness. It is true that they had not to ride
against the modern rifle, but it is equally true that there was no
quick-firing artillery to carry terror through the enemy's army,
and it was against masses of spearmen and musketeers, not then
subjected to bursting shells or the lash of shrapnel and rifle
bullets, that the final charges had always to be ridden home.
Each succeeding decade thereafter has seen a steady diminu-
tion in the ultimate power of resistance of the infantry, and a
corresponding increase in the power of fire preparation at the
disposal of the supreme leader; and the chances of cavalry have
fluctuated with the genius of that leader in the employment of
the means at his disposal, and the topographical conditions
existing within each theatre of war. During the campaigns in
Flanders, with its multiplicity of fortresses and clayey soil,
cavalry rapidly degenerated into mounted infantry, throwing
aside sword and lance-proof armour, and adopting long muskets
and heavier ammunition. Presently they abandoned the charge
at a gallop and reverted to an approach at the trot, and if (as
at Blenheim) their influence proved decisive on the field of
battle, this was because the conditions were common to both
combatants, and the personal influence of " Corporal John," as
his soldiers called Marlborough, ensured greater steadiness and
better co-operation.
When Frederick II. became king of Prussia (1740), he
found his cavalry almost at the nadir of efficiency; even his
cuirassiers drilled principally on foot. " They can pnoerhk
manoeuvre," on foot, " with the same precision as at reform
my grenadiers, but unfortunately they are equally •/**•
slow." His enemies the Austxians, thanks to their p™*****
wars against the Turks who always charged at a cavatf y'
gallop, had maintained greater dash and mobility, and at Moll-
witz the Prussians only escaped disaster by the astounding
rapidity of their infantry fire. In disgust the king then
wrote, " Die Cavallerie is nicht einmal werth dasz sie der
Teufel week holet," and he immediately set about their re*
form with his usual energy and thoroughness. Three years
after MoUwitz, the result of his exertions was apparent In
the greatly increased importance the arm acquired on the
battlefield, and the charge of the Bayreuth dragoons at Hohen-
friedberg (June 4, 1745), who with 1500 horses rode over and
dispersed 20 Austrian battalions, bringing in 2500 prisoners and
67 colours, will always rank as one of the most brilliant feats in
military history. 1 The following years of peace (1745-1756)
were devoted to the methodical preparation of the cavalry to
meet the requirements that Frederick's methods of war would
make upon them, and it is to this period that the student should
devote special attention. From the very outbreak of the Seven
Years' War (1756) this training asserted its influence, and
Rossbach (1757) and Zorndorf (1758) are the principal examples
of what cavalry handled in masses can effect. At Rossbach
General v. Seydlitz, at the head of 38 squadrons, practically
began and ended the destruction of the French army, and at
Zorndorf he saved the day for the Prussians by a series of the
most brilliant charges, which successively destroyed the Russian
right wing and centre. These battles so conclusively demon*
strated the superiority of the Prussian cavalry that their enemies
completely altered their tactical procedure. They now utilized
their enormous numerical superiority by working in two separate
armies, each almost as strong as the whole Prussian force. When
the latter moved against either, the one threatened immediately
threw up heavy entrenchments, against which cavalry were, of
course, ineffective, whilst the other pursued its march. When
Frederick, having more or less beaten his immediate opponent,
1 The loss of "the regiment was twenty-eight killed and sixty-six
wounded.
5 66
CAVALRY
began to threaten the other army it entrenched likewise. Against
these methods the Prussian army soon wore itself out, and though
from time to time the cavalry locally distinguished itself, no
further opportunities for great decisive blows presented them-
selves.
The increased demands made upon the mobility of the Prussian
horsemen naturally resulted in the gradual rejection of everything
which was not essential to their striking power. The long muskets
and bayonets were laid aside, but the cuirass was retained for
the melee, and by the close of the great struggle the various
branches of the arm had differentiated themselves out in to the types
still adhered to, heavy cavalry, dragoons, hussars, whose equip-
ment as regards essentials thenceforward hardly varied up to the
latter years of the 19th century. The only striking difference
lies in the entire rejection of the lance in the armament of the
charging squadrons, and the reason is characteristic of the prin-
ciples of the day. The Prussian cavalry had realized that success
was decided, not primarily by actual collision, but by the moral
effect of the appearance of an absolutely closed wall of horse-
men approaching the adversary at full speed. If the necessary
degree of cohesion was attained, the other side was morally beaten
before collision took place, and either turned to flight, or met the
shock with so little resolution that it was ridden over without
difficulty. In the former case any weapon was good enough
to kill a flying enemy; in the latter, in the melee which then
ensued, the crush in the ranks of the victors was still so great
that the lance was a hindrance rather than a help.
In the years succeeding the war the efficiency of the Prussian
cavalry sank very rapidly, the initial cause being the death of
Seydlitz at the early age of fifty-two. His personality had alone
dominated the discontent, lethargy and hopelessness created by
ru thless financial economies. When he was gone, as always in the
absence of a great leader, men adapted their lives to the line of
least resistance. In thirty years the wreck was complete, and
within the splendid squadrons which had been accustomed to
manoeuvre with perfect precision at the highest speed, there
were (as F. A. von der Marwitz in his Nachlass clearly shows) not
more than seven thoroughly trained men and horses to each, the
remainder being trained for little longer and receiving less atten-
tion than is the case with modern 2nd line or auxiliary cavalry.
For the generation preceding the outbreak of the French
Revolution, Frederick the Great's army, and especially his
Cm ^^ r cavalry, had become the model for all Europe, bat
in the tite mainspring of the excellence of his squadrons
nrohf was everywhere overlooked. Seydlitz had manoeuvred
ttommty great masses of horsemen, therefore every one else
* r * rt * must have great masses also; but no nation grasped
the secret, viz. the unconditional obedience of the horse to
its rider, on which his success had depended, Neither
was it possible under the prevailing social conditions to
secure the old stamp of horse, or the former attention to
detail on the part of men and officers. In France, owing to the
agricultural decay of the country, suitable remounts for charg-
ing cavalry were almost unobtainable, and as this particular
branch of the arm was almost exclusively commanded by the
aristocracy it suffered most in the early days of the Revolution.
The hussars, being chiefly recruited and officered by Alsatians and
Germans from the Rhine provinces, retained their individuality
and traditions much longer than the dragoons and cuirassiers,
and, to the very close of the great wars, we find them always
ready to charge at a gallop; but the unsteadiness and poor
horsemanship of the other branches was so great that up to 1812,
the year of their destruction, they always charged at a trot only,
considering that the advantage of superior cohesion thus gained
more than balanced the loss of momentum due to the slower pace.
Generally, the growth of the French cavalry service followed
the universal law. The best big horses went to the heavy charging
cavalry, viz. the cuirassiers, the best light horses to the hussars,
and the dragoons received the remainder, for in principle they
were only infantry placed on horseback for convenience of loco-
motion, and were not primarily intended for combined mounted
action. Fortunately for them, their principal adversaries, the
Austrians, had altogether failed to grasp the lesson of the Seven
Years' War. Writing in 1780 Colonel Mack, a very capable
officer, said, " Even in 1 769, the cavalry could not ride, could not
manage to control their horses. Not a single squadron could keep
its dressing at a gallop, and before they had gone fifty yards at
least ten out of forty horses in the first rank would break out
to the front," and though the veteran field marshal Lacy
issued new regulations, their spirit seems always to have escaped
the executive officers. The British cavalry was almost worse
off, for economy had reduced its squadrons to mere skeletons,
and the traditional British style of horsemanship, radically
different from that in vogue in France, made their training for
combined action even more difficult than elsewhere. Hence the
history of cavalry during the earlier campaigns of the Revolution
is marked by no decisive triumphs, the results are always in-
adequate when judged by the magnitude of the forces employed,
and only the brilliant exploit of the 1 5th Light Dragoons (now
Hussars) at Villers en CouchS (April 24, 1794) deserves to be
cited as an instance of the extraordinary influence which even
a few horsemen can exercise over a demoralized or untrained mob
of infantry.
Up to the campaign of Poland (see Napoleonic Campaigns)
French victories were won chiefly by the brilliant infantry
fighting, cavalry only intervening (as at Jena) to charge a beaten
enemy and complete his destruction by pursuit. But after the
terrible waste of life in the winter of 1806-7, an d the appalling
losses in battle, Napoleon introduced a new form of attack.
The case-shot preparation of his artillery (see Artillery) sowed
confusion and terror in the enemy's ranks, and the opportunity
was used by masses of cavalry. Henceforward this method
dominated the Napoleonic tactics and strategy. The essential
difference between this system and the Frederician lies in this,
that with the artillery available m the former period it was not
possible to say in advance at what point the intervention of
cavalry would be necessary, hence the need for speed and
precision of manoeuvre to ensure their arrival at the right time
and place. Napoleon now selected beforehand the point he
meant to overwhelm and could bring his cavalry masses within
striking distance at leisure. Once placed, it was only necessary
to induce them to run away in the required direction to over-
whelm everything by sheer weight of men and horses. This
method failed at Waterloo because the ground was too heavy,
die slope of it against the charge, and the whole condition of the
horses too low for the exertion demanded of them.
The British cavalry from 1793 to 1S15 suffered from the same
causes which at the beginning of the 30th century brought
about its breakdown in the South African War. Over-sea
transport brought the horses to land in poor condition, and it
was rarely possible to afford them sufficient time to recover and
become accustomed to the change in forage, the conditions of
the particular theatre of operations, &c, before they had to be
led against the enemy — hence a heavy casualty roll and the
introduction into the ranks of raw unbroken horses which
interfered with the precision of manoeuvre of the remainder.
Their losses (about 13% per annum) were small as compared
with those of South Africa, but this is mainly accounted for by the
fact that, operations being generally in the northern hemisphere,
the change of climate was never so severe. Tactically, they
suffered, like the Austrians and Prussians, from the absence of
any conception of the Napoleonic strategy amongst their principal
leaders. As it was not known where the great blow was to fall,
they were distributed along the whole line, and thus became
habituated to the idea of operating in relatively small bodies.
This is the worst school for the cavalry soldier, because it is only
when working in masses of forty to sixty squadrons that the
cumulative consequences of small errors of detail become so
apparent as to convince all ranks of the necessity of conforming
accurately to established prescriptions. Nevertheless, they still
retained the practice of charging at a gallop, and as a whole
were by far the most efficient body of horsemen who survived
at the close of the great wars,
In the reaction that then ensued all over Europe, cavalry
CAVALRY
5^7
practically ceased to exist. The financial and agricultural
exhaustion of all countries, and of Prussia in particular, was so
complete that money was nowhere to be found for the great
concentrations and manoeuvre practices which are
J9th more essential to the efficiency of the cavalry than to
emtmty. . that of the other arms. Hence a whole generation of
officers grew up in ignorance of the fundamental
principles which govern the employment of their arm. It was
not till 1848 that the Prussians began again to unite whole
cavalry divisions for drill and manoeuvre, and the soldiers of the
older generation had not yet passed away when the campaigns
of 1866 and 1870 brought up again the realities of the battle-field.
Meanwhile the introduction of long-range artillery and small
arms had entirely destroyed the tactical relation of the three
arms on which the Napoleonic tactics and strategy had been
based, and the idea gained ground that the battle-field would no
longer afford the same opportunities to cavalry as before. The
experiences gained by the Americans in the Civil War helped to
confirm this preconception. If in battles waged between in-
fantries armed only with muzzle4oading rifles, cavalry could find
no opportunity to repeat past exploits, it was argued that its
chances could not fail to be still further reduced by the breech-
loader. But this reasoning ignored the principal factors of former
successes. The mounted men in America failed not as a con-
sequence of the armament they encountered, but because the
war brought out no Napoleon to create by his skill the opportunity
for decisive cavalry action, and to mass his men beforehand
in confident anticipation. The same reasoning applies to the
European campaigns of 1866 and 1870, and the results obtained
by the arm were so small, in proportion to the numbers of squad-
rons available and to their cost of maintenance as compared with
the other arms, that a strong reaction set in everywhere against
the existing institutions, and the re-creation of the dragoon, under
the new name of mounted rifleman, was advocated in the hope
of obtaining a cheap and efficient substitute for the cavalryman.
Later events in South Africa and in Manchuria again brought
this question prominently to the front, but the essential difference
between the old and new schools of thought has not been gener-
ally realized. The " mounted rifle " adherents base their argu-
ments on the greatly increased efficiency of the rifle itself. The
" cavalry " school, on the other hand, maintains that, the weapons
themselves being everywhere substantially equal in efficiency,
the advantage rests with the side which can create the most
favourable conditions for their employment, and that, funda-
mentally, superior mobility will always confer upon its possessor
the choice of the circumstances under which he will elect to
engage. Where the two sides are nearly equally matched in
mobility, neither side can afford the time to dismount, for the
other will utilize that time to manoeuvre into a position which
gives him a relative superiority for whichever form of attack he
may elect to adopt, and this relative superiority will always more
than suffice to eliminate any advantage in accuracy of fire that his
opponent may have obtained by devoting his principal attention
to training his men on the range instead of on the mounted
manoeuvre ground.
Finally, the " cavalry " school reasons that in no single cam-
paign since Napoleon's time have the conditions governing
encounters been normal. Either the roadless and barren nature
of the country has precluded of itself the rapid marching which
forms the basis of all modern strategy, as in America, Turkey,
South Africa and Manchuria, or the relative power of the infantry
and artillery weapons, as in Bohemia (1866) and in France (1870),
has rendered wholly impossible the creation of the great tactical
opportunity characteristic of Napoleon's later method, for there
then existed no means of overwhelming the enemy with a suffi-
cient hail of projectiles to render the penetration of the cavalry
feasible. The latest improvement in artillery, viz. the perfected
shrapnel and the quick-firing guns, have, however, enormously
facilitated the attainment of this primary fire superiority, and,
moreover, it has simplified the procedure to such a degree that
Napoleon is no longer needed to direct. The battles of the future
will thus) in civilized countries, revert to the Napoleonic type,
and the side which possesses the most highly trained and mobile
force of cavalry will enjoy a greater relative superiority over its
adversary than at any period since the days of Frederick.
The whole experience of the past thus goes to show that no
nation in peace has ever yet succeeded in maintaining a highly
trained cavalry sufficiently numerous to meet all the demands
of a great war. Hence at the outbreak of hostilities there has
always been a demand for some kind of supplementary force
which can relieve the regular squadrons of those duties of ob-
servation and exploration which wear down the horses most
rapidly and thus render the squadrons ineffective for their
culminating duty on the battle-field. This demand has been met
by the enrolment of men willing to fight and rendered mobile
by mounts of an inferior description, and the greater the urgency
the greater has been the tendency to give them arms which they
can quickly learn to use. To make a man an expert swordsman
or lancer has always taken years, but he can be taught to use
a musket or rifle sufficiently for his immediate purpose in a very
short time. Hence, to begin with, arms of this description have
invariably been issued to him. But once these bodies have been
■ formed, and they have come into collision with trained cavalry,
the advantages of mobility, combined with the power of shock,
have become so apparent to all, that insensibly the " dragoon "
has developed into the cavalry soldier, the rate of this evolution
being conditioned by the nature of the country in which the
fighting took place.
This evolution is best seen in the American Civil War. The
men of the mounted forces engaged had been trained to the use
of the rifle from childhood, while the vast majority had never
seen a sword, hence the formation of " mounted rifles "; and
these " mounted rifles " developed precisely in accordance with
the nature of their surroundings. In districts of virgin forests
and marshland they remained " mounted rifles," in the open,
prairie country of the west they became cavalry pure and simple,
though for want of time they never rivalled the precision of
manoeuvre and endurance of modern Prussian or Austrian horse.
In South Africa the same sequence was followed, and had the
Boer War lasted longer it is certain that such Boer leaders as
de Wet and de la Rey would have reverted to cavalry tactics
of shock and cold steel at the earliest possible opportunity.
Therefore when we find, extending over a cycle of ages, the
same causes producing the same effects, the natural conclusion is
that the evolution of the cavalry arm is subject to a universal
law which persists in spite of all changes of armament.
Employment of Cavalry. — It is a fundamental axiom of all
military action that the officer commanding the cavalry of any
force comprising the three arms of the service is in the strictest
sense an executive officer under the officer commanding that
particular force as a whole. The latter again is himself responsible
to the political power he represents. When intricate political
problems are at stake, it may be, and generally is, quite impractic-
able that any subordinate can share the secret knowledge of
the power to which he owes his allegiance.
The essence of the value of the cavalry soldier's services
lies in this, that the demand is never made upon him in its
supremest form until the instinct of the real commander realizes
that the time has come. Whether it be to cover a retreat, and
by the loss of hundreds to save the lives of tens of thousands,,
or to complete a victory with commensurate results in the
opposite direction, the obligation remains the same — to stake
the last man and horse in the attainment of the immediate
object in view, the defeat of the enemy. This at once places the
leader of cavalry in face of his principal problem. It is a matter
of experience that the broader the front on which he can deliver
a charge, the greater the chances of success. However strong
the bonds of discipline may be, the line is ultimately, and at a
certain nervous tension, only a number of men on horses, acting
and reacting on one another in various ways. When therefore,
of two lines, moving to meet one another at speed, one sees
itself overlapped to either hand, the men in the line thus over-
lapped invariably and inevitably tend to open outwards, so as
at least to meet their enemy on an equal frontage. Hence
568
CAVALRY
every cavalry commander tries to strike at the flank of his enemy,
and the latter manoeuvres to meet him, and if both have equal
mobility, local collision must ensue on an equal and parallel
front. Therefore both strive to put every available man and horse
in their first line, and if men and horses were invulnerable such
a line would sweep over the ground like a scythe and nothing
could withstand it. Since, however, bullets kill at a distance,
and inequalities and unforeseen difficulties of the ground may
throw hundreds of horses and riders, a working compromise
has to be found to meet eventualities, and, other things being
equal, victory inclines to the leader who best measures the risks
and uncertainties of his undertaking, and keeps in hand a
sufficient reserve to meet all chances.
Thus there has arisen a saying, which is sometimes regarded
as axiomatic, that in cavalry encounters the last closed reserve
always wins. The truth is really that he who has best judged
the situation and the men on both sides finds himself in possession
of the last reserve at the critical moment. The next point is,
how to ensure the presence of this reserve, and what is the critical
moment. The battle-field is the critical moment in each phase
of every campaign — not the mere chance locality on which a
combat takes place, but the decisive arena on which the strategic
consequences of all pre-existing conditions of national cohesion,
national organization and of civilization are f ocussed. It is indeed
the judgment-seat of nature, on which the right of the race to
survive in the struggle for existence is weighed and measured in
the most impartial scales.
Before, however, the final decision of the battle-field can be
attained, a whole series of subordinate decisions have to be fought
out, success in each of which conditions the result of the next
series of encounters. Every commanding officer of cavalry
thus finds himself successively called on to win a victory locally
at any cost, and the question of economy of force does not concern
him at all. Hence the same fundamental rules apply to all
cavalry combats, of whatever magnitude, and condition the whole
of cavalry tactics. Broadly speaking, if two cavalries of approxi-
mately equal mobility manoeuvre against each other in open
country, neither side can afford the loss of time that dismounting
to fight on foot entails. Hence, assuming that at the outset
of a campaign each side aims at securing a decisive success, both
seek out an open plain and a mounted charge, sword in hand,
for the decision. When the speed and skill of the combatants
are approximately equal, collision ensues simultaneously along
parallel fronts, and the threat of the overlapping line is the
principal factor in the decision. The better the individual
training of man and horse the less will be the chances of unsteadi-
ness or local failures in execution, and the less the need of reserves;
hence the force which feels itself the most perfect in the individual
efficiency of both man and horse (on which therefore the whole
ultimately depends) can afford to keep fewer men in reserve and
can thus increase the width of its first line for the direct collision.
Careful preparation in peace is therefore the first guarantee of
success in action. This means that cavalry, unlike infantry,
cannot be expanded by the absorption of reserve men and horses
on the outbreak of hostilities, but must be maintained at war
strength in peace, ready to take the field at a moment's notice,
and this is actually the standard of readiness attained on the
continent of Europe at the present day.
Further, uniformity of speed is the essential condition for the
execution of closed charges, and this obviously cannot be assured
if big men on little horses and small men on big horses are in-
discriminately mixed up in the same units. Horses and men
have therefore been sorted out everywhere into three categories,
light, medium and heavy, and in periods when war was practically
chronic, suitable duties have been allotted to each. It is clear,
on purely mechanical grounds, that the greater the velocity of
motion at the moment of collision the greater will be the chances
of success, and this greater speed will be on the side of the bigger
horses as a consequence of their longer stride. On the other hand,
these horses, by reason of their greater weight, are used up much
more rapidly than small ones. Hence, to ensure the greater
Speed at the moment of contact, it is ttecessary to save them as
much as possible to keep them fresh for the shock only, and this
has been the practice of all great cavalry leaders all over the world,
and has only been departed from under special circumstances,
as by the Germans in France in 1870, when their cavalry prac-
tically rode everywhere unopposed.
Collisions, however, must be expected by every body of
troops large or small; hence each regiment — ultimately each
squadron — endeavours to save its horses as far as this is com-
patible with the attainment of the special object in view, and this
has led everywhere and always to a demand for some inter-
mediate arm, less expensive to raise and maintain than cavalry
proper, and able to cover the ground with sufficient rapidity
and collect the information necessary to ensure the proper
direction of the cavalry commands. Originally this intermediate
force received the designation of dragoons; but since under
pressure of circumstances during long periods of war these
invariably improved themselves into cavalry and became
permanent units in the army organization, fresh names have
had to be invented for them, of which Mounted Infantry and
Mounted Rifles are the latest, and every improvement in firearms
has led to an increased demand for their services.
It is now relatively easy to trace out the considerations which
should govern the employment of his cavalry by the officer
commanding a force of the three arms. Assuming for purposes
of illustration an army numerically weak in cavalry, what course
will best ensure the presence of the greatest number of sabres at
the decisive point, i.e. on the battle-field? To push out cavalry
screens far to the front will be to court destruction, nor is the
information they obtain of much real service unless the means
to act upon it at once is at hand. This can only be supplied
economically by the use of strong advanced guards of infantry,
and such supplementary security and information as these may
require will be best supplied by mounted infantry, the sacrifice
of whom will disturb least the fighting integrity of the whole army.
Imagine an army of 300,000 men advancing by five parallel
roads on a front of 50 m., each column (60,000 men, 2 army corps)
being covered by a strong advance guard, coming in contact with
a similarly constituted army moving in an opposite direction.
A series of engagements will ensue, in each of which the object
of the local commander will be to paralyse his opponent's
will-power by a most vigorous attack, so that his superior
officer following him on the same road will be free to act as he
chooses. The front of the two armies will now be defined by a
line of combats localized each about a comparatively small
area, and between them will be wide gaps which it will be the
chief business of the directing minds on either side to close by
other troops as soon as possible. Generally the call will be made
upon the artillery for this purpose, since they can cover the re-
quired distances far more rapidly than infantry. Now, as artillery
is powerless when limbered up and always very vulnerable on
the flanks of the long lines, a strong cavalry escort will have to
be assigned to them which, trotting forward to screen the march,
will either come in contact with the enemy's cavalry advancing
with a similar object, or themselves find an opportunity to catch
the enemy's guns at a disadvantage. These are opportunities
for the cavalry, and if necessary it must sacrifice itself to turn
them to the best account. The whole course of the battle
depends on success or failure in the early formation of great lines
of guns, for ultimately the victor in the artillery duel finds
himself in command of the necessary balance of guns which are
needed to prepare the way for his final decisive infantry attack.
If this latter succeeds, then any mounted men who can gallop
and shoot will suffice for pursuit. If it fails, no cavalry, however
gallant, has any hope of definitely restoring the combat, for
against victorious infantry, cavalry, now as in the past, can but
gain a little time. This time may indeed be worth the price at
which it can be bought, but it will always be more economical
to concentrate all efforts to prevent the emergency arising.
After the Franco-German War much was written about the
possibility of vast cavalry encounters to be fought far in advance
of the main armies, for the purpose of obtaining information,
and ideas were freely mooted of wide-flung raids traversing
CAVALRY
5*9
the enemy's communications, breaking up his depots, reserve
formations, &c. But riper consideration has relegated these
suggestions to the background, for it is now evident that such
expeditions involve the dissemination of force, not its concentra-
tion. Austria and France for example would scarcely throw their
numerically inferior cavalry against the Germans, and nothing
would suit them better than that the latter should hurl their
squadrons against the frontier guards, advanced posts, and,
generally, against unbeaten infantry; nor indeed would the
Germans stultify their whole strategic teaching by weakening
themselves for the decisive struggle. It follows therefore that
cavalry reconnaissance duties will be strictly local and tactical,
and that arrangements will be made for procuring strategical
information by wireless telegraphy, balloons, motor cars, bicycles,
&c, and that on the whole that nation will be best served in
war which has provided in peace a nucleus of mounted infantry
capable of rapid expansion to fill the gap which history shows
always to have existed between the infantry and the cavalry.
Such troops need not be organized in large bodies, for their
mission is to act by " slimness," not by violence. They must
be the old " verlorene Haufe " (anglice, " forlorn hope ") of
former days, men whose individual bravery and decision is of
the highest order. But they can never become a " decision-
compelling arm," though by their devotion they may well hope
to obtain the grand opportunity for their cavalry, and share with
them in harvesting the fruits of victory.
The great cavalry encounters of forty to sixty squadrons on
either side, which it has been shown must arise from the necessity
of screening or preventing the formation of the all-important
artillery lines, will take their form mainly from the topographical
conditions of the district, and since on a front of 60 to 100 m.
these may vary indefinitely, cavalry must be trained, as
indeed it always has been, to fight either on foot or on horseback
as occasion requires. In either case, thoroughness of preparation
in horsemanship (which, be it observed, includes horsemastership)
is the first essential, for in the end victory will rest with the side
which can put in the right place with the greatest rapidity the
greatest number of sabres or rifles. In the case of rifles there is
a greater margin of time available and an initial failure is not
irremediable, but the underlying principle is the same in either
case; and since it is impossible to foretell exactly the conditions
of the collision, all alike, according to the class to which they
belong, must be brought up to the highest standard, for this alone
guarantees the smooth and rhythmical motion required for
covering long distances with the least expenditure of physical
and nervous strength on the part both of horse and rider. As a
consequence of successes gained in these preliminary encounters,
opportunities will subsequently arise for the balance of fresh or
rallied squadrons in hand to ride home upon masses of infantry
disorganized and demoralized by the combined fire of infantry
and artillery, and such opportunities are likely to be much more
numerous at the outbreak of future wars than they have been in
the past, because the enormous gain in range and rapidity of
fire enables a far greater weight of metal to be concentrated on
any chosen area within a given time. It cannot be too often
reiterated that cavalry never has ridden over unshaken infantry
of average quality by reason of its momentum alone, but that
every successful cavalry charge has always owed its issue to a
previously acquired moral superiority which has prevented the
infantry from making adequate use of their means of defence.
Nor will such charges entail greater losses than in the past, for,
great though the increase of range of modern infantry weapons
has been, the speed and endurance of cavalry has increased in
a yet higher ratio; whereas in Napoleon's days, with an extreme
range for musketry of iooo yds., cavalry were expected only
to trot 800 yds. and gallop for 200, nowadays with an extreme
infantry range of under 4000 yds., the cavalry are trained to
trot for 8000 yds. and gallop for 2000.
Neither the experiences in South Africa nor those in Manchuria
seriously influenced the views of the leading cavalry experts
as above outlined, for the conditions of both cases were entirely
abnormal. No nation in western Europe can afford to mount
the whole of its able-bodied manhood, nor, with the restricted
area of its possessions, could repeat the Boer tactics with useful
effect; in Manchuria, the theatre of operation was so far roadless,
and the motives of both combatants so distinct from any con-
ceivable as a basis for European strategy, that time was. always
available to construct entrenchments and obstacles physically
insuperable to mounted arms. In western Europe, with its ex-
treme development of communications, such tactics are impractic-
able, and under the system of compulsory service which is in
force in all nations, an early decision must be sought at any cost.
This motive imposes a rapid-marching campaign in the Napole-
onic style, and in such warfare there is neither time nor energy
available for the erection of extemporised fortresses. Victory
must therefore fall to the side that can develop the greatest
fire power in the shortest time. The greatest factor of fire power
is the long artillery lines, and as cavalry is the one arm which by
its mobility can hamper or prevent the formation of such lines, on
its success in this task all else must depend. Hence both sides
will concentrate every available horse and man for this special
purpose, and on the issue of the collisions this mutual concentra-
tion must entail will hang the fate of the battle, and ultimately
of the nation. But the cavalry which will succeed in this task
will be the one in which the spirit of duty burns brightest, arid the
oath of allegiance, renewed daily on the cross of the. sword, is
held in the highest esteem.
Organization, — The existing organization of cavalry throughout
the civilized world is an instance of the " survival of the fittest "
in an extreme form. The execution of the many manoeuvres
with the speed and precision which condition success is only
possible by a force in which, as Frederick the Great said, " every
horse and trooper has been finished with the same care that a
watchmaker bestows upon each wheel of the watch mechanism.' '
Uniformity of excellence is in fact the keystone of success, and
this is only attainable where the mass is subdivided into, groups,
each of which requires superintendence enough to absorb the
whole energy of an average commander. Thus it has been found
by ages of experiment that an average officer, with the assistance
of certain subordinates to whom he delegates as much or as little
responsibility as he pleases, finds his time fully occupied by the
care of about one hundred and fifty men and horses, each in-
dividual of which he must understand intimately, in character,
physical strength and temper, for horse and man must be
matched with the utmost care and'judgment if the best that each
is capable of is to be attained. The fundamental secret of the
exceptional efficiency attained by the Prussian cavalry lies in
the fact that they were the first to realize what the above implies.
After the close of the Napoleonic Wars they made their squadron
commanders responsible, not only for the training of the com-
batants of their unit, but also for the breaking in of remounts
and the elementary teaching of recruits as well, and in this manner
they obtained an intimate knowledge of their material which is
almost unattainable by British officers owing to the conditions
entailed by foreign service and frequent changes of garrisons.
Further, to obtain the maximum celerity of manoeuvre with
the minimum exertion of the horses, the squadron requires to
be subdivided into smaller units, generally known as troops,
and experience has shown that with 128 sabres in the ranks
(the average strength on parade, after deducting sick and young
horses, and the n.c. officers required as troop guides, &c.) four
troops best satisfy all conditions; as, with this number, the
squadron will, under all circumstances of ground and surroundings,
make any change of formation in less time and with greater
accuracy than with any other number of subdivisions. The size
of the unit next above the squadron, the regiment, is again fixed
by the number of subordinates that an average commander can
control, and the universal experience of all arms has settled this
as not less than four and not more than eight. Experiments
with eight and even ten squadrons have been tried both in
Austria and Prussia, but only exceptional men have succeeded
in controlling such large bodies effectively, and in the end the
normal has been fixed at four or five squadrons in quarters,
and three or four in the field. Of these, the larger number
57°
CAVALRY
is undoubtedly preferable, for, with the work of the quarter-
master and the adjutant to supervise, in addition, the regimental
commander is economically applied to the best advantage.
The essential point, however, is that the officer commanding the
regiment does not interfere in details, but commands his four
squadron commanders, his quartermaster, and his adjutant,
and holds them absolutely responsible for results.
There is no unity of practice in the constitution of larger units.
Brigades vary according to circumstances from two regiments
to four, and the composition of divisions fluctuates similarly.
The custom in the German cavalry has been to form brigades of
two regiments and divisions ot three brigades, but this practice
arose primarily from the system of recruiting and has no tactical
advantage. The territory assigned to each army corps provides
men and horses for two regiments of cuirassiers or lancers (classed
as heavy in Germany), two of dragoons, and two of hussars,
and since it is clearly essential to ensure uniformity of speed and
endurance within those units most likely to have to work together,
it was impossible to mix the different classes. But the views now
current as to the tactical employment of cavalry contemplate
the employment not only of divisions but of whole cavalry
corps, forty to sixty squadrons strong, and these may be called
on to fulfil the most various missions. The farthest and swiftest
reconnaissances are the province of light cavalry, i.e. hussars,
the most obstinate attack and defence of localities the task
of dragoons, and the decisive charges on the battle-field essentially
the duty of the heavy cavalry. It seems probable then that
the brigade will become the highest unit the composition of which
is fixed in peace, and that divisions and corps will be put together
by brigades of uniform composition, and assigned to the several
sections of the theatre of war in which each is likely to find the
most suitable field for its special character. This was the case
in the Frederician and Napoleonic epochs, when efficiency and
experience in the field far outweighed considerations of ad-
ministration and convenience in quarters.
Hitherto, horse artillery in Europe has always formed an
integral portion of the divisional organization, but the system
has never worked well, and in view of the technical evolution
of artillery material is no longer considered desirable. As it is
always possible to assign one or more batteries to any particular
brigade whose line of march will bring it across villages, defiles,
&c. (where the support of its fire will be essential), and on
the battle-field itself responsibility for the guns is likely to prove
more of a hindrance than a help to the cavalry commander,
it is probable that horse artillery will revert to the inspection of
its own technical officers, and that the sole tie which will be re-
tained between it and the cavalry will be in the batteries being
informed as to the cavalry units they are likely to serve with in
war, so that the officers may make themselves acquainted with
the idiosyncrasies of their future commanders. The same course
will be pursued with the engineers and technical troops required
for the cavalry, but it seems probable that, in accordance with a
suggestion made by Moltke after the 1866 campaign, the supply
columns for one or more cavalry corps will be held ready in peace,
and specially organized to attain the highest possible mobility
which modern technical progress can ensure.
The general causes which have led to the differentiation of
cavalry into the three types— hussars, dragoons and heavy —
have already been dealt with. Obviously big men on little horses
cannot manoeuvre side by side with light men on big horses.
Also, since uniformity of excellence within the unit is the prime
condition of efficiency, and the greatest personal dexterity is
required for the management of sword or lance on horseback,
a further sorting out became necessary, and the best light weights
were put on the best light horses and called hussars, the best
heavy weights on the best heavy horses and called lancers, the
average of either type becoming dragoons and cuirassiers. In
England, the lance not being indigenous and the conditions of
foreign service making adherence to a logical system impossible,
lancers are medium cavalry, but the difference of weights carried
and type of horses is too small to render these distinctions of
practical moment. In Germany, where every suitable horse
finds its place in the ranks and men have no right of individual
selection, the distinctions are still maintained, and there is a
very marked difference between the weights carried and the
types of men and horses in each branch, though the dead weight
which it is still considered necessary to carry in cavalries likely
to manoeuvre in large masses hardly varies with the weight of
the man or size of the horse.
Where small units only are required to march and scout, the
kit can be reduced to a minimum, everything superfluous for
the moment being carried on hired transport, as in South Africa.
But when 10,000 horsemen have to move by a single road all
transport must be left miles to the rear, and greater mobility
for the whole is attained by carrying upon the horse itself the
essentials for a period of some weeks. Still, even allowing for
this, it is impossible to account for the extraordinary load that
is still considered necessary. In India, the British lancer,
averaging n st. per man, could turn out in marching order at
17 st. 8 lb (less forage nets). In Germany, the hussar, averaging
10 st. 6 lb, rode at 18 St., also without forage, and the cuirassier
at 21 st to 22 st. Cavalry equipment is, in fact, far too heavy,
for in the interests of the budgets of the departments which supply
saddlery, harness, &c, everything is made so as to last for many
years. Cavalry saddles fifty years old frequently remain in good
condition, but the losses in horse-flesh this excessive solidity
entails are ignored. The remount accounts are kept separately,
and few realize that in war it is cheaper to replace a horse than
a saddle. In any case, the armament alone of the cavalry soldier
makes great demands on the horses. His sword and scabbard
weigh about 4 lb, carbine or rifle 7 lb to 9 lb, 120 rounds of
ammunition with pouches and belts about 12 lb, lance about 5 lb,
and two days' forage and hay at the lowest 40 lb, or a gross total
of 70 lb or 5 st., which with n st. for the man brings the total
to 16 St.; add to this the lightest possible saddle, bridle, cloak
and blanket, and 17 st. 8 lb is approximately the irreducible
minimum. It may be imagined what care and management
of the horses is required to enable them under such loads to
manoeuvre in masses at a trot, and gallop for distances of 5 m.
and upwards without a moment for dismounting.
Reconnaissance and Scouting. — After 1870 public opinion,
misled by the performances of the " ubiquitous Uhlan " and
disappointed by the absence of great cavalry charges on the field
of battle, came somewhat hastily to the conclusion that the day
of " shock tactics " was past and the future of cavalry lay in
acting as the eyes and ears of the following armies. But, as
often happens, the fact was overlooked that the German cavalry
screen was entirely unopposed in its reconnoitring expeditions,
and it was not till long afterwards that it became apparent how
very little these far-flung reconnaissances had contributed to
the total success.
It has been calculated by German cavalry experts that not
1 % of the reports sent in by the scouts during the advance from
the Saar to the Meuse, August 1870, were of appreciable import-
ance to the headquarters, and that before the orders based upon
this evidence reached the front, events frequently anticipated
them. Generally the conviction has asserted itself, that it is
impossible to train the short-service soldiers of civilized nations
sufficiently to render their reports worth the trouble of collating,
and if a few cases of natural aptitude do exist nothing can ensure
that these particular men should be sufficiently well mounted to
transmit their information with sufficient celerity to be of im-
portance. It is of little value to a commander to know that
the enemy was at a given spot forty-eight hours previously,
unless the sender of the report has a sufficient force at his disposal
to compel the enemy to remain there; in other words, to attack
and hold him. Cavalry and horse artillery alone, however, cannot
economically exert this holding power, for, whatever their effect
against worn-out men at the close of a great battle, against fresh
infantry they are relatively powerless. Hence, it is probable
that we shall see a revival of the strategic advanced guard of all
arms, as in the Napoleonic days, which will not only reconnoitre,
but fix the enemy until the army itself can execute the manoeuvre
designed to effect his destruction. The general situation of the
CAVALRY
Plate I.
i ; i ■
J
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1
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V. 57a
Plate II.
CAVALRY
BATTLE OF STAFFARDA, 1690. (From a contemporary engraving.)
ACTION ON THE BULGANAK, 1854. (From a lithograph by W. Simpson.)
GERMAN GUARD DRAGOONS. (Photo, Gebriider Haeckcl.)
CAVALRY
571
enemy's masses will, in western Europe, always be sufficiently
fixed by the trend of his railway communications, checked by
reports of spies, newspapers, &c, for, with neutral frontiers
everywhere within a few hours 1 ride for a motor cyclist, anything
approaching the secrecy of the Japanese in Manchuria is quite
unattainable, and, onoe the great masses begin to move, the
only " shadowing " which holds out any hope of usefulness is
that undertaken by very small selected parties of officers, per-
fectly mounted, daring riders, and accustomed to cover distances
of 100 m. and upwards. These will be supported by motor cars
and advanced feelers from the field telegraphs, though probably
the motor car would carry the eye-witness to his destination in
less time than it would take to draft and signal a complete report.
Tactical scouting, now as always, is invaluable for securing the
safety of the marching and sleeping troops, and brigade, divisional
and corps commanders will remain dependent upon their own
squadrons for the solution of the immediate tactical problem
before them; but, since both sides will employ mounted men to
screen their operations, intelligence will generally only be won
by fighting, and the side which can locally develop a marked fire
superiority will be the more likely to obtain the information it
requires. In this direction the introduction of the motor car
and of cyclists is likely to exercise a most important influence,
but, whatever may be the conveyance, it must be looked upon
as a means of advance only, never of retreat. The troops thus
conveyed must be used to seize villages or defiles about which
the cavalry and guns can manoeuvre.
Formations and Drill. — Cavalry, when mounted, act exclusively
by " shock " or more precisely by " the threat of their shock,"
for the immediate result of collision is actually decided some
instants before this collision takes place. Experience has shown
that the best guarantee for success in this shock is afforded by
a two-deep line, the men riding knee to knee within each squadron
at least. Perfect cavalry can charge in larger bodies without
intervals between the squadrons, but, ordinarily, intervals of
about xo yds. between adjacent squadrons are kept to localize
any partial unsteadiness due to difficulties of ground, casualties,
&c. The obvious drawbacks of a two-deep line are that it
halves the possible extent of front, and that if a front-rank
horse falls the rear-rank horse generally tumbles over it also.
To minimize the latter evil, the charge in two successive lines,
150 to 200 yds. apart, has often been advocated, but this has
never stood the test of serious cavalry fighting; first, because
when squadrons are galloping fast and always striving to keep
the touch to the centre, if a horse falls the adjacent horses close
in with such force that their sidelong collision may throw down
more and always creates violent oscillation; and secondly, be-
cause owing to the dust raised by the first rank the following
one can never maintain its true direction. It is primarily to
avoid the danger and difficulty arising from the dust that the
ranks in manoeuvre are closed to within one horse's length, as,
when moving at speed, the rear rank is past before the dust has
time to rise.
Of all formations, the line is the most difficult to handle, and,
particularly, to conceal — hence various formations in column are
necessary for the preliminary manoeuvres requisite to place the
squadrons in position for the final deployment previous to the
charge. Many forms of these columns have been tried, but,
setting aside the columns intended exclusively for marching
along roads, of which " sections " (four men abreast) is most
usual in England, only these survive; —
Squadron column.
Double column of squadrons.
Half column.
In squadron column, the troops of the squadron formed are in
kne one behind the other at a distance equal to the front of the
troop in line. The ideal squadron consists of 128 men formed
in two ranks giving 64 files, and divided into four troops of 16 files
— a larger number of troops makes the drill too complicated, a
smaller number makes each troop slow and unhandy. When
the squadron is weak, therefore, the troop should still be main-
tained as near 16 files as possible, the number of troops being if
necessary reduced. Thus with only 33 files, two troops of 16
files would be better than four of only 8 files.
All other formations of the regiment or brigade are funda-
mentally derived from the squadron column, only varying with
the order in which the squadrons are grouped, and the intervals
which separate them. Thus the regiment may move in line of
squadron columns at close interval, i.e. 11 paces apart or in
double column as in the diagram. To form line for the charge,
the squadrons open out, still in column, to full interval, i.e.
the width they occupy when in line; and then on the command
" Line to the front," each troop moves up to its place in line as
shown in the diagram. When in line a large body of cavalry
can no longer vary its direction without sacrificing its appearance
of order, and as above pointed out, it is this appearance of order
which really decides the result of the chaige before the actual
collision. Since, however, the enemy's movements may compel
a change, an intermediate formation is provided, known as the
Regiment is Line
Line of Squadron Columns (Close interval)
C^3 Cc^D G^D C^3
Double Column
_i» r f ■»
Half Column
Manoeuvre*
OrtglnmlU—
" half column." When this formation is ordered, the troops
within each squadron wheel half right or left, and each squadron
is then able to form into column or line to the front as circum-
stances demand, or the whole line can be formed into column of
troops by continuing the wheel and in this formation gallop out
into a fresh direction, re-forming line by a simple wheel in the
shortest possible time.
H. Elliot, Cavalry Literature (1893); v.
3, EnghY
Bibliograph v.-
Bismarck, Uses and Application of Cavalry in War (1818, English
translation by Lieut.-Col. Beamish, 1855) ; G. T. Denison, A History
of Cavalry (1877); Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Letters
on Cavalry and Conversations on Cavalry (English translations, 1880
and 1892); Colonel Mitchell, Considerations on Tactics (1851) and
Thoughts on Tactics and Organisation (1838); E. Nolan, Cavalry, its
History and Tactics (i8«) ; Roemer, Cavalry ; Us History, Manage-
ment and Uses (New York, 1863); Maitland, Notes on Cavalry
(1878); F. N. Maude, Cavalry versus Infantry and Cavalry, its Past
ana Future; C. von Schmidt, Instructions for the Training, Employ-
ment and Le ' " " '-*"•-
du Vernois,
Organization
Bowdler Bell, Notes on the German Cavalry Regulations of 1 886;
F. de Brack, Light Cavalry Outposts (English translation) ; Dwyer,
Seats and Saddles (1869); J. Jacob, Views and Opinions (1857);
F. Hoenig, Die Kavallerie als Schlachtenkorper (1884); Sir Evelyn
Wood, Achievements of Cavalry (1893); H. T. Siborne, Waterloo
Letters; Desbriere and Sautai, La Cavalerie de 1740 a i/8p (1806);
Warnery, Remarques sur la cavalerie (1781); v. Canitz, Htstoire des
exploits et des vicissitudes de la cavalerie prussienne dans les campagnes
de Frtdiric II (1849); Cherfils, Cavalerie en campagne (1888),
572
CAVAN
Service de s4reU straUgique de la cavalerie (1874); Bonie, Tortious
frangaise, cavalerie en campagne^ cavalerie au combat (1887- 1888);
Foucart, Campagne de Poloqne, operations de la cavalerte, nav. 1806-
jan. i8of (1882), La Cavalerte pendant la campagne de Prusse (1880) ;
De Galhffet, Projet d' instruction sut Vemploidela cavalerie en liaison
avec les autres armes (1880), Rapport sur les grandes manoeuvres de
cavalerie de 187$; Kaehler, Die preussische Reiterei 1806-1876
(French translation, La Cavalerie prussienne de 1806 d 1876) \ Cavalry
Studies (translated from the French of Bonie and the German of
Kaehler, with a paper on U.S. cavalry in the Civil War) ; v. Bernhardt,
Cavalry in Future Wars (English translation, 1906) ; P. S., Cavalry
in the Wars of the Future (translated from the French by J. Formby,
1905); D. Haig, Cavalry Studies (1907); v. Pelet Narbonne, Die
Kavalleriedienst (1901) f Cavalry on Service (English translation, 1906) ;
Ertiehune und FUhrung von Kavallerie. The principal cavalry
periodicals are the Revue de cavalerie , the KavaUeristische Monaishefte
(Austrian), the Cavalry Journal (British), and the Journal of the U.S.
Cavalry Association. (F. N. M.)
CAVAN, a county in the province of Ulster, Ireland, bounded
N. by Fermanagh and Monaghan, E. by Monaghan and Meath,
S. by Meath, Westmeath and Longford, and W. by Longford
and Leitrim. The area is 477,399 acres, or about 746 sq. m.
The surface of the county is uneven, consisting of hill and dale,
without any great extent of level ground, but only in its northern
extremity attaining a mountainous elevation. The barony of
Tullyhaw, bordering on Fermanagh, a wild dreary mountain
district, known as the kingdom of Glan or Glengavlin, contains
the highest land in the county, reaching 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh, the
place of inauguration for the Maguires, chieftains of Fermanagh,
held in veneration by the peasantry, in connexion with legends
and ancient superstitions. The remainder of the county is not
deficient in wood, and contains numerous lakes, generally of
small dimensions, but of much beauty, especially Lough Oughter,
with its many inlets and islands formed by the Erne river,
between the towns of Cavan and Killashandra. The county
also shares with other counties the waters of Lough Gowna and
Lough Sheelin, in which, as elsewhere in the county, the fishfng
is good. The chief river in the county is the Erne, which
originates in Lough Scrabby, one of the minor sheets of
water communicating with Lough Gowna on the borders of
Longford. The river takes a northerly direction by Killashandra
and Belturbet, being enlarged during its course by the Annalee
and other smaller streams, and finally enters Lough Erne near
the northern limit of the county. The other waters, consisting
of numerous lakes and their connecting streams, are mostly
tributary to the Erne. A copious spring called the Shannon
Pot, at the foot of the Cuilcagh Mountain, in the barony of
Tullyhaw, is regarded as the source of the river Shannon. The
Blackwater, a tributary of the Boyne, also rises in this county,
near Bailieborough. Several mineral springs exist in this county,
the chief of which is near the once frequented village of Swanlin-
bar. In the neighbourhood of Belturbet, near the small lake of
Annagh, is a carbonated chalybeate spring. There are several
other springs of less importance; and the small Lough Leighs,
or Lough-an-Leighaghs, which signifies the healing lake, on the
summit of a mountain between Bailieborough and Kingscourt,
is celebrated for its antiscorbutic properties. The level of this
lake never varies. It has no visible supply nor vent for its
discharge; nor is it ever frozen during the severest winters,
Geohfy. — This elongated county includes on the north-west some
of the highland of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures that rises above
Lough Allen. The beds below these are referred to the English
Yoredale series, and include some flaggy sandstones. It is on this
series that the Shannon rises, under the high outlier of grit on
Cuilcagh. The Carboniferous Limestone then stretches down to
Cavan town, a bold outlier of the higher strata being left above
Ballyconnell. The river Erne forms, in the limestone area, a char-
acteristic series of expansions and loops, with islands between them,
known as Lough Oughter. At this pointy we pass on to the axis
of underlying Silurian strata that runs from Longford to Donagha-
dee in Co. Down, and the country becomes hilly and irregular,
culminating about Cross Keys on the old Dublin coach-road. A
patch of granite, indicating doubtless a core like that exposed at
Newry, is seen in a hollow at Crossdoney. On the south side of this
axis of older rocks, we reach Carboniferous shale and limestone at
Lough Sheelin, and here enter on the great central plain. The
extreme south-east of the county includes part of the Tnassic outlier
of Kingscourt. The coal-seams and concretions of clay-ironstone
in the north-west area resemble those mentioned under the head of
Co. Roscommon. Anthracite, probably of inorganic ^origin, has
been mined without permanent success in the Silurian bids near
Kilnaleck, and is traceable freely, associated with veins of quarts
and haematite, at Ballyjamesdun a little farther east.
Climate and Industries. — The climate suffers from the damp-
ness arising from the numerous lakes and the nature of the soil,
and from the boisterous winds which frequently prevail, more
especially in the* higher districts. The soil is generally a stiff
clay, cold and watery, but capable of much improvement by
drainage, for which its undulating surface affords facilities.
Only about one-sixteenth of the total area is quite barren.
Agriculture makes little progress; the extent of the farms being
generally small. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops.
Flax, once of some importance, is almost neglected. In the
mountainous parts, however, where the land is chiefly under
grazing, the farms are larger, and in stock-raising the county
is progressing.
Cavan is not a manufacturing county. The bleaching- of
linen and the distillation of whisky are both carried on to a
small extent, but the people are chiefly employed in agri-
cultural pursuits and in the sale of home produce. The soil in
those districts not well adapted for tillage is peculiarly favourable
for trees. The woods were formerly very considerable, and the
timber found in the bogs is of large dimensions; but plantations
are now chiefly found in demesnes, where they are extensive.
The county is not well served by railways. The Great
Northern from Clones to Cavan, and the Midland Great Western
from Mullingar in Westmeath to Cavan, form a through line
from north to south. The Great Northern has branches to
Belturbet from Ballyhaise, and to Cootehill from Ballybay;
the Midland Great Western has a branch to Killashandra, and
from Navan in Meath to Kingscourt, just within Cavan. The
Cavan & Leitrim railway starts from Belturbet and soon leaves
the county to the west.
Population and Administration. — The population (111,917 in
1891; 97,541 in 1 001), of which about 80% are Roman Catholics,
shows a decrease among the most serious of the Irish counties,
and emigration returns 1 are among the heaviest. The population
is almost wholly rural, the only towns being the small ones of
Cavan (pop. 2822, the county town), Cootehill (1509), Belturbet
(1587) and Bailieborough (1004). The county is divided into
eight baronies, and contains thirty-two parishes and parts of
parishes. It is almost entirely within the Protestant and
Roman Catholic dioceses of Kilmore. The assizes are held at
Cavan, and quarter sessions are held at Cavan, Bailieborough,
Cootehill and Ballyconnell. Before the Union the county re-
turned six members to the Irish parliament, two for the county at
large, and two for each of the boroughs of Cavan and Belturbet;
but since that period it has been represented in the imperial par-
liament by two members only, for the east and west divisions.
History and Antiquities. — At the period of the English settle-
ment, and for some centuries afterwards, this district was known
as the Brenny, being divided between the families of O'Rourke
and O'Reilfy; and its inhabitants, protected by the nature of
the country, long maintained their independence. In 1579
Cavan was made shire ground as part of Connaught, and in 1584
it was formed into a county of Ulster by Sir John Perrott, and
subdivided into seven baronies, two of which were assigned to
Sir John O'Reilly and three to other members of the family;
while the two remaining, possessed by the septs of Mackernon
and Magauran, and situated in the mountains bordering on
O'Rourke's country, were left subject to their ancient tenures
and the exactions of their Irish lord. The county subsequently
came within the scheme for the plantation of Ulster under
James I. The population is less mixed in race than in most
parts of Ulster, being generally of Celtic extraction. Some few
remains of antiquity remain in the shape of cairns, raths and
the ruins of small castles, such as Cloughoughter Castle on an
island (an ancient crannog) of Lough Oughter. Three miles
from the town of Cavan is Kilmore, with its cathedral, a plain
erection containing a Romanesque doorway brought from the
abbey of Trinity Island, Lough Oughter. The bishopric dates
CAVAN— CAVE
573
from about 1450. A portion of a round tower is seen in the
churchyard of the parish of Drumlane at Belturbet.
CAVAN, a market-town and the county town of Co. Cavan,
Ireland, near the centre of the county, in the west parliamentary
division, 85} m. N.W. of Dublin by the Midland Great Western
railway, and the terminus of a branch of the Great Northern
railway from Clones. Pop. of urban district (1001), 2822. It is
on one of the tributary streams of the Annalee river, in a broad
valley surrounded on every side by elevated ground, with
picturesque environs, notably the demesnes of Farnham and of
Kilmore, which belongs to the bishops of that diocese. Cavan
has no buildings of antiquarian interest, but the principal county
institutions are here, and the most conspicuous building is the
grammar school, founded by Charles I. It was rebuilt in 18 19
on an eminence overlooking one of the main entrances into
the town, and is capable of accommodating 100 resident
pupils. The college of St Patrick is near the town. Cavan has
some linen trade, and a considerable retail business is transacted
in the town. A monastery of Dominican friars, founded by
O'Reilly, chieftain of the Brenny, formerly existed here, and
became the burial-place of the celebrated Irish general, Owen
O'Neill, who died as is supposed by poison, in 1649, at Clough-
oughter. There was also the castle of the O'Reittys, but this
and all other antiquities of the town were swept away during
the violent and continuous feuds to which the country was
subjected. In 1600 the chief portion of the town was burned
by the Enniskilleners under General Wolseley, when they routed
a body of James II.'s troops under the duke of Berwick.
CAVANILLBS, ANTONIO JOS* (1745-1804), Spanish botanist,
was born at Valencia on the 16th of January 1745. He was
educated at the university of that town, and in 1777 went to
Paris, where he resided twelve years, engaged in the study of
botany. In 1801 he became director of the botanic gardens
at Madrid, where he died on the 4th of May 1804. In 178 5-1 786
he published Monadelpkiae Classis Dissertations X., and in 179 1
he began to issue I cones «/ descriptiones plantorum Hispaniae.
His nephew, Antonio Ca vanities (1805-1864), was a dis-
tinguished advocate, and the author of a history of Spain,
published at Madrid in 1860-1864.
GAVATINA (Ital. diminutive of cavala, the producing of tone
from an instrument, plural cawline), originally a short song
of simple character, without a second strain or any repetition
of the air. It is now frequently applied to a simple melodious
air, as distinguished from a brilliant aria, recitative, &c., and
often forms part of a large movement or scena in oratorio or
opera.
CAVE, EDWARD (1601-1754), English printer, was born at
Newton, Warwickshire, on the 27th of February 1691. His
father, Joseph Cave, was of good family, but the entail of the
family estate being cut off, he was reduced to becoming a cobbler
at Rugby. Edward Cave entered the grammar school of that
town, but was expelled for robbing the master's hen-roost. After
many vicissitudes he became apprentice to a London printer, and
after two years was sent to Norwich to conduct a printing house
and publish a weekly paper. While still a printer he obtained
a place in the post office, and was promoted to be clerk of the
franks. He was at this time engaged in supplying London news-
letters to various country papers; and his enemies, who had
twice summoned him before the House of Commons for breach
of privilege, now accused him of opening letters to obtain his
news, and he was dismissed the service. With the capital which
he had saved, he set up a small printing office at St John's Gate,
Clerkenwell, which he carried on under the name of R. Newton.
He had long formed a scheme of a magazine " to contain the
essays and intelligence which appeared in the two hundred
half-sheets which the London press then threw off monthly,"
and had- tried in vain to persuade some publisher to take it up.
la 1731 he himself put it into execution, and began the GenUe-
man's Magazine (see Periodicals), of which he was the editor,
ttnder the pseudonym " Sylvanus Urban, Gent." The magazine
had a large circulation and brought a fortune to the projector.
In 1734 he began to issue reports of the debates in both Houses
of Parliament. He commissioned friends to note the speeches,,
which he published with the initial and final letters of personal
names. In 1738 Cave was censured by parliament for printing
the king's answer to an address before it had been announced by
the speaker. From that time he called his reports the debates
of a " parliament in the empire of Lilliput " (see Reporting).
To piece together and write out the speeches for this publication
was Samuel Johnson's first literary employment. In 1747 Cave
was reprimanded for publishing an account of the trial of Lord
Lovat, and the reports were discontinued till 1752. He died on
the 10th of January 1 7 54. Cave published Dr Johnson's Rambler,
and his Irene, London and Life of Savage, and was the subject of
a short biography by him.
CAVE, WILLIAM (1637-1713), English divine, was born at
Pickwell in Leicestershire. He was educated at St John's
College, Cambridge, and successively held the livings of Islington
(1662), of All-Hallows the Great, Thames Street, London (167Q),
and of Isleworth in Middlesex (1690). Dr Cave was chaplain
to Charles II., and in 1684 became a canon of Windsor. The two
works on which his reputation principally rests are the Apostolici,
or History of Apostles and Fathers in the first three centuries
of the Church (1677), and Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Hist aria
Literaria (1688). The best edition of the latter is the Clarendon
Press, 1 740-1 743, which contains additions by the author and
others. In both works he was drawn into controversy with
Jean le Clerc, who was then writing his Bibliotheque universelle,
and who accused him of partiality. He wrote several other
works of the same nature which exhibit scholarly research and
lucid arrangement. He is said to have been a good talker and
an eloquent preacher. His death occurred at Windsor on the
4th of July 1713.
CAVE (Lat. cavea, from cavus, hollow), a hollow extending
beneath the surface of the earth. The word " cavern " (Lat,
caverna) is practically a synonym, though a distinction is some-
times drawn between sea caves and inland caverns, but the term
" cave " is used here as a general description. Caves have
excited the awe and wonder of mankind in all ages, anil have
been the centres round which have clustered many legends and
superstitions. They were the abode of the sibyls and the nymphs
in Roman mythology, and in Greece they were the temples of
Zeus, Pan, Dionysus, Pluto and the Moon, as well as the places
where the oracles were delivered at Delphi, Corinth and Mount
Cithaeron. In Persia they were connected with the obscure
worship of Mithras. Their names frequently are survivals of the
superstitious ideas of antiquity, as, for example, the Fairy,
Dragon's, or Devil's Caves of France and Germany. Long after
the Fairies and Little Men had forsaken the forests and glens of
Germany, they dwelt in their palaces deep in the Harz Mountains,
in the Dwarfholes, &c, whence they came from time to time into
the upper air.
The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus slept their long sleep in a cave.
The hills of Granada are still believed by the Moorish children to
contain the great Boabdil and his sleeping host, who will awake,
when an adventurous mortal invades their repose, to restore the
glory of the Moors in Spain.
Caves have been used in all ages by mankind for habitation,
refuge and burial. In the Old Testament we read that when Lot
went up out of Zoar he dwelt in a cave with his two daughters.
The five kings of the Canaanites took refuge from Joshua, and
David from Saul, in the caves of Palestine, just as the Aquitani
fled from Caesar to those of Auvergne, and the Arabs of Algeria
to those of Dahra, where they were suffocated by Marshal Pelissier
in 1845. In Central Africa David Livingstone discovered vast
caves in which whole tribes found security with their cattle and
household stuff.
The cave of Machpelah may be quoted as an example of their
use as sepulchres, and the rock-hewn tombs of Palestine and of
Egypt and the Catacombs of Rome probably owe their existence
to the ancient practice of burial in natural hollows in the rock r
We might therefore expect to find in them most important
evidence as to the ancient history of mankind, which would
reach long beyond written record; and since they have always
574
CAVE
been used by wild beasts as lairs we might reasonably believe also
that their exploration would throw light upon the animals which
have in many cases disappeared from the countries which they
formerly inhabited. The labours of Buckland, Pengelly , Falconer,
Lartet and Christy, and Boyd Dawkins have added an entirely
new chapter to the history of man in Europe, as well as established
the changes that have taken place in the European fauna. The
physical history of caves will be taken first, and we shall then pass
on to the discoveries relating to man and the lower animals which
have been made in them of late years.
Physical History, — The most obvious agent in hollowing out
caves is the sea. The set of the currents, the force of the breakers,
the grinding of the shingle inevitably discover the weak places in
the cliff, and leave caves as one of the results of their work,
modified in each case by the local conditions of the rock. Those
formed in this manner are easily recognized from their floors
being rarely much out of the horizontal; their entrances are all
in the same plane, or in a succession of horizontal and parallel
planes, if the land has been elevated at successive times. From
their inaccessible position they have been rarely occupied by
man. Among them FingaTs Cave, on the island of Staffa, off the
south-west coast of Scotland, hollowed out of columnar basalt,
is perhaps the most remarkable in Europe. In volcanic regions
also there are caves formed by the passage of lava to the surface
of the ground, or by the expansion of steam and gases in the lava
while it was in a molten state. They have been observed in the
regions round Vesuvius and Etna, in Iceland and Teneriffe. We
may take as an example the Grotto del Cane (" cave of the dog "),
near Pozzuoli, a few miles to the south-west of Naples, remark-
able for the flow of carbonic acid from crevices in the floor, which
fills the lower part of the cave and suffocates any small animal,
such as a dog, immersed long enough in it.
The most important class of caves, however, and that which
immediately demands our notice, is that composed of those
which have been cut out of calcareous rocks by the action of
carbonic acid in the rain-water, combined with the mechanical
friction of the sand and stones set in motion by the streams
which have, at one time or another, flowed through them. They
occur at various levels, and are to be met with wherever the
strata are sufficiently compact to support a roof. Those of
Brixham and Torquay and of the Eifel are in the Devonian
limestone; those of Wales, Somerset, the Pennine chain, Ireland,
the central and northern counties of Belgium, Saxony, and
Westphalia, of Maine and Anjou, of Virginia and Kentucky, are
in that of the Carboniferous age. The cave of Kirkdale in York-
shire, and most of those in Franconia and Bavaria, penetrate
Jurassic limestones. The Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones
contain most of the caverns of France, rendered famous by the
discovery of the remains of the cave-men along with the animals
which they hunted; as well as those of the Pyrenees, the Alps,
Sicily, Greece, Dalmatia, Carniola and Palestine. The cave of
Lunelviel near Montpellier is the most important of those which
have been hollowed in limestones of the Tertiary age. They are
also met with in rocks composed of gypsum; in Thuringia, for
example, they occur in the saliferous and gypseous strata of the
Zechstein, and in the gypseous Tertiary rocks of the neighbour-
hood of Paris, as, for example, at Montmorency.
Caves formed by the action of carbonic acid and the action of
water are distinguished from others by the following characters.
They open on the abrupt sides of valleys and ravines at various
levels, and are arranged round the main axes of erosion, just as the
branches are arranged round the trunk of a tree. In a great many
cases the relation of the valley to the ravine, and of the ravine to
the cave, is so intimate that it is impossible to deny that all three
have been produced by the same causes. The caves themselves
ramify in the same irregular fashion as the valleys, and are to be
viewed merely as the capillaries in the general valley system
through which the rain passes to join the main channels. Some*
times, as in the famous caves of Adelsberg, Kentucky, Wookey
Hole in Somersetshire, the Peak in Derbyshire, and in many in
the Jura, they are still the passages of subterranean streams;
but very frequently the drainage has found an outlet at a lower
level, and the ancient watercourses have been deserted. These
in every case present unmistakable proof that they have been
traversed by water in the sand, gravel and clay which they
contain, as well as in the worn surfaces of the sides and bottom.
In all districts where there are caves there are funnel-shaped
depressions of various sizes called pot-holes or swallow-holes,
or b£toires, " chaldrons du enable," " marmites des geants," or
" katavothra," in which the rain is collected before it disappears
into the subterranean passages. They are to be seen in all stages,
some being mere hollows which only contain water after excessive
rain, while others are profound vertical shafts into which the
water is continually falling. Gaping Ghyl, 330 ft., and Helln Pot
in Yorkshire, 300 ft. deep, are examples of the latter class. The
cirques described by M. Desnoyers belong to the same class as the
swallow-holes.
The history of swallow-holes, caves, ravines and valleys in
calcareous strata may be summed up as follows: — The calcareous
rocks are invariably traversed by joints or lines of shrinkage,
which are lines of weakness by which the direction of the drainage
is determined; and they are composed to a large extent of
carbonate of lime, which is readily exchanged into soluble
bicarbonate by the addition of carbonic acid* The rain in its
passage through the air takes up carbonic acid, and it is still
further charged with it in percolating through the surface soil in
which there is decomposing vegetable matter. As the raindrops
converge towards some one point, determined by some load
accident on the surface, and always in a line of joint, the carbonic
acid attacks the carbonate of lime with which it comes into
contact, and thus a funnel is gradually formed ending in the ver-
tical joint below. Both funnel and vertical joint below are being
continually enlarged by this process. This chemical action goes
on until the free carbonic acid is used up. The subterranean
passages are enlarged in this manner, and what was originally an
insignificant network of fissures is developed into a series of halls,
sometimes as much as from 80 to 100 ft. high. These results are
considerably furthered by the mechanical friction of the pebbles
and sand hurried along by the current, and by falls of rock from
the roof produced by the removal of the underlying strata. In
many cases the results of this action have produced a regular
subterranean river system. The thick limestones of Kentucky,
for example, are traversed by subterranean waters which collect
in large rivers, and ultimately appear at the surface in full power.
The river Axe, near Wells, the stream flowing out of the Peak
Cavern at Castleton, Derbyshire, that at Adelsberg in Carniola,
flow out of caverns in full volume. The river Styx and the waters
of Acheron disappear in a series of caverns which were supposed
to lead down to the infernal regions.
If the direction of the drainage in the rock has been altered,
either by elevations such as those with which the geologist is
familiar, or by the opening out of new passages at a lower level,
these watercourses become dry, and present us with the caves
which have afforded shelter to man and the wild animals from the
remotest ages, sometimes high up on the side of a ravine, at other
times close to the level of the stream at the bottom.
Caves, as a general rule, are as little effected by disturbances of
the rock as the ravines and valleys, which have been formed, in
the main, irrespective of the lines of fault or dislocation.
We must now examine what happens to the bicarbonate of
lime which has been formed by the action of the acid on the
limestone. If a current of air play upon the surface of the water,
the carbonic acid, which floats up the lime, so to speak, is given
off and the insoluble carbonate is deposited, and as a result of this
action we have the elaborate and fantastic stony incrustations
termed stalactites and stalagmites. The water percolating
through the rock covers the sides of the cavern with a stalactitic
drapery, and if a line of drops persistently faUs from the same
point to the floor, the calcareous deposit gradually descends f com
the roof, forming in some cases stony tassels, and in others long
columns which are ultimately united to the calcareous boss
formed by the plash of the water on the floor. The surface also of
the pools is sometimes covered over with an ice-like -sheet of
stalagmite, which shoots from the sides, and sometimes forms a
CAVE
575
solid and firm floor when the water on which it was supported has
disappeared. Sometimes the drops form a little calcareous basin,
beautifully polished inside, which contains small pearl-like
particles of carbonate of lime, polished by friction one against the
other. The most beautiful stalactitic caves in Great Britain are
those of Cheddar in Somerset, Caldy Island and Poole's Cavern
at Buxton. A portion only of the carbonate of lime is thus
deposited in the hollows of the rock from which it was taken; the
rest is carried into the open air by the streams, in part deposited
on the sides and bottom, forming tufa and the so-called petrifica-
tions, and partly being conveyed down to the sea to be ultimately
secreted in the tissues of the Mollusca, Echinodermata and
Foraminif era. Through these it is again collected in a solid form ,
and in the long course of ages it is again lifted up above the level
of the water as limestone rock, and again undergoes the same
series of changes. Thus the cycle of carbonate of lime is a never-
ending one from the land to the ocean, from the ocean to the land,
and so it has been ever since the first stratum of limestone was
formed out of the remains of the animals and plants of the sea.
The rate of the accumulation of stalagmite in caverns is neces-
sarily variable, since it is determined by the presence of varying
currents of air. In the Ingleborough cavern a stalagmite,
measured in 1839 and in 1873, is growing at the rate of '2946 in.
per annum. It is obvious, therefore, that the vast antiquity of
deposits containing remains of man underneath layers of stalag-
mite cannot be inferred from a thickness of a few inches or even of
a few feet.
The intimate relation which exists between caves and ravines
renders it extremely probable that many of the latter have been
originally subterranean watercourses, which have been unroofed
by the degradation of the rock. In all limestone districts ravines
are to be found continued in the same direction as the caves,
and the process of atmospheric erosion may be seen in the fallen
blocks of stone which generally are to be met with at the
mouths of the caverns. In illustration of this the valley and caves
of Weathercote, in Yorkshire, may be quoted, or the source of
the Axe at Wookey; and the ravine formed in this way has very
frequently been widened out into a valley by the action of
subaerial waste, or by the grinding of glaciers through it during
the glacial stage of the Pleistocene period.
For further details as to the physical history of caverns we must
refer the reader to the works quoted at the end of this article, by
£. A. Mattel, the intrepid explorer of most of the large European
caves, including those of Great Britain and Ireland. Toe history of
the Glacieres or Ice-caves will be found in Browne's Ice Caves in
France and Switzerland.
Classification. — The caves which have offered shelter to the
mammalia are classified according to their contents, and are of
various ages, ranging from the Pliocene to the present day.
(1) Those containing the Pliocene mammalia belong to that age.
(2) Those with the remains of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros
and other extinct species, or with paleolithic man (see Archaeo-
logy), are termed Pleistocene. These are sometimes called
Quaternary, under the mistaken idea that they belong to an age
succeeding the Tertiary period. (3) Those which contain the
remains of the domestic animals in association with the remains
of man either in the Neolithic, Bronze or Iron stages of civiliza-
tion are termed Prehistoric. (4) The fourth group consists
of those which can be brought into relation with the historic
period, and are therefore termed Historic.
The Pliocene Caves. — It is a singular fact, only to be explained
by the vast denudation of the earth's surface since the Pliocene
Age, that only one cave referable to that age has as yet been
discovered, that at Doveholes near Buxton, Derbyshire, described
by Boyd Dawkins in 1903 (Quart. J own. Geol. Soc.). The
cave consists of a large horizontal chamber and a small passage,
connected with a swallow-hole dose by, and exposed in the
working face of a quarry in 1901, at a depth of about 40 ft. from
the surface. The locality is in the limestone plateau, 11 58 ft.
high, which forms the divide between the waters flowing into the
Mersey on the west and the Humber on the east. Both swallow-
hole and cave were comDletelv blocked up with debris, and the
latter was filled with red and yellow clay, horizontally stratified
and containing pebbles of sandstone from the neighbouring ridge
of Axe Edge, and bones and teeth of fossil mammals, some
waterworn and others without traces of transport by water.
All the mammals belong to well-known species found in the
Pliocene strata of East Anglia, and in Auvergne and Italy.
Among them were the sabre-toothed lion {Machairodus crena-
tidens), the hyena of Auvergne, the mastodon, and the southern
elephant (E. meridionalis), and rhinoceros (R. Etruscus), and
Steno's horse. Most of the bones had evidently been gnawed
by hyenas and accumulated in one of their dens, and had after-
wards been carried by water into the chambers deep down in
the rock, where they were found. Since that time the general
level of the district has been lowered by denudation to an extent
of more than 230 ft., and all the hyena dens destroyed with the
Pliocene surface not only in this district but generally over the
world. In this case a covering of limestone some 270 ft. thick,
including the depth from the present surface, protected the
remains from the denuding forces.
The Pleistocene Caves. — The search after eburfossile or unicorns'
horn, or in other words the fossil bones which ranked high in the
materia medica of the 16th and 17th centuries, led to the discovery
of the ossiferous caverns of the Harz Mountains, and of Hungary
and Franconia. The famous cave of Gailenreuth in the last of
these districts was explored by Goldfuss in 1810. The bones of
the hyena, lion, wolf, fox and stag, which it contained, were
identified by Baron Cuvier, and some of the skulls have been
proved by Busk to belong to the grizzly bear. They were as-
sociated with the bones of the reindeer, horse and bison, as well as
with those of the great cave hear. These discoveries were of very
great interest, because they established the fact that the above
animals had lived in Germany in ancient times. The first bone
cave systematically explored in England was one at Oreston near
Plymouth in 1816, which proved that an extinct species of
rhinoceros {R. leptorhinus) lived in that district. Four years
later the famous hyena den at Kirkdale in Yorkshire was explored
by Buckland. He brought forward proof that it had been in-
habited by hyenas, and that the broken and gnawed bones of the
mammoth, rhinoceros, stag, bison and horse belonged to animals
which had been dragged in for food. He pointed out that all
these animals had lived in Yorkshire in ancient times, and that
it was impossible for the carcases of the rhinoceros, hyena and
mammoth to have been floated from tropical regions into the
places where he found their bones. He subsequently investigated
bone caves in Derbyshire, South Wales and Somerset, as well
as in Germany, and published his P.diquiae DiUmanae in 1822,
a work which laid the foundations oi the new science of cave-
hunting in this country. The well-known cave of Kent's Hole
near Torquay furnished McEnery, between the years 1825
and 1841, with the first flint implements discovered in intimate
association with the bones of extinct animals. He recognized
the fact that they proved the existence of man in Devonshire
while those animals were alive, but the idea was too novel to be
accepted by his contemporaries. His discoveries have since been
verified by the subsequent investigations carried on by Godwin
Austen, and ultimately by the committee of the British Associa-
tion, which worked for several years under the guidance of
Pengelly. There are four distinct strata in the cave. 1st, The
surface is composed of dark earth, and contains medieval
remains, Roman pottery and articles which prove that it was
in use during the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic Ages. 2nd, Below
this is a stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from 1 to 3 ft.,
and covering (3rd) the red earth, which contained bones of the
hyena, lion, mammoth, rhinoceros and other animals, in associa-
tion with flint implements and an engraved antler, which proved
man to have been an inhabitant of the cavern during the time of its
deposition. 4th, Filling the bottom of the cave is a hard breccia,
with the remains of bears and flint implements, in the mam
ruder than those found above; in some places it was no less than
12 ft. thick. The most remarkable animal found in Kent's Hole
is the sabre-toothed carnivore, Machairodus latidens of Owen.
While the value of McEnery's discoveries was in dispute th*
57&
CAVE
exploration of the cave of Brixham near Torquay in 1858 proved
that man was coeval with the extinct mammalia, and in the
following year additional proof was offered by the implements
that were found in Wookey Hole. Similar remains have been
met with in the caves explored since that time in Wales, and in
England as far north as Derbyshire (Creswell), proving that
palaeolithic man hunted the mammoth and rhinoceros and other
extinct animals over the whole of southern and middle England.
The discoveries in Kent's Hole and in the Creswell caves prove
further that palaeolithic man was in two stages of civilization — the
ruder or riverdrift man, with implements of the type found in
the river gravels (see Archaeology; and Palaeolithic) being
the older; and the more highly advanced, or the cave-man,
mainly characterized by the better implements, and a singular
facility in depicting animal life (as shown by the figure of a horse
incised on the fragment of a bone found in the Creswell caves),
being the newer. We may also conclude from the absence of
palaeolithic implements from the glaciated regions in which most
of these caves occur, that both riverdrift and cave-men dwelt in
middle and northern Britain in the pre-glacial age, their remains
being protected in the caverns from the denuding forces that
removed all traces of their existence from the surface of the ground
in glacial and post-glacial times. The riverdrift man is, however,
proved to be post-glacial in southern and eastern England, by
the occurrence of his implements in the river gravels of that age.
Both these peoples inhabited southern England and the continent
before and after the glacial period. The riverdrift man, whose
implements occur in river deposits in middle and southern
Europe, in Africa, Palestine and Hindustan, is everywhere in
the same age of primitive barbarism, and has not as yet been
identified with any living race. The cave-men are in a higher
and more advanced stage, and led a life in Europe identical with
that of the Eskimos in the Arctic regions.
The Pleistocene Caves of the European Continent.—-Tht re-
searches of Mortillet have proved that the same two groups of
cave-dwellers occur in the cave9 of France, the older being
represented by the Chelieen and Mousterien sections, and the
newer by that of Solutre and La Madelaine. To the former
belong the human remains found in the caverns of Spy and
Neanderthal, which prove that the riverdrift man had " the most
brutal of all known human skulls." To the latter we must
assign all the caves and rock-shelters of Perigord, with the better
implements, explored by Lartet and Christy in 1863-1864 in
the valleys of the VezSre and Dordogne. These offer as vivid a
picture of the life of the cave-men as that revealed of Italian
manners in the 1st century by the buried cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii. The old floors of human occupation consist of
broken bones of animals killed in the chase, mingled with
rude implements and weapons of bone and unpolished stone,
and with charcoal and burnt stones, which indicate the position
of the hearths. Flakes without number, awls, lance-heads,
hammers and saws made of flint rest pUe-m&e with bone needles,
sculptured reindeer antlers, arrowheads and harpoons, and bones
of tlie reindeer, bison, horse, ibex, Saiga antelope and musk
sheep. These singular accumulations of debris mark the places
where the ancient hunters lived, and are merely the refuse cast
aside. The reindeer formed by far the greater portion of the
food, and must have lived in enormous herds at that time in
the centre of France. From this, as well as from the presence
of the most arctic of the herbivores, the musk sheep, we may infer
the severe climate of that portion of France at that time. Besides
these animals the cave bear and lion have been met with in one,
and the mammoth in five localities, and their remains bear
marks of cutting or scraping which showed they fell a prey to
the hunters. The most remarkable remains left behind in these
refuse heaps are the sculptured reindeer antlers and figures
engraved on fragments of schist and on ivory. A well-defined
outline of an ox stands out boldly from one piece of antler; a
second represents a reindeer kneeling down in an easy attitude
with his head thrown up in the air so that the antlers rest on the
shoulders, and the back forms an even surface for a handle,
which is too small to be grasped by an ordinary European hand;
in a third a man stands close to a horse's head, and on the other
side of the same cylinder are two heads of bisons drawn with
sufficient clearness to ensure recognition, by Any one who has
seen that animal. On a fourth the natural curvature of one of
the tines has been taken advantage of by the artist to. engrave
the head and the characteristic recurved horns of the ibex;
and on a fifth horses are represented with large heads, up-
right dishevelled manes and shaggy ungroomed tails. The most
striking figure is that of the mammoth engraved pn a fragment
of its own tusk; the peculiar spiral curvature of the tusk and the
long mane, which are now not to be found in any living elephant,
prove that the original was familiar to the eye of the artist.
These drawings probably employed the idle hours of the hunter,
and hand down to us the scenes which he witnessed in the chase.
They are full of artistic feeling and are evidently drawn from
life. The mammoth is engraved in its own ivory, and the reindeer
and the stag on their respective antlers. Further researches
have revealed the fact that in Auvergne and in the Pyrenees the
cave-men ornamented some of their caves with incised figures
and polychrome frescoes of the wild animals. Riviere has dis-
covered on the walls of the grotto of La Mouthe (Dordogne)
three large hunting scenes, one with bisons and horses, a second
representing a primitive hut, a bison, reindeer, ibex and mam-
moth, and a third with a mammoth, hinds and horses. In
the Pyrenees similar frescoes have been described by Cartailhac
and BreuiL They are on the walls of the cavern and roof of
Altamira, and on the walls of Marsoulas. The outlines have
been engraved first, and afterwards filled in with colour in brown
and red ochre and black oxide of manganese.
The cave-men ranged over middle Europe as far south as the
Pyrenees and the Alps, and inhabited the caverns of Belgium
and Germany, Hungary and Switzerland. Their remains have
not as yet been met with in southern Europe. They lived by
hunting and fishing, they were fire users, and lit up the darkness
of their caves with stone lamps filled with fat (Altamira), They
were clad in skins sewn together with sinews of reindeer or strips
of intestines. They used huts as well as caves for habitation.
They had a marvellous facility for drawing animal figures.
They possessed no domestic aDimalfr, nor were they acquainted
with spinning or with the potter's art. We have no evidence
that they buried their dead — the interments, such as those of
Aurignac, Les Eyzies and Mentone, most probably belonging to
a later age.
If these remains be compared with those of existing races, it
will be found that the cave-men were in the same hunter stage
of civilization as the Eskimos, and that they are unlike any other
races of hunters. If they were not allied to the Eskimos by blood,
there can be no doubt that they handed down to the latter their
art and their manner of life. The bone needles, and many of
the harpoons, as well as the flint spearheads, arrowheads and
scrapers, are of precisely the same form as those now in use
amongst the Eskimos. The artistic designs from the caves of
France, Belgium and Switzerland, are identical in plan and
workmanship with those of the Eskimos, with this difference only,
that the hunting scenes familiar to the Palaeolithic cave-dwellers
were not the same as those familiar to the inhabitants of the
shores of the Arctic Ocean. Each represented the animals which
he knew, and the whale, walrus and seal were unknown to the
inland dwellers of Aquitaine, just as the mammoth, bison, and
wild horse are unknown to the Eskimos. The reindeer, which
they both knew, is represented in the same way by both. The
practice of accumulating large quantities of the bongstof animals
round their dwelling-places, and the habit of splitting the bones
for the sake of the marrow, are the same in both. The bides were
prepared with the same sort of instruments, and the needles with
which they were sewn together are of the same pattern. The
stone lamps were used by both. In both there was the same
disregard of sepulture. All these facte can hardly be mere
coincidences caused by both peoples leading a savage life under
similar conditions. The conclusion, therefore, seems inevitable
that, so far as we have any evidence of the race to which the
cave-dwellers belong, that evidence points only in the direction
CAVE
577
of the Eskimos. It is to a considerable extent confirmed by a con-
sideration of the animals found in the caves. The reindeer and
musk sheep afford food to the Eskimos now in the Arctic Circle,
just 6s they afforded it to the cave-men in Europe; and both
these animals have been traced by their remains from the
Pyrenees to the north-east through Europe and Asia as far as
the very regions in which they now live. The mammoth and
bison also have been tracked by their remains in the frozen river
gravels and morasses through Siberia as far as the American side
of Bering Strait. Palaeolithic man appeared in Europe with the
arctic mammalia, lived in Europe with them, and in all human
probability retreated to the north-east along with them.
There are refuse heaps in north-eastern Siberia containing the
remains of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros as well as the
reindeer and musk sheep, which may be referred with equal
justice to the cave-men or to the Eskimos.
Ancient Geography of Europe. — The remains of man and the
animals described in the preceding paragraphs have been intro-
duced into the caves either by man or the wild beasts, or by
streams of water, which may or may not now occupy their ancient
courses; and the fact that the same species are to be met with in
the caves of France, Switzerland and Britain implies that our
island formed part of the continent, and that there were no
physical barriers to prevent their migration from the Alps as far
to the north-west as Ireland.
The same conclusion may be gathered from the exploration of
caves in the south of Europe, which has resulted in the discovery
of African species, in Gibraltar, Sicily and Malta. In the first of
these the spotted hyena, the serval and Kaffre cat lie side by
side with the horse, grizzly bear and slender rhinoceros (R.
leptorhinus) — see Falconer's Palaeontographical Memoirs. To
these African animals inhabiting the Iberian peninsula in the
Pleistocene age, Lartet has added the African elephant and
striped hyena, found in a stratum of gravel near Madrid, along
with flint implements. The hippopotamus, spotted hyena and
African elephant occur in the caves of Sicily, and imply that in
ancient times there was a continuity of land between that spot
and Africa, just as the presence of the Elephas anUquus proves
the non-existence of the Straits of Messina during a portion, to
say the least, of the Pleistocene age. A small species of hippo-
potamus (H. PetUlandi) occurs in incredible abundance in the
Sicilian caves. It has also been found in those of Malta along
with an extinct pigmy elephant species (E. Melitensis). It has
also been discovered in Candia and in the Peloponnese. For
these animals to have found their way to these regions, a con-
tinuity of land is necessary. The view advanced by Dr Falconer
and Admiral Spratt, that Europe was formerly connected with
Africa by a bridge of land extending southwards from Sicily, is
fully borne out by these considerations. The present physical
geography of the Mediterranean has been produced by a depres-
sion of land to the amount of about 400 fathoms, by which the
Sicilo-African and Ibero-African barriers have been submerged,
and Crete and Malta separated from the South-European
continent It is extremely probable that this submergence took
place at the same time that the adjoining sea-bottom was elevated
to about the same amount so as to constitute that region now
known as the Sahara.
Pleistocene Caves of the Americas and Australia. — The Pleisto-
cene caverns of the Euro-Asiatic continent contain the pro-
genitors of the animals now alive in some parts of the Old World,
the extinct forms being closely allied to those now living in the
same geographical provinces. Those of Brazil and of Penn-
sylvania present us with animals whose nearest analogues are
to be found in North and South America, such as sloths, arma-
dillos and agoutis. Those, again, of Australia present us with
marsupials (metatheria) only, allied to, or identical with, those
of that most ancient continent. The extinct forms in each case
are mainly those of the larger animals, which, from their large
size, and low fecundity, would be specially liable to be beaten
in the battle for life by their smaller and more fertile contem-
poraries, and less likely to survive those changes in their environ-
ment which have undoubtedly taken place in the long lapse of
ages. It is, therefore, certain that the mammalian life in the
Old, New and Australian worlds, was as well marked out into
geographical provinces in the Pleistocene age as at the present
time, and that it has been continuous in these areas from that
remote time to the present day.
Prehistoric Caves of Neolithic Age in Europe. — The prehistoric
caves are distinguished from Pleistocene by their containing
the remains of domestic animals, and by the wild animals to
which they have afforded shelter belonging to living species.
They are divisible into three groups according to the traces of
man which occur in them— into the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron
Ages.
The Neolithic caves are widely spread throughout Europe,
and have been used as the habitations and tombs of the early
races who invaded Europe from the East with their flocks and
herds. The first of these systematically explored was at Perthi
Chwareu, near the village of Llandegla, Denbighshire, in 1869.
In the following years five others were discovered close by, as
well as a second group in the neighbourhood of Cefn on the banks
of the Elwy. They contained polished celts, flint flakes, rude
pottery and human skeletons, along with the broken bones of
the pig, dog, horse, Celtic shorthorn and goat. The remains of
the wild animals belong to the wolf, fox, badger, bear, wild boar,
stag, roe, hare and rabbit. Most of the bones were broken or
cut, and the whole group was obviously an accumulation which
resulted from these caves having been used as dwellings. They
had subsequently been used for burial. The human skeletons
in them were of all ages, from infancy to old age; and the inter-
ments had been successive until each became filled. The bodies
were buried in the contracted posture which is so characteristic
of Neolithic interments generally. The men to whom these
skeletons belonged were a short race, the tallest being about
5 ft. 6 in., and the shortest 4 ft. 10 in. ; their skulls are ortho-
gnathic, or not presenting jaws advancing beyond a vertical line
dropped from the forehead, in shape long or oval, and of fair
average capacity. The face was oval, and the cheek bones
were not prominent. Some of the individuals were characterized
by a peculiar flattening of the shinbone (platycnemism), which
probably stood in relation to the free action of the foot that was
not hampered by the use of a rigid sole or sandal. This, however,
cannot be looked upon as a race character, or as a tendency
towards a simian type of leg. These Neolithic cave-dwellers have
been proved to be identical in physique with the builders of the
cairns and tumuli which lie scattered over the face of Great
Britain and Ireland. (See Thurnam, Crania Britannica.) They
have also been met with abundantly in France. In the Caverne
de l'Homme Mort, for example, in the department of Lozere,
explored in 187 1, the association of remains was of precisely the
same nature as those mentioned above, and the human skeletons
were of the same small type. The same class of remains has also
been discovered in Gibraltar, in the caves of Windmill Hill, and
some others. The human remains examined by Busk are of
precisely the same type as those of Denbighshire. In the work
of Don Manuel Gongora J. Martinez (Antiguedades prehistoricas
de Andalusia, 1868), several interments are described in the cave
of Murcielagos, which penetrates the limestone out of which the
grand scenery of the southern Sierra Nevada has been to a great
extent carved. In one place a group of three skeletons was met
with, one of which was adorned with a plain coronet of gold, and
clad in a tunic made of esparto grass finely plaited, so as to
form a pattern like that on some of the gold ornaments in
Etruscan tombs. In a second spot farther within, twelve
skeletons formed a semicircle round one covered with a tunic
of skin, and wearing a necklace of esparto grass, ear-rings of
black stone, and ornaments of shell and wild boar tusk. There
were other articles of plaited esparto grass, such as baskets and
sandals. There were also flint flakes, polished-stone axes,
implements of bone and wood, together with pottery of the same
type as that from Gibraltar. The same class of remains have
been discovered in the Woman's Cave, near Alhama de Granada.
From the physical identity of the human remains in all these
cases it maybe inferred that in the Neolithic Age a long-headed,
v. 10
57«
CAVE
small race inhabited the Iberian peninsula, extending through
France, as far north as Britain, and to the north-west as far as
Ireland — a race considered by Professor Busk " to be at the
present day represented by at any rate a part of the population
now inhabiting the Basque provinces." This identification of
the ancient Neolithic cave-dwellers with the modern Basque-
speaking inhabitant of the western Pyrenees is corroborated
by the elaborate researches of Broca, Virchow and Thurnam
on modern Basque skulls. It may, therefore, be concluded
that in the Neolithic Age an Iberian population occupied the
whole of the area mentioned above, inhabiting caves and burying
their dead in caves and chambered tombs, and possessed of the
same habits of life. The remains of the same small, oval-
featured, long-headed race have been found in Belgium in the
cave of Chauvaux, and they have been described by Sergi in
southern Europe under the name of the Mediterranean race.
There is no evidence that any other race except the Iberic
buried their dead in the caves of Britain in the Neolithic Age. In
Belgium, however, the exploration of the cave of Sclaigneaux
by Soreil proves that broad-headed men of the type defined by
Huxley and Thurnam as brachycephalic, and characterized by
high cheek-bones, projecting muscles and large stature, the
average height being 5 ft 8-4 in. (Thurnam) , inhabited and buried
their dead in the caves of that region. In France they occur
in the sepulchral cave of Orrouy (Oise) in association with those
of the Iberic type. They have also been met with in Gibraltar.
This type is undistinguishable from the Celtic (Goidelic) or
Gaulish, found so abundantly in the chambered tombs of the
Neolithic Age in France. Both these ancient races are repre-
sented at the present day by the Basques and Aquitanians of
France and Spain,and by the Celts or Gauls of France, Britain and
the Mediterranean border of Spain, their relative antiquity being
proved by an appeal to their history and geographical distribution.
For just as the earliest records show that the Iberic power ex-
tended as far north as the Loire, and as far east as the Rhone,
so we have proof of the gradual retrocession of the Iberic frontier
southwards, under the attacks of the successive Celtic hordes,
until ultimately we find the latter in possession of a considerable
part of southern Spain, forming by their union with the con-
quered the powerful nation of Celt-Iberi. The Iberians were in
possession of the continent before they were dispossessed by the
Goidels,and at a later time by the Brythons. They are recognized
by Tacitus in Britain in the Silures of Wales; and they are still
to be seen in the small, dark, lithe inhabitants of North Wales.
The discovery of the characteristic skulls of both these races
in the same family vault in the cave of Gop near Prestatyn,
Flintshire, proves that the two races were mingled together in
Britain as far back as the Bronze Age.
From the present distribution of this non-Aryan race it is
obvious that they were gradually pushed back westward by the
advance of tribes coming from the East, and following those routes
which were subsequently taken by the Low and High Germans.
The exploration of the Grotta dei Colombi, in the island of
Palmaria, overlooking the Gulf of Spezzia, in 1873, proves that
the stories scattered through the classical writers, that the caves
on the Mediterranean shores were inhabited by cannibals, are
not altogether without foundation. In it broken and cut bones
of children and young adults were found along with those of the
goat, hog, fox, wolf, wild-cat, flint flakes, bone implements and
shells perforated for suspension.
Prehistoric Caves of Bronze and Iron Ages, — The extreme
rarity of articles of bronze in the European caves implies that
they were rarely used by the Bronze folk for habitation or burial.
Bronze weapons mingled with gold ornaments have, however,
been discovered in the Heatheryburn cave near Stanhope, Dur-
ham, as well as in those of Kirkhead in Cartmell, in Thor's cave
in Staffordshire, and the Cat Hole in Gower in Glamorganshire.
In the Iberian peninsula the cave of Cesareda, explored by Signor
Delgado, in the valley of the Tagus, contained bronze articles,
associated with broken and cut human bones, as well as those of
domestic animals, rendering it probable that cannibalism was
practised in early times in that region. Busk believes, however,
that the facts are insufficient to support the charge of cannibalism
against the ancient Portuguese.
Caves containing articles of iron, and therefore belonging to
that division of the prehistoric age, are so unimportant that they
do not deserve notice in this place. As man increased in civiliza-
tion he preferred to live in houses of his own building, and he
no longer buried his dead in the natural sepulchres provided for
him in the rock.
Prehistoric caves have been rarely explored in extra-European
areas. Among those which abound in Palestine, one in Mount
Lebanon, examined by Canon Tristram, contained flint imple-
ments along with charcoal and broken bones and teeth, some of
which may be referred to a small ox, undistinguishable from the
small short-horn, Bos longifrons. In North America the remains
found by F. W. Putnam in the caves of Kentucky, consisting
of moccasins, rudely-plaited cloth, and other articles, may be
referred to the same division.
Historic Caves in Britain. — The historic caves have only
attracted notice in fairly recent years, and in Britain alone,
principally through the labours of the Settle Cave Committee
from the year 1869 to the present day. To them is due the
exploration of the Victoria cave, which had been discovered and
partially investigated as early as the year 1838. It consists of
three large ill-defined chambers opening on the face of the cliff,
1450 ft. above the sea, and filled with d£bris very nearly up to
the roof. It presented three distinct eras of occupation — one
by hyenas, which dragged into it rhinoceroses, bisons, mammoths,
horses, reindeer and bears. This was defined from the next
occupation, which is probably of the Neolithic Age, by a layer
of grey clay, on the surface of which rested a bone harpoon and
a few flint flakes and bones. Then after an interval of dlbris at
the entrance was a layer of charcoal, broken bones, fragments
of old hearths, and numerous instruments of savage life associated
with broken pottery, Roman coins, and the rude British imita-
tions of them, various articles of iron, and elaborate personal
ornaments, which implied a considerable development of the
arts. The evidence of the coins stamps the date of the occu-
pation of the cave to be between the first half of the 5th
century and the English conquest. Some of the brooches
present a peculiar flamboyant and spiral pattern in relief,
of the same character as the art of some of the illuminated
manuscripts, as for example one of the Anglo-Saxon gospels at
Stockholm, and of the gospels of St Columban in Trinity College,
Dublin. It is mostly allied to that work which is termed by
Franks late Celtic. From its localization in Britain and Ireland,
it seems to be probable that it is of Celtic derivation; and if this
view be accepted, there is nothing at all extraordinary in its being
recognized in the illuminated Irish gospels. Ireland, in the 6th
and 7th centuries, was the great centre of art, civilization and
literature; and it is only reasonable to suppose that there would
be intercourse between the Irish Christians and those of the west
of Britain, during the time that the Romano-Celts, or Brit- Welsh,
were being slowly pushed westwards by the heathen English
invader. Proof of such an intercourse we find in the brief notice
of theAnnalesCambriae,invrhichGil&Ba, the Brit- Welsh historian,
is stated to have sailed over to Ireland in the year a.d. 565. It
is by no means improbable that about this time there was a Brit-
Welsh migration into Ireland, as well as into Brittany. Objects
with these designs found in Germany are probably directly or
indirectly due to the Irish missionaries, who spread Christianity
through those regions. The early Christian art in Ireland grew
out of the late Celtic, and is to a great extent free from the in-
fluence of Rome, which is stamped on the Brit- Welsh art of the
same age in this country.
Several other ornaments with enamel deserve especial notice.
The enamel, composed of red, blue and yellow, has been inserted
into the hollows in the bronze, and then heated so as to form a
close union with it. They are of the same design as those which
have been met with in late Roman tumuli in this country, and
in places which are mainly in the north. They all belong to a
class named late Celtic by Franks, and are considered by him to
be of British manufacture. This view is supported by the only
CAVEA— CAVENDISH, G.
579
reference to the art of enamelling furnished by the classical
writers. Philostratus, a Greek sophist in the court of Julia
Domna, the wife of the emperor Severus, writes, " It is said that
the barbarians living in the ocean pour these colours (those of
horse-trappings) on heated bronze, and that these adhere,
grow as hard as stone, and preserve the designs that are made in
them." It is worthy of remark that, since the emperor Severus
built the wall which bears his name, marched in person against
the Caledonians, and died at York, the account of the enamels
may have reached Philostratus from the very district in which
the Victoria Cave is situated.
Associated with these were bronze ornaments inlaid with
silver, and miscellaneous iron articles, among which was a Roman
key. Remains of this kind have been met with in the Albert
and Kelko caves in the neighbourhood, in that of Dowker-
bottom near Arncliffe, in that of Kirkhead on the northern shore
of Morecambe Bay, in Poole's Cavern near Buxton, and in Thor's
Cave near Ashbourne, and over a wide area ranging from York-
shire and the Lake district southwards into Somerset and Devon.
List of Principal A nimals and Objects found in Brit- Welsh
Strata in Caves.
Animals.
Domestic —
Cants familiaris. Dog .
Sus scrofa. Pig
Equus cabaUus. Horse .
Bos longifrons. Celtic short-horn
Capra htrcus. Goat
Wild—
Canisvulpes. Fox ....
Melts taxus. Badger
Cervus elaphus. Stag .
Cervus capreolus. Roe .
Roman coins, or imitations
Enamelled ornaments, in bronze
Bronze ornaments, inlaid with
silver
Iron articles
Samian ware
Black ware
Bone spoon fibulae ....
Bone combs
i
It is obvious in all these cases that men accustomed to luxury
and refinement were compelled, by the pressure of some great
calamity, to flee for refuge to caves with whatever they could
transport thither of their property. The number of spindle-
whorls and personal ornaments imply that they were accom-
panied by their families. We may also infer that they were cut
off from the civilization to which they had been accustomed,
because in some cases they extemporized spindle-whorls out of
fragments of Samian ware, instead of using those which were
expressly manufactured for the purpose. Why the caves were
inhabited is satisfactorily explained by an appeal to contem-
porary history. In the pages of Gildas, in the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, and in the Annates Catnbriae, we have a graphic
picture of that long war of invasion by which the inhabitants of
the old Roman province of Britannia were driven back by the
Jutes, Angles and Saxons, who crossed over with their families
and household stuff. Slowly, and in the. chances of a war which
extended through three centuries, they were gradually pushed
back into Cumberland, Wales and West Somerset, Devon and
Cornwall. While this war was going on the coinage became
debased and Roman coins afforded the patterns for the small
bronze minimi, which are to be met with equally in these caves
and in the ruins of Roman cities. As the tide of war rolled to the
west, the English tongue and, until towards the close of the
struggle, the worship of Thor and Odin supplanted the British
tongue and the Christian faith, and a rude barbarism replaced
what was left of the Roman civilization in the island. It is to
this period that relics of this kind in the caves must be assigned.
They are traces of the anarchy of those times, and complete the
picture of the desolation of Britain, revealed by the ashes of the
cities and villas that were burnt by the invader. They prove that
the vivid account given by Gildas of the straits to which his
countrymen were reduced was literally true.
The shrines of Zeus in the Idaean and Dictaean caves have been
explored by Halbher and Orsi (Antichitd dell' antro de Zeus Ideo)
and by Arthur Evans and Hogarth (Journal of Hellenic Studies).
These discoveries prove that the cult of Zeus began among the
Mycenaean peoples some 2000 years B.C. according to Evans, and
was practised far down into the later Greek times. They show
that the Greeks are indebted to the Mycenaean peoples not
only for their art, but for the chief of their divinities.
Authorities. — 1. Britain: Boyd Dawkins, Cave-hunting (1874);
Early Man (1880); Martel, Irlande et cavernes anglaises (1897);
Buckland, Reliquiae DUuvianae (1821); Brit. Assoc. Reports (1860-
1875); Journ. Anthrop. Inst. (1870-1876); Quart. Geol. Jour*.
(1 860-1 875); Pengelly, Trans. Devonshire Association. 2. The
European Continent: Martel, Les Abtmes (1894); Cartailhac and
Breuil, V Anthropologic, xv. f xvi.; Lartet and Christy, Reliquiae
Aquitanicae; Internal. Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology; Marcel
de Semes, Les Ossemens fossiles de Lunel Viel; Dupont, L' Homme
pendant les dees de la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse;
Schmerling, Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles decouverts dans les
cavernes de LiSge; Merk, Excavations at Kesserloch, transl. J. E. Lee
(1876). For the chief American caves, see Luray Cavern,
Mammoth Cave, Wyandotte Cave, Colossal Cavern, Jacob's
Cavern. (W. B. D.)
CAVEA* the Latin name given to the subterranean cells in
which the wild beasts were confined prior to the combats in the
Roman arena. The term is sometimes applied to the amphi-
theatre (q.v.) itself.
CAVEAT (Latin for " let him beware," from caver e), in law, a
notice given by the party interested (caveator) to the proper
officer of a court of justice to prevent the taking of a certain step
without warning. It is entered in connexion with dealings in
land registered in the land registry, with the grant of marriage
licences, to prevent the issuing of a lunacy commission, to stay
the probate of a will, letters of administration, &c. Caveat is also
a term used in United States patent law (see Patents).
Caveat emptor (" let the buyer beware ") is a maxim which
implies that the responsibility for making a bad bargain over a
purchase rests on the purchaser. In an ordinary contract for the
sale of goods, there is no implied warranty or condition as to the
quality or fitness for any particular purpose of the goods supplied,
with certain exceptions, and, therefore, the buyer takes at his own
risk. The maxim does not apply (a) where the buyer, expressly
or by implication, makes known to the seller the particular
purpose for which the goods are required, so as to show that the
buyer relies on the seller's skill or judgment, and that the goods
are of a description which it is in the course of the seller's business
to supply; (b) where goods are bought by description from a
seller who deals in goods of that description, for there is an
implied condition that the goods are of merchantable quality,
though if the buyer has actually examined the goods, there is no
implied condition as regards defects which the examination ought
to have revealed ; (c) where the usage of trade annexes an implied
warranty or condition to the goods as to their quality or fitness
for a particular purpose. The maxim of caveat emptor is said to
owe its origin to the fact that in early times sales of goods took
place principally in market overt. (See further Sale of Goods.)
CAVEDONE, JACOPO (15 7 7-1660), Italian painter, born at
Sassuolo in the Modenese, was educated in the school of the
Caracci, and under them painted in the churches of Bologna.
His principal works are the " Adoration of the Magi," the
" Four Doctors," and the " Last Supper "; and more especially
the " Virgin and Child in Glory," with San Petronio and other
saints, painted in 16 14, and now in the Bolognese Academy.
Cavedone became an assistant to Guido Reni in Rome; his art
was generally of a subdued undemonstrative character, with
rich Titianesque colouring. In his declining years his energies
broke down after his wife had been accused of witchcraft, and
after the death of a cherished son. He died in extreme poverty,
in a stable at Bologna.
I CAVENDISH, GEORGE (1500-1562?), English writer, the
1 biographer of Cardinal Wolsey, was the elder son of Thomas
58o
CAVENDISH, H.
Cavendish, clerk of the pipe in the exchequer, and his wife,
Alice Smith of Padbrook HaJL He was probably born at his
father's manor of Cavendish, in Suffolk. Later the family
resided in London, in the parish of St Alban's, Wood Street,
where Thomas Cavendish died in 1524. Shortly after this event
George married Margery Kemp, of Spains Hall, an heiress, and
the niece of Sir Thomas More. About 1527 he entered the service
of Cardinal Wolsey as gentleman-usher, and for the next three
years he was divided from his wife, children and estates, in the
closest personal attendance on the great man. Cavendish was
wholly devoted to Wolsey's interests, and also he saw in this
appointment an opportunity to gratify his master-passion, a
craving " to see and be acquainted with strangers, in especial
with men in honour and authority/' He was faithful to his
master in disgrace, and showed the courage of the "loyal
servitor. " It is plain that he enjoyed Wolsey's closest confidence
to the end, for after the cardinal's death George Cavendish was
called before the privy council and closely examined as to
Wolsey's latest acts and words. He gave his evidence so clearly
and with so much natural dignity, that he won the applause
of the hostile council, and the praise of being " a just and diligent
servant." He was not allowed to suffer in pocket by his fidelity
to his master, but retired, as it would seem, a wealthy man to
his estate of Glemsford, in West Suffolk, in 1530. He was only
thirty years of age, but his appetite for being acquainted with
strange acts and persons was apparently sated, for we do not hear
of his engaging in any more adventures. It is not to be doubted
that Cavendish had taken down notes of Wolsey's conversation
and movements, for many years passed before his biography
was composed. At length, in 1557, he wrote it out in its final
form. It was not, however, possible to publish it in the author's
lifetime, but it was widely circulated in MS. Evidently one of
these MSS. fell into Shakespeare's hands, for that poet made use
of it in his King Henry VIII., although it is excessive to say,
as Singer has done, that Shakespeare " merely put Cavendish's
language into verse." The book was first printed in 1641, in a
garbled text, and under the title of The Negotiations of Thomas
Wolsey. The genuine text, from contemporary MSS., was given
to the world in 1810, and more fully in 181 5. Until that time
it was believed that the book was the composition of George
Cavendish's younger brother William, the founder of Chatsworth,
who also was attached to Wolsey. Joseph Hunter proved this
to be impossible, and definitely asserted the claim of George.
The latter is believed to have died at Glemsford in or about 1562.
The intrinsic value of Cavendish's Life of Cardinal Wolsey has
long been perceived, for it is the sole authentic record of a multi-
tude of events highly important in a particularly interesting
section of the history of England. Its importance as a product
of biographical literature was first emphasized by Bishop
Creighton, who insisted over and over again on the claim of
Cavendish to be recognized as the earliest of the great English
biographers and an individual writer of particular charm and
originality. He writes with simplicity and with a certain vivid
picturesqueness, rarely yielding to the rhetorical impulses which
governed the ordinary prose of his age. (E. G.)
CAVENDISH, HENRY (1731-1810), English chemist and
physicist, elder son of Lord Charles Cavendish, brother of the
3rd duke of Devonshire, and Lady Anne Grey, daughter of
the duke of Kent, was born at Nice in October 1731. He was
sent to school at Hackney in 1742, and in 1749 entered Peter-
house, Cambridge, which he left in 1753, without taking a degree.
Until he was about forty he seems to have enjoyed a very mode-
rate allowance from his father, but in the latter part of his life he
was left a fortune which made him one of the richest men of his
time. He lived principally at Clapham Common, but he had also
a town-house in Bloomsbury, while his library was in a house
in Dean Street, Soho; and there he used to attend on appointed
days to lend the books to men who were properly vouched for.
So methodical was he that he never took down a volume for his
own use without entering it in the loan-book. He was a regular
attendant at the meetings of the Royal Society, of which he
became a fellow in 1760, and he dined every Thursday with the
club composed of its members. Otherwise he had little inter-
course with society; indeed, his chief object in life seems to have
been to avoid the attention of his fellows. With his relatives
he had little intercourse, and even Lord George Cavendish,
whom he made his principal heir, he saw only for a few minutes
once a year. His dinner was ordered daily by a note placed on
the hall-table, and his women servants were instructed to keep
out of his sight on pain of dismissal. In person he was tall and
rather thin; his dress was old-fashioned and singularly uniform,
and was inclined to be shabby about the times when the precisely
arranged visits of his tailor were due. He had a slight hesitation
in his speech, and his air of timidity and reserve was almost
ludicrous. He was never married He died at Clapham on the
24th of February 18 10, leaving funded property worth £700,000,
and a landed estate of £8000 a year, together with canal and
other property, and £50,000 at his bankers.
Cavendish's scientific work is distinguished for the wideness
of its range and for its extraordinary exactness and accuracy.
The papers he himself published form an incomplete record
of his researches, for many of the results he obtained only
became generally known years after his death; yet in spite of
the absence of anything approaching self-advertisement he
acquired a very high reputation within his own country and
abroad, recognized by the Institute of France in 1803 when it
chose him as one of its eight foreign associates. Arsenic formed
the subject of his first recorded investigation, on which he was
engaged at least as early as 1764, and in 1766 he began those
communications to the Royal Society on the chemistry of gases,
which are among his chief titles to fame. The first (Phil. Trans. t
1766) consists of " Three papers containing experiments on
Factitious Airs," dealing mostly with "inflammable air"
(hydrogen), which he was the first to recognize as a distinct
substance, and " fixed air " (carbon dioxide). He determined
the specific gravity of these gases with reference to common air,
investigated the extent to which they are absorbed by various
liquids, and noted that common air containing one part in nine
by volume of fixed air is no longer able to support combustion,
and that the air produced by fermentation and putrefaction
has properties identical with those of fixed air obtained from
marble. In the following year he published a paper on the
analysis of one of the London pump-waters (from Rathbone
Place, Oxford Street), which is closely connected with the
memoirs just mentioned, since it shows that the calcareous
matter in that water is held in solution by the " fixed air " present
and can be precipitated by lime. Electrical studies seem next
to have engaged his attention, and in 177 1 and 1772 he read
to the Royal Society his " Attempt to explain some of the
principal phenomena of electricity by an elastic fluid," which was
followed in 1775 by an " Attempt to imitate the effects of the
Torpedo (a fish allied to the ray)" (Phil, Trans., 1776). But
these two memoirs contain only a part of the electrical researches
he carried out between 1771 and 1781, and many more were
found after his death in a number of sealed packets of papers.
The contents of these for a long time remained unknown, but
ultimately by permission of the duke of Devonshire, to whom
they belonged, they were edited by James Clerk Maxwell and
published in 1879 by the Cambridge University Press as the
Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish. About 1777
or 1778 he resumed his pneumatic inquiries, though he published
nothing on the subject till 1783. In that year he described
a new eudiometer to the Royal Society and detailed observations
he had made to determine whether or not the atmosphere is
constant in composition; after testing the air on nearly 60
different days in 178 1 he could find in the proportion of oxygen
no difference of which he could be sure, nor could he detect any
sensible variation at different places. Two papers on " Experi-
ments with Airs," printed in the Phil. Trans, for 1784 and 1785,
contain his great discoveries of the compound nature of water
and the composition of nitric acid. Starting from an experiment,
narrated by Priestley, in which John Warltire fired a mixture
of common air and hydrogen by electricity, with the result that
there was a diminution of volume and a deposition of moisture,
CAVENDISH, T— CAVENDISH, SIR W.
581
Cavendish burnt about two parts of hydrogen with five of com-
mon air, and noticed that almost all the hydrogen and about
one-fifth of the common air lost their elasticity and were con-
densed into a dew which lined the inside of the vessel employed.
This dew he judged to be pure water. In another experiment he
fired, by the electric spark, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
(dephlogisticated air), and found that the resulting water con-
tained nitric acid, which he argued must be due to the nitrogen
present as an impurity in the oxygen (" phlogisticated air with
which it [the dephlogisticated air] is debased "). In the 1785
paper he proved the correctness of this supposition by showing
that when electric sparks are passed through common air there
is a shrinkage of volume owing to the nitrogen uniting with the
oxygen to form nitric acid. Further, remarking that little was
known of the phlogisticated part of our atmosphere, and thinking
it might fairly be doubted " whether there are not in reality
many different substances confounded together by us under the
name of phlogisticated air," he made an experiment to determine
whether the whole of a given portion of nitrogen (phlogisticated
air) of the atmosphere could be reduced to nitric acid. He found
that a small fraction, not more than rhf^ 1 P art > resisted the
change, and in this residue he doubtless had a sample of the
inert gas argon which was only recognized as a distinct entity
more than a hundred years later. His last chemical paper,
published in 1 788, on the " Conversion of a mixture of dephlogisti-
cated and phlogisticated air into nitrous acid by the electric
spark, ,, describes measures he took to authenticate the truth of
the experiment described in the 1785 paper, which had " since
been tried by persons of distinguished ability in such pursuits
without success." It may be noted here that, while Cavendish
adhered to the phlogistic doctrine, he did not hold it with any-
thing like the tenacity that characterized Priestley; thus, in his
1784 paper on " Experiments on Air," he remarks that not only
the experiments he is describing, but also " most other pheno-
mena of nature seem explicable as well, or nearly as well," upon
the Lavoisierian view as upon the commonly believed principle
of phlogiston, and he goes on to give an explanation in terms
of the antiphlogistic hypothesis.
Early in his career Cavendish took up the study of heat, and
had he promptly published his results he might have anticipated
Joseph Black as the discoverer of latent heat and of specific
heat. But he made no reference to his work till 1783, when he
presented to the Royal Society some " Observations on Mr
Hutchins's experiments for determining the degree of cold at
which quicksilver freezes." This paper, with others published
in 1786 and 1788, is concerned with the phenomena attending
the freezing of various substances, and is noteworthy because in
it he expresses doubt of the supposition that " the heat of
bodies is owing to their containing more or less of a substance
called the matter pj heat," and inclines to Newton's opinion that
it " consists in the internal motion of the particles of bodies."
His " Account of the Meteorological Apparatus used at the Royal
Society's House ^\(Phil. Trans*, 1776) contains remarks on the
precautions necessary in making and using thermometers, a
subject which is continued in the following year in a report signed
by him and six others.
Cavendish's last great achievement was his famous series of
experiments to determine the density of the earth (Phil. Trans.,
1798). The apparatus he employed was devised by the Rev.
John Michell, though he had the most important parts recon-
structed to his own designs; it depended on measuring the
attraction exercised on a horizontal bar, suspended by a vertical
wire and bearing a small lead ball at each end, by two large
masses of lead. (See Gravitation.) The figure he gives for
the specific gravity of the earth is 5-48, water being 1, but in
fact the mean of the 29 results he records works out at 5-448.
Other publications of his later years dealt with the height of an
aurora seen in 1784 (Phil. Trans., 1790), the civil year of the
Hindus (Id. 1792), and an improved method of graduating
astronomical instruments (Id. 1809). Cavendish also had a
taste for geology, and made several tours in England for the
purpose of gratifying it.
A life by George Wilson (1818-1859), printed for the Cavendish
Society in Mtei, contains an account of his writings, both published
and unpublished, together with a critical inquiry into the claims of
all the alleged, discoverers of the composition of water. Some of his
instruments are preserved in the Royal Institution, London, and
his name is commemorated in the Cavendish Physical Laboratory at
Cambridge, which was built by his kinsman the 7th duke of Devon-
shire.
CAVENDISH [Candish], THOMAS (i555?-i592), the third
circumnavigator of the globe, was born at Trimley St Martin,
Suffolk. On quitting Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (without
a degree), he almost ruined himself by his extravagance as a
courtier. To repair his fortune he turned to maritime and
colonial enterprise, and in 1585 accompanied Sir Richard
Grenville to America. Soon returning to England, he undertook
an elaborate imitation of Drake's great voyage. On the 21st of
July 1 586, he sailed from Plymouth with 1 23 men in three vessels,
only one of which (the " Desire," of 140 tons) came home. By
way of Sierra Leone, the Cape Verde Islands and C. Frio in
Brazil, he coasted down to Patagonia (where he discovered
" Port Desire," his only important contribution to knowledge),
and passing through Magellan's Straits, fell upon the Spanish
settlements and shipping on the west coast of South and Central
America and of Mexico. Among his prizes were nineteen vessels
of worth, and especially the treasure-galleon, the " Great St
Anne," which he captured off Cape St Lucas, the southern
extremity of California (November 14, 1587). After this
success he struck across the Pacific for home; touched at the
Ladrones, Philippines, Moluccas and Java; rounded the Cape
of Good Hope; and arrived again at Plymouth (September o-
10, 1588), having circumnavigated the globe in two years and
fifty days. It is said that his sailors were clothed in silk, his sails
were damask, and his top-mast covered with cloth of gold. Yet
by 1 591 he was again in difficulties, and planned a fresh American
and Pacific venture. John Davis (q.v.) accompanied him, but the
voyage (undertaken with five vessels) was an utter f ailure,much of
the fault lying with Cavendish himself, who falsely accused Davis,
with his last breath, of deserting him (May 20, 1592). He died
and was buried at sea, on the way home, in the summer of 1592.
See Hakluyt's Principal Navigations, (a) edition of 1589, p. 809
(N. H.'s narrative of the voyage of 1586-1588) ; (b) edition of 1590-
1600, vol. iii. pp. 803-825 (Francis Pretty's narrative of the same);
(c) edition of 1 599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 251-253 (on the venture of
1585); (d) edition of 1 599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 845-852 (John Lane's
narrative of the last voyage, of 1591-1592) ; also Stationers' Registers
(Arber), vol. ii. pp. 505-509; the Molyneux Globe of 1592, m the
library of the Middle Temple, London, and the Ballads in Biog. Brit.,
vol. i. p. 1196.
CAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1505-1557), founder of the
English noble house of Cavendish, was the younger brother of
George Cavendish (q.v.). His father, Thomas, was a descendant
of Sir John Cavendish, the judge, who in 138 1 was murdered
by Jack Straw's insurgent peasants at Bury St Edmunds. Of
William's education nothing seems known, but in 1530 he was
appointed one of the commissioners for visiting monasteries;
he worked directly under Thomas Cromwell, whom he calls
" master " and to whom many of his extant letters are addressed.
In 1 541 he was auditor of the court of augmentations, in 1546
treasurer of the king's chamber, and was knighted and sworn of
the privy council. Under Edward VI. and Mary he continued in
favour at court; during the latter's reign he partially conformed,
but on the occasion of the war with France he with other
Derbyshire gentlemen refused the loan of £100 demanded by the
queen. He died m 1557. Cavendish acquired large properties
from the spoils of the monasteries, but in accordance with the
wish of his third wife Elizabeth he sold them to purchase land in
Derbyshire. This wife was the celebrated " building Bess of
Hardwick," daughter of John Hardwicke, of Hardwicke, Derby-
shire; she completed the original building of Chatsworth House, —
begun in 1553 by her husband, — of which nothing now remains.
Her fourth husband was George Talbot, 6th earl of Shrewsbury.
By her Cavendish had six children; an elder son who died
without issue; William, who in 1618 was created earl of Devon-
shire; Charles, whose son William became 1st duke of Newcastle;
5 82
CAVETTO— CAVOUR
Frances, who married Sir Henry Pierpont, and was the ancestress
of the dukes of Kingston; Elizabeth, who married Charles
Stuart, earl of Lennox, and was the mother of Arabella Stuart;
and Mary, who married Gilbert Talbot, 7 th earl of Shrewsbury,
CAVETTO (Ital. diminutive of cavo, hollow), in architec-
ture, the term given to a hollow concave moulding sometimes
employed in the place of the cymatium of a cornice, as in that
of the Doric order of the theatre of Marcellus. It forms the
crowning feature of the Egyptian temples, and took the place
of the cymatium in many of the Etruscan temples.
CAVIARE, or Caviar, the roe of various species of Acipenser
or sturgeon (q-v.), prepared, in several qualities, as an article of
food. The word is common to most European languages and
supposed to be of Turk or Tatar origin, but the Turk word
khavyah is probably derived from the Ital. caviale; the word
does not appear in Russian. The best caviare, which can only be
made in winter and is difficult to preserve, is the loosely granu-
lated, almost liquid, kind, known in Russia as ikra. It is prepared
by beating the ovaries and straining through a sieve to clear the
eggs of the membranes, fibres and fatty matter; it is then salted
with from 4-6% of salt. The difficulty of preparation and of
transport has made it a table delicacy in western Europe, where
it has been known since the 16th century, as is evidenced by
Hamlet's " His play . . . pleased not the million, 'twas caviare
to the general. " It is eaten either as an hors d'eeuvre, particularly
in Russia and northern Europe with kiimmel or other liqueurs, or
as a savoury, or as a flavouring to other dishes. The coarser
quality, in Russia known as pdjusnaya (from pajus, the adherent
skin of the ovaries) , is more strongly salted in brine and is pressed
into a more solid form than the ikra; it is then packed in small
barrels or hermetically-sealed tins. This forms a staple article of
food in Russia and eastern Europe. Though the best forms of
caviare are still made in Russia, and the greater quantity of the
coarser kinds are exported from Astrakhan, the centre of the
trade, larger amounts are made each year for export in America
and also in Germany, Norway and Sweden. The roe of tunny
and mullet, pickled in brine and vinegar, is used, under the name
of " Botargp," along the Mediterranean littoral and in the Levant.
CAVITE, a fortified seaport, the capital of the province of
Cavite, Luzon, Philippine Islands, and the seat of the principal
Asiatic naval station of the United States, on a forked tongue of
land in Manila Bay, 8 m. S. of the city of Manila. Pop. (1903)
4494; with the barrios of San Roque and Caridad (on the main
peninsula), which are under the municipal government of Cavite
(15,630). Cavite is the terminus of a railway which follows the
shore of the bay from Manila. The northern part of the town,
Sangley Point (one of the two forks of the main peninsula), is the
principal coaling station of the U.S. fleet in Asiatic waters. The
naval station proper and the old town of Cavite are on the south
fork of the peninsula. Cavite's buildings are mostly of stone,
with upper storeys of wood; its streets are narrow and crooked.
It has five churches (one of these is an independent Filipino
church), and is the seat of a provincial high school. Cavite has
long been the principal naval base of the Philippine Islands, and
one of the four Spanish penitentiaries in the Islands was here.
During the 19th century Cavite was the centre of political disturb-
ances in the Philippines; in 1896 on the parade ground thirteen
political prisoners were executed, and to their memory a monu-
ment was erected in 1006 at the head of the isthmus connecting
with the main peninsula. The town was nearly destroyed by
an earthquake in 1880. It was taken from the Spanish by an
American squadron under Commodore George Dewey inMay 1898.
CAVOUR. CAMILLO BENSO, Count (1810-1861), Italian
statesman, was born at Turin on the 1st of August 1810. The
Bensos, who belonged to the old Piedmontese feudal aristocracy,
were a very ancient house, said to be descended from a Saxon
warrior who settled at Santena in the 12th century and married
a Piedmontese heiress; Camillo's father, the marquis Michele,
married a noble Genevese lady, and both he and his wife held
offices in the household of Prince Borghese, the governor of
Piedmont under Napoleon, and husband of the latter's sister,
Pauline Bonaparte. Being a younger son (his brother Gustavo
was the eldest) Cavour was destined for the army, and when
ten years old he entered the military academy at Turin. On
leaving the college at the age of sixteen he was first of his class,
and received a commission in the engineers. He spent the next
five years in the army, residing at Ventimiglia, Genoa, and various
Alpine fortresses to superintend defence works; but he spent
his leisure hours in study, especially of the English language.
He soon developed strongly marked Liberal tendencies and an
uncompromising dislike for absolutism and clericalism, which,
as he had not acquired the art of reticence, made him a suspect
in the eyes of the police and of the reactionaries; at the same
time he does not seem to have joined any secret society, for he
was too loyal to conspire against the king whose uniform he
wore, and he did not believe that the time was yet ripe for a
revolution. But after the accession to the throne of Charles
Albert, whom he always distrusted, he felt that his position in
the army was intolerable, and resigned his commission (183 1).
From that moment we find him in the ranks of the opponents
of the government, although his was always a loyal and straight-
forward opposition which held aloof from conspiracies. During
the next few years he devoted himself to the study of political
and social problems, to foreign travel, and to acquiring a thorough
knowledge of practical agriculture. Cavour's political ideas
were greatly influenced by the July revolution of 1830 in France,
which proved that an historic monarchy was not incompatible
with Liberal principles, and he became more than ever convinced
of the benefits of a constitutional monarchy as opposed both to
despotism and to republicanism. But he was not affected by the
doctrinaire Liberalism of the time, and his views were strength-
ened by his studies of the British constitution, of which he
wasji great admirer; he was even nicknamed " Milord Camillo."
He frequently visited Paris and London, where he plunged into
the political and social questions of the day, and contributed
among other essays two admirable and prophetic articles, one
on the Irish question, in which he strongly defended the Union,
and another on the Corn Laws. He applied his knowledge of
agriculture to the management of his father's estate at Leri,
which he greatly improved, he founded the Piedmontese Agricul-
tural Society, and took the lead in promoting the introduction of
steam navigation, railways and factories into the country.
Thus his mind gradually evolved, and he began to dream dreams
of a united Italy free of foreign influence, but owing to the
reactionary policy of the Piedmontese government he was unable
to take any active part in politics. In 1847, however, the psycho-
logical moment seemed to have arrived, for the new pope, Pius
IX., showed marked Liberal tendencies and seemed ready to
lead all the forces of Italian patriotism against the Austrian
domination. The hopes of the Italian Liberals rose high and the
so-called neo-Guelph party, represented by such men as Vincenzo
Gioberti and Cesare Balbo, believed that an Italian confederation
might be formed under the presidency of the pope. Cavour,
although he realized that a really Liberal pope was an impossi-
bility, saw the importance of the movement and the necessity of
profiting by it. Together with Balbo, P. di Santa Rosa, and M.
Castelli, he founded a newspaper at Turin called II Risorgimento,
which advocated the ideas of constitutional reform in Piedmont,
with a view to preparing that country for an important r61e in
the upheaval which seemed imminent. In January 1848 the
revolution first broke out in Sicily. Cavour, in a speech before
a delegation of journalists, declared that the king must take a
decided line and grant his people a constitution. Strong pressure
was brought to bear on Charles Albert, and after much hesitation
he was induced to grant a charter of liberties (February 8, 1848).
Cesare Balbo was called upon to form the first constitutional
ministry; but Cavour was not offered a seat in it, being suspected
by Liberals and Conservatives alike. He continued his journal-
istic activity, and his articles in the Risorgimento came to exercise
great influence both on the king and on public opinion. When the
news of the revolt of the Milanese against the Austrians, known
as the Five Days, reached Turin on the 19th of March, Cavour
felt that the time for Piedmont to act with energy had come, and
advocated war against Austria. " After deliberately weighing
CAVOUR
583
each word," he wrote, " we are hound in conscience to declare
that only one path is open to the nation, the government, and
the king: war, immediate war!" Piedmont was the only part
of Italy enjoying a government at once national and independent,
and if it did not hasten to the assistance of the Milanese in their
desperate struggle, if possible before the Austrians were expelled,
the monarchy could not survive. The situation was most critical,
and even the British government was not friendly to Piedmont;
but Cavour was prepared to face any danger rather than see
his country inactive. In an article in the Risorgimento he de-
clared that, while he never believed that material help was to
be expected from England, he was convinced that she would not
actively help Austria to crush the revolution, but that if she did
" she would have against her a coalition not of princes, but of
peoples." Cavour's article made such an impression that it
put an end to the king's vacillations, and a few days after its
appearance war was declared (March 25).
For a few months patriotic and revolutionary enthusiasm
carried all before it. In Hungary, in Germany, in Paris, in
Vienna itself the revolution was triumphant; constitutions were
granted, dynasties tottered and fell, and provisional governments
were set up. In all parts of Italy, too, revolts broke out against
the established order. But the Piedmontese army, although the
troops behaved with gallantry, was no match for Austria's
veteran legions, and except in a few minor engagements, in one
of which Cavour's nephew Gastavo was killed, it was generally
unsuccessful, and an armistice was concluded in the summer. In
the meanwhile the elections were being held in Piedmont. Cavour
himself was not returned until the supplementary elections in
June, and he took his seat in parliament on*be right as a Con-
servative. His parliamentary career was not at first very suc-
cessful; he was not a ready speaker; his habit of talking
French made Italian difficult for him, and, although French was
at that time allowed in the chamber, he preferred to speak
Italian. But he gradually developed a stnag argumentative
power, his speeches became models of concise-reasoning, and he
rose at times to the highest level of an eloquence which was never
rhetorical. After the dissolution in January 1849, Cavour was
not re-elected. The new parliament had to discuss, in the
first instance, the all-important question of whether the campaign
should be continued now that the armistice was about to expire.
The king decided on a last desperate throw, and recommenced
hostilities. On the 23rd of March the Piedmontese were totally
defeated at Novara, a disaster which was followed immediately
by the abdication of Charles Albert in favour of his son Victor
Emmanuel II.
Although the new king was obliged to conclude peace with
Austria and the Italian revolution was crushed, Cavour neverthe-
less did not despair; he believed that so long as the constitution
was maintained in Piedmont, the Italian cause was safe. There
were fresh elections in July, and this time Cavour was returned.
He was still in the difficult position of a moderate Liberal at a
time when there seemed to be room for none but reactionaries
and conspirators, but by his consummate ability he convinced
men that his attitude was the right one, and he made it triumph.
His speech on the 7th of March 1850, in which he said that,
" Piedmont, gathering to itself all the living forces of Italy, would
be soon in a position to lead our mother-country to the high
destinies to which she is called," made a deep impression, for
it struck the first note of encouragement after the dark days of
the preceding year. He supported the ministry of which Massimo
d' Azeglio was president in its work of reform and restoration,
and in October of the same year, on the death of Santa Rosa,
he himself was appointed minister of agriculture, industry and
commerce. In 1851 he also assumed the portfolio of finance, and
devoted himself to the task of reorganizing the Piedmontese
finances. .By far the ablest man in the cabinet, he soon came
to dominate it, and, in his anxiety to dominate the chamber as
well, he negotiated the union of the Right Centre with the Left
Centre (a manoeuvre known as the connubio), and promoted the
election of Urbano Rattazzi to the presidency of the chamber.
This, which he accomplished without d' Azeglio's knowledge,
led to a split between that statesman and Cavour, and to the
latter's resignation. Cavour has been blamed for not informing
his colleagues of the compact, but for public reasons it was not
desirable that the connubio should be discussed before it was
consummated. D' Azeglio indeed bore no malice, and remained
Cavour's friend. Cavour made use of his freedom to visit England
and France again, in order to sound pubh'c opinion on the Italian
question. In London he found the leaders of both parties
friendly, and Lord Palmerston told him that if the constitutional
experiment in Piedmont succeeded the Italian despots were
doomed. At this time Sir James Hudson was appointed
British minister at Turin, where he became the intimate friend of
Cavour and gave him valuable assistance. In Paris, Cavour had
a long interview with Prince Louis Napoleon, then president
of the republic, and he already foresaw the great part which
that ruler was destined to play in Italian affairs. He also met
several Italian exiles in France.
On Cavour's return he found the country in the throes of
a new cabinet crisis, in consequence of which, on d' Azeglio's
recommendation, he was invited to form a ministry. By the
4th of November he was prime minister, a position which he
held with two short interruptions until his death. He devoted
the first years of his premiership to developing the economic
resources of the country; but in preparing it for greater des-
tinies, he had to meet the heavy expenditure by increased
taxation, and some of his measures made him the object of hostile
demonstrations, although he soon outlived his unpopularity.
Cavour's first international difficulty was with Austria; after
the abortive rising at Milan in February 1853, the Austrian
government, in addition to other measures of repression, con-
fiscated the estates of those Lombards who had become natural-
ized Piedmontese, although they had nothing to do with the
outbreak. Cavour took a strong line on this question, and on
Austria's refusal to withdraw the obnoxious decree, he recalled
the Piedmontese minister from Vienna, thus by his very audacity
winning the sympathy of the Western powers.
Then followed the Crimean War, in which Cavour first showed
his extraordinary political insight and diplomatic genius. The
first suggestion of Piedmontese co-operation is usually believed
to have come from England, who desired the Italian contingent,
not only as material assistance, but also in order to reduce the
overwhelming French preponderance. From the Piedmontese
point of view there were several reasons why Cavour should
desire his country to participate in the campaign. Firstly, it
was advisable to use every opportunity of making the Italian
question an international one; secondly, by joining the alliance
Piedmont would place the Western powers under an obligation;
thirdly, Cavour, like Balbo, believed that the Italian question
was bound up with the Eastern problem, and as Austria was
demanding the permission of the powers to occupy Alessandria,
as a guarantee that Piedmont would not profit by the war in the
East to create trouble in Italy, Piedmontese participation
would in itself prove the best guarantee; and finally, as he
always looked to Italy and not merely to Piedmont, he felt that,
having proved to Europe that Italians could combine order
with liberty, it remained to show that they were capable of
fighting as well. But there were serious difficulties in the way.
Had Austria joined the allies, as at one time seemed probable,
Sardinia's, position fighting by her side would have been an
impossible one. On the other hand, Piedmont could not
demand definite promises of future aid from the Western powers
as some politicians desired, because these would never have
been given, lest Austria should be offended and driven into the
arms of Russia. Then, both the extreme Conservatives and
the extreme Radicals were opposed to expenditure on foreign
adventures for which they could see no use. In all these diffi-
culties, however, Cavour was loyally supported by the king,
who saw the advantages of Piedmontese participation, even
if unattended by definite promises. General Dabormida, the
minister of foreign affairs, disapproved of this policy and
resigned. The vacant portfolio was offered to d' Azeglio, who
refused it; whereupon Cavour assumed it himself. On the same
5 8 4
CAVOUR
day (January 10, 1855) the treaty with France and England
was signed, and shortly afterwards 15,000 Piedmontese troops
under General La Marmora were despatched to the Crimea.
Events at first seemed to justify the fears of Cavour's oppo-
nents. Cholera attacked the Piedmontese soldiers, who for a
long time had no occasion to distinguish themselves in action;
public opinion became despondent and began to blame Cavour,
and even he himself lost heart. Then came the news of the
battle of the Tchernaya, fought and won by the Italians, which
turned sadness and doubt into jubilation. Joy was felt through-
out Italy, especially at Milan, where the victory was the first
sign of daylight amid the gloom caused by the return of the
Austrians. Everyone realized that the Piedmontese contingent
was fighting Italy's battles. But to Cavour the announcement
that Russia had accepted Austrian mediation (January 16,
1856) was a great disappointment. He had always hoped that
if the war continued Austria would be forced to side with Russia
in return for the aid given by the emperor Nicholas in suppress-
ing the Hungarian revolt in 1849, and the Western powers
would then have an opportunity of helping the Italian cause.
He sent a memorandum, at Napoleon's request, to Count
Walewski, the French minister of foreign affairs, setting forth
a kind of minimum programme of Piedmont's claims. On the
summoning of the congress of Paris at the conclusion of the war,
Cavour first proposed that d' Azeglio should represent Piedmont,
and on the iatter's refusal decided to go himself. After much
discussion, and in spite of the opposition of Austria, who as
mediator occupied a predominant position, behaving " as though
she had taken Sevastopol," Cavour obtained that Piedmont
should be treated as one of the great powers. Although he did
not expect that the congress would liberate Italy, yet by his
marvellous diplomatic skill, far superior to that of his colleagues,
he first succeeded in isolating Austria, secondly in indirectly
compromising Napoleon in the Italian question, and thirdly
in getting the wretched conditions of Italy discussed by the
representatives of the great powers, who declared that some
remedy to that state of things was necessary, not in the interests
of Italy alone, but of all Europe. A scheme of reform proposed
by Count Walewski gave Cavour the opportunity to plead the
Italian cause, and from that moment it was manifest to all
that the liberation of Italy was personified in him, the statesman
who came to hold all the strings of European politics in his
hands.
Cavour's chief measure of internal reform during this period
was a bill for suppressing all monastic orders unconnected with
education, preaching or charity; this aroused strong opposition
from the extremists of both parties and also from the king, and
led to the minister's resignation. But he was soon recalled,
for the country could not do without him, and the bill was
passed (May 29, 1855).
Cavour now saw that war with Austria was merely a question
of time, and he began to establish connexions with the revolu-
tionists of all parts of Italy, largely by means of La Farina;
but it was necessary that this policy should not be advertised
to Europe, and he strongly discountenanced Mazzini's abortive
revolutionary attempts. He continued to strengthen Piedmont's
military resources, and the army soon grew too large for the
country and was obviously destined for more than merely
defensive purposes. But he well knew that although Piedmont
must be made as efficient as possible from the military point
of view, it could not defeat Austria single-handed. He would
have preferred an alliance with Great Britain, who would never
demand territorial compensation; but although British sym-
pathies were wholly Italian, the government was desperately
anxious to avoid war. From Napoleon more was to be hoped,
for the emperor still preserved some of his revolutionary in-
stincts, while the insecurity of his situation at home made him
eager to gain popularity by winning military glory abroad;
but he still hesitated, and Cavour devoted the whole of his
ability to overcoming his doubts. In the midst of these negotia-
tions came Orsini's attempt on Napoleon's life (January 14,
1858), which threatened to alienate his Italian sympathies
and cause serious embarrassments to Piedmont. But after
some remonstrances to Piedmont for not acting with sufficient
energy against the revolutionists, the incident was settled;
and Napoleon was, in fact, afraid that if he did not help the
Italian cause more such attempts would be made. A month
after the Orsini outrage he laid before Cavour a proposal for a
Franco- Piedmontese alliance and the marriage of Prince Jerome
Bonaparte with Princess Clothilde, the daughter of Victor
Emmanuel.
An " accidental " meeting between Napoleon and Cavour
was arranged and took place at Plombieres in July, and although
no one knew what passed, the news of it fell like a bombshell
on the diplomatic world. No definite treaty was signed, but the
basis of an agreement was laid, whereby France and Piedmont
were to declare war against Austria with the object of expelling
her from Italy, and a north Italian state was to be formed; in
exchange for this help France was to receive Savoy and possibly
Nice. But the emperor still hesitated, and refused to decide
on war unless Austria attacked Piedmont; the British govern-
ment, too, in its anxiety to preserve peace, was not very friendly
to the Italian cause. Cavour saw that the only way to overcome
all these obstacles was to force Austria's hand. Then there was
the danger lest an Italy freed by French arms should be over-
whelmed under French predominance; for this reason Cavour
was determined to secure the co-operation of volunteers from
other parts of Italy, and that the war should be accompanied
by a series of risings against Austria and the local despots.
It was also necessary that the risings should break out in the
various provinces before the Piedmontese and French troops
arrived, so that the latter should not appear as invaders and
conquerors, but merely as liberators.
The moment war was seen to be imminent, parties of Italians
of all classes, especially Lombards, poured into Piedmont to
enlist in the army. Cavour also had a secret interview with
Garibaldi, with whom he arranged to organize volunteer corps so
that the army should be not merely that of Piedmont, but of all
Italy. Every day the situation grew more critical, and on the
10th of January 1859 the king in his speech from the throne
pronounced the memorable words " that he could not remain
deaf to the cry of pain (U grido di dolore) that reached him from
all parts of Italy " — words which, although actually suggested by
Napoleon, rang like a trumpet-call throughout the land. In the
meanwhile the marriage negotiations were concluded, and during
the emperor's visit to Turin a military convention was signed
between the two states, and Savoy and Nice were promised to
France as a reward for the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy.
But the British government was still unfavourable, and Napoleon,
ever hesitating, again sought an excuse for hacking out of his
engagements; he jumped at the Russian proposal to settle the
Italian question by means of his own farvoorte expedient, a
congress. To this Austria agreed on condition that Piedmont
should disarm and should be excluded from the congress;
England supported the scheme, but desired that all the Italian
states should be represented. Cavour was in despair at the turn
events were taking, and appealed to Napoleon, actually threaten-
ing to emigrate to America and publish all his correspondence
with the emperor if the latter did not keep his engagements. He
decided at last most reluctantly to accept the English proposal,
lest Piedmont should be abandoned by all, but clung to the hope
that Austria would reject it. On the 19th of April the Austrian
emperor, on the advice of the military party, did reject it; and
on the 23rd, to Cavour's inexpressible joy, Austria sent an
ultimatum demanding the disarmament of Piedmont. Cavour
replied that his government had agreed to the congress proposed
by the powers and that it had nothing more to say. On quitting
the chamber that day he said to a friend: " I am leaving the
last sitting of the last Piedmontese parliament" — the next
would represent united Italy. France now allied herself definitely
with Piedmont, and England, delighted at Cavour's acquiescence
to her own proposal and enraged by Austria's ultimatum,
became wholly friendly to the Italian cause. A few days later
Austria declared war.
CAVOUR
5«S
As La Marmora now took the chief command of the army,
Cavour added the ministry of war to the others he already held.
His activity at this time was astounding, for he was virtually
dictator and controlled single-handed nearly all the chief offices of
the state. The French troops entered Piedmont, where they were
received with enthusiasm, and the allies marched into Lombardy;
the victory of Magenta, which opened the gates of Milan to
them, was shortly followed by that of Solferino. The people
rose in arms at Parma, Modena, Florence and Bologna, which
had been occupied by Austria for the pope since 1849; the local
princes were expelled and provisional governments set up.
Cavour sent special commissioners to take charge of the various
provinces in Victor Emmanuel's name. But these events,
together with Prussia's menacing attitude, began to alarm
Napoleon, who, although he wished to destroy Austrian influence
in Italy, was afraid of a large and powerful Italian state. Conse-
quently, after Solferino, he concluded an armistice with Austria
at Villafranca on the 8th of July, without previously informing
Cavour. When Cavour heard of it he was thunderstruck; he
immediately interviewed the king at Monzambano, and in violent,
almost disrespectful language implored him not to make peace
until Venice was free. But Victor Emmanuel saw that nothing
was to be gained by a refusal, and much against his own inclina-
tion, signed the peace preliminaries at Villafranca, adding the
phrase, " pour ce qui me concerne," which meant that he was not
responsible for what the people of other parts of Italy might do
(July 12). Lombardy was to be ceded to Piedmont, Venetia to
remain Austrian, the deposed princes to be reinstated, and the
pope made president of an Italian confederation.
The cabinet resigned the next day, but remained in office
provisionally, and Cavour privately advised the revolutionists of
central Italy to resist the return of the princes, by force if neces-
sary: "for we must now become conspirators ourselves," he
said. His policy was thus continued after he left office, and
Palmerston, who had meanwhile succeeded Malmesbury as foreign
minister, informed France and Austria that Great Britain would
never tolerate their armed intervention in favour of the central
Italian despots. The new Piedmontese ministry, of which La
Marmora was the president, but Rattazzi the leading spirit,
hesitated between annexing central Italy and agreeing to the
terms of peace, but on the 10th of November peace was signed at
Ztirich. Napoleon proposed a new congress, which never met,
and on the fall of the Rattazzi-La Marmora cabinet the king, in
spite of the quarrel at Monzambano, asked Cavour to take office
again. By January he was once more premier, as well as minister
for foreign affairs and of the interior. His first act was to mvite
the people of Italy to declare their own wishes with regard to
annexation to Piedmont; but Napoleon still refused to consent
to the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, for he contemplated
placing one of his own relatives on the throne of the grand-duchy.
Cavour now saw that Napoleon might be ready to deal, and,
although .the bargain of the preceding year had not been exactly
fulfilled, as the Austrians were still in Venice, he again brought
forward the question of Nice and Savoy. To Cavour no less
than to the king the loss of these two provinces was a cruel
wrench, but it was a choice between them and central Italy.
The plebiscites in the latter region had unanimously declared in
favour of union with Piedmont, and Napoleon became more
pressing, going so far as to threaten that unless the cession were
made, the French troops would leave Lombardy at the mercy of
Austria and occupy Bologna and Florence. On the 24th of March
the treaty was signed and the emperor's opposition to the annexa-
tion of central Italy withdrawn. On the 2nd of April the parlia-
ment representing Piedmont, the duchies of Parma and Modena,
Tuscany and Romagna, met, and Cavour had the difficult and
ungrateful task of explaining the cession of Nice and Savoy. In
spite of some opposition, the agreement was ratified by a large
majority.
The situation in the kingdom of Naples was now becoming
critical, but there seemed as yet little chance of union with
upper Italy, for the Bourbon government was a more or less
'regular one, and, although risings had broken out, there was no
general revolution. Cavour therefore had to follow a somewhat
double-faced policy, on the one hand negotiating with the Bour-
bon king (Francis II.), suggesting a division of Italy between him
and Victor Emmanuel, and on the other secretly backing up the
revolutionary agitation. Having now learnt that Garibaldi
was planning an expedition to Sicily with his volunteers, he
decided, after some hesitation, not to oppose its departure;
on the 5th of May it sailed from Quarto near Genoa, and Cavour
was only deterred from declaring war on Naples by the fear of
foreign complications. Garibaldi with his immortal Thousand
landed at Marsala, and the whole rotten fabric of the Bourbon
government collapsed. At Palermo they were welcomed by the
Piedmontese admiral Persano, and soon the whole island was
occupied and Garibaldi proclaimed dictator. The general now
proposed to cross over to the mainland, and this placed Cavour
in a serious dilemma; Russia and Austria protested against the
expedition, France and Prussia were unfriendly, Great Britain
alone remained warmly pro-Italian. He still hoped for a revolu-
tion in Naples, so that King Victor's authority might be estab-
lished before Garibaldi's arrival, but this proved impossible.
When Garibaldi crossed the straits of Messina the Neapolitan
government fell, and he entered Naples in triumph. But there
was still danger that he might be subsequently defeated, for the
Neapolitan army was still a force in being, and Cavour feared,
moreover, that, although Garibaldi himself had always loyally
acted in the king of Italy's name, the red republicans around him
might lead him to commit some imprudence and plunge the
country into anarchy. The cession of Nice, Garibaldi's birthplace,
had made an impassable gulf between the two men, and neither
quite trusted the other. Cavour also feared that Garibaldi
might invade the papal states, which would have led to further
international complications. In any case, Rome must not be
touched for the present, since Napoleon was pledged to protect
the pope; but as the latter had made large armaments, and his
forces, consisting largely of brigands and foreigners under the
French general Lamoriciere, were in a menacing attitude on
the frontier, Cavour decided on the momentous step of annexing
the papal states with the exception of the Roman province.
The Italian army crossed the frontier from Romagna on the nth
of September, whereupon every power, excent Great Britain and
Sweden, withdrew its minister from Turin. But the troops
advanced and were everywhere received with open arms by the
people; Ancona was taken, Lamoriciere was defeated and
captured at the battle of Castelfidardo, and on the 20th King
Victor marched into the Neapolitan kingdom. On the 1st of
October Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitan troops on the
Volturno, and Gaeta alone, where King Francis of Naples had
retired, still held out. * --
New difficulties with Garibaldi arose, for he would not resign
his dictatorship of the southern provinces, and wished to march
on Rome. Cavour had to use all his tact to restrain him and at
the same time not to appear ungrateful. He refused to act
despotically, but he summoned parliament to vote on the annexa-
tion, which it did on the nth. Two days later Garibaldi
magnanimously gave in to the nation's will and handed his con-
quests over to King Victor as a free gift. Gaeta was invested,
and after a siege prolonged through the action of Napoleon, who
for some reason unknown kept his fleet before the town, prevent-
ing any attack by sea until England induced him to withdraw
it, the garrison surrendered on the 13 th of February, and King
Francis retired to Rome. Parliament was dissolved once more;
the new chamber showed an overwhelming majority in favour
of Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy.
The last question with which Cavour had to deal was that of
Rome. For some years past the pope had only been able to
maintain hi&authority by the help of foreign troops, and Cavour
saw that as long as this state of things lasted there could be no
united Italy. In October he declared in parliament that Rome
must be the capital of Italy, for no other city was recognized as
such by the whole country, and in January 1861 a resolution
to that effect was passed. But owing to Napoleon's attitude he
had to proceed warily, and made no attempt for the present to
v. 19 a
586
CAVOUR— CAVY
carry out the nation's wishes. At the same time he was anxious
that the church should preserve the fullest liberty, and he
believed in the principle of " a free church in a free state." His
great dream, save for Rome and Venice, was now realized, and
Italy was free and united. But the wear and tear of these last
years had been almost unbearable, and at last began to tell; the
negotiations with Garibaldi were particularly trying, for while
the great statesman wished to treat the hero and his volunteers
generously, far more so than seemed wise to the Conservatives
and the strictly military party, he did not wish the Italian cause
to be endangered by their imprudences, and could not permit
all the Garibaldian officers to be received into the regular army
with the same grades they held in the volunteer forces. This
question, together with that of Nice, led to a painful scene in the
chamber between the two men, although they were formally
reconciled a few days later. For some time past Cavour had been
unwell and irritable, and the scene with Garibaldi undoubtedly
hastened his end. A fever set in, and after a short illness he
passed away on the 6 th of June 1861. He was buried at his
ancestral castle of Santena.
The death of Cavour was a terrible loss to Italy; there re-
mained many problems to be solved in which his genius and
personality were urgently needed. But the great work had been
carried to such a point that lesser men might now complete the
structure. He is undoubtedly the greatest figure of the Risor-
gimenlo, and although other men and other forces co-operated
in the movement, it was Cavour who organized it and skilfully
conducted the negotiations which overcame all, apparently
insuperable, obstacles. " That which in Alneri and Gioberti
was lacking/ 1 wrote T. Artom, his private secretary, " a deep
and lively sense of reality, Cavour possessed to a supreme
degree. He was not a litterateur ; he was never a political dreamer.
His views broadened progressively; at each stage he discovered
a new horizon, and he followed his path without ever seeking
anything save what was real and possible." He was gifted with
pronounced political genius and with an astounding power
of foresight. In his ideas he was always a moderate Liberal,
and although he disapproved of republicanism, he was an ardent
constitutionalist, ever refusing to resort to arbitrary methods,
for he felt that, the Italian character being what it is, Italian
unity could not last if unsupported by popular feeling. In meet-
ing opposition he could not, like Bismarck, rely on a great military
power, for the Piedmontese army was a small one; Austria must
first be isolated and then an alliance had to be obtained with some
other power. Some of his acts, especially his policy towards
the Neapolitan kingdom, have been criticized as politically
immoral; but apart from the fact that few revolutions — and
Cavour, after all, was a revolutionist — can be conducted without
attacking vested rights, it is hard to see that any policy which
led to the destruction of a government, rightly described as the
" negation of God on earth," could be deemed immoral. He
has been accused of changing his views, but what statesman has
not? Moreover, in the extremely complicated and difficult diplo-
matic situations which he had to face, what was impossible
or dangerous one day became possible and desirable the next.
This was particularly the case with the Neapolitan question.
Cavour's one absorbing passion was the liberation and regenera-
tion of Italy, and to this he devoted his whole life and talent.
Bibliography. — G. Buzziconi, BiWiografia Cavouriana (Turin,
1898); Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, Cavour (London,
1898), an excellent and handy little monograph which brings out
the chief points of Cavour's life in the right light; G. Massari, //
ConU di Cavour (Turin, 1873); W. de la Rive, Le Comte de Cavour
(Paris, 1862), interesting and valuable as the work of a contemporary
and intimate friend of Cavour; L. Chiala, Lettere edite ed inedite del
ConU di Cavour (7 vols., Turin, 1883-1887); D. Zanichelli, Gli
ScritU del Conte di Cavour (Bologna, 1892), and Cavour (Florence,
1905) ; H. von Treitschke, "Cavour," in his Historiscke und politische
Aufsdto (Leipzig, 1871); E. Dicey, A Memoir of Cavour (London,
1861); Conte C di Cavour, Discorsi parlamentari (8 vols., Turin,
1863-1872), Opere politico-economiche (Cuneo, 1855); F. X. Krauss,
Cavour (Mainz, 1902) ; E. Artom, V Opere potitua del Senatore T.
Artom nel Risorgtmento Italiano (Bologna, 1906), a biography of
Cavour's devoted private secretary, containing new material.
( L. V.*)
CAVOUR (anc. Caburrutn or Forum Yibii), a town of Piedmont,
Italy, in the province of Turin, 32 m. S.W. by rail and steam
tram (via Pinerolo from the town of Turin). Pop. (1001) town,
209 1 ; commune, 6843. It lies on the north side of a huge isolated
mass of granite (the Rocca di Cavour) which rises from the plain.
On the summit was the Roman village, which belonged to the
province of the Alpes Cottiae. There are some ruins of medieval
fortifications. The town gave its name to the Benso family of
Chieri, who were raised to the marquisate in 1771, and of
which the statesman Cavour was a member.
For the ancient name see Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lai.
v. (Berlin, 1877), p. 825.
CAVY, a name commonly applied to several South American
rodent animals included in the family Caviidae (see Rodentia),
but perhaps properly applicable only to those belonging to the
typical genus Cavia, of which the most familiar representative
is the domesticated guinea-pig. Cavies in general, the more
typical representatives of the Caviidae , are rodents with hoof-
like nails, four front and three hind toes, imperfect collar-bones,
and the cheek-teeth divided by folds of enamel into transverse
plates. The tail is short or rudimentary, the incisors are short, and
the outer surface of the lower jaw is marked by a distinct ridge.
True cavies, or couies (Cavia), are best known by the guinea-
pig, a domesticated and parti-coloured race derived from one of
the wild species, all of which are uniformly coloured. They
are comparatively small and stoutly built animals, with short,
rounded ears and no tail. In habits they are partly diurnal;
and live either in burrows among the crevices of rocks, beneath
the leaves of aquatic plants in marshy districts, or underneath
the floors of outbuildings. Their cries are faint squeaks and
grunts. They feed upon nearly all vegetable substances, but
drink little. Generally they associate in small societies, and
seldom wander far from home. Although the guinea-pig is a
fertile breeder, the wild species only produce one or two young
at a birth, and this but once in a year. The young come into the
world in a highly developed condition, being able to feed them-
selves the day following their birth. Cavies are widely distri-
buted in South America, and are represented by several species.
Among them may be mentioned the aperea or restless cavy
(C. porceilus or C. aperea) of Brazil; the Bolivian C. boliviensis,
found at great elevations in the Andes; the Brazilian rock-cavy
(C. rupestris) f characterized by its short blunt claws; and the
Peruvian C. cutler i. The latter was tamed by the Incas, and is
the ancestor of the guinea-pig. As to the origin of that name,
some writers consider it a corruption of Guiana-pig, but it is
more probable that the word " Guinea " merely signifies foreign.
The guinea-pig is a singularly inoffensive and defenceless creature ,
of a restless disposition, and wanting in that intelligence which
usually characterizes domestic pets, although said to show some
discrimination. It is of no particular service to man, neither
its flesh nor its fur being generally put to use, while the state-
ment that its presence is sufficient to drive off rats and mice
appears to be without foundation. It is exceedingly prolific,
beginning to breed at the age of two months; the number of
young varying, according to the age of the parent, from four
to twelve. It has been calculated that a single pair of guinea-
pigs may prove the parent stock of a thousand individuals in a
single year.
A very different animal is the Patagonian cavy, or mara
(Dolichotis patachonica), the typical representative of a genus
characterized by long limbs, comparatively large ears, and a
short tail. The animal is about the size of a hare, to which it
approximates in form and habits. It is most abundant in the
open districts of Patagonia, but also ranges on to the Argentina
Pampas, where it is now scarce. Although occasionally seen
in large flocks, the mara is more commonly found in small
parties or in pairs, the parties commonly moving in single file.
It has a peculiar kind of hopping gait; and is mainly diurnal, in
accordance with which habit its eyes are protected by lashes.
It lives in a burrow, generally excavated by itself; but when
pursued, seeks safety in flight, rather than by a retreat to its
hole. From two to five young are produced twice a year. A
k
Qt
0!
CAWDOR— CAXTON
587
much smaller species, Z>. solinicola, without the characteristic
black band above the tail, inhabits the salt-plains of Argentina.
Maras have been introduced into several British parks. Fossil
species of Dolichotis occur in the caverns of Brazil, and also
in the superficial deposits of Argentina. (R. L.*)
CAWDOR, a village and parish of Nairnshire, Scotland.
Pop. of parish (1001) 925. The village is situated 5 m. S.S.W.
of Nairn and 3 m. from Gollanfield Junction on the Highland
railway. The castle was the scene, according to the tradition
which Shakespeare has perpetuated, of the murder of King
Duncan by Macbeth, thane of Cawdor (or Calder), in 1040.
Since the oldest part of the structure dates from 1454, however,
and seemingly had no predecessor, the tradition has no founda-
tion in fact. The building stands on the rocky bank of Cawdor
Burn, a right-hand tributary of the Nairn. The massive keep
with small turrets is the original portion of the castle, and to it
were added, in the 17 th century, the modern buildings forming
two sides of a square.
Kilravock (pronounced Kilrawk) Castle, i| m. W. of Cawdor,
occupies a commanding site on the left bank of the Nairn.
Its keep dates from 1460, and the later buildings belong to the
17th century. It has been continuously tenanted by the Roses,
one of the most remarkable families in Scotland. They came
over with William the Conqueror and settled at Kilravock in
1293, since which date son has succeeded father without the
interposition of a collateral heir, an instance of direct descent
unique in Scottish history. Moreover, nearly every Rose has
borne the Christian name of Hugh, and only one attained to a
higher social rank than that of laird. Queen Mary was received
at the castle in 1562, and Prince Charles Edward was entertained
four days before the battle of Culloden. The gardens are remark-
able for their beauty.
CAWNPORE, or Kanpuh, a city and district of British India
in the Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The city
is situated on the south bank of the Ganges, 40 m. south-west
of Lucknow, and formed from early times a frontier outpost
of the people of Oudh and Bengal against their northern neigh-
bours. Chve selected it, on account of its commanding position,
as the cantonment for the brigade of troops lent him by the
nawab of Oudh. In 1801, when the Ceded Provinces were ac-
quired by the East India Company, it became the chief British
frontier station. But by the time of the Mutiny the frontier
had left it behind, and it was denuded of troops. Now it is
chiefly known as the junction of four railways, the East Indian,
Oudh & Rohilkand, Rajputana and Indian Midland, and as
a great emporium for harness, shoes and other leather-work.
In 1 901 the population was 197,170, showing an increase of 4 %
in the decade. In 1903 the city was devastated by an epidemic
of plague.
The name of Cawnpore is indelibly connected with the blackest
episode in the history of the Indian Mutiny — the massacre here
in July 1857 of hundreds of women and children by the Nana
Sahib. The full details of the siege and massacre will be found
under Indian Mutiny, and here it will suffice to refer to the
local memorials of that evil time. The entrenchment, where
General Sir H. M. Wheeler with his small band of soldiers and
the European and Eurasian residents were exposed for 21 days
to the fire of the mutineers, is merely a bare field, containing
the well where many women and children were shot while getting
water. This well is now surrounded by an enclosure with an
inscription upon its cross. About three-quarters of a mile away ,
on the banks of the river Ganges, is the Massacre Ghat. A grassy
road between banks 10 to 12 ft. high leads down to the river,
and it was among the trees on these banks that the murderers
concealed themselves who shot down the little garrison as soon
as they were embarked in the boats which were to take them to
safety. On the river bank is a temple to Siva, of hexagonal
shape, old and going to ruin. Steps lead from this temple to an
enclosed flight of stairs, which in the cold season descend to
the water, but in the rains are covered almost to the top. This
is the ghat where some 600 helpless people were slain, in spite
of a promise of safe-conduct from the Nana. The remaining
200 victims, who had escaped the bullets of the siege and survived
the butchery of the river bank, were massacred afterwards and
cast down the famous well of Cawnpore, which is now marked
by a memorial and surrounded by gardens. The memorial is
crowned by the figure of an angel in white marble, and on the
wall of the well itself is the following inscription: —
Sacred to the perpetual Memory of a great company of
Christian people, chiefly Women and Children, who near this
spot were cruelly murdered by the followers of the rebel
Nana Dhundu Pant, of Bithur, and cast, the dying with the
dead, into the well below, on the xvth day of July, MDCCCLVII.
The district of Cawnpore is situated between the Ganges
and Jumna rivers, and is a portion of the well-watered and
fertile tract known as the Doab, the total area being 2384 sq. m.
The general inclination of the country is from north to south.
Besides the two great rivers, the principal streams are the Arand
or Rhind, the Kavan or Singar, the Isan and the Pandu. The
district is watered by four branches of the Ganges canal, and
traversed by two lines of railway. It used to be a great centre of
the indigo industry, which has now declined. The population in
1901 was 1,258,868, showing an increase of 4% during the decade.
CAXTON, WILLIAM {c. 1422-1491), the first English printer,
was born somewhere in the Weald of Kent, perhaps at Tenterden.
The name, which was apparently pronounced Cauzton, is
identical with Causton, the name of a manor in the parish of
Hadlow, and was a fairly common surname in the 15th century.
The date of Caxton's birth was arbitrarily fixed in 1748 by Oldys
as 141 2. Blades, however, inferred that in 1438, when he was
apprenticed to Robert Large, he would not have been more than
sixteen years of age. This would place his birth in 142 2-1 423.
Robert Large was a rich silk mercer who became sheriff in 1430
and lord mayor of London in 1439, and the fact of Caxton's
apprenticeship to him argues that Caxton's own parents were
in a good position. Large died in 1441, leaving a small be-
quest to Caxton, and his executors would be bound to place the
young man where he could finish his term. He was probably sent
direct to Bruges, then the central foreign market of the Anglo-
Flemish trade, for he presently entered business there on his
own account. In 1450 his name appears in the Bruges records
as standing joint surety for the sum of £100; and in 1463 he
was acting governor of the company of Merchant Adventurers
in the Low Countries. This association, sometimes known
as the " English Nation," was dominated by the Mercers'
Company, to the livery of which Caxton had been formally
admitted in London in 1453. The first governor, appointed
in terms of a charter granted by Edward IV. in 1462, was
W. Obray, but Caxton's position is definitely asserted in 1464.
In that year he was appointed, together with Sir Richard
Whitehill, to negotiate with Philip, duke of Burgundy, the
renewal of a treaty concerning the wool trade, which was about
to expire. These attempts failed, but he was again employed,
with two other members of the Mercers' Company, in a similar
but successful mission in October 1468 to the new duke, Charles
the Bold, who earlier in the year had married Princess Margaret
of York, sister of Edward IV. The last mention of Caxton in the
capacity of governor of the " English Nation " is on the 13th of
August 1469, and it was probably about that time that he entered
the household of the duchess Margaret, possibly in the position
of commercial adviser. In his diplomatic mission in 1468 he had
been associated with Lord Scales, afterwards Earl Rivers and one
of his chief patrons, and at the Burgundian court he must have
come in touch with Edward IV. during his brief exile in 1470.
He had begun his translation of the popular medieval romance
of Troy, The Recuydl of the Historyes of Troye, from the French
of Raoul le Fevre, early in 1469; and, after laying it aside for
some time, he resumed it at the wish of the duchess Margaret,
to whom the MS. was presented in September 147 1. During
his thirty-three years' residence in Bruges Caxton would have
access to the rich libraries of the duke of Burgundy and other
nobles, and about this time he learned the art of printing. His
disciple, Wynkyn de Worde, says that he was taught at Cologne,
probably during a visit there in 147 1, recorded in the preface to
5 88
CAYENNE
the Recuyell; Blades suggests that he learnt from Colard Man-
sion, but there is no evidence that Mansion set up his press at
Bruges before 1474. He ceased to be a member of the gild of
St John (a gild of illuminators) in 1473, and the first dated book
he is known to have printed is dated 1476. Mansion and Caxton
were partners or associates at Bruges, where Caxton printed
his Recuyell in 1474 or 1475. His second book, The Game and
Playe of Chesse, from the Liber de ludo scacchorum of Jacobus
de Cessolis through the French of Jehan de Vignay, was finished
in 1474, and printed soon after; the last book printed by
Mansion and Caxton at Bruges was the Quatre derrenieres choses,
an anonymous treatise usually known as De quattuor novissimis.
Other books in the same t}pe were printed by Mansion at Bruges
after Caxton's departure.
By September 1476 Caxton had established himself in the
almonry at Westminster at the sign of the Red Pale. Robert
Copland the printer, who was afterwards one of Caxton's assist-
ants, states that Caxton began by printing small pamphlets.
The first dated book printed in England was Lord Rivers's
translation (revised by Caxton) of The Dicks or sayengis of the
philosophres (1477). From this time until his death in 1491
Caxton was busy writing and printing. His services to English
literature, apart from his work as a printer (see Typography),
are very considerable. His most important original work is an
eighth book added to the Polychronicon (vol. viii. in the Rolls
Series edition) of Ralph Higden. Caxton revised and printed
John of Trevisa's work, and brought down the narrative himself
from 1358 to 1460, using as his authorities Fasciculus temp or urn,
a popular work in the 15th century, and an unknown Aureus de
universo. In the year before his death he complained in the
preface to his Eneydos of the changing state of the English
language, a condition of things which he did as much as any man
to remedy. He printed Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (1478? and
1483), Troilus and Creseide (1483 ?), the House of Fame (1483 ?),
and the translation of Boethius (1478?); Gower's Confessio
Amantis (1483), and many poems of Lydgate. His press was,
however, not worked for purely literary ends, but was a com-
mercial speculation. For the many service-books which he
printed there was no doubt a sure sale, and he met the taste of
the upper classes by the tales of chivalry which issued regularly
from his press. He printed Malory's Morte d' Arthur, and himself
translated from the French the Boke of Histories of Jason (1477 ?),
The Hisiorye of Reynart the Foxe (from the Dutch, 1481 and
1489?), Godfrey of Boloyne or The Siege and Conqueste of
Jherusalem (1481), The Lyf of Charles the Grete (1485), The
Knyght Parys and the Fayr Vyenne (1485), Blanchardyn and
Eglantine (1489?), The Foure Sonnes of Aymon (1489?); also
the Morale Proverbs (1478), and the Fayttes of Armes and of
Chyualrye (1489) of Christine de Pisan. The most ambitious
production of his press was perhaps his version of the Golden
Legend, the translation of which he finished in November 1483.
It is based on the lives of the saints as given in the 13th century
Legenda aurea of Jacobus de Voragine, but Caxton chiefly used
existing French and English versions for his compilation. The
book is illustrated by seventy woodcuts, and Caxton says he was
only encouraged to persevere in his laborious and expensive
task by the liberality of William, earl of Arundel. The idleness
which he so often deprecates in his prefaces was no vice of his, for
in addition to his voluminous translations his output as a printer
was over 1 8,000 pages, and he published ninety-six separate
works or editions of works, with apparently little skilled assist-
ance, though later printers, Wynkyn de Worde, Robert Copland
and possibly Richard Pynson, were trained under him.
The different founts of type used by Caxton are illustrated by
Blades and Duff, and there is an excellent selection of Caxtons in
the British Museum, in the University library at Cambridge,
besides those in private hands. A record price for a Caxton was
reached in 1902 when Mr Bernard Quaritch paid £2225 for The
Royal Book (1487?), a translation of the popular Somme des
vices et des vertus. His books have no title-pages, and from 1487
onwards are itsnally adorned with a curious device, consisting of
the letters W. C. separated by a trade mark, with an elaborate
border above and below. The flourishes on the trade mark have
been fancifully interpreted as S.C. lor Sancta Coftonia, implying
that Caxton learnt his art at
Cologne, and the whole mark has
been read as 74, for 1474, the date
of his first printed book. This
device was first used in an edition
of the Sarum missal, printed for
Caxton by George Maynial in Paris,
and was subsequently adopted with
small alterations by his successor at
the Westminster press, Wynkyn de
Worde. The first of his books con-
taining woodcut illustrations was
his Myrrour of the World (1481),
translated from Vincent de Beau-
vais, which has diagrams and
pictures for the assistance of young students. He had used a
woodcut initial letter in his broadside Indulgence printed in 1480.
No record of Caxton's marriage or of the birth of his children
has been found, but Gerard Croppe was separated from his wife
Elizabeth, daughter of William Caxton, before 1496, when Croppe
made certain claims in connexion with his father-in-law's will.
Authorities. — Earlier biographies of Caxton were superseded by
the work of William Blades, whose Life and Typography of William
Caxton (2 vols., 1 861-1863) remains the standard authority. It
contains a bibliography of each of the works issued from Caxton's
press. For later discoveries see George Bullen's Catalogue of the
Caxton celebration loan collection exhibited at South Kensington
in 1877; articles by E. J. L. Scott in the Athenaeum (Feb. 10, iooo;
May 21 and June 8, 1892); articles in Notes and Queries (April 21,
1900; Feb. 2±, 1906), and the publications of the Caxton Club,
Chicago, notably William Caxton, by E. Gordon Duff (1905). See
also Census of Caxtons, by Seymour de Ricci, No. xv. of the
illustrated monographs of the BibUoffraphical Sodety, 1909. Many
of Caxton's translations are available in mod&rn reprints; the
Golden Legend, the Recuyell and Godeffroy of BoUane, were printed
by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press in 1 892-1893; the Boke
of Curtesye (1868), the Lyf of Charles the Grete (1880), Alain Chartier's
Curial (1888), Foure Sonnes of Aymon (1884)7 Eneydos (1890),
Blanchardyn and Eglantine (1890), and others, by the Early English
Text Society. For modern editions of Reynart see Reynard thb
Fox. No authentic portrait of Caxton is known, but a MS. at Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge, of the last six books of the Metamorphoses
of Ovid, translated by Caxton, is probably in his handwriting.
CAYENNE, a seaport and the capital of French Guiana, on
the N.W. extremity of the island of Cayenne, and near the
mouth of the river of that name, in 4 56' 28* N., and 52 20' 36*
W. Pop. about 12,600. The town forms an almost perfect
square, and has clean and well-macadamized streets. The
houses, mostly of two storeys, are of wood, strengthened on the
first and ground floors by brickwork. In the old town, which
contains the government-house and Jesuits' College, the streets
are not so regularly and well built as in the new. Hie Place
d'Armes, a fine quadrangular space, lies between them. To the
right of the governor's house is Mount Ce'pe'ron, on which stand
Fort St Michel, the marine barracks, the signal station and the
lighthouse. Here, too, are the capacious reservoirs for the
water-supply of the town, the source of which is a lake to the
south of the island. The harbour is shallow at its entrance, and
craft drawing more than 14 ft. are obliged to anchor 6 m. from
the town. There is no dock for the repair of vessels; but there
are two quays at the town. The principal exports of Cayenne
are gold, cocoa, phosphates, hides, woods and spices. The
imports are French wines, spirits and liqueurs; silk and cotton
stuffs, tobacco, hardware, glass, earthenware, clothing, preserved
meat, fish, and vegetables, maize, flour, hay, bran, oils and
cattle. There is a regular mail service between Cayenne and
Martinique once a month. Cayenne is the seat of the government
of French Guiana, and was formerly a penal settlement for
political offenders. Food as well as clothing is exorbitantly dear,
the only cheap articles of consumption being bread and French
wines. The temperature of Cayenne is between 76 and 88° Fahr.
throughout the year; but the heat is tempered by easterly winds.
I Between December and March a north wind blows, unfavourable
1 to weak constitutions. Yellow and other fevers often attack the
i
CAYENNE PE?PER— CAYLEY
589
inhabitants of the town, but the climate, though moist, is as a
whole healthy! (See Guiana.)
CAYENNE PEPPER (Guinea Pepper, Spanish Pepper,
Chilly), a preparation from the dried fruit of various species of
Capsicum,*, genus of the natural order Solanaceae. The true peppers
are members of a totally distinct order, Piperaceae. The fruits of
plants of the genus Capsicum have all a strong, pungent flavour.
The capsicums bear a greenish-white flower, with a star-shaped
corolla and five anthers standing up in the centre of the flower
like a tube, through which projects the slender style. The pod-
like fruit consists of an envelope at first fleshy and afterwards
leathery, within which are the spongy pulp and several seeds.
The plants are herbaceous or shrubby; the leaves are entire, and
alternate, or in pairs near one another; the flowers are solitary
and do not arise in the leaf-axils. There are about thirty
species, natives of Central and South America. They are now
grown in various parts of the world, both for the sake of the fruit
and for ornament. In England the annual sorts are sown from
March to the middle of April under a frame. They can be
planted out when 2 or 3 in. high, and in June may be transferred
to a Hght rich soil in the open garden. They flower in July or
August, and produce pods from August till the end of September.
The perennial and shrubby kinds may be wintered in a conserva-
tory. Several species or varieties are used to make cayenne
pepper. The annual or common capsicum (C. annuum), the
Guinea pepper plant, was brought to Europe by the Spaniards,
and was grown in England in 1548. It is indigenous to South
America, but is now cultivated in India, Hungary, Italy, Spain
and Turkey, with the other species of capsicum. It is a hardy
herbaceous plant, which attains a height of 2 or 3 ft. There are
numerous cultivated forms, differing in the shape and colour of
the pod, which varies from more or less roundish to narrow-
conical, with a smooth or wrinkled coat, and white, yellow, red
or black in colour. The principal source of cayenne pepper is C.
frutescens, the spur or goat pepper, a dwarf shrub, a native of
South America, but commonly cultivated in the East Indies. It
produces a small, narrow, bright red pod, having very pungent
properties. C. tetragonum, or bonnet pepper, is a species much
esteemed in Jamaica; it bears very fleshy fruits. Other well-
known kinds of capsicum are the cherry pepper (C cerasiforme),
with small berries; bell pepper (C. grossutn ), which has thick and
pulpy fruit, well adapted for pickling; and berry or bird pepper
(C. baccaium). The last mentioned has been grown in England
since 1731; its fruit is globular, and about the size of a cherry.
The West Indian stomachic man-dram is prepared by mashing a
few pods of bird pepper and mixing them with sliced cucumber
and shallots, to which have been added a little lime-juice and
Madeira wine. Chillies, the dried ripe or unripe fruit of capsicums,
especially C. annuum and C. frutescens, are used to make chilly-
vinegar, as well as for pickles. Cayenne pepper is manufactured
from the ripe fruits, which are dried, ground, mixed with wheat
flour, and made into cakes with yeast; the cakes are baked till
hard like biscuit, and then ground and sifted. The pepper is
sometimes prepared by simply drying the pods and pounding
them fine in a mortar. Cayenne pepper is occasionally adulter-
ated with red lead, vermilion, ochre, salt, ground-rice and
turmeric. The taste of the pepper is impaired by exposure
to damp and the heat of the sun. Chillies have been in use
from time immemorial; they are eaten in great quantity by the
people of Guiana and other warm countries, and in Europe are
largely consumed both as a spice and as medicine.
The dried ripe fruit of Capsicum frutescens from Zanzibar,
known as pod pepper and Guinea pepper, is official in the British
Pharmacopoeia under the name Capsici Fructus. The fruit has
a characteristic, pungent odour and an intensely bitter taste.
The chief constituents are a crystallizable resin, capsaicin, a
volatile alkaloid, capsicine and a volatile oil. The dose is J-i
grain. The British Pharmacopoeia contains two preparations of
capsicum, a tincture (dose 5-15 minims) and an ointment.
Externally the drug has the usual action of a volatile oil, being a
very powerful counter-irritant. It does not, however, cause
pustulation. Its internal action is also that of its class, but its
marked contact properties make it specially useful in gastri-
atony and flatulence, and sometimes in hysteria.
CAYEY, an inland district and mountain town of the depart-
ment of Guayama, Porto Rico, celebrated for its cool, invigorat-
ing climate and the beauty of its scenery. Pop. (1899) of the
town, 3763; of the district, 14,442. The town is surrounded by
mountain summits, the highest of which, El Torito, rises to an
elevation of 2362 ft. above sea-level. It was made a military
post by the Spaniards and used as an acclimatizing station.
The old Spanish barracks have been enlarged and improved by
the American military authorities and, under the name of
" Henry Barracks," are used for the same purpose. The town is a
popular summer resort for residents of the coast cities. The
surrounding country is wooded and very fertile, being especially
noted for its coffee and tobacco. The town has large cigar
factories. Cayey is connected with Guayama by an excellent
military road.
CAYLEY, ARTHUR (1821-1895), English mathematician,
was born at Richmond, in Surrey, on the 16th of August 182 1,
the second son of Henry Cayley, a Russian merchant, and
Maria Antonia Doughty. His father, Henry Cayley, retired
from business in 1829 and settled in Blackheath, where Arthur
was sent to a private school kept by the Rev. G. B. F. Potticary;
at the age of fourteen he was transferred to King's College school,
London. He soon showed that he was a boy of great capacity,
and in particular that he was possessed of remarkable mathe-
matical ability. On the advice of the school authorities he was
entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, as a pensioner. He was
there coached by William Hopkins of Peterhouse, was admitted
a scholar of the college in May 1840, and graduated as senior
wrangler in 1842, and obtained the first Smith's Prize at the next
examination. In 1842, also, he was elected a fellow of Trinity,
and became a major fellow in 1845, the year in which he proceeded
to the M.A. degree. He was assistant tutor of Trinity for three
years. In 1846, having decided to adopt the law as a profession,
he left Cambridge, entered at Lincoln's Inn, and became a pupil
of the conveyancer Mr Christie. He was called to the bar in 1849,
and remained at the bar fourteen years, till 1863, when he was
elected to the new Sadlerian chair of pure mathematics in the
university of Cambridge. He settled at Cambridge in the same
year, and married Susan, daughter of Robert Moline of Green-
wich. He continued to reside in Cambridge and to hold the
professorship till his death, which occurred on the 26th of
January 1895. From the time he went first to Cambridge till
his death he was constantly engaged in mathematical investiga-
tion. The number of his papers and memoirs, some of them
of considerable length, exceeds 800; they were published, at
the time they were composed, in various scientific journals in
Europe and America, and are now embodied, through the enter-
prise of the syndics of the Cambridge University Press, in thirteen
large quarto volumes. These form an enduring monument
to his fame. He wrote upon nearly every subject of pure mathe-
matics, and also upon theoretical dynamics and spherical and
physical astronomy. He was quite as much a geometrician as
he was an analyst. Among his most remarkable works may
be mentioned his ten memoirs on quantics, commenced in 1854
and completed in 1878; his creation of the theory of matrices;
his researches on the theory of groups; his memoir on abstract
geometry, a subject which he created; his introduction into
geometry of the " absolute "; his researches on the higher
singularities of curves and surfaces; the classification of cubic
curves; additions to the theories of rational transformation
and correspondence; the theory of the twenty-seven lines that
lie on a cubic surface; the theory of elliptic functions; the
attraction of ellipsoids; the British Association Reports, 1857
and 1862, on recent progress in general and special theoretical
dynamics, and on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean
motion. He is justly regarded as one of the greatest of mathe-
maticians. Competent judges have compared him to Leonhard
Euler for his range, analytical power and introduction of new
and fertile theories. He was the recipient of nearly every
academic distinction that can be conferred upon an eminent man
59°
CAYLUS— CAZEMBE
of science. Amongst others may be noted honorary degrees by
the universities of Oxford, Dublin, Edinburgh, Gdttingen,
Heidelberg, Leiden and Bologna. He was fellow or foreign
corresponding member of the French Institute, the academies
of Berlin, Gdttingen, St Petersburg, Milan, Rome, Leiden,
Upsala and Hungary; and he was nominated an officer of the
Legion of Honour by President Carnot. At various times he
was president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, of the
London Mathematical Society and of the Royal Astronomical
Society. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1852,
and received from that body a Royal medal in 1859 and the
Copley medal in 1882. He also received the De Morgan medal
from the London Mathematical Society, and the Huygens medal
from Leiden. His nature was noble and generous, and the
universal appreciation of this fact gave him great influence in
his university. His portrait, by Lowes Dickinson, was placed
in the hall of Trinity College in 1874, and his bust, by Henry
Wiles, in the library of the same college in 1888. (P. A. M.)
CAYLUS, ANNE CLAUDE PHILIPPE DE TUBI&RES DE
GRIMOARD DE PESTELS DE LfiVIS, Comte de, Marquis
d'Esternay, baror de Bransac (1602-1765), French archaeo-
logist and man of letters, was born at Paris on the 31st of October
1692. He was the eldest son of Lieutenant-General Count de
Caylus. His mother, Marthe Marguerite le Valois de Vilette de
Murcay, comtesse de Caylus (1673- 17 29), was a cousin of Mme
de Maintenon, who brought her up like her own daughter. She
wrote valuable memoirs of the court of Louis XIV. entitled
Souvenirs; these were edited by Voltaire (1770), and by many
later editors, notably Renouard (1806), Ch. Asselineau (i860), M.
de Lescure (1874), M. E. Rauni6 (1881), J. Soury (1883). While
a young man Caylus distinguished himself in the campaigns of
the French army, from 1 709 to 1 7 14. After the peace of Rastadt
he spent some time in travelling in Italy, Greece, the East,
England and Germany, and devoted much attention to the
study and collection of antiquities. He became an active
member of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture and of the
Academy of Inscriptions. Among his antiquarian works are
Recueil d'antiquitis igypticnnes, itrusques, grecques, romaines, et
gauloises (6 vols., Paris, 17 52-1 755), Numismata Aurea Impera-
torum Romanorunty and a Memoir e (1755) on the method of en-
caustic painting with wax mentioned by Pliny, which he claimed
to have rediscovered. Diderot, who was no friend to Caylus,
maintained that the proper method had been found by J. J.
Bachelier. Caylus was an admirable engraver, and copied many
of the paintings of the great masters. He caused engravings to
be made, at his own expense, of Bartoli's copies from ancient
pictures and published Nouveaux sujets de peiniure et de sculpture
(1755) and Tableaux tiris de Vlliade, de VOdysse, et de VEnUde
(1757). He encouraged artists whose reputations were still in
the making,but his patronage was somewhat capricious. Diderot
expressed this fact in an epigram in his Salon of 1765 : "La mort
nous a de*livres du plus cruel des amateurs." Caylus had quite
another side to his character. He had a thorough acquaintance
with the gayest and most disreputable sides of Parisian life, and
left a number of more or less witty stories dealing with it. These
were collected (Amsterdam, 1787^ his (Euvres badines completes.
The best of them is the Histoire de M. Guillaume, cocker (c. 1730).
The Souvenirs du comte de Caylus, published in 1805, is of very
doubtful authenticity. See alao A. and J. de Goncourt, Portraits
intimes du XVIII' Steele; Ch. Nisard's edition of the Corre-
spondance du comte de Caylus avec le p&re Paciaudi (1877) ; and a
notice by O. Uzanne prefixed to a volume of his Pacities (1879).
CAYMAN ISLANDS* a group of three low-lying islands in the
West Indies. They consist of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman
and Cayman Brae, and are situated between 79 44' and 8o° 26'
W. and 1 9 44' and io° 46' N., forming a dependency of Jamaica,
which lies 178 m. E.S.E. Grand Cayman, a rock-bound island
protected by coral reefs, is 1 7 m. long and varies from 4 m. to 7 m.
in breadth. It has two towns, Georgetown and Boddentown.
Little Cayman and Cayman Brae are both about 70 m. E.N.E. of
Grand Cayman. Excepting near the rocky coast, the islands are
fruitful, mahogany and other valuable timbers with some dye-
wood are grown, and large quantities of coco-nuts are produced
by the two smaller islands. Phosphate deposits of considerable
value are worked, but the principal occupation of the inhabitants
is catching turtles for export to Jamaica. The people are
excellent shipwrights and do a considerable trade in schooners
built of native wood. The islands are governed by a com-
missioner, and the laws passed by the local legislative assembly
are subject to the assent of the governor of Jamaica. The
population of the group is about 5000. The islands were dis-
covered by Columbus, who named them Tortugas from the
turtles with which the surrounding sea abounds. They were
never occupied by the Spaniards and were colonized from Jamaica
by the British.
CAZALftS, JACQUES ANTOINE MARIE DE (1758-1805),
French orator and politician, was born at Grenade in Languedoc,
of a family of the lower nobility. Before 1789 he was a cavalry
officer, but in that year was returned as deputy to the states
general. In the Constituent Assembly he belonged to the section
of moderate royalists who sought to set up a constitution on the
English model, and his speeches in favour of retaining the right
of war and peace in the king's hands and on the organization of
the judiciary gained the applause even of his opponents. Apart
from his eloquence, which gave him a place among the finest
orators of the Assembly, Cazal&s is mainly remembered for a duel
fought with Barnave. After the insurrection of the 10th of
August 1792, which led to the downfall of royalty, Cazales
emigrated. He fought in the army of the emigris against
revolutionary France, lived in Switzerland and in England, and
did not return to France until 1803. He died on the 24th of
November 1805. His son, Edmond de Cazal&s, wrote philo-
sophical and religious studies.
See Discours de Cazalte, edited by Chare (Paris, 1821), with an
introduction; F. A. A u lard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (2nd ed.,
Paris, 1905O
CAZAUS, HENRI (1 840-1009), French poet and man of
letters, was born at Cormeilles-en-Parisis (Seine-et-Oise) in 1840.
He wrote under the pseudonyms of Jean Caselli and Jean Labor.
His works include: Chants populaires de V Italic (1865); Vita
tristis, Reveries fantastiques 9 Romances sans musique (1865); Le
Livre du neant (1872) ; Henry RegnauU, sa vie el son amvre(i8i2) ;
U Illusion (1875-1893); Melancholia (1878); Cantique des
canHques (1885); Les Quatrains d'Al-Gaxoli (1896); William
Morris (1897). The author of the Livre du neant has a predilec-
tion for gloomy subjects and especially for pictures of death.
His oriental habits of thought earned for him the title of the
" Hindou du Parnasse contemporain." He died in July 1909.
See a notice by P. Bourget in Anthologie des poHes fr. du XIX'
siech (1887-1888); J. Lemaltre, Ltts Contemporains (1889); E.
Faguet in the Revue bleue (October 1893).
CAZEMBE, the hereditary name of an African chief, whose
territory was situated south of Lake Mweru and north of
Bangweulu, between 9 and 1 1° S. In the end of the 18th century
the authority of the Cazembe was recognized over a very ex-
tensive district. The kingdom, known also as the Cazembe,
continued to exist, though with gradually diminishing power and
extent, until the last quarter of the 19th century, when the
Cazembe sank to the rank of a petty chief. The country is now
divided between Great Britain and Belgian Congo. The British
half, lying east of the Luapula, forms part of Rhodesia, and the
chief town in it is called Kazembe. The native state, ruled by a
negro race who overcame the aboriginals, had attained a certain
degree of civilization. Agriculture was diligently followed, and
cotton cloth, earthenware and iron goods manufactured. The
country contains rich deposits of copper, and copper ore was one
of the principal articles of export. The Cazembe had despotic
power and used it in barbarous fashion. He had hundreds of
wives, and his chiefs imitated his example according to their
means. On his accession every new Cazembe chose a new site
for his residence. In 1706 the Cazembe was visited by Manoel
Caetano Pereira, a Portuguese merchant; and in 1708 a more
important journey to the same region was undertaken by Dr
Francisco Jos6 Maria de Lacerda. He died in that country on
CAZIN— CEARA
591
the 18th of October that year, but left behind him a valuable
journal In 1802 two native traders or pombeiros, Pedro Joao
Baptista and Amaro Jose, were sent by the Portuguese on a
visit to the Cazembe; and in 183 1 a more extensive mission was
despatched by the Portuguese governor of Sena. It consisted of
Major Jos6 Monteiro and Antonio Gamitto, with an escort of 20
soldiers and 120 negro slaves as porters; but its reception by
the Cazembe was not altogether satisfactory. In 1868 David
Livingstone visited the Cazembe, whose capital at that time
numbered no more than 1000 souls. Since 1894, when the
country was divided between Britain and the Congo State, it has
been thoroughly explored. An important copper mining industry
is carried on in the Congo division of the territory.
See The Lands of the Cazembe, published by the Royal Geographical
Society in 1873, containing translations of Lacerda and Baptista's
journals, and a resum6 of Gamitto's Muaia Cazembe (Lisbon,
1854); also Livingstone's Last Journals (London, 1874).
CAZIN, JEAN CHARLES (1840-1001), French landscape-
painter, son of a well-known doctor, F. J. Cazin (1 788-1864), was
born at Samer, Pas-de-Calais. After studying in France, he went to
England, where he was strongly influenced by the pre-Raphaelite
movement. His chief earlier pictures have a religious interest,
shown in such examples as " The Flight into Egypt " (1877), or
" Hagar and Ishmael " (1880, Luxembourg); and afterwards
his combination of luminous landscape with figure-subjects
(" Souvenir de ffite," 1881; " Journee faite," 1888) gave him a
wide repute, and made him the leader of a new school of idealistic
subject-painting in France. He was made an officer of the
Legion of Honour in 1 889. His charming and poetical treatment
of landscape is the feature in his painting which in later years has
given them an increasing value amonjr connoisseurs. His wife,
Marie Cazin, who was his pupil and exhibited her first picture at
the Salon in 1876, the same year in which Cazin himself made his
debut there, was also a well-known artist and sculptor.
CAZOTTE, JACQUES (1719-1792), French author, was bom at
Dijon, on the 17th of October 17 19. He was educated by the
Jesuits, and at twenty-seven he obtained a public office at
Martinique, but it was not till his return to Paris in 1760 with the
rank of commissioner-general that he made a public appearance
as an author. His first attempts, a mock romance, and a coarse
song, gained so much popularity, both in the court and among
the people, that he was encouraged to essay something more
ambitious. He accordingly produced his romance, Les Processes
inimUables d'OUivier, marquis d f £desse. He also wrote a number
of fantastic oriental tales, such as his Mille ei unefadaises, Contes
a dormir debout (1742). His first success was with a " poem " in
twelve cantos, and in prose intermixed with verse, entitled
Ollivier (2 vols., 1762), followed in 177 1 by another romance, the
Lord Impromptu. But the most popular of his works was the
Diableamoureuxiiyjt), a fantastic tale in which the hero raises
the devil. The value of the story lies in the picturesque setting,
and the skill with which its details are carried out. Cazotte
possessed extreme facility and is said to have turned off a seventh
canto of Voltaire's Guerre civile de Geneve in a single night.
About 1775 Cazotte embraced the views of the Uhuninati,
declaring himself possessed of the power of prophecy. It was
upon this fact that La Harpe based his famous jeu d'esprit, in
which he represents Cazotte as prophesying the most minute
events of the Revolution. On the discovery of some of his letters
in August 1792, Cazotte was arrested; and though he escaped for
a time through the love and courage of his daughter, he was
executed on the 25th of the following month.
The only complete edition is the (Euvres badines et morales,
historiques et philosophiques de Jacques Cazotte (4 vols., 1816-1817),
though more than one collection appeared during his lifetime. An
edition de luxe of the Didble amour eux was edited (1878) by A. J.
Pons, and a selection of Cazotte's Contes, edited (1880) by Octave
Uzanne, is included in the series of Petits Conieurs du X VIII Steele.
The best notice of Cazotte is in the IlluminSs (1852) of Gerard de
Nerval.
CEANOTHUS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rham-
naceae, containing about forty species of shrubs or small trees,
natives of North America. They are very attractive from their
dense panicles of white or blue flowers, and several species are
known as garden plants. The leaves of one of these, C. america*
nus f New Jersey tea, or red-root, are used instead of the true tea;
the root, which contains a red colouring matter, has long been
employed by the Indians as a febrifuge.
CEARA, a northern maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. by
the Atlantic, E. by the Atlantic and the states of Rio Grande
do Norte and Parahyba, S. by Pernambuco. and W. by Piauhy;
and having an area of 40,253 sq. m. It lies partly upon the
north-east slope of the great Brazilian plateau, and partly upon
the sandy coastal plain. Its surface is a succession of great ter-
races, facing north and north-east, formed by the denudation of
the ancient sandstone plateau which once covered this part of the
continent; the terraces are seamed by watercourses, and their
valleys are broken by hills and ranges of highlands. The latter
are usually described as mountain ranges, but they are, in fact,
only the remains of the ancient plateau, capped with horizontal
strata of sandstone, and having a remarkably uniform altitude
of 2000 to 2400 ft. The flat top of such a range is called a chapada
or taboleira, and its width in places is from 32 to 56 m. The
boundary line with Piauhy follows one of these ranges, the Serra
de Ibiapaba, which unites with another range on the southern
boundary of the state, known as the Serra do Araripe. Another
range, or escarpment, crosses the state from east to west, but
is broken into two principal divisions, each having several local
names. These ranges are not continuous, the breaking down
of the ancient plateau having been irregular and uneven. The
higher ranges intercept considerable moisture from the prevailing
trade winds, and their flanks and valleys are covered with
forest, but the plateaus are either thinly wooded or open campo.
These upland forests are of a scrubby character and are called
catingas.
The sandy, coastal plain, with a width of 12 to 18 m., is nearly
bare of vegetation. The rivers of the state are small and, with
one or two exceptions, become completely dry in the dry season.
The largest is the Jaguaribe, which flows entirely across the state
in a north-east direction with an estimated length of 210
to 465 m. The year is divided into a rainy and dry season, the
rains beginning in January to March and lasting until June. The
dry season, July to December, is sometimes broken by slight
showers in September and October, but these are of very slight
importance. The soil is thin and porous and does not retain
moisture, consequently the long, dry. season turns the country
into a barren desert, relieved only by vegetation along the
river courses and mountain ranges, and by the hardy, widely-
distributed carnahuba palm (Copernicia c«ri/era), which in places
forms groves of considerable extent Sometimes the rains fail
altogether, and then a drought (sicca) ensues, causing famine
and pestilence throughout the entire region. The most destruc-
tive droughts recorded are those of 1711, 1723, 1777-1778, 1790,
1825, 1844-1845, and 1877-1878, the last-mentioned destroy-
ing nearly all the live-stock in the state, and causing the death
through starvation and pestilence of nearly half -a-million people,
or over half the population. The climate, which is generally de-
scribed as healthful, is hot and humid on the coast, tempered by
the cool trade winds; but in the more elevated regions it is very
hot and dry, although the nights are cool. The sandy zone along
the coast is nearly barren, but behind this is a more elevated
region with broken surfaces and sandy soil which is amenable to
cultivation and produces fruit and most tropical products when
conditions are favourable.
The higher plateau is devoted almost exclusively to cattle-
raising, once the principal industry of the state, though recurring
seccas have been an insuperable obstacle to its profitable develop-
ment. There is still a considerable export of cattle, hides and
skins, but no effort is made to develop the production of jerked
beef on a large scale. Horses are raised to a limited extent; also
goats, sheep and swine. The principal agricultural products are
cotton, coffee, sugar, mandioca and tropical fruits. The pro-
duction of cotton has increased largely since the development
of cotton manufactures in Brazil. The natural vegetable pro-
ductions are important, and include manicoba or CearA rubber,
carnahuba wax and fibre, caju wine and ipecacuanha.
592
CEAWLIN— CEBU
There are two lines of railway running inland from the coast:
the Baturite line from Fortaleza to Senador Pompeii, 179 m.,
and the Sobral line from Camocim (a small port) to Ipu, 134 m.
These railways were built by the national government after the
drought of 1877-1878 to give work to the starving refugees, and
are now operated under leases. Great dams were also begun
for irrigation purposes.
The misfortunes and poverty of the people have hindered their
material development to a large extent, but another obstacle
is to be found in their racial and social composition. Only a
very small percentage of the population which numbered 805,687
in 1890, and 849,127 in 1900, is of pure European origin, the
great majority being of the coloured races and their mixtures with
the whites. The number of landed proprietors, professional men,
merchants, &c, is comparatively small (about one-sixth), and
a part of these are of mixed blood; the remaining five-sixths
own no property, pay no taxes, and derive no benefits from the
social and political institutions about them beyond the protection
of the proprietors upon whose estates they live, the nominal
protection of the state, and an occasional day's wage. Education
has made no impression upon such people, and is confined almost
exclusively to the upper classes, from which some of the most
prominent men in Brazilian politics and literature have come.
The state of Ceara has formed a bishopric of the Roman Catholic
Church since 1853, the bishop having his residence at Fortaleza.
The state is represented in the national congress by three senators
and ten deputies. Its local government is vested in a president
and legislative assembly of one chamber elected for a period of
four years. Three vice-presidents are elected at the same time
who succeed to the presidency in case of a vacancy according to
the number of votes received. The judicial organization con-
sists of the tribunal da Relacao at the state capital and sub-
ordinate courts in the comarcas and termos. The judges of the
higher courts are appointed for life. The capital of the state is
Fortaleza, sometimes called Ceara, which is also the principal
commercial centre and shipping port. The principal towns
are Aracaty, Baturitl, Acarahu, Crato, Maranguape and Sobral.
The territory of Ceara includes three of the capilanias originally
granted by the Portuguese crown in 1534. The first attempts
to settle the territory failed, and the earliest Portuguese settle-
ment was made near the mouth of the Rio Camocim in 1604.
The French were already established on the coast, with their
headquarters at Saint Louis, now Maranh&o. Ceara was occupied
by the Dutch from 1637 to 1654, and became a dependency of
Pernambuco in 1680; this relationship lasted until 1799, when
the capitania of Ceara was made independent. The capUania
became a province in 1822 under Dom Pedro I. A revolution
followed fn 1824, the president of the province was deposed fifteen
days after his arrival, and a republic was proclaimed. Internal
dissensions immediately broke out, the new president was as-
sassinated, and after a brief reign of terror the province resumed
its allegiance to the empire. Ceara was one of the first provinces
of Brazil to abolish slavery.
See Rodolpho Theophilo, Historia da Secca do Ceard, 1877 a 1880
(Fortaleza, 1883) ; Professor and Mrs Louis Agassiz, A Journey in
Brazil (Boston, 1869); George Gardiner, Travels in the Interior of
Brazil (London, 1846) ; C. F. Hartt, Geology and Physical Geography
of Brazil (Boston, 1870) ; and H. H. Smith, Brazil: the Amazon
and the Coast (New York, 1879).
CEAWLIN (d. 593), king of the West Saxons, first mentioned
in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the date 556 as fighting with
his father Cynric against the Britons at the battle of Beranbyrig
or Barbury Hill. Becoming king in 560, he began a career of
conquest. Silchester was taken, and moving eastwards Ceawlin
and his brother Cutha defeated the forces of jEthelberht, king of
Kent, at the battle of Wibbandun in 568. In 577 he led the West
Saxons from Winchester towards the Severn valley; gained an
important victory over some British kings at Deorbam, and
added the district round Gloucester, Bath and Cirencester to
his kingdom. A further advance was begun fn 583 . Uriconium,
a town near the Wrekin, andPengwyrn, the modern Shrewsbury,
were destroyed; but soon Ceawlin was defeated by the Britons
at Fethanleag or Faddiley, near Nantwich, and his progress was
effectually checked. Intestine strife among the West Saxons
followed. In 591 Ceawlin lost the western part of his kingdom,
and in 592 was defeated by his nephew, Ceolric, at Wanborough,
and driven from Wessex. He was killed in 593, possibly in
an attempt to regain his kingdom. Ceawlin is included in the
Chronicle among the Bretwaldas.
See Two of the Saxon Chronicles, ed. by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892);
Dictionary of National Biography , vol. ix (London, 1887); E. Guest,
Origines Celticae, vol. ii. (London, 1883).
CEBES, the name of two Greek philosophers. (1) Cebes of
Cyzicus, mentioned in Athenaeus (iv. 156 d), seems to have been
a Stoic, who lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Some
would attribute to him the Tabula Cebelis (see below), but as that
work was well known in the time of Lucian, it is probably to
be placed earlier. (2) Cebes of Thebes, a disciple of Socrates
and Philolaus. He is one of the speakers in the Phaedo of Plato,
in which he is represented as an earnest seeker after virtue
and truth, keen in argument and cautious in decision. Three
dialogues, the 'Efiddfiif, the Qpvvixo* and the nfra{ or Tabula,
are attributed to him by Suidas and Diogenes Laertius. The
two former are lost, and most scholars deny the authenticity
of the Tabula on the ground of material and verbal anachronisms.
They attribute it either to Cebes of Cyzicus (above) or to an
anonymous author, of the 1st century a.d., who assumed the
character of Cebes of Thebes. The work professes to be an
interpretation of an allegorical picture in the temple of Cronus
at Athens or Thebes. The author develops the Platonic theory
of pre-existence, and shows that true education consists not in
mere erudition, but rather in the formation of character.
The' Tabula has been widely translated both into European
languages and into Arabic (the latter version published with the
Greek text and Latin translation by Salmasius in 1640). It is usually
printed together with Epictetus. Separate editions by C. S. Terrain
(with introduction and notes, 1878), C. Prachter (1803), and many
others. See Zeller's History of Greek Philosophy; F. Klopfer, De
Cebetis Tabula (1818-1822); C. Prachter, Cebetis Tabula quanam
aetate conscripta esse videatur (1885).
CEBtj, a city and municipality, port of entry, and the capital
of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on
the E. coast, a little N. of the centre. Pop. (1003) of the city
proper, 18,330; of the municipality, 31,079; in the same year,
after the census enumeration, the neighbouring municipalities
of Mabolo (pop. 1903, 8454) and El Pardo (pop, 6461) were
added to the municipality of Cebu. The surrounding country,
which is level and fertile, is traversed by several good carriage
roads. The port, formed by the north-west shore of the island
of Mactan, is well protected from violent winds, and in front of
it stands a picturesque Spanish fort. The streets are wide and
regularly laid out. The government buildings are fairly good,
and the church buildings very fine. Cebu is an episcopal see,
and the palace of the bishop, although small, is widely known
for its interior decorations. The Augustinian church is famous
for its so-called miraculous image of Santo Nino. The Recoleto
monastery and the seminary of San Carlos are worthy of mention.
The cathedral was finished toward the end of the eighteenth
century. The San Jos6 hospital here was founded by one of
the religious orders. There was a leper hospital in the outskirts
of the city until 1 006, when a leper colony was established on the
island of Culi6n. Commercially, Cebu is the second city of the
Philippines. Hemp, tobacco, sugar and copra are the most
important exports. In addition to the trade with foreign ports,
an important domestic commerce is carried on with Manila,
Bohol, Negros and northern Mindanao. Salt, pottery and
fabrics of silk, sinamay, hemp and cotton are manufactured,
and sugar sacks are woven in considerable quantity. The island
of Cebu is known for its excellent mangoes and for the rare
cornucopia-shaped sponges, called Venus's flower basket
{EuplecteUa aspergiUum) , found here. Historically Cebu is
famous as the scene of Magellan's landing in 152 1. A cross,
said to be the one first erected by him, is still preserved in the
cathedral. The great explorer lost his life in the neighbouring
island of Mactan; a monument marks the place where he was
CECCO D'ASCOLI— CECILIA
593
killed. The first Spanish settlement in the Philippines was
established at Cebu in 1565, and from that year to 1571 it was
the capital of the colony. The city is unincorporated. The
language is Cebu-Visayan.
CECCO D'ASCOLI (1257-1327), the popular name of Francesco
oegu Stabiu, a famous Italian encyclopaedist and poet — Cecco
being the diminutive of Francesco, and Ascoli, in the marshes of
Ancona, the place of the philosopher's birth. He devoted himself
to the study of mathematics and astrology, and in 1322 was made
professor of the latter science at the university of Bologna* It
is alleged that he entered the service of Pope John XXII. at
Avignon, and that he cultivated the acquaintance of Dante
only to quarrel with the great poet afterwards; but of this there
is no evidence. It is certain, however, that, having published
a commentary on the sphere of John de Sacrobosco, in which he
propounded audacious theories concerning the employment
and agency of demons, he got into difficulties with the clerical
party, and was condemned in 1324 to certain fasts and prayers,
and to the payment of a fine of seventy crowns. To elude
this sentence he betook himself to Florence, where he was
attached to the household of Carlo di Calabria. But his free-
thinking and plain speaking had got him many enemies; he
had attacked the Commedia of Dante, and the Canzone d' A more
of Guido Cavalcanti; and his fate was sealed. Dino di Garbo,
the physician, was indefatigable in pursuit of him; and the
old accusation of impiety being renewed, Cecco was again tried
and sentenced, this time to the stake. He was burned at Florence
the day after sentence, in the seventieth year of his age.
Cecco d' Ascoli left many works in manuscript, most of which
have never been given to the world. The book by which he
achieved his renown and which led to his death was the Acerba
(from accrvus), an encyclopaedic poem, of which in 1546, the
date of the last reprint, more than twenty editions had been
issued. It is unfinished, and consists of four books in sesta rima.
The first book treats of astronomy and meteorology; the second
of stellar influences, of physiognomy, and of the vices and virtues;
the third of minerals and of the love of animals; while the fourth
propounds and solves a number of moral and physical problems.
Of a fifth book, on theology, the initial chapter alone was com-
pleted. A man of immense erudition and of great and varied
abilities, Cecco, whose knowledge was based on experiment and
observation (a fact that of itself is enough to distinguish him from
the crowd of savants of that age) f had outstripped his contempor-
aries in many things. He knew of metallic aerolites and shooting
stars; the mystery of the dew was plain to him; fossil plants
were accounted for by him through terrene revolutions which
had resulted in the formation of mountains; he is even said to
have divined the circulation of the blood. Altogether a remark-
able man, he may be described as one of the many Cassandras
of the middle ages — one of the many prophets who spoke of
coming light, and were listened to but to have their words cast
back at them in accusations of impiety and sentences of death,
The least faulty of the many editions of the Acerba is that of
Venice, dated 1510. The earliest known, which has become exces-
sively rare, is that of Brescia, which has no date, but is ascribed to
1473 or thereabouts.
CECIL, the name of a famous English family. This house,
whose two branches hold each a marquessate, had a great
statesman and administrator to establish and enrich it. The
first Lord Burghley's many inquiries concerning the origin of
his family created for it more than one splendid and improbable
genealogy, although his grandfather is the first ascertained
ancestor. In the latter half of the 15th century a family of
yeomen or small gentry with the surname of Seyceld, whose
descendants were accepted by Lord Burghley as Us kinsmen,
lived on their lands at AUt yr Ynys in Walterstone, a Hereford-
shire parish on the Welsh marches. Of the will of Richard ap
Philip Seyceld of Allt yr Ynys, made in 1508, one David ap
Richard Seyceld, apparently his younger son, was overseer.
This David seems identical with David Cyssell, Scisseld or Cecill,
a yeoman admitted in 1494 to the freedom of Stamford in Lincoln-
shire. He may well have been one of those men from the Welsh
border who fought at Bosworth, for at the funeral of Henry VII.
he appears as a yeoman of the guard and is given a livery of
black cloth. At Stamford he prospered, being three times mayor
and three times member of parliament for the borough, and he
served as sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1532-1533. Remaining
in the service of Henry VHI. he was advanced to be yeoman
of the chamber and sergeant-at-arms, being rewarded with several
profitable leases and offices. His first wife was the daughter of
a Stamford alderman, and his second the already twice widowed
heir of a Lincolnshire squire. By the first marriage David Cecil
left at his death in 1 536 a son and heir, Richard Cecil, who enjoyed
a place at court as yeoman of the king's wardrobe under Henry
VIII. and Edward VI. A gentleman of the privy chamber and
sometime sheriff of Rutland, Richard Cecil had his share at the
distribution of abbey lands, St Michael's priory in Stamford being
among the grants made to him. William Cecil, only son of
Richard, was born, by his own account, in 1520, at Bourne in
Lincolnshire. He advanced himself first in the service of the
protector Somerset, after whose fall, his great abilities being
necessary to the council, he was made a secretary of state and
sworn of the privy council. In 1 57 1 he was created Lord Burghley,
and from 1572, when he was given the Garter, he was lord
high treasurer and principal minister to Queen Elizabeth. By
his first wife, Mary Cheke, sister of the scholar Sir John Cheke,
tutor to Edward VI., he was father to Thomas, first earl of
Exeter. By a second wife, Mildred Cooke, the most learned lady
of her time, he had an only surviving son, Robert Cecil, ancestor of
the house of Salisbury.
Created earl of Exeter by James I., the second Lord Burghley
was more soldier than statesman, and from his death to the
present day the elder line of the Cecils has taken small part in
public affairs. William Cecil, 2nd earl of Exeter, took as his
first wife the Lady Roos, daughter and heir of the 3rd earl of
Rutland of the Manners family. The son of this marriage in-
herited the barony of Roos as heir general, and died as a Roman
Catholic at Naples in 1618 leaving no issue. A third son of the
1st earl was Edward Cecil, a somewhat incompetent military
commander, created in 1625 Lord Cecil of Putney and Viscount
Wimbledon, titles that died with him in 1638, although he was
thrice married. In 1801 a marquessate was given to the 10th
earl of Exeter, the story of whose marriage with Sarah Hoggins,
daughter of a Shropshire husbandman, has been refined by
Tennyson into the romance of " The Lord of Burleigh." This
elder line is still seated at Burghley, the great mansion built
by their ancestor, the first lord.
The younger or Hatfield line was founded by Robert Cecil,
the only surviving son of the great Burghley's second marriage.
As a secretary of state he followed in his father's steps, and on
the death of Elizabeth he may be said to have secured the
accession of King James, who created him Lord Cecil of Essendine
(1603), Viscount Cranborne (1604), and earl of Salisbury (1605).
Forced by the king to exchange his house of Theobalds for Hatfield,
he died in 1612, worn out with incessant labour, before he could
inhabit the house which he built upon his new Hertfordshire
estate. Of Burghley and his son Salisbury, "great ministers
of state in the eyes of Christendom," Clarendon writes that
" their wisdom and virtues died with them." The 2nd earl of
Salisbury, " a man of no words, except in hunting and hawking,"
was at first remarked for his obsequiousness to the court party,
but taking no part in the Civil War came at last to sit in the
Protector's parliament. After the Restoration, Pepys saw him,
old and discredited, at Hatfield, and notes him as " my simple
Lord Salisbury." The 7th earl was created marquess of Salisbury
in 1789*
Hatfield House, a great Jacobean mansion which has suffered
much from restoration and rebuilding, contains in its library
the famous series of state papers which passed through the hands
of Burghley and his son Salisbury, invaluable sources for the
history of their period. (O. Ba.)
CECILIA, SAINT, in the Catholic Church the patron saint of
music and of the blind. Her festival falls on the 2 2nd of Novem*
ber. It was long supposed that she was a noble lady of Rome
594
CECROPIA— CEDAR
who, with her husband and other friends whom she had con-
verted, suffered martydom, c. 230, under the emperor Alexander
Severus. The researches of de Rossi, however (Rom. sott.
ii. 147), go to confirm the statement of Fortunatus, bishop of
Poitiers (d. 600), that she perished in Sicily under Marcus
Aurelius between 176 and 180. A church in her honour existed
in Rome from about the 4th century, and was rebuilt with much
splendour by Pope Paschal I. about the year 820, and again by
Cardinal Sfondrati in 1 599. It is situated in the Trastevere near
the Ripa Grande quay, where in earlier days the Ghetto was
located, and gives a " title " to a cardinal priest. Cecilia, whose
musical fame rests on a passing notice in her legend that she
praised God by instrumental as well as vocal music, has inspired
many a masterpiece in art, including the Raphael at Bologna,
the Rubens in Berlin, the Domenichino in Paris, and in literature,
where she is commemorated especially by Chaucer's " Seconde
Nonnes Tale," and by Dryden's famous ode, set to music by
Handel in 1736, and later by Sir Hubert Parry (1889).
Another St Cecilia, who suffered in Africa in the persecution
of Diocletian (303-304), is commemorated on the nth of
February.
See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques (1905), i. 826 f.
CECROPIA, in botany, a genus of trees (natural order Moraceae),
native of tropical America. They are of very rapid growth,
affording a light wood used for making floats. C. peltate is the
trumpet tree, so-called from the use made of its hollow stems
by the Uaupe* Indians as a musical instrument. It is a tree
reaching about 50 ft. in height with a large spreading head, and
deeply lobed leaves 12 in. or more in diameter. The hollows
of the stem and branches are inhabited by ants, which in return
for the shelter thus afforded, and food in the form of succulent
growths on the base of the leaf-stalks, repel the attacks of leaf-
cutting ants which would otherwise strip the tree of its leaves.
This is an instance of " myrmecophily," i.e. a living together for
mutual benefit of the ants and the plant.
CECROPS (Kkicoof), traditionally the first king of Attica,
and the founder of its political life (Pausanias ix. 33). He was
said to have divided the inhabitants into twelve communities,
to have instituted the laws of marriage and property, and a
new form of worship. The introduction of bloodless sacrifice,
the burial of the dead, and the invention of writing were also
attributed to him. He is said to have acted as umpire during
the dispute of Poseidon and Athena for the possession of Attica.
He decided in favour of the goddess, who planted the first olive tree,
which he adjudged to be more useful than the horse (or water)
which Poseidon caused to spring forth from the Acropolis rock
with a blow of his trident (Herodotus viii. 55; ApoUodoms iii. 14).
As one of the autochthones of Attica, Cecrops is represented as
human in the upper part of his body, while the lower part is
shaped like a dragon (hence he is sometimes called faQvfp or
geminus, Diod. Sic. i. 28; Ovid, Metam. ii. 555). Miss J. E.
Harrison (in Classical Review, January 1895) endeavours to show
that Cecrops is the husband of Athene, identical with the snake-
like Zeus Soter or Sosipolis, and the father of Erechtheus-
Erichthonius.
CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. Kkdoot), a name applied to several
members of the natural order Coniferae. The word has been
derived from the Arabic Kedr , worth or value, or from Kedrat,
strong, and has been supposed by some to have taken its origin
from the brook Kedron, in Judaea.
Cedrus Libani, the far-famed Cedar of Lebanon, is a tree
which, on account of its beauty, stateliness and strength, has
always been a favourite with poets and painters, and which, in
the figurative language of prophecy, is frequently employed in
the Scriptures as a symbol of power, prosperity and longevity.
It grows to a vertical height of from 50 to 80 ft. — " exalted
above all trees of the field " — and at an elevation of about 6000
ft. above sea-level. In the young tree, the bole is straight and
upright, and one or two leading branches rise above the rest. As
the tree increases in size, however, the upper branches become
mingled together, and the tree is then clump-headed. Numerous
lateral ramifying branches spread out from the main trunk in a
horizontal direction, tier upon tier, covering a compass of ground
the diameter of which is often greater than the height of the tree.
William Gilpin, in his Forest Scenery, describes a cedar which, at
an age of about 1 18 years, had attained to a height of 53 ft. and
had a horizontal expanse of 96 ft. The branchlets of the cedar
take the same direction as the branches, and the foliage is very
dense. The tree, as with the rest of the fir-tribe, except the
larch, is evergreen; new leaves are developed every spring, but
their fall is gradual. In shape the leaves are straight, tapering,
cylindrical and pointed; they are about 1 in. long and of a dark
green colour, and grow in alternate tufts of about thirty in
number. The male and female flowers grow on the same tree,
but are separate. The cones, which are on the upper side of the
branches, are flattened at the ends and are 4 to 5 in. in length
and 2 in. wide; they take two years to come to perfection and
while growing exude much resin. The scales are close pressed
to one another and are reddish in colour. The seeds are provided
with a long membranous wing. The root of the tree is very
strong and ramifying. The cedar flourishes best on sandy,
loamy soils. It still grows on Lebanon, though for several
centuries it was believed to be restricted to a small grove in the
Kadisha valley at 6000 ft. elevation, about 15 m. from Beyrout.
The number of trees in this grove has been gradually diminishing,
and as no young trees or seedlings occur, the grove will probably
become extinct in course of time. Cedars are now known to occur
in great numbers on Mt. Lebanon, chiefly on the western slopes,
not forming a continuous forest, but in groves, some of which
contain several thousands of trees. There are also large forests
on the higher slopes of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountains.
Lamartine tells us that the Arabs regard the trees as endowed
with the principles of continual existence, and with reasoning
and prescient powers, which enable them to prepare for the
changes of the seasons.
The wood of the cedar of Lebanon is fragrant, though not so
strongly scented as that of the juniper or red-cedar of America.
The wood is generally reddish-brown, light and of a coarse grain
and spongy texture, easy to work, but liable to shrink and warp.
Mountain-grown wood is harder, stronger, less liable to warp and
more durable.
The cedar of Lebanon is cultivated in Europe for ornament
only. It can be grown in parks and gardens, and thrives well;
but the young plants are unable to bear great variations of
temperature. The cedar is not mentioned in Evelyn's Silva
(1664), but it must have been introduced shortly afterwards.
The famous Enfield cedar was planted by Dr Robert Uvedale,
(1642-1722), a noted schoolmaster and horticulturist, between
1662-1670, and an old cedar at Bretby Park in Derbyshire is
known to have been planted in 1676. Some very old cedars
exist also at Syon House, Woburn Abbey, Warwick Castle and
elsewhere, which presumably date from the 17th century. The
first cedars in Scotland were planted at Hopetoun House in 1740;
and the first one said to have been introduced into France was
brought from England by Bernard de Jussieu in 1734, and placed
in the Jardin des Plantes. Cedar-wood is earliest noticed in
Leviticus xiv. 4, 6, where it is prescribed among the materials to
be used for the cleansing of leprosy ; but the wood there spoken
of was probably that of the juniper. The term Eres (cedar) of
Scripture does not apply strictly to one kind of plant, but was
used indefinitely in ancient times, as is the word cedar at present.
The term arz is applied by the Arabs to the cedar of Lebanon, to
the common pine-tree, and to the juniper; and certainly the
" cedars " for masts, mentioned in Ezek. xxvii. 5, must have been
pine-trees. It seems very probable that the fourscore thousand
hewers employed by Solomon for cutting timber did not confine
their operations simply to what would now be termed cedars and
fir-trees. Dr John Lindley considered that some of the cedar-
trees sent by Hiram, king of Tyre, to Jerusalem might have been
procured from Mount Atlas, and have been identical with
Callitris quadrivalvis, or arar-tree, the wood of which is hard and
durable, and was much in request in former times for the building
of temples. The timber-work of the roof of Cordova cathedral,
built eleven centuries ago, is composed of it. In the time of
CEDAR CREEK— CEFALU
595
Vitruvius " cedars " were growing in Crete, Africa and Syria.
Pliny says that their wood was everlasting, and therefore images
of the gods were made of it; he makes mention also of the oil of
cedar, or cedriutn, distilled from the wood, and used by the
ancients for preserving their books from moths and damp;
papyri anointed or rubbed with cedrium were on this account
called ccd aH libri. Drawers of cedar or chips of the wood are
now employed to protect furs and woollen stuffs from injury by
moths. Cedar-wood, however, is said to be injurious to natural
history objects, and to instruments placed in cabinets made of it,
as the resinous matter of the wood becomes deposited upon them.
Cedria, or cedar resin, is a substance similar to mastic, that flows
from incisions in the tree; and cedar manna is a sweet exudation
from its branches.
The genus Cedrus contains two other species closely allied to
C. Libani — Cedrus Deodara, the deodar, or " god tree " of the
Himalayas, and Cedrus aUantica, of the Atlas range, North
Africa. The deodar forms forests on the mountains of Afghan-
istan, North Beluchistan and the north-west Himalayas, flourish-
ing in all the higher mountains from Nepal up to Kashmir,
at an elevation of from 5500 to 12,000 ft.; on the peaks to the
northern side of the Boorung Pass it grows to a height of 60 to
70 ft. before branching. The wood is close-grained, long-fibred,
perfumed and highly resinous, and resists the action of water.
The foliage is of a paler green, the leaves are slender and longer,
and the twigs are thinner than those of C. Libani. The tree is
employed for a variety of useful purposes, especially in building.
It is now much cultivated in England as an ornamental plant.
C. aUantica, the Atlas cedar, has shorter and denser leaves than
C. Libani; the leaves are glaucous, sometimes of a silvery
whiteness, and the cones smaller than in the other two forms; its
wood also is hard, and more rapid in growth than is that of the
ordinary cedar. It is found at an altitude above the sea of from
4000 to 6000 ft.
The name cedar is applied to a variety of trees, including
species of several genera of Conifers, Juniperus, Thuja, Libocedrus
and Cupressus. Thuja gigantea of western North America is
known in the United States as White (or Yellow) cedar, and the
same name is applied to Cupressus Lawsoniana, the Port Orford
or Oregon cedar, a native of the north-west States, and one of the
most valuable juniper trees of North America. The Bermuda
cedar {Juniperus bermudiana) and the red or American cedar
(/. virginiana) are both much used in joinery and in the manu-
facture of pencils; though other woods are now superseding them
for pencil-making. The Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica)
is a kind of cypress, the wood of which is very durable. Another
species of cypress (Cupressus thy aides, also known as Chamae-
cy paris thy aides or sphaer aided) , found in swamps in the south of
Ohio and Massachusetts, is known as the American white cedar.
It has small leaves and fibrous bark, the wood is light, soft and
easily-worked, and very durable in contact with the soil, and is
much used for boat-building and for making fences and coopers'
staves. The Spanish cedar is a name applied to Juniperus
thurifera, a native of the western Mediterranean region, and also
to another species, /. Oxycedrus, a common plant in the Mediter-
ranean region, forming a shrub or low tree with spreading
branches and short, stiff, prickly leaves. The latter was much
used by the Greeks for making images; and its empyreumatic
oil, Huile de Cade, is used medicinally for skin-diseases. A
species of cypress, Cupressus lusitanica, which has been naturalized
in the neighbourhood of Cintra is known as the cedar of Goa.
The genus Widdringtonia of tropical and South Africa is also
known locally as cedar. W. juniper aides is the characteristic
tree of the Cederberg range in Cape Colony, while W. Whytei,
recently discovered in Nyasaland and Rhodesia (the Mlanje
cedar) is a fine tree reaching 150 ft. in height, and yielding an
ornamental light yellow-brown wood, suitable for building.
The order Cedrelaceae (which is entirely distinct from the
Conifers) includes, along with the mahoganies and other valuable
timber-trees, the Jamaica and the Australian red cedars, Cedrela
odarata, and C. Toona respectively. The cedar-wood of Guiana,
used for making canoes, is a species of the natural order Bur-
seraceae, Icica aUissima. It is a large tree, reaching 100 ft. in
height, the wood is easily worked, fragrant and durable.
See Gordon's Pinetum; Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, Histoire du
cedre du Liban (Paris, 1838); Loudon, Arboretum Britannieum,
vol. iv. pp. 2404-2432 (London, 1839); Marquis de Chambray,
TraiU pratique des arbres risineux coniferes (Paris, 1845); J. D.
Hooker, Nat. Hist. Review (January, 1862), pp. u-18; Brandis,
Forest Flora of North-west and Central India, pp. 516-525 (London,
1874) ; Veitch, Manual of Coniferae (2nd ed., London, 1900).
CEDAR CREEK, a small branch of the North Fork of the
Shenandoah river, Virginia, U.S.A. It is known in American
history as the scene of a memorable battle, which took place on
the 19th of October 1864, between the Union army under Major-
General P. H. Sheridan and the Confederates under Lieut-General
J. A. Early. (See Shenandoah Valley Campaigns.)
CEDAR FALLS, a city of Black Hawk county, Iowa, U.S.A.,
on the Cedar river, about 100 m. W. of Dubuque, Pop. (1890)
3459; (1900) 5319; (1905, state census) 5329 (872 being foreign-
born); (1910) 5012. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific, the Illinois Central, the Chicago Great Western, and the
Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern railways. Its manufactures
include flour, ground feed, other cereal preparations, hardware
specialties, canned vegetables (especially Indian corn), and plan-
ing-mill products. It is the seat of the state normal school
(1876), and has a public library. The settlement of the place,
the oldest in the county, was begun in 1847; it was laid out
as a town in 1851, incorporated as a village in 1857, chartered as
a city in 1865, and for a short time in 1853 was the county-seat.
CEDAR RAPIDS, a city of Linn county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the
Cedar river, in the east central part of the state. Pop. (1890)
18,020; (1900) 25,656, of whom 4478 were foreign-born, an
unusually large and influential part being Bohemians; (19 10
census) 32,81 1. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint
Paul, the Chicago & North- Western, the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific (which has repair shops here), and the Illinois
Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city
has an air of substantial prosperity; its principal streets are
from 80 ft. to 1 20 ft. wide, paved with brick and asphalt, and well
shaded. Prominent among its buildings are the federal building,
the auditorium, the public library and the Masonic library, which
contains one of the best collections of Masonic literature in the
world. The city has two well-equipped hospitals, a home for
aged women, a home for the friendless, and four parks. The
grounds of the Cedar Rapids country club comprise 180 acres.
Cedar Rapids is in a rich agricultural country. The name of
the city was suggested from the rapids in the river, which afford
abundant water power and have enabled the city to take first
rank in Iowa (1905) as a manufacturing centre. From 1900 to
1905 there was an increase in the value of its manufactured
products from $11,135,435 to $16,279,706, or 46*2%. More than
one-fourth of the value of its manufactures is in Quaker Oats
and other food preparations; among those of less importance
are lumber and planing-mill products, foundry and machine-
shop products, furniture, patent medicines, pumps, carriages and
waggons, packed meats and agricultural implements. Cedar
Rapids has also a large grain trade and a large jobbing business,
especially in dry goods, millinery, groceries, paper and drugs.
At Cedar Rapids are Coe College (co-educational; Presbyterian),
which grew out of the Cedar Rapids Collegiate Institute (1851),
was named in honour of Daniel Coe, a benefactor, and was
chartered under its present name and opened in 188 1; the
Interstate Correspondence schools, and the Cedar Rapids
business college. The first settlers came in 1838; but the city's
early growth was slow, and it was not incorporated until 1856.
It has been governed by commission since 1908.
CEFALU (anc. Cephaloedium) , a seaport and episcopal see
of the province of Palermo, Sicily, 42 m. E. of Palermo by rail.
Pop. (1001) 13,273. The ancient town (of Sicel origin, probably,
despite its Greek name) takes its name from the headland
(*€<£oXi7, head) upon which it stood (1233 ft.); its fortifications
extended to the shore, on the side where the modern town now is,
in the form of two long walls protecting the port. There are
remains of a wall of massive rectangular blocks of stone at the
59 6
CEHEGIN— CELEBES
modern Porta Garibaldi on the south. It does not appear in
history before 396 B.C., and seems to have owed its importance
mainly to its naturally strong position. The only ancient remains
on the mountain are those of a small building in good polygonal
work (a style of construction very rare in Sicily), consisting of
a passage on each side of which a chamber opens. The doorways
are of finely-cut stone, and of Greek type, and the date, though
uncertain, cannot, from the careful jointing of the blocks, be very
early. On the summit of the promontory are extensive remains
of a Saracenic castle. The new town was founded at the foot of
the mountain, by the shore, by Roger II. in 1131, and the
cathedral was begun in the same year. The exterior is well
preserved, and is largely decorated with interlacing pointed
arches; the windows also are pointed. On each side of the
facade is a massive tower of four storeys. The round-headed
Norman portal is worthy of note. The interior was restored in
1559, though the pointed arches of the nave, borne by ancient
granite columns, are still visible: and the only mosaics preserved
are those of the apse and the last bay of the choir: they are
remarkably fine specimens of the art of the period (1148) and,
though restored in 1850-1862, have suffered much less than those
at Palermo and Monreale from the process. The figure of the
Saviour is especially fine. Thegroined vaulting of the roof is visible
in the choir and the right transept, while the rest of the church
has a wooden roof. Fine cloisters, coeval with the cathedral,
adjoin it. (See G. Hubbard in Journal of the R.I.B.A. xv. 333
sqq., 1908.) The harbour is comparatively small. (T. As.)
CEHEGfN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Murcia, on the right bank of the river Caravaca, a small tributary
of the Segura. Pop. (1000) 11,601. Cehegfn has a thriving
trade in farm produce, especially wine, olive oil and hemp; and
various kinds of marble are obtained from quarries near the town.
Some of the older houses, however, as well as the parish church
and the convent of San Francisco, which still has well-defined
Roman inscriptions on its walls, are built of stone from the ruins
of Begastri, a Roman colony which stood on a small adjacent
hill known as the Cabecico de Roenas. The name Cehegin is
sometimes connected by Spanish antiquaries with that of the
Zcnaga, Senhaja or Senajeh, a North African tribe, which invaded
Spain in the nth century.
CEILING (from a verb " to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of
disputed etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. ciel,
Lat. caelum, sky), in architecture, the upper covering of a church,
hall or room. Ceilings are now usually formed of plaster, but
in former times they were commonly either boarded (of which
St Albans cathedral is perhaps the earliest example), or showed
the beams and joists, which in England were moulded and
carved, and in France and Italy were richly painted and gilded.
Sometimes the ceilings were horizontal, sometimes canted on
two sides, and sometimes they take the form of a barrel-vault.
Ribs are sometimes planted on the boarding to divide up the
surface, and their intersections are enriched with bosses. About
the middle of the 16th century the ceilings were formed in
plaster with projecting ribs, interlaced ornament and pendants,
and the characteristics of the Elizabethan style. At Bramall
Hall, Broughton Castle, Hatfield, Knowle, Sizergh and Levens
in Westmorland, and Dorfold in Cheshire, are numerous
examples, some with pendants. In Italy, at the same period,
the plaster ceilings were based on the forms taken by vaulting;
they were of infinite variety and were richly decorated with sunk
panels containing the Roman conventional foliage. Raphael,
about 1520, reproduced in the Vatican some of the stucco-duro
ornament which he had studied in the Golden House of Nero,
excavated under his directions. Later, about the middle of the
16th century, great coves were formed round the room, which
were decorated with cartouches and figures in relief, garlands
and swags. The great halls of the Ducal Palace at Venice and
the galleries of the Pitti Palace at Florence were ceiled in this
way. These coved ceilings were introduced into England in the
middle of the 17th century. In Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh
there is a fine ceiling of 1671, with figures (probably executed
by Italian craftsmen) and floral wreaths.
At Coleshill, Berkshire, a ceiling by Inigo Jones (1650) shows a
type which became more or less universal for a century, via.
deeply sunk panels with modillions round, and bands enriched
with foliage, fruit, &c, in bold relief. Wren, Nicholas Hawks-
moor, James Gibbs, John Webb and other architects continued
on the same lines, and in 1760 Robert Adam introduced his type
of ceiling, sometimes horizontal, and sometimes segmental, in
which panels are suggested only, with slight projecting lines and
rings of leaves, swags and arabesque work, which, like Raphael's,
was found on the ceilings of the Roman tombs and baths in
Rome and Pompeii. George Richardson followed with similar
work, and Sir W. Chambers, in the rooms originally occupied by
the Royal Academy and the learned societies in Somerset House,
designed many admirable ceilings. The moulds of all the orna-
mental devices of Robert Adam are preserved and are still
utilized for many modern ceilings. (R. P. S.)
CEILLIER, REMY (1688-1761), Benedictine monk of the
Lorraine congregation of St Vannes. He was the compiler of an
immense Patrology, Hisioire genirale des auieurs sacris et
eccUsiastiques (23 vols., Paris, 1729-1763), being a history and
analysis of the writings of all the ecclesiastical writers of the first
thirteen centuries. He put infinite trouble and time into the
work, and many portions of it are exceedingly well done. A later
and improved edition was produced in Paris, 18 $8, in 14 vols.
Ceillier's other work, Apologie de la morale des peres de I'Sglise
(Paris, 1 7 18), also won some celebrity.
CELAENAE, an ancient city of Phrygia, situated on the
great trade route to the East. Its acropolis long held out
against Alexander in 333 and surrendered to him at last by
arrangement. His successor, Eumenes, made it for some time
his headquarters, as did Antigonus until 301. From Lysi-
machus it passed to Seleucus, whose son Antiochus, seeing its
geographical importance, refounded it on a more open site as
Apamea (q.v.). West of the acropolis were the palace of Xerxes
and the Agora, in or near which is the cavern whence the Marsyas,
one of the sources of the Maeander, issues. According to
Xenophon, Cyrus had a palace and large park full of wild
animals at Celaenae.
See G. Weber, Dineir-Celbks (1892).
CELANDINE, Chelidonium majus, a member of the poppy
family, an erect branched herb from 1 to 2 ft. high with a yellow
juice, much divided leaves, and yellow flowers nearly an inch
across, succeeded by a narrow thin pod opening by a pair of
thin valves, separating upwards. The plant grows in waste
places and hedgerows, and is probably an escape from cultiva-
tion. The lesser celandine is a species of Ranunculus ( R. Ficaria) ,
a small low-growing herb with smooth heart-shaped leaves and
bright yellow flowers about an inch across, borne each on a stout
stalk springing from a leaf-axil. It flowers in early spring, in
pastures and waste-places.
CELANO, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of
Aquila, 73 m. E. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901) 9725. It is finely
situated on a hill above the Lago Fucino, and is dominated by a
square castle, with round towers at the angles, erected in its
present form in 1450. It contains three churches with 13th
century facades in the style of those of Aquila. The origin of the
town goes back to Lombard times. A count of Celano is first
mentioned in 1 178. It was the birthplace of Thomas of Celano,
the author of the Dies Irae.
CELEBES, 1 one of the four Great Sunda Islands in the Dutch
East Indies. Its general outline is extremely irregular, and has
been compared to that of a starfish with the rays torn off from
one side, corresponding to the west side of the island. It consists
of four great peninsulas, extending from a comparatively small
nucleus towards the north-east, east, south-east and south,
and separated by the three large gulfs of Tomini or Gorontalo,
Tolo or Tomaiki, and Boni. Of these gulfs the first is by far the
largest, the other two having much wider entrances and not
extending so far inwards. Most important among the smaller
inlets are the bays of Amurang, Kwandang and Tontoli on the
1 The second syllable is accented.
CELEBES
597
north coast, Palos and Pare-Pare on the west, and Kendari or
Vosmaer on the east. Of the numerous considerable islands
which lie north-east, east and south of Celebes (those off the
vest coast are few and small), the chief are prolongations of the
four great peninsulas — the Sangir and Talaut islands off the
north-east, the Banggai and Sula off the east, Wuna and Buton
off the south-east, and Saleyer off the south. Including the
adjacent islands, the area of Celebes is estimated at 77,855
sq. m., and the population at 2,000,000; without them the area
is 69,255 sq. m. and the population 1,250,000.
TTie scenery in Celebes is most varied and picturesque. " No-
where in the archipelago," wrote A. R. Wallace, " have I seen
such gorges, chasms and precipices as abound in the district
of Maros " (in the southern peninsula) ; " in many parts there
are vertical or even overhanging precipices five or six hundred
feet high, yet completely clothed with a tapestry of vegetation."
Much of the country, especially round the Gulf of Tolo, is
covered with primeval forests and thickets, traversed by scarcely
perceptible paths, or broken with a few clearings and villages.
A considerable part of the island has been little explored, but
the general character seems to be mountainous. Well-defined
ranges prolong themselves through each of the peninsulas,
rising in many places to a considerable elevation. Naturally
there are no great river-basins or extensive plains, but one of
the features of the island is the frequent occurrence, not only
along the coasts, but at various heights inland, of beautiful
stretches of level ground often covered with the richest pastures.
Minahassa, the north-eastern extremity, consists of a plateau
divided into sections by volcanoes (Klabat, 6620 ft., being the
highest). Sulphur springs occur here. In the west of the
northern peninsula the interior consists in part of plateaus of
considerable extent enclosed by the coast ranges. Near Lake
Posso, in the centre of the island, the mountains are higher;
the Tampiko massif has a height of nearly 5000 ft., the chains
south and west of the lake have a general altitude of about 5450
ft., with peaks still loftier. In the southern peninsula two
chains stretch parallel with the west and east coasts; the former
is the higher, with a general altitude of 3200 ft. In the south it
joins the Peak of Bonthain, or Lompo-battang, a great volcanic
mass 10,088 ft. high. In the east central part of the island the
mountain Koruve exceeds 10,000 ft., and is supposed to be the
highest in the island. An alluvial coast plain, 7 to 9 m. wide,
stretches along the foot of the western chain, and between the
two chains is the basin of the Walannae* river, draining northward
into Lake Tempe. Little is known of the orography of the
eastern peninsula. At the base of the south-eastern there is
another large lake, Tovieti. In this peninsula there are parallel
ranges on the east and west flanks. The trench between them is
partly occupied by the vast swamp of Lake Opa.
The rivers of the narrow mountainous peninsulas form many
rapids and cataracts; as the Tondano, draining the lake of the
same name to the north-west coast of* Minahassa at Menado;
the Rano-i-Apo, flowing over the plateau of Mongondo to the
Gulf of Amurang; the Poigar, issuing from a little-known
lake of that plateau; the Lombagin, traversing narrow cations;
and the river of Boni, which has its outfall in the plain of Goron-
talo, near the mouth of the Bolango or Tapa, the latter connected
by a canal with the Lake of Limbotto. All these rivers are
navigable by praus or rafts for only a few miles above the mouth.
In central Celebes, the Kodina flows into Lake Posso, and the
Kalaena discharges to the Gulf of Boni; the Posso, navigable
by blottos (canoes formed of hollowed tree-trunks), is the only
river flowing from the lake to the Gulf of Tomini. The rivers of
the southern peninsula, owing to the relief of the surface, are
navigable to a somewhat greater extent. The Walannae flows
into Lake Tempe, and, continued by the Jenrana (Tienrana),
which discharges into the Gulf of Boni, is navigable for small
boats; the Sadang, with many affluents, flows to the west coast,
and is navigable by sanpans. The Jenemaja is a broad river,
navigable far from the mouth. The coasts of Celebes are often
iertile and weU populated; but, as shown by the marine charts,
many sand, mud and stone banks lie near the shore, and con-
sequently there are few accessible or natural ports or good
roadsteads.
Geology. — The geological observations on Celebes are too scattered
to reveal its structure. The greater part of the island seems to be
formed of gneiss and other crystalline rocks. These are overlaid
by conglomerates, limestones and clay slates of very doubtful age,
the most interesting being a radiolanan clay which occurs on the
south side of the Matinang Mountains, at the north end of Lake
Posso, &c. ; it may correspond with the radiolarian cherts of Borneo.
Tertiary beds are found, especially near the coast. The Eocene
includes a series of sandstones and marls with lignite, and these are
overlaid by nummulite limestones. The Miocene contains an
Orbitoides limestone. Intrusive and volcanic rocks of great variety
and of various ages occur. Peridotite and gabbro form much of the
eastern peninsula (Banggai). Leucite and nepheline rocks have
been found in various parts of the island, especially in the south-west.
In Minahassa, at the northern extremity, there is a large area of
tuffs and agglomerates consisting chiefly of augite andesite, and
in this area there are many recent volcanic cones. Eruptions still
take place at intervals, but the volcanoes for the most part seem
to have reached the solfataric stage.
Climate. — The climate of the island, everywhere accessible to
the influence of the sea, is maritime-tropical, the temperature
ranging generally between 77 and 8o° F., the extremes being
about 90 and 70 F., only on the higher mountains falling
during the night to 54 or 55 F. The rainfall in the northern
peninsula (north of the equator) differs from that of the southern ;
the former has rains (not caused by the monsoon), and of smaller
amount, 102 in. annually; the latter has a greater rainfall,
157 in., brought by the north-western monsoon, and of which the
west coast receives a much larger share than the east.
Fauna and Flora. — In spite of its situation in the centre of the
archipelago, Celebes possesses a fauna of a very distinctive
kind. The number of species is small, but in many cases they
are peculiar to the island. Of land birds, for example, about
160 species are known, and of these not less than about 90 are
peculiar, the majority of the remainder being Asiatic in distinction
from Australian. Mammals are few in species, but remarkable,
especially Macacus niger, an ape found nowhere else but in
Bachian; Anoa depressicornis f a small ox-like quadruped
which inhabits the mountainous districts; and the babirusa
or pig-deer of the Malays. Some of the animals are probably
descendants of specimens introduced by man; others are allied
in species, but not identical, with mammals of Java and Borneo;
others again, including the three just mentioned, are wholly
or practically confined to Celebes. There are no large beasts
of prey, and neither the elephant, the rhinoceros nor the tapir
is represented. Wild-buffaloes, swine and goats are pretty
common; and most of the usual domestic animals are kept.
The horses are in high repute in the archipelago; formerly
about 700 were yearly exported to Java, but the supply has
considerably diminished.
The same peculiarity of species holds in regard to the insects
of the Celebes (so far as they are known) as to the mammals
and birds. Out of 118 species of butterflies, belonging to four
important classes, no fewer than 86 are peculiar; while among
the rose-chafers or Cetoniinae the same is the case in 19 out of
30. Equally remarkable with this presence of peculiar species
is the absence of many kinds that are common in the rest of
the archipelago; and these facts have been considered to indicate
connexion with a larger land-mass at a very distant geological
epoch, and the subsequent continuous isolation of Celebes.
This view, however, has been controverted. It is held that in
the Miocene and Pliocene periods there were land connexions
with the Philippines, Java and the Moluccas, and through the
last with Australasian lands to the east and south-east. Migration
of species, took place along these lines in both directions. Those
immigrants which remained in what is now Celebes may have
developed new species. Moreover, while Celebes has species
which are peculiar to itself and one other of the islands just
mentioned, it has none which it shares exclusively with Borneo,
and thus the importance of the Macassar Strait as a biological
division is indicated.
Vegetation is extremely rich; but there are fewer large trees
than in the other islands of the archipelago. Of plants that
59»
CELEBES
furnish food for man the most important are rice, maize and
millet, coffee, the coco-nut tree, sago-palm, the obi or
native potato, the bread-fruit and the tamarind; with lemons,
oranges, mangosteens, wild-plums, Spanish pepper, beans,
melons and sugar-cane. The shaddock is to be found only in
the lower plains. Indigo, cotton and tobacco are grown; the
bamboo and the ra tan-palm are common in the woods; and
among the larger trees are sandal-wood, ebony, sapan and teak.
The palm, Arenga saccharifera, furnishes gemuti fibres for ropes;
its juice is manufactured into sugar and a beverage called
sagueir; and intoxicating drinks are prepared from several
other palms.
Products. — As in natural vegeta-
tion and fauna, so in cultivated
products, Celebes, apart from its
peculiarities, presents the transi-
tional link between the Asiatic
and the Australian regions of the
Malayan province. For example,
rice is produced here in smaller
quantity and of inferior quality to that in the western part
of the archipelago, but superior to that in the eastern section,
where sago and sorghum form the staple articles of food. The
products of the forests supply about half the total exports.
The fisheries include trepang, turtle and pearl oysters. Gold is
worked under European direction in the district of Gorontalo,
but with only partial success; the search for coal in the
southern peninsula has yielded no satisfactory results; tin, iron
and copper, found in the eastern peninsula and elsewhere, are
utilized only for native industries.
Natives. — The native population of the island is all of Malayan
stock. The three most important peoples are the Bugis (q.v.)
the Macassars and the Mandars. The medley of other Malayan
tribes, of a more or less savage type, living in the island, are
known under the collective name of Alf uros (q.v.) . The Macassars
are well-built and muscular, and have in general a dark-brown
complexion, a broad and expressive face, black and sparkling
eyes, a high forehead, a flattish nose, a large mouth and long
black soft hair. The women are sprightly, clever and amiable.
The men are brave and not treacherous, but ambitious, jealous
and extremely revengeful. Drunkenness is rare, but they are
passionate, and running amuck is frequent among them. In all
sorts of bodily exercises, as swinging, wrestling, dancing, riding
and hunting, they take great pleasure. Though they call them-
selves Mahommedans, their religion is largely mingled with
pagan superstitions; they worship animals, and a certain divinity
called Karaeng LovS, who has power over their fortune and
health. Except where Dutch influence has made itself felt,
little attention has been paid by the native races to agriculture;
and their manufacturing industries are few and limited. The
weaving of cotton cloth is principally carried on by women;
and the process, at least for the finer description, is tedious in
the extreme. The houses are built of wood and bamboo; and
as the use of diagonal struts is not practised, the walls soon lean
over from the force of the winds. The Macassar language,
which belongs to the Malayo- Javanese group, is spoken in many
parts of the southern peninsula; but it has a much smaller
area than the Buginese, which is the language of Boni. It is
deficient in generalizations; thus, for example, it has words for
the idea of carrying in the hand, carrying on the head, carrying on
the shoulder, and so on, but has no word for carrying simply.
It has adopted a certain number of vocables from Sanskrit,
Malay, Javanese and Portuguese, but on the whole is remark-
ably pure, and has undergone comparatively few recent changes.
It is written in a peculiar character, which has displaced, and
probably been corrupted from, an old form employed as late as
the 1 7 th century. Neither bears any trace of derivation from the
Sanskrit alphabet. The priests affect the use of the Arabic
letters. The literature is poor, and consists largely of romantic
stories from the Malay, and religious treatises from the Arabic.
Of the few original pieces the most important are the early
histories of Goa, Tello and some other states of Celebes, and
the Rapang, or collection of the decrees and maxims of the old
princes and sages. The more modern productions are letters,
laws and poems, many of the last of considerable beauty.
Divisions, Towns, Population. — Celebes is divided by the
Dutch, for administrative purposes, into the government of
Celebes with dependencies (south-eastern and southern peninsulas
and all west coast), and the residency of Menado (north-eastern
peninsula and coast of Gulf of Tomini). The eastern peninsula
and coast of the Gulf of Tolo belong politically to the residency
of Ternate (q.v.). The following table shows approximately the
distribution and composition of the population: —
Europeans.
Chinese.
Arabs.
Other
Oriental
Foreigners.
Natives.
Total.
Government of Celebes
and Dependencies .
Residency of Menado —
Minahassa
Gorontalo
1414
836
"5
3738
3574
505
554
286
133
54
16
409.739
| 430,941
415.499
436.406
The Government of Celebes and Dependencies is subdivided into
the government territory, the vassal states (Boni, q.v., and Ternate),
and the federal countries. The density of population for the whole
government is estimated as 3-7 or 4 per sq. m., varying from 2-2
in the vassal and federated states to 14*7 to 18-4 for Macassar and
the districts directly governed by the Dutch. The density of
population in districts outside the influence of European govern-
ment sinks to 1 and less per sq. m. As in the case of Minahassa, the
difference must be explained by physical and moral conditions. Two-
thirds of the natives live by agriculture, and one-third by trade,
navigation, shipbuilding and other industries. In agreement with
these principal occupations, the centres of population are found in
southern Celebes, on the coast (not in the interior plains or on the
lake, as in Menado). Palos (3000), with good port; Pare- Pare,
connected by road with Lake Tempe; and Macassar (17,925), the
seat of the governor and the centre of trade for the eastern part of the
archipelago. On the south coast must also be named Bonthain
(4000); on the east coast, Balong-Nipa; and Buton and Saleyer,
seats of administration and ports of call on the island groups of the
same names.
The Residency of Menado comprises three districts: Minahassa,
the little states along the north coast west of Minahassa, and Goron-
talo, including the other states of the northern peninsula lying
along the Gulf of Tomini. The density of population being calculated
at about 2-7 to 3 per sq. m. for Celebes, is 16*2 for Minahassa, but
only 1 *5 to 2 for the Residency of Menado. Centres of population
in Menado are Amurang (3000), the seat of a Dutch controller, and
a calling place for the steamers of the Indian Packet Company;
Menado (10,000), the chief town of the residency, the principal
station of the Dutch missionaries, with a fair amount of trade, but
an unsafe roadstead; Tondano (12,000), near the lake and river of
the same name, at an altitude of nearly 2000 ft., and one of the chief
centres; Gorontalo, one of the most important towns of Celebes,
carrying on direct trade with Singapore and Europe. All the other
coast places have some importance as chief villages of the little
states and as ports of call for the vessels of the steam packet com-
pany, but have only from 500 to 1000 inhabitants.
History. — Celebes was first discovered by the Portuguese in
the early part of the 16th century, the exact date assigned by
some authorities being 1512. The name is not used by the
natives, and is apparently of foreign origin, but has been variously
derived, e.g. from the mountain of Klabat or Kalabat, or from
Seli Best, an iron kris carried by the natives, of whom those who
were first asked for the name of the island were conceived,
according to this theory, to have misunderstood their questioners.
At the time of the Portuguese discovery, the Macassars were the
most powerful people in the island, having successfully defended
themselves against the king of the Moluccas and the sultan of
Ternate. In 1609 the British attempted to gain a footing.
At what time the Dutch first arrived is not certainly known,
but it was probably in the end of the 16th or beginning of the
17th century, since in 1607 they formed a connexion with
Macassar. In 161 1 the Dutch East Indian Company obtained
the monopoly of trade on the island of Buton; and in 16 18 an
insurrection in Macassar gave them an opportunity of obtaining
a definite establishment there. In 1660 the kingdom was sub-
jugated, but in 1666 the war broke out anew. It was brought
to an end in the following year, and the treaty of Bonga or Banga
was signed, by which the Dutch were recognized as protectors.
CELERY— CELESTINE
599
In 1683 the north-eastern part of the island was conquered by
Robert Paddenburg and placed under the command of the
governor of the Moluccas. In 1 703 a fort was erected at Menado.
The kingdom of Boni was successfully attacked in 1824, and in
August of that year the Bonga treaty was renewed in a greatly
modified form. Since then the principal military event is the
Boni insurrection which was quelled in 1859, but this was far
from pacifying the country permanently. A series of revolts
of various chiefs in 1905-6 was not arrested without considerable
fighting, but after this the whole island was brought under
Dutch authority, even where native rule survived.
Bibliography. — In P. T. Veth's Woordenboek van Nederlandsch
Indie there will be found an extensive bibliography of Celebes
drawn up by H. C. Millies. For additional bibliography and data
for the island and its population, see C. M. Kan, " Celebes/' in the
Encyclopaedic van Nederlandsch Indie, ed. by P. A. van der Lith and
A. H. Spaan (The Hague, 1895), &c, vol. i. p. 314. See P. and
F. Sarasin (who have carried out extensive explorations in the
island), " Berichte aus Celebes," ZeUschr. der Ges. /. Erdk, xxix.
351 ; Entwurf einer geographisch~geologischen Beschreibung der Insel
Celebes (Wiesbaden, 1901); Reisen in Celebes, 180J-1806, 1902-1903
(Wiesbaden, 1905); Versuch einer Anthropologic der Insel Celebes
(Wiesbaden, 1906); C. van der Hart, Keize rondon het Eiland
Celebes (The Hague, 1853); Capt. R. Mundy, Narrative of Events
in Borneo and Celebes (London, 1848) ; P. J. Veth, Een Nederlandsch
reiziger op Zuid Celebes (Amsterdam, 1875); J. G. F. Riedel, Het
landschap Boeool, Noord Selebes (1872); and "Die Landschaften
Holontalo, Limoeto," &c., in ZeUschr. fur Ethnologic (1871); H.
Bttcking, " Beitrage zur Geologie von Celebes/ 1 Samml.geol. Reichs-
mus. Leiden, vol. vii. pp. 29-205 (1902), pp. 221-224 (*9°4) ; and
various articles in Tijaschrifi v. n. Aardrijkskundig Gencotschap and
Tijdsch. v. h. Batavian. Gen.
CELBRY (Apium graveolens), a biennial plant belonging to the
natural order Umbelliferae, which, in its wild state, occurs in
England by the sides of ditches and in marshy places, especially
near the sea, producing a furrowed stalk and compound leaves
with wedge-shaped leaflets, the whole plant having a coarse,
rank taste and a peculiar smell. It is also widely distributed in
the north temperate region of the Old World. By cultivation and
blanching the stalks lose their acrid qualities and assume the
mild sweetish aromatic taste peculiar to celery as a salad plant.
The plants are raised from seed, sown either in a hot bed or in
the open garden, according to the season of the year, and after
one or two thinnings out and transplan tings, they are, on attain-
ing a height of 6 or 8 in., planted out in deep trenches for con-
venience of blanching, which is effected by earthing up and so
excluding the stems from the influence of light. A large number
of varieties are cultivated by gardeners, which are ranged under
two classes, white and red, — the white varieties being generally
the best flavoured and most crisp and tender. As a salad plant,
celery, especially if at all " stringy/' is difficult of digestion. Both
blanched and green it is stewed and used in soups, the seeds also
being used as a flavouring ingredient. In the south of Europe
celery is seldom blanched, but is much used in its natural
condition.
Celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery (Apium graveolens var.
rapaceum), is a variety cultivated more on account of its roots
than for the stalks, although both are edible and are used for
salads and in soups. It is chiefly grown in the north of Europe.
As the tops are not required, trenching is unnecessary, otherwise
the cultivation is the same as for celery.
CtiLESTB, MADAME (1815-1882), French dancer and actress,
was born in Paris on the 16th of August 1815. As a little girl
she was a pupil in the ballet class at the Opera. When fifteen,
she had an offer from the United States, and made her d6but at
the Bowery theatre, New York. Returning to England, she
appeared at Liverpool as Fenella in Masaniello, and also in London
(1831). In 1834 she aroused such enthusiasm in America that
her admirers carried her on their shoulders and took the horses
out of her carriage in order to pull it themselves. It is even said
that President Jackson introduced her to his cabinet as an
adopted citizen of the Union. Having made a large fortune, she
returned to England in 1837. She now gave up dancing, and
appeared as an actress, first at Drury Lane and then at the
Haymarket. In 1844 she joined Benjamin Webster in the manage-
ment of the Adelphi, and afterwards took the sole management
of the Lyceum till 1861. She made a third visit to the United
States from 1865 to 1868, and retired in 1870. Her favourite
part was Miami in Buckstone's Green Bushes. She died in Paris
on the 1 2th of February 1882.
CELESTINA, LA, the popular alternative title attached from
1 5 19 (or earlier) to the anonymous Comedia de Caliste y Melibea,
a Spanish novel in dialogue which was celebrated throughout
Europe during the 16th century. In the two earliest known
editions (Burgos, 1409, and Seville, 1501) the Comedia consists
of sixteen acts; the reprints issued after 1501 are entitled
Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea y and contain twenty-one acts.
Three of these reprints include a twenty-second act which is
admittedly spurious, and the authenticity of Acts xvii.-xxi. is
disputed. Tlie authorship of the Celestina and the date of its
composition are doubtful. An anonymous prefatory letter in
the editions subsequent to 1501 attributes the book to Juan de
Mena or Rodrigo Cota, but this ascription is universally rejected.
The prevailing opinion is that the author of the twenty-one acts
was Fernando de Rojas, apparently a Spanish Jew resident at
the Puebla de Montalban in the province of Toledo; R. Foulchd-
Delbose, however, maintains that the original sixteen acts are
by an unknown writer who had no part in the five supplementary
acts. Some scholars give 1483 as the date of composition;
others hold that the book was written in 1497. These questions
are still unsettled. Though profoundly original in treatment,
the Celestina has points of analogy with the work of earlier
writers, such as Juan Ruiz (q.v.), the archpriest of Hita; his
rapid sketches of Trota-conventas, Mel6n and Endrina no doubt
suggested the finished portraits of Celestina, Calisto and Melibea,
and the closing scene in the Celestina recalls the suicide in Diego
Fernandez de San Pedro's Cdrcel de Amor. Allowing for these
and other debts of the same kind, it cannot be denied that the
Celestina excels all earlier Spanish works in tragic force, in im-
pressive conception, and in the realistic rendering of characters
drawn from all classes of society. It passed through innumerable
editions in Spain, and was the first Spanish book to find accept-
ance throughout western Europe. At least twenty works by
well-known Spanish authors are derived from it; it was adapted
for the English stage as early as 1 525-1 530, and was translated
into Italian (1505), French (1527) and other European languages.
A Latin version by Caspar Barth was issued under the title of
Pornoboscodidascalus lalinus (1624) with all the critical apparatus
of a recognized classic. James Mabbe's English rendering ( 1 63 1 )
is one of the best translations ever published. The original
edition of 1409 has been reprinted by R. Foulche-Delbose in the
Bibliotheca Hispanica (1902). vol. xii.
Bibliography. — R. Foulche-Delbose, " Observations sur la Celes-
tine " in the Revue hispanique (Paris, 1900), vol. vii. pp. 28-80 and
(Paris, 1902) vol. ix. pp. 1 71-199; K. Haebler, " Bemerkungen zur
Celestina " in the Revue hispanique (Paris, 1902), vol. ix. pp. 130-170;
and M. Menendez y Pelayo's introduction to the Celestina (Vigo,
1899-1900). Q. F.-K.)
CELESTINE (Caelestinus), the name of five popes.
Celestine I., pope from 422 to 432. At his accession the
dissensions caused by the faction of Eulalius (see Boniface I.)
had not yet abated. He, however, triumphed over them, and
his episcopate was peaceful. When the doctrines of Nestorius
were denounced to him, he instructed Cyril, bishop of Alexandria,
to follow up the matter. The emperor Theodosius II. convoked
an ecumenical council at Ephesus, to which Celestine sent his
legates. He had some difficulties with the bishops in Africa on
the question of appeals to Rome, and with the bishops of Prov-
ence with regard to the doctrines of St Augustine. To expedite
the extirpation of Pelagianism, he sent to Britain a deacon called
Palladius, at whose instigation St Germanus of Auxerre crossed
the English Channel, as delegate of the pope and bishops of Gaul,
to inculcate orthodox principles upon the clergy of Britain. He
also commissioned Palladius to preach the gospel in Ireland
which was beginning to rally to Christianity. Celestine was the
first pope who is known to have taken a direct interest in the
churches of Britain and Ireland. (L. D.*)
Celestine II., pope in 1 143-1 144. Guido of Citta di Castello
(Tiferno), born of noble Tuscan family, able and learned, studied
6oo
CELESTINE— CELESTINES
under Abelard and became a cardinal priest. Elected the suc-
cessor of Innocent II. on the 26th of September 1143, he died
on the 8th of March following. He removed the interdict which
Innocent had employed against Louis VII. of France. At the
time of his death he was on the verge of a controversy with
Roger of Sicily.
See A. Certini, Vita (Foligno, 17 16); M. Bouquet, Recueil des
historicns des Gaules (Paris, 1738 ff.), tome 15, 408-411; Migne,
Patrologiae cursus computus, 175, 765-820 ; P. Tafte, Regesta Pontifi-
cum Romanorum, 2nd ed. vol. li. (Lipsiae, 1888), 1 ff.; Wetzer und
Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed. vol. iii. (Freiburg, 1884), 578 ff.;
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, 3rd ed. vol. iv. (Leipzig, 1898),
201.
Celestine III. (Giacinto Bobo), pope from 1191 to 1198, was
cardinal deacon of Santa Maria in Cosmedin as early as 1 144, and
had reached the age of eighty-five when chosen on the 30th of
March 1 191 to succeed Clement III. The first pope of the house
of the Orsini, his policy was marked by mildness and indecision.
Henry VI. of Germany at once forced the pontiff to crown him
emperor, and three or four years later took possession of the
Norman kingdom of Sicily; he refused tribute and the oath of
allegiance, and even appointed bishops subject to his own juris-
diction; moreover, he gave his brother in fief the estates which
had belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany. Celestine did
not dare so much as to threaten him with excommunication.
It was Celestine's purpose to lay England under the interdict;
but Prince John and the barons still refused to recognize the
papal legate, the bishop of Ely. Richard I. had been set free
before the dilatory pope put Leopold of Austria under the ban.
In his last sickness Celestine wished to resign his office, but the
cardinals protested. Death released him from his perplexities
on the 8th of January n 98.
See " Epistolae Coelestini III. Papae," in M. Bouquet, ReceuU
des historiens des Gaules et de la France, tome 19 (Pans, 1738 ff.);
J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus computus, tome 206 (Paris,
1855), 867 ff.; further sources in Neues Archie fur die dltere
deutsche Geschichtskunde, 2. 218; 11. 338 f.; 12. 411-414; P. Jaff6,
Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, vol. u. (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1888),
577 ff. (WW. R.*)
Celestine IV. (Godfrey Castiglione), pope in 1241, son of a
sister of Urban III. (1185-1187), was archpriest and chancellor
at Milan. After Urban's death he entered the Cistercian monas-
tery at Hautecombe in Savoy. In 1 227 Gregory IX. created him
cardinal priest of St Mark's, and in 1233 made him cardinal bishop
of Sabina. Elected to succeed Gregory on the 25th of October
1 241, he died on the iothof November, before consecration, and
was buried in St Peter's.
See A. Potthast, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, vol. i. (Berlin,
1874), 940 f.
Celestine V. (St Peter Celestine), pope in 1204, was born of
poor parents at Isernia about 121 5, and early entered the
Benedictine order. Living as a hermit on Monte Morrone
near Sulmone in the Abruzzi, he attracted other ascetics about
him and organized them into a congregation of the Benedictines
which was later called the Celestines (q.v.). The assistance of a
vicar enabled him to escape from the growing administrative
cares and devote himself solely to asceticism, apparently the
only field of human activity in which he excelled. His Opuscula,
published by Telera at Naples in 1640, are probably not genuine;
he was indoctus libris. A fight between the Colonna and the
Orsini, as well as hopeless dissensions among the cardinals,
prevented a papal election for two years and three months after
the death of Nicholas IV. Charles II. of Naples, needing a pope
in order that he might regain Sicily, brought about a conclave.
As the election of any cardinal seemed impossible, on the 5th of
July 1294 the Sacred College united on Pietro di Morrone; the
cardinals expected to rule in the name of the celebrated but
incapable ascetic. Apocalyptic notions then current doubtless
aided his election, for Joachim of Floris and his school looked to
monasticism to furnish deliverance to the church and to the
world. Multitudes came to Celestine's coronation at Aquila,
and he began his reign the idol of visionaries, of extremists and
of the populace. But the pope was in the power of Charles II.
of Naples, and became his tool against Aragon. The king's son
Louis, a layman of twenty-one, was made archbishop of Lyons.
The cardinals, scarcely consulted at all, were discontented.
The pope, who wanted more time for his devotions, offered to
leave three cardinals in charge of affairs; but his proposition
was rejected. He then wished to abdicate, and at length Bene-
detto Gaetano, destined to succeed him as Boniface VHL,
removed all scruples against this unheard-of procedure by finding
a precedent in the case of Clement I. Celestine abdicated on the
1 3th of December 1 294. There is no sufficient ground for finding
an allusion to this act in the noted line of Dante, " Che fece per
viltate il gran rifiuto " (" who made from cowardice the great
refusal," Inferno, 3, 60). Boniface at length put him in prison
for safe keeping; he died in a monastic cell in the castle of
Fumone near Anagni on the 1 9th of May 1 296. He was canonized
by Clement V. in 13 13.
See Wetzer und Welte and Herzog-Hauck (with excellent biblio-
graphy) as above; Jean Aurelien, Superieur de la Congregation
des Celestins, La Vie admirable de . . . Saint Pierre CSlestin (Bar-le-
Duc, 1873); H. Finke, Aus den Tagen Bonifaz VIII. (Mtinster,
1902), pp. 24-43. (W. W. R.*)
CELESTINE, or Celestite, a name applied to native strontium
sulphate (SrS0 4 ), having been suggested by the celestial blue
colour which it occasionally presents. This colour has been
referred to a trace of iron phosphate, but in some cases such an
explanation appears doubtful. The mineral is usually colourless,
or has only a delicate shade of blue. Celestine crystallizes in the
orthorhombic system, being isomorphous with barytes {q.v.).
The angle between the prism faces is 76° 17'. The cleavage is
perfect parallel to the basal pinacoid, and less marked parallel to
the prism. Although celestine much resembles barytes in its
physical properties, having for example the same degree of hard-
ness (3), it is less dense, its specific gravity being 3*9. Celestine
is a less abundant mineral than barytes. It is, however, much
more soluble, and occurs frequently in mineral waters. W. W.
Stoddart showed that many plants growing on Keuper marls
containing celestine near Bristol appropriated the strontium
salt, and the metal could be detected spectroscopically in their
ashes.
Celestine occurs in the Triassic rocks of Britain, especially in
veins and geodes in the Keuper marl in the neighbourhood of
Bristol. At Wickwar and Yate in Gloucestershire it is worked for
industrial purposes. Colourless crystals, of great beauty, occur in
association with calcite and native sulphur in the sulphur deposits
of Sicily, as at Girgenti. Fine blue crystals are yielded by the
copper mines of Herrengrund, in Hungary; a dark blue fibrous
form is known from Jena; and small crystals occur in flint at
Meudon near Paris. Very large tabular crystals are found in
limestone on Strontian Island in Lake Erie; and a blue fibrous
variety from near Frankstown, Blair Co., Perm., is notable as
having been the original celestine on which the species was
founded by A. G. Werner in 1798.
Celestine is much used for the preparation of strontium
hydrate, which is employed in refining beetroot sugar in Germany.
The mineral is used also as a source of various salts of strontium
such as the nitrate, which finds application in pyrotechny for the
production of red fire. (F. W. R.*)
CELESTINES, a religious order founded about 1260 by Peter
of Morrone, afterwards Pope Celestine V« (1^04). It was an
attempt to unite the eremitical and cenobitical modes of life.
Peter's first disciples lived as hermits on Mount Majella in the
Abruzzi. The Benedictine rule was taken as the basis of the
life, but was supplemented by regulations notably increasing
the austerities practised. The form of government was borrowed
largely from those prevailing in the mendicant orders. Indeed,
though the Celestines are reckoned as a branch of the Benedic-
tines, there is little in common between them. For all that,
St Celestine, during his brief tenure of the papacy, tried to
spread his ideas among the Benedictines, and induced the monks
of Monte Cassino to adopt his idea of the monastic life instead of
St Benedict's; for this purpose fifty Celestine monks were intro-
duced into Monte Cassino, but on Celestfne's abdication of the
papacy the project fortunately was at once abandoned. During
the founder's lifetime the order spread rapidly, and eventually
CELIBACY
60 1
there were about 150 monasteries in Italy, and others in France,
Bohemia and the Netherlands. The French houses, twenty-one
in number, formed a separate congregation, the head-house being
in Paris. The French Revolution and those of the 19th century
destroyed their houses, and the Celestine order seems no longer
to exist.
Peter of Morrone was in close contact with the Franciscan
Spirituals of the extreme type (see Franciscans), and he
endeavoured to form an amalgamation between them and his
hermits, under the title " Poor Hermits of Celestine." On his
abdication the amalgamation was dissolved, and the Franciscan
element fled to the East and was finally suppressed by Boniface
VIII. and compelled to re-enter the Franciscan order. The
habit of the Celestines was black.
See Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1792), vi. c. 23; Max
Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. § 22, p. 134; the
art. " C61estiner " in Wetzer und Welte, Kxrchtnlexicon (ed. 2), and
Herzog-Hauck, Rcaiencyklofiadie (ed. 3). (£. C. B.)
CELIBACY (Lat. eaelibatus, from eaelebs, unmarried), the state
of being unmarried, a term now commonly used in the sense of
complete abstinence from marriage; it originally included the
state of widowhood also, and any one was strictly a caelebs
who had no existing spouse. Physicians and physiologists have
frequently discussed celibacy from their professional point of
view; but it will be sufficient to note here the results of statistical
inquiries. It has been established by the calculations of actuaries
that married persons — women in a considerable, but men in a
much greater degree — have at all periods of life a greater prob-
ability of living than the single. From the point of view of public
utility, the state has sometimes attempted to discourage celibacy.
The best-known enactment of this kind is that of the emperor
Augustus, best known as Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea. This
disabled caelibes from receiving an inheritance unless the testator
were related to them within the sixth degree; it limited the
amount which a wife could take by a husband's will, or the
husband by the wife's, unless they had children; and preference
was given to candidates for office in proportion to the number of
their children. 1 Ecclesiastical legislators, on the other hand,
have frequently favoured the unmarried state; and celibacy,
partial or complete, has been more or less stringently enforced
upon the ministers of different religions; many instances are
quoted by H. C. Lea. The best known, of course, are the Roman
Vestals; though here even the great honours and privileges
accorded to these maidens were often insufficient to keep the ranks
filled. In the East, however, this and other forms of asceticism
have always flourished more freely; and the Buddhist monastic
system is not only far older than that of Christendom, but also
proportionately more extensive. 1 In early Judaism, chastity
was indeed enjoined upon the priests at certain solemn seasons;
but there was no attempt to enforce celibacy upon the sacerdotal
caste. On the contrary, all priests were the sons of priests,
and the case of Elizabeth shows that here, as throughout the
Jewish people, barrenness was considered a disgrace. But
Alexander's conquests brought the Jews into contact with
Hindu and Greek mysticism; and this probably explains the
growth of the ascetic Essenes some two centuries before the
Christian era. The adherents of this sect, unlike the Pharisees
and Sadducees, were never denounced by Christ, who seems on
the contrary to have had real sympathy with the voluntary
celibacy of an exceptional few (Matt. x. 1 2) . St Paul's utterances
on this subject, though they go somewhat further, amount only
to the assertion that a struggling missionary body will find more
freedom in its work in the absence of wives and children. At
the same time, St Paul claimed emphatically for himself and the
other apostles the right of leading about a wife; and he names
1 W. Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed.) f vol. ii.
p. 44.
* " In the 14th century, the city of Ilchi, in Chinese Tartary, pos-
sessed 14 monasteries, averaging 3000 devotees in each; while in
Tibet, at the present time, there are in the vicinity of Lhassa 12
Cat monasteries, containing a population of 18,500 lamas. In
dak the proportion of lamas to the laity is as 1 to 13, in Spiti
1 to 7, and in Burmah 1 to 30 " (Lea i. 103).
among the qualifications for a bishop, an elder and a deacon,
that he should be " the husband of one wife." Indeed it was
freely admitted by the most learned men of the middle ages and
Renaissance that celibacy had been no rule of the apostolic
church; and, though writers of ability have attempted to main-
tain the contrary even in modern times, their contentions are
unhesitatingly rejected by the latest Roman Catholic authority. 8
The gradual growth of clerical celibacy, first as a custom and
then as a rule of discipline, can be traced clearly enough even
through the scanty records of the first few centuries. The most
ascetic Christians began to question the legality of second
marriages on the part of either sex, as even paganism had often
reprobated second marriages of women. Though these extremists
were presently branded as heretics for their eccentric ultra-
ascetic tenets (Montanists, Cathari), yet as early as Tertullian's
time (c. a.d. 220) the right of second marriages was theoretically
denied to the priesthood. This was logically followed by a
revival of the old Levitical rule which required that priests should
marry none but virgins (Lev. xxi. 7, 13). Both these rules, how-
ever, proved difficult of enforcement and seem to have rested only
on a vague basis of public opinion; twice-married men (digamt)
were admitted to the priesthood by Pope Calixtus I. (210-222),
and even as late as the beginning of the 5th century we find
husbands of widows consecrated to the episcopate. The so-
called Apostolical Constitutions and Canons, the latter of which
were compiled in the 4th century, give us the first clear and
fairly general rules on the subject. Here we find " bishops and
priests allowed to retain the wives whom they may have had
before ordination, but not to marry in orders; the lower grades,
deacons, subdeacons, &c, allowed to marry after entering the
church; but all were to be husbands of but one wife, who must be
neither a widow, a divorced woman nor a concubine " (Lea i. 28).
Many causes, however, were already at work to carry public
feeling beyond this stage. Quite apart from the few enthusiasts
who would have given a literal interpretation to the text in Matt.
xix. 12, vows of virginity became more and more frequent as the
virtue itself was lauded by ecclesiastical writers in language
of increasing fervour. These vows were at first purely voluntary
and temporary; but public opinion naturally grew less and
less tolerant of those who, having once formed and published
so solemn a resolution, broke it afterwards. Again not only was
the church doctrine itself more or less consciously influenced by
the Manichaean tenet of the diabolical origin of all matter, includ-
ing the human body, but churchmen were also naturally tempted
to compete in asceticism with the many heretics who held this
tenet, and whose abstinence brought them so much popular
consideration. Moreover, in proportion as the clergy, no longer
mere ringleaders of a despised and persecuted sect, became
beneficiaries and administrators of rich endowments — and this
at a time when the external safeguards against embezzlement
were comparatively weak — a strong feeling grew up among the
laity that church revenues should not go to support the priest's
family. 4 Lastly, such partial attempts as we have already
described to enforce upon the clergy a special rule of continence,
by their very failure, suggested more heroic measures. Therefore,
side by side with the evidence for difficult enforcement of the
old rules, we find an equally constant series of new and more
stringent enactments.
The first church council which definitely forbade marriage
to the higher clergy was the local Spanish synod of Elvira
(a.d. 305) . A similar interpretation has sometimes been claimed
for the third canon of that general council of Nicaea to which we
• I Cor. vii. 25 sq„ ix. 5; I Tim. iii. 2, II, 12; Titus i. 6; E.
Vacandard in Diet, de Thiol. Cath., s.v. " Celibat."
4 This was a natural argument for the defenders of clerical celibacy
even in far later times. St Bona ventura (d. 1274) puts this very
strongly: " For if archbishops and bishops now had children, they
would rob and plunder all the goods of the Church so that little or
nothing would be left for the poor. For since they now heap up
wealth and enrich nephews removed from them by almost incal-
culable decrees of affinity, what would they do if they had legi-
timate children? . . .Therefore the Holy Ghost in His providence
hath removed this stumbling-block," &c. &c. (In Sent. lib. iv.
dist. xxxvii art. i. quaest. 3).
6o2
CELIBACY
owe the Nicene creed (325), but this is now abandoned by the
best authorities on all sides. There can be no doubt, however,
that the 4th century opened a wide breach in this respect between
the Eastern and Western churches. The modern Greek custom
is " (a) that most candidates for Holy Orders are dismissed from
the episcopal seminaries shortly before being ordained deacons,
in order that they may marry (their partners being in fact
mostly daughters of clergymen), and after their marriage,
return to the seminaries in order to take the higher orders; (b)
that, as priests, they still continue the marriages thus contracted,
but may not remarry on the death of their wife; and (c) that the
Greek bishops, who may not continue their married life, are com-
monly not chosen out of the ranks of the married secular clergy,
but from among the monks.' 1 1 The Eastern Church, therefore, still
adheres fairly closely to the rules laid down by the Apostolical
Canons in the 4th century. In the West, however, a decisive
forward step was taken by Popes Damasus and Siricius during
the last quarter of that century. The famous decretal of Siricius
(385) not only enjoined strict celibacy on bishops, priests and
deacons, but insisted on the instant separation of those who had
already married, and prescribed the punishment of expulsion
for disobedience (Siric. Ep. i. c. 7; Migne, P.L. xiii. col. n 38).
Although we find Siricius a year later writing to the African
Church on this same subject in tones rather of persuasion than
of command, yet the beginning of compulsory sacerdotal
celibacy in the Western Church may be conveniently dated
from his decretal of a.d. 385. Leo the Great (d. 461) and
Gregory the Great (d. 604) further extended the rule of celibacy
to subdeacons.
For the next three or four centuries there is little to note but
the continual evidence of open or secret resistance to these
decrees, and the parallel frequency and stringency of ecclesi-
astical legislation, which by its very monotony bears witness
to its own want of success. At least seven episcopal constitutions
of the 8th and 9th centuries forbade the priest to have even his
mother or his sister in the house. 1 Nor did the only difficulty
lie in such secret breaches of the law; in many districts the
priesthood tended to become a mere hereditary caste, to the dis-
advantage of church and state alike. In northern and southern
Italy public clerical marriages were extremely frequent, whether
with or without regular forms. 8 The see of Rouen was held for
more than a century (942-1054) by three successive bishops who
were family men and two of whom were openly married. 4 In
England St Swithun (d. 862) was married, though very likely by
special papal dispensation; and the married clergy were appar-
ently predominant in Alfred's time. In spite of Dunstan's
reforms at the end of the 10th century, the Norman Lanfranc
found so many wedded priests that he dared not decree their
separation; and when his successor St Anselm attempted to go
further, this seemed a perilous novelty even to so distinguished
an ecclesiastic as Henry of Huntingdon, who wrote: " About
Michaelmas of this same year (1 102) Archbishop Anselm held a
council in London, wherein he forbade wives to the English
priesthood, heretofore not forbidden; which seemed to some a
matter of great purity, but to others a perilous thing, lest the
clergy, in striving after a purity too great for human strength,
should fall into horrible impurity, to the extreme dishonour of
the Christian name" (lib. vii.; Migne, P.L. cxcv. col. 944).
Yet this was at a time when the decisive and continued action of
two great popes ought to have left no possible doubt as to the
law of the church.
The growing tendency of the clergy to look upon their endow-
1 Hefele, Beilrdge zur Kirchengesch. u.s.w. i. 139.
•See the quotations in Lea i. 156. These prohibitions were re-
newed in the 13th and 14th centuries (ibid. i. 410).
' Ratherius, Itincrarium, c. ■> (Migne, P.L. cxxxvi. col. 585).
Gulielmus Apulus writes of southern Italy in 1059: " In these Darts
priests, deacons and the whole clergy were publicly married"
(De Narmann. lib. ii.).
4 Dom Pommeraye, 5. Rotomag. Eccl. Concilia, pp. 56, 65 ; cf .
similar instances on p. 315 of Dr A. Dresdner's Kultur-und Sitten-
geschichte d. italienischen Ceistlichkeit im JO. und 11. Jhdt. (Breslau,
1890).
ments as hereditary fiefs, their consequent worldliness and (it
must be added) their vices, aroused the indignation of two
very remarkable men in the latter half of the nth century.
St Pietro Damiani (988-1072) was a scholar, hermit and re-
former, who did more perhaps than any one else to combat the
open marriages of the clergy. He complained that exhortation
was wasted even on the bishops, " because they despair of
attaining to the pinnacle of chastity, and have no fear of con-
demnation in open synod for the vice of lechery, . . • K this evil
were secret [he adds], it might perhaps be borne. 19 * His Liber
Gomorrhianus, addressed to and approved by St Leo IX., is
sufficient in itself to explain the vehemence of his crusade,
though it emphasizes even more strongly the impolicy of pro-
ceeding more severely against the open marriages of the clergy
than against concubinage and other less public vices. 6 Damiani
found a powerful ally in the equally ascetic but far more im-
perious and statesmanlike Hildebrand, afterwards Pope Gregory
VII. Under the influence of these two men, five successive
popes between 1045 and 1073 attempted a radical reform;
and when, in this latter year, Hildebrand himself became pope,
he took measures so stringent that he has sometimes been
erroneously represented not merely as the most uncompromising
champion, but actually as the author of the strict rule of celibacy
for all clerics in sacred orders. His mind, strongly imbued with
the theocratic ideal, saw more clearly than any other the enormous
increase of influence which would accrue to a strictly celibate
body of clergy, separated by their very ordination from the
strongest earthly ties; and no statesman has ever pursued with
greater energy and resolution a plan once formulated. In order
to break down the desperate, and in many places organized,
resistance of the clergy, he did not shrink from the perilous
course, so contrary to his general policy, of subjecting them to
the judgment of the laity. Not only were concubinary priests —
a term which was now made to include also those who had
openly married — forbidden to serve at the altar and threatened
with actual deposition in cases of contumacy, but the laity were
warned against attending mass said by " any priest certainly
known to keep a concubine or subintroducta" 7
But these heroic measures soon caused serious embarrassment.
If the laity were to stand aloof from all incontinent priests,
while (as the most orthodox churchmen constantly complained)
many priests were still incontinent, then this could only result in
estranging large bodies of the laity from the sacraments of the
church. It became necessary, therefore, to soften a policy
which to the lay mind might imply that the virtue of a sacrament
was weakened by the vices of its ministers; and, whereas Peter
Lombard (d. 11 60) concludes that no excommunicated priest
can effect transubstantiation, St Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274)
agrees with all the later Schoolmen in granting him that power,
though to the peril of his own soul. 8 For, by the last quarter of
the 13th century, the struggle had entered upon a new phase.
The severest measures had been tried, especially against the
priests' unhappy partners. As early as the council of Augsburg
(952) these were condemned to be scourged, while Leo II. and
Urban II., at the councils of Rome and Amalfi (1051, 1089),
5 Opusc. xvii. praef. The saint's evidence is carefully weighed
by Dresdner (/.c), especially on pp. 309 ff. and 321 ff.
6 Even Pope Innocent III. was compelled to decide that priests
who had kept two or more concubines, successively or simultaneously,
did not thereby incur the disabilities which attended digamists;
or, in other words, that a layman who had contracted two lawful
marriages and then proceeded to ordination on the death of his
second wife, could be absolved only by the pope; whereas the
concubinary priest, " as a man branded with simple fornication,"
might receive a valid dispensation from his own bishop (Letter to
archbishop of Lund in 12 12. Regest. lib. xvi. ep. 118; Miene,
P.L. cexvi. col. 014). As the great canonist Gratian remarked on
a similar decretal of Pope Pelagius, " Here is a case where lechery has
more rights at law than has chastity " (Decret. p. i. dist. xxxiv.
c. vii. note a).
7 The actual originator of this policy was Nicholas II., probably
at Hildebrand's suggestion; but the decree remained practically
a dead letter until Gregory's accession.
1 Peter Lombard, Sentent. lib. iv. dist. 13 ; Aquinas, Summa
Theol. pars iii. Q. lxxxiii. art. 7, 9.
CELIBACY
603
adjudged them to actual slavery. 1 Such enactments naturally
defeated their own purpose. More was done by the gentler
missionary zeal of the Franciscans and Dominicans in the early
13th century; but St Thomas Aquinas had seen half a century
of that reform and had recognized its limitations; he therefore
attenuated as much as possible the decree of Nicholas II. His
contemporary St Bonaventura complained publicly that he
himself and his fellow-friars were often compelled to hold their
tongues about the evil clergy; partly because, even if one were
expelled, another equally worthless would probably take his
place, but " perhaps principally lest, if the people altogether lost
faith in the clergy, heretics should arise and draw the people to
themselves as sheep that have no shepherd, and make heretics of
them, boasting that, as it were by our own testimony, the clergy
were so vile that none need obey them or care for their teaching." 2
In other passages of his works St Bonaventura tells us plainly
how little had as yet been gained by suppressing clerical
marriages; and the evidence of orthodox and distinguished
churchmen for the next three centuries is equally decisive.
Alvarez Pelayo, a Spanish bishop and papal penitentiary, wrote
in 1332, " The clergy sin commonly in these following ways . . .
fourthly, in that they live very incontinently, and would that
they had never promised continence ! especially in Spain and
southern Italy, in which provinces the sons of the laity are
scarcely more numerous than those of the clergy." Cardinal
Pierre d'Ailly pleaded before the council of Constance in 141 5
for the reform of " that most scandalous custom, or rather abuse,
whereby many [clergy] fear not to keep concubines in public." 8
Meanwhile, as has been said above, the custom of open
marriage among clergy in holy orders (priests, deacons and
subdeacons) was gradually stamped out. A series of synods,
from the early 12th century onwards, declared such marriages
to be not only unlawful, but null and void in themselves. Yet
the custom lingered sporadically in Germany and England until
the last few years of the 13 th century, though it seems to have
died out earlier in France and Italy. There was also a short-
lived attempt to declare that even a clerk in lower orders should
lose his clerical privileges on his marriage; but Boniface VIII.
in 1300 definitely permitted such marriages under the already-
quoted conditions of the Apostolic Canons; in these cases,
however, a bishop's licence was required to enable the cleric
to officiate in church, and the episcopal registers show that the
diocesans frequently insisted on the celibacy of parish-clerks.
As the middle ages drew to a close, earnest churchmen were
compelled to ask themselves whether it would not be better to
let the priests marry than to continue a system under which
concubinage was even licensed in some districts. 4 Serious pro-
posals were made to reintroduce clerical marriage at the great
1 Labbe-Mansi, Concilia, vol. xix. col. 796 and xx. col. 724. Dr Lea
is probably right in suggesting that it was a confused recollection of
these decrees which prompted one of Cranmer's judges to assure
him that " his children were bondmen to the see of Canterbury."
Strype, Memorials of Crantner, bk. iii. c. 28 (ed. 1812, vol. i. p. 601).
2 Bonaventura, Libell. A polo get. quaest. i.; cf. his parallel treatise
Quare Fratres Minor es praedicenl. The first visitation of his friend
Odo Rigaldi, archbishop of Rouen, shows that about 15 % of the
parish clergy in that diocese were notoriously incontinent (Regestrum
Visitationum, ed. Bonnin, Rouen, 1852, pp. 17 if.). Vacandard
(loc. cit. p. 2087) appeals rather misleadingly to this record as proving
the progress made during the half-century before Odo's time. It
is probable that there were many more offenders than these 15 %
known to the archbishop.
' Alvarus Pelagius, De Planctu Ecclesiae, ed. 1517, f. 131a, col. 2;
cf. f. 102b, col. 2; Hermann von der Hardt, Constantiensis Concilii,
&c. vol. i. pars. viii. col. 428.
4 This more or less regular sale of licences by bishops and arch-
deacons flourished from the days of Gregory VII. to the 16th century;
see index to Lea, s.v. " Licences." Dr Lea has, however, omitted
the most striking authority of all. Gascoigne, the most distinguished
Oxford chancellor of his day, writing about 1450 of John de la Bere,
then bishop of St David's, says that he had refused to separate the
clergy of his diocese from their concubines, giving publicly as his
reason, M for then I your bishop should lose the 400 marks which I
receive yearly in my diocese for the priests' lemans " (Gascoigne,
Lib. Ver. ed. Rogers, p. 36). Even Sir Thomas More, in his polemic
against the Reformers, admitted that this concubinage was too often
tolerated in Wales (English Works, ed. 1557. P- 231, cf. 619).
reforming councils of Constance (1415) and Basel (1432); but
the overwhelming majority of orthodox churchmen were un-
willing to abandon a rule for which the saints had fought during
so many centuries, and to which many of them probably attri-
buted an apostolic origin. 6 This conservative attitude was
inevitably strengthened by the attacks first of Lollard and then
of Lutheran heretics; and Sir Thomas More was driven to
declare, in answer to Tyndale, that the marriage of priests,
being essentially null and void, " defileth the priest more than
double or treble whoredom." It is well known that this became
one of the most violently disputed questions at the Reformation,
and that for eight years it was felony in England to defend
sacerdotal marriage as permissible by the law of God (Statute
of the Six Articles, 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14). The diversity of practice
on this point drew one of the sharpest lines between reformers
and orthodox, until the disorders introduced by these religious
wars tempted the latter to imitate in considerable numbers the
licence of their rivals. 6 This moved the emperor Charles V. to
obtain from Paul III. dispensations for married priests in his
dominions; and his successor Ferdinand, with the equally
Catholic sovereigns of France, Bavaria and Poland, pleaded
strongly at the council of Trent (1545) for permissive marriage.
The council, after some hesitation, took the contrary course,
and in the 9th canon of its 24th session it erected sacerdotal
celibacy practically, if not formally, into an article of faith.
In spite of this, the emperor Joseph II. reopened the question
in 1783. In France the revolutionary constitution of 1791
abolished all restrictions on marriage, and during the Terror
celibacy often exposed a priest to suspicion as an enemy to the
Republic; but the better part of the clergy steadily resisted
this innovation, and it is estimated that only about 2% were
married. The Old Catholics adopted the principle of sacerdotal
marriage in 1875.
The working of the system in modern times is perhaps too
controversial a question to be discussed here; but one or two
points may be noted on which all fairly well informed writers
would probably agree. It can scarcely be denied that the Roman
Catholic clergy have always owed much of their influence to
their celibacy, and that in many cases this influence has been
most justly earned by the celibate's devotion to an unworldly
ideal. Again, the most adverse critics would admit that much
was done by the counter-Reformation, and that modem ecclesi-
astical discipline on this point is considerably superior to that
of the middle ages; while, on the other hand, many authorities
of undoubted orthodoxy are ready to confess that it is not free
from serious risks even in these days of easy publicity and
stringent civil discipline. 7 Lastly, statistical research has
shown that the children of the married British clergy have been
distinguished far beyond their mere numerical proportion. 8
Authorities. — Henry Charles Lea, History of Sacerdotal Celibacy
(3rd ed., 1907, 2 vols ), is by far the fullest and best work on this
subject, though a good deal of important matter omitted by Dr Lea
may be found in Die Einfuhrung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeil by
the brothers Johann Anton and August in Theiner, which was put
on the Roman Index, though Augustm afterwards became archivist
at the Vatican (Altenburg, 1828, 2 vols.). The history of monastic
celibacy has not yet been fully treated anywhere; the most im-
portant evidence of the episcopal registers is either still in MS. or
has been published only in comparatively recent years. The most
learned work on clerical celibacy from the strictly conservative point
of view is that of Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Storia Polemica del
celibato sacro (Rome, 1774); but many of his most important
• One of Dr Lea's few serious mistakes is his acceptance of the
spurious pamphlet in favour of priestly marriage which was attributed
in the nth century to St Ulrich of Augsburg (i. 171).
• Janssen, Gesch. d. deutschen Volkes, 13th ed., vol. viii. pp. 423,
4^;434.; Lea ii. 195, 204 ff. 4
7 Lea (11. 339 ft.) gives a long series of quotations to this effect from
church synods and orthodox disciplinary writers of modern times.
• Havelock Ellis, A Study of British Genius (London, 1904, p. 80),
M Even if we compare the church with the other professions with
which it is most usually classed, we find that the eminent children
of the clergy considerably outnumber those of lawyers, doctors
and army officers put together. " Mr Ellis points out, however, that
" the clerical profession . . . also produces more idiots than any other
class."
6o6
CELLULOSE
Bibliography. — The autobiography already named is the
foundation of most of the works written concerning Cellini's life.
See also Cellini, His Times and Contemporaries, by " the Author
of the Life of Sir Kenelm Digby " (1899); L. Dimler, Cellini d la
cour de France (1898); Eugene Plon, Cellini, orftvre, mSdailleur,
&c. (1883); Bolzenthal, Sktnen zur Kunstgeschichte der modemen
MedailUn- Arbeit 1 429-1840 (Berlin, 1840); A. Armand, Les
Mfdatlleurs italiens des XV* el XVI* sildes (3 vols., Paris, 1883-
1887) ; Dr Francesco Tassi, Vita di Benvenuto Cellini (Firenze, 1829),
Vita di Benvenuto Cellini scritta da lui medisimo (1832) ; E. Babelon,
La Gravure en pierres fines (Paris, 1894) ; A. Heiss, Les MSdailleurs
fiorentins (Pans, 1887); J. Friedlander, Die italienischen Schou-
munnen desfUnfzehnten Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1 880-1 882) ; N. Rondot,
Les MSdailleurs lyonnais (Macon, 1897) ; Dr Julius Cann, Medaillen
und Plaketten der Sammlung W. P. Metzler (Frankfort-on-Main,
1808); Molinier, Les PlaqueUes; I. B. Supino, // Medagliere Mediceo
net R. Museo Nazionale di Firenze (Florence, 1899); VArte di
Benvenuto Cellini (Florence, 1901); C. von Fabricxy, Medaillen der
italienischen Renaissance (Leipzig) ; L. Forrer, Biographical Diction-
ary of Medallists, Gfe. (London, 1904), &c. (W. M. R. ; E. A. J.)
CELLULOSE, the name given to both an individual — cellulose
proper, in the restricted sense of a chemical individual — and to
a group of substances, the celluloses or cellulose group, which
constitute in infinitely varied forms the containing envelope of
the plant cell. They are complex carbohydrates, or " saccharo-
colloids " (Tollens), and are resolved by ultimate hydrolysis
into monoses. The typical cellulose is represented by the
empirical formula CeHioOs, identical with that of starch, with
which it has many chemical analogies as well as physiological
correlations. The representative " cellulose " is the main con-
stituent of the cotton fibre substance, and is obtainable by
treating the raw fibre with boiling dilute alkalis, followed by
chlorine gas or bromine water, or simply by alkaline oxidants.
The cellulose thus purified is further treated with dilute acids,
and then exhaustively with alcohol and ether. Chemical
filter-paper (Swedish) is practically pure cellulose, the final
purification consisting in exhaustive treatment with hydro-
fluoric acid to remove silicious inorganic residues. The " cellu-
lose " group, however, comprises a series of substances which,
while presenting the characters generally similar to those of
cotton cellulose, also exhibit marked divergences. The re-
semblances are maintained in their synthetical reactions; but
reactions involving the decomposition of the complex show many
variations. For example, cotton cellulose is difficultly hydrolysed ;
other celluloses are more or less readily split up by dilute acids,
the extreme members readily yielding sugars: the hexoses —
dextrose, mannose and galactose; and the pentoses — xylose
and arabinose; these less resistant cell-wall constituents are
termed hemi-celluloses.
The celluloses proper are essentially non-nitrogenous, though
originating in the cell protoplasm. The cell-walls of the lower
cryptogams, similarly purified, retain a notable proportion
— 2-0-4-0% — of constitutional nitrogen. When hydrolysed
these fungoid celluloses yield, in addition to monoses, glucosamine
and acetic acid. The celluloses of the phanerogams are generally
associated, in a degree ranging from physical mixture to chemical
union, with other complicated substances, constituting the
" compound celluloses." The nature of the associated groups
affords a convenient classification
into pecto-celluloses, ligno-cellu-
loses and cuto-celluloses. Pecto-
celluloses are so named because
the associated substances — carbo-
hydrates, together with their oxi-
dation products, i.e. containing
either two carbonyls (CO) in the
unit group or carboxyl (CO- OH)
groups in a complex — are readily
hydrolysed by weak acids to the
gelatinous " pectic acids " or their
salts. Ligno-ceUuloses are the
substances of lignified tissue, the
non-cellulose constituents of which
are characterized by the presence
of benzenoid and furfuroid groups;
and although essentially complex,
they may be regarded as homogeneous, and are conveniently
grouped under the name lignone. The lignone complex reacts,
by its unsaturated groups, with the halogens. It is a complex
containing but little hydroxyl; and is of relatively high
carbon percentage (55*0-57-0%). Cuto-celluloses predominate
in the protective coatings of plant organs, and are character-
ized by constituent groups, the decomposition products of
which are compounds of the fatty series, and also wax alcohols,
acids, cholesterols, &c.
The typical pecto-cellulose is the flax fibre, i.e. the bast fibre
of the flax plant (Linutn usitatissitnutn), 'as it occurs in the
plant, or as the commercial textile fibre in its raw state. Rhea,
or ramie, is another leading textile fibre in which the cellulose
occurs associated with alkali-soluble colloidal carbohydrates.
Pecto-celluloses are found in the stems of the Gramineae (cereal
straws, esparto), and in the fibro- vascular bundles of monocotyle-
dons used as textile and rope-making fibres. They are the chief
constituents of the fleshy parenchyma of fruits, tubers, rhizomes.
Ligno-celluloses find their chemical representative in the jute
fibre. They constitute the woods, and are therefore of the
widest distribution and the highest industrial utility. It is
important to note that a complex having all the chemical
characteristics of a ligno-cellulose occurs in a soluble colloidal
form in the juice of the white currant. The formation of ligno-
cellulose is the chemical equivalent of the morphological change
of the plant cell known as " lignification." The typical cuto-
celluloses are the epidermal tissues of all growing plants or
organs, which are easily detached from the underlying tissues
which it is their function to protect. To subserve this function,
they are extremely resistant to the attack of reagents. The
associated groups are mostly of the normal saturated series, and
of very high molecular weight.
CeUuloseandBotanicalScicnce. — Theelaborationof cellulose, i.e.
of the cell walls, and its morphological and physiological aspects
are discussed in the articles Plants: Physiology, Anatomy:
and Cytology; while in the article Coal the part played by
cellulose in the formation of these deposits receives treatment:
here we may deal with its general relation to agriculture. In the
analysis of fodder plants and other vegetable produce, the
residue obtained after successive acid and alkaline hydrolysis is
the " crude fibre " of the agricultural chemist, and is generally
taken as a measure of the actual cellulose contents of the raw
material. We give in tabular form the average percentage of
crude fibre in typical food-stuffs and agricultural produce: —
Seeds
Seeds of Cereals.
Per cent of
Fibre.
Leguminous and
Oil Seeds.
Per cent of
Fibre.
Wheat . .
Barley
Oats .
Maize .
Rye . .
Rice . . .
2-8
6-3
90
5'2
8*o
2-5
Rape .
Cotton
Beans .
Peas
Lentils
Vetches
6-4
7'5
IO-O
IO-O
10-0
72
Fodder Crops
Stems and Foliage
Per cent of
Per cent of
Per cent of
of Root Crops.
Fibre.
Fodder Crops.
Fibre. 1
Cereal Straws.
Fibre.
White Turnip .
3'9
Grasses
32-0
Oats . . .
6068
Meadow )
Hay J . .
25-8
Wheat . . .
7577
Barley
7W4
Swedish „
4-2
Clover and )
Trefoil \ '
Carrot
3-i
23-5
Mangel
2-6
Vetches .
25*9
Parsnip .
2-6
Lucerne .
Sainfoin .
26-7
28.7
Leguminous.
Oil Seeds.
Stems and
Foliage of
Root Crops
Fodder
Crops.
Cereal
Straws.
Average % of water
14
7
87
70-80
'5
l This percentage is calculated on airdry-produce containing 15% of water.
CELLULOSE
607
The above figures have a purely empirical value, since they
represent a complicated mixture of various residues derived from
the celluloses and compound celluloses. This mixture may be
further resolved, and by special quantitative methods the pro-
portions of actual cellulose, ligno-cellulose and cuto-celluloses
estimated (J. K6nig, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 3564). The figures are
taken as an inverse measure of digestibility; at the same time
it has been established that this group of relatively indigestible
food constituents are more or less digestible and assimilable
as flesh and fat producers. The percentage or coefficient of
digestibility of the celluloses of the more important food-stuffs —
green fodder, hay, straw and grains — varies from 20 to 75%.
It has also been established that their physiological efficiency is,
under certain conditions, quite equal to that of starch.
It must also be borne in mind that the indigestible food resi-
dues, as finally voided by the animal, have played an important
mechanical part as an aid to digestion of those constituents
more readily attacked in the digestive tract of animals. They
are further an important factor of the agricultural cycle. Re-
turned to the soil as " farm-yard manure," mixed with other
cellulosic matter which has served as litter, they add " fibre "
to the soil and, as a mechanical diluent of the mineral soil
components, maintain this in a more open condition, penetrable
by the atmospheric gases, and promoting distribution of moisture.
Further by breaking down, with production of " humus," a
complex of colloidal " unsaturated " bodies of acid function,
they fulfil important chemical functions by interaction with the
mineral soil constituents.
Chemistry of Cellulose. — Purified cotton cellulose, which is the
definitive prototype of the cellulose group or series, is a complex
of monoses or their " residues." It is resolved by solution in
sulphuric acid and subsequent hydrolysis of the esters thus
produced into dextrose. This fundamental fact with its ele-
mentary composition, most simply expressed by the formula
CeHioOk, has caused it to be regarded as a polyanhydride of
dextrose. Forming, as it does, simple esters in the ratio of the
reacting hydroxyls 30H: C^HinOi, and teking into account its
direct converson into cu-brom-methyl furfural (Fenton) a
constitutional formula has been proposed by A. G. Green (Zeti.
Farb. TextU Chem. 3, pp. 97 and 309 (1904)), which is a useful
generalization of its reactions, and its ultimate relations to the
CH(OH)CHCH(OH)
simpler carbohydrates, viz., I >0 >0 . Green con-
CH(OH).CHCH,
siders, moreover, that a group thus formulated may consistently
represent the actual dimensions of the reacting unit, but that
unit of larger dimensions, if postulated, is easily derived from the
above by oxygen Unkings.
From another point of view the unit group has been formu-
/CHCOHJCHrpH)
lated as CO > CH, , the main linking of such units in the
X:H(OH)CH(OH)
complex taking place as between their respective CO and CH S
groups in thealternativeenolic formCH— C(OH). This viewgives
expression to the genetic relations of the celluloses to the ligno-
celluloses, to the tendency to carbon condensation as in the
formation of coals, and pseudo-carbons, to the relative resistance
of cellulose to hydrolysis, and its other points of differentiation
from starch, and more particularly to the ketonic character of its
carbonyl (CO) groups, which is also more in harmony with the
experimental facts established by Fenton as to the production of
methyl furfural.
The probability, however, is that no simple molecular formula
adequately represents the constitution of cellulose as it actually
exists or indeed reacts. On the other hand, it has been suggested
that cellulose is to be regarded as representing a condition of
matter analogous to that of a saline electrolyte in solution, i.e.
as a complex of molecular aggregates, and of residues (of monose
groups) having distinct and opposite polarities; such a complex
is essentially labile and its configuration will change progressively
under reaction. The exposition of this view is the subject of
a publication by Cross and Bevan (Researches on Cellulose, ii.
1906). The main purpose is to give full effect to the colloidal
characteristics of cellulose and its derivatives, with reference to
the modern theory of the colloidal state as involving a particular
internal equilibrium of amphoteric electrolytes.
The typical cellulose is a white fibrous substance familiar to
us in the various forms of bleached cotton. Other fibrous cellu-
loses are equally characteristic as to form and appearance, e.g.
bleached flax, hemp, ramie. It is hygroscopic, absorbing 6 to
7% its weight of moisture from the air. When dry, it is an
electrical insulator, and has a specific inductive capacity of
about 7: when wetted it is a conductor, and manifests electro-
lytic phenomena. 1 It is insoluble in water and in the ordinary
solvents; it dissolves, however, in a 40-50% solution of zinc
chloride, and in ammoniacal solutions of copper oxide (3%
CuO, 15% NHa): from these solutions it is obtained as a highly
hydrated, gelatinous precipitate, from the former by dilution or
addition of alcohol, from the latter by acidification; these solu-
tions have important industrial application. Projected or drawn
into a precipitating solution they may be solidified continuously
to threads of various, but controlled dimensions: the regenerated
cellulose, now amorphous, in its finer dimensions is known as
artificial silk or lustra-cellulose. These forms of cellulose retain
the general characters of the original fibrous and " natural "
celluloses. In composition they differ somewhat by combination
with water (of hydration), which they retain in the air-dry con-
dition. They also further combine with an increased proportion
of atmospheric moisture, viz. up to 10-11% of their weight.
Derivatives. — Important derivatives are the esters or ethereal
salts of both inorganic and organic acids, cellulose behaving as an
alcohol, the highest esters indicating that it reacts as a trihydric
alcohol of the formula «[CeH70,(OH) J. The nitrates result by
the action of concentrated nitric acid, either alone or in the
presence of sulphuric acid: the normal dinitrate represents a
definite stage in the series of nitrates, and the ester at this point
manifests the important property of solubility in various alco-
holic solvents, notably ether-alcohol. Such nitrates are the
basis of collodion, of artificial silk by the processes of Chardonnet
and Lehner, and of celluloid or xylonite. Higher nitrates are
also obtainable up to the limit of the trinitrate, which is insoluble
in ether or alcohol, but is soluble in nitroglycerin, nitrobenzene
and other solvents. These higher nitrates are the basis of the
most important modern explosives.
Cellulose reacts directly with acetic anhydride to form low
esters; in the presence of sulphuric acid the reaction proceeds
to higher limits; the triacetate is soluble in chloroform. The
acid sulphuric ester, CtHsCMSOJI)*, is obtained by the action of
sulphuric acid, but its relation to the original cellulose is doubt-
ful. The monobenzoate and dibenzoate are formed by benzoyl
chloride reacting on alkali-cellulose (see below). Cellulose
xanthates are obtained from carbon bisulphide and alkali-
cellulose; these are water soluble derivatives and the basis of
" viscose," and of important industries. Mixed esters — aceto-
sulphate, aceto-benzoate, nitrobenzoyl nitrates, aceto-nitro-
sulphates — have also been investigated.
Cellulose (cotton), when treated with a 15-20% caustic
soda solution, gives the compound C«Hi©Os'fiM>2NaOH,
alkali-cellulose, the original riband-like form with reticulated
walls of the cellulose being transformed into a smooth-walled
cylinder. The structural changes in the ultimate fibre deter-
mine very considerable changes in the dimensions of fabrics so
treated. The reactions and structural changes were investigated
by J. Mercer, and are known generally as " mercerization." In
recent years a very large industry in " mercerized " fabrics
(cotton) has resulted from the observation that if the shrinkages
of the yarns and fabrics be antagonized by mechanical means,
a very high lustre is developed.
Similar, but less definite compounds, are formed with the
oxides of lead, manganese, barium, iron, aluminium and
chromium. These derivatives, which also find industrial applica-
tions in the dyeing and printing of fabrics, differ but little in
1 C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1805, 67, p. 449;
C. R. Darling, Jour. Faraday Soc. 1904; A. Campbell, Trans. Roy.
Soc. 1906.
6o8
CELLULOSE
appearance from the original cellulose, and are without influence
on its essential characteristics.
Decompositions. — Hydrolysis: — By solution in sulphuric acid
followed by dilution and boiling the diluted solution cellulose
hydrolyses to fermentable sugars; this reaction is utilized
industrially in the manufacture of glucose from rags. Hydro-
chloric acid produces a friable mass of " hydrocellulose,"
probably CuHsjOu, insoluble in water, but readily attacked
by alkalis, with the production of soluble derivatives; some
dextrose is formed in the original reaction. Hydrobromic acid
in ethereal solution gives furfurane derivatives. Cold dilute
acids have no perceptible action on cellulose. The actions of
such acids are an important auxiliary to bleaching, dyeing
and printing processes, but they require careful limitation in
respect of concentration and temperature. Cellulose is extremely
resistant to the action of dilute alkalis: a 1-2% solution of
sodium hydrate having little action at temperatures up to 150 ;
hence the use of caustic soda, soda ash and sodium silicate in
bleaching processes, i.e. for the elimination of the non-cellulose
components of the raw fibres. Oxidation in acid solutions
gives compounds classed as " oxycelluloses," insoluble in water,
but more or less soluble in alkalis; continued oxidation gives
formic, acetic and carbonic acids. Oxidation in alkaline solution
is more easily controlled and limited; solutions of bleaching
powder, or more generally of alkaline hydrochlorites, receive
industrial application in oxidizing the coloured impurities of the
fibre, or residues left after more or less severe alkali treatments,
leaving the cellulose practically unaffected. This, however,
is obviously a question of conditions: this group of oxidants
also oxidize to oxycellulose, and under more severe conditions
to acid products, e.g. oxalic and carbonic acids. Certain bacteria
also induce decompositions which are resolutions into ultimate
products of the lowest molecular dimensions, as hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, methane, acetic acid and butyricadd (Omeliansky)
(Handb. Techn. Mykolqgie [F. Lafar] pp. 245-26S), but generally
the cellulose complex is extremely resistant to the organic
ferments. Cellulose burns with a luminous flame to carbon
dioxide and water; dry distillation gives a complicated mixture
of gaseous and liquid products and a residue of charcoal or
pseudo-carbon. Chromic acid in sulphuric acid solutions effects
a complete oxidation, i.e. combustion to water and carbonic acid.
Ligno-cellidoses. — These compounds have many of the
characteristics of the cellulose esters; they are in effect ethereal
compounds of cellulose and the quinonoid lignone complex,
and the combination resists hydrolysis by weak alkalis or acids.
The cellulose varies in amount from 80 to 50%, and the lignone
varies inversely as the degree of lignification, that is, from the
lignified bast fibre of annuals, of which jute is a type, to the dense
tissues of the perennial dicotyledonous woods, typified by the
beech. The empirical formula of the lignone complex varies
from C19H22O9 (jute) to C»H»Oio (pine wood). In certain
reactions the non-cellulose or lignone constituents are selectively
converted into soluble derivatives, and may be separated as
such from the cellulose which is left; for example, chlorination
gives products soluble in sodium sulphite solution, by the com-
bination of unsaturated groups of the lignone with the halogen,
while digestion with bisulphite solutions at elevated tempera-
tures (i40°-i6o°) gives soluble sulphonated derivatives. This
last reaction is employed industrially in the preparation of cellu-
lose for paper-making from coniferous woods. These reactions
are " quantitative " since they depend upon well-defined con-
stitutional features of the lignone complex, and the resolution
of the ligno-cellulose takes place with no further change in the
lignone than the synthetical combination with the substituting
groups. The constituent groups of the lignone specifically
HC
reacting are of benzenoid type of the probable form H q\ Uq>
deduced from the similarity of the chlorinated derivatives
to mairogallol, the product of the action of chlorine on
pyrogallol in acetic acid solution (A. Hantzsch, Bet. 20, p. 2033).
The complex contains methoxy (OCHs) groups. There is also
present a residue which is readily broken down by oxidizing
agents, and indeed by simple hydrolysis, to acetic add.
Another important group of actual constituents are pentosanes
— partially isolated as "wood gum" by solution in alkalis
— and furfural derivatives (hydroxy rurfurals) derived from
these. The actual constitutional relationships of these main
groups, as well as the localization of the methoxy groups, are
still problematical.
Certain colour reactions are characteristic, though they are
in some cases reactions of certain constituents invariably present
in the natural forms of the ligno-cellulose; which may be re-
moved without affecting the essential character of the lignone
complex. Aniline salts generally give a yellow coloration,
dimethyl-para-phenylenediamine gives a deep red coloration,
phloroglutin in hydrochloric add gives a crimson coloration.
Reactions more definitely characteristic of the lignone are: —
ferric ferrocyanide, which is taken up and transformed into
Prussian blue throughout the fibre, without affecting its structure,
although there may be as much as a 50% gain in weight; iodine
in potassium iodide solution gives a deep brown colour due to
absorption of the halogen, a reaction which admits of quantitative
application, i.e. as a measure of the proportion of ligno-cellulose
in a fibrous mixture; nitric add gives a deep orange yellow
coloration; digested with the dilute add (5-10% HNOj) at 50
the ligno-celluloses are entirdy resolved, the lignone complex
being attacked and dissolved in the form of nitroso-ketonk
acids, which, on continued heating, are finally resolved to
oxalic, acetic, formic and carbonic acids.
Derivatives of Ligno-cellulose. — By reaction with chlorine
jute yields the derivative CuHigCUO*, soluble in alcohol, and in
acetic acid; this derivative has the reactions of a quinone
chloride. By reaction with sodium sulphite it is converted into
a hydroquinone sulphonate of deep purple colour. The reaction
of the ligno-celluloses (pine wood) with the bisulphites yields
the soluble derivatives of the general formula CaHaCVSOjH
(containing two OCH, groups). Jute reacts with nitric add in
presence of sulphuric add to form nitrates; and with acetic
anhydride to form low acetates. It reacts with gi k ft hn* hydrates
with structural changes similar to those obtained with cotton;
and by the further action of benzoyl chloride and of carbon
bisulphide upon the resulting compounds there result the cor-
responding benzoates and xanthates respectivdy. But these
synthetical derivatives are mixtures of cellulose and lignone
derivatives, and so far of merely theoretical interest.
Decompositions of Ligno-cellulose. — In addition to the specific
resolutions above described which depend upon the distinctive
chemical characters of the cellulose and lignone respectively,
the following may be noted: to simple hydrolytic agents the
two groups are equally resistant, therefore by boiling with dilute
acids or alkalis the groups are attacked pari passu. Weak
oxidants may also be used as bleaching agents to remove coloured
by-products without seriously attacking the ligno-cellulose,
which is obtained in its bleached form. Nitric add of all strengths
effects complete resolution. Chromic add in dilute solutions
combines with the lignone complex, but in presence of hydro-
lysmg adds total oxidation of the lignone is determined. The
prindpal products are oxalic, carbonic, formic and acetic acids.
This reaction is an index of constitution. Generally, the lignone
is attacked under many conditions and by many reagents which
are without action upon cellulose, by virtue of its unsaturated
constitution, and its add and aldehydic residues.
Cuto-cellulose. — A typical cuto-cellulose is the cutide (peel) of
the apple which, when purified by repeated hydrolytic treatment
and finally by alcohol and ether, gives a product of the composi-
tion C« 75-66% H- n-37 % 0-14-97% Hydrolysis by
strong alkalis gives stearo-cutic add, C«H«04, and oleo-cutic
add, C14H9O4 (Fr6my). Cork is a complex mixture containing
various compound celluloses: extraction with alcohol removes
certain fatty alcohols and adds, and aromatic derivatives related
to tannic add; the residue is probably a mixture of cellulose,
ligno-cellulose, cerin, C»H«0 and suberin; the latter yields
CELSIUS— CELSUS
609
stearic acid, CisHmO* and the acid CsAA. The cuto-
celluloses have been only superficially investigated, and, with
the exception of cork, are of but little direct industrial importance.
Industrial Uses of Cellulose. — The applications of cellulose to
the necessities of human life, infinitely varied in kind as they are
colossal in magnitude, depend upon two groups of qualities or
properties, (1) structural, (2) chemical. The manufactures of
vegetable textiles and of paper are based upon the fibrous forms
of the naturally occurring celluloses, together with such structural
qualities as are expressed in the terms strength, elasticity,
specific gravity. As regards chemical properties, those which
come into play are chiefly the negative quality of resistance to
chemical change; this is obviously a primary factor of value in
enabling fabrics to withstand wear and tear, contact with
atmospheric oxygen and water, and such chemical treatments as
laundrying; positive chemical properties are brought into play
in the auxiliary processes of dyeing, printing, and the treatment
and preparation in connexion with these. Staple textiles of
this group are cotton, flax, hemp and jute; other fibres are used
in rope-making and brush-making industries. These subjects
are treated in special articles under their own headings and in
the article Fibres. The course of industrial development in the
19 th century has been one of enormous expansion in use and
considerable refinement in methods of preparation and manu-
facture. Efforts to introduce new forms of cellulose have had
little result. Rhea or ramie has been a favourite subject of
investigation; the industry has been introduced into England,
and doubtless its development is only a question of time,
as on the continent of Europe the production of rhea yarns
is well established, though it is still only a relatively small
trade — probably two or three tons a day total production. The
paper trade has required to seek new sources of cellulose, in
consequence of the enormous expansion of the uses of paper.
Important phases of development were : ( 1) in the period of i860 to
1870, the introduction of esparto, which has risen to a consump-
tion of 250,000 tons a year in the United Kingdom, at which
figure it remains fairly steady; (2) the decade 1870 to 1880,
which saw the development of the manufacture of cellulose from
coniferous woods, and this industry now furnishes a staple of
world-wide consumption, though the industry is necessarily
localized in countries where the coniferous woods are available
in large quantities. As a development of the paper industry we
must mention the manufacture of paper textiles, based upon the
production of pulp yarns. Paper pulps are worked into flat
strips, which are then rolled into cylindrical form, and by a final
twisting process a yarn is produced sufficiently strong to be
employed in weaving.
What we may call the special cellulose industries depend upon
specific chemical properties of cellulose, partly intrinsic, partly
belonging to the derivatives such as the esters. Thus the cellu-
lose nitrates are the bases of our modern high explosives, as well
as those now used for military purposes. Their u^ has been
steadily developed and perfected since the middle of the 19th
century. The industries in celluloid, xylonite, &c, also depend
upon the nitric esters of cellulose, and the plastic state which
they assume when treated with solvent liquids, such as alcohol,
amyl acetate, camphor and other auxiliaries, in which state
they can be readily moulded and fashioned at will. They have
taken an important place as structural materials both in useful
and artistic applications. The acetates of cellulose have recently
been perfected, and are used in coating fine wires for electrical
purposes, especially in instrument-making; this use depends
upon their electrical properties of high insulation and low in-
ductive capacity. Hydrated forms of cellulose, which result
from treatment with various reagents, are the bases of the
following industries: vegetable parchment results from the
action of sulphuric acid upon cellulose (cotton) in the form of
paper, followed by that of water, which precipitates the partially
colloidalized cellulose. This industry is carried out on " con-
tinuous " machinery, the cellulose, in the form of paper, being
treated in rolls. Vulcanized fibre is produced by similar pro*
cesses, as for instance by treating paper with zinc chloride
solvents and cementing together a number of sheets when in the
colloidal hydrated state; the goods are exhaustively washed to
remove last traces of soluble electrolytes; this is necessary, as
the product is used for electrical insulation. The solvent action
of cupro-ammonium is used in treating cellulose goods, cotton
and paper, the action being allowed to proceed sufficiently to
attack the constituent fibres and convert them into colloidal
cupro-ammonium compounds, which are then dried, producing
a characteristic green-coloured finish of colloidal cellulose and
rendering the goods impervious to water. The important in-
dustry of mercerization has been mentioned above; this is
carried out on both yarns and cloth of cotton goods chiefly
composed of Egyptian cottons. A high lustrous finish is
produced, giving the goods very much the appearance of silk.
Of special importance are the more recent developments in
the production of artificial fibres of all dimensions, by spinning
or drawing the solutions of cellulose or derivatives. Three such
processes are in course of evolution. (1) The first is based on the
nitrates of cellulose which are dissolved in ether-alcohol, and
spun through fine glass jets into air or water, the unit threads
being afterwards twisted together to constitute the thread used
for weaving (process of Chardonnet and Lehner). These pro-
cesses were developed in the period 1883 to 1897, at which later
date they had assumed serious industrial proportions. (2) The
cupro-ammonium solution of cellulose is similarly employed,
the solution being spun or drawn into a strong acid bath which
instantly regenerates cellulose hydrate in continuous length.
(3) Still more recently the " viscose " solution of cellulose, i.e.
of the cellulose xanthogenic acid, has been perfected for the
production of artificial silk or lustra-cellulose; the alkaline
solution of the cellulose derivative being drawn either into
concentrated ammonium salt solutions or into acid baths.
This product, known as artificial silk, prepared by the three
competing processes, was in 1908 an established textile with a
total production in Europe of about 5000 tons a year, a quantity
which bids fair to be very largely increased by the advent of the
viscose process, which will effect a very considerable lowering
in the cost of production. The viscose solution of cellulose is
also used for a number of industrial effects in connexion with
paper-sizing, paper T coating, textile finishes, and the production
of book cloth and leather cloth, and, solidified in solid masses,
is used in preparing structural solids which can be moulded,
turned and fashioned.
For the special literature of cellulose treated from the general
point of view of this article, the reader may consult the following
works by C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan: Cellulose (1895, 2n d ed.
1903), Researches on Cellulose, 1. (1901), Researches on Cellulose, ii.
(1906). (C. F. C.)
CELSIUS, ANDERS (1701-1744), Swedish astronomer, was
born at Upsala on the 27th of November 1701. He occupied
the chair of astronomy in the university of his native town
from 1730 to 1744, but travelled during 1732 and some subse-
quent years in Germany, Italy and France. At Nuremberg he
published in 1733 a collection of 316 observations of the aurora
borealis made by himself and others 17 16-173 2. In Paris he
advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland,
and took part, in 1736, in the expedition organized for the
purpose by the French Academy. Six years later he described
the centigrade thermometer in a paper read before the Swedish
Academy of Sciences (see Thermometry). His death occurred
at Upsala on the 25th of April 1744. He wrote: Nova Methodus
distantiam solis a terra determinandi (1730); De observaHonibus
pro figura teUuris determinanda (1738); besides many less
important works.
See W. Ostwald's Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften, No. 57
(Leipzig, 1904), where Celsius's memoir on the thermometric scale
is given in German with critical and biographical notes (p. 132);
Marie, Histoire des sciences, viii. 30; Poggendorffs Biog.-liUrarisches
Handworterbuch.
CELSUS (c. a.d. 178), a and-century opponent of Christianity,
known to us mainly through the reputation of his literary work,
The True Word (or Account; 6Xij0i)s X070S), published by
Origen in 248, seventy years after its composition. In that year,
though the Church was under no direct threat of attack, owing
v. 20
6io
CELSUS
to the inertia of the emperor Philip the Arabian, the atmosphere
was full of conflict. The empire was celebrating the ioooth
anniversary of its birth, and imperial aspirations and ideas were
naturally prominent. Over against the state and the worship
of the Caesar stood as usual the Christian ideal of a rule and a
citizenship not of this world, to which a thousand years were
but as a day. A supernatural pride was blended with a natural
anxiety, and it was at this juncture that Origen brought to light
again a book written in the days of Marcus Aurelius, which
but for the great Alexandrian might have been lost for ever.
Sometimes quoting, sometimes paraphrasing, sometimes merely
referring, he reproduces and replies to all Celsus's arguments.
His work shows many signs of haste, but he more than compen-
sates for this by the way in which he thus preserves a singularly
interesting memorial of the 2nd century. When we remember
that only about one- tenth of the True Word is really lost and that
about three-quarters of what we have is verbatim text, it would
be ungracious to carp at the method.
Celsus opens the way for his own attack by rehearsing the taunts
levelled at the Christians by the Jews. Jesus was born in adultery
rb9 and nurtured on the wisdom of Egypt. His assertion of
anmment divine dignity is disproved by his poverty and his miser-
^^ able end. Christians have no standing in the Old Testa-
ment prophecies, and their talk of a resurrection that was only
revealed to some of their own adherents is foolishness. Celsus
indeed says that the Jews are almost as ridiculous as the foes
they attack; the latter said the saviour from Heaven had come,
the former still looked for his coming. However, the Jews have
the advantage of being an ancient nation with an ancient faith.
The idea of an Incarnation of God is absurd; why should the human
race think itself so superior to bees, ants and elephants as to be put
in this unique relation to its maker? And why should God choose
to come to men as a Tew ? The Christian idea of a special providence
is nonsense, an insult to the deity. Christians are like a council of
frogs in a marsh or a synod of worms on a dunghill, croaking and
squeaking, " For our sakes was the world created." It is much
more reasonable to believe that each part of the world has its own
special deity; prophets and supernatural messengers had forsooth
appeared in more places than one. Besides being bad philosophy
based on fictitious history, Christianity is not respectable. Celsus
does not indeed repeat the Thyestean charges so frequently brought
against Christians by their calumniators, but he says the Christian
teachers who are mainly weavers and cobblers have no power over
men of education. The qualifications for conversion are ignorance
and childish timidity. Lite all quacks they gather a crowd of slaves,
children, women and idlers. " I speak bitterly about this," says
Celsus, " because I feel bitterly. When we are invited to the Mys-
teries the masters use another tone. They say, ' Come to us ve
who are of clean hands and pure speech, ye who are unstained by
crime, who have a good conscience towards God, who have done
justly and lived uprightly.' The Jews say, ' Come to us ye who are
sinners, ye who are fools or children, ye who are miserable, and ye
shall enter into the kingdom of Heaven.' The rogue, the thief, the
burglar, the poisoner, the spoiler of temples and tombs, these are
then- proselytes. Jesus, they say, was sent to save sinners; was
he not sent to help those who have kept themselves free from sin?
They pretend that God will save the unjust man if he repents and
humbles himself. The just man who has held steady from the
cradle in the ways of virtue He will not look upon." He pours scorn
upon the exorcists — who were clearly in league with the demons them-
selves — and upon the excesses of the itinerant and undisciplined
" prophets " who roam through cities and camps and commit to
everlasting fire cities and lands and their inhabitants. Above all
Christians are disloyal, and every church is an illicit collegium, an
insinuation deadly at any time, but especially so under Marcus
Aurelius. Why cannot Christians attach themselves to the great
philosophic ana political authorities of the world? A properly
understood worship of gods and demons is quite compatible with
a purified monotheism, and they might as well give up the mad
idea of winning the authorities over to their faith, or of hoping to
attain anything like universal agreement on divine things.
Celsus and Porphyry (q.v.) are the two early literary opponents
of Christianity who have most claim to consideration, and it is
Xte worth noticing that, while they agree alike in high
phUo» aims, in skilful address and in devoted toil, their
*°P*y v* religious standpoints are widely dissimilar. Porphyry
us * is above all a pure philosopher, but also a man of deep
religious feeling, whose quest and goal are the knowledge of
God; Celsus, the friend of Lucian, though sometimes called
Epicurean and sometimes PlatoniSt, is not a professed philosopher
at all, but a man of the world, really at heart an agnostic, like
Caecilius in Minucius Felix (q.v.), whose religion is nothing more
or less than the Empire. He is keen, positive, logical, combining
with curious dashes of scepticism many genuine moral convic-
tions and a good knowledge of the various national religions and
mythologies whose relative value he is able to appreciate. " His
manner of thought is under the overpowering influence of the
eclectic Platonism of the time, and not of the doctrine of the
Epicurean school. He is a man of the world, of philosophic cul-
ture, who accepts much of the influential Platonism of the time
but has absorbed little of its positive religious sentiment. In
his antipathy to Christianity, which appears to him barbaric
and superstitious, he gives himself up to the scepticism and
satire of a man of the world through which he comes in contact
with Epicurean tendencies." He quotes approvingly from the
Titnaeus of Plato: " It is a hard thing to find out the Maker and
Father of this universe, and after having found him it is im-
possible to make him known to all." Philosophy can at best
impart to the fit some notion of him which the elect soul must
itself develop. The Christian on the contrary maintained that
God is known to us as far as need be in Christ, and He is accessible
to all. Another sharp antithesis was the problem of evil. Celsus
made evil constant in amount as being the correlative of matter.
Hence his scorn of the doctrine of the resurrection of the body
held then in a very crude form, and his ridicule of any attempt
to raise the vulgar masses from their degradation. The real root
of the difficulty to Platonist as to Gnostic was his sharp antithesis
of form as good and matter as evil.
Opinion at one time inclined to the view that the True Word
was written in Rome, but the evidence (wholly internal) points
much more decisively to an Egyptian, and in particular
an Alexandrian origin. Not only do the many intimate
references to Egyptian history and customs support
this position, but it is clear that the Jews of Celsus are
not Western or Roman Jews, but belong to the Orient, and
especially to that circle of Judaism which had received and
assimilated the idea of the Logos.
The date also is clearly denned. Besides the general indication
that the Empire was passing through a military crisis, which
points to the long struggle waged by Marcus Aurelius against the
Marcomanni and other Germanic tribes, there is a reference
(Contra Celsum, viii. 69) to the rescript of that emperor impressing
on governors and magistrates the duty of keeping a strict watch
on extravagances in religion. This edict dates from 176-177,
and inaugurated the persecution which lasted from that time
till the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180. During these years
Commodus was associated with Marcus in the imperhim, and
Celsus has a reference to this joint rule (viii. 71).
Celsus shows himself familiar with the story of Jewish origins.
Any pagan who wished to understand and criticize Christianity
intimately had to begin by learning from the Jews, vaiaein
and this accounts for the opening chapters of his argu- the history
ment. He has a good knowledge of Genesis and °tf h t !!** m
Exodus, refers to the stories of Jonah, Daniel (vii. 53) **—**•
and Enoch (v. 52), but does not make much use of the
Prophets or the Psalter. As regards the New Testament his
position is closely in agreement with that reflected in the con-
temporary A cts of the Martyrs of ScUu He speaks of a Christian
collection of writings, and knew and used the gospels, but was
influenced less by the fourth than by the Synoptics. There is
more evidence of Pauline ideas than of Pauline letters.
The gnostic sects and their writings were well known to him
(viii. 1 5 and vi. 25), and so was the work of Marcion. There are
indications, too, of an acquaintance with Justin Martyr and the
Sibylline literature (vii. 53, cp. v. 61). "He is perfectly aware
of the internal differences between Christians, and he is familiar
with the various stages of development in the history of their
religion. These are cleverly employed in order to heighten the
impression of its instability. He plays off the sects against the
Catholic Church, the primitive age against the present, Christ
against the apostles, the various revisions of the Bible against
the trustworthiness of the text and so forth, though he admits
that everything was not really so bad at first as it is at present."
The True Word had very little influence either on the mutual
CELT
611
relations of Church and State, or on classical literature. Echoes
of it are found in Tertullian and in Minucius Felix, and then it
lay forgotten until Origen gave it new life. A good deal of the
neo-PIatonic polemic naturally went back to Celsus, and both
the ideas and phrases of the True Word are found in Porphyry
and Julian, though the closing of the New Testament canon in
the meantime somewhat changed the method of attack for these
writers. ,
Of more importance than these matters is the light which the
book sheds on the strength of the Church about the year 180.
It is of course easy to see that Celsus had no apprehension of
the spiritual needs even of his own day which it was the Christian
purpose to satisfy, that he could not grasp anything of the new
life enjoyed by the poor in spirit, and that he underrated the signi-
ficance of the Church, regarding it simply as one of a number of
warring sections (mostly Gnostic), and so seeing only a mark
of weakness. And yet, there is all through an undercurrent which
runs hard against his surface verdicts, and here and there comes
to expression. He is bound to admit that Christianity has been
stated reasonably; against the moral teaching of Jesus he can
only bring the lame charge of plagiarism, and with the Christian
assertion that the Logos is the Son of God he completely accords.
Most suggestive, however, is his closing appeal to the Christians.
" Come," he says, " don't hold aloof from the common regime.
Take your place by the emperor's side. Don't claim for yourselves
another empire, or any special position." It is an overture for
peace. " If all were to follow your example and abstain from
politics, the affairs of the world would fall into the hands of
wild and lawless barbarians " (viiL 68). Forced to admit that
Christians are not infructuosi in negotiis, he wants them to be
good citizens, to retain their own belief but conform to the state
religion. It is an earnest and striking appeal on behalf of the
Empire, which was clearly in great danger, and it shows the terms
offered to the Church, as well as the strength of the Church at the
time. Numerically, Christians may have formed perhaps a tenth
of the population, i.e. in Alexandria there would be fifty or sixty
thousand, but their power in a community was out of all pro-
portion to their mere numbers.
Literature. — Th. Keim, Celsus* Wahres Wort (1873); Pelagaud,
£tude sur Celse (1878); K. J. Neumann's edition in Scriptores
Graeci qui Christtanam impugnaoerunt religionem, and article in
Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. fur prot. Theol., where a very full biblio-
graphy is given. See also W. Moeller, Hist, of the Chr. Church, i.
169 AT.; A. Harnack, Expansion of Christianity, ii. 129 ff.; J. A.
Fronde, Short Studies, iv.
CELT, or Kelt, the generic name of an ancient people, the bulk
of whom inhabited the central and western parts of Europe.
(For the sense of a primitive stone tool, see the separate article,
later.) Much confusion has arisen from the inaccurate use of
the terms " Celt " and " Celtic." It is the practice to speak of
the : dark-complexioned people of France, Great Britain and
Ireland as " black Celts," although the ancient writers never
applied the term " Celt " to any dark-complexioned person. To
them great stature, fair hair, and blue or grey eyes were the
characteristics of the Celt. The philologists have added to the
confusion by classing as " Celtic " the speeches of the dark-
complexioned races of the west of Scotland and the west of
Ireland. But, though usage has made it convenient in this work
to employ the term, " Celtic " cannot be properly applied to
what is really " Gaelic."
The ancient writers regarded as homogeneous all the fair-
haired peoples dwelling north of the Alps, the Greeks terming them
all Keltoi. Physically they fall into two loosely-divided groups,
which shade off into each other. The first of these is restricted
to north-western Europe, having its chief seat in Scandinavia.
It is distinguished by a long head, a long face, a narrow aquijine
nose, blue eyes, very light hair and great stature. Those are the
peoples usually termed Teutonic by modern writers. The other
group is marked by a round head, a broad face, a nose often
rather broad and heavy, hazel-grey eyes, light chestnut hair;
they are thick-set and of medium height. This race is often
termed " Celtic " or " Alpine " from the fact of its occurrence
all along the great mountain chain from south-west France, in
Savoy, in Switzerland, the Po valley and Tirol, as well as in
Auvergne, Brittany, Normandy, Burgundy, the Ardennes and
the Vosges. It thus stands midway not only geographically but
also in physical features between the " Teutonic " type of Scandi-
navian and the so-called " Mediterranean race " with its long head,
long face, its rather broad nose, dark brown or black hair, dark
eyes, and slender form of medium height. The " Alpine race "
is commonly supposed to be Mongoloid in origin and to have come
from Asia, the home of round-skulled races. But it is far more
probable that they are the same in origin as the dark race south
of them and the tall fair race north of them, and that the broad-
ness of their skulls is simply due to their having been long
domiciled in mountainous regions. Thus the " Celtic " ox
(Bos longifrons), from remote ages the common type in the
Alpine regions, is characterized by the height of its forehead
above the orbits, by its highly-developed occipital region, and its
small horns. Not only do animals change their physical character-
istics in new environment, but modern peoples when settled in
new surroundings for even one or two centuries, e.g. the American
of New England and the Boer of South Africa, prove that man
is no less readily affected by his surroundings.
The northern race has ever kept pressing down on the broad-
skulled, brown-complexioned men of the Alps, and intermixing
with them, and at times has swept right over the great mountain
chain into the tempting regions of the south, producing such
races as the Celto-Ligyes, Celtiberians, Celtillyrians, Celto-
Thracians and Celto-Scythians. In its turn the Alpine race has
pressed down upon their darker and less warlike kindred of the
south, either driven down before the tall sons of the north or
swelling the hosts of the latter as they swept down south.
As the natives of the southern peninsula came into contact
with these mixed people, who though differing in the shape of the
skull nevertheless varied little from each other in speech and
colour of their hair and eyes, the ancient writers termed them all
" Keltoi." But as the most dreaded of these Celtic tribes came
down from the shores of the Baltic and Northern Ocean, the
ancients applied the name Celt to those peoples who are spoken
of as Teutonic in modern parlance. The Teutons, whose name is
generic for Germans, appear in history along with the Cimbri,
universally held to be Celts, but coming from the same region as
the Guttones (Goths) by the shores of the Baltic and North Sea.
Again, the Germani themselves first appear in the Celtic host
destroyed by Marcellus at Clastidium in 225 B.C. All the true
Celtae or Galatae in France had come across the Rhine; the
Belgic tribes in northern France were Cimbri, who also had crossed
the Rhine: in Caesar's day the Germans were still constantly
crossing that river, and so-called Gauls who lived near the
Germans, e.g. the Treveri, closely resembled the latter in their
habits, while in later times were to come Goths and Franks from
beyond the great river. It is then not strange that the Gallic
name for a henchman (atnbactus) is the same as the Gothic
(ambahts).
The earliest invaders, under the name of Celtae, had occupied
all central Gaul, doubtless mixing with the aboriginal Ligurians
and Iberians, who, however, maintained themselves respectively
in the later Provence and in Aquitania. The Celts had firmly
established themselves by the 7th century B.C. and we know not
how long before, the Bituriges (whose name survives in Berri)
being the dominant tribe. In the Alps and the Danube valley
some of the Celts had dwelt from the Stone Age; there they had
developed the working of copper, discovered bronze (an alloy of
copper and tin), and the art of smelting iron (see Hallstatt).
The Umbrians, who were part of the Alpine Celts, had been
pressing down into Italy from the Bronze Age, though checked
completely by the rise of the Etruscan power in the 10th century
B.C. The invention of iron weapons made the Celts henceforth
irresistible. One of the earliest movements after this discovery
was probably that of the Achaeans of Homer, who about 1450
B.C. invaded Greece (see Achaeans), bringing with them the
use of iron and brooches, the practice of cremating the dead,
and the style of ornament known as Geometric. Later the
Cimmerians (see Scythia and Cimmeru) passed down from the
6l2
CELT
[CELTIC LANGUAGES
Cimbric Chersonese, doubtless following the amber routes, and
then turned east along the Danube, some of their tribes, e.g. the
Treres, settling in Thrace, and crossing into Asia; others
settled in southern Russia, leaving their name in the Crimea;
then when hard pressed by the Scythians most of them passed
round the east end of the Euxine into Asia Minor, probably
being the people known as Gimirri on Assyrian monuments,
and ravaged that region, the relics of the race finally settling at
Sinope.
At the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the Celts of France
had grown very powerful under the Biturigian king Ambigatus.
They appear to have spread southwards into Spain, occupying
most of that country as far south as Gades (Cadiz), some tribes,
e.g. Turdentani and Turduli, forming permanent settlements
and being still powerful there in Roman times; and in northern
central Spain, from the mixture of Celts with the native Iberians,
the population henceforward was called Celtiberian. About
this time also took place a great invasion of Italy; Segovisus
and Bellovisus, the nephews of Ambigatus, led armies through
Switzerland, and over the Brenner, and by the Maritime Alps,
respectively (Livy v. 34). The tribes who sent some of their
numbers to invade Italy and settle there were the Bituriges,
Arverni, Senones, Aedui, Ambarri, Carnuti and Aulerci.
Certain material remains found in north Italy, e.g. at Sesto
Calende, may belong to this invasion. The next great wave of
Celts recorded was that which swept down on north Italy
shortly before 400 B.C. These invaders broke up in a few years
the Etruscan power, and even occupied Rome herself after the
disaster on the Allia (390 B.C.). Bought off by gold they with-
drew from Rome, but they continued to hold a great part of
northern Italy, extending as far south as Sena Gallica (Sini-
gaglia), and henceforward they were a standing source of danger
to Rome, especially in the Samnite Wars, until at last they were
either subdued or expelled, e.g. the Boii from the plains of the
Po. At the same time as the invasion of Italy they had made
fresh descents into the Danube valley and the upper Balkan,
and perhaps may have pushed into southern Russia, but at this
time they never made their way into Greece, though the Athenian
ladies copied the style of hair and dress of the Cimbrian women.
About 280 B.C. the Celts gathered a great host at the head of the
Adriatic, and accompanied by the Illyrian tribe of Autariatae,
they overthrew the Macedonians, overran Thessaly, and invaded
Phocis in order to sack Delphi, but they were finally repulsed,
chiefly by the efforts of the Aetolians (279 B.C.). The remnant
of those who returned from Greece joined that part of their army
which had remained in Thrace, and marched for the Hellespont.
Here some of their number settled near Byzantium, having
conquered the native Thracians, and made Tyle their capital.
The Byzantines had to pay them a yearly tribute of 80 talents,
until on the death of the Gallic kiDg Cavarus (some time after
220 B.C.) they were annihilated by the Thracians. The main
body of the Gauls who had marched to the Hellespont crossed it
under the leadership of Leonnorius and Lutarius. Straightway
they overran the greater part of Asia Minor, and laid under
tribute all west of Taurus, even the Seleucid kings. At last
Attila, king of Pergamum, defeated them in a series of battles
commemorated on the Pergamene sculptures, and henceforth
they were confined to a strip of land in the interior of Asia Minor,
the Galatia of history. Their three tribes — Trocmi, Tolisto-
bogians and Tectosages — submitted to Rome (189 B.C.), but they
remained autonomous till the death of their king Amyntas,
when Augustus erected Galatia into a province. Their descend-
ants were probably the " foolish Galatians " to whom St Paul
wrote (see Galatia).
Ancient writers spoke of all these Gauls as Cimbri, and identi-
fied them with the Cimmerians of earlier date, who in Homeric
times dwelt on the ocean next to the Laestrygones, in a region
of wintry gloom, but where the sun set not in summer. Nor was
it only towards the south and the Hellespont that the Celtic
tide ever set. They passed eastward to the Danube mouth and
into southern Russia, as far as the Sea of Azov, mingling with
the Scythians, as is proved by the name Celto-scyths. Mithra-
dates VI. of Pontus seems to have negotiated with them to gain
their aid against Rome, and Bituitus, a Gallic mercenary, was
with him at his death.
The Celts had continually moved westwards also. The Belgae,
who were Cimbric in origin, has spread across the Rhine and
given their name to all northern France and Belgium (Gallia
Belgica). Many of these tribes sent colonies over into south-
eastern Britain, where they had been masters for some two
centuries when Caesar invaded the island (see Britain). But
there is evidence that from the Bronze Age there had been settlers
in northern Britain who were broad-skulled and cremated their
dead, a practice which had arisen in south Germany in the early
Bronze Age or still earlier. It is not unlikely that, as tradition
states, there were incursions of Celts from central Gaul into
Ireland during the general Celtic unrest in the 6th century B.C.
It is certain that at a later period invaders from the continent,
bringing with them the later Iron Age culture, commonly called
La T£ne, which had succeeded that of Hallstatt, had settled in
Ireland. Not only are relics of La Tene culture found in Ireland,
but the oldest Irish epics celebrate tall, fair-haired, grey-eyed
heroes, armed and clad in Gallic fashion, who had come from the
continent. The Celts in Italy, in the Balkan, in France and in
Britain, overspread the Indo-European peoples, who differed
from themselves but slightly in speech. The Celts represented
Indo-European q by p, whilst the Greeks, Illyrians, Thracians,
Ligurians, and aborigines of France, Britain and Ireland
represented it by k, c or qu. The Umbrian-Sabellian tribes had
the same phonetic peculiarity as the Celts. Thus Gallic petor
(petor-ritum, " four-wheeler "), Umbrian petwr, Homeric vLavpes,
Boeotian (Achaean) irkTrapes, Welsh pedwar; but Gaelic cethir,
Lat. quatuar. The Celts are thus clearly distinguished from
the Gaelic-speaking dark race of Britain and Ireland, and in spite
of usage it must be understood that it is strictly misleading
to apply the term Celtic to the latter language.
See also Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, vol. i., and Oldest Irish
Epic; Ripley, The Races of Europe; Sergi, The Mediterranean Race.
(W. Ri.)
Celtic Languages
Introduction. — The Celtic languages form one group of the
Indo-European family of languages. As might be expected from
their geographical distribution, they hold a position between
the Italic and Teutonic groups. They are distinguished from
these and other branches of the family by certain well-marked
characteristics, the most notable of which are the loss of initial
and inter-vocalic p, cf. Ir. athair with Lat pater; Ir. Ian,
" full," Welsh llawn, Breton leun, with Lat. plenus; Gaulish
are-, " beside," Ir. ar. Welsh, Breton or, with Gr. irepL, xa/xi;
and the change of I. E. e to i, cf. Ir. fir, " true," Welsh gwir,
Breton gwir, Lat. verus. We may further mention that the I. E.
labialized velar go is represented by b, e.g. Ir. bd, " cow," Welsh
buwch, Gr. jSoOs, Sanskr. gaus; Ir. ben, " woman," Gr. ywjf,
whilst the medial aspirates bh, dh, gh result in simple voiced
stops. I. E. sonant r and / become ri, It. Other distinctive
features of the modern dialects are not found in Gaulish, partly
owing to the character of the monuments. Such are the -ss-
preterite and the fusion of simple prepositions with pronominal
elements, e.g. Ir. fri-umm, " against me," Welsh wrtk-yf, Breton
ouz-inn. The initial mutations which are so characteristic of
the living languages did not arise until after the Romans had
left Britain. The Celtic languages betray a surprising affinity
with the Italic dialects. Indeed, these two groups seem to stand
in a much closer relationship to one another than any other pair.
As features common to both Celtic and Italic we may mention:
(1) the gen. sing, ending -i of masc. and neut. stems in ; (2)
verbal nouns in -lion; (3) the 6- future; (4) the passive forma-
tion in -r.
The various Celtic dialects may be divided as follows: — (1)
Gaulish; (2) Goidelic, including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx ;
(3) Brythonic, including Welsh, Breton and Cornish. Gaulish
and Brythonic, like Oscan and Umbrian among the Italic
dialects, change the I. E. labialized velar guttural qv to p, whilst
the Goidelic dialects retain the qv which later gives up the labial
CELTIC LANGUAGES]
CELT
613
element and becomes k, e.g. Gaulish petor-, " four," Ir. cethir ,
Welsh pelguar, Breton pevar, Lat. qualtuor; Ir. da, "who,"
Welsh pwy, Lat- quis; Gaulish epo-, "horse," Welsh cb-ol,
Breton eb-eul, Ir. ech, Lat. equus. Several attempts have been
made to prove the existence of Celtic dialects with qv on the
continent. Forms containing p occur in the Coligny calendar,
discovered in 1897, by the side of others with qv, a state of affairs
not yet satisfactorily accounted for. The Rom tablets, dis-
covered in 1898, have not been interpreted as yet, but p forms
are found on them exclusively. In an excursus we shall deal
with the language of the Picts.
No comprehensive handbook of the Celtic languages on the lines
of Grober's Grundriss der romanischen Pkilologie or Paul's Grundriss
der germanischen Pkilologie was available in 1909. The reader may
refer to Windisch's article " Keltische Sprachen " in Ersch und
Gruber's AUgemeine Encyklopddie der Wissenschaften und Kunste, and
V. Tourneur, Esquisse dune histoire des Hudes celtiques (Ltege, 1905 ;
vol. ii. with full bibliography). Also H. Zimmer, " Die kelt. Littera-
turen " in Die KuUur d. Gegenwart, T. i. Abh. xi. 1 , Berlin and Leipzig,
1909. The materials for the study of the older forms of the languages
are to be found in Zeuss's Grammatica Celtica as revised by Ebel.
A comparative grammar of the Celtic dialects has been prepared by H.
Pedersen (Gottingen, 1908). See also Whitley Stokes and A. Bezzen-
berger, WortschaU der kellischen Spracheinheit (Gtittingen, 1894).
I. Gaulish. — Celtic place-names are found as far east as
the Dniester and Dobrudja, and as far north as Westphalia.
The language of the Galatians in Asia Minor must have stood
in a very close relation to Gaulish. Indeed few traces of dialect-
ical differences are to be observed in continental Celtic. Unfor-
tunately no literary monuments written in the ancient speech of
Gaul have come down to us, though Caesar makes mention of
religious poems orally transmitted by the Druids, and we also
hear of bardi and vales. But a large number of personal and
place-names have been preserved. The classi c al writers have,
moreover, recorded a certain number of Gaulish words which can
generally be identified without difficulty by comparing them with
words still living in the modern dialects, e.g. pempedula, " cinque-
foil," cf. Welsh pump, "five," and deilen, "leaf"; ambactus,
Welsh amaeth; petorrUum, "four-wheeled chariot," cf. Welsh
pedwar, " four," and Ir, roth, " wheel," or rUh, " course." We
have further between thirty and forty inscriptions (three in
. north Italy) which we may without hesitation ascribe to the Gauls.
These inscriptions are written in either N. Etruscan or Greek
or Latin characters. We are thus in a position to reconstruct
much of the old system of declension, which resembles Latin very
closely on the one hand, and on the other represents the forms
which are postulated by the O. Ir. paradigms. Hence Gaulish
is particularly valuable as preserving the final vowels which
have disappeared in early Irish and Welsh. The few verb-forms
which occur in the remains of Gaulish are quite obscure and
have not hitherto admitted of a satisfactory explanation. The
statements of ancient authors with regard to the Belgae are
conflicting, but there cannot be much doubt that the language of
the latter was substantially the same as Gaulish. Caesar observes
that there was little difference between the speech of the Gauls
and the Britons in his day, and we may regard Gaulish as
closely akin to the ancestor of the Brythonic dialects. It is
difficult to say when Gaulish finally became extinct. It dis-
appeared very rapidly in the south of France, but lingered on,
possibly till the 6th century, in the northern districts, and it
seems unnecessary to discredit Jerome's statement that the
speech of the Galatians in Asia Minor bore a strong resemblance
to the language he had heard spoken in the neighbourhood of
Trier. There is no evidence that Breton has been influenced
by continental Celtic. The number of Gaulish words which have
come down in the Romance languages is remarkably small,
and though at first sight the sound-changes of French and
Welsh seem to bear a strong likeness to one another, any influence
of Gaulish pronunciation on French is largely discounted when
we find the same changes occurring in other dialects where there
is little or no question of Celtic influence.
The proper names occurring in classical writers, on inscriptions
and coins, have been collected by A. Holder in his monumental
Altceltischer Sprachschatz (Leipzig, 1896-1908). The inscriptions
have been most recently treated by J. Rhys in the Proceedings of
the British Academy, vol. ii. See also a paper in this volume entitled
" Celtae and Galli by the same author for the text of the Coligny and
Rom inscriptions. The value of Gaulish for grammatical pur-
poses is set forth by Whitley Stokes in a paper on " Celtic Declen-
sion " in the Proceedings of the London Philological Society (1885--
1886). For the extent over which Gaulish was spoken, its relation
to Latin and its influence on Romance, see £. Windisch's article on
M Keltische Sprache " in the section " Die vorromanischen Volks-
sprachen " in Grober's Grundriss der romanischen Philologie*, vol. i.
pp. 373 ff. Cf. further the introduction to J. Loth's Chrestomathie
hretonne (Paris, 1890); G. Dottin, Manuel pour servir d VUude des
antiquiUs celtiques (Paris, 1906) ; R. Thurneysen, KeUoromanisches
(Halle, 1884).
II. Goideiic and Brythonic. — When the monuments of the
Celtic dialects of the British Islands begin to appear, we find a
wide divergence between the two groups. We can only mention
some of the more important cases here. The Brythonic dialects
have gone very much farther in giving up inflectional endings than
Goideiic. In Irish all final syllables in general disappear except
long vowels followed by s or r and u < o preceded by *. But these
reservations do not hold good for Brythonic. Thus, whilst
O. Irish possesses five cases the Brythonic dialects have only
one, and they have further lost the neuter gender and the dual
number in substantives. In phonology there are also very
striking differences, apart from the treatment of the labialized
velar qv already mentioned. The sonant n appears in Brythonic
as an, whereas in Goideiic the nasal disappears before k, t with
compensatory lengthening of the vowel, e.g. I. E. *kmtom, Ir.
Ot, "hundred," W. cant, Bret, kant; Prim. Celt. *jovnko-,
O. Ir. doc, Mod. Ir. 6g, " young," W. ieuanc, Bret, iaouank.
/, k standing after a vowel and preceding /, n (and also r if k
precede) disappear in Goideiic with compensatory lengthening
of the vowel, e.g. Prim. Celt. *stdtld-, Ir. sdl, " heel," W. sawdl;
Prim. Celt. *petno-, Ir. en, " bird," O. W. etn, Mod. W. edn.
Similarly b,d,g disappear in Goideiic when standing after a vowel
and preceding /, r , n with compensatory lengthening of the
vowel, but in Welsh they produce a vowel forming a diphthong
with the preceding vowel, e.g. Prim. Celt. *nebto-, Ir. nM, " cloud,"
W. niwl; Prim. Celt. *ogmh, cf. Lat. agnus, Ir. uan, " lamb,"
from *6n, W. oen\ Prim, Celt. *vegno-, cf. Ger. Wagen, Ir.
fin, "wagon," O. W. guein, Mod. W. gwain. The Goideiic
dialects have preserved the vowels of accented syllables on the
whole better than Brythonic. Thus Brythonic has changed
Prim. Celt. & ( - 1. E. d, d) to d ( W. aw, Bret, eu) ; and Prim. Celt.
u to I, e.g. Ir. brdthir, "brother," W. brawd, BTet. brew,
Gaulish dunum, Ir. dun, " fort," W. din. Already in Gaulish
the I. E. diphthongs show a tendency to become simple long
vowels and the latter are treated differently by Goideiic and
Brythonic. In early times I. E. eu, ou both became 6 and I. E.
ei gave 2. In Goideiic 6, I, in accented syllables were diphthong-
ized in the early part of the 8th century to ua, ia if the next
syllable did not contain the vowels e or *,-^whereas in Brythonic
d gave U (written u) and I became in W. ui (toy), and in Bret.
oe (oue), e.g. Gaulish Teuto-, Toutius, Ir. tuath, "people," W.,
Bret, tud; Brythonic Lilo-celum, Ir. liath, "grey/' W. llwyd,
Bret, loued. Similarly in loan-words, Ir. cUr,fial, W. cityr, O.Corn.
guil, from Lat. clra, velum. Further I. E. at, oi are preserved in
Irish as at (ae), oi (oe), Mod. Ir. ao t but in Welsh I. £. ai gave
either ai or oe, whilst oi changed to U (written «), Ir. toft, " side,"
W., Bret. tu\ I. E. *oinos, Ir. den, " one," W., Bret, un; Prim.
Celt. *saitlo~, cf . Lat. saeculum, W. hoedl, " age," Bret. hoal.
In Goideiic accented e changes to * before i, u in tie following
syllable, cf. Ir. fid, " wood," gen. sing, fedo, O. H* G. witu, and
i changes to e before a or under similar conditions. In like
manner u becomes before a or 0, whilst q changes to u before
.*, u, cf. Ir. muir, "sea," Prim. Celt; *mori, gen. sing. mora.
Of Brythonic finals which disappear, a, I, (d),j alone influence
preceding vowels, whilst an i (y) which received the stress in
O. W. was also able to modify vowels which went before it. In
Goideiic the combinations sqv, sv appear respectively as sc, s
(medially/), but in Brythonic they both give chw; PTim. Celt.
*sqveUon, Ir. scH, "story," W. chwedl; Prim. Celt. *svesor,
Ir. siur, " sister," but mo fiur, " my sister " (whence Scottish
piuthar by false de-aspiration), W. ckwaer, Bret. c*hoar. In
£l+
CELT
[CELTIC LANGUAGES
'Brythonic initial s becomes h in the 7th century, but this is
■ unknown in GoideKc, e.g. Ir. s alarm, " salt," W. halen, Cornish
kaloin, Bret, holenn; Lat. se-men, Ir. sil, " seed," W. hil. Initial
v gives / in Goidelic in the course of the 7 th century, whereas
in Brythonic it appears as gu, gw, cf. Lat. virus, It. fir, W., Bret.
gwir. We may also mention that in Goidelic initial j and medial
v disappear, e.g. Gaulish Jovincillus, W. ieuanc, " young,"
Bret, iouank, Ir. doc, 6c; W. bywyd, " food," Ir. Had. Post-
consonantic j in Brythonic sometimes gives -id (Mod. W. -ydd,
Mod. Bret. -€»), e.g. Gaulish nemo-, novio-, O. Bret, nowid, W.
newydd, Bret, nevez, Ir. nUe. I. E. -kt and -/>/ both appear in
Goidelic as -cht but in Brythonic as 4th, cf. Lat. septem, O. Ir.
secht, W. se##, Bret. seiz.
We unfortunately know very little about the position of the
stress in ancient Gaulish. According to Meyer-Liibke in place-
names the penult was accented if the vowel was long, otherwise
the stress lay on the preceding syllable, e.g. Augustodiinum,
O. Fr. Osiedun, now Aidun; Cataldunos (Chalons), Tricasses
(Fr. Troyes), Bit&riges (Fr. Bourges). In Goidelic the stress,
which is strongly expiratory, is always placed on the first syllable
1 except in certain cases in verbs compounded with prepositional
prefixes. In Old Welsh and Old Breton, on the other hand, the
1 final syllable, i.e. the primitive penult, received the stress, but
in both languages the stress was shifted in the middle period
to the penultimate. The Goidelic dialects, like the Slavonic,
distinguish between palatalized and nonpalatalized consonants,
according as the consonant was originally followed by a front
\e, i) or back vowel (a, 0, u), a phenomenon which is entirely
unknown to Brythonic.
Finally, the two groups differ radically in the matter of initial
mutation or, as ft is often called, aspiration. These mutations
are by no means confined to initial consonants, as precisely the
1 same changes have taken place under similar conditions in the
interior of words. The Goidelic changes included under this head
probably took place for the most part between the 5th and 7th
centuries, whilst in Brythonic the process seems to have begun
and continued later. It is easier to fix the date of the changes in
•Brythonic than in Goidelic, as a number of British names are
'preserved in lives of saints, and it is possible to draw conclusions
rrom the shape that British place-names assumed in the mouths
{ of the Anglo-Saxons. In Goidelic, we find two mutations, the
Vocalic and the nasal. Initial mutation only takes place between
words which belong together syntactically, and which form one
> 'single stress-group, thus between article, numeral, possessive
pronoun or preposition, and a following substantive; between
1 a verbal prefix and the verb itself.
1. When the word causing mutation ended in a vowel we get the
vocalic mutation, called by Irish grammarians aspiration. The
'sounds affected are the tenues k (c), t, p; the mediae g, d, b; the
♦ liquids and nasals m, n, r, /; s, and Prim. Celt.t> (Ir. /, W. gw). At
ithe present day the results of this mutation in Irish and Welsh may
be tabulated. as follows. Where the sound is at variance with the
traditional orthography, the latter is given in brackets. In the case
Original )
sound )
k/
t
P
g
d
b
m
Irish
x(<fh).
h(th)
f(p«
3(gh)
3(dh)
v,w(bh)
v,w(mh)
Welsh
«,';'
d
b
nil
5(dd)
v(f)
v(f)
of n, >, I in Goidelic we get a different variety of n, r, / sound. In
* Welsh in the case 01 r, l f the absolute initial is a voiceless r, / written
. nk, 11, which on mutation become voiced and are written r , /. In
Irish s becomes h written sh and the mutation of / Is written fh.
which, however, ig now silent. Examples :— Irish, a*, "hound,
do chu, " thy hound "; Welsh ci t dy gi (do, dy represent a Prim.
• Celt. *tovo); Irish- mdthair, " mother," an mhdthair, " the mother,"
Weish mam, yfam (the feminine of the article was originally *senta,
" senda).
2. : When the word causing mutation originally ended in a nasal,
we get the nasal mutation called by Irish grammarians eclip9e,
,Tht sounds affected are k (c), t, f>; g, d t b; Prim. Celt, v (Ir. /, W.
jpv). In mop*. Irish, and mod. Welsh the results are tabulated below.
' .Irish / becomes w written bh, whilst W. gw eives ngw. Examples : —
" Irish bliadhna, yea'r, h seacht m-bliadhna, seven years," cf. Latin
1 ieptem, Welsh blynedd, saith mlynedd; Irish tvt, " country," i d-Hr,
" in a country," Welsh tref, " town," yn nhref, " in a town," cf.
Latin in.
3. In Welsh k (c), t, p undergo a further change when the word
Original Sound
k
t
P
g
d
b
Irish
g
d
b
ng
n
m
Welsh
ngh
nh
mh
ng
n
m
causing mutation originally ended in s. There is nothing correspond-
ing to this consonantal mutation in Goidelic. In this case k (c), t, p
become the spirants % (ch) t th,f (ph), e.g. tad, " father," ei thad, " her
father," ei represents a primitive *esias. In the interior of words in
Brythonic, cc, pp, tt give the same result as initial k, t, p by this
mutation.
The relation in which the other Celtic dialects stand to this
system will be mentioned below in dealing with the various
languages. It will be noted from what has been said above that,
with the exception of the different treatment of the labialized
velar qv, and the nasal sonant n, the features which differentiate
the Brythonic from the Goidelic dialects first appear for the
most part after the Romans had left Britain. At the beginning
of the Christian era the difference between the two groups can
only have been very slight. And Strachan has shown recently
that Old Irish and Old Welsh agree in a very striking manner
in the use of the verbal particle ro and in other syntactical
peculiarities connected with the verb.
(i.) Goidelic. — The term Goidelic is used to embrace the Celtic
dialects of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. In each case
the national name for the speech is Gaelic (Ir. Gaedhlig, Scottish
Gdidklig, Manx Gailck), from Ir. Scottish Gaodhal, Gaedkeal,
Mid. Ir. G6edel, W. Gwyddel, " a Gael, inhabitant of Ireland or
Scotland. " Old Irish may be regarded as the ancestor of Scottish
and Manx Gaelic, as the forms of these dialects can be traced
back to Old Irish, and there are practically no monuments of
Scottish and Manx in the oldest period. Scottish and Irish may
be regarded as standing to one another in much the same relation
as broad Scottish and southern English. The divergences of
Scottish and Manx from Irish will be mentioned below. The
language of the Ogam inscriptions is the oldest form of Goidelic
with which we are acquainted. Some 300 inscriptions have up
to the present been discovered in this alphabet, the majority of
them hailing from the south-west of Ireland (Kerry and Cork).
In Scotland 22 are known, whilst in England and Wales about 30
have turned up. Most of the latter are in South Wales, but odd
ones have been found in North Wales, Devon and Cornwall,
and one has occurred as far east as Hampshire. The Isle of
Man also possesses two. The letters in the oldest inscriptions are
formed by strokes or notches scored on either side of the edge
of an upright stone. Thus we obtain the following alphabet: —
Trr
v
s
-rrm
a
' / 00 m m — ■ —
m g off z r a o a e I
This system, which was eked out with other signs, would seem
to have been framed in the south-west of Ireland by a person
or persons who were familiar with the Latin alphabet. Some of
the inscriptions probably go back to the 5th century and may
even be earlier. As illustrations of the simplest forms of Ogam
inscriptions we may mention the following: Doveti maqqi
Cattini, i.e. "(the stone) of Dovetos son of Cattinos "; Trenagusu
Maqi Maqi-Treni is rendered in Latin Trenegussi Fili Macu-
treni hie jacU; Sagramni Maqi Cunatatni, " (the stone) of
Sagramnos son of Cunotamos"; Ovanos avi Ivacattos, "(the
stone) of Ovanus descendant of Ivacattus." It will be seen that
in the oldest of these inscriptions q is still kept apart from k (c),
and that the final syllables have not disappeared (cf. maqqi,
O. Ir. maicc), but it appears certain that in Ogamic writing
stereotyped forms were used long after they had disappeared in
ordinary speech. Several stones contain bilingual inscriptions,
but the key to the Ogam alphabet is supplied by a treatise on
Ogamic writing contained in the Book of Ballymote, a manuscript
of the late 14th century. It should be mentioned that the Welsh
IRISH LANGUAGE]
CELT
6*5'
stones are early whilst the Scottish ones are almost without
exception late, and several of the latter have so far defied
interpretation. In addition to the Irish Ogams there are a
number of Christian inscriptions in Latin character, but, with
one exception, they are not older than the 8th century.
See R. R. Brash, The Ogam Inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil
(London, 1879); R. A. Stewart Macalister, Studies xn Irish Epi-
graphy (London), vol. i. (1807), vol. ii. 1902, vol. iii. 1907. The Welsh
inscriptions are contained in J. Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology
(London, 1879). The Scottish stones have also been treated by Rhys
in the Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries (Edinburgh,
1892). See also G. M. Atkinson for the tract in the Book of Bally-
mote, Kilkenny Journal of Archaeology (1874). The Irish Christian
inscriptions were published by Margaret Stokes as the annual volumes
of the Roy. Hist, and Archaeol. Association of Ireland (1870-
1877), and have been republished by R. A. Stewart Macalister.
(a) Irish. — We are able to trace the history of the Irish
language continuously for a period of 1200 years, and from the
time that the literary documents begin we are better supplied
with linguistic material for the study of the language than is the
case with any other Celtic dialect. At the same time that form
of Irish which is to be found in the oldest documents has preserved
a number of features which have entirely, or almost entirely,
disappeared from the Brythonic languages. For this reason
scholars have largely occupied themselves with Irish, which for
purposes of comparative philology may be regarded as the classic
Celtic language.
The history of Irish is divided into three periods: — Old Irish
(700-1100), the documents mainly representing the language of
tne 8th and 9th centuries; Middle Irish, extending roughly from
1 100 to 1550; Modern Irish from 1550 to the present day. These
periods merge into one another to such an extent that no firm division
can be made. The language of some manuscripts of the 14th century
contains forms which are really Old Irish, and Middle Irish ortho-
graphy was partly employed by historians and antiquarians in the
miadle of the I7th century. Old Irish, as compared with Brythonic,
preserves a wealth of inflectional forms in declension and conjugation,
tut many of these tend to disappear very early. In the modern
dialects of Ireland and Scotland there is a rigid rule of orthography
that a palatalized, or, as it is termed, slender consonant in medial
or final position, must be preceded by a palatal vowel (i), and a non-
palatalized consonant by a non-palatal or broad vowel (a, 0, u). This
is the famous rule of the grammarians known as cool le cool agus
leathan le leathan (" slender to slender and broad to broad "), but
it is not so strictly adhered to in the spoken language as is commonly
stated. In the older language the quality of medial and final con-
sonants is only denoted very imperfectly, thus non-palatalized final
consonants are regularly not denoted as such, e.g. O. and Mid. Ir.
fir, Mod. Ir. fior. In Old and Mid. Irish the initial mutations are only
regularly denoted in the case of the vocalic mutation of c, p, t, s, /,
and the nasal mutation of b, d t g. The vocalic mutation of c, p, L s,f
was denoted bjr writing ch, ph, th, sh, fh, the first three symbols of
which were derived from the Latin alphabet. Another method of
denoting the mutation was to write a clot over the letter, originally
the punctum delens, which was justified in the case of mutated /as
the latter early became silent. But no such devices were ready at hand
in the case of the medial b, d, g, and the mutated forms of these con-
sonants were consequently not represented at all in the orthography.
The same remark holds good in the case of the nasal mutation
(eclipse) of the tenues. But it is easy to demonstrate that the same
condition of affairs as we find in the modern language must have
obtained in Old Irish. This insufficiency of symbols renders the
orthography of the early stages of the language very complicated.
We find that b, d, g were used initially to denote the voiced stops,
but medially and finally they represent spirants, the voiced stops in
this case being denoted by c, p, t. It is not until much later times
that the h in the mutated forms of the tenues, or the use of the dot,
was extended to the mediae. Thus in Mid. Irish we find do bochtaib in
choimded(Mod.lrjdobhochtaibh) ,Mid.lr. ro-gab =* Mod.I r.do ghabh. The
nasal mutation of c, p, t was first denoted by writing these sounds double
and finally in the 18th century by writing ec : op, dt. The spirants
arising out of Prim. Celt, g, d, b came in Ola Irish to be confused with
those which developed out of Prim. Celt, p, t, k, in other than initial
positions. In final positions in polysyllables we commonly find d
and b written but medially th and ph, e.g. didnad, " consolation,"
gen. sing, dithnatha. For the ending -ad cp. Lat. -dtu-. On the other
hand we find g written medially and ch finally. These rules, however,
are not yet applied in the oldest documents.
When we turn to the inflections we find that most of the old ter-
minations have disappeared, but that their influence on preceding
ngyjern-, nom. pi. Jtr , gen. pi
corresponding to Prim. Celt. (Gaulish) viros, viri t viro, mron, viri,
viron, the influence of the following sound still differentiates the
cases from one another. In the later language the initial mutations
come more and more to be used for this purpose. In Middle Irish*
the declensions and conjugations are much simplified and the neuter
gender is given up in substantives. I n t he verb the athematic con juga- '
tion ha9 disappeared and the distinction of primary and secondary :
endings is not observed. On the other hand Irish has developed a
peculiar system of absolute and conjoint inflection with different sets of '
endings. Theconjoint endings are always used in the case of compound
verbs, and in simple verbs they are employed after certain proclitics, '
e.g. the negative particles. Thus berid, " he bears," is an absolute
form ; do-beir, " he gives," ni beir, " he does not bear," are conjoint
forms. Further, the verb system is partly dominated by the various
devices employed to express relatival function. There are three
main types "of conjugation in Old Irish corresponding to the Latin*
first, third and fourth conjugations, the Latin types moneo and
audio being difficult to distinguish in Irish. In the modern language
there is in reality but one conjugation. The old Irish verb system
comprises present and imperfect indicative, imperative, pres. sub-'
junctive in -a- or -s* with corresponding past subjunctive, future in'
-/- or -s- or.-«- or with reduplication along with corresponding second-
ary future, -s- preterite, -t- preterite, reduplicated preterite, a
preterite containing a long stem-vowel, together with deponential and
passive forms in -rd. This system is eked out with the verbal prefix ro,
which among other functions changes a preterite into a perfect or '
a present into a perfect. Such a cumbrous system was bound to fatt\
to pieces. A number of isolated forms have come down, but the only
tenses which have survived into the modern period are the present
and imperfect indicative, the imperative, the present subjunctive,
the -s- preterite, the -b- and -e- future with corresponding secondary
forms, and some of the passive forms in -r. At the same time in the
modern language there is an increasing tendency to use analytical
forms. Two noteworthy features of the Irish verb remain to be
mentioned. The one is the use of pronouns as objects infixed between
particle and verb, or in a verb compounded with a preposition be-
tween preposition and verb. There are two sets of forms according as *
to whether the verb occurs in a relative clause or not. Thus -m- is the .
ordinary infixed pronoun of the 1st pers. sing., whilst -dom-is the \
corresponding relative form. In the 3rd pers. sing, aspiration .
may be employed, e.g. ni ceil, " he does not hide," ni cheil, " he does
not hide it." This has been given up in the modern language. •
Secondly in verbs compounded with prepositions the accent of the
verb varies according as to whether the verb is used enclitically
or not — thus after the negative ni or in the infinitive and imperative.
Hence we have do-beir, "he gives," by the side of ni tdbair, he does
not give," infin. tabairt; do-gniu, " I do," ni dinim, " I do not do,"
infin. dtnum. The changes caused by this alternation in addition to
others due to the working of the Irish accent and to the initial and .
internal mutations have played havoc with the verb system and .
render it exceedingly difficult to reconstruct the paradigms. In the
later periods of the language analogy naturally plays a great part,
and many of the complicated forms are done away with, but even
in the modern dialects the alternation between enclitic and ortho- ,
tonic forms still survives in the commonest verbs, e.g. Irish bheir si
" he gives," ni thabhair si, " he does not give, " infin. tabhairt;
Scottish bheir e, cha toir, toirt; Manx ver eh, cha der, coyrt; Irish ni
se, " he does," ni dheanann si, " he does not do," infin, deanamh*, .
Scottish n\e, " he does," cha dean e, " he will not do," infin. deanamh;
Manx nee eh, cha jean eh, jannoo.
In the early period Irish borrowed a number of words from Latin.
These are mainly connected with the church or with articles of
civilization which would be imported from Roman Britain. Some
of these show traces of British pronunciation, e.g. O. Ir. trinddit, from ,
Latin trinitdtem with for a. In others again Lat. p is repre- .
sented in Ir. by c, which may be due to the substitution of q as
being the nearest Irish sound to the foreign p. Thus we find Ir.
corcur, " purple," case, "Easter" ; cenciges, l Whitsuntide" ; cruimther, .
" presbyter. In addition to these several loans were received from .
Norse. In the Mid. Irish period many French words came in, and .
during the middle and modern periods the number of English words
introduced is legion. Pedersen has tried to show in his Vergl. ■
Gramm. that a considerable number of words were borrowed from
Brythonic (Welsh) at an early date.
(For the Latin loan-words, see J. Vendryes, De hibernicis vocabulis
quae a latina lingua originem duxerunt (Paris, 1902) ; Kuno Meyer
has collected a number of loan-words from Norse, Anglo-Saxon,
Early English, Latin and Early French in Revue celtique, xii. 460
and xiii. 505. See also Whitley Stokes, Beszenberger's Beitrdge, xviii.
56 ff. For Celtic names in Norse see W. Stokes, Revue celtique, iii. .
186 ff., and W. A. Craigie, Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil. i. 450 ff.]
With regard to the dialects of Irish, there is a well-known rhyme .
which states the peculiarities of the speech of the four provinces, *
and dialectical differences must have existed at an early period,
though they do not make their appearance in the literary language
until the 18th century. At the present day the Irish of Lemster)
has vanished entirely, and we have unfortunately no records of it. •
But in the other three provinces the vernacular still lives, and we 1
find the Irish of Munster, Connau^ht and Ulster marked off from j
one another by well-defined peculiarities. In general it may be t
stated that the south of Ireland is more conservative than the north, t
In Munster there is a tendency to shift the word-stress from the
initial syllable to a heavy derivative syllable, e.g. -dn. This does
6i6
CELT
[SCOTTISH GAELIC
not take place in Con naught, whilst in Ulster the tendency is to
shorten the vowel. Again in monosyllables ending in //, nn, m, and
under certain other conditions a short vowel becomes a diphthong
in the south, in Connaught it is merely lengthened, but in Ulster the
original length is retained, e.g. Ulster ball, " member, limb," Con-
naught bdll, Munster baull. Final dh, gh in Munster are sounded as
g. In certain cases the north prefers the vocalic mutation where
the west and south have the nasal, thus notably in the dative singular
after preposition and article, e.g. Munster- Connaught do'n bhfear,
" to tne man," Ulster do'n fltear. In the south synthetic verb-
forms are employed to a much larger extent than in the north.
In the early part of the 19th century Irish was still the speech of
more than hall the inhabitants of Ireland. A German traveller
reckoned that out of a total population of seven millions in 1835
four millions spoke Irish as tneir mother-tongue. The famine of
1 846-1 847 was felt most in those districts that were purely Irish, and
these were the parts that were and still are chiefly affected by the
tide of emigration. Add to this the fact that the influence of
O'Connell and his satellites, and above all that of the Roman Catholic
clergy, was against the language. In spite of the efforts of the
Gaelic League (founded 1893), which have met with considerable
success, the language is rapidly dying of internal decay. The
speakers of Irish are chiefly confined to the following counties,
where over 20 % of the population speak Gaelic : — Waterford, Cork,
Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Donegal. The following figures
will illustrate the decay of the language since the famine: —
Year. Monoglots. Bilinguists.
1851 .... 319.602 1,204,684
1861 .... 163,275 942,261
1871 .... 103,562 7I4»3I3
1881 .... 64,167 885,765
1891 .... 38,192 642,053
1901 .... 20,953 620,189
According to the 1901 census report the speakers of Irish were dis-
tributed as follows: — Leinster, 26,436; Munster, 276,268; Con-
naught, 245,580; Ulster, 92,858. The Gaelic movement, which
has thriven largely on account of its anti-English character, would
have a much better chance of galvanizing the ancient language of
Ireland if it were not for the supreme difficulties of Irish spelling
and phonetics. Of the hundreds of thousands of persons who attend
the classes of the League not more than one or two per cent, at the
outside arrive at any state of proficiency. Presbyterian Gaels in
Scotland are taught to read the Bible but Irish Catholics are not
encouraged to do so. The result of this is seen in the fact that, whilst
many, u not all, of the local Nationalist newspapers under the
pressure of the League publish badly-printed and little-read columns
in Irish, there are only two regularly appearing periodicals which
contain any large amount of Irish. Half the contents — and those
the most important — of the weekly organ of the league, An Claid-
heamh Soluis (" the flaming sword "), are in English. The latter
was started in 1898 under the title of Fdinne an Lae (" the ring of
day," i.e. the dawn). The other periodical is the monthly Gaelic
Journal (Irisleabhar na Gaedhilge), a would-be literary magazine
of very inferior quality which has led a precarious existence since
1882. In 1898 it was decided to hold a festival called the Oireachtas
(" hosting, gathering ") on the lines of the Welsh Eisteddfod, The
venture was a great success and similar meetings have been held
every year since, whilst each province and many of the counties
have their annual local Gaelic feis (festival). The literary output
of the movement has been prodigious, consisting in the main of a
number of short stories and dramas (mostly propagandist), but
nothing of any particular merit has as yet been forthcoming. The
best-known writers are Dr Douglas Hyde (collector of folk-stories —
Beside the Fire, 1890, An Sgeulaidhe Gaedhealaeh, 1895 (reprinted
from vol. x. of the Annates de Bretagne), Love Songs of Connaught,
1893, Religious Songs of Connaught, 1905); P. O'Leary (author of
two lengthy stories, Seadna, 1904, Niamh, 1907); P. Dinneen
(author of an historical tale, Cormac Ua ConnaiU, 1901) ; P. O'Shea,
better known as "Conan Maol," author of a collection of short stories
entitled An Buaiceas, 1903.
Authorities on Irish Language. — For the study of Old Irish
— Zeuss, Grammatica Celtica* (Berlin, 1871); B. Guterbock and
R. Thurneysen, Indices to the Irish words treated in Zeuss (Leipzig,
1 881); E. Windisch published the first grammar of Old Irish in 1879
(trans, by N. Moore, Pitt Press, 1882), but Windisch's treatment of
the verb was rendered obsolete by the discovery of the laws of the
Irish accent by H. Zimmer, Keltisehe Studien (Berlin, 1884), and
R. Thurneysen, Revue celtique, vi. 309, J. Vendryes, Grammaire
du Vieil-Irlandais (Paris, 1908) ; R. Thurneysen, Handbuch des Alt-
Irischen (Heidelberg, 1909). Mention should also be made of J.
Strachan, Selections from the Old Irish Glosses (Dublin, 1904) ; and the
same writer's Old Irish Paradigms (Dublin, 1905), Stories from the Tdin
(Dublin, 1908). See also various papers on the Irish verb in the
Transactions of the London Philological Society by Strachan (1895-
lox»); H. Pedersen, Aspirationen i Irsk (Copenhagen, 1898);
C. Sarauw, Irske Studier (Copenhagen, 1901); G. J. Ascoli, Archivio
flotlologico italiano, vols. v. and vi. For the study of Middle Irish —
E. Windisch, Irische Texte mil Wdrterbuch (Leipzig, 1880). (Other
volumes in conjunction with W. Stokes.)
Editions of texts by W. Stokes, Kuno Meyer and others in the
Revue celtique, Zeitschrift fUr cellische Philologie, Eriu. K. Meyer
has issued an exhaustive Mid. Irish glossary (A-D) as a supplement
to the Archiv fur celtische Lexikographie. The remainder is being
published under the auspices of the Royal Irish Academy. The
first grammar of Modern Irish was published by Francis Molloy in
1677 at Rome under the title of Grammatica Latino-Hibernica.
Molloy was followed by Jeremiah Curtin in 1728 with a book called
Elements of the Irish Language. Numerous other grammars were
published towards the end of the 18th and at the beginning of the
10th century, but few of them have any value. The more important
of them are enumerated in the introduction to O'Donovan's Grammar
and to Windisch's Kurzgefasste irische Grammatik, and in Pedersen 's
Aspirationen i Irsk, pp. 29-47. We may mention W. Neilson*s
Grammar (1808) as it is important for the Irish of E. Ulster. But the
freatest native grammarian was John O' Donovan, who traversed
reland in connexion with the Ordnance Survey, and published in
1854 a comprehensive grammar noting the differences between the
various dialects. A little grammar published by Molloy in 1867 is
instructive on account of the author s peculiar point of view. The
most useful books for the study of the living language are the series
of booklets (five) published by Father O'Growney, one of the chief
promoters of the present movement. Mention should also be made
of J. P. Henry's Handbook of Modern Irish, pts. i.-iv., and of the
grammars by P. W. Joyce (Dublin, 1896) and the Christian Brothers
(Dublin, 1001). For the northern form of Irish J. P. Craig's
Grammar of Modern Irish is useful (' Dublin, 1904). The phonetics
of a Munster dialect have been investigated by R. Henebry, A
Contribution to the Phonology of Desi Irish (Greifswald, 1901). The
dialect of the Aran Islands off the coast of Galway has been described-
by F. N. Finck, Die Araner Mundart, i. Lautlehre und Grammatik, ii.
Wdrterbuch (Marburg, 1890). G. Dottin has given an account of a
dialect of North Connaught (Mayo) in the Revue celtique, xiv. pp.
97-137. A studv of the speech of the north was published by E. C.
Quiggin under tne title of A Dialect of Donegal, Phonology and Texts
(Cambridge, 1906). For an account of the decay of Irish see
H. Zimmer, " Die keltisehe Bewegung in Irland," Preussische Jahr-
bucher for 1898, vol. 93, p. 59 ff., and the last chapter of Douglas
Hyde's Literary History of Ireland (London, 1901).
The work of the earlier compilers of glosses will be mentioned
in the literature section below. The first dictionary of the modern
language of any importance was that published by J. O'Brien in
1768. Next came E. O'Reilly with his Irish-English Dictionary
(Dublin, 1 81 7). This book contains a vast store of words gathered on
no principle whatever from all manner of sources, and has therefore
to be used with caution, but even at the present day it renders con-
siderable service. A second edition with a supplement by O'Donovan
was published after the latter's death in i86a. The first trustworthy
dictionary of the modern language was published under the auspices
of the Irish Texts Society by P. J. Dinneen (London, 1 904). English-
Irish dictionaries have been compiled by D. Foley (Dublin, 1855);
E. E. Fournier (Dublin, 1903); T. O'Neill Lane (Dublin, 1904).
(b) Scottish Gaelic. — Scottish Gaelic is the form of Goidelic
speech which was introduced into Scotland by the Dalriadic
Scots who came over from Ireland in the early centuries of our
era. We possess practically no early monuments of the language.
We have one or two inscriptions in Latin characters, such as that
at St Vigeans and the Ogams mentioned above, which have not
yet been solved. In the Book of Deir there is a colophon of a
few lines probably written by an Irish scribe in the 9th century,
and as the language of these lines differs in no wise from the Irish
of the period, we do not know if they accurately represent the
Gaelic of Scotland or if they may not be pure Irish. In the
same MS. there are further Gaelic scraps belonging to the nth
and 1 2th centuries. The word-forms in these entries are identical
with those current at the time in Ireland, but the historical
orthography seems to show more signs of decay than is the case
in Irish. The medieval Scottish MSS. in the Advocates' Library
at Edinburgh are only just being published, but thty seem either
to hail from Ireland or to be written in pure Irish. The end of
the 15th century brought a change. The Lordship of the Isles,
the great bond between Ireland and Scotland, was broken up.
The Gaels of Scotland, thrown on their own resources, advanced
their own dialect to the position of a literary language and tried
to discard the Irish orthography. The Book of the Dean of
Lismore, compiled about 1500, is written in a kind of phonetic
orthography which has not as yet been sufficiently investigated.
The language of those poems which are not directly ascribed to
Irish poets, and which may therefore be regarded as representing
the literary language of the Highlands at the time, seems to
occupy a position midway between Irish and Scottish Gaelic.
But until the beginning of the 18th century the Highlands were
MANX LANGUAGE]
CELT
617
under the literary dominion of Ireland, so much so that Bedell's
Irish version of the Scriptures was circulated in Scotland with a
glossary from 1690 to 1767, and Bishop Carsewell's version of
Knox's Prayer-book (1567) is pure Irish. The language of the
people is poorly represented in the 16th and 17th centuries, and
the orthography is not fixed until we reach the 1 8th century.
Irish and Scottish Gaelic differ considerably in point of voca-
bulary, but there are also important divergences in phonetics and
inflections. In the first place, Scottish Gaelic as written has entirely
fiven up the nasal mutation (eclipse), e.g. Scottish ar bd, " our cow, '
rish ar m~b6; Scottish nan tlr, " of the countries," Irish na d-tir.
It should, however, be observed that in Skye and the Outer Isles
the nasal mutation has been partly restored and in some places
there are even parallels to the Welsh nasal mutation of c, p, t to ngh,
nth, nh. Secondly, post-vocalic c, f , / are commonly preceded by a
breathed sound not represented in writing, thus mac " son,' is
pronounced mahk; slat, " rod," as slaht. Again there is a tendency
to insert a sibilant in the zroup rt, thus ceart, " right," is sounded
hears* t, and the distinction between palatalized and non-palatalized
sounds is not so rigidly observed as in Irish. The group cht is in
Scotland pronounced as if chk. We may also mention that Scottish
Gaelic preserves an old 2 in a number of words where Irish now has <$,
thus, Old Ir. fer, Scottish G.fer, Irish \f&r t but in both cases the spell-
ing is fear (in this respect Scottish Gaelic goes hand in hand with
Manx and the almost extinct Irish of Down). Similarly, we find that
in Scottish Gaelic and Manx stressed vowels preceding a palatalized
consonant have not undergone palatalization to the same extent
as in Irish, e.g. in Ireland auine, " man,"<VfMff9-, is pronounced
din'd, but in Scotland dun'd (in Manx written dooinney). A further
peculiarity of Scottish Gaelic is that it substitutes lenes or voiceless
mediae for the voiced stops, and even /, r, n sounds show a great
tendency to give up the voice. Scottish Gaelic eoes farther even
than Irish in the confusion of vowel-sounds, e.g. Lat. coxa, Ir. cos,
4 ' foot," Sc. cos ; Ir. codal, Sc. cadal. When we turn to the inflections
we find that analogy has here played a much greater part than in
Irish. There is a tendency to make the plural of all substantives
except masculine monosyllables end in -an. In the conjugation
the synthetic forms have with one or two exceptions entirely dis-
appeared and the present forms have become momentary in force.
Hence in ordinary grammars it is stated that the present has become
a future, thus ni m% means " I shall do." The past participle chiefly
ends in -te as against Irish -the, -fe, or -tha, -ta, according to the
quality of the preceding sound. The present (future) and past
subjunctive (conditional, representing both the imperfect indie,
and secondary future of Irish) supply the place of the Irish consue-
tudinal forms. In idiom also Scottish has diverged very consider-
ably from Irish, e.g. in the use of tha fir. id) for is.
It seems now to be agreed that the various dialects of Scottish
Gaelic fall into two main divisions — northern and southern.
Mackinnon states that the boundary between the two passes roughly
up the Firth of Lome to Loch Leven, then across country from Balla-
cnulish to the Grampians. The country covered by the northern
dialect was of old the country of the Northern Picts, whilst the
g)rtion of Argyllshire south of the boundary line, together with
ute and Arran, made up the kingdom of Dalriada. The Gaelic
district south of the Grampians belonged to the Southern Picts.
The southern dialect is commonly regarded as the literary language.
It approaches more nearly to Irish and preserves the inflections much
better than the speech of the north.
The following characteristics of the northern dialects may be
mentioned : — (1) The diphthongization of open I to ia is carried much
farther in the north than in the south. (2) The vowel ao in the north
is more regularly the high-back-narrow-unrounded vowel-sound,
whereas the south in many cases has a low-front-wide-round sound.
(3) The north has sir in initial position where the south prefers sr.
Further, the northern dialects go very far in dropping unaccented
final vowels. It may be remarked that in the reduction of derivative
endings containing long vowels Scotland goes hand-in-hand with
Ulster Irish, thus Connaught aran, " bread," is in Ulster and Scot-
land ardn. Again, Scottish agrees with North Irish in the loss of
synthetic verb-forms and in using as negative eha, Mid. Ir. nico,
nocha. But, on the other hand, Scotland, with the exception of
South Argyll and some of the Isles, diphthongizes accented a, 0, e , in
monosyllables, before //, nn, m, thus resembling the speech of
Munster. In South Argyll the original short vowel is half lengthened.
As to the southern limits of Gaelic speech in Scotland, the boundary
between Gaelic and English in medieval times was the so-called
Highland line, and at the War of Independence it is probable that
it extended to Stirling, Perth and the Ochil and Sidlaw Hills, the
Inglis being limited to a very narrow strip along the coast. Dr
T. A. H. Murray traced the linguistic frontier in 1 869-1 870 with the
following results. The line started about 3 m. west of the town of
Nairn on the Moray Firth and ran in a south-east direction to the
Dee, a m. above Ballater. On the other side of the Dee it began
4 m. above Balmoral and followed the boundary of Perth and Forfar
as far as Glen Shee, where it went off to the south-west as far as
Dunkeld. After passing Birnam Hill it turned due west until the
upper part of Glen Almond was reached, where it bent to the south-
ward, passing through Comrie and along the braes of Doune to the
Teith, 3 or 4 m. below Callander. Thence it ran along the north
shore of Lake Monteith to Gartmore, and from there to Rowar-
dennan on the east side of Loch Lomond. On the west side it
passed through Glen Douglas down Loch Long and the Firth of
Clyde, leaving Bute and Arran to the west. At the present day this
boundary has probably receded to the extent of several miles, and
even in 1870 there were districts such as Bute and the region round
Dunoon where Gaelic was only spoken by the oldest natives and
the immigrant population. The language is not found in the north-
east of Caithness, the boundary running, according to Murray,
roughly from a little north-east of Lybster to the mouth of the Forss.
Celtic was driven out of Shetland and Orkney by Scandinavian some
time during the middle ages. (See further J. A. H. Murray, The
Dialect of Die Southern Counties of Scotland, London, 1875; Revue
celtique, vol. ii. pp. 180-187.)
Until the 18th century Gaelic was spoken in Galloway and on the
uplands of Ayr and Lanark. The following figures from the census
returns illustrate the decrease in the number of persons who speak
Gaelic: —
Monolinguists. Bilinguists.
1 88 1 . . No return 231,594
. ^ . (this includes
' •"'« Gaelic monolinguists)
1891 • 43.738 210,677
1901 28,106 202,700
In the last-mentioned year it appears that nearly one-half of the
speakers of Gaelic are reported from the counties of Inverness and
Ross (23,894 monolinguists and 82,573 bilinguists). From about
1300 we find Scottish emigrants filtering into the dens of Antrim,
where the Gaelic that is spoken is still unmistakably Scottish. There
have long been local societies of Highlanders for the cultivation
of their native tongue, the most important one being An Comunn
G&idhealach (founded 1891). This society holds an annual gathering
called the Mod ( -= Eng. " moot ") on the lines of the Welsh Eisteddf odj
and recently the Scottish Education Department has countenanced
the teaching of Gaelic in Highland schools. But the political
element plays little or no part in the language movement in Scot-
land, ana the latter is not likely to assume the proportions of the
Gaelic League in Ireland. Asa rule, however, Highlanders are better
able to read their own language than Irish Gaels, for, the majority
being Protestants, they are encouraged to read their Bibles. There are
only two periodicals which devote half their space to Gaelic. The
one is An Deo-Greine (" the sunbeam"), founded October 1905; and
the other is the Catholic propagandist quarterly Guth na Bliadhna
(" the voice of the year "), started in 1904. Up to 1905 a fortnightly
newspaper printed wholly in Gaelic appeared in Prince Edward
Island, under the title of An Mac-talla (" the echo "), and efforts
have been made to revive it. A weekly newspaper wholly in Gaelic
was started in 1908 by R. Stuart Erskine tinder the title of Alba.
Authorities on Scottish Gaelic. — The first grammar of Scottish
Gaelic was compiled by W. Shaw (An Analysis of the Galic Language,
1778). The most useful one was that published by Alexander
Stewart, Elements of Gaelic Grammar (Edinburgh, 1801). A revised
edition of this work with many additions and corrections was pub-
lished by H. C. Gillies, London, 1902. This book is rather spoilt
by the author's attitude, and requires to be supplemented and cor-
rected. G. Henderson and C. W. Robertson nave published im-
portant papers on the modern dialects in the Zeitschrtft fur celtische
Philologte, the Celtic Review and the Transactions of the Gaelic Society
of Inverness. The most useful work on Gaelic philology is Alexander
Macbain's Etymological Gaelic Dictionary (Inverness, 1896) (a later
edition by W. J. Watson). The chief dictionaries are iMctionarium
Scoto-Celticum, published by the Highland Society of Scotland
(Edinburgh, 1828) ; R. A. Armstrong, Gaelic Dictionary in two parts
(London, 1825); N. McAlpine, Pronouncing Gaelic Dictionary
(Edinburgh, 1847) (this book gives the pronunciation of Islay);
Macleod and Dewar, Gaelic and English Dictionary (latest edition,
Edinburgh, 1901); Faclair Gdidhlig, published by E. Macdonald,
Heme Bay, appearing in parts since 1902.
(c) Manx. — Our sources of information with regard to the
language of the Isle of Man are even more scanty in the early
period than they are in the case of Scotland. There are a number
of references to the island in Irish literature, but the earliest
monument of the vernacular we possess is the version of the Book
of Common Prayer made by Bishop Phillips in 16 10. In this
translation the traditional Irish orthography is not followed.
The spelling resembles the orthography which was employed in
Scotland by the compiler of the Book of the Dean of Lismore.
How far this system was used is a question which it is difficult
to decide. In Scotland the Irish orthography has prevailed in a
slightly modified form, but Manx writers adhered to a mode of
spelling which was as phonetic as any system based on English,
or, probably more correctly Anglo-Scottish, orthography could
be. This fact, combined with the rapid phonetic decay of the
v. 20 a
6i8
CELT
[WELSH LANGUAGE
language, makes it extremely difficult to discover what sound-
values are to be. attached to the various symbols. At the
beginning of the 18th century English was not understood by
two-thirds of the natives, and in 1764 the S.P.C.K. issued a
paper containing this statement: " The population of the Isle is
20,000, of whom the far greater number are ignorant of English."
But from this time English gradually crept in. The last edition
of the Manx Bible was issued in 1 819, and of the New Testament
in 1840. The present writer's great-grandmother refused to
speak English, his grandfather (b. 181 5) preached in Manx and
English, and his father (b. 1844) ordy spoke English. The
following figures illustrate the rapid decline of the language: —
Monolinguists. Bilinguists.
• 1875 .... 190 12,340
(out of a population
of 41,084. exclusive
of Douglas)
1901 . . . . None 4,419
Manx stands in a much closer relation to Scottish Gaelic than
Irish, and fishermen state that they could understand a good deal
of what is said in South Argyll, though they are quite at a loss at
Kinsale. Manx exhibits the same tendency as Scottish to use ana-
lytical and periphrastic forms in the verb, thus jannoo, " to do," is
'used like Scottish deanamk with an infinitive to express the past and
1 future. The present has acquired a momentary (future) signification,
J dnd the past participle ends in -it (Scottish -te). The negative is cha
1 as in Scotland and Ulster. Manx goes as far as northern Scottish in
dropping unstressed final vowels, e.g. chiarn, " lord," Irish, tighearna;
1 -yn is the favourite plural ending in substantives. The nasal muta-
tion has been partly given up. Old Irish stressed l is frequently
retained, e.g. fir, " man," Irish f&r (spelt fear), and the vowels 6 and &
are confused as in Scottish, e.g. Manx cass, " foot," Scottish cas,
t Irish cos. Manx is divided in itself about the treatment of short
■ accented vowels before U, nn, m. According to Rhys the south side
lengthens, whilst the north side diphthongises; e.g. Irish crann,
11 tree," claim, " offspring," S. Manx kron, Hon, N. Manx, kroun,
l kloun (written croan, cloan). In the matter of stress Manx is quite
y original, going farther even than the dialects of the south of Ireland.
Not only does it shift the stress in the case of heavy derivative
suffixes like -an and reduce the preceding vowel, e.g. Ir. fuar&n,
Sc. fuaran, Manx frdn, " spring, but even in cases like caglMa,
"variety," Sc. Ir. caochladn, O. Ir. coimmchloud; corda, "voice,"
Ir. comhradh. The Mid. English stress on the final is further retained
in words from the French such as ashdon, " nation," litriy, " deliver."
■ As other features peculiar to Manx we may mention the following.
An intervocalic 5 or sh shows a tendency to become lisped and
voiced to d. In monosyllables post- vocalic final m, n, are often
preceded by an intrusive b, d respectively, thus ben " woman," may
fee heard as bedn. Ir. & becomes more palatal and is often ct. Ir.
sc becomes st, sht, e.g. Ir. fescor, " evening," Manx fastyr; Ir. uisce,
*'* water," Manx ushtey.
Authorities on Manx. — The place and personal names of the
Isle of Man have been collected by A. W. Moore in Manx Names 2
(London, 1903) (33% of the proper names are Scandinavian). The
chief source of information about the spoken language is J. Rhys,
The Outlines of the Phonology of Manx Gaelic (London, 189s) (the
book has unfortunately no index and no texts). The only serious
attempt to represent spoken Manx graphically is the transcription
•of a song by J. Strachan in the Zeitschr. f&r ceitische Philologie, vol. i.
p. 54. The native grammarian is J. Kelly, who in 1803 published
A Practical Grammar of the Ancient Gaehc or Language of the Isle
of Man, usually called Monks. This book was republished by W. Gill
for the Manx Society in 1859, and a facsimile reprint of this latter
was made for Quaritch, London, 1870. A useful little book entitled,
( Pirst Lessons in Manx was published by Edwin Goodwin (Dublin,
,1901). There are two dictionaries, one by A. Cregeen, Douglas
1835, which is now being reprinted for An Cheshaght Gailckagh, a
Douglas society which is endeavouring to encourage the use of
Manx and to get it introduced into the schools. The other dictionary
is by J. Kelly in two parts— (1) Manx and English, (2) English and
Manx, published by the Manx Society in 1866. Kelly also prepared
a Triglot of Manx, Irish and Gaelic, based upon English, which has
never been published. A useful paper on the language appeared in
the Transactions of the London Philological Society for 1875 by
H. Jenner, " The Manx Language: Its Grammar, Literature and
Present State." (E. C. Q.)
(ii). Brythonic. The term Brythonic is used to denote the
Celtic dialects of Wales, Brittany and Cornwall. Unlike the
Goidels the Brythonic peoples have no common name for their
language. Forms of Brythonic speech were doubtless current
throughout England and Wales and the Lowlands of Scotland
at the time of the Saxon invasion. The S.E. of Britain may
iave been extensively Romanized, and it is not impossible that
remnants of Goidelic speech may have lingered on in out-of-the-
way corners. No literary documents dating from this period
have been preserved, but some idea of the character of Brythonic
may be gathered from the numerous inscriptions which have
come to light. In the middle of the 6th century Brythonic was
confined to the western half of Britain south of the Clyde and
Forth. The colonization of Britannia minor or Armorican
Brittany during the 5th and 6th centuries will be described latex.
In the latter part of the 6th century the W. Saxons pushed their
conquests as far as the estuary of the Severn, and from that time
the Brythons of S.W. Britain were cut off from their kinsmen in
Wales. Early in the 7 th century the Brythons of Strathclyde
were similarly isolated by the battle of Chester (613). The
kingdom of Strathclyde maintained a separate existence until the
10th century, and it is generally stated that Brythonic speech did
not die out there until the 1 2th century. The question as to how
far Brythonic names and words have survived in these districts
has never been properly investigated. Certain it is that Bry-
thonic numerals survived amongst shepherds in Cumberland,
Westmorland and N. W. Yorkshire down to the second half of the
19th century, just as herrings are still counted in Manx by Manx
fishermen otherwise quite innocent of the language. Accordingly,
from the 7th century onwards Brythonic became gradually
limited in Great Britain to three districts — Strathclyde, Wales,
and Cornwall and Devon. During the 7th century the Brythons
of Wales and Strathclyde often fought side by side against the
Angles, and it is from, this period that the name by which the
Welsh call themselves is supposed to date, Cymro<*Comt>rox,
pi. Cytnry<*Combroges, i.e. " fellow-eountrymen " as opposed
to W. allfro, Gaul. Allobroges, " foreigners." We have no means
of determining when Celtic speech became extinct in the
petty states of the north which retained their independence
longest.
The chief features which distinguish the Brythonic from the
Goidelic dialects have already been enumerated. In the course
of the 6th and 7th centuries final short vowels disappeared.
In compound names the final vowel remains in the first com-
ponent until the 7th century. Short vowels in other than initial
syllables when immediately preceding the stress (on the historical
penultimate) disappear, whilst long ones are shortened, e.g.
Welsh cardawt from Lat. caritdtem. Other vowels in unstressed
position are apt to be reduced, thus 6, &, give i in O. W. (Mid.
W. y). A marked characteristic of Welsh as distinguished from
Cornish and Breton is the treatment of & under the influence of
a following i. In Welsh the result is ei y in Corn, and Bret. e t
e.g. Welsh sevnt, " saints," Bret, sent, sing. sant. The mutations
seem to have started in the second half of the 6th century in
the case of the tenues.
See J. Loth, Les Mots latins dansles langues Brittoniques (Paris,
1892); J. Loth, Chrestamathie bretonne (Pans, 1890).
(a) Welsh (Cymraeg). — It is usual to divide the history of the
Welsh language into three periods — Old, Middle and Modern.
To the oldest period belong the collections of glosses, the earliest
of which go back to about 800. The middle period extends from
1 100 to 1500.
As a rule the medial mutation of the tenues and mediae is not
denoted in O. Welsh. Intervocalic g is sometimes retained but
fenerally it has disappeared, whilst after r and / it is still written,
n the course of the 9th century initial w (v) becomes gu (later gw).
As the O. Welsh documents consist almost entirely of isolated words,
we know scarcely anything about the morphology of the language
during this period. To the middle period belong the ancient poems
from the Black Book of Carmarthen, but the language of these com-
positions is evidently much older than the date of the manuscript
(12 th century), as it preserves a number of very archaic features.
Other important sources of information for this period are the O.
Welsh Laws contained in a MS. of the 12th century. To a somewhat
later date belong the Mabinogion (14th century MS.), and the prose
versions of French romances published by R.Williams (15th century).
In Middle Welsh the consonant mutations are in general denoted
in writing, though not consistently, and from this period dates the
introduction of w and y (O. W. u, i) to denote vowel sounds. The
symbol 11 to denote a voiceless / was already employed in Mid. W.
but rh (= voiceless r), dd (*=Eng. th in " thou ") and/ (=r) either
do not appear or only become regular during the modern period.
In Mod. W. the orthography is regularized and does not differ
WELSH LANGUAGE]
CELT
6r<^
materially from that of the late medieval documents. In O.W. the
old stress on the final syllable (the historical penult) appears to have
been preserved, but during the middle period the accent was shifted
to the penult. In consequence of this change aw (<a) in final
syllables is reduced to o in Mod. W., e.g. Mid. W. pechawt <Lat.
peccatum, Mod. W. pechod.
The comparative wealth of inflection preserved by O. Ir. has almost
entirely disappeared in Welsh. There are only the faintest traces of
the case forms, the dual and the neuter gender. Compared with
the Irish nominal declension according to -o- (-jo-), -a-, -*-, -«-, -s-,
guttural, dental and nasal stems, Welsh only distinguishes the nom.
sing, and plur., the latter sometimes retaining an old formation.
Thus masc. -o- stems show palatal modification, e.g. corn, " horn,"
plur. cyrn < *korni ; the plural ending of -u- stems, O. Gaulish -oves.
gives O.W. -on, Mid. W. -eu, Mod. W. -au, e.g. penneu, " heads."
The termination -ones of the -n- stems appears as -on. The infixation
of pronominal objects between a verbal particle and the verb itself
continues in use down to the present day as in Breton. In the third
person sing, of the pres. ind. there are instances in the oldest Welsh
of the peculiar alternation between orthotonic and absolute forms
which characterize the Irish paradigms, e.g. pereid, " it endures,"
but ny phara. The several types of conjugation represented in Irish
have become obscured, traces remaining only in the endings of the
third sing, of the pres. ind., the pret. ind. (Mid. W. -as, ~es. -is) and
the pret. passive (Mid. W. -at, -et, -it). The verb system of Welsh
comprises the following tenses: indie, present (also used as future),
imperative, imperfect, preterite (in Mid. W. forms with s have
become prevalent as in Irish, but forms corresponding to the Irish
preterites in t or with reduplication or unreduplicated with long
vowel are not infrequent in the early poetry), pluperfect (a new
formation), pres. and pret. passive. In the subj. early W. dis-
tinguishes pres. and past, but the latter comes to be replaced by the
pluperfect indicative. The sign of the subj. is -h- <s, which reminds
one of the Irish J-subj., though the formation is somewhat different.
There are also traces of a future formation containing h<s. (See
also under Wales.)
We have seen already that Wales began to exist as a separate
entity roughly at the end of the 6th and beginning of the 7th cen-
m turies. In the second half of the 8th century the Welsh
lUMtory were cQafu^d m pretty much their present limits by
*"? Offa, king of Mercia, who constructed the Dyke going by
extent gj-g namet which has approximately remained the political
boundary between England and Wales ever since. From this time
onwards the bitter feeling against England which we find expressed
in the fervid compositions of Iolo Goch and other political bards
served to prevent any serious inroads of English on Welsh-speaking
territory. With the advent of the Tudors, however, there came a
great change. Henry VII. owed his throne in large measure to the
support he had received from Wales and he prided himself on his
Welsh ancestry. A consequence of this was that throughout the
1 6th century Wales received exceptionally favourable treatment at
the hands of the English sovereign and parliament. In 1562 a
decree was issued ordering a translation of the Bible to be made into
Welsh. All this could naturally not be without effect on the attitude
of the leaders of the people towards England. The change is already
apparent in the poems of Lewis Glyn Cothi and others. And the
staking difference in the manner in which the Reformation was
regarded in Ireland and Wales is worthy of remark. During the
Stuart wars the Welsh nobles fought invariably on the Royalist side,
and there is plenty of other evidence that the aristocracy of Wales
was becoming thoroughly anglicized both in sentiment and language.
At the same time the practice of the Tudors was reversed in many
particulars. Thus it became the custom to appoint Englishmen
ignorant of the national language to the Welsh bishoprics. In this
manner it is not a matter for surprise that a feeling of estrangement
should grow up between the bulk of the population, who only knew
Welsh, and the clergy and nobles, their intellectual leaders. The
neglect of the national language is evident from the large number of
English words which have even crept into such classical works as
Prichard's Canwyll y Cymry and Ellis Wynn's Gweledigaethau y
Bardd Cwsg. It is stated that, of the 269 works published by Welsh-
men between 1546 and 1644, 44 were in Latin, 184 in English and
only 41 in Welsh, and of these 37 consist of works of piety. Thus
at the beginning of the 18th century there seemed a fair chance that
Welsh would soon become extinct like Cornish.
An extraordinary change was brought about by the Methodist
movement in Wales. The preachers, in order to get hold of the
masses, addressed them in the vernacular, and their efforts were
crowned with enormous success. At the same time a minister of
the Established Church, Griffith Jones, went about Wales establish-
ing lay schools to which young and old might come to learn to read
the Welsh Bible. Between 1737 and 1761 3395 such schools sprang
up, at which no fewer than 158,238 persons oTafl ages learned to read
their native language. After Griffith Jones's death this work was
carried on by others, notably by Charles of Bala (175S-1814), who
passed over to Calvinistic Methodism and whose schools were trans-
formed after the model fd the Sunday schools instituted in 1782 by
Robert Raikes. Charles of Bala was largely instrumental in the
founding of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and Wales was
provided with 100,000 copies of the Bible and Testament at very
moderate prices. Bishop's Morgan's version of the Scriptures
made in 1588 (final revision 1620) represents the speech of North,'
Wales which had remained more or less free from English influence,,
so that the language of the Welsh Bible is rightly regarded as the
literary model. Three-fourths of the inhabitants of Wales belong
to the various Nonconformist sects, and therefore pass almost without^
exception through the Sunday school, where they are drilled in itdj
sole object of study, the Welsh Bible. m ,
With the increasing employment of Welsh owing # to the Non-
conformist movement there was also awakened a new interest in the
past history of the principality. A society calling itself the Cym-y
deithas y Cymmrodorton was founded in London in 1^51, and during,
the succeeding half-century two periodicals exclusively in Welsh
were started, the one, Trysorfa y Gwybodaeth, in 1770, the other fi
Cylchgrawn Cymraeg, in 1793. The year 1792 witnessed the creation
of an important society, the Cymdeithas y Cymreigyddion, in London,,
in which the moving spirits were William Owen (Pughe), Owen Jones
and Edward Williams. The results of their indefatigable search for
ancient Welsh manuscripts were published in three volumes undetf
the title Myvyrian Archaiology (London. 1 801-1807). Owen further
published an edition of the greatest medieval Welsh poet Dafydd an
Gwilym, and also the first copious dictionary. But this was not all.
In Goronwy Owen (1 722-1 769) a poet had arisen whose works could
stand comparison witn the compositions of the medieval writers, anq
it was owing to the efforts of the three men above mentioned that
the national Eisteddfod ( = session, from eistedd, "to sit") was
revived. The origin of these literary festivals is shrouded in
obscurity. It is recorded that a S. Welsh prince, Gruffydd ap
Rhys, held a festival lasting forty days in 1155 to commemorate af
victorious campaign at which poets and minstrels competed for
gifts and other rewards. Gruffydd's son Rhys ap Gruffydd is re-
ported to have instituted a similar contest in 11 76, at which the
successful competitors received a chair whilst the others were given,
presents. It would seem that after the loss of Welsh independence
a carefully graded order and a system of jealously guarded rules
came into existence. Similar national festivals were held under
royal patronage under Henry VIII. in 1523 and again under Eliza-
beth in 1568. From 1568 until 1819 no general eisteddfod for all
Wales was held. Since 1819 the national festival has been held
annually and every little town has its own local celebration. Hence
the Nonconformist Sunday school, the pulpit and the eisteddfod
may be regarded as the most potent factors in resisting the inroads
of English. The whole question of the vitality of Welsh and what
may be called the political and social history of the language is
treated in great detail by H. Zimmer, " Der Pan-Keltismus in Gros&t
britannien und Irland," i., in Preussische Jahrbucher, vol. xcii. (1898).
In elementary schools in Wales the use of Welsh has been permitted
since 1893. f }
With regard to the extent over which Welsh is spoken a detailed
map is given in J. E. Southall's Welsh Language Census of i8gi
(Newport, 1895). A line drawn from the southern end of the estuary
of the Dee about 2 m. W. of Connah's Quay to Aberthaw in Glamorgan,
would practically include all those districts where Welsh is spoken
by 60% of the population, and considerable deductions would have
to be made for parts of Flint, Montgomery, most of Radnor and the
N. part of Brecon. Little is spoken in the southern half of the Gowei>
peninsula or in S. Pembrokeshire. Over much of Anglesey 97 J%
of the population spoke Welsh and in parts of Cardiganshire 98-3 %i
Of a total population in 1901 of 2,012,876, 929,824 were returneq
as speakers of Welsh, of whom 280,005 were monoglots. That Welsh
is a very living language may be gathered from the following statistics*
Between 1801 and 1898 no fewer than 8425 volumes were published
in the vernacular, whilst in 1895 there were appearing regularly
2 quarterlies, 2 bi-monthlies, 28 religious arid literary monthlies,
and 25 weekly papers. In 1909 the number was probably greater,
The danger for Welsh lies rather in the direction of internal decays
The speech of the people is saturated with English words and idiom ,
and modern writers like Daniel Owen submit to the same influence,
instead of returning to the classical models of the i^th century* j
Much remains to be done as regards the classification of the
modern Welsh dialects. It is usual to divide them, into four groups—*
(1) Powys (N.E.); (2) Gwynedd (N.W.); (3.) Dyfed (S.W.); ( 4 >
Gwent (S.E.). One of the chief points on which N. and S. diverge^
is the pronunciation of the vowels i, u, y, which in the S. all tend tq
become i. The difference between N. and S. was noticeable as early
as the time of Giraldus Cambrensis. See M. Nettlau, Betirage zuk
cymrischen Grammatik (Leipzig, 1887), also,J2«ip. celt. ix. pp. 6a ff. f
113 ff.; T. Darlington, Some Dialectal Boundaries in Mid-Wales. ,
Trans, of the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion % 1 000-1901. The only
scientific description of a living dialect is Spoken N. Welsh, ,
by H. Sweet, Trans, of the London Phil. Soc, 1882-1884. . ,
Authorities on Welsh Language.— For the study of older
Welsh: — J. C. Zeuss, Grammatica Celtica (Berlin 2 , 1871) — an indejj
to the O. Welsh glosses cited in this work was compiled by V.
Tourneur, Archivf. celt. Lexiko graphic, iii- 100-137; J. Strachanj
An Introduction to Early Welsh, with a Reader, (Manchester, 1909)1
J. Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology (London 8 , 1879). Editions
of texts — The Black Book of Carmarthen, facsimile edition by. J,
Gwenogvryn Evans (Pwllheli, 1906) ; J. Rhys and J. Gwenogvryn
Evans, The Text of the Mabinogion (Oxford, 1887) ; The Myvyrian
620
CELT
[BRETON LANGUAGE
Archaiology of Wales (1801-1807; reprinted Denbigh, 1870); W. F.
Skene, The Four Ancient Books of Wales (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868) ;
Aneurin Owen, Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (London, 1841) ;
facsimile edition by A. W. Wade-Evans, Welsh Medieval Law
(Oxford, 1900) ; K. Meyer, Peredur ap Efrawc with glossary (Leipzig,
1887); R. Williams, Selections from the Hengwrt Manuscripts
(London, 1876-1892); J. E. Southall, Wales and Her Language
(Newport, 1892). The earliest Welsh grammar was published as
long ago as 1567 in Milan by Griffiths Roberts, reprinted in facsimile
as supplement to the Revue celtique (Paris, 1883). An account of
the language was prefixed to Owen Pughe's Dictionary (1803).
During the 19th century many manuals of indifferent value saw the
light of day. The most authoritative works are : — T. Rowland, A
(frammar of the Welsh Language (Wrexham, 1853 1 : 1876 4 ), (still the
most complete work), the same author also published a companion
volume of Welsh Exercises (Wrexham, n.d.) ; W. Spurrell, A Grammar
of the Welsh Language (Carmarthen 1 , 1870); E. Anwyl, A Welsh
Grammar for Schools , (i.) Accidence, («.) Syntax (London*, 1898).
Other useful manuals for the beginner: — T. Tones, A Guide to
Welsh, pts. i. ii. new ed. (Wrexham, n.d.) ; S. J. Evans, The Elements
of Welsh Grammar (Newport*, 1903). Dictionaries: — The first
Welsh dictionary was compiled by William Salesbury (London,
1547; facsimile reprint, London, 1877); W. Owen Pughe, A Dic-
tionary of the Welsh Language (2 vols., London, 1803; reprinted
Denbigh, 1870); W. Spurrell, Welsh-English and English-Welsh
Dictionary (Carmarthen*, 1004) ; a smaller one by W. Richards in
2 vols. (Wrexham, n.d.), and many others. A dictionary on a large
scale was planned by D. Silvan Evans and subsidized by the govern-
ment. Only A- Del has, however, appeared (Carmarthen, 1893-
1906), cp. J. Loth in Archiv f. celt. Lex. vol. i. for additions and
corrections. A survey of Welsh periodical literature is contained
in T. M. Jones's Llenyddiaethfy Ngwlad (Treffynnon, 1893). For
Welsh folklore see J. Rhys, Celtic Folklore, Welsh and Manx (Ox-
ford, 1001). H. H. Vaughan, Welsh Proverbs (London, 1889), also
Rev. celt. iii. 419 fF. See also G. Dottin, Revue de synthase historique,
vi. 317 ff.; H. Zimmer and L. C. Stern in Kultur der Gegenwart,
Teil i, Abt. xi. 1. (E. C. Q.)
(b) Breton. — Breton (Brezonek) is the name given to the
language spoken by those Britons who fled from the south-west
of England to Armorica (see Brittany) in the 5th and 6th
centuries of our era to avoid being harassed by the Saxons.
The first migration probably took place about 450. The
Dumnonii and Cornovii founded small states in Brittany, or
Britannia Minor, as it was termed, and were followed in the
second half of the 6th and into the 7 th century by a long stream
of refugees (cf. J. Loth, U Emigration bretonne } Paris, 1883;
A. de la Borderie, Histoire de la Bretagne*, vol. i.,1905).
In the earliest stages it is difficult to distinguish Breton from
Welsh. The history of the language may be divided into Old Breton
from the 7th to the nth centuries, Middle Breton from the nth
to the I7th centuries, and Modern Breton. In Old Breton the only
material we possess consists of glosses and names occurring in lives
of saints, Frankish authors, and charters. However, we find a few
characteristics which serve to show that the old glosses are really
Breton and not Welsh. Thus, an original a never becomes a diphthong
(au, aw) in Old Breton, but remains o. In Bret, gn becomes gr.
Further, in O. W. pretonic u is weakened to an indeterminate sound
written f and later y, a phenomenon which does not occur in Breton,
e.g. Lat. culcita appears in O. W. as cUcet, but in O. Br. as colcet.
A marked characteristic of Breton is the confusion of I and &, e.g.
Ir. lis, " court," W. Uys, Br. les. In Old Breton as in Old Welsh
neither the initial nor the medial mutations are expressed in writing,
whilst in Middle Breton only the latter are regularly denoted. In
this period the language diverges very rapidly from Welsh. As
prominent features we may mention the following. Stressed 6
(»Prim. Celt, and Ir. &) becomes eu t in unstressed syllables e ; thus
the suffix -dco becomes -euc and later -ec, but in Welsh -auc and later
-oc, -og . Postvocalic -tr, -U become -dr, -dl as in Welsh, but in Middle
Breton they pass into -zr, -zl, which in the modern language appear as
-er, -el; e.g. Mid. Br. lazr, Mod. Br. laer t " robber," W. lleidr, Lat.
lalro. Further, -It becomes -ot, -ut, e.g. Br. aot, aout, " cliff," W.
aUt; Br. autrou t " lord," Ir. aUram, W. alltraw, athraw, Corn, altrou;
and, more important still, th t £ (W. dd) become s, z, e.g. Mid. Br.
elezeff, "sword," Mod. Br. kleze, W. ckddyf. The orthography
only followed the pronunciation very slowly, and it is not until 1659
that we find any attempt made to reform the spelling. In this year
a Jesuit priest, Julien Maunoir (Br. Maner), published a manual
in which a new spelling is employed, and it is usual to date Modern
Breton from the appearance of this book, although in reality it
marks no new epoch in the history of the language. It is only now
that the initial mutations are consistently denoted in writing (medi-
ally they are already written in the 1 ith century), and the differences
between the dialects first come into view at this time. As in Welsh
the accent is withdrawn during the middle period from the final to
the penultimate (except in the Vannes dialect), which causes the
modern unstressed vowel to be reduced in many cases. Again, in
Old Welsh and Old Breton a short stressed vowel inwordsof onesyllable
was lengthened, e.g.VJ. tad, "father," pi. tddau, but in Modern Breton
the accent tends to lengthen all stressed vowels. Breton has gone
its own way in the matter of initial mutation. The nasal mutation
has been entirely given up in the initial position, whilst a new
mutation, called medial provection, has arisen in the case of b, d, g,
which become p, k, t after a few words which originally ended for
the most part in z or ch. The vocalic mutation of initial g in Breton
is c'h.^ We may also make mention of one or two other points
on which Breton differs widely from Welsh. Breton has given up
the combination ng, e.g. Mid. Br. moe, Mod. Br. moue, 'mane,
W. mwng, Ir. monf. The language betrays a fondness for nasalized
vowels, and in this connexion it may be noted that v representing
an original m (W. /, Ir. mh), though generally written ff in Middle
Breton, now frequently appears as nv; Mid. Br. claff, Mod. Br. klanv,
" sick, ill," W. claf, M. Ir. clam. Final g after r and / and sometimes
in monosyllables after a vowel is represented in Breton by c'h, whilst
in Welsh in the one case we find a vowel and in the other nil, e.g.
Br. erc'h, " snow," W. eiry, eira; Br. lec'h, " place," W. Ue, la
Welsh mb, nd immediately preceding the stress appear in the modern
language as mm, nn, but in Breton we find mp, nt, e.g. Br. kantol,
"candle," W. cannwyU, Lat. candela; Br. kemper, "confluence"
(in place names), W. cymmer, Ir. combor.
With regard to the extent of country over which Breton is spoken
we shall do well to note the seats of the old Breton bishoprics. These
were Quimper, St Pol de Leon, Treguier, St Brieuc, St Malo, Dol and
Vannes. Under Count Nominoe the Bretons succeeded in throwing
off the Frankish yoke (841-845) and founded an independent state.
At this time of greatest political expansion the language boundary
was formed by a line which started: roughly a little to the west of
Mont St Michel at the mouth of the Couesnon, and stretched to the
mouth of the Loire. During the next three centuries, however, in
consequence of political events which cannot be enumerated here,
we find French encroaching rapidly on Breton, and the old dioceses
of Dol, St Malo, St Brieuc, and in part Vannes became Romance-
speaking (cp. J. Loth, Revue celtique, xxviii. 374-403). So that
since the 13th and 14th centuries the boundary between French
and Breton begins in the north about Plouha (west of St Brieuc Bay),
and stretches to the mouth of the Vilaine in the south. That is to
say, the Breton speakers are confined to the department of Finistere
and the west of the departments C6tes-du-Nord and Morbihan.
Lower Brittany contains a population of 1 ,360,000, of whom roughly
1 ,250,000 speak Breton. The number of monogiot Bretons is stated
to have been ^68,000 in 1878, 679,000 in 1885, and over 500,000 in
1898. There is an infinity of dialects and subdialects in Brittany,
but it is usual to divide them into four groups. These are the
dialects of (1) Leon in Finistere; (2) Cornouailles in Finistere, the
Cdtes-du-Nord and a part of Morbihan; (3) Treguier in the Cotes-
du-Nord and Finistere; (4) Vannes in Morbihan and a portion of
the Cdtes-du-Nord. The first three resemble one another fairly
closely, but the speech of Vannes has gone its own way entirely. The
dialect of Leon is regarded as the literary dialect, thanks to
Legonidec.
The modern language is unfortunately saturated with words
borrowed from French which form at least a quarter of the whole
vocabulary. The living speech is further characterized by innumer-
able cases of consonantal metathesis and by parasitic nasalization.
Loth gives specimens of the most important varieties of Breton in
his Chrestomathie bretonne, pp. 363-380, but here we must confine
ourselves to pointing out the two most salient differences between
the speech of Vannes and the rest of Brittany. In Vannes the stress
has not been shifted from the final syllable. In Haute-Cornouailles
and Goelo there is a tendency to withdraw the stress on to the
antepenultimate, whilst in Treguier certain enclitics attract the
accent to the final, s, z of the other dialects representing Welsh th
become h in Vannes, e.g. W. caeth, Br. keaz, kez, " poor, miserable,"
Vannes keah, keh. This phenomenon occurs sporadically in other
dialects. It may also be mentioned that Prim. Celt, non-initial d,
W. dd, is retained as z in Leon but disappears when final or standing
between vowels in the other dialects, e.{. O. Br. fid, W. j)yda%
" faith," Leon feiz, in Cornouailles, Treguier and Vannes fS. It is
doubtful if the most serious differences between the dialects are
older than the 16th century.
In the middle ages the language of the Breton aristocracy was
French. Upper Brittany was politically more important than the
western portion. The consequence was that no patronage was ex-
tended to the vernacular, and Breton sank to the level of a patois
with no unity for literary purposes. But a new era dawned! with
the beginning of the 19th century. The national consciousness was
awakened at the time of the Revolution, when the Bretons became
aware of the difference between themselves and their French neigh-
bours. It may be mentioned by the way that the Breton language
was regarded with suspicion by the leaders of the First Republic
and attempts were made to suppress it. A Breton named Legonidec
had to flee to England for fighting against the Republic. He came
under the influence of the movement in Wales, and on his return
sought to create a Breton literary language. He published an
excellent grammar {Grammaire celto-bretonne, Paris, 1807) an d *
dictionary (Dictionnaire breton-francais, Paris, 1821), from which
he omitted the numerous French words which had crept into the
language and for which native terms already existed. Legonidec's
CORNISH LANGUAGE]
CELT
621
example fired a number of writers with zeal for their native tongue
and the clergy became interested. Under their auspices manuals
of Breton were published and the language was utilized in a number
of schools. A society called the Association Bretonne was founded
in the year 1844. But under the Second Empire, for reasons which
are not easy to discover, this Breton awakening was declared to be
contrary to the interests of the state, and all the means at the
disposal of a highly centralized government like that of France
were employed to throttle the movement. Down to the present
day the use of Breton is strictly forbidden in all the state schools,
and the influence of the Roman Catholic clergy has for the most
part been hostile to the language. However, the attitude of the
government aroused considerable dissatisfaction in the early 'nineties,
and in 1896 the Association Bretonne (disbanded in 1859 and re-
constructed in 1873) appointed a permanent committee with the
object of preserving and propagating the national language. At the
same time some of the clergy headed by Abbe Buleon began to move,
and Breton was introduced into many of the schools not under state
control. In 1898 was founded the Union Regionaliste Bretonne, the
most important section of which endeavours to foster the native
speech in conjunction with the ComitS de preservation du breton
(founded 1896). In 1899 the annual meeting of the U.R.B. was
modelled on the lines of the Irish Oireachtas, the Welsh Eisteddfod
and the Scottish Mod, and festivals of this kind have been held ever
since. Many Breton newspapers publish columns in Breton, thus
Ar Bobl (a weekly newspaper founded in 1904 and published at
Carhaix) frequently devotes half its columns to the language. But
there is also a weekly four-page newspaper which is wholly in Breton.
This is Kroaz ar Vretoned, edited by F. Vallee and published at
St Brieuc. In addition to this there are three monthly magazines
wholly in Breton. The first is Ar Vro, edited by the poet Jaffrennou,
and in 1908 in its fifth year. The second is Dihunamb, written in
the dialect of Vannes and started in 1905. The third is Feiz ha
Breiz, started 1899.
Authorities for Breton. — For the external history of Breton
see H. Zimmer, " Die keltische Bewegung in der Bretagne," Preus-
sische JahrbUcher for 1899, x c«. 454-497. For Old and Middle
Breton, J. Loth, Chrestomathie bretonne (Paris, 1890), and the
same writer's Vocabulaire vieux-breton (Paris, 1884). Loth and
E. Ernault have been indefatigable in investigating the history
of the language. Their numerous contributions are mainly to be
found scattered through the Revue celtique, Zeitschrift fur celtische
Philologie and the Annates de Bretagne. Ernault has also published
Glossaire moyen-breton in 2 vols. (Paris, 1 895-1 896); Dictionnaire
Stymologique du moyen-breton (Paris, 1888). Another etymological
dictionary was published by V. Henry (Paris, 1900). Grammars,
&c. : — Dialect of Leon : Legonidec, Grammaire celto-bretonne (Paris,
1807, 1838 s , also contained in H. de la Villemarque's edition of
Legonidec's Dictionary) ; F. Vallee, Lecons SUmentaires de grammaire
bretonne (St Brieuc, 1902) ; E. Ernault, Petite Grammaire bretonne
(St Brieuc, 1897, the latter also takes account of the dialects of
Treguier and Comouailles). Dialect of Treguier: L. le Clerc,
Grammaire bretonne (St Brieuc, 1908); J. Hingant, J&lSments de
la grammaire bretonne (Treguier, 1868); P. le Roux, "Muta-
tions et assimilations de consonnes dans le dialecte armoricain de
Pleubian," Annates de Bretagne, xii. 3-31. Dialect of Vannes: A.
Guillevic and P. le Golf, Grammaire bretonne du dialecte de Vannes
(Vannes, 1902); Exercises sur la grammaire bretonne (Vannes, 1903);
H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, " Etude phonetique sur le dialecte
breton de Vannes," Revue celtique, i. 85 ff. 211 ff.; E. Ernault,
11 Le Dialecte vannetais de Sarzeau," Rev. celt. iii. 47 ff., 232 ff. ;
J. Guillome, Grammaire francaise-bretonne (Vannes, 1836). As a
curiosity we mention P. Treasure, An Introduction to Breton Grammar
(Carmarthen, 1903). Dictionaries: Legonidec, Dictionnaire fran-
cais-breton (St Brieuc, 1847), Breton- Francais (St Brieuc,
1850), both republished by de La Villemarque and representing the
Leon dialect; A. Troude, Nouveau Dictionnaire pratique frangais et
breton du dialecte de Lkon avec les acceptations dtverses dans les dia-
lectes de Vannes, de Triguier, et de Cornouailles (Brest, 1869), and
Nouveau Dictionnaire pratique brcton-francais (Brest, 1876); E.
Ernault, " Supplement aux dictionnaires bretons-francais," Revue
celtique, iv. 145-170. The Breton words in Gallo, the French
patois of Upper Brittany, were collected by E. Ernault, Revue
celtique, v. 218 ff.
(c) Cornish. — The ancient language of Cornwall (Kernuak,
Carnoack) stood in a much closer relation to Breton than to
Welsh/ though in some respects it sides with the latter against
the former.
It agrees with Breton on the following points: — It has given up
the nasal mutation of initials but provects the mediae. Prim. Celt.
a is not diphthongized, but becomes I, e.g. Corn, ler, " floor," Br.
lew, W. Uawr, Ir. lar. Ng is lost as in Breton, e.g. toy, " to swear,"
Br. toui, W. tyngu, Ir. tongu; nd becomes nt before the stress and
not nn as in Welsh, e.g. Corn. Br. hanter, "half," W. banner. Cornish
like Breton does not prefix a vowel to words beginning with j+con-
sonant, e.g. Corn, spirit, later spyrys, Br. spered, W. yspryd.
1 J. Loth gives it as his opinion that as late as 1 400-1 600 a Cornish-
man and a Breton might have been able to understand one another.
On the other hand, O. Cornish does not confuse I and I to the same
extent as Bret., e.g. W. helyg, " willow," O. Cornish heligen, Br. halek.
Further, Cornish does not change th, fr to s, z as in Breton, e.g. beth,
" grave," Br. bez, W. bedd, and initial g disappears in the vocalic
mutation as in Welsh. Peculiar to Cornish is the change of non-
initial /, d to s, z. This occurs in the oldest Cornish after n, I, e.g.
O. Corn, nans, " valley," W. nant; Corn, ids, " father," W. tad.
A feature of later Cornish is the introduction of a d before post-
vocalic m, n, e.g. pedn, " head," W. p>en. In later Cornish the accent
seems to have fallen on the penultimate as in Modern Welsh and
Breton.
In 936 the " Welsh " were driven out of Exeter by iEthelstan,
and from that time the Tamar appears to have formed a general
boundary between English and Cornish, though there seems to be
evidence that even as late as the reign of Elizabeth Cornish was
spoken in a few places to the east of that river. The decay of Cornish
has been largely attributed to the Reformation. Neither the Prayer-
book nor the Scriptures were translated into the vernacular, and we
find the same apathy on thepart of the Church of England in Cornwall
as in Wales and Ireland. Unfortunately the Methodist movement
came at a time when it was too late to save the language. Ey 1600
Cornish had been driven into the western parts of the duchy and in
1662 we are informed by Tchn Ray that tew of the children could
speak it. Lhuyd gives a list of the parishes in which Cornish was
spoken, but goes on to state that every one speaks English. In 1735
there were only a few people along the coast between Penzance and
Land's End who understood Cornish, and Dolly Pentreath of Mouse*
hole, who died in 1777, is commonly stated to have been the last
person who spoke it, though Jenner seems to show that there were
others who lived until well into the 10th century who were able to
converse in the dialect. However, tne modern English speech of
West Cornwall is full cf Celtic words, and nine-tenths of the places
and people from the Tamar to Land's End bear Cornish names.
Celtic words still in use are to be found in Jago's Dialect of Cornwall
(Truro, 1882); thus the name for the dog-fish is morgy, sea-dcg."
Authorities for Cornish. — A mass of details about Cornish is
collected in H. Jenner's Handbook of the Cornish Language (London,
1904). (Cf. J. Loth's review in the Revue celtique, xxvii. 93.)
Lhuyd 's Archaeologica Britannica (1707) contains a grammar of the
language as spoken in his day, and a Sketch of Cornish Grammar is
to be found as an appendix to N orris's Ancient Cornish Drama. A
dictionary was published by R. Williams entitled Lexicon Cornu-
Britannicum (Landovery, 1865), to which W. Stokes published a
supplement of about 2000 words in the Transactions of the London
Phuological Society for 1 868-1 869. We may also mention the
English-Cornish Dictionary, by F. W. P. Jago (Plymouth, 1887),
and a Glossary of Cornish Names, by J. Bannister (Truro, 187 1).
W. Stokes published a Clossary to Beunans Meriasek in the Archiv
fur celtische Lexikographie, i. 101, and important articles by J. Loth
have appeared in the Revue celtique, vols, xviii. to xxiv. W. S.
Lach-Szyrma, " Les Derniers Echos de la langue cornique," Revue
celtique, iii. 239 ff. H. Jenner, " Some Rough Notes on the Present
Pronunciation of Cornish Names," Rev. celt. xxiv. 300-305.
III. The Language op the Ancient Picts. — The evidence
from which we can draw any conclusions as to the affinities of
the language of the Picts is so extremely scanty that the question
has been the subject of great controversy. The Picts are first
mentioned by Eumenius (a.d. 297), who regarded them as
having inhabited Britain in the time of Caesar. In the year 368
they are described by Ammianus Marcellinus as invading the
Roman province of Britain in conjunction with the Irish Scots.
In Columba's time we find the whole of Scotland east of
Drumalban and north of the Forth divided into two kingdoms —
north and south Pictland — and it is reasonable to identify the
Picts, at any rate in part, with the Caledonians of the classical
authors. Galloway and Co. Down were also inhabited by Picts.
Bede in enumerating the languages of Britain mentions those of
the Britons, Picts, Scots and the English. The names by which
the Picts are known in history have aroused considerable dis-
cussion. It seems natural to connect Lat. Picti with the Pictones
and Pictavi of Gaul, but in Irish they are known as Cruitkne 9
which appears in Welsh as Prydyn t " Pict "; cp. Prydein,
" Britain," forms corresponding to the earliest Greek name for
these islands, vijaoi Uperavucai.
Three conflicting theories have been held as to the character
of the Pictish language. Rhys, relying on the strange character
of the Scottish Ogam inscriptions, pronounces it to be non-
Celtic and non-Indo-European. In this he has been followed
by Zimmer, who bases his argument on the Pictish rule of suc-
cession. Skene maintained that the Picts spoke a language
nearly allied to Goidelic, whilst Stokes, Loth, Macbain, D'Arbois
and Meyer are of opinion that Pictish was more closely related
622
CELT
[IRISH LITERATURE
to Brythonic. Of personal names mentioned by classical writers
we have Calgacus and Argentocoxus, both of which are certainly
Celtic. The names occurring in Ptolemy's description of Scotland
have a decidedly Celtic character, and they seem, moreover,
to bear a greater resemblance to Brythonic than to Goidelic,
witness such tribal designations as Epidii, Cornavii, Damnonii,
Decantae, Novantae. In the case of all these names, however,
it should be borne in mind that they probably reached the
writers of antiquity through B rythonic channels. Bede mentions
that the east end of the Antonine Wall terminated at a place
called in Pictish Pean-fahel, and in Saxon Penneltun. Pean re-
sembles Old Welsh penn, " head," Old Irish cenn, and the second
element may possibly be connected with Gaelic fdl, Welsh gwawl,
" rampart." The names of the kings in the Pictish chronicles
are not an absolutely trustworthy guide, as owing to the Pictish
rule of succession the bearers of the names may in many cases
have been Brythons. The names of some of them occur in one
source in a Goidelic, in another in a Brythonic form. It is of
course possible that the southern part of Pictish territory was
divided between Goidels and Brythons, the population being
very much mixed. On the other hand there are a number of
elements in place-names on Pictish ground which do not occur
in Wales or Ireland. Such are pet, pit, " farm " (?), for, j other,
fetter, f oder, " lower " (?). Aber, " confluence," on the contrary,
is pure Brythonic (Gaelic inver) . Though the majority of scholars
are of opinion that Pictish was nearly akin to the Brythonic
dialects, we are entirely in the dark as to the manner in which
that language was ousted by the Goidelic speech of the Dalriadic
Scots. In view of the comparatively unimportant part played
for a considerable period in Scottish affairs by the colony from
Ireland, it is well-nigh incredible that Pictish should have been
supplanted by Gaelic.
Authorities. — J. Rhys, Celtic Britain (London 8 , 1905), The
Welsh People (London 1 , 1902), " The Language and Inscriptions of
the Northern Picts," in Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland (1892); H. Zimmer, " Das Mutterrecht der Pikten," in
Savignys Zettschrift (1895) ; also trans, by G. Henderson in Leabhar
nan Gleann (Inverness, 1898); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edin-
burgh, 1876); A. Macbain in appendix to reprint of Skene's High-
landers of Scotland (Stirling, 1902) ; A. Macbain, " Ptolemy's
Geography of Scotland, " in Transactions of the Gaelic Society of
Inverness, xviii. 267-288; W. Stokes, Beszenbergers Beitr&ge, xviii.
267 ff. ; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Les Druides et les dieux celtiques
a forme d'animaux (Paris, 1906). The various theories have been
recently reviewed and criticized by T. Rice Holmes in an appendix
to his* Caesar's Invasion of Britain (London, 1907).
IV. History op Celtic Philology. — For many centuries
the affinities of the Celtic languages were the subject of great
dispute. The languages were in turn regarded as descended from
Hebrew, Teutonic and Scythian. The first attempt to treat the
dialects comparatively was made by Edward Lhuyd in his
Archaeologia Britannica (Oxford, 1707), but the work of this
scholar seems to have remained unnoticed. A century later
Adelung in Germany divided the dialects into true Celtic
(=» Goidelic) and Celtic influenced by Teutonic ( = Brythonic).
But it took scholars a long time to recognize that these languages
belonged to the Indo-European family. Thus they were excluded
by Bopp in his comparative grammar, though he did not fail
to notice certain resemblances between Celtic and Sanskrit.
James Pritchard was the first to demonstrate the true relationship
of the group in his Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations (London,
183 1), but his conclusions were not accepted. As late as 1836
Pott denied the Indo-European connexion. A year later Pictet
resumed Pritchard's arguments, and Bopp himself in 1838
admitted the languages into the charmed circle, showing in an
able paper entitled Uber die keltischen Sprachen that the initial
mutations were due to the influence of terminations now lost.
But it was reserved to a Bavarian historian, J. C.Zeuss (1806-
1856), to demonstrate conclusively the Indo-European origin of
the Celtic dialects. Zeuss, who may worthily rank with Grimm
and Diez among the greatest German philologists, rediscovered
the Old Irish glosses on the continent, and on them he reared the
magnificent structure which goes by his name. The Grammatica
Celtica was first published in 1853. The material contained in
this monumental work was greatly extended by a series of
important publications by Whitley Stokes and Hermann Ebel,
so much so that the latter was commissioned to prepare a second
edition, which appeared in 187 1. Stokes has rendered the greatest
service to the cause of Celtic studies by the publication of count-
less texts in Irish, Cornish and Breton. In 1870 the Revue
celtique (vol. xxviii. in 1908) was founded by Henri Gaidoz, whose
mantle later fell upon H. d'Arbois de Jubainville. In 1879
E. Windisch facilitated the study of Irish by publishing a
grammar of Old Irish, and a year later a volume of important
Middle Irish texts with an exhaustive glossary, the first of its
kind. Since then Windisch and Stokes have collaborated to
bring out some of the greatest monuments of Irish literature
in the series of Irische Texte. The text of the Wurzburg glosses
was published by Zimmer (1881) and by Stokes (1887), and that
of the Milan glosses by Ascoli. An important step forward was
the discovery of the laws of the Irish accent made simultaneously
by Zimmer and Thurneysen. This discovery led to a thorough
investigation of the difficult verb system of Old Irish — a task
which has largely occupied the attention of Strachan in England,
Thurneysen and Zimmer in Germany, and Pedersen and Sarauw
in Denmark. In a sense the publication of the Thesaurus
Palacokibernicus (Cambridge, 1901-1903) may be regarded as
marking the close of this epoch. The older stages of Irish have
hitherto so monopolized the energies of scholars that other
departments of Celtic philology save Breton have been left
in large measure unworked. J. Strachan had begun to tap the
mine of the Old Welsh poems when his career was cut short by
death. J. Loth and E. Ernault have concentrated their attention
on Breton, and can claim that the development of the speech of
Brittany has been more thoroughly investigated than that of
any other Celtic language. The number of periodicals devoted
entirely to Celtic studies has increased considerably of recent
years. In 1896 R. Meyer and L. C. Stern founded the Zeitschrift
fUr celtische PhUologie (now in its 7th volume), and in 1897 the
Archiv filr celtische Lexikographie began to appear under the
direction of R. Meyer and W. Stokes. As a supplement to the
latter Meyer has been publishing his invaluable contributions to
Middle Irish lexicography. In Ireland a new periodical styled
£riu was started by the Irish School of Learning in 1904. The
Scottish Celtic Review, dealing more particularly with Scottish
and Irish Gaelic, began to appear in 1903, and the Transactions
of the Gaelic Society of Inverness are in the 26th volume. For
Wales we have Y Cymmrodor since 1877, and the Transactions
of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion since 1892, and for Brittany
the Annates de Bretagne, published by the Faculty of Letters at
Rennes (founded 1886).
See V. Tourneur, Esquisse d*une histoire des itudes celtiques (Liege,
1905). (E- C Q.)
Celtic Literature
1. Irish Literature. — In the absence of a native coinage it
is extremely difficult to say when the use of letters was introduced
into Ireland. It is probable that the Latin alphabet
first came in with Christianity. With the exception Qnm
of the one bilingual Ogam inscription as yet discovered
in Ireland (that at Killeen Cormac) all the inscriptions
in Roman letters are certainly later than 500. Indeed, apart from
the stone reading " LIE LUGUAEDON MACCI MENUEH,"
they are all contemporary with or later than the Old Irish
glosses. With regard to the Ogam inscriptions we cannot make
any confident assertions. Owing to the lack of criteria for dating
certain Irish sound-changes accurately it is impossible to assign
chronological limits for the earlier stones. The latter cannot
be later than the 5th century, but there is nothing to show
whether they are Christian or not, and if pagan they may be
a century or two earlier. It is true that the heroes and druids
of the older epics are represented in the stories as making constant
use of Ogam letters on wood and stone, and as the state of
civilization described in the oldest versions of the Ulster sagas
seems largely to go back to the beginning of the Christian era,
it is not impossible that this peculiar system of writing had been
IRISH LITERATURE]
CELT
623
Hymn*.
framed by them. The Ogam system is certainly based on the
Latin and not the Greek alphabet, and was probably invented
by some person from the south of Ireland who received his
knowledge of the Roman letters from traders from the mouth
of the Loire. It may, however, be regarded as certain that the
Ogam script was never employed in early times for literary
purposes. We are told that the Gaulish druids disdained to
commit theiT lore to writing, although they were familiar with
the use of Greek letters, and their Irish confreres probably
resembled them in this respect. Tradition connects the codifica-
tion of the Brehon Laws with the name of Patrick, and there is
reason for believing, as we shall see later, that the greatest
Irish epic was first committed to writing in the 7th century.
The great bulk of Irish literature is contained in MSS. belonging
to the Middle Irish period (1100-1550), and in order to be able
to treat this literature as a whole it will be convenient
jUss. ' f° r us t° deal nrst ^^ tk ose documents which are
termed Old Irish, especially as the contemporary
remains of the literature of the earlier period are almost ex-
clusively of a religious nature. Most of the Old Irish documents
have been printed by Stokes and Strachan in the Thesaurus
Palaeohibernicus, and where no reference is given the reader
is referred to that monumental work. The extraordinary outburst
of intellectual activity in Ireland from the 6th to the 9th centuries
and the compositions of Irishmen in the Latin language, belong
to the history of medieval European literature and fall outside
the scope of this article. For the Confession of St Patrick and
his " Letter to the Subjects of Coroticus " see Patrick. The
only Irish document ascribed to the saint is the strange so-called
" Hymn," the fdeth fiada, more properly fdid fiada, " the cry of
the deer." This is a rhythmical incantation which is said
to have rendered the saint and his companions in-
visible to King Loigaire and his druids. The Trinity
and powers of nature are invoked to help him to resist spells of
women and smiths and wizards. The hymn, which contains a
number of strange grammatical forms, is undoubtedly referred to
in the Book of Armagh, and may very well go back to the 5th
century. The Latin hymns contained in two MSS. dating from the
end of the 1 ith or beginning of the 12th century, a Trinity College,
Dublin, MS., and a MS. belonging to the Franciscan monastery
in Dublin, are of interest to us as exhibiting the influence of the
native metrical system. Quantity and elision are ignored, and
rhymes, assonances, alliterations and harmonies abound in true
Irish fashion. The line consists of two units which commonly
contain either seven or eight syllables apiece. The earliest and
best-known of these religious poems are the Hymn of Secundinus
(Sechnall d. 447) on St Patrick, and the two hymns attributed to
St Columba (d. 597) beginning " Noli pater " and "Alius prosator,"
the latter of which exhibits some of the peculiarities of the so-
called Hibernian Latin of the Uisperica Pamina and the Lorica
of Gildas. The date of the Irish hymns in the Liber Hymnorum
ranges, according to Stokes and Strachan, from the 7th to the
1 ith centuries. Ultan's hymn on St Brigit beginning "Brigit bt
bithmaith" which is by far the most artistic of the collection,
was perhaps composed in the 7th century. Definite metrical
laws had evidently been elaborated when this poem was written.
The beat is iambic, but the natural accent of the words is rigidly
observed. The long line consists of two units of five syllables each.
The rhymes are dissyllabic and perfect. Alliteration is always
observed in the latter half of each line and assonances are found
knitting up the half-lines. The short prayer ascribed to Ninine
or to Fiacc is a highly alliterative piece without rhyme, the date
of which cannot be fixed. The well-known hymn on St Patrick
traditionally ascribed to Fiacc, bishop of Sletty, and the piece
beginning " Sin Dl" traditionally ascribed to Colman, are
assigned on linguistic grounds to the beginning of the 9th century.
The lines going by the name of " Sanctan's Hymn " probably
belong to the same century, whilst the metrical catalogue of
marvels performed by St Brigit contains such a medley of older
and later forms, probably due to interpolation, that it is impossible
to determine its age. The few lines entitled " Mael-Isu's Hymn "
are the most recent of all and probably belong to the nth century
(Mael-f su d. 1086) . The Patrician documents byMuirchu Maccu
Machth6ni, who professed to write at the command of Bishop
Aed of Sletty (d. 698), and by Tirechan, who is said to have
received his information from Bishop Ultan (d. 656), are contained
in the Book of Armagh, a MS. compiled by Ferdomnach in 807.
These documents, like the Life of St Columba by Adamnan, the
MS. of which was written by Dorbbene, abbot of Hi (d. 713),
contain a number of names and forms of great importance for the
study of the language.
The earliest pieces of connected prose in Irish are three: —
(1) the Cambray Homily, contained in an 8th-century codex
at Cambray copied by a continental hand from a MS.
in the Irish character; the language is very archaic and
BsrUast
prose.
gtosMes.
dates from the second half of the 7th or the beginning
of the 8th century; (2) the additions to the notes of Tirechan on
the life of St Patrick in the Book of Armagh; these seem to go
back to the early 8th century; (3) the tract on the Mass in the
Stowe Missal, which is in all probability nearly as old as the
Cambray Homily, though contained in a 10th or 1 ith century MS.
Of especial interest are the spells and poems found in the Stowe
Missal and two continental MSS. The Stowe MS . (now deposited
in the Royal Irish Academy) contains three rather badly preserved
spells for a sore eye, a thorn and disease of the urine. A St Gall
codex has preserved four Irish incantations of the 8th and 9th
centuries. These are respectively against a thorn, urinary
disease, headache and various ailments. Another charm, which
is partly obscure, occurs in the 9th-century codex preserved at
the monastery of St Paul in Carinthia. The same MS. also
contains (1) a humorous poem treating of the doings of a
bookish writer and his favourite cat Pangur Ban; (2) a riddKng
poem ascribed to Suibne Geilt, a king who is said to have lost his
reason at the battle of Moira (a.d. 637) ; (3) verses extracted from
a poem ascribed to St Moling (d. 697), who may very well have
been the actual author; (4) a poem in praise of some Leinster
princeling called Aed.
For our knowledge of the older language, however, we have to
rely mainly on the numerous glosses scattered about in a large
number of MSS., which it is impossible to enumerate
here. Indeed, such an enumeration is now rendered
superfluous owing to the publication of the Thesaurus
Palaeohibernicus t in which all the various glosses have been
collected. For our purpose it will be sufficient to mention the
three most important codices containing Old Irish glosses.
These are as follows: — (1) The Codex Paulinus at Wtirzburg,
which contains the thirteen epistles of St Paul, and the Epistle
to the Hebrews, with a great mass of explanatory glosses, partly
in Latin, partly in Irish, partly mixed. The chief source of the
commentary is the commentary of Pelagius, who is often cited
by name. The date of this highly important MS. is much dis-
puted; part of the Irish glosses seem to date from about 700,
whilst the rest may be placed a little before 800. (2) The Codex
Ambrosianus, formerly at Bobbio, now at Milan, which contains
a commentary on the psalter with a large number of Irish
glosses. In their present state these glosses were copied in the
first half of the 9th century. (3) Glosses on Priscian contained
in four MSS., of which the most important is the Codex Sangal-
lensis, dating from the middle of the 9th century. Apart from
the biblical glosses and scholia the other chief texts or authors
provided with Irish glosses are Augustine, Bede, the Canons, the
Computus, Eutychius, Juvencus, Philargyrius, Prudentius and
Servius.
The Milan and the St Gall codices just mentioned both contain
several short poems in Irish. In two stanzas in the Swiss MS.
we find expressed for the first time that keen sympathy with
nature in all her moods which is so marked a feature of Irish and
Welsh verse.
Two ponderous religious poems have now to be noticed. To
Oengus the Culdee is attributed the lengthy Ptlvre or Calendar
of Church Festivals, consisting of 365 quatrains in rinnard metre,
one for each day in the year. The language of this dry compila-
tion, which is heavily glossed and annotated, points to 800
as the date of composition, and Oengus, who is stated to have
624
CELT
[IRISH LITERATURE
lived about that time, may well have been the author. This
calendar has been twice edited by W. Stokes with an English
translation, the first time for the Royal Irish Academy (Dublin,
1880) , and again for the Bradshaw Society (London, 1905).
It may perhaps be as well to enumerate here the later Irish
martyrologies. (1) The Martyrology of Tallagkt (Tamlacht),
founded on an 8th-century calendar, but containing additions
down to 900 (ed. D. H. Kelly, Dublin, 1857). (2) The metrical
Martyrology of O 'Gorman, c. 1166-1174, edited by Stokes for
the Bradshaw Society (London, 1895). (3) The Martyrology of
Donegal, an important compilation in prose made by Michael
CClery in 1630, edited by J. H. Todd (Dublin, 1864). A
composition which is wrongly assigned to Oengus the Culdee is
the Saltair na Rann or Psalter in Quatrains, contained in an
Oxford MS. (Rawlinson B 502) and published without a transla-
tion by Stokes (Oxford, 1883). The work proper consists of
150 poems corresponding to the number of Psalms in the psalter,
but 12 poems have been added, and in all it contains 2098
quatrains, chiefly in deibide metre of seven syllables. The poems
are mainly based on biblical (Old Testament) history, but they
preserve a large measure of medieval sacred lore and cosmogony.
The psalter received additions as late as 998, and the Oxford MS.
belongs to the 12 th century. We should perhaps also mention
here the famous Antra or Eulogy of St Columba, commonly
attributed to Dalian Forgaill, a contemporary of the saint, but
Stokes takes the view that it was written in the 9th century,
and is intentionally obscure. The oldest but not the best copy
of the Amra is preserved in the Trinity College, Dublin, MS. of
the Liber Hymnorum, but it also occurs in LU. and elsewhere.
It invariably appears heavily gloss-laden, and the glosses and
commentary added thereto are out of all proportion to the text.
This piece, which is not extant in its integrity, was probably
intended as artificial alliterative prose, but, as we have it, it is
a medley of isolated phrases and irrelevant comment.
During the 9th and 10th centuries Ireland was harassed by the
Vikings, and a host of scholars seem to have fled to the continent,
carrying with them their precious books, many of
collector*. w ^ch are preserved in Italy, Switzerland, Germany
and elsewhere. Hence very few early Irish MSS. are
preserved in Ireland itself. When the fury of the storm was past,
Irish scholars showed increased interest in the old literary
documents, and copied all that they could lay hands on into
miscellaneous codices. The earliest of these collections, such as
the Cin of Druim Snechta, the Yellow Book of Slane, the Book of
Dubdaleithe, the Psalter of Cashel, exist no longer, though their
names have come down and certain of them were known in the
17 th century. However, copies of a goodly portion of the
contents of these old books are preserved to us in one form or
another, but mainly in a series of huge miscellaneous codices
ranging in date from the 12th to the 16th century.
theDmt The oldest * s Lebor na k-uidre, or Book of the Dun
Cow. Cow, preserved in the Royal Irish Academy and
published in facsimile (Dublin, 1870). This MS. was
compiled in part in the monastery of Clonmacnoise by Moelmuire
MacCelechair, who was slain in 1106. The Book of the Dun
Cow (where necessary we shall abbreviate as LU.) derives its
name from a legend that Ciar&n of Clonmacnoise (d. 544) took
down the story of the Tdin B6 Cualnge on a parchment made
from the hide of his favourite cow. The name seems to have
been wrongly applied to the 1 2th-century MS. in the 1 5th century.
LU. is almost entirely devoted to romance, the stories which
it contains belonging mainly to the Ulster cycle. The
next MS. in point of age is the Book of Leinster
(abbreviated LL.) now in Trinity College, Dublin. It
was transcribed by Finn, son of Gorman, bishop oT Kildare
(d. 1x60). LL. also contains a large number of romances in
addition to other important matter, mainly historical and
genealogical, bearing more particularly on the affairs of
™^ Leinster. The Yellow Book of Lecan (YBL.), also in
Ltcan. Trinity College, Dublin, was written at different times
by the MacFirbis family, but chiefly by Gilla Isa, son of
Donnchad M6r MacFirbis about 1391. The MacFirbises were
Boot of
hereditary scribes and genealogists to the O'Dowds, chiefs of
the Hy Fiachrach (Co. Sligo). YBL. contains a vast amount of
romance, and is indispensable as supplementing and checking
the contents of LU. and LL. The most extensive ^^
collection of all is the Book of Ballymote (BB.), now 22|Jid<L*
belonging to the Royal Irish Academy, which was
compiled about the beginning of the 15th century by various
scribes. The book was in the possession of the chiefs of Bally-
mote for more than a century. In 1522 it was purchased by the
O'Donnells for 140 milch cows. BB . only contains little romantic
matter, but it has preserved much valuable historical and
genealogical material. The contents of the Leabhar
Breac (LB.), or Speckled Book, now in the Royal Irish b^qjl**
Academy, are chiefly ecclesiastical and religious. LB.
seems to have been compiled in large measure before 1544. All
these five codices have been published in facsimile by the Royal
Irish Academy with a description of their contents. Two im-
portant Mid. Ir. MSS. in the Bodleian (Rawlinson B 512 and
Laud 610), containing a good deal of romantic material, are also
published in facsimile by Henry Frowde.
Other MSS. which require special mention are (1) The Great
Book of Lecan, compiled in the year 141 7 by Gilla Isa Mc* Mac-
Firbis,in the Royal Irish Academy ;(2)The Book of Lis-
more, the property of the duke of Devonshire at Lismore 2S&
Castle. This codex was compiled in the latter half of materUd.
the 15th century from the lost book of Monasterboice
and other MSS. I ts contents are described in the introduction to
Stokes's Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore (Oxford, 1890).
(3) The Book of Fermoy in the Royal Irish Academy. The con-
tents are described in the introduction to O'Beirne Crowe's
edition of the Tdin B6 Fraich (Dublin, 1870). (4) The Book of
Hy Maine recently acquired by the Royal Irish Academy. The
scribe who wrote it died in 1372. O'Curry, O'Longan and
O'Beirne Crowe drew up a MS. catalogue of the Irish MSS. in the
Royal Irish Academy, and O'Donovan performed the same
service for the Trinity College, Dublin, collection. A briefer
account of the Irish MSS. in TCD. will be found in Abbott's
Catalogue of the MSS. in that library. O'Curry also drew up a
list of the Irish MSS. in the British Museum, and S. H. O'Grady
has printed part i. of a descriptive catalogue of this collection
(London, 1901), part ii. by T. O'Maille. The twenty-six MSS. in
the Franciscan monastery in Dublin are described by J. T.
Gilbert in the Fourth Report of the Royal Commission on Historical
MSS. W. F. Skene catalogued the collection of MSS. in the
Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, a printed catalogue of which
has been issued by D. Mackinnon (Edinburgh, 1909; see also
Trans. Gaelic Soc. of Inverness, xvi. 285-309).
In order to give some idea of the enormous extent of Irish MS.
material we may quote some calculations made by O'Curry,
who states that if the five oldest vellum MSS. were printed the
result would be 9400 quarto pages. Other vellum MSS. ranging
in date from 1300 to 1600 would fill 9000 pages of the same size,
whilst the innumerable paper MSS. belonging chiefly to the early
1 8th century would cover no less than 30,000 pages. The well-
known French scholar, D'Arbois de Jubainville, published in
1883 a tentative catalogue of Irish epic literature. His work is
by no means complete, but his figures are instructive. He
mentions 953 Irish MSS. containing epic matter preserved in
Irish and English libraries. To these have to be added another
56 in continental libraries. Of this mass of material 133 Irish
and British MSS. and 35 continental MSS. were written before
1600. It should, however, be stated that the same subject is
treated over and over again, and much of the later material is
absolutely valueless.
Before we pass on to the consideration of the literature itself,
it will be well to make a few preliminary observations on the
nature of the language in which the pieces are written
and on the status of the poet in medieval Ireland. ^JSufcT
The language in which the huge miscellaneous codices irt*b.
enumerated above are contained is called by the general
name of Middle Irish, which is a very wide term. Irish scribes
often copied their original somewhat mechanically, without
IRISH LITERATURE]
CELT
625
The
"fUL
being tempted to change the language to that of their own time.
Thus in many parts of LU. we find a thin Middle Irish veneer
on what is largely Old Irish of the 8th or 9th century. Hence
such a MS. often preserves forms which had been current several
centuries before, and it may even happen that a 14th or 15 th
century MS. such as YBL. contains much older forms than a
corresponding passage in LL. Of recent years several scholars —
notably Strachan — have devoted much attention to the Old Irish
verb-forms, so that we have now safe criteria for establishing
with some degree of certainty the age of recensions of stories
and poems preserved in late MSS. In this way a number of
compositions have been assigned to the 9th, 10th and nth
centuries, though actual written documents belonging to this
period are comparatively rare.
It remains for us to say a few words about the fili, the pro-
fessional literary man in Ireland. The fili (from the stem vel-,
" to see," Welsh, Breton, gwelet, " to see ") appears to
have been originally a diviner and magician, and corre-
sponds to the votes, 6v6lths, of the ancient Gauls men-
tioned by classical writers. In Ireland he is represented as sole
possessor of three methods of divination: the imbas forosnai,
teintn l6ida and dichetal di chennaib cnditne. The first two of
these were forbidden by Patrick, but they seem to have survived
as late as the 10th century. Part of the tremendous influence
exercised by the fili was due to the belief in his powers of satire.
By reciting a satirical poem or incantation he was able to raise
blotches on the face of and so disfigure any person who aroused
his displeasure. Numerous cases of this occur in Irish literature.
The origin of the science of the fili is sometimes traced back to
the Dagda, one of the figures of the Irish pantheon, and they
were held in such esteem that the annalists give the obituaries
of the head-ollams as if they were so many princes. With the
introduction of Christianity they seem to have gradually super-
seded the druid, and their functions are therefore very wide.
We are told that they acted in three capacities: (1) as story-
tellers (fer comgne or scilaige) ; (2) as judges (brithem), including
the professions of arbiters, legislators and lawyers; (3) as poets
proper (fer eerie). We are here only concerned with the fili in
his capacity of story-teller and poet. In accordance with the
minute classification of the various ranks of society in early
Ireland, the social status of the literary man was very carefully
denned. The degrees vary slightly in different documents, but
the following list of ten from the Senchus M6r is very instructive :
(1) The highest degree is the ollam (ollave), who knows 350
stories; (2) the dnruth, 175 stories; (3) the clii, 80 stories; (4)
the cana, 60 stories; (5) the doss, 50 stories; (6) the macfuirmid,
40 stories; (7) the fochlocon, 30 stories; (8) the drisac, 20 stories;
(9) the toman, 10 stories; (10) the oblaire, 7 stories. In LL. we
are told that the stories (scSl) are divided into primary and
secondary, and that the latter are only obligatory on the first
four of the grades enumerated. Again, certain styles of com-
position seem to have been the monopoly of certain grades.
Thus the poem which was most highly rewarded and demanded
the highest technical skill was called the anomain, and was the
exclusive right of the ollam. A notable instance of this kind of
composition is the Amra of Columba, attributed to Dalian
Forgaill. The higher grades were allowed a number of attend-
ants, whom the kings had to support along with the poet himself.
Thus the fochlocon had two and the doss four attendants. In
the 6th century Dalian Forgaill, the chief fili of Ireland, claimed
the right to be attended by thirty filid, which was the number of
the train allowed to the supreme king. The reigning monarch,
Aed MacAinmirech, weary of the pretensions of the poets,
attempted to banish them, which led to the famous assembly of
Druim Ceta, where Columba intervened and reduced the number
to twenty-four (the train of a provincial king). In the plan of
the hall of Tara, preserved in LL. and YBL., the sui littre or
doctor in theology has the seat of honour opposite the king.
The ollam brithem or supreme judge or lawyer ranks with the
highest rank of nobility, whilst the ollam fili is on a footing with
the nobleman of the second degree.
We have already stated that the stories which formed the
stock-in-trade of the poets were divided into primary and
secondary stories. Of the latter there were 100, but little is
known of them. However, several more or less complete lists
of the primary stories have come down to us. The oldest
catalogue (contained in LL.) gives the titles of 187 of these tales
arranged under the following heads — destructions, cow-spoils,
courtships, battles, caves, navigations, violent deaths, expedi-
tions, elopements and conflagrations; together with the follow-
ing, which also reckon as prime-stories — irruptions, visions,
loves, hostings and migrations. Of these stories sixty-eight have
been preserved in a more or less complete form. The tales
enumerated in these catalogues, which in their substance doubt-
less go back to the 8th or even to the 7th century, fall into four
main categories: (1) the mythological cycle, (2) the Cuchulinn
cycle, (3) the Finn cycle, (4) pieces relating to events of the 5th,
6th and 7th centuries. Meyer has estimated that of the 550
titles of epic tales in D'Arbois's Catalogue about 400 are known
to us, though many of them only occur in a very fragmentary
state; and about 100 others have since been discovered which
were not known in 1883.
The course of training undergone by the fili was a very lengthy
one. It is commonly stated to have extended over twelve years,
at the end of which time the student was thoroughly versed in
all the legendary, legal, historical and topographical lore of his
native country, in the use of the innumerable and excessively
complicated Irish metres, in Ogam writing and Irish grammar.
The instruction in the schools of poetry seems to have been
entirely oral, and the course consisted largely in learning by
heart the verses in which the native lore was enshrined. These
schools of learning existed in one form or another down to the
1 7 th century. In the early days the fili is represented as employ-
ing a mysterious archaic form of speech — doubtless full of obscure
kennings — which was only intelligible to the initiated. An
instance of this birlafSine, as it was termed, is the piece entitled
Acallam an Dd Shuad (Colloquy of the Two Sages, Rev. celt.
xxvi. 4 ff.). In this piece two filid of the 1st century a.d. are
represented as contending in this dialect for the office of chief
ollam of Ireland, much to the chagrin of King Conchobar, to
whom their speeches were unintelligible. It was in consequence
of this that Conchobar ruled that the office of fili should no
longer carry with it of necessity the office of judge (brithem).
It ought to be observed that the church never showed itself
hostile to the filid, as it did to the druids. Dubthach, chief
fili of Ireland in the time of St Patrick, is represented as the
saint's constant companion, and the famous Flann Mainistrech
(d. 1056), though a layman and J&#, was head of the monastery
school at Monasterboice.
Before leaving the subject of the literary classes, we must notice
an inferior grade of poet — the bard. Like the official filid, the
bards were divided into grades. There were both j^^i^^
patrician and plebeian bards, each subdivided into
eight degrees, having their own peculiar metres. Like the fili
the bard had to go through a long course of study, and he was
generally attached to the house of some chieftain whose praises
he had to sing. In course of time the office of fili became extinct,
owing to a variety of causes, and from the 13th to the 16th
century we find the hitherto despised family bard stepping into
the place of the most influential literary man in Ireland. His
importance was fully realized by the English government, which
did its best to suppress the order.
The medieval romances form by far the most attractive
part of Irish literature, and it is to them that we shall first
turn our attention. Two main groups of stories have Mediw ^
to be distinguished. The one is the Ulster cycle, with romMace8m
Conchobar and Cuchulinn as central figures. The other
is the Southern or Leinster-Munster cycle, revolving round Finn
and Ossian. Further stories dealing with mythological and
historical personages will be mentioned in their turn.
The Ulster cycle may be regarded as Ireland's most important
contribution to the world's literature. The chief and at the
same time the lengthiest romance in which the heroes of
this group figure is the great epic, the Tdin B6 Cualnge or the
626
CELT
[IRISH LITERATURE
Ulster
cycle.
The
"TAb."
Cattle-raid of Cooley (Co. Louth). Here we find ourselves in
a world of barbaric splendour, and we are constantly reminded
of the Iliad, though the Irish epic from a purely
literary point of view cannot bear comparison with
the work of Homer. The main actors in the drama
are Conchobar, king of Ulster, the great warrior Cuchulinn (see
Cuchulinn), Ailill and Medb, king and queen of Connaught,
and Fergus, Conchobar's predecessor as king of Ulster,
now in exile in Connaught. These persons may or may
not have actually lived, but the Irish annalists and
synchronists agree in placing them about the beginning of the
Christian era. And there cannot be any doubt as to the antiquity
of the state of civilization disclosed in this great saga. It has
been repeatedly pointed out that the Irish heroes are equipped
and conduct themselves in the same manner as the Gauls described
by the Greek traveller Posidonius, and Prof. W. Ridgeway has
shown recently thatseveralarticlesof dress andarmour correspond
exactly to the La Tene types of the continent. To mention a
few primitive traits among many — the Irish champions of the
Tdin still fight in chariots, war-dogs are employed, whilst the
heads of the slain are carried off in triumph and slung round
the necks of the horses. It may also be mentioned that Emain
Macha, Conchobar's residence, is reported by the annalists to
have been destroyed in a.d. 323, and that portions of Meath,
which is stated to have been made into a separate province in
the 2nd century a.d., are in the Tdin regarded as forming part
of Ulster. Noteworthy is the exalted position occupied by the
druid in the Ulster sagas, showing how little the romances were
influenced by Christianity. No Roman soldier ever set foot in
Ireland, and this early epic literature is of supreme value as a
monument of primitive Celtic civilization. Ireland has always
been a pastoral country. In early times no native coins were in
circulation: the land belonged to the tribe. Consequently a
man's property consisted mainly of cattle. Cattle-raids were an
event of daily occurrence, and Sir Waiter Scott has made us
familiar with similar expeditions on the part of the Scottish
Highlanders in the 18th century. Hence it is not a matter for
surprise that the theme of the greatest Irish epic is a cattle-raid.
At the time there were two wonderful bulls in Ireland, the Dond
or Brown Bull of Cualnge, and the Findbennach or White-horn,
belonging to Medb. These two animals are of no ordinary nature.
Other stories represent them as having existed under many
different forms before they were reborn as bulls. First they
appear as swineherds belonging to the supernatural people of
the sid of fairy mounds; then they are metamorphosed suc-
cessively as ravens, warriors, sea-monsters and insects. It was
Queen Medb's ambition to gain possession of the Brown Bull of
Cualnge, and for this purpose she collected the united hosts of
Ireland to raid the province of Ulster and carry him off. Medb
chooses the season when she knows the Ulstermen are all in-
capacitated as the result of a curse laid upon them by a fairy
woman. Cuchulinn alone is exempt from this debility.
The story is divided into a number of sections, and has been
summarized by Miss Hull as follows: — (1) the prologue, relating,
in the form of a night dialogue between Ailill and Medb, the
dispute between them which brought about the raid; (2) the
collecting of Medb's hosts and the preliminary movements of
the army, during which period she first became aware of the
presence and powers of Cuchulinn. Her inquiry of Fergus as
to who this formidable foe is leads to a long section called (3)
Cuchulinn's boy-deeds, in which Fergus relates the remarkable
prodigies of Cuchulinn's youth, and warns Medb that, though the
hero is but a beardless youth of seventeen, he will be more than a
match for all her forces. (4) A long series of single combats, of
which the first part of the tale is made up; they are at first gay
and bombastic in character, but become more grave as they
proceed, and culminate in the combat of Cuchulinn with his old
companion, Fer Diad. This section contains the account of
Cuchulinn's "distortion" or frenzy, which always occurred before
any great output of the hero's energy, and of the rout of the hosts
of Medb which followed it. (5) The general awakening of the
warriors of Ulster from their lethargy, and their gathering by
septs upon the Hill of Slane, clan by clan being described as it
comes up in order. (6) The final Battle of Gairech and Ilgairech,
followed (7) by the rout of Medb's army and (8) the tragic death
of the bulls.
The text of the Tdin has come down to us as a whole or in part
in nearly a score of MSS., most of which, however, are modern.
The most important MSS. containing the story are LU., LL.
and YBL. Of these LU. and YBL. are substantially the same,
whilst LL. contains a longer and fuller text later in both style
and language. LL. attempts to give a complete and consistent
narrative in more polished form. In ancient times there were
doubtless other versions now lost, but from the middle of the
1 2 th century the scribes seem to have taken few liberties with
the text, whilst previously the filid were constantly transforming
the material and adding fresh matter. The YBL. version
preserves a number of forms as old as the O. Ir. glosses (i.e.
8th century or earlier), and a curious story contained in LL.
seems to point to the fact that the Tdin was first committed
to writing in the 7 th century. Senchan Torpeist, who lived in
the first half of the 7 th century and succeeded Dalian Forgaill
as chief ollam of Ireland, summoned ihefilid to inquire which of
them knew the Tdin in its entirety. As they were only familiar
with fragments he despatched them to discover it. One of them
seated himself at the grave of Fergus MacR6ig, who appeared to
him in a mist and dictated the whole story to him in three days
and three nights.
At this point it will be well to say a few words about the form
of the Tdin. The old Irish epic is invariably in prose with
poems of varying length interspersed. The narrative and
descriptive portions are in prose and are frequently followed by a
brief epitome in verse. Dialogues, eulogies and laments also
appear in metrical form. The oldest poems, termed rhetoric,
which are best represented in LU,, seem to be declamatory
passages in rhythmical prose, not unlike the poetical passages in
the Old Testament, and the original Tdin may have consisted of
such rhetorics bound together with short connecting pieces of
prose. At a later date poems were inserted in the metres of the
filid (particularly the quatrain of four heptasyllabic lines) which
Thurneysen and Windisch consider to have been developed out
of medieval Latin verse. When in course of time the old rhetorics
became unintelligible they were often omitted altogether or new
poems substituted. Thus the LL. version contains a larger
number of poems than the LU.-YBL. copy, whilst LU. preserves
a number of rhetorics which do not appear in the later MS. The
prose portions in LU. are very poor from a literary point of view.
These passages are abrupt, condensed and frequently obscure,
with no striving after literary effect such as we find in LL. The
form in which many episodes are cast is not unlike a mnemonic,
leaving the story-teller to fill in the details himself. In the nth
century certain portions of the theme possessing great human
interest were vastly extended, new poems were added, and in
this manner such episodes come to form sagas complete in them-
selves. The most notable instance of this is the " Fight with
Fer Diad," which is not contained in LU. The genesis of the
Tdin may thus be briefly summarized as follows. The story was
first committed to writing in the 7 th or 8th century, after which
it was worked up by the filid. Extended versions existing in the
10th or 1 ith century form the basis of the copies we now possess.
Though the sagas of the Ulster cycle are eminently Irish and
pagan in character and origin, it cannot be denied that traces of
foreign influence are to be observed. A number of Latin and
Norse loan-words occur in them, and there can be little doubt
that the monkish scribes consciously thrust the supernatural
element into the background. However, although figures of
Vikings are unmistakable in a few cases, and in one story Cuchu-
linn is made to fight with Hercules, such foreign elements can
easily be detected in the older tales. They <*"* -* tt?c< «m-~.
details, and do not influence the body of ^ roia ^ n ^-
From what we have already said it *? ° e P 1 * * ***** ™l
epic is in a fluid state. The Tdin is of interest m che history erf
literature as representing the preliminary stage through which
the great verse epics of other nations have had to pass,, but its
IRISH LITERATURE]
CELT
value as a work of art is limited by its form. We must now say a
few words about the character and style of these romances. As
already stated, the atmosphere is frankly pagan and barbaric,
with none of that courtly element which we find in the Arthurian
epics. The two features which strike one most forcibly in the
medieval Irish romances are dramatic force and humour. The
unexpected and weird is always happening, the effect of which is
considerably heightened by the grim nature of the actors. In
particular the dialogues are remarkably brilliant and clever, and
it is a matter for surprise that this gifted race never developed a
drama of its own. This is doubtless partly due to the political
conditions of the island. And, moreover, we are constantly struck
by the lack of sustained effort which prevented the filid from
producing great epics in verse. Dramatic material is abundantly
present in the old epics, but it has never been utilized. As one
might expect from the vernacular literature of Ireland, these
romances are pervaded by a keen sense of humour. We feel that
the story-teller is continually expecting a laugh and he ex-
aggerates in true Irish fashion, so that the stories are full of
extravagantly grotesque passages. In the later LL. version we
notice a tendency to linger over pathetic situations, but this is
unknown in the earlier stage. Perhaps the most serious defect of
all Irish literary products is the lack of any sense of proportion,
which naturally goes hand in hand with the love of the grotesque.
Far too much attention is paid to trivial incidents and minute
descriptions, however valuable the latter may be to the anti-
quarian, to the detriment of the artistic effect. Further, the
story-teller does not know when to stop. He goes meandering on
long after the main portion of the story is finished, with the
result that Irish romances are apt to end in a most uninteresting
anticlimax. Finally we are wearied with a constant repetition of
the same epithets and similes, and with turgid descriptions;
even the grotesque exaggerations pall when we find them to be
stereotyped. But the early epics do not offend our sense of
propriety in expression to the same extent as the later Finn cycle.
The Tdin B6 Cualnge formed a kind of nucleus round which a
number of other tales clustered. A number of these are called
remsc&a or introductory stories to the Tdin. Such are the
" Revealing of the Tain " (already mentioned), the " Debility
of the Ultonians " (giving the story of the curse), " The Cattle-
Driving of Regamon, Dartaid and Flidais," " Tdin bd Regamna"
"The Cattle-Driving of Fraech," "The Dispute of the Swine-
herds," telling the previous history of the Bulls, " The Capture
of the Fairy Mound," " The Dream of Mac oc," the " Adventures
of Nera," the " Wooing of Ferb." Other stories form a kind of
continuation of the Tdin. Thus the " Battle of Rosnaree "
(" Calk Ruis na Rig ") relates how Conchobar, as a result of the
loss of the Bull, sends an army against the kings of Leinster and
Tara, and would have been routed but for the prowess of Cuchu-
linn. The " Great Rout of the Plain of Murthemne " and
" Cuchulinn's Death " tell how the hero's downfall is compassed
by a monstrous brood of ill-shapen beings whose father and
brothers had been slain by him during the Tdin. He finally
meets with his end at the hands of Lugaid, son of Cur6i mac
Daire (the central hero of a Munster cycle which has not come
down to us), and Ere, king of Tara. We are also told of the
terrible vengeance taken on the murderers by Conall Cernach.
Other stories deal with the " Conception of Conchobar," the
" Conception of Cijchulinn," " The Glories of Conchobar's
Reign," with an account of how he acquired the Throne from
Fergus, " The Wooing of Emer and the Hero's Education in
Scotland under Scathach," " The Siege of Howth," " Bricriu's
Feast and the Exile of the Sons of Doel Dermait," " The Battle
of the Boyne " (ttriu, vol. ii.), " The Deaths of Ailill, Medb and
Conall Cernach," " Destruction of Bruden Da Choca," M The
Tragical Death of Conlaech at the hands of Cuchulinn his father,"
" The Deaths of Goll and Garbh," " The Sickbed of Cuchulinn,"
in which the hero is lured away for a time into the invisible land
by a fairy, Fand, wife of Manandan, " The Intoxication of the
Ultonians," telling of a wild raid by night across the entire extent
of the island from Dun-da-Benn near Coleraine to the fort of
Cur6i MacDaire at Temair-Luachra in Kerry, " The Death of
627
Conchobar," " The Phantom Chariot of Cuchulinn," in which
the hero is brought up from the grave to witness before St
Patrick and King Loigaire to the truth of the Christian doctrine.
Four other stories in connexion with the Ulster cycle remain
to be mentioned. The first is " ScU mucci Mate Daiho " (" The
Story of MacDatho's Pig ") . Various writers of antiquity inform
us that at the feasts of the Gauls the champion received the best
portion of meat, which frequently led to brawls. In this savage
but picturesque Irish story we find the Ulstermen vaunting
their achievements against the Connaughtmen, until at last
the contest lies between Conall Cernach and Cet MacMagach.
Nowhere, perhaps, is the dramatic element better brought out.
Apart from the Tdin the greatest and at the same time the
longest saga in which Cuchulinn figures is Fled Brier end (Bricriu's
Feast). Bricriu is the mischief-maker among the Ulstermen,
and he conceives the idea of building a banqueting hall in order
to invite Conchobar and his nobles to a feast. After much hesita-
tion they consent. Bricriu in turn incites the three chief heroes,
Cuchulinn, Conall Cernach and Loigaire Buadach, to claim the
champion's portion. He does the same thing with the spouses
of the three warriors, who declaim in obscure verse the achieve-
ments and excellences of their several husbands in a passage
entitled the " Women's War of Words." Loosely attached to
this story follows a wild series of adventures in which the powers
of the three champions are tested, Cuchulinn always proving his
superiority. In order to decide the dispute, visits are paid to
Medb at Rath Cruachan and to Cur6i in Kerry, and the story
ends with the " beheading incident," which occurs in the romance
of " Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight." Fled Bricrend
presents a number of textual difficulties. The text of the
oldest MS. (LU.) shows signs of contamination, and several
versions of the story seem to have been current.
But the story of the Ulster cycle which is better known than any
other, is the story of the " Tragical Death of the Sons of Usnech,
or the Life and Death of Deirdre," one of the " Three Sorrows of
Story-telling." This is the only tale of the group which has
survived in the minds of the common people down to the present
day. It is foretold of Deirdre, a girl-child of great beauty, that
she will be the cause of great misfortunes, but Conchobar, having
lost his wife, determines to have her brought up in solitude and
marry her himself. However, the maiden chances to see a noble
youth named Naisi, one of the three sons of Usnech, and persuades
him to carry her off to Scotland, where they live for many years.
At length they are induced to return after several of the most
prominent Ulster warriors have gone bail for their safety. But
Conchobar resorts to treachery, and the three sons of Usnech are
slain, whilst the account of Deirdre's end varies. The oldest
version of the story is found in LL., and the characters are as
rugged and unsophisticated as those of the Tdin. But in the
later versions the savage features are toned down.
Before passing on, we must mention several old stories which
are independent of the Ulster cycle, but which deal with events
which are represented as having taken place before the Christian
era. Few of the old romances deal directly with what we may
call Irish mythology. The " Battle of Moytura " tells of the
tremendous struggle between the Tuatha D6 Danann and their
enemies, the Fomorian pirates. Connected with the events of
this saga is the story of the " Tragic Deaths of the Sons of
Tuirenn," which, though mentioned in Cormac's glossary, is not
found in any MS. older than the 18th century. The three sons of
Tuirenn have slain Cian, father of Lug Lamfhada, who lays upon
them a huge eric-fine. They go through terrific ordeals and
accomplish their task, but return home to die. This is the second
of the " Three Sorrows of Story-telling." An old story dealing
with Tuatha D£ Danann personages, but having a certain bear-
ing on the Cuchulinn cycle, is the " Courtship of fitain," who,
though of supernatural \sid) birth, is wedded to Eochaid Airem,
a mortal king. In her previous existence she was the wife of
the supernatural personage Midir of Bri-leith, who wins back
fitain from her mortal husband in a game of chess and carries
her off to his fairy mound.
For sake of completeness we may add the titles of two other
628
CELT
[IRISH LITERATURE
well-known stories here. The one is the " Story of Baile the
Sweet-spoken," which tells of the deaths of two lovers for grief
at the false tidings of each other's death. The other is the
" Fate of the Children of Lir," the third of the " Three Sorrows
of Story-telling," which is only known in a modern dress. It
relates how the four daughters of Lir (father of the sea-god
Manandan and the original of Shakespeare's Lear) were changed
into swans by a cruel stepmother, and how, after ooo years of
wandering on the ocean, they at length regain their human form
through the instrumentality of St Mochaomhog.
A large number of sagas, which claim to be founded on
historical events, present a great similarity to the tales of the
Ulster cycle. Most of them are mentioned in the old catalogues.
We can only name the more important here. The " Destruction
of Dind-Rig and Exile of Labraid Loingsech " relates how the
kingdom of Leinster was snatched by one brother from another
in the 6th century B.C., and how the son of the murdered prince
with the aid of a British force sacked Dind-Rig, the fortress of the
usurper. The story of the visit of the pigmies to the court of
Fergus MacLeite, king of Ulster in the 2nd century B.C., is only
contained in a 15th-century MS. This tale is commonly stated
to have given Swift the idea of his Gulliver's Travels to Lilliput.
" CaithrHm ChonghaU Claringnigh" which only occurs in a
modernized 17th-century version, deals with a revolution in the
province of Ulster, supposed to have taken place before the
Christian era.
The most important Old Irish saga after the Tdin is beyond
doubt the Destruction of Dd Derga's Hostel, contained in LU.
It deals with events in the reign of the High-King Conaire M6r,
who is said by the annalists to have been slain in 43 B.C. after a
reign of seventy years. Conaire, who was a descendant cf the
£tain mentioned above, was a just ruler, and had banished
among other lawless persons his own five foster brothers. These
latter devoted themselves to piracy and made common cause
with one Ingcel, a son of the king of Britain, who had been out-
lawed by his father. The high-king was returning from Co.
Clare when he found the whole of Meath in flames. He turned
aside into Leinster and made for Da Derga's hostel. The
pirates perceive this, and Ingcel is sent to spy out the hostel
and discover the size of Conaire's force. This gives the story-
teller a chance for one of those lengthy minute descriptions
of persons in which his soul delighted. This catalogue
occupies one-half of the whole story. The pirates make their
attack, and the king and most of his followers are butchered.
We can do no more than enumerate the titles of other historical
tales: The " Destruction of the Hostel of MacDareo," describing
the insurrection of the Aithech-Tuatha (1st century a.d.), " The
Expulsion of the Delsi " and the " Battle of Mag Lemna " (2nd
century a.d.), "Battle of Mag Mucrime" (a.d. 195 or a.d. 218),
" Siege of Drom Damgaire " (3rd century), " Adventures of the
Sons of Eochaid Muigmed6in, father of Niall N6igiallach " (4th
century), "Death of Crimthann" (reigned 366-378), "Death
of Dathi " (d. 428), " Death of Murchertach, son of Ere," and
" Death of Diarmait, son of Cerball " (6th century) " Wooing
of Becfola, who became the wife of Diarmait, son of Aed Slane "
(reigned 657-664), " Battle of Mag Rath " (637), " Battle of
Cam Conaill " (c. 648), " Death of Maelfothartaig MacRonain "
(7th century), who was a kind of Irish Hippolytus, " Battle of
Allen " (722).
It will be well to deal here with another class of story in its
various stages of development. We have seen that in the older
romances there is a close connexion between mortals and super-
natural beings. The latter are represented as either inhabiting
the sid mounds or as dwelling in islands out in the ocean, which
are pictured as abodes of bliss and variously called Mag Mell
(Plain of Delight) , Tir no n-Oc (Land of Youth) and Tir Taimgiri
(Land of Promise). The visits of mortals to the Irish Elysium
form the subject of three romances which we must now examine.
The whole question has been exhaustively dealt with by Kuno
Meyer and Alfred Nutt in the Voyage of Bran (London, 1895-
1897). Condla Caem, son of Conn Cetchathach, was one day
seated by his father on the hill of Usnech, when he saw a lady in
strange attire approaching invisible to all but himself. She
describes herself as coming from the " land of the living," a place
of eternal delight, and invites the prince to return with her.
Conn invokes the assistance of his druid to drive away the strange
visitor, who in parting throws an apple to Condla. The young
man partakes of no food save his apple, which does not diminish,
and he is consumed with longing. At the end of a month the
fairy-maiden again makes her appearance. Condla can hold out
no longer. He jumps into the damsel's skiff of glass. They sail
away and were seen no more. This is the Imratn or Adventure of
Condla Caem, the oldest text of which is found in LU. A similar
story is entitled Imratn Brain mate Febail, contained in YBL.
and Rawlinson B 512 (the end also occurs in LU.), only with this
difference that Bran, with twenty-seven companions, puts to sea
to discover tir na mban (the land of maidens). After spending
some time there, one of his comrades is seized with home-sickness.
They return, and the home-sick man, on being set ashore,
immediately turns to dust. A later story preserved in BB.,
YBL. and the Book of Fermoy, tells of the visit of Cormac,
grandson of Conn Cetchathach, to Tir Taimgiri. These themes
are also worked into tales belonging to the Ossianic cycle, and
Finn and Ossian in later times become the typical warriors who
achieve the quest of the Land of Youth. The romances we have
just mentioned are almost entirely pagan in character, but a
kindred class of story shows us how the old ideas were trans-
formed under the influence of Christianity. A typical instance is
Imram curaig Maelduin> contained in YBL. and in part in LU.
Maelduin constructs a boat and sets out on a voyage with a
large company to discover the murderer of his father. This
forms the framework of the story. Numerous islands in the
ocean are visited, each containing some great marvel. Imram
ua Corra (Book of Fermoy) and Imram Snedgusa ocus Mac
Riagla (YBL.) contain the same plan, but in this case the voyage
is undertaken as an expiation for crime. In the nth century
an unknown monkish writer compiled the Navigatio S. Brendani f
drawing the material for his episodes from Imram curaig Mael-
duin. This famous work only appears in an Irish dress in a
confused and disconnected " Life of St Brendan " in the Book of
Lismore. The same MS. contains yet another voyage, the
" Adventure of Tadg MacCein."
We must now turn our attention to the later heroic cycle,
commonly called the Fenian or Ossianic. Unfortunately the
origin of the stories and poems connected with Finn
and his warriors is obscure, and scholars are by no 0aaiMI J^
means agreed over the question (see Finn Mac Cool). <ycfe.
In the earlier cycle the figures and the age in which
they live are sharply drawn, and we can have no hesitation in
assuming that the Tdin represents in the main the state of
Ireland at the beginning of the Christian era. Finn and his
companions are nebulous personages, and, although it is difficult
to discover the actual starting-point of the legend, from the
1 2th century onwards we are able to trace the development of
the saga with some degree of certainty. A remarkably small
amount of space is devoted to this cycle in the oldest MSS. Of
the 1 34 pages contained in LU. only half-a-dozen deal with Finn
as against 58 with Cuchulinn. In LL. the figures are, Ulster
cycle 100 pp., Ossianic 25 pp., the latter being mainly made up
of short ballads, whilst in 15th-century MSS., such as the Book
of Lismore and Laud 610, the proportion is overwhelmingly in
favour of the later group. Again in Urard MacCoisi's list of
tales, which seems to go back to the 10th century, only two
appear to deal with subjects taken from the Ossianic cycle. In
the first instance Finn seems to have been a poet, and as such
he appears in the 12th-century MSS., LU. and LL. Thus the
subjects of the Ossianic cycle in the earliest MSS. appear in a
new dress. The vehicle of the older epic is prose, but the later
cycle is clothed in ballad form. Of these ballads about a dozen,
apart from poems in the Dindsenchus are preserved in LU., LL.
and YBL., and none of these poems are probably much older
than the nth century. In the commentary to the Amra of
Columbkille a beautiful poem on winter is attributed to Finn.
At the same time we do find a few prose tales, e.g. " Fotha catka
IRISH LITERATURE]
CELT
629
Cnucha " in LU., describing the death of Cumall, Finn's father,
and in LL. and Rawlinson B 502, part of which Zimmer assigns
to the 7th century, we have the first story in which Finn actually
occurs. But it is remarkable that in no case do tales belonging
to the Finn cycle contain any of the old rhetorics which occur in
the oldest of the Ulster romances. Already in LL., by the side
of Finn, Ossian, Cailte and Fergus Finnbel are represented as
poets, and the strain of lament over the glories of the past, so
characteristic a feature of the later developments of the legend,
is already sounded. Hence by the 1 2th century the stories of the
Fiann and their destruction at the battle of Gabra must have
been fully developed, and from this time onward they appear
gradually to have supplanted the Cuchulinn cycle in popular
favour. Several reasons have been assigned for this. In the
first place until the time of Brian Boroime the high-kings of
Ireland had almost without exception been drawn from Ulster,
and consequently the northern traditions were pre-eminent.
This exclusiveness on the part of the north was largely broken
down by the Viking invasions, and during the nth century the
leading poets were attached to the court of Brian and his descend-
ants. In this manner an opportunity was afforded to the
Leinster-Munster Fenian cycle to develop into a national saga.
John MacNeill has pointed out Finn's connexion with a Firbolg
tribe, and maintains that the Fenian cycle was the property of
the subject race. Zimmer has attempted to prove with great
plausibility that Finn and his warriors were transformed on the
model of the Ulster heroes. Thus one text deals with the boyish
exploits of Finn in the manner of Cuchulinn's youthful feats
recorded in the Tdin. And it is possible that the Siaburcharpat
Conchulainn gave rise to the idea of connecting Ossian and
Cailte with Patrick. As Cuchulinn was opposed to the whole of
Ireland in the Tdin, so Finn, representing Ireland, is pitted
against the whole world in the Battle of V entry.
We have already stated that the form assumed by the stories
connected with Finn in the earliest MSS. is that of the ballad,
and this continued down to the 18th century. But here again
the Irish poets, showed themselves incapable of rising from the
ballad to the true epic in verse, and in the 14th century we find
the prose narrative of the older cycle interspersed with verse
again appearing. The oldest composition of any length which
deals with the Ossianic legends is the AcaUam na Sendrach or
Colloquy of the Old Men, which is mainly preserved in three
15th-century MSS., the Book of Lismore, Laud 610 and Rawlin-
son 487. In this text we have the framework common to so
much of the later Ossianic literature. Ossian and Cailte are
represented as surviving the battle of Gabra and as living on
until the time of Patrick. The two warriors get on the best of
terms with the saint, and Cailte is his constant companion on
his journey through Ireland. Patrick inquires the significance
of the names of the places they visit, and Cailte recounts his
reminiscences. In this manner we are given nearly a hundred
stories, the subjects of some of which occur in the short ballads
in older MSS., whilst others appear later as independent tales.
A careful comparison of the Acallam with the Cuchulinn stories,
whether from the point of view of civilization or language or
art, discloses that the first lengthy composition of the Ossianic
cycle is but a feeble imitation of the older group. All that had
become unintelligible in the Ulster stories, owing to their primi-
tive character, is omitted, and in return for that the reminiscences
of the Viking age play a very prominent part.
With the 1 6th century we reach the later treatment of the
legend in the Battle of V entry. In this tedious story Daire, the
king of the whole world, comes to invade Ireland with all his
forces, but is repulsed by Finn and his heroes. The Battle of
V entry, like all later stories, is a regular medley of incidents
taken from the writers of antiquity and European medieval
romance. The inflated style to which the Irishman is so prone
is here seen at its worst, and we are treated to a nauseous heaping
up of epithet upon epithet, e.g. we sometimes find as many as
twenty-seven adjectives accompanying a substantive running in
alliterating sets of three.
Of greater literary interest are the later ballads connected with
Finn and Ossian. The latter has become the typical mouthpiece
of the departed glory of the Fenian warriors, and Nutt has pointed
out that there is a striking difference in spirit between the
Acallam na Sendrach and the I5th-i6th century poems. In the
latter Ossian is represented as a " pagan, defiant and reckless,
full of contempt and scorn for the howling clerics and their
churlish low-bred deity," whilst Patrick is a sour and stupid
fanatic, harping with wearisome monotony on the damnation of
Finn and all his comrades. The earliest collection of these
later Ossianic poems is that made in Scotland by James Mac-
gregor, dean of Lismore, early in the 16th century. Another
miscellany is the Duanaire Finn, a MS. in the Franciscan
monastery in Dublin, compiled from earlier MSS. in 1627. This
" song-book," which has been edited for the Irish Texts Society
by John MacNeill (part i. 1908), contains no less than sixty-nine
Ossianic ballads, amounting in all to some ten thousand lines.
Other Ossianic poems of dates varying from the 15th to the 18th
century have been published in the Transactions of the Ossianic
Society (Dublin, 1854-1861), including amongst others "The
Battle of Gabhra," " Lamentation of Oisin (Ossian) after the
Fenians," " Dialogue between Oisin and Patrick," " The Battle
of Cnoc an Air," and " The Chase of Sliabh Guilleann." These
ballads still survive amongst the peasants at the present day.
We further possess a number of prose romances, which in their
present form date from the 16th to the 18th century; e.g.
The Pursuit of Diarmaid and Grdinne, Finn and Grdinne,
Death of Finn, The Clown in the Drab Coat, Pursuit of the Gilla
Decair, The Enchanted Fort of the Quicken-tree, The Enchanted
Cave of Ceis Corann } The Feast in the House of Conan.
At the present moment it is impossible to give a complete survey
of the other branches of medieval Irish literature. # The attention
of scholars has been largely devoted to the publication of the sagas
to the neglect of other portions of the wide field. An excellent
survey of the subject is given by K. Meyer, Die Kultur der Gegen-
vrart, 1. xi. 1. pp. 78-95 (Berlin-Leipzig, 1909).
We have already pointed out that as early as the Old Irish
period nameless Irish poets were singing the praises of nature in a
strain which sounds to our ears peculiarly modern.'
At the present time it is difficult to say how much of t!Luy.
what is really poetic in Irish literature has come down
to us. Our MSS. preserve whole reams of the learned productions
of the filid which were so much prized in medieval Ireland, but
it is, generally speaking, quite an accident if any of the delightful
little lyrics entered in the margins or on blank spaces in the MSS.
have remained. The prose romances sometimes contain beautiful
snatches of verse, such as the descriptions of Mag Mell in Serglige
Conculaind, Tochmarc £tdine, and the Voyage of Bran or the
Lament of C&chulinn over Fer Diad. Mention has also been made
of the exquisite nature poems ascribed to Finn, which have been
collected into a pamphlet with English renderings by Kuno
Meyer (under the title of " Four Old Irish Songs of Summer and
Winter," London, 1903). The same writer points out that the
ancient treatise on Irish prosody published by Thurneysen
contains no less than 340 quotations from poems, very few
of which have been preserved in their entirety. To Meyer we
also owe editions of two charming little texts which sufficiently
illustrate the lyrical powers of the early poets. The one is a
poem referred to the 10th century in the form of a colloquy
between Guaire of Aidne and his brother Marban. Guaire
inquires of his brother why he prefers to live in a hut in the
forest, keeping the herds and swine of the king, to dwelling in
the king's palace. The question calls forth so wonderful a
description of the delights of nature as viewed from a shieling
that Guaire exclaims, " I would give my glorious kingship to be
in thy company, Marban " (King and Hermit, ed. with trans,
by K. Meyer, London, 1901). Another text full of passionate
emotion and tender regret ascribed to the 9th century tells of
the parting of a young poet and poetess, who after plighting their
troth are separated for ever (Liadain and Curithir, ed. with trans,
by K. Meyer, London, 1902). In the Old Woman of Beare
(publ. K. Meyer in Otia Merseiana) an old hetaira laments her
departed youth, comparing her life to the ebbing of the tide
(10th century).
630
CELT
[IRISH LITERATURE
We must now step aside from pure literature and turn our
attention to the various productions of the professional learned
classes of Ireland during the middle ages. The range of subjects
coming under this heading is a very wide one, comprising history,
genealogies, hagiology, topography, grammar, lexicography and
metre, law and medicine. It will perhaps be as weU first of
all to deal with the learned filid whose works have
been preserved. Irish tradition preserves the names
of a number of antiquarian poets of prehistoric or
early medieval times, such as Amergin, one of the
Milesian band of invaders; Moran Roigne, son of Ugaine M6r,
Adna and his successor Ferceirtne, Torna (c. 400), tutor to Niall
N6igiallach, Dalian Forgaill, Senchan Torp&st, and Cennfaelad
(d. 678), but the poems attributed to these writers are of much
later date. We can only enumerate the chief of those whose
works have been preserved. To Maelmura (d 1 . 887) is attributed
a poem on the Milesian migrations. About the same time lived
Flanagan, son of Cellach, who wrote a long composition on the
deaths of the kings of Ireland, preserved in YBL., and Flann
MacLonain (d. 918), called by the Four Masters the Virgil of
Ireland, eight of whose poems have survived, containing in all
about 1000 lines. Cormacan, son of Maelbrigde (d. 946), com-
posed a vigorous poem on the circuit of Ireland performed by
Muirchertach, son of Niall Glundub. A poet whose poems are
most valuable from an antiquarian point of view is Cinaed Ua
h-Artacain (d. 975). Some 800 lines of his have been preserved
in LL. and elsewhere. Contemporary with him is Eochaid
OTlainn (d. c. 1003), whose chief work is a long chronological
poem giving a list of the kings of Ulster from Cimbaeth down
to the destruction of Emain in 33 1 . A little later comes MacLiac
(d. 1016), who celebrated in verse the glories of the reign of Brian
Boroime. His best-known work is a lament over Kincora, the
palace of Brian. Contemporary with MacLiac is MacGilla Coim
Urard MacCoisi (d. 1023) . To Cuan ua LothchAin (d. 1024) , chief
poet in the reign of Maelsheachlainn II. , are ascribed poems on
the antiquities of Tara. Sixteen hundred lines of his have come
down to us. A writer who enjoyed a tremendous reputation in
medieval Ireland was Flann Mainstrech (d. 1056), who in spite of
his being a layman was head of the monastery school at Monaster-
boice. He is the author of no fewer than 2000 lines in LL., and
many other poems of his are contained in other MSS. His best-
known work is a Book of Synchronisms of the kings of Ireland
and those of the ancient world. We have also poems from his
pen on the monarchs descended from Niall N6igiallach and on the
chronology of the high-kings and provincial kings from the time
of Loigaire. Flann's successor, Gilla Coemgin (d. 107 2) , gives us
a chronological poem dealing with the annals of the world down to
a.d. 1014. He also is the author of the Irish version of Nennius
which contains substantial additions dealing with early Ireland.
Minor writers of the same nature whose works have come down
to us are Colman O'Sesnain (d. 1050), N6ide ua Maelchonaire
(d. 1 136), Gilla na noem ua Duinn (d. 1160), Gilla Moduda
O'Cassidy (1143)- I R the 13th century these historical poems
become very rare. In the next century we again find anti-
quarian poets of whom the best-known is John O'Dugan (d.
1372). His most valuable composition treats of the tribes of
the northern half of Ireland at the time of the northern con-
quest. This work, containing 1660 lines in all in debide metre,
was completed by his younger contemporary Gilla na naem
O'Huidhrin. From the beginning of the 13th century the official
poets began to give way to the hereditary bards and families
of scribes. Among the chief bardic families we may mention
the O'Dalys, the MacWards, the O'Higinns, the MacBrodys
and the MacDaires. We must here content ourselves with
glancing at a few of the more prominent names. Muiredach
Albanach (c. 12 14-1240), whose real name was O'Daly, has left
behind in addition to the religious verses a considerable number
of poems in praise of various patrons in Ireland and Scotland.
He is said by Skene to be the first of the Macvurrichs, bards to
Macdonald of Clanranald. A number of his compositions are
preserved in the Book of the Dean of Lismore. Gilla Brigde Mac-
Conmidhe was a contemporary of the last-mentioned bard. He
wrote a number of poems in praise of the O'Neills and O'Donnells.
We may next mention the name of an abbot of Boyle, Donn-
chad M6r O'Dalaig (d. 1244), a writer whose extant poems are
usually of a religious character. Many of them are addressed to
the Virgin. Most of them appear in late MSS., but some few are
preserved in the Book of the Hy Maine. Donnchad M6r is said to
be the greatest religious poet that Ireland has produced. Many
other members of the O'Daly family belonging to the 14th and
15th centuries have left poems behind them, but we cannot
mention them here. Angus O'Daly, who lived in the second
half of the 16th century, was employed by the English to satirize
the chief Gaelic families in Ireland. Two members of the
O'Higinn family deserve mention, Tadgm6r O'Higinn (d. 13 15),
and Tadg Og O'Higinn (d. 1448), a voluminous writer who
eulogized the O'Neills, O'Connors and O'Kellys. Tadg Og also
composed a number of religious poems, which enjoyed enormous
popularity in both Ireland and Scotland. A duanaire was
inserted into YBL., which contains some forty poems by him.
Closely connected with the compositions of the official poets
are the works of native topography . Most of the sagas contain a
number of explanations of the origins of place-names. The
Dindsenchus is a compilation of such etymologies. But its chief
value consists in the amount of legendary matter it contains,
adduced in support of the etymologies given. The Dindscnchus
has come down to us in various forms both in prose and in verse.
Irish tradition ascribes it to Amergin MacAmalgaid, who lived
in the 6th century, but if the kernel of the work goes back as early
as this it must have been altered considerably in the course of the
centuries. Both prose and verse forms of it are contained in LL.
A kindred compilation is the Cdir Anmann (Fitness of Names),
which does for personal names what the Dindsenchus does for
geographical names. We further possess a versified compendium
of geography for educational purposes dealing with the three
continents, from the pen of Airbertach MacCosse-dobrain
(10th century).
No people on the face of the globe have ever been more keenly
interested in the past of their native country than the Irish.
This will already have been patent from the com- mstoty.
positions of the filid, and now we may describe briefly
the historical works in prose which have come down to us.
The latter may be divided into two classes, (1) works containing
a connected narrative, (2) annals. Closely allied to these are the
sagas dealing with the high-kings. Even in the serious historical
compositions we often find the manner of the sagas imitated, e.g.
the supernatural plays a prominent part, and we are treated to
the same exaggerated descriptions. The earliest of these histories
is the wars of the Gael and Gall (Cogad Gaedel re Gallaib), which
gives an account of the Viking invasions of Ireland, the career
of Brian Boroime and the overthrow of the Norsemen at the
battle of Clontarf. This composition, a portion of which is
contained in LL., is often supposed to be in part the work of
MacLiac, and it is plain from internal evidence that it must
have been written by an eye-witness of the battle, or from
materials supplied by a person actuaUy present. Numerous
shorter tracts dealing with the same period exist, but as yet few
of them have been published. Caithreim Cellachdin Caisil treats
of the conflicts between the Vikings and the Irish, and the
Leabhar Oiris gives an account of Irish history from 979 to 1027.
Compilations relating to local history are the Book of Fenaj^h
and the Book of Munster. Another ancient work also partly
preserved in LL. is the Book of Invasions (Leabhar Gabhdla).
This deals with the five prehistoric invasions of Ireland (see
Ireland: Early History) and the legendary history of the
Milesians. The most complete copy of the Leabhar Gabhdla
which has been preserved was compiled by Michael O'Clery
about 1630. The Boroma or History of the Leinster Tribute
contained in LL. belongs rather to romance. Another history is
the Triumphs of Turlough 0* Brian, written about the year 1459 by
John MacCraith, a Munster historian (edited by S. H. O'Grady,
Camb. Press). This inflated composition is an important
source of information on Munster history from the landing of
the Normans to the middle of the 14th century. We also possess
IRISH LITERATURE]
CELT
631
several documents in Irish concerning the doings of the O'Neills
and O'Donnells at the close of the 16th century. A life of Hugh
Roe O'Donnell, by Lughaidh O'Clery, has been published, and
a contemporary history of the Flight of the Earls, by Tadhg
O'Cianan, was being prepared in 1908. But the most celebrated
Irish historian is certainly Geoffrey Keating (c. 1570-1646),
who is at the same time the greatest master of Irish prose.
Keating was a Munster priest educated in France, who drew down
upon himself the displeasure of the English authorities and had
to go into hiding. He travelled up and down Ireland examining
all the ancient records, and compiled a history of Ireland down
to the Norman Conquest. His work, entitled Forus Feasa or
Eirinn, was never published, but it circulated from end to end of
Ireland in MS. Keating's history is anything but critical. Its
value for the scholar lies in the fact that the author had access
to many important sources of information now lost, and has
preserved accounts of events independent of and differing from
those contained in the Four Masters. In addition to the history
and a number of poems, Keating is also the author of two theo-
logical works in Irish, the Defence of the Mass (Eochairsgiath an
Aifrinn) and a collection of sermons entitled the Three Shafts of
Death (Tri trior ghaoithe an Bhdis), which are models of Irish prose.
From the writers of historical narrative we turn to the annalists,
the most important sources of information with regard to Irish
history. We have already mentioned the Synchronisms of Flann
Mainistrech. Apart from this work the earliest collection of
annals which has come down to us is the compilation by Tigernach
O'Braein (d. 1088), abbot of Clonmacnoise. Tigernach, whose
work is partly in Latin, partly in Irish, states that all Irish
history previous to 305 B.C. is uncertain. No perfect copy is
known of this work, but several fragments are in existence. The
Annals of Innisf alien (a monastery on an island in the Lower
Lake of Killarney), which are also in Latin and Irish, were
perhaps compiled about 12 15, though they may have begun two
centuries earlier. The invaluable A nnals of Ulster were compiled
on Belle Isle on Upper Lough Erne by Cathal Maguire (d. 1498),
and afterwards continued by two different. writers down to 1604.
This work, which deals with Irish affairs from a.d. 431, exists
in several copies. The Annals of Loch CI (near Boyle in Ros-
common) were copied in 1588 and deal with Irish events from
10x4 to 1636. The Annals of Connaught run from 1224 to 1562.
The Chronicon Scotorutn, one copy of which was transcribed
about 165Q by the famous antiquary Duald MacFirbis, deals
with Irish affairs down to 1135. The Annals of Boyle extend
down to 1253. The Annals of Clonmacnoise y which come down
to 1408, only exist in an English translation made by Connell
MacGeoghegan in 1627. The most important of all these col-
lections is the Annals of the Four Masters (so christened by
Colgan), compiled in the Franciscan monastery of Donegal by
Michael, Conary and Cucogry O'Clery and Ferfesa O'Mulconry.
The O'Clerys were for a long period the hereditary ollams to
the O'Donnells. Michael O'Clery (1575-1643), the greatest of the
four, was a lay brother in the order of St Francis, and devoted
his whole life to the history of Ireland. He collected all the
historical MSS. he could find, and was encouraged in his under-
taking by Fergal O'Gara, prince of Coolavin, who paid all ex-
penses. The great work, which was begun in 1632 and finished
in 1636, begins with the arrival in Ireland of Ceasair, grand-
daughter of Noah, and comes down to 16 16. Nearly all the
materials from which O'Clery drew his statements are now lost.
O'Clery is also the author of a catalogue of the kings of Ireland,
the genealogies of the Irish saints, and the Martyrology of
Donegal and the Book of Invasions.
Of less interest, but every whit as important, are the lists of
genealogies which occupy a great deal of space in LL., YBL.
and BB., and two Trinity College, Dublin, MSS. (H. 3. 18 and H.
2. 4). But by far the most important collection of all is that
made by the last great shanachie Duald MacFirbis, compiled
between 1650 and 1666 in the college of St Nicholas at Gal way.
The only portions of any considerable length which have as yet
been published deal with two Connaught tribes, viz. the Hy
Fiachrach from Duald mac Firbis and the Hy Maine (O'Kellys),
and a Munster tribe, the Corcalaidhe, both from YBL. Valuable
information with regard to early Irish history is often contained
in the prophecies or, as they are sometimes termed, Baile
(raptures, visions), a notable example of which is Baile in Scdil
(Vision of the Phantom).
When we turn from secular to religious themes we find that
Ireland is also possessed of a very extensive Christian literature,
which is extremely valuable for the comparative study
of medieval literature. Apart from the martyrologies ^irwtarw.
already mentioned in connexion with Oengus the
Culdee, a number of lives of saints and other ecclesiastical
literature have come down to us. One of the most important
documents is the Tripartite Life of St Patrick, which cannot very
well have been composed before the 10th or nth century, as
it is full of the extravagant miracles which occur in the later
lives of saints. The work consists of three separate homilies,
each complete in itself. A later version of the Tripartite Life
was printed by Colgan in 1647. The Leabhar Breae contains a
quantity of religious tracts, most of which have been published.
R. Atkinson issued a number of them under the title of Passions
and Homilies from Leabhar Breac (Dublin, 1887). These are not
original Irish compilations, but translations from Latin lives of
saints. Nor do they deal with the lives of any Irish saints.
Stokes has published nine lives of Irish saints from the Book of
Lismore, including Patrick, Brigit, Columba,. Brendan, Findian
(Clonard), Ciaran, Senan, Findchua and Mochua. They are
written in the form of homilies preceded by short explanations of
a text of scripture. These lives also occur in the Leabhar Breac.
Other lives of saints have been published by O'Grady in Silva
Gadelica. The longest life of St Columba was compiled in 1 536
at the command of Manus O'Donnell. This tedious work is a
specimen of hagiology at its worst. The Leabhar Breac further
contains a number of legends, such as those on the childhood
of Christ, and scattered through many MSS. are short anecdotes
of saints which are very instructive.
But the most interesting Irish religious text is the Vision of
Adamnan (preserved in LU.), which Stokes assigns to the nth
century. The soul of Adamnan is represented as leaving his
body for a space to visit heaven and hell under the conduct of
an angeL The whole treatment of the theme challenges com-
parison with Dante's great poem, but the Irish composition
contains many ideas peculiar to the land of its origin. Later
specimens of this kind of literature tend to develop into grotesque
buffoonery. We may mention the Vision of Fursae, the Vision
of Tundale (Tnugdal), published by V. Friedel and K. Meyer
(Paris, 1907), Laisr6n's Vision of Hell and the Vision of Merlino.
A further vision attributed to Adamnan contains a stern de-
nunciation of the Irish of the nth century. Another form of
religious composition, which was very popular in medieval Ire-
land, was the prophecy in verse, but scarcely any specimens
have as yet been published. Kuno Meyer edited a tract on the
Psalter in his Hibernica Minora from a 15th century Oxford MS.,
but he holds that the text goes back to 750. A number of
collections of monastic rules both in prose and verse have been
edited in £riu, and the MSS. contain numerous prayers, litanies
and religious poems.
In LU. are preserved two sermons, Sctla na esergi (Tidings of
Resurrection) and Sc&la Idi brdtfta (Tidings of Doomsday) ; and a
number of other homilies have been published, such as the
"Two Sorrows of the Kingdom of Heaven," "The Penance of
Adam," the "Ever-new Tongue," and one on "Mortals' Sins."
All the homilies contained in LB. have been published by R.
Atkinson in his legends and Homilies from Leabhar Breac
(Dublin, 1887), and E. Hogan, The Irish Nennius (Dublin, 1895).
The popular " Debate of the Body and the Soul " appears in
Ireland in the form of a homily. A collection of maxims and a
short moral treatise have been published by K. Meyer.
For the religious literature in general the reader may refer to
O'Curry, Lectures on the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History
(pp- 339-434)* * n d G. Dottin, "Notes bibliographiques sur Tancienne
literature chretienne de l'lrlande," in Revue d'htstoire et de littera-
ture religieuses, v. 162-167. See also Revue ceMque t xi. 391-404,
ib. xv. 79-91,
632
CELT
[IRISH LITERATURE
Here we may perhaps mention an extraordinary production
entitled Aisling Meic Conglinne, the Vision of Mac Conglinne,
found in LB. and ascribed to the twelfth century (ed. K. Meyer,
London, 1892). Cathal MacFinguine, king of Munster (d. 737),
was possessed by a demon of gluttony and is cured by the recital
of a strange vision by a vagrant scholar named MacConglinne.
The composition seems to be intended as a satire on the monks,
and in particular as a travesty of medieval hagiology. Another
famous satire, entitled the Proceedings of the Great Bardic
Institution, holds up the professional bards and their extortionate
methods to ridicule. This curious work contains the story of
how the great epic, the Tdin b6 Cualnge, was recovered (see
Transactions of the Ossianic Society, vol. v.).
Collections of pithy sayings in the form of proverbs and maxims
must have been made at a very early period. Not the least
remarkable are the so-called Triads (publ. K. Meyer,
mentor*, Dublin, 1906), which illustrate every statement with
3 examples. Over 200 such triads were brought
together in the 9th century. There are also two documents
attributed to ist-century personages, "The Testament of
Morann MacM6in to his son Feradach, " which is quoted as
early as the 8th century, and " The Instructions of Cuchulinn
to his foster-son Lugaid." K. Meyer has published Tecosca
Connate or the Precepts of Cormac MacAirt to his son Cairpre
(Dublin, 1909) . Other collections such as the Senbriathra Fithail
still await publication.
With that enthusiasm for the classics which is characteristic of
the Irish, it is not strange that we should find medieval versions
^ . . of some of the better-known authors of antiquity.
Mtories. " B interesting to note that only those works are
translated that could be utilized by the professional
story-teller. So much so, that in the ancient (10th century)
catalogue of sagas enumerated by Urard MacCoisi we find
mention of Togail Trot and Scila Alexandir mate PUip. We get
descriptions of battle weapons and clothing similar to those
occurring in the native sagas. Togail Trot is taken from the
medieval prose version, Historia de Excidio Troiae of Dares
Phrygius. The oldest Irish copy is found in LL. This version
is exceedingly valuable, as it enables us to determine the meaning
of words and formulas in the sagas which are otherwise obscure.
An Irish abstract of the Odyssey, following an unknown source,
and part of the story of Theseus have been published by K. Meyer.
Sc&a Alexandir is preserved in LB. and BB. Imthechta A eniusa,
taken from the Aeneid, is contained in BB. A number of MSS.
contain the Cath Catharda, a version of books vi. and vii. (?) of
Lucan's Pharsalia, which has been published by Wh. Stokes.
There is further at least one MS. containing a version of Statius's
Thebaid and of Heliodorus's Aethiopica. Somewhat later, the
medieval literature of western Europe comes to be represented
in translations. Thus we have Irish versions, amongst others of
the Gesta Romanorum, the Historia Briltonum, the Wars of
Charlemagne, the History of the Lombards, Sir John Maunde-
ville's Travels (trans, by Fingin O'Mahony in 1475), the Book of
Ser Marco Polo (abridged), Guy Earl of Warwick, Bevis of
Southampton, the Quest of the Holy Grail, Octavian, the
chronicle of Turpin, Barlaam and Josaphat, and the story of
Fierabras. The Arthurian cycle is developed in independent
fashion in the Adventures of the Eagle Boy and the Adventures
of the Crop-eared Dog. For translation li terature see M . Nettlau,
Revue celtique, x. pp. 184, 460-461.
Hand in hand with the interest of the medieval Irish scholars
in the history of their island goes the cultivation of the native
Philology, t- **® 1 *- Owing to the profound changes produced by
the working of the Irish laws of accent and initial
mutation, it is doubtful if any other language lends itself so well
to wild etymological speculation . By the beginning of the Middle
Irish period a good part of the cumbrous Old Irish verb-system
had become obsolete, and texts which were at all faithfully
copied had to be plentifully supplied with glosses. Moreover, if,
as is probable, all the historical and legal lore was in verse, a
large part of it must have been unintelligible except to those
who knew the btrla fine. But even before this Cormac mac
Cuillenain, the bishop-king of Cashel (d. 003), had compiled a
glossary of archaic words which are accompanied by explanations,
etymologies, and illustrative passages containing an amount of
invaluable information concerning folk-lore and legendary
history. This glossary has come down to us in various recensions
all considerably later in date than the original work (the oldest
copy is in LB.). Later collections of archaic words are
O'Mulconry's Glossary (13th century), the Lecan Glossary (15th
century), which draws principally from the glosses in the
Liber Hymnorum, O'Davoren's Glossary (16th century), drawn
principally from the Brehon Laws, a 16th century list of Latin
and Irish names of plants employed in medicine, and O'Clery's
Glossary (published at Louvain, 1643). BB. contains a curious
tract on Ogamic writing. An Irish treatise on grammar, called
Uraicept na n-tces, the Poet's Primer, traditionally ascribed to
Cennfaelad and others, is contained in BB. and YBL. It appears
to be a kind of medley of Donatus and the notions of the medieval
Irish concerning the origin of their language. The St Gall glosses
on Priscian contain Irish terms for all the nomenclature of the
Latin grammarians, and show how extensive was the use made
of Irish even in this department of learning.
Thurneysen had edited from BB., Laud 610 and a TCD. MS.
three treatises on metric which give an account of the countless
metres practised by the filid. It is impossible for us pmody.
here to enter into the question of Irish prosody in any
great detail. We have seen that there is some reason for believing
that the primitive form of Irish verse was a kind of rhythmical
alliterative prose as contained in the oldest versions of the sagas.
The filid early became acquainted with the metres of the Latin
church hymns, whence rhyme was introduced into Ireland.
(This is the view of Thurneysen and Windisch. Others like Zeuss
have maintained that rhyme was an invention of the Irish.) In
any case the filid evolved an intricate system of rhymes for which
it is difficult to find a parallel. The medieval metres are called
by the general name of Ddn Direch, " Direct Metre." Some of
the more general principles were as follows. The verses are
grouped in stanzas of four lines, each stanza being complete in
itself. Each line must contain a fixed number of syllables,
whilst the different metres vary as to the employment of internal
and end rhyme, assonance and alliteration. The Irish elaborated
a peculiar system of consonantal correspondence which counted
as rhyme. The consonants were divided with a considerable
degree of phonetic accuracy into six groups, so that a voiceless
stop (c) rhymes with another voiceless stop (t, p), a voiced stop
(b) with another voiced stop {d, g) , and so forth. The commonest
form of verse is the four-line stanza of seven syllables. Such a
verse with rhymes abab and monosyllabic or dissyllabic finals
belongs to the class rannaigecht. A similar stanza with aabb
rhymes is the basis of the so-called debide (cut in two) metres.
A peculiarity of the latter is that the rhyming word ending the
second line must contain at least one syllable more than the
rhyming word which ends the first. Another frequently employed
metre is the rindard, consisting of lines of six syllables with
dissyllabic endings. In the metrical treatises examples are given
of some 200 odd metres. The result of the complicated technique
evolved in Ireland was an inclination to sacrifice sense to musical
harmony. See K. Meyer, A Primer of Irish Metrics (Dublin, 1 009) .
We can conclude this survey of medieval Irish literature by
mentioning briefly two departments of learning to which much
attention was paid in Ireland. These are law and Lmw%
medicine. The so-called Brehon Laws (q.v.) are
represented as having been codified and committed to writing
in the time of St Patrick. There is doubtless some grain of truth
in this statement, as a fillip may have been given to this codifica-
tion by the publication of the Theodosian Code, which was
speedily foDowed by the codes of the various Teutonic tribes.
The Brehon Laws were no doubt originally transmitted from
teacher to pupil in the form of verse, and traces of this are to be
found in the texts which have been preserved. But the Laws
as we have them do not go back to the 5th century. In our texts
isolated phrases or portions of phrases are given with a com-
mentary, and this commentary is further explained by some
IRISH LITERATURE)
CELT
633
later commentators. Kuno Meyer has pointed out that in the
commentary to one text, Crith Gablach, there are linguistic forms
which must go back to the 8th century, and Arbois de Jubain-
ville, who apart from Sir Henry Maine is the only scholar who
has dealt with the subject, has attempted to prove from internal
evidence that part of the oldest tract, the one on Athgabdil or
Seizure, cannot, in its present form, be later than the close of
the 6th century. Cormac's Glossary contains a number of quota-
tions from the commentary to Senchus Mdr, which would
therefore seem to have been in existence about 900. The Irish
Laws were transcribed by O'Donovan and O'Curry, and have
been published with a faulty text and translation in five volumes
by the government commissioners originally appointed in 1852.
A number of other law tracts must have existed in early times,
and several which have been preserved are still unedited. Kuno
Meyer has published the Cdin Adamndin or Adamnan's Law
from an Oxford MS. Adamnan succeeded in getting a law
passed which forbade women to go into battle. An interesting
but little-investigated text in prose and verse called Leabhar na
gCeart or Book of Rights was edited with an English translation
by O'Donovan (1847). It deals with the rights to tribute of the
high-king and the various provincial kings. The text of the
Book of Rights is preserved in YBL. and BB. In its present
form it shows distinct traces of the influence of the Viking
invasions, and cannot go back much beyond the year 1000. At
one time it was incorporated in a larger work now lost, the Psalter
of Cashel. We also possess a oth-century treatise on Sunday
observance (Cdin Domnaig).
The medical profession in Ireland was hereditary in a number
of families, such as the O'Lees (from Irish liaig, " a leech "),
Medkto+ tne O'Hickevs (Irish icide, " the healer ") , the O'Shiels,
the O'Cassidys, and many others. These families each
had their own special leech-books, some of which are still pre-
served. In addition to these there are many others. The medical
literature which has come down to us is contained in MSS.
ranging from the 13th to the 18th centuries. The Irish MSS. are
translations from the Latin with the invariable commentary,
and they further contain additions derived from experience.
YBL. contains four of these tracts, and amongst others we may
mention the Book of the O'Hickeys, a translation of the Lilium
Medicinae of Bernard Gordon (written 1303), the Book of the
O'Lees (written in 1443), the Book of the O'Shiels, transcribed in
1657, and the Book of Mac Anlega, transcribed in 1 5 1 2 . Of these
texts only two have been published as yet from MSS. in Edin-
burgh. O'Curry drew up a MS. catalogue of the medical MSS.
in the Royal Irish Academy, and many more are described in
O' Grady's catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British Museum. Some
few MSS. deal with the subject of astronomy, but up to the
present no description of the texts has been published.
With the steady advance of the English power after 1600 it
was only natural that the school of bardic poets should decline.
But at the beginning of the 17th century for the last
jjjjj* time they gave a great display of their resources.
mentor*. Tadhg MacDaire, the ollam of the earl of Thomond,
composed a poem in elaborate verse exalting the line
of Eber (represented by the reigning families of Munster) at the
expense of the line of Eremon (represented by the reigning
families of the other provinces) . In a body of verse attributed to
Torna £ces (c. 400), but obviously of more recent .origin, the
Eremonian, Niall Noigiallach, is lavishly praised, and Tadhg's
attack takes the form of a refutation of Torna's pretensions.
The challenge was immediately taken up by Lughaidh O'Clery.
The recriminations of the two bards extend to nearly 3000 lines
of verse, and naturally drew down the attention of the whole
Irish world of letters. Soon all the hereditary poets were engaged
in the conflict, which raged for many years, and the verses of
both parties were collected into a volume of about 7000 lines in
debide metre, known as the Contention of the Poets. Amongst
the prominent poets of the period may be mentioned Tadhg
Dall O'Higinn (d. shortly before 161 7) and Eochaidh O'Hussey,
who between them have left behind nearly 7000 lines in the
classical metres, Bonaventura O'Hussey and Ferfesa O'Cainti.
The intricate classical measures gradually broke down. Dr
Douglas Hyde gives it as his opinion that the exceedingly
numerous metres known in Middle Irish had become restricted
to a couple of dozen, and these nearly all heptasyllabic. Never-
theless they continued to be employed till into the 18th century.
However, during the 17th century we find a new school arising
with new principles and new methods. These consisted in (1)
the adoption of vowel rhyme in place of consonantal rhyme,
(2) the adoption of a certain number of accents in each line in
place of a certain number of syllables. Thus, according to what
we have just said, the accented syllables in a line with four accents
in one line will fall on, say, the following vowels «,«,«,e, and the
line rhyming with it will have the same sounds in the same or a
different sequence. (For English imitations see Hyde, A Literary
History of Ireland, pp. 548 ff .)
The consequences of the changed political conditions were of
the greatest importance. The bards, having lost their patrons in
the general upheaval, threw behind them the old classical metres
and turned to the general public. At the same time they had
to abandon the countless chevilles and other characteristics of
the old bardic language, which were only understood by the
privileged few. But to compensate for this much more freedom
of expression and naturalness were possible for the first time in
Irish verse. The new metres made their appearance in Ireland
about 1600, and the learned Keating himself was one of the first
to discard the ancient prosody. During the latter half of the
17th century and throughout the 18th century the body of verse
produced in Ireland voices the sorrows and aspirations of the
whole nation, and the literary activity in almost every county
was correspondingly great It is only during the last few years
that the works of any of the poets of this period have been
published. Pierce Ferriter was the last chieftain who held out
against Cromwell's army, and he was hanged in 1653. His
poems have been edited by P. S. Dinneen (Dublin, 1903), The
bard of the Williamite wars was David O'Bruadar (d. 1697-
1698). From this period date three powerful satires on the state
of affairs in Munster, and in particular on the Cromwellian
settlers. They are of a coarse and savage nature, for which reason
they have never been printed. Their titles are the Parliament
of Clan Thomas, the Adventures of Clan Thomas, and the
Adventures of Tadhg Dubh (by Egan O'Rahilly) . A description
of the parliament of Clan Thomas is given by Stern in the
Zeitschr.f. celt. Phil. v. pp. 541 ff.
A little later we come across a band of Jacobite poets. The
gallant figure of Charles Edward was so popular with Irish bards
that a conventional stereotyped form arose in which the poet
represents himself as wandering in a wood and meeting a beautiful
lady. We are treated to a full description of all her charms,
and the poet compares her to all the fair heroines of antiquity.
But she replies that she is none of these. She is Erin seeking
refuge from the insults of foreign suitors and looking for her mate.
The idea of such poems is a beautiful one, but they become
tedious when one has read a dozen of them only to find that
there are scores of others in exactly the same strain. Besides
the Visions (Aisling), as they are termed, there are several
noteworthy war-songs, whilst other poems are valuable as
giving a picture of the state of the country at the time. We can
do no more than mention the names of John O'Neaghtan (d. c.
1720; edition of his poems by A. O'Farrelly, Dublin, 1908),
Egan O'Rahilly, who flourished between 1700 and 1726; Tadhg
O'Naghten, Andrew MacCurtin (d. 1479), Hugh MacCurtin,
author of a grammar and part editor of O'Begley's Dictionary ;
John Clarach MacDonnell (1691-1754), John O'Tuomy (d. 1775),
Andrew Magrath, Tadhg Gaolach O'Sullivan (d. c. 1795), author
of a well-known volume of religious poems, a valuable source of
information for the Munster dialect; and Owen Roe O'Sullivan
(d. 1784), the cleverest of the Jacobite poets (his verses and bons
mots are still well known in Munster) . These poets hailed mostly
from the south, and it is chiefly the works of the Munster poets
that have been preserved. Ulster and Connaught also produced
a number of writers, but very little beyond the mere names has
been preserved except in the case of the Connaught poet Raf tery
634
CELT
[IRISH LITERATURE
(i 784-1835), whose compositions have been rescued by Hyde
(Abhrdin an ReachtAire, Dublin, 1003). Torlough O'Carolan
(1670-1738), l< the last of the bards," was really a musician.
Having become blind he was educated as a harper and won great
fame. His poems, which were composed to suit his music, are
mostly addressed to patrons or fair ladies. His celebrated " Ode
to Whisky " is one of the finest bacchanalian songs in any
language. Michael Comyn (b. c. 1688) is well known as the
author of a version based upon older matter of " Ossian in the
Land of Youth." This appears to be the only bit of deliberate
creation in the later Ossianic literature. Comyn also wrote a
prose story called " The Adventures of Torlogh, son of Starn,
and the Adventures of his Three Sons." Brian MacGiolla
Meidhre or Merriman (d. 1808) is the author of perhaps the
cleverest sustained poem in the Irish language. His work, which
is entitled the Midnight Court, contains about 1000 lines with
four rhymes in each line. It describes a vision in which Aoibhill,
queen of the Munster fairies, is holding a court. A handsome
girl defends herself against an old man, and complains to the
queen that in spite of all her charms she is in danger of dying
unwed. Merriman's poem, which was written in 1781, has
recently been edited with a German translation by L. C. Stern
(Zeitschrift filr cdtische Philologie, v. 103-415). Donough
MacConmara (Macnamara) (d. c. 18 14) is best known as the
author of a famous lyric " The Fair Hills of Holy Ireland," but
he also wrote a mock epic describing his voyage to America
and how the ship was chased by a French cruiser. He is carried
off in a dream by the queen of the Munster fairies to Elysium,
where, instead of Charon, he finds Conan, the Thersites among
the Fenians, acting as ferryman (Eachtra Ghiolla an Amardin,
or The Adventures of a Luckless Fellow, edited by T. Flannery,
Dublin, 1 901).
During the first half of the 19th century nothing new was
produced of a high order, though the peasants retained their
love for poetry and continued to copy the MSS. in their posses-
sion. Then came the famine and the consequent drain of
population which gave Irish the death-blow as a living literary
force. The modern movement has been dealt with above in the
section on Irish language.
It remains for us to glance briefly at the later religious literature
and the collections of folk-tales. The translation of the New
Testament made by William O'Donnell and published in 1603
was first undertaken in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who sent
over to Dublin the first fount of Irish type. Bishop Bedell,
one of the very few Protestant clergymen who undertook to
learn Irish, translated the remainder of the Scriptures with the
help of a couple of natives, but the whole Bible was not translated
and published until 1686. This version naturally never became
popular, but it is a valuable source of information with regard
to Modern Irish. It is perhaps of interest to note that the earliest
specimen of printing in Irish is a ballad on Doomsday (Dublin,
157 1). A version of the English Prayer Book was published in
1716.
The scholars of the various Irish colleges on the continent
were particularly active in the production of manuals of devotion
mainly translated from Latin. We can mention only a few of the
more important. Sgathdn an chr&bkaidh (The Mirror of the
Pious), published in 1626 by Florence Conry; Sgathdn sacra-
mente na h-Aithrighe (Mirror of the Sacrament of Penance), by
Hugh MacCathmhaoil, published at Louvain, 1618; The Book
of Christian Doctrine, by Theobald Stapleton (Brussels, 1639);
Pdrrthas an Anma, or The Paradise of the Soul, by Anthony
Gernon (Louvain, 1645); a book on Miracles, by Richard Mac-
Gilla Cody (1667) ; Lochrdn na gcreidmheach, or Lucerna Fidelium,
by Francis O'Mulloy (Louvain, 1676); O'Donlevy's Catechism
(1742). O' Gallagher, bishop of Raphoe, published a collection
of sermons which went through twenty editions and are still
known at the present day. He is one of the earliest writers in
whom the characteristics of the speech of the north are noticeable.
The only Catholic version of any considerable portion of the
Scriptures up till quite recently was the translation of the
Pentateuch by Archbishop MacHale, who a 1 so turned six books
of the Iliad into Irish. It is only within recent years that
attention has been paid to the collection of folk-songs and
tales in Irish, although as long ago as 1825 Crofton Croker pub-
lished three volumes of folk-lore in the south of Ireland which
attracted the attention of Sir Walter Scott. Nor do the classic
stories of Carleton fall within our province. We may mention
among others Patrick O'Leary's Sgeuluidheacht Chuige Mumhan
(Dublin, 1895); Hyde's Beside the Fire (London, 1890) and An
Sgeuluidhe Gaedhealach, reprinted from vol. x. of the Annates
de Bretagne (London, 1901); Daniel O'Fogharta's Siamsa an
Gheimhridh (Dublin, 1892); J. Lloyd's Sglalaidhe Oirghiall
(Dublin, 1905); and Larminie's West Irish Folk-Tales (London,
1893). The most important collections of folk-songs are Love-
Songs of Connaught (Dublin, 1893) and Religious Songs of
Connaught (Dublin, 1006), both published by Hyde. The most
extensive collection of proverbs is the one entitled Seanfhocla
Uladh by Henry Morris (Dublin, 1 007) . See also T. O'Donoghue,
Sean-fkocail na Mumhan (Dublin, 1902).
Authorities. — In the absence of a comprehensive history, the
best manual is Eleanor Hull's Text Book of Irish Literature (2 parts,
London, 1 904- 1 908; vol. 2 contains a bibliographical appendix).
D. Hyde's larger History of Irish Literature (London, 1800) is only
trustworthy as regards the more modern period. A full bibliography
of all published material is contained in G. Dottin's article La
litterature gaelique de l'lrlande " (Revue de synthase historique,
vol. iii. pp. 1 if.). Dottin's article has been translated into English
and supplemented by Joseph Dunn under the title of The Gaelic
Literature of Ireland (Washington, 1906, privately printed). The
following are important works: — W. Stokes ana J. Strachan,
Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus (2 vols., Cambridge, iQOi-1903); J. H.
Bernard and R. Atkinson, Liber Hymnorum (London, 1895);
E. O'Curry, Lectures on the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History
(Dublin, 1873) and Lectures on the Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Irish (3 vols., Dublin, 1873); P» W. Joyce, A Social History
ofiAncient Ireland (2 vols., London, 1903) ; E. O'Reilly, Irish Writers
(Dublin, 1 820) ; S. H. O'Grady , Catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British
Museum f London, 1901) ; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Introduction a
I* etude de la literature celtique (Paris, 1883), Essai d'un catalogue de la
UtUrature Spique de VIrlande (Paris, 1 883) ,L'£pop£e celtique en Irlande
(Paris, 1892), La Civilisation des Celtes et celle de TSpopie homerique
(Paris, 1899); E. Windisch, Tdin B6 Cualnge, ed. with an introd.
and German trans. (Leipzig, 1905) ; L. Winifred Faraday, The Cattle-
Raid of Cualnge (London, 1904) ; the Irish text according to LU. and
YBL. has been published as a supplement to £riu; Eleanor Hull.
The Cuchulinn-saga (London, 1809); W. Ridgeway, "The Date
of the First Shaping of the Cuchulinn Cycle, Proceedings of die
British Academy, vol. ii. (London, 1907); A. Nutt, Cuchulin, the
Irish Achilles (London, 1899); H. Zimmer, " Keltische Beitraee"
in Zeitschrift f. deutsches Altertum, vols. 32, 33 and 35, and " Uber
den compifatorischen Charakter der irischen Sagentexte in sogen-
annten I-ebor na hUidre," Kuhn's Zeitschr. xxviii. pp. 417*689. We
cannot here enumerate the numerous heroic texts which have been
edited. For texts published before 1883 see d'Arbois's Catalogue,
and the same writer jpves a complete list in Revue Celtique, vol. xxiv.
pp. 237 ff. The series of Irische Texte, vols, i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1880-
1901), by E. Windisch (vols. ii.-iv. in conjunction with W.Stokes),
contains a number of important texts. Others, more particularly
those belonging to the Ossianic cycle, are to be found in S. H.
O'Grady 's Silva Gadelica (2 vols. London, 1892). See also R.
Thurneysen, Sagen aus dem alien Irland (Berlin, 1901) ; P. W. Joyce,
Old Celtic Romances (London*, igoi).
For the Ossianic cycle see H. Zimmer, " Keltische Beitrage III."
in vol. 35 of the Zeitschr. f. deutsches Altertum, also Gbttinger Gelehrte
Anzeigen, 1887, pp. 153-199; A. Nutt, Ossian and the Ossianic
Literature (London, 1899); £• C. Stern, " Die ossianischen Helden-
lieder," in Zeitschr. /. vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte for 1895,
trans, by J. L. Robertson in Transactions of the Inverness Gaelic
Society, vol. xxii.; J. MacNeill, Duanaire Finn (London, 1908);
Book of the Dean of Lismore, ed. by T. Maclauchlan (Edinburgh,
1862), and in vol. i. of A. Cameron's Reliquiae Celticae (Edinburgh,
1892); Transactions of the Ossianic Society (6 vols., Dublin, 1854.-
1861) ; Miss Brooke, Reliques of Ancient Irish Poetry (Dublin, 1789).
Keating's History was translated by John O'Mahony (New York,
1866). The first part was edited with Ene. trans, by W. Halliday
(Dublin, 181 1 ) and the whole work in 3 vols.for the Irish Texts Society
by D. Comyn and P. Dinneen (London, 1901-1908). Comparatively
few specimens have been published of the older bards. Several from
a Copenhagen MS. were printed by Stern in the Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil.
vol. ii.; J. Hardiman, Irish Minstrelsy (2 vols., Dublin, 1831);
J. C. Mangan, The Poets and Poetry of Munster (Dublin 4 , no date);
G. Sigerson, The Bards of the Gael and Gall (Dublin, 1906). Editions
of the poems of Ferriter, Geoffrey O'Donoghue, O'Rahilly, John
O'Tuomy, Andrew Magrath, John Claragh MacDonnell, Tadhg
Gaolach and Owen Roe O'Sullivan by Dinneen, Gaelic League,
Dublin, and Irish Texts Society, London, 1900-1903. (E. C. Q7)
GAELIC LITERATURE]
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635
II. Scottish Gaelic Literature. — It is not until after the
Forty-five that we find any great manifestation of originality
in the literature of the Scottish Highlands. The reasons for
this are not far to seek. Just as the dialects of Low German
in the middle ages were overshadowed by the more brilliant
literary dialect of the south, so Scotch Gaelic was from the
outset seriously handicapped by the great activity of the pro-
fessional literary class in Ireland. We may say that down to
the beginning of the 18th century the literary language of the
Highlands was the Gaelic of Ireland. During the dark days of
the penal laws and with the extinction of the men of letters and
their patrons in Ireland, an opportunity was given to the native
Scottish muse to develop her powers. Another potent factor
also made itself felt. After Culloden the causes of the clan
feuds and animosities of the past were removed. The Highlands,
perhaps for the first time in history, formed a compact whole
and settled down to peace and quietude. A remarkable outburst
of literary activity ensued, and the latter half of the 18th century
is the period which Scottish writers love to call the golden age
of Gaelic poetry. But before we attempt to deal with this
period in detail, we must examine the scanty literary products
of Gaelic Scotland prior to the 18th century.
The earliest document containing Gaelic matter which Scotland
can claim is the Book of Deer, now preserved in the Cambridge
University Library. This MS. contains portions of
the Gospels in Latin written in an Irish hand with
illuminations of the well-known Irish type. At the
end there occurs a colophon in Irish which is certainly as old as
the 9th century. Inserted in the margins and blank spaces are
later notes and memoranda partly in Latin, partly in Gaelic.
The Gaelic entries were probably made between 1000 and 11 50.
They relate to grants of land and other privileges made from
time to time to the monastery of Deer (Aberdeenshire). The
most interesting portion deals with the legend of Deer and its
traditional foundation by St Columba. The language of these
entries shows a striking departure from the traditional ortho-
graphy employed in contemporary Irish documents. The
Advocates' Library in Edinburgh contains a number of MSS.
probably written in Scotland between 1400 and 1600, but with
one exception the language is Irish.
The solitary exception just mentioned is the famous codex
known as the Book of the Dean of Lismore. The pieces contained
" Book m ^is volume are written in the crabbed current
of the Roman hand of the period, and the orthography is
Dean of phonetic, both of which facts render the deciphering
Usmore*" f tn j s va luable MS. a task of supreme difficulty.
The contents of this quarto volume of 311 pages are
almost entirely verse compositions collected and written down
by Sir James Macgregor, dean of Lismore in Argyllshire, and
his brother Duncan, between the years 15 12 and 1526. A
disproportionate amount of space is allotted to the compositions
of well-known Irish bards such as Donnchadh M6r O'Daly
(d. 1244), Muiredhach Albanach (c. 1224), Tadhg Og O'Higgin
(d. 1448), Diarmaid O'Hiffernan, Torna O'Mulconry (d. 1468).
But native bards are also represented. We can mention Allan
Mac Rorie, Gillie Calum Mac an OUav, John of Knoydart, who
celebrates the murder of the young lord of the isles by his Irish
harper in 1490, Finlay MacNab, and Duncan Macgregor, the
transcriber of the greater part of the volume. The poems of the
last-mentioned writer are in praise of the Macgregors. A few
other poems are by Scottish authors such as Campbell, Knight
of Glenorchy (d. 15 13), the earl of Argyll and Countess Isabella.
A number consist of satires on women. These Scottish writers
are still under the influence of Irish metric, and regularly employ
the four-lined stanza. They do not appear to adhere to the
stricter Irish measures, but delight rather in the freer forms going
by the name of dglachas. The Irish rules for alliteration and
rhyme are not rigidly observed.
The linguistic peculiarities of the Dean's Book await investiga-
tion, but among the pieces which represent the Scottish ver-
nacular of the day are the Ossianic Ballads. These, twenty-eight
in number, extend to upwards of 2500 lines, and form by far
the most important part of the collection. Thus the Dean's
Book was compiled a full hundred years before the earliest
similar collection of heroic ballads was made in Ireland. In
Scotland the term Ossianic is used loosely of both the Ulster
and the Fenian cycles, and it may be as well to state that three
of the pieces in the volume deal with Fraoch, Conlaoch and
the Bloody Rout of Conall Cearnach. It is interesting to note
that nine of the poems are directly attributed to Ossian, two to
Ferghus File, one to Caoilte Mac Ronan, and one to Conall
Cearnach, whilst others are ascribed to Allan MacRorie, Gillie
Calum Mac an OUav and Caoch O'Cluain, who are otherwise
unknown. The Dean's Book was first transcribed by Ewen
MacLachlan in 18 13. Thomas MacLauchlan published the text
of the Ossianic ballads with modern Gaelic and English render-
ings in 1862. In the same volume W. F. Skene gave a useful
description of the MS. and its contents. Alexander Cameron
revised the text of the portion printed by MacLauchlan, and his
amended text is printed in his Reliquiae Celticae, vol. i. (See also
L. C. Stern, Zeitschr.f. celt. Phil. i. 294-326.)
Between the Book of the Dean and the Forty-five we find
another great gap, which is only bridged over by a collection
which presents many points of resemblance to Macgregor's
compilation. The Book of Fernaig, which is also written in a
kind of phonetic script, was compiled by Duncan
Macrae of Inverinate between 1688 and 1693. The ^^^.m
MS. contains about 4200 lines of verse of different
dates and by different authors. The contents of the collection
are mainly political and religious, with a few poems which are
termed didactic. As in the Dean's Book love-songs and drink-
ing-songs are conspicuously absent, whilst the religious poetry
forms about one-half of the contents. In state politics the
authors are Jacobite, and in church politics Episcopalian.
The Ossianic literature is represented by 36 lines. There are a
number of poems by 16th-century writers, among whom is
Bishop Carsewell. Mackinnon has pointed out that the language
of the Book of Fernaig corresponds exactly to the dialect spoken
in Kintail at the present day. The text of the Book of Fernaig
is printed in its entirety in vol. ii. of Cameron's Reliquiae Celticae,
and many of the poems are to be found in standard orthography
in G. Henderson's Leabhar nan Gleann. The metres employed
in the poems show the influence of the English system of
versification. (See Stern, ZeUschr. /. celt. Phil. ii. pp. 566 ff.)
Two other Highland MSS. remain to be noticed. iTiese are
the Red and Black Books of Clanranald, which are largely taken
up with the histories of the families of Macdonald uRttaat
and with the achievements of Montrose, written in the Black
ordinary Irish of the period by the Macvurichs, Books of
hereditary bards to the Clanranald chiefs. The Red 4 ^'m *•
Book was obtained by Macpherson in 1760 from Neil
Macvurich, nephew of the last great bard, and it figured largely
in the Ossianic controversy. In addition to poems in Irish by
Neil Macvurich, who died at a great age some time after 1715,
and other bardic matter, the MSS. now contain only three
Ossianic poems, and these are in Irish. During the Ossianic
controversy the Red Book of Clanranald was supposed to contain
the originals of much of Macpherson 's famous work; but, on
the book coming into the hands of the enthusiastic Gaels of the
closing years of the 18th century, and on its contents being
examined and found wanting, the MS. was tampered with.
Mackenzie's Beauties of Gaelic Poetry contains poems written
by a number of writers who flourished towards the end of the 1 7 th
century and at the beginning of the 18th. These are
Mary Macleod, John Macdonald (Iain Lom) , Archibald mUSooA
Macdonald, Dorothy Brown, Cicely Macdonald, Iain
Dubh Iain Tc. Ailein (b. c. 1665), the Aosdan Matheson (one of
his poems was rendered in English by Sir Walter Scott under the
title of " Farewell to Mackenzie, High Chief of Kintail "), Hector
Maclean (also known through a translation by Scott called "War-
song of Lachlan, High Chief of Maclean "), Lachlan Mackinnon,
Roderick Morrison (an Clarsair Dall), and John Mackay of
Gairloch, but we can here only notice the first two. The famous
Mary Macleod, better known as Mairi Nighean Alastair Ruaidh
6 3 6
CELT
[GAELIC LITERATURE
(c. 1 588-1693), was family bard to Sir Norman Macleod of
Beraera, and later to John " Breac " Macleod of Macleod, in
honour of whom most of her poems were composed. Like very
many of the Highland poets Mary had little or no education,
and it would seem that none of the poems which have come down
to us were composed before 1660. Her pieces are composed in
the modern Irish metres with the characteristic vowel rhymes of
the accented syllables. As might perhaps be expected it was
only the Macvurichs (the professional bards of the Clanranald)
who went on practising the classical debide metre. This they
still continued to do during the first quarter of the 18th century.
Mary Macleod's best-known pieces comprise a dirge on the
drowning of Iain Garbh (Mac'Ille Chalum) in the Minch, a song
"An Talla 'm bu ghnath le MacLeoid," and an ode to Sir Norman
Macleod of Bernera, produced during her exile in Mull, which
begins " *S mi'mshuidhe air an tulaich." For the details of her
career, which are the subject of some dispute, the reader may be
referred to a paper by Alexander Mackenzie in the Transactions
of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, vol. xxii. pp. 43-66. Mary
Macleod is accounted one of the most musical and original of the
Highland bards.
John Macdonald, better known as Iain Lorn (d. c. 17 10), was a
vigorous political poet whose verses exercised an extraordinary
„._._ influence during his lifetime. He is said to have
received a yearly pension from Charles H. for his
services to the Stuart cause. His best-known poems
are Mort na Ceapach, on the murder of the heir of Keppoch, who
was eventually avenged through the poet's efforts, and a piece
on the battle of Inverlochay (1645). However great the inspira-
tion of Mary Macleod and Iain Lorn, they were after all but
political or family bards. In succession to them there arose a
small band of men with loftier thoughts, a wider outlook and
greater art. The literature of the Scottish Highlands culminates
in the names of Alexander Macdonald, Duncan Bin Maclntyre
and Dugald Buchanan.
Alexander Macdonald, commonly called Alasdair MacMaighstir
Alasdair (b. c. 1700), was the son of an Episcopalian clergyman
in Moidart. He was sent to Glasgow University to fit
Akxnnder m mse if fo T a professional career. But an imprudent
donald. marriage caused him to abandon his studies, and about
1729 he received an appointment as a Presbyterian
teacher in his native district. He was moved from place to place,
and from 1739 to 1745 he taught at Corryvullin on the Sound of
Mull, the scene of some of his most beautiful lyrics. About 1 740
he was invited to compile a Gaelic vocabulary, which was published
in 1 741 . Macdonald has thus the double distinction of being the
author of the first book printed in Scotch Gaelic and of being the
father of Highland lexicography. The news of the landing of the
Pretender brought visions of release to the poverty-stricken poet,
who was by this time heartily sick of teaching and farming. He
turned Roman Catholic, and was present at the unfurling of the
Stuart standard. He was given the rank of captain, but rendered
greater services to the Jacobite cause with his stirring poems than
with the sword. After Culloden he suffered great privations.
But in 1 7 51 he visited Edinburgh and brought out a collection of
his poetry, which has the honour of being the first original work
printed in Scotch Gaelic. His volume was therefore entitled
Ais-eiridh na Seann Chanain Albannaich (Resurrection of the
Ancient Scottish Tongue) . Till the day of his death he led a more
or less wandering life, as he was dependent on the generosity of
Clanranald. Only a small part of Macdonald's compositions have
been preserved (thirty-one in all) . These naturally fall into three
groups — love-songs, descriptive poems and patriotic and Jacobite
poems. In his love-songs and descriptive poems Macdonald
struck an entirely new note in Gaelic literature. His Moladh
Mdraig smdCuachag an Fhasaich (also called A*Bhanarach Dhonn)
are his best-known compositions in the amatory style. But he is
distinctly at his best in the descriptive poems. We have already
seen that even as early as the 8th century the poets of Ireland
gave expression to that intimate love of nature which is perhaps
the most striking feature in Celtic verse. Macdonald had a
wonderful command of his native Gaelic. His verse is always
musical, and his skilful use of epithet, often very lavishly strewn,
enables him to express with marvellous effect the various aspects
of nature in her gen tier and sterner moods alike. His masterpiece,
the Birlinn of Clanranald, which is at the same time, apart from
Ossianic ballads, the longest poem in the language, describes a
voyage from South Uist to Carrickfergus. Here Macdonald
excels in describing the movement of the ship and the fury of the
storm. In Allt an t~Siucair (The Sugar Brook) we are given an
exquisite picture of a beautiful scene in the country on a summer
morning. Other similar poems full of melody and colour are
Failte na Mdr-thir (Hail to the Mainland), Or an an t-Samhraidh
(Ode to Summer), and Or an an Gheamhraidh (Ode to Winter).
When this gifted son of the muses identified himself with the
Stuart cause he poured forth a stream of inspiring songs which
have earned for him the title of the Tyrtaeus of the Rebellion.
Among these we may mention Oran nam Fineackan Gaelack
(The Song of the Clans), Brosnachadh nam Fineackan gaidh-
ealach (A Call to the Highland Clans), and various songs to the
prince. But incomparably the finest of all is Oran Luaighe no
Fucaidh (Waulking Song). Here the prince is addressed as a
young girl with flowing locks of yellow hair on her shoulders, and
called Morag. She had gone away over the seas, and the poet
invokes her to return with a party of maidens {i.e. soldiers) to
dress the red cloth, in other words, to beat the English red-coats.
The song contains forty-seven stanzas in all, with the character-
istic refrain of the waulking-songs. Am Breacan U attach is a
spirited poem in praise of the kilt and plaid, which had been
forbidden by the English government. Macdonald is also the
author of a number of poems in MS. which have been called the
quintessence of indecency. His works have gone through eight
editions, the last of which is dated 1892.
In connexion with MacdonakTs Jacobite songs it will be well
to mention here the name of a kindred spirit, John Roy Stuart
(Iain Ruadh Stiubhart). Stuart was a gallant soldier who was
serving in Flanders with the French against the English when
the rebellion broke out. He hurried home and distinguished
himself on the field of battle. After Culloden he gave vent to his
dejection in two pathetic songs, one on the battle itself, while the
other deals with the sad lot of the Gael.
The only poet of nature who can claim to rival Macdonald is
a man of a totally different stamp. Duncan Ban Maclntyre
(Donnachadh Ban, 17 24-1 81 2) was born of poor
parents in Glenorchy, and never learned to read and
write or to speak English. He was present on the
English side at the battle of Falkirk, on which he wrote a famous
ode, and shortly afterwards he was appointed gamekeeper to the
earl of Breadalbane in Coire Cheathaich and Ben Dorain, where
he lived for many years until he accepted a similar appointment
from the duke of Argyll in Buachaill-Eite. Stewart of Luss is
credited with having taken down the 6000 lines of verse of his
own composition which Maclntyre had carried about with him
for many years, and his works were published in 1768. In his
later years he was first a volunteer and afterwards a member of
the city guard in Edinburgh. In addition to his poems de-
scriptive of nature Maclntyre composed a number of Jacobite
martial songs, songs of love and sentiment, and comic and
satiric pieces. The poem Mairi bhdn dg addressed to his wife is,
on account of its grace and delicate sentiment, generally held to be
the finest love-song in the language. But it is above all as the
poet of ben and corrie that Maclntyre is remembered. He has
been called the Burns of the Highlands, but the bitterness and
intellectual power of the Ayrshire poet are absent in Maclntyre.
Duncan Ban describes fondly and tenderly the glories of his
native mountains as only one can who spends his life in daily
communion with them. His two great compositions are styled
Ben Dorain and Coire Cheathaich. The former is a long poem of
550 lines divided into eight parts, alternating with a sort of
strophe and antistrophe, one slow called urlar in stately trochees,
the other swift called siubhal in a kind of galloping anapaests;
the whole ending with the crunluath or final quick motion. It is
said to follow very accurately the lilt of a pipe-tune. The poem,
which might be called the "Song of the Deer," has been well
GAELIC LITERATURE]
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done into English by J. S. Blackie. Coire C heal hatch (The Misty
Corrie), a much shorter poem than Ben Dorain, gives a loving
description of all the prominent features in the landscape — the
flowers, the bushes, the stones, the hillocks with the birds and
game, and the whirling eddies with the glistening salmon.
Maclntyre's works went through three editions in his lifetime,
and a twelfth was issued in 1901.
From Duncan Ban we pass on to consider the compositions of
two men who hailed from the outlying parts of Gaeldom. Robert
Rob Dona. Mackay, or, as he is generally called, Rob Donn ( 1 7 1 4-
1778), was a native of Strathmore, Sutherlandshire,
who, like Duncan Ban, never learned to read or write. His
life, which was uneventful, was spent almost entirely within
the confines of the county of his birth. He left behind a large
number of poems which may be roughly classified as elegiac,
love and satiric poems. His elegies are of the typical Highland
kind. The singer is overwhelmed with sadness and despairing
in his loss. His best-known composition in this style is " The
Death-Song of Hugh." Having just heard of the death of
Pelham, the prime minister, Mackay finds a poor friend of his
dying alone amid squalor in the heart of the mountains. In
a poem composed on the spot the poet contrasts the positions
of the two men and reflects on the vanity of human existence.
Among his love-poems the "Shieling Song" is deservedly
famous. But it was above all as a satirist that Mackay excelled
during his lifetime. Indeed he seems to have had the sharpest
tongue of all the Highland bards. We have already seen what
powers were attributed to satirical poets in Ireland in medieval
times, and though bodily disfigurements were no longer feared
in the 18th century, nothing was more dreaded, both in Ireland
and Scotland, than the lash of the bard. Hence many of Rob
Donn's compositions have lost their point, and opinions have
been greatly divided as to his merits as a poet. His collected
poems were first published in 1829, a second edition appeared
in 187 1, and in 1899 two new editions were issued simultaneously,
the one by Hew Morrison, the other by Adam Gunn and Malcolm
Macfarlane. Another satirical poet who enjoyed a tremendous
reputation in his own day was John MacCodrum,
CoJlmaT* a na ti ve °f North Uist and a contemporary of the
men just mentioned. It is related of MacCodrum
that the tailors of the Long Island refused to make any
clothes for him in consequence of a satire he had directed
against them. He was encountered in a ragged state by the
Macdonald, who on learning the cause of his sorry condition
promoted him to the dignity of bard to his family. Con-
sequently a number of his compositions are addressed to his
patrons, but one delightful poem entitled Smedroch Chlann-
DomhnuiU (The Mavis of Clan Donald) describes in verses full
of melody the beauties of his beloved island home.
In the lyrical outburst which followed the Forty-five it was
only to be expected that religious poetry should be represented.
We have seen that much of the space in the Dean's Book and
in the Book of Fernaig is allotted to verse of a pious order,
though apart from the works of such Irish singers as Donnchadh
O'Daly the poems do not reach a very high pitch of excellence.
The first religious poem to be printed in Scotch Gaelic was a
long hymn by David Mackellar, published in 1752. But incom-
parably the greatest writer of hymns and sacred poems is
Dugald Buchanan (17 16-1768). Buchanan was born in
Strathyre in Perthshire and was the son of a miller. He
received a desultory kind of education and tried his
hand at various trades. In 1753 he was appointed
schoolmaster at Drumcastle near Kinloch Rannoch.
He was selected to assist Stewart of Killin in preparing the first
Highland version of the New Testament for the Society for
Propagating Christian Knowledge (published 1767), and at the
same time he issued an edition of his own poems. Of all Gaelic
books this has been far and away the most popular, having gone
through no less than forty editions. Buchanan seems to have
been very susceptible to religious influences, and the stern
Puritan doctrines of retribution and eternal damnation preached
around him so worked on his mind that from his ninth to his
twenty-sixth year he was a prey to that mental anguish so
eloquently described by Bunyan. The awful visions which
presented themselves to his vivid imagination find expression
in his poems, the most notable of which are " The Majesty of
God," " The Dream," " The Sufferings of Christ," " The Day
of Judgment," " The Hero," " The Skull," " Winter " and
" Prayer." In the " Day of Judgment," a poem of about 120
stanzas, we are given in sublime verses a vivid delineation of
the crack of doom as the archangel sounds the last trumpet.
The poet then goes on to depict the awful scenes consequent
upon the wreck of the elements, and pictures the gathering
together of the whole human race before the Throne. But
Buchanan's masterpiece is admittedly " The Skull." Traces
of the influence of English writers have been observed in all
the poet's writings, and it seems certain that the subject of his
greatest poem was suggested by Shakespeare. The poet seated
by a grave espies a skull. He takes it up and muses on its history.
This poem in 44 stanzas concludes with a picture of the torments
of hell and the glories of heaven.
The writers whom we have been discussing are practically
unknown save to those who are able to read them in the original.
Now we have to turn our attention to a man whose
works have never been popular in the Highlands, but M ^L^ n ,
who nevertheless plays a prominent part in the history ••(} 9M u Uim ^
of European literature. Though the precise origin of
the Fenian cycle may remain a moot-point to all time, the
development of the literature centring in the names of Finn and
Ossian is at any rate clear from the nth century onwards.
The interest taken in Celtic studies since the middle of the 19th
century in Ireland and Scotland and elsewhere has accumulated
a body of evidence which has settled for all time the celebrated
dispute as to the authenticity of Macpherson's Ossian. James
Macpherson (1 736-1 796), a native of Kingussie, showed a turn
for versification whilst yet a student at college. Whilst acting
as tutor at Moffat he was asked by John Home as to the existence
of ancient Gaelic literature in the Highlands. After some pressing
Macpherson undertook to translate some of the more striking
poems, and submitted to Home a rendering of " The Death of
Oscar." Blair, Ferguson and Robertson, the foremost men
in the Edinburgh literary circles of the day, were enthusiastic
about the unearthing of such unsuspected treasures, and at
their instance Macpherson published anonymously in 1760 his
Fragments of Ancient Poetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland
and translated from the Gaelic or Erse Language. This publication
contained in all fifteen translations, preceded by a preface from
the pen of Blair. Published under such auspices, Macpherson's
venture was bound to succeed. In the preface it was stated that
among other ancient poems an epic of considerable length
existed in Gaelic, and that if sufficient encouragement were
forthcoming the author of the versions would undertake to
recover and translate the same. A subscription was raised at
once, and Macpherson set out on a journey of exploration in the
Highlands and islands. As the result of this tour, on which he
was accompanied by two or three competent Gaelic scholars,
Macpherson published in London in 1762 a large quarto con-
taining his epic styled Fingal with fifteen other smaller poems.
In the following year a still larger epic appeared with the title of
Temora. It was in eight books, and contained a number of notes
in addition to Cath-Loda and other pieces, along with the seventh
book of Temora in Gaelic as a specimen of the original. Ten years
later a new edition of the whole was issued. The authenticity of
Macpherson's translations was soon impugned by Dr Johnson,
Hume and Malcolm Laing, and the author was urged by his
friends to publish the originals. Macpherson prevaricated, even
though the Highlanders of India sent him a cheque for £1000 to
enable him to vindicate the antiquity of their native literature.
Macpherson at different times, and particularly towards the end
of his life, seems to have had some intention of publishing the
Gaelic of his Ossian, but he was naturally deterred by the
feeling that his knowledge of Gaelic was becoming shakier with
his continued absence from the Highlands. At any rate he left
behind a quantity of Gaelic matter in MS. which was ultimately
6 3 8
CELT
[GAELIC LITERATURE
published by the Highland Society of London in 1807. This MS.,
however, was revised and transcribed by Ross and afterwards
destroyed, so that we are ignorant of its nature. The Highland
Society also instituted an inquiry into the whole question, but
their conclusions were somewhat negative. They succeeded in
establishing that the characters introduced by Macpherson were
familiar in the Highlands and that Ossianic ballads really
existed, which Macpherson had utilized. Macpherson's claims
still found ardent advocates, such as Clark, in the 'seventies, but
the question was finally disposed of in papers by Alexander
Macbain (1885) and L. C. Stern (1895). We can here only
summarize briefly the main lines of argument . ( 1 ) Macpherson's
Ossian is full of reminiscences of Homer, Milton and the Hebrew
prophets. (2) He confuses the Ulster and the Fenian heroic
cycles in unpardonable fashion. (3) The Gaelic text of 1807 only
represents one-half of the English versions (11 poems out of 22
poems). Some Gaelic fragments from different pens appeared
prior to 1807, but these differ considerably from the " official "
version. (4) In the Gaelic text of 1807 the version of the passage
from Temora is quite different from that published in 1763.
(5) Macpherson's Gaelic is full of offences against idiom and un-
naturally strained language. (6) The names Morven and Selma
are entirely of his own invention (see also Macpherson, James).
As a result of the stir caused by Macpherson's work a number of
men set about collecting the genuine popular literature of the
Highlands. A few years before the appearance of Fingal,
Jeremy Stone, a schoolmaster at Dunkeld, had collected ten
Ossianic ballads and published one of them in an English versified
translation. For this collection see a paper by D. Mackinnon in
the Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, vol. xiv. pp.
314 ff. Unfortunately other persons were led to follow Mac-
pherson's example. The chief of these imitators were (1) John
Clark, who in 1778 published, along with several others, an
English poem Mordubh, later translated into Gaelic by Gillies;
(2) R. Macdonald, son of Alexander Macdonald, who is the author
of The Wish of the Aged Bard; (3) John Smith of Campbeltown
(d. 1807), author of fourteen Ossianic poems styled Seandana y
published in English in 1780 and in Gaelic in 1787; (4) D. Mac-
Callum of Arisaig, who in 18 21 published Collath and a complete
Mordubh "by an ancient bard Fonar."
We have now reviewed in turn the greatest writers of the
Scottish Highlands. The men we have dealt with created a kind
of tradition which others have attempted to carry on.
Ewen Maclachlan (17 7 5-1 8 2 2), the first transcriber of
the Dean's Book, was assistant librarian of King's
College and rector of the grammar school of Aberdeen. Amongst
other things he translated the greater part of seven books of
Homer's Iliad into Gaelic heroic verse, and he also had a large
share in the compilation of the Gaelic-English part of the High-
land Society's Dictionary. A number of Gaelic poems were
published by him in 1816. These consist of poems of nature,
e«g. Ddin nan Aimsirean t Ddn mu chonaltradh, Smebrach Chloinn-
Lachuinn, and of a well-known love-song, the Ealaidh GhaoU.
William Ross (1 762-1 790), a schoolmaster at Gairloch, is the
typical Highland poet of the tender passion, and he is commonly
represented as having gone to an early grave in consequence of
unrequited affection. His finest compositions are Feasgar Luain
and Moladh na h-bighe Gaelich. Another exquisite song
Cuachag nan Craobh, is usually attributed to this poet, but it
seems to go back to the beginning of the 18th century. A fifth
edition of Ross's poems appeared in 1902. The most popular
writer of sacred poems after Buchanan is undoubtedly Peter
Grant, a Baptist minister in Strathspey, whose Ddin Spioradail
(first published in 1809) reached a twentieth edition in 1904.
Sweetness, grace and simplicity are the characteristics which
have endeared him to the heart of the Gael. Two other well-
known hymn-writers spent their lives in Nova Scotia — James
Macgregor (1759-1830) and John Maclean, a native of Tiree.
The compositions of the latter have been published under the
title Clarsach na Coille (Glasgow, 1881). But John Morrison
(1 790-1852), the poet-blacksmith of Rodel, Harris, is the most
worthy of the name of successor to Buchanan. His works have
Lator
been carefully edited in two volumes by George Henderson (2nd
edition, 1896). His poems are remarkably musical and imagina-
tive. Two of the most characteristic are An Iondruinn and Tha
duin' dg agus seann duin' agam. William Livingston or Mac-
Dhunleibhe (1808-18 70) was a native of Islay. He received
scarcely any education, and was apprenticed as a tailor, but he
early made his way to the mainland. He was ever a fierce
Anglophobe, and did his best to make up for the deficiencies of
his early training. He published in English a Vindication of the
Celtic Character, and attempted to issue a History of Scotland in
parts. His poems, which have been at least twice published
(1858, 1882), are equally powerful in the expression of ruthless
fierceness and tearful sorrow. In Fios thun a 9 Bhaird he sings
pathetically of the passing of the older order in Islay, and
another powerful poem entitled Duan Geatt deals with the cam-
paign of the Highlanders under Sir Colin Campbell in the Crimea.
Livingston's contemporary, Evan Maccoll (1 808-1 898), the son
of a small farmer on Lochfyneside, in his early years devoured
eagerly all the English literature and Gaelic lore that came in his
way. In 1836 he issued a volume of songs called the Mountain
Minstrel, containing his productions in Gaelic and English.
Two years later two volumes appeared, one entirely in Gaelic,
styled Clarsach nam Beann, the other in English under the old
title. A third edition of the Gaelic collection was published in
1886. Maccoll acted for many years as clerk in the custom-
house at Liverpool, and afterwards he filled a similar post at
Kingston, Canada. He has been called the Moore of Highland
song. His spirit is altogether modern, and his poems are much
nearer the Lowland type than those of the older bards. Among
his best-known pieces are Bos Mairi and Duanag GhaoU. We
can do no more than mention the names of John Maclachlan of
Rahoy (1 804-1 874), James Munro (1704-1870), well known as a
grammarian, Dugald Macphail (b. 1818), Mrs Mary Macpherson,
Angus Macdonald (1804-1874), Mrs Mary Mackellar (1834-1890)
and Neil Macleod (b. 1843), author of a popular collection
Clarsach an Doire (1st ed., 1883; 3rd ed., 1004). Neil Macleod is
also the writer of the popular song An Gleann 's an robh mi dg.
Others whom we cannot mention here are known as the authors
of one or more songs which have become popular. It is natural
to compare the state of affairs at the beginning of the 20th
century with that obtaining in 1800. In the dawn of the 19th
century every district in the Highlands had its native poet,
whilst a century later not a single Gaelic bard of known reputation
existed anywhere within its borders. It is only too evident that
the new writers prefer English to Gaelic as a medium of literature,
partly because they know it better, but also because in it they
appeal to a far wider public.
It will have been observed that we have said nothing about
prose works written in Gaelic. Original Gaelic prose is con-
spicuous by its absence. The first printed work is the «*»*.
translation of Knox's Liturgy by Bishop Carsewell, wr Mm*
published in 1567 (reprinted in 1873). Calvin's Cate-
chism is said to have been issued in 1631. The Psalms and
Shorter Catechism appeared in 1659, while two other psalters
saw the light before the end of the century, one by Kirke (1684),
the other issued by the Synod of Argyll (1694). The language of
all these publications may, however, be termed Irish. Apart
from reprints of the catechism and psalter, the only other Gaelic
matter which appeared in print before 1750 were Kirke's Irish
version of the Bible in Roman type with a vocabulary (1690),
and the Vocabulary by Alexander Macdonald (1741). But from
the middle of the 18th century translations of the works of
English religious writers streamed from the various presses.
Alleine, Baxter, Boston, Bunyan, Doddridge and Jonathan
Edwards were all prime favourites, and their works have gone
through many editions. Apart from a well-meant but wholly
inadequate version of Schiller's Tell, the only non-religious work
which can be termed literature existing in a Gaelic translation is a
portion of the Arabian Nights, though fragments of other classics
such as Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare have appeared in maga-
zines. The one-sided character of Gaelic literature, in addition to
exercising a baneful influence on Highland character, has in the
MANX LITERATURE]
CELT
&39
long run of necessity proved adverse to the vitality of the lan-
guage. The best standard of Gaelic is by common consent the
language of the Scriptures. James Stewart of Killin's version of
the New Testament, published by the Society for Propagating
Christian Knowledge, was followed by a translation of the Old
Testament in four parts (1 783-1 801), the work of John Stewart of
Luss and John Smith of Campbeltown. The whole Gaelic Bible
saw the light in 1807. But the revision of 1826 is regarded as
standard. The translators and revisers had no norm to follow,
and it is difficult to say how far they were influenced by Irish tra-
dition. Much in the Gaelic version seems to savour of Irish idiom ,
and it is a pity that some competent scholar such as Henderson
has not investigated the question. Of original prose works we can
mention two. The one is a History of the Forty-five (Eachdraidh
a' Phrionnsa, no Bliadhna Thearlaich), published in 184 s by
John Mackenzie, the compiler of the Beauties of Gaelic Poetry
(1806- 1 848). A second edition of this book appeared in 1906.
The other is the more famous Caraid nan Gaedheal, by Norman
Macleod (new edition, 1899). This volume consists mainly of a
number of dialogues dealing with various departments of High-
land life, which were originally contributed to various magazines
from 1829 to 1848. Macleod's style is racy and elegant, and his
work is deservedly popular.
In conclusion we must take notice of the more important
collections of folklore. Gaelic, like Irish, is extraordinarily
rich in proverbs. The first collection of Gaelic proverbs was
published in 1 785 by Donald Macintosh. This work was supple-
mented and enlarged in 1881 by Alexander Nicolson, whose
book contains no fewer than 3900 short sayings. A large
collection of Gaelic folk-tales was gleaned and published by
J. F. Campbell under the title of Popular Tales of the West
Highlands (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1862). Alexander Carmichael
published a version of the Tdin B6 Calnge t called Toirioc na
T&ine, which he collected in South Uist (Transactions of the
Gaelic Society of Inverness , ii. 25-42), also the story of Deirdre
and the sons of Uisneach in prose taken down in Barra
(ib. xiii. 241-257). Five volumes of popular stories, collected
by J. G. Campbell, D. Maclnnes, J. Macdougall and Lord
Archibald CampbeD, have been published (1880-1895) by Nutt
under the title Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition. These
collections contain a good deal of matter pertaining to the old
heroic cycles. Seven ballads dealing with the Ulster cycle were
collected and printed by Hector Maclean under the title Ultonian
Hero-ballads (Glasgow, 1892). Macpherson gave a fillip to
collectors of Ossianic lore, and a number of MSS. going back to
his time are deposited in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh.
J. F. Campbell spent twelve years searching for variants, and
his results were published in his Leabhar na Feinne (1872). This
volume contains 54,000 lines of heroic verse. The Edinburgh
MSS. were transcribed by Alexander Cameron, and published
after his death by Alexander Macbain and John Kennedy in his
Reliquiae Celticae. This work is therefore a complete corpus of
Gaelic heroic verse. Finally the charms and incantations of the
Highlands have been collected and published by Alexander
Carmichael in two sumptuous volumes under the title Carmine
Gadelica (1900).
Authorities. — The standard work is Magnus Maclean, The Litera-
ture of the Highlands (London, 1904) ; see also various chapters in the
same writer's Literature of the Celts (London, 1902) ; L. C. Stern, Die
Kultur der Gegenwart, i. xi. 1, pp. 98-100 ; Nigel MacNeill, The Litera-
ture of the Highlanders (Inverness, 1892) ; J. S. Blackie, The Language
and Literature of the Scottish Highlands (Edinburgh, 1876); P. T.
Pattison, Gaelic Bards (1890); L. Macbean, Songs and Hymns of
the Scottish Highlands (Edinburgh, 1888); John Mackenzie, S&r-
obair nam BardGaelach, or The Beauties of Gaelic Poetry (new ed.,
Edinburgh, 1904); A- Sinclair, An t-Oranaiche (Glasgow, 1879);
The Book of Deer, edited for the Spalding Club by Dr Stuart (1869) ;
Alexander Macbain, Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness,
vols. xi. and xii. ; The Book of the Dean of Lismore, edited by T.
Maclauchlan (1862); Alexander Cameron, Reliquiae Celticae (Inver-
ness, 1 892-1894); John Reid, Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica (Glasgow,
1832) ; Catalogue of the books in the Celtic department, Aberdeen
University Library (1897); George Henderson, Leabhar nan Gleann
(Inverness, 1898); D. Mackinnon, " The Fernaig MS." in Transac-
tions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, xi. 3 1 1-339 J J» S. Smart,
Uo95;i transiatea oy j . l,. Kooertson
c Society of Inverness, xxv. 25J-
tfh&se histonque, viii. 79-91; M. C.
(Stirling, 1908). (E. C. Q.)
James Macpherson, An Episode in Literature (London, 1905);
L. C. Stern, " Die Ossianischen Heldenlieder " in Zeitschrift fur
vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte (1895), translated by J. L. Robertson
in Transactions of the Gaelic
325; G. Dottin, Revue de synth
Macleod, Modern Gaelic Bards (Stirling,
III. Manx Literature. — The literary remains written in
the Manx language are much slighter than those of any other
Celtic dialect. With one small exception nothing pertaining
to the saga literature of Ireland has been preserved. The little
we possess naturaUy falls under two heads — original compositions
and translations. With regard to the first category we must
give the place of honour to an Ossianic poem contained in a MS.
in the British Museum (written in 1789), which relates how
Orree, Finn's enemy, was tormented by the women of Finn's
household when the latter was away hunting, how he in revenge
set fire to the house, and how Finn had him torn in pieces by
wild horses. Most of the existing literature of native origin,
however, consists of ballads and carols, locally called carvels.
These used to be sung on Christmas eve in the churches, the
members of the congregation each bringing a candle. Any one
who pleased could get up and sing one. These carvels deal
largely with the end of the world, the judgment-day and the
horrors of hell. About eighty of them were published under the
title of Carvalyn Gailckagh (Douglas, 1 89 1 ) . An attempt is being
made by Yn Cheshaght Gailckagh to revive the Oiel Voirrey
(*= Irish Oidhche Fhetle Mhuire), " the feast of Mary," as the
festival used to be called, and gatherings in the old style have
been held in Peel for the last two or three years. Apart from
the carvels there are other ballads in existence, the most important
of which were printed in vol. xvi. of the Publications of the Manx
Society. The earliest is an 1 8th-century song of Manan nan Mac y
Lheir, traditionally supposed to have been written in the 16th
century, and which tells of the conversion of the island by
St Patrick. Then comes Baase IUiam Dhdne (The Death of
Brown William), dealing with the death of William Christian,
who was shot as a traitor in 1662. The best-known Manx song
is Mylacharane ( = Irish Maolchiardn). It is directed against a
man of this name who was the first to give a dowry to his daughter,
the custom having previously been for the bridegroom to pay
money to the father of the bride. Others are Ny Kirree fo
Sniaghtey (The Sheep under the Snow), a song about the loss
of the Douglas herring fleet in 1787 (reprinted at Douglas, 1872),
and Vannin Veg Veen (Dear little Mona). A further ballad
was taken down by J. Strachan and is published in the Zeitschrift
filr celtische Philologie, L 79. In 1760 Joseph Bridson wrote
a " Short Account of the Isle of Man " in Manx (Coontey
Ghiare jeh Ellon Vannin ayns Gailck), which was reprinted in
vol. xx. of the Publications of the Manx Society. The translated
literature is almost entirely of a religious character. Jenner
prints a list of twenty-three volumes in his article referred to
below, but we can only here mention the most important. The
first is the translation of the English Prayer-Book by Bishop
Phillips, 1610 (published by A. W. Moore, Oxford, 1895). The
Sermons of Bishop Wilson in 3 vols. (1783) are a very rare work,
highly important for our knowledge of Manx prose, and it is
to be hoped that Yn Cheshaght Gailckagh will see their way to
reprint it. A translation of parts of Milton's Paradise Lost
(Pargys CailHt) by Thomas Christian, 1796, is reprinted in vol.
xx. of the Publications of the Manx Society. The later translation
of the Church of England Prayer-Book was printed in 1765 and
again in 1777 and 1840. But by far the most important of all
is the translation of the Bible. The energetic Bishop Wilson
managed to get parts of the Scriptures translated and the
Gospel of St Matthew was printed in 1748. Wilson's successor,
Bishop Hildesley, completed the work, and in 1775 the whole
Bible appeared. The last reprint of the Bible appeared in 18 19,
that of the New Testament in 1810 (?). As a curiosity it may
be mentioned that recently Aesop 9 s Fables have been translated
into the vernacular (Douglas, 1001).
Authorities. — H. Jenner, " The Manx Language: its Grammar,
Literature and Present State," Transactions of the London Philological
Society (1875), pp. 172 ff.; Publications of the Manx Society, vols.
xvi., xx., xxi. ; L. C. Stern, Die Kultur d. Gegenwart, i. xi. 1, pp. 1 10-1 1.
640
CELT
[WELSH UTERATU
**y
IV. Welsh Litekatcke.— The oldest documents consist of
glosses of the 9th and 10th centuries found in four MSS. — Oxoni-
ensis prior and posterior, the Cambridge Jnvencos
and Martianus Capetta. These fosses were published
by J. Loth in his Vocabulasre ncuxrbreton (1884), but
their value is entirely phiiologicaL In addition, we possess two
short verses, written in Irish characters, preserved in the
Juvencus Manuscript in the University Library at Cambridge
(printed in Skene's Four Ancient Books of Wales). This manu-
script is a versification of the Gospels dating from the 9th
century. The value of these two verses is threefold: they give
us, in the first place, a specimen of the Welsh language at a time
when the modern laws of euphony were in a comparatively
elementary stage; secondly, they are of the utmost importance
to the historian tracing the development of W r elsh versification,
and, in future research, they must be taken into account by the
historian of modern metres in other languages; and, thirdly,
the similarity of their form and diction to other verses, attributed
to Liywarch Hen, and preserved in a much later orthography, will
be a serious consideration to the higher critic in Welsh literature.
All the prose and verse of the succeeding centuries, that is to
say from the 10th to the beginning of the 14th, is preserved in
"Ate* * <mr * m P ortan * manuscripts, written during the latter
Book of half of the period. The first of these manuscripts is
Cmnmmr* the Black Book of Carmarthen, a small quarto vellum
***** " manuscript of fifty leaves, written in Gothic letters by
various hands during the reign of Henry II. (published in
facsimile by Gwenogvryn Evans, Oxford, 1907). This book
belonged originally to the priory of Black Canons at Carmarthen,
from whom it passed to the church of St David; at the suppres-
sion of the monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII. it was pre-
sented by the treasurer of that church to Sir John Price, one of
the king's commissioners, and from him it passed eventually
into the hands of Sir Robert Vaughan, the owner of the famous
Hengwrt collection. It is now among the Peniarth
^jJjJJj^J Manuscripts, undoubtedly the most valuable collec-
tion of Welsh manuscripts in the United Kingdom.
The second manuscript is the Book of Aneirin, a small
quarto manuscript of nineteen leaves of vellum, written about
1250. It was at one time in the possession of Sir Thomas
Phillips of Middlehill, and now belongs to the free
"Book of library of the city of Cardiff. The third is the Book
of Taliessin, in the Hengwrt and subsequently in the
Peniarth collection. It is a small quarto manuscript
containing thirty-eight leaves, written in Gothic letters, about
the early part of the 14th century. The fourth manuscript, and
m some respects the most important, is the Red Book
JJfJJjf § of Hergest, so called from Hergest Court, one of the
UorgnL 99 seats of the Vaughans. It is a folio volume of 360
leaves written by different hands between the beginning
of the 14th and the middle of the 1 5th century. This manuscript,
which is the most extensive compilation of the medieval prose
and verse of Wales, is now in the possession of Jesus College,
Oxford, and is kept in the Bodleian Library of that university.
The main body of the poems contained in these four MSS. was
printed by W. F. Skene with a tentative English version in his
Four Ancient Books of Wales.
The other Welsh manuscripts, ranging down from the 15th
to the 1 8th century, are far too numerous to notice, and it is
outside the scope of this article to deal minutely with the original
sources of the text of Welsh writings.
We will now only endeavour to sketch the history of Welsh
literature from these early centuries down to our own times,
and to show how the Celtic people of Wales have developed a
literature true to their own genius, and how that literature
stands to this day both a minister to the culture of the Welsh
people and a sure indication of it.
x. Early Latin Writers. — The works now known as those of
Gildas (q.v.) and Nennius (q.v.) are written in Latin; they throw
considerable light on the origin of Welsh romantic literature
and on the history of the earlier poems. Gildas was born at
Ailclyd, the modern Dumbarton, that part of Britain which is
Tott*§*
ola."
called by Wdsh writers 7 Go&dd, or the North. Several
have been assigned for his birth and death, but be pgofoaKly
flourished between 500 and 5S0, and his book, Dc E-x*r*d.i+
Brilaunioc seems to have been written about 560. This work is
a sketch of British history under the Romans and in the
period after their withdrawal from the country, and
includes the period of the wars of the Britons with the
Scots and Saxons. Mr Skene suggests very reasonably tJbaX the
well-known letter of the Britons to Aetius, asking for Roman aid*
is misplaced, and that if put in its own place some of the ana-
chronisms of Gildas will disappear. This work, which •
some spirited attacks on the leaders of the Britons for their :
is strangely full of contradictions. It seems to be the work, of
some person well versed in the facts of that part of British history .,
to which he had an easy access, but who supplemented them with
traditional details and with dates which were mere guess-work.
Mr Skene thinks that the work of Nennius was originally written
in Welsh in the north and was afterwards translated into latin.
To this nucleus was added the genealogies of the Saxon kings
down to 738. Afterwards some person, called Marc in the Vatican
manuscript, appended probably about 823 the life of St Germ a mis
and the legends of St Patrick, which were subsequently incor-
porated with the history. Some South Welshman added to the
oldest manuscript of the history in these countries, about 977*
a chronicle of events from 444 to 954, in which there are genea-
logies beginning with Owain, son of Hywel Dda, king of South
Wales. This chronicle, which is not found in other manuscripts,
has been made the basis of two later chronicles brought down
to 1286 and 1288 respectively. It is consequently not the work
of one author. A learned Irishman named Gilla Cocmgin, who
died in 1072, translated it into Irish and added many things
concerning the Irish and the Picts. The Historia Britonum
is more valuable for the legendary matter which it contains than
for what may be accepted as history, for it gives us the British
legends of the colonization of Great Britain and Ireland, the
exploits of King Arthur and the prophecies of Merlin, which are
not found elsewhere before the 12th century. The date of the
book is of the greatest importance to the history of medieval
romance, and there can be no doubt that it is earlier than the
Norman Conquest and that the legends themselves are of British
origin.
2. The Epic Period, 700-Q50. — The higher criticism of the
early poetry of Wales contained in the four ancient manuscripts
already mentioned has undergone a good many changes since
their contents first excited the curiosity of English scholars. In
turn Welshmen, with more zeal than discretion, have displayed an
amazing charlatanism in the extraordinary theories which they
put forth, and Englishmen have shown an utmost meanness in
belittling what is undoubtedly a most valuable monument of the
past But now the labours of Zeuss and others who have made
a study of Celtic philology furnish us with much safer canons
of criticism than existed in 1849, when even a learned Welshman,
the late Thomas Stephens, who did more than any one else to
establish the claims of his country to a real literature, doubted
the authenticity of a large number of the poems said to have been
written by Taliessin, Aneirin, Myrddin and LlywarcL Hen, who
are supposed to have lived in the 5th century. A great service
was done to Welsh literature by the publication of the texts of
those poems from the four ancient manuscripts by W. F. Skene.
In addition to the text, translations of the poems were furnished
by Dr Silvan Evans and the Rev. Robert Williams, but the
translation, though on the whole a very creditable work, is full
of mistakes which few men, writing at that time, could have
avoided. The publication of the text of the Black Book, with
notes by Dr Gwenogvryn Evans, will be of great service towards
clearing up the mist which envelops this older literature.
Most of the poems in these four manuscripts are attributed
to four poets, Aneirin, Liywarch Hen, Taliessin and Myrddin,
who are said to have lived and written in Cumbria or Y Gogledd,
where the actors in the events referred to also lived. The
greater part of this region enjoyed substantial independence
down to the end of the 9th century, with the exception of the
WELSH LITERATURE]
CELT
641
**
5-t-
:^
GE
i
t
k
interval from 655, when they were subjected to the kingdom of
Northumbria by Oswy after the defeat of Cadwallawn and Penda,
to the battle of Dunnichen in 686, when Ecfrid, king of North-
umbria, was defeated. From the 7th to the 9th century Cumbria,
including under that name all the British territory from the
Ribble to the Clyde, was the principal theatre of British and
Saxon conflict. The rise of the dynasty of Maelgwn Gwynedd,
who, according to Welsh tradition, was a descendant of Cunedda
Wledig, one of the Picts of the north, brought Wales into close
connexion with the Cumbrian kingdom, and prepared both North
and South Wales for the reception of the northern traditions and
the rise of a true Welsh literature.
Whether the poets of the north really wrote any of the poems
which in a modified form have come down to us or not, there
can be no doubt that a number of lays attributed to them lived
in popular tradition, and that under the sudden burst of glory
which the deeds of Cadwallawn called forth and which ended in
the disastrous defeat of 655, a British literature began to spring
up, and was nourished by the hopes of a future resurrection
under his son Cadwaladr, whose death was disbelieved in for
such a long time. These floating lays and traditions gradually
gathered into North Wales, brought thither by the nobility and
the bards who fled before advancing hosts of the victorious
Saxon kings of the north. The heroes of the north became now
the heroes of Wales, and the sites of the battles they fought
were identified with places of similar name in Wales and
England.
By far the longest and the most famous poem of this series
is attributed to Aneurin. This spelling of his name is compara-
tively modern, and in the old manuscripts it is given
as Aneirin. The later form seems to have been affected
by the form eurin, " golden," and to owe the continuation of the
misspelling to a belief that the poet and Gildas, whose name
is supposed to be the Latin form of the Old English gylden,
were one and the same person. This poem, called the Gododin
(with notes by T. Stephens and published by Prof. Powel for the
Cymmrodorion Society, London, 1888), is extremely obscure,
both on account of its vocabulary and its topography and
allusions. It deals mainly with "the men who went to Cat-
traeth l ,, which is supposed to have been fought between the
Britons and the Scots under Aedan, king of Dalriada, and the
pagan Saxons and their British subjects in Devyr (Deira) and
Bryneick (Bernicia), and the half-pagan Picts of Guotodin, a
district corresponding to the northern half of the Lothians along
the Firth of Forth. Critics have attempted with partial success
to cast some light on its obscurity by supposing that the poem
as a whole is made up of two parts dealing with two distinct
battles. This may or may not be, but there is no doubt that
many of the stanzas of the poem as found in the manuscript
are not in their proper places, and a critical readjustment of the
different stanzas and lines would do much towards solving its
problem. It seems probable, too, that the original nucleus of
the poem was handed down orally, and recited or sung by the
bards and minstrels at the courts of different noblemen. It
thus became the common stock-in-trade of the Welsh rhapsodist,
and in time the bards, using it as a kind of framework, added to
it here and there pieces of their own composition formed on the
original model, especially when the heroes named happened to
be the traditional forefathers of their patrons, and occasionally
introduced the names of new heroes and new places as it suited
their purpose; and all this seems to have been done in early
times. Older fragments dealing too with the legendary heroes
of the Welsh were afterwards incorporated with the poem, and
some of these fragments undoubtedly preserve the orthographical
and grammatical forms of the 9th century. So that, on the whole,
it seems as fruitless to look for a definite record of historical
events in this poem as it would be to do so in the Homeric
poems, but like them, though it cannot any longer be regarded
as a correct and definite account of a particular battle or war,
it still stands to this day the epic of the warriors of its own
nation. It matters not whether these heroes fought at far
Cattraeth or on some other forgotten field of disaster; this song
Mertin.
still reflects, as a true national epic, the sad defeats and the brave
but desperate rallies of the early Welsh. Like the music of the
Welsh, its dominant note is that of sadness, expressing the
exultation of battle and the very joy of life in minor notes. To
a great extent Welsh poets are to this day true and faithful
disciples of this early master.
Many of the poems attributed to Taliessin are undoubtedly
late. Indeed, both Taliessin and Myrddin, 1 the one as --.
the mythological chief of all Welsh bards and the other
as a great magician, seem pre-eminently suited to attract a great
deal of later Welsh poetry under their aegis; but the older
poems attributed to them are worthy of any literature. Some-
times, as in the verses attributed to Llywarch Hen beginning
Stafett Cynddylan, an early specimen of poetic grief over departed
glory, we find that gentle elegiac note which is so common in
early English poetry. In the Taliessinic poems, the Battle of
Argoed Llwyvain and others, we have that boldness of portraiture
which is found in the Gododin, whilst in many a noble line we
seem to hear again the ravens screaming shrilly over their
sword-feasts, and the strong strokes of the advancing warriors.
It was but natural that all the pseudo-prophetic poems,
written of course after the events which they foretold, should be
attributed to the chief among seers, Myrddin, or, as
his name is written in English, Merlin; so that all the
poems accredited to him, with the exception perhaps of the
Avallenau, were not written before the 12th century.
In most of the poems attributed to Llywarch Hen and in
some of the Myrddin poems, the verses begin with the same line,
which, though it has no direct reference to the subject of the
poem itself, is used as a refrain or catch-word, exactly like the
refrains employed by Mr Swinburne and others in their ballads.
These lines generally refer to some natural object or objects, as,
for instance, " the snow of the mountain " or " bright are the tops
of the broom."
The first period, then, of Welsh literature lies between 700 and
950. It is in most respects the epic period, the period in which
poets wrote of great men and their deeds, the legendary and the
historic heroes of the Cymry, men like Urien Rheged, and heroes
like Hyveidd Hir. Even in the next period the epic note had
not quite died out.
3. The Prose Romances and the Poet Princes, 1100-1290. — It
will be seen that there is a considerable gap between the first
and second period of Welsh literature. It must not be supposed,
however, that nothing was composed or written during these
years. Indeed, it may well be that some of the poetry attributed
to the minor bards of the last period was composed between 900
and 1 100, and that some other poetry too was written and lost.
But there are abundant reasons for believing that Welsh poetry
was at a very low ebb during those years. The progress of Wales
as a political unit had suffered a check after the battle of Chester
in 613. The effects of this defeat were not immediate, as the
Welsh had still enough of their characteristic hopefulness to
expect ultimate victory; we therefore have reasons for believing
that the Gododin series of poems were still used — or
perhaps used then for the first time — to spur on " the
hawks of war " to greater efforts. Gradually, however,
the Angles, hemming them in on all sides from the
Clyde to the Severn, began to press nearer and nearer; the Welsh
at last seem to have lost heart, and no one any longer " had the
desire of song." Content with their old epics and their older
myths, which owe perhaps to these years a darker and more
sombre tinge, they allowed their song to be hushed. The great
lords had hardly chosen their final abodes; the smaller lords
had all been killed in war and their places taken now by one,
now by another, so that the warrior prince himself had not the
leisure, and hardly the inspiration necessary, for song, and the
bards found but scanty patronage among such a diminished and
poverty-stricken nobility. The only order that seemed to prosper
was that of the monks, and we owe them our gratitude for
1 It is indeed probable that Myrddin is a purely fictitious character,
whose name has been made up from Caer Fyrddin (— Maridunum),
which was certainly not a personal name.
V. 31
The
OododJa
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preserving the ancient writings and the ancient traditions; but
they were simply copyists, though they had undoubtedly some
hand in giving the Gododin its final form and in setting in its
convenient framework the names of the forefathers of their
aristocratic abbots.
In the year 1044 Gruffydd ab Llewelyn conquered Hywel ab
Edwin and became king of Wales. By means of his diplomacy
and his arms he succeeded in stemming the tide of Saxon in-
vasion that was threatening to overflow even the little remnant
of land that was left to the Welsh, and his strong rule gave the
Welsh muse another opportunity. Gruffydd, however, died in
1063, and was eventually succeeded in 1073 by Trahaern in
North Wales, and Rhys ab Owen in South Wales. The rule of
these two princes was destined to be the last period of literary
inertness in the long interval following the confinement of Wales
to her inaccessible highlands.
During these years a man was hiding in Ireland, called
Gruffydd ab Cynan, a scion of the old branch of Welsh kings.
In Brittany, too, Rhys ab Tewdwr, a claimant to the throne of
South Wales, had sought the protection of his Breton kinsmen.
In 1073 Rhys ab Tewdwr obtained the throne of Rhys ab Owen,
and, after many years of hard fighting, Gruffydd ab Cynan,
with the help of Rhys ab Tewdwr, defeated Trahaern at the
battle of Myrydd Cam in 108 1. On the accession of these two
powerful princes the whole country broke forth into songs of
praise and jubilation, and the long night was at an end.
It is important to remember that both Gruffydd and Rhys had
a direct personal influence on the literary revival of their times.
Gruffydd ab Cynan while in exile had seen how the Irish Oenach
was held, and had seen prizes given for poetry and song. We
have it on the authority of Welsh writers that he reorganized
the bards and improved the music, and in many other ways gave
a great and beneficial impulse to Welsh literature. He may
have brought over some of the later Irish legends which have
had such a powerful effect on the literature of Wales.
Rhys ab Tewdwr, too, brought with him from Brittany an
enthusiasm for the old Celtic tales, and perhaps some of the
tales themselves which had been by that time forgotten in
Wales, tales of the Round Table, and Arthur " begirt with
British and Armoric knights," of knightly deeds and magical
metamorphoses, which were destined to influence profoundly
all the literatures of the West. We find, therefore, in this period
that poetry flourished mostly in the North under Gruffydd ab
Cynan, and prose in the south under Rhys ab Tewdwr, where
the new enthusiasm for the old Welsh legends resulted in the
History of Britain of Geoffrey of Monmouth, which
ofMoa- k ^ ^P* 11 ^ 011 °* ^ e k 00 ^ attributed to Gildas and
mouth. Nennius. It was written in Latin sometime before
1 147, and is dedicated to Robert, earl of Gloucester,
the grandson of Rhys ab Tewdwr. In the introductory epistle,
Geoffrey states that Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, had given him
a very ancient book in the British tongue, giving an account
of the kings of Britain from Brutus to Cadwaladr, and that he had
translated it into Latin at the archdeacon's request. The book,
however, is a compilation and not a translation, but the materials
were probably drawn from British sources. In this history
Geoffrey asserts that the deeds of Arthur " were commonly
related in a pleasing manner." He was perhaps originally but
the hero of some popular ballad, or of a forgotten stanza of the
Gododin, and the importance of his name in the literature of
the world seems to be due to an accident. We cannot, however,
in this article consider the Arthurian Legend (q.v.) as a whole;
we must be content with dealing with the most important of the
romantic tales which are contained in the Red Book of Hergest.
They may be divided into four classes: —
(i.) The Mabinogi proper, containing (1) Pwyll, prince of
Dyvet; (2) Branwen, daughter of Llyr; (3) Manawyddan, son
of Llyr; (4) Math, son of Mathonwy.
(ii.) Old British tales referring to Roman times, viz. (1)
Lludd and Llevelys; (2) The Dream of Macsen Wledic.
(iii.) British Arthurian tales, viz. (1) KUhwch and Olwen;
(2) The Dream of Rhonabwy.
(iv.) Later tales of chivalry, viz. (1) The Lady of the Fountain;
(2) Peredur, son of Evrawc; (3) Geraint, son of Erbin.
The group of four romances in the first class forms a cycle
of legends and is called in the manuscript Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi
— the Four Branches of the Mabinogi; so it is only
these four tales that can, strictly speaking, be called aoitolI ,
Mabinogion. In these stories we have the relics of
the ancient Irish mythology of the Tuatha Dl Danann, some-
times mixed with later myths. The Caer Sidi, where neither
disease nor old age affects any one, is the Sid of Irish mythology,
the residence of the gods of the Acs Side. It is called in one of
the old poems the prison of Gweir, who no doubt represents
Gaiar, son of Manandan MacLir, the Atropos who cut the thread
of life of Irish mythology. Llyr is the Irish sea-god Lir, and
was called Llyr Uediaith, or the half-tongucd, implying that he
spoke a language only partially intelligible to the people of the
country. Bran, the son of Llyr, is the Irish Bran MacAllait,
Allait being one of the names of Lir. Manawyddan is clearly
the Manandan or Manannan MacLir of Irish mythology. These
tales contain other characters which may not have been borrowed
from Irish mythology but which are common to both mytho-
logies; for example, Rhiannon, the wife of Pwyll who possessed
marvellous birds which held warriors spell-bound for eighty
years by their singing, comes from Annum, or the unseen world,
and her son Pryderi gives her, on the death of Pwyll, as a wife
to Manawyddan.
Of the second class the first story relates to Lludd, son of Beli
the Great, son of Manogan, who became king after his father's
death, while his brother Llevelys becomes king of France and
shows his brother how to get rid of the three plagues which
devastated Britain: — first, a strange race, the Coranians, whose
knowledge was so great that they heard everything no matter
how low soever it might be spoken; second, a shriek which came
into every house on May eve, caused by the fighting of two
dragons; and third, a great giant who carried off all the pro-
visions of the king's palace every day. The second tale relates
how Maxen, emperor of Rome, has a dream while hunting,
in which he imagines that he visits Britain, and in Caer Seint
or Carnarvon sees a beautiful damsel, Helen, whom he ultimately
finds and marries. Both tales are British in origin and are
founded on traditions referring to Roman times.
The most important of these tales are undoubtedly those
contained in the first class, and the story of KUhwch and Olwen.
The form in which they are found in the Red Book of Hergest is,
as we have already said, comparatively speaking, modern. But
it is apparent to any one reading these tales that the writers or
compilers, as Matthew Arnold has suggested, are " pillaging an
antiquity, the secret of which they do not fully possess." The
foundations of the tales are the old Celtic traditions of the gods
and the older heroes, and they clearly show Goidelic influence
both in the persons they introduce and in their incidents. The
tales would at first exist only in oral tradition, and after the
advent of Christianity the characters they contain lost their title
of divinity and became simply heroes — warriors and magicians.
In time the monks began to write these ancient traditions,
embellishing them and suppressing no doubt what they con-
sidered to be most objectionable. These then are the tales which
we now possess — the traditional doings of the old heroes as set in
order by Christian writers.
The changes which these later copyists wrought in the sub-
stance of the tales fall into two main divisions. In the first place,
they attempted to find some connexion between tales or cycles of
tales which originally had no connexion whatever, and were
therefore forced to invent new incidents or to introduce other
incidents from the outside in order to establish this connexion;
and secondly, as in the case of the Gododin, the tales were twisted
and altered to support references to and explanations of names
known to the writer. So we find in the tale of Math vab Mathonwy
the incident of the pigs is expanded to explain some place-
names which the writer knew. It is this also that gives a local
interest to the tales; for instance, Dyvet, the land of Pwyll, has
come to be regarded as the home of Hud a Uedrith, of magic and
WELSH LITERATURE]
CELT
^4;
enchantment. Some places in North Wales, especially in the
vicinity of Carnarvon, seem to be well known to the writers, and,
therefore, to have associated with them to all time the glamour
of the Mabinogion.
Besides the scholastic efforts of the monks, which in course of
time so greatly changed these old legends, there was another class
of men who had no little influence on the form and matter of
Welsh, and consequently of European, romance. These were the
Welsh jongleurs — the professional story-tellers, against whom the
bards proper nursed a deadly hatred because, presumably, their
tales drew larger audiences and won greater rewards than the
awdlau of the poets. There is little doubt that this order existed
in Wales at a very early period, being quite a natural evolution
of the older poet who sang in comparatively free metres of the
deeds of the great dead. It is these men who invented the term
Mabinogi, which is supposed to mean a " tale for young people ";
but whatever the word may mean, the fact that they were the
stock-in-trade of the professional story-teller will explain a good
many of their structural peculiarities.
Thus there existed two distinct classes of tales, though it is to
be supposed that the subject matter of both was more or less
common; there are, in the first place, the " four branches " and
the tales of the second class, and, secondly, tales like those of the
third class. With the exception of the Irish influence, which we
have already referred to, and some later additions from early
continental romance in the third class, we may take it that these
three classes are of purely British origin. The pedair cainc are
the old tales which were first committed to writing at an early
period before the influence of the Armoric Arthur began to be
felt, that is to say, about the beginning of the reign of Rhys ab
Tewdwr in 1073. The other tales, that is those we have put in
the third class, remained for a much longer time unwritten and
were not set in writing before the early Arthur of Armoric and
British romance had been evolved. This will account for the
fact that Arthur is not mentioned in the first class of tales, and
that in the third class he is simply a British Arthur. The third
class is, therefore, in a sense later than the first and second, but its
materials are as old as the oldest of the Mabinogion proper, and
they show the influence of Irish mythology to the same extent.
In the first class Irish names like Penardim, which have not been
assimilated, show conclusively that the tale is a written one,
while the eloquence of the descriptions in Kilhwch ac Olwen seem
to point to the fact that it was up to a late period a spoken tale.
Other such tales there were once, but they have now been lost.
The romances of the fourth class do not claim much notice.
They are mostly imitations or translations of Norman French
originals, and they belong. to the history of European chivalry
rather than to the history of Welsh literature.
As literature the Mabinogion may rank among the world's
classics. We cannot here point out their beauties, but it will be
sufficient to notice that the unknown writer who gave them their
final form was a true artist in every sense of the word. In
Branwen verch Lyr, for instance, the whole setting of the story is
that of a great tragedy, a tragedy neither Hellenic nor Shake-
spearean, but the strong and ruthless tragedy of the Celts, — the
tragedy of nature among unnatural surroundings, the tragedy
which in our times Mr Thomas Hardy has so successfully
developed. In this tale, Branwen is introduced as the sister of
Manawyddan, the king of all Britain, and as the " fairest maid
in the world." But as the tragedy deepens we read how this
woman, dowered with beauty and goodness and nobility of
lineage, is simply used as a pawn in a political game, and the full
force of the tragedy falls on her own undeserving head. She is
subjected to all kinds of indignities in her husband's court in
Ireland, but throughout all her severe trials she preserves the
cold and detached haughtiness which characterizes the full-
bosomed heroines of the northern sagas; and, in the end, when
her brother has delivered her and punished the Irish, and when
she has safely reached the shores of her own M6n, she raises her
eyes and beholds the two islands,Bri tain and Ireland. " 'Ah God !'
said she, ' is it well that two islands have been made desolate for
my sake?' And she gave a deep groan and died." So was her
tragedy consummated, and the writer, with a superb tragic
touch, mentions the very shape of the grave in which they left
her on the bank of the Alaw in M6n.
One of the earliest poets of this period whose productions we
can be certain of is Meilir, bard of Trahaern, whom Gruflydd ab
Cynan defeated at the battle of Cam, and afterwards of the
conqueror Gruflydd himself. His best piece is the Death-bed of
the Bard, a semi -religious poem which is distinguished by the
structure of the verse, poetic feeling and religious thought.
Meilir was the head of a family of bards; his son was Gwalchmai,
one of the best Welsh poets; the latter had two sons, Einion and
Meilir, some of whose poetry has reached us. In Gorhojfedd
Gwalchmai, Gwalchmai 's Delight, there is an appreciation of the
charms of nature, medieval parallels to which are only to be found
in Ireland. His Arwyrain i Owain is an ode of considerable
beauty and full of vigour in praise of Owain Gwynedd, king of
North Wales, on account of his victory of Tal y Moelvre, part of
which has been translated by Gray under the name of " The
Triumphs of Owen.' Kynddelw, who lived in the second half of
the 12th century, was a contemporary of Gwalchmai, and wrote
on a great number of subjects including religious ones; indeed
some of his eulogies have a kind of religious prelude. He had a
command of words and much skill in versification, but he is
pleonastic and fond of complicated metres and of ending his lines
with the same syllable.
Among the other poets of the second half of the 12th century
may be mentioned Owain Kyveiliog and Howel ab Owain
Gwynedd. The first named was prince of Powys, and was
distinguished also as a soldier. The Hirlas, or drinking-horn, is
a long poem where the prince represents himself as carousing
in his hall after a fight; bidding his cup-bearer fill his great
drinking-horn, he orders him to present it in turn to each of the
assembled warriors. As the horn passes from hand to hand he
eulogizes each in a verse beginning Diwallaw di venestr, " Fill,
cup-bearer." Having thus praised the deeds of two warriors,
Tudyr and Moreiddig, he turns round to challenge them, but
suddenly recollecting that they had fallen in the fray, and
listening, as it were, to their dying groans, he bursts into a
broken lamentation for their loss. The second was also a
prince; he was the eldest of the many sons of Owain Gwynedd,
and ruled for two years after his father until he fell in a battle
between himself and his step-brother Dafydd. He was a young
man of conspicuous merit, and one of the most charming poets
of Wales, his poems being especially free from the conceits,
trivial commonplaces, and complicated metres of the professional
bards, while full of a gay humour, a love of nature and a delicate
appreciation of women. The Welsh poets went on circuit like
their Irish brethren, staying in each place according as hospitality
was extended to them. When departing, a bard was expected
to leave a sample of his versification behind him. In this way
many manuscripts came to be written, as we find them in different
hands. Llywarch ab Llywelyn has left us one of those departing
eulogies addressed to Rhys Gryg, prince of South Wales, which
affords a favourable specimen of his style.
The following are a few of the poets of the 13th century
whose poems are still extant. Davydd Benvras was the author
of a poem in praise of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth; his
works, though not so verbose or trite as bardic poems
of this class usually are, do not rise much above the
bardic level, and are full of alliteration. Elidir Sais
was, as his name implies, able to speak the English language,
and wrote chiefly religious poetry. Einiawn ab Gwgawn is the
author of an extant address to Llywelyn ab Iorwerth of con-
siderable merit. Phylip Brydydd, or Philip the poet, was house-
hold bard to Rhys Gryg (Rhys the hoarse), lord of South Wales.
One of his pieces, an apology to Rhys Gryg, is a striking example
of the fulsome epithets a household bard was expected to bestow
upon his patron, and of the privileged domesticity in which the
bards lived, which, as in Ireland, must have been fatal to genius.
Prydydd Bychan, the Little Poet, was a South Wales bard
whose extant work consists of short poems all addressed to his
own princes. The chief feature of his Englynion is the use of a
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[WELSH LITERATURE
kind of assonance in which in some cases the final vowels agreed
alternately in each quatrain, and in others each line ended in a
different vowel, in both cases with alliteration and consonance
of final consonants or full rhyme. Llygad Gwr is known by an
ode in five parts to Llywelyn ab Gruffydd, written about the
year 1270, which is a good type of the conventional flattery of a
family bard. Howel Voel, who was of Irish extraction,
possessed some poetical merit; his remonstrance to Llywelyn
against the imprisonment of his brother Owain is a pleasing
variety upon the conventional eulogy. It has many lines
beginning with the same word, e.g. gwr, man. The poems of
Bleddyn Vardd, or Bleddyn the Bard, which have come down
to us are all short eulogies and elegies. One of the latter on
Llywelyn ab Gruffydd is a good example of the elaborate and
artificial nature of Welsh versification.
The most illustrious name among the poets of this century is
Gruffydd ab yr Ynad Coch, " Gruffydd, son of the Red Justice,"
who wrote many religious poems of great merit. His greatest
work, however, is the elegy to Llywelyn ab Gruffydd, the last
prince of Wales. It is easily first among all the elegies written
in the Welsh language. We do not find in it that artficial grief
which is too evident in the Marwnadau of the Welsh poets; it
re-echoes an intense personal grief, and throughout the whole
piece the poet feels that he stands at the end of all things, — the
end of his own ideals, the extinction of all Cymric hopes. So
poignant is his grief, and in so universal a manner does the
catastrophe of Llywelyn's death present itself to him, that he
imagines that all the natural features of the Welsh fatherland
know that the last great Welshman is dead; the winds howl
over the mountains, the rain-clouds gather thick, the waves rage
with grief against the Welsh coasts, and far away on the hills
the giant oak-trees beat against each other in the fury of their
passion. Sadly, in this manner, closes the second period of
Welsh literature.
4. The Golden Age of the Cywydd, 1 340-1440. — Just as, after
the loss of the North, the Welsh muse was hushed, so after the
final subjugation of Wales in 1282, hardly a note was heard for
many a long year. The ancient patrons of literature were dead,
and the country had not yet settled down to the steady rule of
England. Indeed, the conquest of Wales effectively put an end
to the older Welsh poetry of that type which we noticed in the
last period. These older bards were without exception subjects
of the princes of North Wales, where the old heroic poetry was
still popular, and when the power of these princes came to an
end the old poetry too ceased. When the Welsh muse emerges
again from the darkness of this interval she is no longer of the
North; the new poets are drawn from the Welshmen of the
South, a land which had practically ceased to be a part of an
independent Wales shortly after the Norman conquest of
England. We find, too, that the poetry which poured forth
from the Welsh bards of the south is of an altogether different
type; it is modern in all its essentials, in diction, in language,
and, comparatively speaking, in sentiment. Indeed, there is an
infinitely greater difference between Dafydd ab Gwilym and
Gruffydd ab yr Ynad Coch than there is between him and any
poet writing in the alliterative metres in the 19th century. So
that we must suppose that at the time when the poets of North
Wales still sang of war and mead-drinking in a style and diction
that was an inheritance from the times of the Gododin, the poets
of the South, unharassed by wars, were developing a new poetry
of their own, a poetry that had relinquished for ever the Old
Welsh models and was at last in line with the great poetical
movements of Europe. And, judging from the fact that the
earliest of these poets whose works are accessible to us are in the
full zenith of their poetical development, we must believe that
their work is the consummation of a period, that is to say, that
they must have had a long line of predecessors whose works
were lost during the period intervening between the loss of Welsh
independence and the rise of Dafydd ab Gwilym. These men
wrote, as we have already said, in South Wales, a country which
was then under the rule of the Norman lords, who, with the lapse
of years and the rise of new systems, were fast becoming Welsh.
It is no wonder, then, that the poets who wrote under their
patronage should show unmistakable traces of Norman influence.
Most of the barons still spoke French, and it was only natural
that they should be well versed in French poetry. The poets
followed the lead of their patrons, and their work was modelled
to a very great extent on French and Provencal poetry. Nor
does this account altogether for the wonderful similarity between
Welsh cywyddau and other poems of this period and the French
lays; we must remember that the Welsh poets lived under
conditions similar to those under which the troubadours and the
trouv£res lived, and it was natural that the same environments
should produce the same kind of work. The Provencal alba and
the French aube, the serenade and other forms, became well
known in South Wales and were of course read by the Welsh
poets. We find continual references in the poets to " books of
love " under the name of Uyfr Ofydd, or the " book of Ovid,"
and a reference in one of Dafydd ab Gwilym's poems shows con-
clusively that one particular Uyfr Ofydd was a work of the French
poet Chrestien de Troyes. Indeed, one of the commonest names
among the poets of this period — the Uatai, 1 or love-messenger —
may be a Romance word borrowed through the Norman-French
from the Italian Galeotto, originally the name of the book of the
loves of Galahaad, but afterwards the ordinary word for a go-
between. This book of Galeotto, by the way, was the book
which taught Paolo and Francesca da Rimini, in Dante's Divina
Commedia, the tragic secret of love.
Another movement also was favourable to the rise of the new
Welsh poetry. The iron hand of the church, which had been
the censor of poetry for so many centuries, was slowly relaxing
its grasp, and the men who a few years before would have sung
religious hymns to the Virgin, now laid their tributes at the feet
of divine womanhood as they saw it in the Welsh maidens and
matrons living among them. The pale queen of heaven no longer
held hearts captive; they had transferred their allegiance to the
" brow that was as the snow of yesternight," and " the cheeks
that were like the passion-flower." The Iolo MSS. assert that
some time between January 1327 and November 1330 there were
held, under the patronage of Ivor Hael, Dafydd ab Gwilym's
patron, and others, the three Eisteddfodau Dadeni, or the
Eisteddfods of the Revival of the Muse, to reorganize the bards,
and to set in order all matters pertaining to Welsh poetry. The
most important bards who are reported as present at some or all
of these meetings were Dafydd ab Gwilym, Sion Cent, Rhys
Goch of Eryri, and Iolo Goch. It is now, however, generally
agreed that this account is a fabrication and that the date of
all the poets is later.
Dafydd ab Gwilym is certainly the most distinguished of all
the Welsh poets, and were it not for the absolute impossibility
of adequately translating his cywyddau he would rank
amongst the greatest poets of medieval times. By awZtym?
far the greater part of his poetry is written in the
metre called cywydd, with heptasyllabic lines rhyming in couplets.
It was he who imparted so much lustre to this metre that it
became the vehicle of all the most important poetry from his
time to the 19th century, and he is generally referred to by his
contemporaries as the special poet of the cywydd — Dafydd
gywydd gwin, " Dafydd of the wine-sweet cywydd." Most of his
poems deal with love in the spirit of the medieval writers of
France and of Provence, but with this very important difference,
that the French writers must base their reputation on their
treatment of love as a theme, whereas Dafydd's claim to fame is
based on his treatment of nature and of out-door life. In many
cases, indeed, love is only a conventional peg whereon he may
hang his observations on nature, and Welsh literature may
claim the distinction of having had its Wordsworth in the 14th
century. His treatment of nature is not merely realistic and
objective, it has a certain quaint and elusive symbolism and a
subjectiveness which come as a revelation to those who are
acquainted with the medieval poetry of other nations. Many
1 Another derivation of this word is from Uad, " profit " + hat, a
suffix denoting the agent. Others derive it from or connect it with
the Irish slad-.
WELSH LITERATURE]
CELT
645
of the poems attributed to him are undoubtedly the work of
later hands, but even after making all possible deductions,
there is still an infinite variety among what remains, ranging
as his poems do from a sturdy denunciation of monkish fraudu-
lence to the most delicate and pathetic recollections of departed
joys. He has, besides, considerable importance as a teacher, as
when, for instance, he invites the nun " to leave her watercress
and paternosters of Romish monks," and to come with him
" to the cathedral of the birch to listen to the cuckoo's sermons,"
for, " were it not an equally worthy deed to save his (Dafydd's)
soul in the birch-grove as to do so by following the ritual of Rome
and St James of Compostella " ? Even in his old age, when he
is beginning to repent of his rash and merry youth, nature has
not deserted him, — the very tree under which in the old days
he used to meet his sweetheart has become bent and withered
in sympathy with him. Though Dafydd yields not the palm
to any poet of his class throughout the world, and though his
influence is still a potent factor in the literature of Wales, we are
certain of hardly a single fact about his life. He flourished
between 1340 and 1390. His works were published in London
in 1789. This edition was reprinted by Ffoulkes of Liverpool
in 1870. See L. C. Stern, Zeitschr.f. celt. Phil. vol. vii.
Sion Cent was chaplain to the Scudamores of Kentchurch in
Herefordshire, and though, therefore, in orders, was a most
bitter opponent of the pretentious and the evil life of the monks
of his time. All his writings show signs of the influence of the
moralists of the middle ages, and treat of religious or of moral
subjects. His poetry is strong and austere, interfused here and
there with the most biting satire. He died about 1400. Like
many of his contemporaries, Dunbar, Villon, Menot and Manrique,
his dominant note is that of sadness and regret.
Rhys Goch Eryri had a sprightly muse which deals with
fanciful subjects. His themes are often similar to those of
Dafydd ab Gwilym, but whereas the subject of Dafydd's muse
was nature and his treatment universal, Rhys Goch's are
simply natural objects which he treats in a vigorous but narrow
and cold manner.
r Iolo Goch, that is, Iorwerth the Red, deserves a special
mention as the poet who voiced the aspirations of a new Wales
when Owen Glyndwr began to rise into power, and it is to one
of his poems that we owe a most minute description of Sycharth,
Owen Glyndwr's home. His poetry is slightly more archaic in
diction than that of his contemporaries, as his subject — war and
the glory of Welsh heroes — belonged more properly to the age
before his own. In one very striking cywydd composed after
Glyadwr's downfall, he calls upon this hero to come again and
daimhis own, and addresses himself fancifully to all the countries
of tfce world where his hero may be in hiding. He died after
1405, and, if the dates generally given for his birth be even
approximately correct, he must have lived to a prodigious age
(cf. Gweithiau Iolo Goch, by Charles Ashton, London, 1896).
Rhys Goch ap Rhiccert claims to be named with Dafydd ab
Gwilym as a writer of lyrics in praise of beautiful women. He
has one advantage, however, over his more famous contemporary
in the variety of his metres. The musical lilt and the delicate
workmanship of his poems, with their recurring refrain, give .him
a unique position among his medieval contemporaries as the
first purely lyrical poet. His floreat is probably a little later
than that of Dafydd ab Gwilym, for we must not be misled by
the late orthography of his poems.
Dafydd Nanmor is chiefly famous for two exquisite cywyddau,
Cywydd Marwnad Merck, or Elegy of a Maiden, and Cywydd i
wdlt Uio, or Cywydd to Llio's Hair. In both these poems he
shows elegance rather than depth, and a fancy as bold as that
of his great master Dafydd. In the first of these cywyddau his
grief is so great that he wishes that he were but the shroud
around his dead sweetheart, and, in the second, Llio Rhydderch's
golden hair over her white brow is compared to the refulgence of
lightning over the fine snow. He is supposed to be a younger
contemporary of Rhys Goch Eryri, but there are many facts to
warrant a supposition that he lived much later, even as late
as 1490.
Llywelyn Goch ap Meurig Hen deserves to be mentioned as the
author of the famous Marwnad Heucu Hwyd, an elegy which is
far more convincing in its sincerity than Dafydd Nanmor's
cywydd. Few of his compositions are extant, but the one
already mentioned is sufficient to place him in the first rank of
the poets of the period. He lived approximately from 1330
to 1390.
The other poets of this period who deserve some mention
are Dafydd Ddu o Hiraddug, who wrote poems on religious
subjects, and who is supposed to have translated part of the
Officiutn Beatae Mariae into Welsh; Gruffydd Grug, between
whom and Dafydd ab Gwilym a most fierce poetic quarrel raged,
but who is the author of a beautiful elegy on his opponent;
Gruffydd Llwyd ab Dafydd, who was the poet of Owen Glyndwr,
and whose cywydd in praise of his patron is one of the best of
that type; Hywel Swrdwal and Gwilym ab Ieuan Hen.
5. The Silver Age of the Cywydd, 1440-1550. — The insurrection
of Owen Glyndwr, though originally the result of a private
quarrel, was the general revolt of a nation against the con-
querors whom it hated, and the English king knew well enough
that the discontent with his rule was fanned by the older and
more national Welsh institutions, and by none more than by
the system of wandering bards. The conditions which had given
rise to this system were fast dying out, but the noblemen, who
fortunately were still intensely Welsh, were loth to give up their
family bards, and the bards themselves, never a too industrious
class, were too glad of their freedom and easy life to turn to more
profitable work. We find, therefore, that a law was passed in
1403, the fourth year of Henry IV. 's reign, prohibiting bards
" and other vagrants " from exercising their profession in
Gwynedd or North Wales. This law, however, like its pre-
decessor in the reign of Edward I., failed utterly in its purpose.
By prohibiting the Welsh noblemen from giving their patronage
to the bards, and, therefore, from distinguishing between the real
bards and the mendicant rhymesters, this law took away the
only safeguard against the latter class, with the result that by
about 1450 they had become a pest to the country. About
that time there flourished a poet called Llawdden, who, noticing
the very unsatisfactory state of poetry in Wales, induced his
kinsman, Gruffydd ab Nicolas, a nobleman living in Y Dre-
newydd (Newtown), to petition Henry VI. for permission to hold
an eisteddfod similar in purpose to the three Eisteddfodau
Dadeni of the last period. This famous eisteddfod mKimddtoS
was held at Caerfyrddin (Carmarthen) in 145 1, and Q fi4g tm
shortly before the actual eisteddfod was held a
" statute " was drawn up under the direction of Llawdden,
regulating the different orders of bards and musicians and setting
in order the cynghaneddion a mesurau, the different kinds of
alliterative verse to be presented to the assembled bards at the
meeting. Among those present at that eisteddfod the most
distinguished was Dafydd ab Edmwnd, who then made famous
the dictum that the purpose of an eisteddfod was " to bring to
mind the past, to consider the present, and to deliberate about the
future." He, therefore, proposed emendations in " the rules of
Welsh verse," making them more strict, so as to keep the un-
learned rhymesters from the privileged bardic class. This
measure had a most important effect on Welsh literature. It
effectively put an end to the charming spontaneity which
distinguishes the poetry of Dafydd ab Gwilym and his con-
temporaries, and by introducing an arbitrary set of rules
gave an artificial tone to almost all the poetry of the next two
hundred years. It had, indeed, exactly the same retarding effect
on Welsh poetry as the Unities had on the French drama. So
that, whereas the poems of Dafydd ab Gwilym, though written
in the difficult alliterative metres, are nearly all light and have
a sweet lyrical re-echo, the poetry of Dafydd ab Edmwnd and
his successors is often heavy and nearly always artificial. After
making, however, all these deductions, it is a debatable point
whether the hard and fast rules which now regulated Welsh
poetry did not eventually justify their existence. They have
helped, by inciting to carefulness, to keep the idiom and the
language pure and undefiled, and to this day style in Welsh
6 4 6
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poetry is not necessarily a striving after the uncommon as it
too often is in English.
There are some poets included in this period who belong more
properly to the last, but even these show signs of the attempt at
correctness and distinction which was supplanting the old
simplicity. Ieuan ap Rhydderch ab Ieuan Llwyd, who is
supposed to be a brother of the Llio Rhydderch of Dafydd
Nanmor's poem, is the author of some cywyddau and other
poems addressed to the Virgin, the structure of which shows
great skill accompanied by force and clearness. He flourished
about 1425. Dafydd ab Meredydd ap Tudur, who flourished
about 1420, is the author of a cywydd " to Our Saviour."
About the same time lived Rhys Nanmor, Ieuan Gethin ab
Ieuan, and Ieuan Llwyd ab Gwilym. Among the earliest of the
poets who belong properly to this period is Meredydd ap Rhys,
whose cywyddau are a fair specimen of the generality of poems
written in these years. Among the most famous of his works
is a cywydd " begging for a fishing-net," and another giving
thanks for the same. We shall find that many of his con-
temporaries were able to write long and interesting poems on
such seemingly dry and uninteresting subjects, but it is vain
to look for anything beyond good verse in such compositions.
Of poetry, as generally understood, there is none.
The commanding figure in this period is, of course, Dafydd
ab Edmwnd, who was a disciple of Meredydd ap Rhys. He
.^--0 bears somewhat the same relation to his contemporaries
g^awmd. as Dafydd ab Gwilym does to his, and to strain an
analogy, we might say that as Dryden was to Milton,
so Dafydd ab Edmwnd was to Dafydd ab Gwilym. He was
regarded by his contemporaries as the greatest poet that North
Wales had ever produced, and some would set him up as a rival
even to Dafydd ab Gwilym himself. He would probably
have produced much greater poetry had he understood that the
cywydd and the other metres were strait and shackled enough
without the cymeriadau and other devices which he introduced,
or at least sanctioned and made popular. He begins many of
his cywyddau and odes with the same letter; he is the chief
among Welsh formalists, but in spite of his self-imposed restric-
tions he is a great poet also. His most famous poems are three
Cywyddau Merck or " Poems to a Lady," and his Cywydd i Wallt
Merch, " cywydd to a lady's hair." He is the author of the
lines already quoted: " thy brow," he sings, " is as the snow of
yesternight, and thy cheeks like a shower of roses." He died
about 1480. Dafydd ab Edmwnd's disciples were Gutyn Owain
and Tudur Aled, who was also his nephew. Gutyn Owain lived
between 1420 and 1500, and was one of the men appointed by
the king's commissioners to trace, or perhaps to manu-
facture, the Welsh pedigree of Henry VII. He belonged entirely
to the school inaugurated by Dafydd ab Edmwnd, and though
he was by no means wanting in imagination, the highest distinc-
tion of his verse is its intricacy of form and very often the
felicity of his couplets.
Just as the rise of Owen Glyndwr in the beginning of the
century had given a new impulse and a new interest to poetry,
so in 1485, when Henry VII. — the " little bull " as he is called
by the poets — ascended the throne of England, a particular kind
of poetry called brud, half history and half prophecy, became
popular, and we have in the manuscripts much writing of this
description, a good deal of it worthless as poetry. Occasionally,
however, some of these " bruts " may claim to be called poetry,
especially the compositions of Robin Ddu o Fon, who wrote
poems in praise of the Tudors and hailed them as the deliverers
of the nation, even before Henry VII. had landed in England,
and Dafydd Llwyd ab Llywelyn, whose works deserve to be
much better known than they are at present. One of the best
cywyddau among his works is the " Address to the Raven," to
whom he promises a right royal feast when the hero whom all
Wales is expecting has met his royal enemy. Tudur Aled, too,
was a zealous partisan of Henry VII. and wrote many cywyddau
in praise of Sir Rhys ap Thomas, the great champion of Henry's
cause in South Wales. He is also famous as having supplemented
and made a new recension of Dafydd ab Edmwnd's rules of
poetry in the eisteddfod held at Caerwys in 1524. Tudur Aled
has always been more widely known in Wales than almost any
other of the earlier poets except Dafydd ab Gwilym. This is
perhaps due to the quotability and sententiousness of his couplets.
There is a certain refreshing dryness about his poetry which
partly makes up for his want of imagination. One of the most
interesting poets of this century is Lewis Glyn Cothi, who lived
between 1410 and 1490. During the Wars of the Roses he was
a zealous Lancastrian, and his bitterest enemies were the men
of Chester, who had treated him scurvily while he was there in
hiding, and his awdl, satirizing the men of that city, is one of the
most vigorous compositions in the language. Indeed, among
so many cywyddau of this period in conventional praise of
different patrons, it is most refreshing to find such an outburst
of sincere personal feeling, boldly and fiercely expressed. He
wrote an awdl also rejoicing in the victory of Henry VII. Most
of his work, however, consists of cywyddau mawl — praise of
patrons — containing weary and unpoetical pedigrees. Gruffydd
Hiraethog, who flourished about 1540, was a disciple of Tudur
Aled. A fierce poetical dispute raged between him and Sion
Brwynog of Anglesey, who was a contemporary of his. About
this time there were many poets in Wales who were imitators
of Dafydd ab Gwilym, and who did not follow implicitly the
lead of Dafydd ab Edmwnd, like those whom we have mentioned.
Much of their poetry is feeble, but Bedo Brwynllysg especially
stands out from among the rest, and his poetry, though highly
imitative and often over fanciful, is of a much higher order than
the genealogical poems of Lewis Glyn Cothi and others. In the
same way the only poem of any merit of Ieuan Denlwyn printed
in the Gorchestion is written in this imitative strain. Other poets
of the middle of this period are Deio ap Ieuan Du, Iorwerth
Fynglwyd, Lewys Morganwg, Ieuan Brydydd Hir, and Tudur
Penllyn, who wrote a superb cywydd to Dafydd ab Siencyn, the
outlaw.
Towards the end of the period we begin to breathe a literary
atmosphere that is gradually but surely changing, — it is the
change from the misty Wales of Roman Catholic times to the
modern Wales after the Reformation. The poetical incoherencies
of the old metres and the tricks of fancy of the old stylists
occasionally form a somewhat incongruous dress for the thoughts
of later poets. The old spirit and the glamour were gradually
wearing away, only to be momentarily revived in the poetry
of Goronwy Owen, nearly two centuries later. Two or three
figures, indeed, stand out prominently during these years,
among whom are some of the bards ordained penceirddiaid
(master-poets) in the second Caerwys Eisteddfod held in 1568,
viz. William Llyn, William Cynwal, Sion Tudur, and Sion
Phylip. William Llyn (iS3o?-is8o) was a pupil of Gruffydd
Hiraethog. His complicated awdlau are marvels of ingenuity,
but many of them are on that very account almost unintelligible.
He was, however, a complete master of the cywydd, in which
he sometimes displays a sense of style and a sweetness of imagery
allied to a melodiousness of language unequalled by the other
poets of the period. His best-known work is the famous marwnad
to his master, Gruffydd Hiraethog. Sion Tudur (d. 1602), also a
disciple of G. Hiraethog, was connected in some capacity or other
with the cathedral at St Asaph. He is a realist, and delights in
giving vivid word pictures in a less fanciful strain than his pre-
decessors. Sion Phylip (1543-1620) wrote a famous marwnad
to his father and a cywydd " to a sea-gull," which is a superb
piece of nature-painting in the style of Dafydd ab Gwilym.
While dealing with this second Eisteddfod at Caerwys, we may
note that Simwnt Fychan's " Laws of Poetry " were accepted
at this festival.
Two poets of this period, whom an English writer describes
a " the two filthy Welshmen who first smoked publicly in the
streets," were captains in Queen Elizabeth's navy, viz. Thomas
Prys (d. 1634) of Plas Iolyn, and William Myddleton (1556-
1621), called in Welsh Gwilym Canoldref. The former wrote
among other things, humorous cywyddau descriptive of life in
London and in the English navy of those days, in a style which
was afterwards attempted by Lewys Morys. The work of
WELSH LITERATURE]
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647
Myddleton, by which he is best known, is his translation of the
Psalms (1603) into Welsh cywydd metre, a difficult and profitless
experiment.
With Edmwnd Prys (1541-1624), the famous archdeacon of
Merioneth, we come to distinctly modern times. He is hardly
a great poet, if we judge him by the canons which are now
popular. His gift was a gift of terse and biting statement, and
his cywyddau on the whole have more of literary than of poetical
merit. He was a man of vast learning, and his works are full
of scholastic and often difficult allusions. His most famous
cywyddau are those written in the literary quarrel between him
and Wiliam Cynwal. " Wiliam Cynwal," says Goronwy Owen,
" though the greater poet, was like a man fighting with bare fists
against complete armour," and it may be freely granted that in
this, the most famous quarrel in Welsh literature, the palm of
victory rested with the contentious old ecclesiastic. We shall
deal with the rest of Edmwnd Prys's literary work in the section
on the rise of popular poetry.
Here the age of the cywydd and the awdl, as the chief forms of
verse, ends. They appear again in the succeeding centuries, but
as aliens among a nation that no longer paid them homage.
The distinctly Welsh fashion in song was dying out.
6. Prose, 1550-1750* — One of the most striking features of
Welsh literature is the almost entire absence of prose between
1300 and 1550. The genius of the people has always been an
eminently poetical and imaginative one, and the history of
Wales, politically and socially, has always been a fitter subject
for poetry than for prose. During this period, Wales enjoyed a
rest from propagandists and revolutionaries which has seldom
been the happy lot of any other nation — they lay content with
their own old traditions, acquiescing proudly in their separation
from the other nations of Europe, and in their aloofness from all
the movements which shook England and the continent during
those years. Dynasties came and went, one religion ousted
another religion, a new learning exposed the absurdities of the
old, but the Welsh, among their hills, knew nothing of it; and
when new ideas began to brood over the consciousness of the
nation, they never got beyond the stage of providing new subjects
for cywyddau. The Peasant Revolt, for instance, had but little
effect on Welsh history, its most important contribution to the
heritage of the nation being lolo Goch's superb " Cywydd to the
Labourer." Even the Reformation, which helped to change the
whole fabric of English literature, had little effect on that of
Wales, and the age of the cywydd dragged out wearily its last
years without experiencing the slightest quickening from the
great movement which was remaking Europe. Hardly a prophet
or reactionary raised his voice in defence or condemnation, and
the Welsh went on serenely making and reading poetry. The two
political movements in which Wales was really interested, the
revolt of Glyndwr and the accession of Henry VII., paid their
tribute to its poetry alone, and both enterprises had sufficient of
romance in them to repel the historian and to capture the poet.
Naturally, therefore, we have no prose in this period, because
there was no cause strong enough to produce it. What prose
the nation required they found in the tales of romance, in the
legends of Arthur and Charlemagne and the Grail, and, as for
pedigrees and history, were they not written in the cywyddau of
the poets?
The little prose that was produced during this period (1300-
1550) w as of an extraordinary kind. It was simply an exercise
in long sentences and in curiously built compounds, and therefore
more nearly allied to poetry. It generally took the form of dewis-
bethau, a list of the " choice things " of such and such a person,
or of the later triads (trioedd), which, starting from an ancient
nucleus, gradually grew till, at the present day, Wales has a
gnomic literature out of all proportion to the rest of its prose.
Modern Welsh prose, however, is only very indirectly connected
with these compositions. It is almost altogether a product of the
Biblical literature which began to appear after the Reformation,
and we shall proceed to give here the main facts and dates in its
development. The first Welsh book was printed in 1546. It
consisted of extracts in Welsh from the Bible and the Prayer
Book, and a calendar. The author was Sir John Prys (1502-
1555). The most importan t name in the early part of this period
is William Salesbury (i520?-i6oo?). His chief books were,
A Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe (printed in 1547, and pub-
lished in facsimile reprint by the Cymmrodorion Society),
Kynniver IMh a Ban (1551), the Prayer Book in Welsh (1567),
and the most important of all his works, the translation of the
New Testament (1567). It is difficult to form any estimate, at
this distance of time, of the impetus which William Salesbury
gave to Welsh prose, but it must be regretfully admitted that his
great work was marred by many defects. He had a theory that
Welsh ought to be written as much like Latin as possible, and
the result is that his language is very poor Welsh, both in spelling
and idiom; it is an artificial dialect. It is a striking testimony,
however, to his influence that many of the constructions and
words which he manufactured are found to this day in correct
literary Welsh.
In 1567 was published a Welsh Grammar by Dr Gruffydd
Roberts, a Roman Catholic priest living at Milan (reprinted in
facsimile, Paris, 1883), and in 1583, under the direction of Dr
Rhosier Smyth, his Dryck Cristionogawl was published at Rouen.
Many other important Welsh books were produced during these
years, but the work which may be regarded as having the
greatest influence on the subsequent literature of Wales was the
translation of the Welsh Bible (1588) by Dr William Morgan
(1547 ?-ioo4), bishop of Llandaff, and afterwards of St Asaph.
The Authorized Version (1620) now in use is a revision of this
work by Dr Richard Parry, bishop of St Asaph (1 560-1623).
In 1592 the Welsh Grammar of Sion Dafydd Rh^s (1 534-1609)
was published — a most valuable treatise on the language and on
the rules of Welsh poetry. It was followed in 162 1 by the Welsh
Grammar, and in 1632 by the Welsh Dictionary of Dr John Davies
o Fallwyd (i57o?-i644).
There are two prose compositions which stand entirely by
themselves in this period of Bibles and grammars — the History
of Ellis Gruffydd, and Morris Kyffin's Dejfyniad y Ffydd. The
former was a soldier in the English army during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, and wrote a long history cf England from the
earliest times to his own day. This document, which has never
been published, and which lies hidden away among the Mostyn
MSS., is a most important and valuable original contribution to
the history of the author's contemporaries, and it sheds con-
siderable light on the inner life of the court and the army. It is
written in a delightfully easy style, contrasting favourably with
the stiff diction of this period of translations. The work of
Morris Kyffin (1555 ?-i 598?) which we have mentioned is a
translation of Bishop Jewel's Apologia Ecctesiae Anglicanae
(1562) and was published in 1595. This work is the first piece
of modern Welsh prose within reach of the ordinary reader,
written in the rich idiom of the spoken Welsh. It is a precursor
of many other books of its kind, a long series culminating in
the immortal Bardd Cwsc. In this sense Morris Kyffin may
with perfect justice be hailed as the father of modern Welsh
prose.
Most of the works which were afterwards written in the strong
idiomatic Welsh of Morris Kyffin were on religious subjects, and
many of them were translated from the English. The first was
Ymarfer Dduwioldeb (1630) by Rowland Vychan o Gacrgai (a
translation of Bailey's Practice of Piety), which was followed in
1632 by Dr John Davies's Llyfr y Resolution, and in 1666 by
Hanes y Ffydd Ddiffuant (A History of the True Faith) by
Charles Edwards. All these authors and many of their successors
were strong adherents of the Established Church, which was then
intensely Welsh in sentiment. But in the midst of these church-
men, a flame-bearer of dissent appeared — Morgan Llwyd o
Wynedd, who published in 1653 " a mystery to be understood
of some, and scorned of others " — Llyfr y Tri Aderyn (The Book
of the Three Birds). It is in the form of a discussion between
the eagle (Cromwell), the dove (Dissent) and the raven (the
Established Church) . This book is certainly the most important
original composition published during the 17th century, and to
this day remains one of the widely-read classics of the Welsh
6 4 8
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tongue. Morgan Llwyd wrote many other books in Welsh and
English, all more or less in the vein of the first book.
During the remaining years of this period, the prose output
of the Welsh press consisted mainly of devotional books, written
or translated for or at the instigation of the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge. The Established Church, with the help of
this society, made a gallant attempt to lighten the darkness of
Wales by publishing books of this description, and it is mainly
due to its exertions that the lamp of Welsh prose was kept
burning during these years. Among the clergy who produced
books of this description were Edward Samuel (i 674-1 748),
who published among other works Holl Ddyledswydd Dyn, a
translation of The Whole Duty of Man (1718); Moses Williams
( 1 684-1 742), a most diligent searcher into Welsh MSS. and
translator; Griffith Jones of Llanddowror (1 683-1 761), the father
of Welsh popular education; Iago ab Dewi (1644 P-I722) and
Theophilus Evans (1 694-1 769), the famous author of Drych y
Prif Oesoedd (1716 and 1740). This book, like Uyfr y Tri
Aderyn and Y Bardd Cwsc, has an established position for all
time in the annals of Welsh literature.
We come now to the greatest of all Welsh prose writers,
Ellis Wyn o Lasynys (1671-1734). His first work was a
translation of Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living, under the title of
Kheol Buchedd Sanctaidd (1701). His next work was the
immortal Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsc (1703). The founda-
tion of this work was L'Estrange's translation of the Suenos
of the Spaniard Quevedo. Ellis Wyn has certainly followed
his original closely, even as Shakespeare followed his, but by
his inimitable magic he has transmuted the characters and the
scenery of the Spaniard into Welsh characters and scenery of
the 17 th century. No writer before or after him has used the
Welsh language with such force and skill, and he will ever
remain the stylist whom all Welsh writers will strive to imitate.
The magic of his work has endowed the stately idiom of Gwynedd
with such glamour that it has now become the standard idiom
of Welsh prose. See Stern, Z. /. celt. Phil. ill. 165 ff.
7. The Rise of Popular Poetry, 1600-1750. — When Henry
VII. ascended the throne, the old hostility of the Welsh
towards the English disappeared. They had realized their
wildest hope, that of seeing a Welshman wearing " the crown of
London." Naturally enough, therefore, the descendants of the
old Welsh gentry began to look towards England for recognition
and preferment, and their interest in their own little country
necessarily began to wane. The result was that the traditional
patrons of the Welsh muse could no longer understand the
language of the poets, and the poets were forced to seek some
more profitable employment. Besides, the old conditions were
changing; the medieval traditions were indeed dying hard,
but it gradually and imperceptibly came about that the poets of
the older school had no audience. The only poets who still
followed the old traditions were the rich farmers who " sang
on their own land," as the Welsh phrase goes. A new school,
however, was rising. The nation at large had a vast store of
folk-poetry, full of all the poetical characteristics of the Celt,
and it was this very poetry, despised as it was, that became
ultimately the groundwork of the new literature.
The first landmark in this new development was the publica-
tion in 162 1 of Edmwnd Prys's metrical version of the Psalms
(followed by later editions in 1628, 1630, 1638 and 1648), and of
the first poem of the Welshmen's Candle (Cannwyll y Cymry)
of Rhys Pritchard, vicar of Llandovery (1 569-1 644). This was
published in 1646. These works were not written in the old
metres peculiar to Wales, but in the free metres, like those of
English poetry. The former work is of the utmost importance,
as these Psalms were about the first metrical hymns in use.
They are often rugged and uncouth, but many of the verses —
such as the 23rd Psalm — have a haunting melody of their own,
which grips the mind once and for ever. The second work, the
first complete edition of which was published in 1672, consisted
of moral verses in the metres of the old folk-songs (Penillion
Telyn), and for nearly two centuries was the " guide, philosopher
and friend " of the common people. Many other poets of the
early part of this period wrote in these metres, such as Edward
Dafydd o Fargam (fl. 1640), Rowland Fychan, Morgan Llwyd o
Wynedd and William Phylip (d. 1669). Poetry in the free
metres, however, was generally very crude, until it was given
a new dignity by the greatest poet of the period, Huw Morus o
Bont y Meibion (1622-1709). Most of his earlier compositions,
which are among his best, and which were influenced to a great
extent by the cavalier poetry of England, are love poems, perfect
marvels of felicitous ingenuity and sweetness. He fixed the
poetic canons of the free metres, and made what was before
homely and uncouth, courtly and dignified. He wrote a cywydd
marwnad to his contemporary, Edward Morus o'r Perthi Llwydion
(d. 1689), who was also a poet of considerable merit. Most of
his work is composed of " moral pieces " and carols. Other
poets of the period were Sion Dafydd Las (1650-1691), who was
among the last of the family bards, and Dafydd Jones o Drefriw
(fl. 1750). Towards the end of the period comes Lewys Morys
( 1 700-1 765). His poetry alone does not seem to warrant his
fame, but he was the creator of a new period, the inspirer and
the patron of Goronwy Owen. According to the lights of the
1 8th century, he was, like his brothers Richard and William,
a scholar. His poetry, except a few well-known pieces, will
never be popular, because it does not conform to modern canons
of taste. His greatest merit is that he wrote the popular poetry
then in vogue with a scholar's elegance.
8. The Revival, 1750-1830. — The two leading figures in this
period are Goronwy Owen (17 2 2-1 769) and William Williams,
Pantycelyn (1717-1791). Goronwy Owen wrote all his poetry
in the cynghanedd, and his work gave the old metres a new life.
He raised them from the neglect into which they had fallen,
and caused them to be/till this day, the vehicle of half the poetical
thought of Wales. But he was in no way a representative of
his age; he, like Milton, sang among a crowd of inferior poets
themes quite detached from the life of his time, so that he also,
like his English brother, lacks " human interest." After Dafydd
ab Gwilym, he is the greatest poet who sang in the old metres,
and the influence of his correct and fastidious muse remains to
this day. William Williams, however, wrote in the free metres in
a way that was astoundingly fresh. It is not enough to say of
him that he was a hymnologist; he is much more, he is the
national poet of Wales. He had certainly the loftiest imagina-
tion of all the poets of five centuries, and his influence on the
Welsh people can be gauged by the fact that a good deal of his
idiom and dialect has fixed itself indelibly on modern literary
Welsh. Besides the hymns, he wrote a religious epic, Theo*
memphus, which is to this day the national epic of evangelical
Wales. Even as Goronwy Owen is the father of modern Welsh
poetry in the old metres, so William Williams is the great fountain-
head of the free metres, because he set aflame the imagination
of every poet that succeeded him. With two such pioneers, it is
natural that the rest of this period should contain many great
names. Thomas Edwards (Twm o'r Nant) (1730-1810) has
been called by an unwarrantably bold hyperbole, " the Welsh
Shakespeare." Most of his works are interludes and ballads,
and he used to be very popular with the common people; he
is, to this day, probably the oftenest quoted of all the Welsh
poets. William Wynn, rector of Llangynhafal (1704-1760),
is the author of a " Cywydd of the Great Judgment," which
bears comparison with Goronwy Owen's masterpiece. Evan
Evans (Ieuan Brydydd Hir) (1 731-1789) was famous both as
a poet and as a scholar and antiquarian. Edward Rhisiart
(1714-1777), the schoolmaster of Ystradmeurig, was a scholar
and a writer of pastorals in the manner of Theocritus. Most
of the other poets who flourished towards the end of this period
— Dafydd Ddu Eryri (1760-1822), Gwallter Mechain (1761-
1849), Robert ab Gwilym Ddu (1767-1850), Dafydd Ionawr
(1751-1827), Dewi Wyn o Eifion (1784-1841) — were brought
into prominence by the Eisteddfod, which began to increase
in influence during this period until it has become to-day the
national festival. They all wrote for the most part in cynghanedd,
and the work of nearly all of them is marked by correctness
rather than by poetical inspiration.
WELSH LITERATURE)
CELT
649
9. Prose after 1830. — In the preceding periods, we have seen
that Welsh prose, though abundant in quantity, had a very
narrow range. Few writers rose above theological controversy
or moral treatises, and the humaner side of literature was almost
entirely neglected. In this period, however, we find a prose
literature that, with the exception of scientific works, is as
wide in its range as that of England, and all departments are well
and competently represented, though by but few names. Dr
Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) struck a new note when he began
to contribute his literary and theological essays to the periodicals,
but, though many have equalled and even surpassed him as
theological essayists, few, if any, of his followers have attempted
the literary and critical essays on which his fame as writer must
mainly rest. Together with Gwilym Hiraethog (1802-1883),
the author of the inimitable Uythyrau Hen Ffarmwr, he may
be regarded as the pioneer of the new literature. Samuel
Roberts (1800-188 5), generally known as S.R., wrote numerous
tracts and books on politics and economics, and as a political
thinker he was in many respects far in advance of his English
contemporaries. It was in this period, too, that Wales had her
national novelist, Daniel Owen (1836-1895). He was a novelist
of the Dickens school, and delighted like his great master
" in writing mythology rather than fiction." He has created a
new literary atmosphere, in which the characters of Puritanical
and plebeian Wales move freely and without restraint. He can
never be eclipsed just as Sir Walter Scott cannot be eclipsed,
because the Wales which he describes is slowly passing away.
He has many worthy disciples, among whom Miss Winnie Parry
is easily first. Indeed, in her finer taste and greater firmness
of touch, she stands on a higher plane than even her great master.
The inspiring genius of the latter part of this period is Owen
M. Edwards (b. 1858), and, as a stylist, all writers of Welsh
prose since Ellis Wynn have to concede him the laurel. His
little books of travel and history and anecdote have created,
or rather, are creating a new school of writers, scrupulously
and almost pedantically careful and correct, an ideal which,
on its philological side is the outcome of the scientific study of
the language as inaugurated by Sir John Rh£s and Professor
Morris Jones. One of the earliest, if not the ablest writer of
this " new Welsh " was the independent and original Emrys
ap Iwan (d. 1906), whose Homiliau was published in 1907.
10. Poetry after 1820. — The origins of this period are really
placed in the last period. Its great characteristics are the
development of the lyric, and the influence of English and
continental ideas. Just as the cywydd was among the older
writers the favourite form of poetry, so the lyric becomes now
paramount, almost to the exclusion of other forms. The first
great name, after those already mentioned in the development of
this form of poetry, is that of Anne Griffiths (1776-1805). Her
poetry is exclusively composed of hymns, but to the English
mind, the word " hymn " is entirely inadequate to give any idea
of the passion, the mysticism and the rich symbolistic grace of
her poems. She gave to the Welsh lyric the depth and the rather
melancholy intensity which has always characterized it. Evan
Evans (Ieuan Glan Geirionydd) (1795-1855) was also a hymno-
logist, but he wrote many secular lyrics and awdlau — among the
former being the famous Morfa Rhuddlan. Ebenezer Thomas
(Eben Fardd) (1802-1863) was a famous Eisteddfodwr; his best
work is his awdlau, and no one will deny him the distinction of
being the master poet of the awdl in the 19th century. Gwilym
Cawrdaf (1 795-1 848), also a writer of awdlau, has the gift of
simple and direct expression, well exemplified in Hiraeth Cymro
am ei wlad. Daniel Ddu (1 792-1846) was a scholar who wrote
some touching lyrics and hymns. Gwilym Hiraethog (1802-
1883) attempted an epic, Emmanuel, with indifferent success.
His shorter works and some of his awdlau are of a much higher
order. Caledfryn (1801-1869) was a direct successor of Dewi
Wyn and the earlier writers of awdlau, but his DryUiad y Rothsay
Castle is superior to anything which his master wrote. Similar
in genius, though not on quite as high a plane, were Nicander
(1809-1874), Cynddelw (1812-1875), Gwalchmai (1803-1897) and
Tudno (1844-1895).
John Blackwell (Alun) (1 797-1840) was a lyricist of the first
order. With Ieuan Glan Geirionydd, he is the pioneer of the
secular lyric of the 19th century. Succeeding to this group of
lyricists, we have another later group, Ceiriog (1832-1887),
Talhaiarn(i8io-i869) and Mynyddog (1833-1877), who certainly
had the advantage over their predecessors in freshness, in
vigour and in human interest, but they lacked the scholastic
training of the earlier group, and so their work is often uneven,
and cannot therefore be fairly compared with that of the earlier
poets. Ceiriog, of course, is the greater name of the three, and is
to Wales what Robert Burns was to Scotland, sharing with him
his poetical faults and merits. He is called the national poet of
Wales, because he was the first to sing of the land and the nation
he knew, and he cast the glamour of his genius over the life of the
gwerin, the peasants of Wales.
Somewhat higher flights were essayed by Gwilym Maries
(1834-1879) and Islwyn (1832-1878). Their poetry is Words-
worthian and mystical, and well exemplifies the love of meta-
physics and speculation which is growing in Wales. Islwyn's
Y storm, though uneven, is full of powerful passages, and he was a
master of blank verse. Of the remaining poets of the period
living in 1908, the most distinguished was the Rev, Elvet Lewis in
the older generation, and Eifion Wyn in the younger — both
writers of lyrics. Other lyrical poets of the first class are Gwylf a
and Silyn Roberts. In the old metres, two poets stand out
prominent above all others — J. Morris Jones and T. Gwynn
Jones. The Awdl i Pamon of the former, and the Ymadawiad
Arthur of the latter, gave reason to believe that Welsh poetry
was only entering on its golden period.
Authorities.— General.— T. Stephens, Literature of the Kymry
(London 2 , 1876); L. C. Stern in Die KuUur d. Gegenwart, i. xi. 1 pp.
114-130; Gweirydd ap Rhys. Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 130&-
1650 (London, 1885) ; C. Ashton, Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymretg, 1651-
1850 (Liverpool, 1893); J* Loth, Les Mabinogion (2 vols., Paris,
1889) ; E. Anwyl, Prolegomena to Welsh Poetry (London, 1905), also on
the Mabinogi inZeitschr.f. celt. Phil. i. 277 ff. ; LB. John, The Matin*
0gt<m(London, 1901) ; T. Shankland, Diwygwyr Cymru, reprinted from
Seren Gomer (1899); W. J. Gruff ydd, Foreign Influences on Welsh
Literature in the XIV. and XV. Centuries, Guild of Welsh Graduates
(1908); Gwilym Lleyn, IXyfryddiaeth y Cymry (Llanidloes, 1867);
Robert Williams, Enwogion Cymru (Llandovery, 1852) ; Owen Jones,
Cymru (2 vols., London, 1875) ; D. W. Nash, History of the Battle
of Cattraeth (Tenby, 1861); Encyclopaedia Cambrensis (10 vols.,
•1889-1896); C. Ashton, Bywyd ac amserau yr Esgob Morgan
(Treherbert, 1801); J. Foulkes, /. Ceiriot Hughes, ei fywyd a % i
waith (Liverpool, 1887) ; J. M. Jones, Llenyddiaeth fy ngwlad (Holy-
well, 1803) ; H. Elvet Lewis, Sweet Singers of Wales (London, 1889) ;
H. W. Lloyd, Welsh Books Printed Abroad in the XVI. and XVII.
Centuries (London, 1881).
Anthologies, Selected Prose and Verse, &c. — W. F. Skene, The
Four Ancient Books of Wales (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868); W. Owen
(Pughe), Iolo Morganwg and Owen Jones (Myfyr), Myvyrian Archai-
ology of Wales (3 vols., London, 1801 ; * Denbigh, 1870, in 1 vol.) ;
Dr John Davies(o Fallwyd), Mores Poetarum Brttannicorum (Shrews-
bury, 1710; Swansea, 1814; reprinted London, 1864); Iolo
Morganwg, Iolo Manuscripts (Llandovery, 1848); E. Evans, Some
Specimens of the Poetry of the Antient Welsh bards translated into
English, &c. (London, 1764); Hugh Jones, Dewisol Ganiadau yr
Oes Hon (Shrewsbury, 1759; «Merthyr, 1827), Diddanwch Teuluaidd
(London, 1763); David Jones, Blodeugerdd Cymry (Shrewsbury*,
1779); Owen Jones, Ceinton Llenyddiaeth Gymreig (2 vols., London,
1876); W. Lewis Jones, Caniadau Cymru (Bangor *, 1908); W.
Jenkyn Thomas, Penillion Telyn (Carnarvon, 1894); Myrddin
Fardd, Cynfeirdd Lleyn (1905); Cyfres Lien Cymru, vols, i.-vi.
(Cardiff, 1900-1006); W. J. Gruffydd, Y Flodeugerdd New ydd
(Cardiff, 1908) ; O. M. Edwards, Beirdd y Berwyn (Conway, 1903).
Versification, &c, — Dafydd Morganwg, Yr Ysgol Farddol (Cardiff',
1887); Iolo Morganwg, Cyfrinach Beirdd Ynys Prydain (Merthyr,
1829 ; * Carnarvon, 1874) ; Simwnt Vychan and Dafydd Ddu Athraw,
Dosparth Edeyrn Davod Aur, ed. by J. Williams ab ithel (Llandovery,
1856) ; J. Morris Jones, " Welsh Versification," Zeilschr.f. celt. Phil.
iv. pp. 106-142.
Collected Works, Editions and Reprints, — I. Gwenogvryn Evans
and John Rhys, Y Llyvyr Coch Hergest (2 vols. Oxford, 1 887-1 890),
Pedeir Kainc y Mabinogi (Oxford, 1897); J. Gwenogvryn Evans,
The Black Book of Carmarthen (Oxford, 1907; also in facsimile,
Oxford, 1888), Llyvyr Job trans, by Dr Morgan, 1558 (reprinted 1888),
OU Synwyr pen [Salesbury] (Bangor, 1902) ; J. Morris Jones and
John Rhys, Llyvyr Agkyr Llandewivrevi (Oxford, 1894); Aneurin.
Owen, Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (2 vols., London, 1841),
Brut y Tywysogion (London, 1863); J. Williams ab Ithel, Gododin
with Notes and Translation (Llandovery, 1852); T. Stephens,
v. 21 a
650
CELT
[BRETON LITERATURE
Gododin with Notes and Translation, ed. by T. Powel (London, 1888) ;
R. Williams, Selections from the Hengwrt MSS. (2 vols., London,
1876-1892); T. Powel, Ystorya de Carolo Magno (London, 1883),
Psalmau Dafydd trans, by W. Morgan (facsimile, 1896) ; Owen Jones
(Myfyr) and W. Owen (Pughe), Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilytn
(London, 1789); Walter Davies and J. Jones, Poetical Works of
Lewis Glyn Cothi (1837); Prince Louis Bonaparte, Athrawaeth
Gristnogavl by Morys Clynoc (facsimile London, 1880); Walter
Davies, Caniadau Huw Morus (2 vols., 1823), Psalmau Dafydd gan
W. Middleton (Llanfair, 1827); J. Morris Jones, Gweledugaethai y
Bardd cwsc gan Elis Wynne (Bangor, 1898); R. Tones, The Poetical
Works of Goronwy Owen (2 vols., London, 1876); W. T. Gruffydd,
Cywyddau Goronwy Owen (Newport, 1906); T. E. Ellis, Gweithiau
Morgan Llwyd (Bangor, 1899) ; J. H. Davies, Yn y Llyvyr hum
(Bangor, 1902) ; S. J. Evans, Drych y Prif Oesoedd gan Th. Evans
(Bangor, 1902) ; W. P. Williams, Deffyniad Ffydd Eglwys Loegr gan
Morys Kyffin (Bangor, 1908); N. Cynhafal Jones, Gweithiau W.
Williams Pantycelyn (2 vols., 1 887-1 891) ; O. M. Edwards, Gweithiau
Islwyn (1897). (W. J. G.)
V. Breton Literature —Unlike the literature of Wales, the
literature of Brittany is destitute of originality, and we find
nothing to compare with the Mabinogion. Till the 19th century
all the monuments which have come down to us are copies of
French models, though the retention down to the 17th century of
that intricate system of versification found in Welsh and Cornish
may indicate that what was really Breton in spirit has not been
preserved (v. J. Loth, La MUrique galloise, ii. 177-203).
It is usual to divide the literature into three periods in con-
formity with the language in which the monuments are written —
Old, Middle, and Modern Breton. No connected monuments of
the first period (8th to nth centuries) have come down to us.
For our knowledge of the language of this period we must have
recourse to the manuscripts containing glosses and the names
occurring in ancient documents. The chief collections of glosses
are (1) the Oxford glosses on Eutychius; (2) the Luxemburg
glosses; (3) the Bern glosses on Virgil; (4) the glosses on
Amalarius (Corpus Christi, Cambridge); (5) five Collationes
Canonum, the chief manuscripts being at Paris and Orleans. All
these glosses have been published in one volume by J. Loth
( Vocabulaire Vieux- Breton, Paris, 1884) . From a linguistic point
of view the Breton names in the Latin lives of saints are very
important, particularly those of St Samson, St Paul, Aurelian,
St Winwaloe, St Ninnoc, St Gildas and St Brieuc. Of even
greater value are the names in the Charter of Redon, which was
written in the nth century, but dates largely from the 9th
(published by A. de Courson, 1865); we may also mention the
Charter of Landevennec (nth century). In the Middle Breton
period, which extends from the nth to the 17th centuries, we are
obliged, down to the 15th century, to rely on official documents
such as the Charter of Quimperle. French seems to have been
the language of the aristocracy and the medium of culture.
Hence the oldest connected texts are either translated or imitated
from French, and are full of French words. We might mention a
Book of Hours belonging to the 16th century, published by
Whitley Stokes, and three religious poems bound up with the
Grand My stir e de JSsus; further, the Life of St Catherine (1576) in
prose (published by Ernault, Revue celtique, viii. 76), translated
from the Golden Legend, the Mirror of Death, containing 3360
verses, which was composed in 15 19 and printed in 1576, the
Mirror of Confession, a translation from the French in prose
(1621), the Christian Doctrine, a translation in verse (1622),
a collection of carols (An Nouelou ancien, 1650, Rev. celt. vols,
x.-xiii.) and the Christian Meditations of J. Cadec, 1651 (Rev. Celt,
xx. 56). The earliest Breton printed work is the Catholicon of
Jean Lagadeuc, a Breton-Latin-French dictionary, dated 1464
but printed first in 1499 (reprinted by R. F. Le Men, Lorient,
1867). Modern Breton begins with the orthographical reforms
of the Jesuit, Julien Maunoir, whose grammar (Le SacrS College
de JSsus) and dictionary appeared in 1659. Throughout the
modern period we find numerous collections of religious poems
and manuals of devotion in prose and verse, which we cannot
here attempt to enumerate. But the bulk of Breton litera-
ture before the 19th century consists of mysteries and miracle
plays. This class of literature had a tremendous vogue in
Prittany, and the native stage was only killed about 1850.
It is stated, for instance, that no less than 15,000 copies
were sold of the Tragedy of the Four Sans of Aymon, first
published in 1815. It is impossible to give the titles of all the
dramas which have come down to us (about 1 20) . The manuscript
collection of the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris is described
in the Revue celtique, xi. 389-423 (many since published) and
Le Braz gives a useful list of other manuscripts in the biblio-
graphical appendix to his Thidtre celtique. A few of these plays
belong to the Middle Breton period. The Life of St Nonn, the
mother of St David, belongs to the end of the 15th century,
and follows the Latin life (published by Ernault in the Revue
celtique, viii. 230 ft*., 405 ff.). Le Grand Mystkre de J ism
(1513) follows the French play of Arnoul Gresban and Jean
Michel (published by H. de la Villemarqu6, Paris, 1865). A
French original is also followed in the MysUre de Sainte Barbe
(1st ed., 1557, 2nd ed., 1647, reprinted by Ernault, Nantes,
(1885). These mystery plays may be divided into four categories
according to the subjects with which they deal: (1) Old Testa-
ment subjects; (2) New Testament subjects; (3) lives of
saints; (4) romances of chivalry. There is occasionally a dash of
local colouring in these plays; but the subject matter is taken
from French sources or, in the case of the third category, from
Latin lives. Even when the life of a Breton saint, e.g. St
Gwennole, is dramatized, the treatment is the traditional one
accorded to all saints of whatever origin. Amongst the most
favourite subjects in addition to those already mentioned we may
note the following: Vie des quatrefils Aytnon, Ste Tryphine et le
rot Arthur, Huon de Bordeaux, Vie de Louis Eunius, Robert le
Diable. These mysteries commonly contain from 5000 to 0000
lines of either 1 2 or 8 syllables apiece. For the sake of complete-
ness we may add the names of three farces, described by Le
Braz: Ar Farvel goapaer (Le bouffon tnoqueur), Ian MelargS
(Mardi-gras), La Vie de Mardi-gras, de triste Mine, safemtnc, et de
ses enfants. The actors, who were always peasants, came to be
regarded with an unfavourable eye by the clergy, who finally
succeeded in killing the Breton stage.
We look in vain for any manifestation of originality in Breton
literature until we reach the 19th century. The consciousness
of nationality then awakened and found expression in verse.
The movement led by Le Gonidec (described above in the
section on Breton language) caused ardent patriots to endeavour
to create a national literature, more especially when the attention
of the whole world of letters was directed to Brittany after the
publication of the Barzas Breiz. The most prominent of these
pioneers were Auguste Brizeux, F. M. Luzel and Prosper Proux.
Brizeux (1803-1858), better known as a French poet, wrote a
collection of lyrics entitled Telen Arvor, or the Armorican Harp
(Lorient, 1844, reprinted Paris, 1003). Luzel's original com-
positions were published under the title of Bepred Breizad,
Toujour s Breton (Morlaix, 1865), and Prosper Proux is known as
the author of Canaouenno gr& gant eur C'hernewod (1838) and
Ar Bombard Kerne, or Tlte Hautboy of Cornouailles (Guingamp,
1866). Dottin also mentions Telenn Retnengol, by J. Lescour
(Brest, 1867); Telenn Gwengam, by the same writer (Brest, 1869),
a volume of Chansoniou by Y. M. Thomas (Lannion, 1870), and
another by C. Rannou. This was a very creditable beginning,
but the themes of these writers are apt to be somewhat conven-
tional and the constant recurrence of the same situation or the
same idea grows monotonous. An anthology of poems connected
with this movement appeared at Quimperl6 in 1862 under the
title of Bleuniou Breiz, Poisies anciennes et modernes de la Basse-
Bretagne (reprinted, Paris, 1005). Several of La Fontaine's
fables were published in a Breton dress by P. D. de Goesbriand
(Morlaix, 1836), and a collection of fables in verse which is
thought very highly of by cultivated Bretons appeared under the
title of Marvaillou Grac'h koz by G. Milin (Brest, 1867). A book
of Georgics in the dialect of Vannes appearedjm^e^^e, title of
Levral labourer (ThfF«j^^;\S^^ of the Scriptures,
33& ^ -vSed ty^roude and Milin, and published at St
Brieuc in 1868. But the real literature of Brittany consists of
legends, folk-tales and ballads. The first to tap this source was
CORNISH LITERATURE]
CELT
651
Hersart de la Villemarqu6 (1815-1895), who issued in 1839 his
famous collection of ballads entitled Barzas Breiz, but which
cannot be regarded as an anthology of Breton popular poetry.
The publication of this work gave rise to a controversy which
is almost as famous as that caused by Macpherson's forgeries.
De la Villemarqu6 was endowed with considerable poetic gifts,
and, coming as he did at a time when folk-poetry was the fashion,
he determined to collect the popular literature of his own country.
However, he was not content to publish the poems as he found
them circulating in Brittany. With the aid of several colla-
borators he transformed his material, eliminating anything that
was crude and gross. The poems included in his collection may
be divided into three classes: (1) Poems rearranged by himself
or others. These consist mainly of love-songs and ballads.
(2) Modern poems transferred to medieval times. (3) Spurious
poems dealing with such personages as Nominoe and Merlin.
The compiler of the Barzas Breiz unfortunately laboured under
the delusion that these Breton folk-songs were in the first
instance the work of medieval bards corresponding to Taliessin
and Llywarch Hen in Wales, and that it was possible to make
them appear in their primitive dress. The very title of the
collection indicates the artificial nature of the contents. For
Barzas (in the 2nd edition of 1867 spelt Barzaz) is not a Breton
word at all but is formed on Welsh barddas (bardic poems).
For the whole controversy the reader may consult H. Gaidoz and
P. S6billot, " Bibliographic des traditions et de la litterature
populaire de la Bretagne " (Revue celtique, v. 277 ff., and
G. Dottin in the Revue de synthase historique, viii. 95 ff.). In
Brittany it is usual to divide the popular poetry into gwerziou
and soniou. The gwerziou (complaintes) deal with local history,
folk-lore, religious legends and superstitions, and are in general
much more original than the other class. The soniou consist of
love-songs, satires, carols and marriage-lays, as well as others
dealing with professional occupations, and seem in many cases
to show traces of French influence. The first scholar who
published the genuine ballad literature of Brittany was F. M.
Luzel, who issued two volumes under the title of Gwerziou
Breiz-Izel, chants populaires de la Basse- Bretagne (Lorient and
Paris, 1868, 1874). This collection contains several of the
originals of poems in the Barzas Breiz. Luzel is also the author
of a collection of Breton tales in French translation, Conies
bretons recueillis el Iraduits par F. M. Luzel (Quimperle\ 1870).
The same author published Les Lcgendes chrUiennes de la Basse-
Bretagne (Paris, 1881) and VcUttes bretonnes, mceurs, chants,
conies et rScils populaires des Bretons- Armor icains (Morlaix, 1879).
Another indefatigable collector of Breton legends is Anatole le
Braz, who was commissioned by the minister of public instruction
to investigate the stories current with reference to An Ankou
(death). Le Braz's results are to be found in his La LSgende de
la mort (1902 2 ). A well-known collection of stories with a
French translation was issued by the lexicographer Troude under
the title of Ar marvailler brezounek (Brest, 1870), and one of the
most popular books at the present day is Pipi Gonlo, by A. le Moal
(St Brieuc, vol. i. 1902, vol. ii. 1908). A recent collection of
stories with a religious tendency is C. M. le Prat's Marvailhou ar
Vrctoned (Brest, 1907). The modern movement, which started
in the 'nineties of last century, has already produced numerous
dramas and volumes of lyrics, and it may now be affirmed in all
seriousness that Brittany is producing something really national.
The scope of the writers of the earlier movement was very
limited and little originality was displayed in their productions.
The literary output of the last ten years in Brittany may truly
be termed prodigious, and much of it reaches quite a high level.
The dramas which are being produced are mainly propagandist
in the interests either of the Union R&gionalisle Bretonne or of
temperance reform. These are for the most part very crude,
but they have been received with great enthusiasm, and this has
led to the revival of the old mysteries, though in a somewhat
modified form. The foremost living writer is Fanch Jaffrennou,
who writes under the name of " Taldir " (Brow of Steel) and is the
author of two very striking volumes of lyrics — An Hirvoudou
or Sighs (St Brieuc, 1899) and An Delen Dir or The Harp of
Steel (St Brieuc, 1900). The latter is the most interesting out-
come of the modern movement. Among other poets we may
mention N. Quellien (Annalk, Paris, 1880; Breiz, Potsies
bre tonnes j Paris, 1898), Erwan Berthou (Dre an Delen hag ar
c'horn-boud, Par la harpe et par le cor de guerre, St Brieuc, 1904),
C. M. le Prat, who writes under the name of Klaoda (Mouez
Relet Plougastel, " The Voice of the Cliffs of Plougastel," St
Brieuc, 1905), J. Cuillandre (Mouez an Aochou, La Voix des
greves, Rennes, 1903), abb6 Lec'hvien, Gwerziou ha soniou (St
Brieuc, 1000), and, further, two anonymous volumes of verse,
An Tremener, Gwerziou ha soniou (Brest, 1900), and Kanaou-
ennou Kerne (Brest, 1900) . Two older collections are mentioned
by Dottin — J. Cadiou, En Breiz-Izel (Morlaix, 1885) and Ivona
(Morlaix, 1886). An anthology of latter-day lyrics appeared at
Rennes in 1902 under the title of Bleuniou Breiz-Izel, Dibab
Barzoniezou. Of the numerous plays those most deserving of
mention from a literary point of view are perhaps Ar Vezventi
by T. le Garrec; the comedy Alanik at Louarn by J. M. Perrot
(Brest, 1005) based on the farce of Pathelin; Tanguy Malmanche,
Le Conte de Vdme qui a faim, in which Breton superstitions
connected with the spirits of the dead are introduced with
strange effect; J. le Bayon, En Eutru Keridet (Vannes, 1902),
which deals with the life and death of a blaspheming Breton
nobleman of the early part of the 17th century; F. Jaffrennou,
Pontkallek (Brest, 1903), which tells of the betrayal of a noble
Breton who was put to death by the French in 1720; and the
farce Eur Pesk-Ebrel by L. Rennadis (Morlaix, 1900).
Authorities. — A history of Breton literature does not exist,
though we possess ample materials for such a work. The following
works and articles may be consulted: G. Dottin, Revue de synthase
historique, viii, 93-104, contains a full bibliography; J. Loth,
Chrestomathie bretonne (Paris, 1890) ; L. C. Stern in Vie Kidtur d.
Gegenwart, i. xi. 1, pp. 132-137; A. le Braz, Le ThSdtre celtiqu*
(Paris, 1904) ; H. Gaidoz and P. Sebillot, " Bibliographie des
traditions et de la literature populaire de la Bretagne (Revue
celtiaue, v. 277-338; supplement by P. Sebillot, Revue de Bretagne,
de Vendie, et dAnjou^ 1894); F. M. Luzel, " Formules initiates et
finales des conteurs en Basse- Bretagne " (Revue cellique, iii. 336 ff.);
L. F. Sauve, " Formulettes et traditions diverses de la Basse*
Bretagne " (Revue celtique, v. 157 ff.) ; Charmes, " Oraisons et con-
jurations magiques," ib vi. 66 ft.; " Devinettes bretonnes," ib. iv
60 ff.; " Proverbes et dictons de la Basse- Bretagne," ib, I- — ill-
For Breton proverbs see also A. Brizeux, " Furnez Breiz," in (Euvres
de A. Brizeux (Paris, 1903); J. Loth, " Chansons en bas-vannetais "
(Revue celtique, vii. 171 ff.); N. Quellien, Chansons et danses des
Bretons (Paris, 1889) ; E. Ernault, " Chansons populaires " (Revue
celtique, xxiii. 121 ff.) ; P. le Roux, " Une Chanson bretonne du xviii*
siecle " (Revue celtique, xix. 1). Since 1901 a complete bibliography of
modern works pertaining to Breton language and literature appears
from time to time in the Annates de Bretagne. (E. C. Q.)
VT. Cornish Literature. — The literature of Cornwall is
more destitute of originality and more limited in scope than that
of Brittany, and it is remarkable that the medieval drama should
occupy the most prominent place in both. The earliest Cornish
we know consists of proper names and a vocabulary. About 200
Cornish names occur among the manumissions of serfs in the
Bodmin Gospels (10th century). They were printed by
Whitley Stokes in the Revue celtique, i. 232. Next comes the
Cotton ian Vocabulary, which seems to follow a similar Anglo-
Saxon collection and is contained in a 12th-century MS. at the
British Museum. It consists of seven pages and the words are
classified under various headings, such as heaven and earth,
different parts of the human body, birds, beasts, fishes, trees,
herbs, ecclesiastical and liturgical terms. At the end we find a
number of adjectives. This vocabulary was printed by Zeuss 2 ,
p. 1065, and again in alphabetical order by Norris in the Ordinalia.
The language of this document is termed Old Cornish, although
the forms it contains correspond to those of Mid. Welsh and
Mid. Breton.
The first piece of connected Cornish which we know consists of
a poem, or portion of a play (?), of forty-one lines discovered by
Jenner in the British Museum. This fragment was probably
written about 1400 and deals with the subject of marriage
(edited by W. Stokes in the Revue cellique, iv. 258). A little
later is the Poem of Mount Calvary or the Passion, of which
five MSS. are in existence. The poem has been twice printed,
652
CELT
first by Davies Gilbert with English translation by John Keigwin
(1826), and again by W. Stokes for the London Philological
Society in 1862. It consists of 259 stanzas of eight lines of
seven syllables apiece, and contains a versified narrative of the
events of the Passion made up from the Gospels and apocryphal
sources, notably the Gospel of Nicodemus. But the bulk of
Cornish literature is made up of plays, and in this connexion it
may be noted that there still exist in the west of Cornwall the
remains of a number of open-air amphitheatres, locally called
plan an guari, where the plays seem to have been acted. The
earliest representatives of this kind of literature in Cornwall
form a trilogy going under the name of Ordinalia, of which
three MSS. are known, one a 15th-century Oxford MS. from
which the two others are copied. The Ordinalia were published
by Edwin Norris under the title of The Ancient Cornish Drama
(Oxford, 1859). The first play is called Origo Mundi and deals
with events from the Old Testament down to the building of
Solomon's temple. The second play, the Passio Domini, goes
on without interruption into the third, the Resurrectio Domini,
which embraces the Harrowing of Hell, the Resurrection and
Ascension, the legend of St Veronica and Tiberius, and the
death of Pilate. Here again the pseudo-Gospel of Nicodemus
is drawn upon, and interwoven with the Scriptural narrative
we find the Legend of the Cross. As the title Ordinalia indicates,
these plays are of learned origin and are imitated from English
sources. The popular name for these dramas, quari-mirkle,
is a literal translation of the English term miracle play, and
Norris shows that whole passages were translated word for word.
Many of the events are represented as having taken place in
well-known Cornish localities, but apart from this scarcely any
traces of originality can be discovered. The same remark holds
good in the case of another play, Beunans Meriasek or the Life
of St Meriasek. This deals in an incoherent manner with the
life and death of Meriasek (in Breton Meriadek), the son of a
duke of Brittany, and interwoven with this theme is the legend
of St Silvester and the emperor Constantine, quite regardless
of the circumstance that St Silvester lived in the 4th and St
Meriasek in the 7 th century. The MS. of this play was written
by " Dominus Hadton " in the year 1504, and is preserved in the
Peniarth library. The language is more recent than that of the
Ordinalia, and there is a certain admixture of English. The
Life of St Meriasek falls into two parts, and at the end of each the
spectators are invited to carouse. St Meriasek was in earlier
times the patron saint of Camborne, where his fountain is still
to be seen and pilgrims to it were known by the name of Merra-
sickers. In this play, consequently, we might expect to find
something really Cornish. But le Braz has shown that the
author of this motley drama was content to draw his materials
from Latin and English lives of saints. The story of Meriasek
himself was taken from a Breton source and closely resembles
the narrative of the 17th-century Breton hagiographer, Albert
le Grand. The last play we have to mention is Gwreans an Bys
(The Creation of the World), of which five complete copies are
known. Two of these are in the Bodleian and one in the British
Museum, which also possesses a further fragment. The oldest
text was revised by William Jordan of Helston in 16x1, but
there are indications that parts of it at any rate are older than
the Reformation. This play bears a great resemblance to the
first part of the Origo Mundi, and may have been imitated from
it. It was printed first by Davies Gilbert in 1827 with a transla-
tion by John Keigwin, and again by W. Stokes in the Transactions
of the London Philological Society for 1864. The language shows
considerable signs of decay, and Lucifer and his angels are often
made to speak English. The only other original compositions
of any length written in Cornish are Nebbaz Gerriau dro tho
Carnoack (A Few Words about Cornish), by John Boson (printed
in the Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, 1879), and the
Story of John of Chy-an-Hur (Ram's House), a folk-tale which
appears in Ireland and elsewhere. The latter was printed in
Lhuyd's Grammar and in Pryce's Archaeologia. Andrew Borde's
Booke of the Introduction of Knowledge (1542) contains some
Cornish conversations (see Archvof. celt. Lexikographie, vol. i.),
and in Carew's Survey of Cornwall a number of words and phrases
are to be found. Apart from the Cornish preface to Lhuyd's
Grammar, the other remains of the language consist of a few
songs, verses, proverbs, epigrams, epitaphs, maxims, letters,
conversations, mottoes and translations of chapters and passages
of Scripture, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Commandments,
King Charles's Letter, &c. These fragments are to be found
(1) in the Gwavas MS. in the British Museum, a collection
ranging in date from 1709 to 1736; (2) in the Borlase MS.
(1750); (3) in Pryce's Archaeologia Cornu-Britannica (1790);
(4) in D. Gilbert's editions of the Poem of the Passion (1826)
and the Creation of the World (1827). They are enumerated,
classified and described by Jenner in his Handbook.
Authorities. — H. Jenner, Handbook of the Cornish Language
(London, 1904); A. le Braz, Le Thidtre celtique (Paris, 1005); £.
Norris, The Ancient Cornish Drama (2 vols., Oxford, 1859); T C.
Peter, The Old Cornish Drama (London, 1906); L. C. Stern, Die
Kulturd. Gegenwart, i. xi. 1, pp. 131-132. (E. C. Q.)
CELT, a word in common use among British and French
archaeologists to describe the hatchets, adzes or chisels of chipped
or shaped stone used by primitive man. The word is variously
derived from the Welsh cellt, a flintstone (that being the material
of which the weapons are chiefly made, though celts of basalt
felstone and jade are found); from being supposed to be the
implement peculiar to the Celtic peoples; or from a Low Latin
word celtis, a chisel. The last derivation is more probably
correct. The word has come to be somewhat loosely applied to
metal as well as stone axe-heads. The general form of stone celts
is that of blades approaching an oval in section, with sides more
or less straight and one end broader and sharper than the other.
In length they vary from about 2 to as much as 16 in. The
largest and finest specimens are found in Denmark: one in an
English collection being of beautiful white flint 13 in. long, i§ in.
thick and 3 J in. broad. Those found in Denmark are sometimes
polished, but usually are left rough. Those found in north-
western Europe are ground to a more or less smooth surface.
That some were held in the hand and others fixed in wooden
handles is clear from the presence of peculiar polished spaces
produced by the friction of the wood. In the later stone adzes
holes are sometimes found pierced to receive the handles.
The bronze celts vary in size from an inch to a foot in. length.
The earlier specimens are much like the stone ones in shape and
design, but the later manufactures show a marked improvement,
the metal being usually pierced to receive the handles. It is
noteworthy that the celtmakers never cast their axes with a
transverse hole through which the handle might pass. Bronze
celts are usually plain, but some are ornamented with ridges,
dots or lines. That they were made in the countries where they
are found is proved by the presence of moulds.
A point worthy of mention is the position which stone celts
hold in the folk-lore and superstitious beliefs of many lands.
In the West of England the country folks believe the weapons
fell originally from the sky as " thunderbolts," and that the water
in which they are boiled is a specific for rheumatism. In the
North and Scotland they are preservatives against cattle diseases.
In Brittany a stone celt is thrown into a well to purify the water.
In Sweden they are regarded as a protection against lightning.
In Norway the belief is that, if they are genuine thunderbolts, a
thread tied round them when placed on hot coals will not burn
but will become moist. In Germany, Spain, Italy, the same
beliefs prevail. In Japan the stones are accounted of medicinal
value, while in Burma and Assam they are infallible specifics for
ophthalmia. In Africa they are the weapons of the Thunder-
God. In India and among the Greeks the hatchet appears to
have had a sacred importance, derived, doubtless, from the
universal superstitious awe with which these weapons of pre-
historic man were regarded.
~ See Sir J. Evans's Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain;
Lord Avebury's Prehistoric Times (1865-1900) and Origin of Civiliza-
tion (1870); E. B. Tylor's Anthropology, and ^*^%^tin 'd/'fn
For the history of polished -tone U£iB«fe in the BuUettn tte la
Dr Marcel Bandoufn •* , jP £&"°A^ Ma y 1905.
SocttU d 1 Anthropology " r
CELTES— CEMENT
653
CELTES, KONRAD (1459-1508), German humanist and Latin
poet, the son of a vintner named Pickel (of which Celtes is the
Greek translation), was born at Wipfeld near Schweinfurt. He
early ran away from home to avoid being set to his father's
trade, and at Heidelberg was lucky enough to find a generous
patron in Johann von Dalberg and a teacher in Agricola. After
the death of the latter (1485) Celtes led the wandering life of
a scholar of the Renaissance, visiting most of the countries of
the continent, teaching in various universities, and everywhere
establishing learned societies on the model of the academy of
Pomponius Laetus at Rome. Among these was the Sodalitas
litteraria Rhenana or Celtica at Mainz (1491)- ^ H86 he pub-
lished his first book, Ars versificandi et carminum, which created
an immense sensation and gained him the honour of being
crowned as the first poet laureate of Germany, the ceremony
being performed by the emperor Frederick III. at the diet of
Nuremberg in 1487. In 1497 he was appointed by the emperor
Maximilian I. professor of poetry and rhetoric at Vienna, and in
1502 was made head of the new Collegium Poetarum et Mathe-
maticorum, with the right of conferring the laureateship. He
did much to introduce system into the methods of teaching, to
purify the Latin of learned intercourse, and to further the study
of the classics, especially the Greek. But he was more than a
mere classicist of the Renaissance. He was keenly interested in
history and topography, especially in that of his native country.
It was he who first unearthed (in the convent of St Emmeran at
Regensburg) the remarkable Latin poems of the nun Hrosvitha
of Gandersheim, of which he published an edition (Nuremberg,
1 501), the historical poem Ligurinus sive de rebus gestis Frederici
primi imperatoris libri x. (Augsburg, 1507), and the celebrated
map of the Roman empire known as the Tabula Peutingeriana
(after Konrad Peutinger, to whom he left it). He projected a
great work on Germany; but of this only the Germania generalis
and an historical work in prose, De origine, situ, moribus et
institutes Nurimbergae libellus, saw the light. As a writer of
Latin verse Celtes far surpassed any of his predecessors. He
composed odes, elegies, epigrams, dramatic pieces and an un-
finished epic, the Theodoriceis. His epigrams, edited by Hart-
felder, were published at Berlin in 1881. His editions of the
classics are now, of course, out of date. He died at Vienna on
the 4th of February 1508.
For a full list of Celtes's works see Engelbert Klupfel, De vita et
scriptis Conradi Celtis (2 vols., Freiburg, 1827); also Johann Asch-
bacn, Die fruheren Wanderjahre des Conrad Celtes (Vienna, 1869) ;
Hartmann, Konrad Celtes in NUmberg (Nuremberg, 1889).
CELTIBERIA, a term used by Greek and Roman writers to
denote, sometimes the whole north-east of Spain, and sometimes
the north-east part of the central plateau of the peninsula.
The latter was probably the correct use. The Celtiberi, in this
narrower sense, were not so much one tribe as a group of cantons —
Arevaci, Pelendones, Berones and four or five others. They were
the most warlike people in Spain, and for a long time offered a
stubborn resistance to the Romans. Originally Carthaginian
mercenaries, they were induced to serve the Romans in a similar
capacity, and Livy (xxiv. 49) distinctly states that they were the
first mercenaries in the Roman army. They did not, however,
keep faith, and several campaigns were undertaken against them.
In 179 B.C. the whole country was subdued by T. Sempronius
Gracchus, who by his generous treatment of the vanquished
gained their esteem and affection. In 153 they again revolted,
and were not finally overcome until the capture of Numantia
(133). The twenty years' war waged round this city, and its
siege and destruction by Scipio the Younger (133 B.C.) form only
the most famous episode in the long struggle, which has left its
mark in entrenchments near Numantia excavated in 1 906-1907
by German archaeologists. After the fall of Numantia, and still
more after the death of Sertorius (72 B.C.), the Celtiberians
became gradually romanized, and town life grew up among their
valleys; Clunia, for instance, became a Roman municipality,
and ruins of its walls, gates and theatre testify to its civilization;
while Bilbilis (Bambola), another municipality, was the birth-
place of the eminently Roman poet Martial. The Celtiberians
may have been so called because they were thought to be the
descendants of Celtic immigrants from Gaul into Iberia (Spain),
or because they were regarded (cf . Lucan iv. 9) as a mixed race
of Celts and Spaniards (Iberians) ; in either case the name repre-
sents a geographer's theory rather than an ascertained fact.
That a strong Celtic element existed in Spain is proved both by
numerous traditions and by the more trustworthy evidence of
place-names. The Celtic place-names of Spain, however, are
not confined to Celtiberia or even to the north and east; they
occur even in the south and west.
A long description of the manners and customs of the Celtiberi
is given by Diodorus Siculus (v. 33, 34). Their country was rough
and unfruitful as a whole (barley, however, was cultivated), being
chiefly used for the pasture of sheep. Its inhabitants either led a
nomadic life or occupied small villages; large towns were few.
Their infantry and cavalry were both excellent. In battle, they
adopted the wedge-shaped formation of the column. They carried
double-edged swords and short daggers for use hand to hand, the
steel of which was hardened by being buried underground; their
defensive armour was a light Gallic shield or a round wicker buckler,
and greaves of felt round their legs. They wore brazen helmets
with purple crests, and rough-haired black cloaks, in which they slept
on the bare ground. Like the Cantabri, they washed themselves with
urine instead of water. They were said to offer sacrifice to a namelett
god (Strabo iii. p. 164) at the time of the full moon when all the
household danced together before the doors of the houses. Although
cruel to their enemies, they were hospitable to strangers. They ate
meat of all kinds, and drank a kind of mead. E. Hubner's article
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, iii. {1886-1893), collects all
the ancient references, which are almost all brief. Strata's notice
(bk. iii.), based perhaps on Poseidonius, is fullest. (F. J. H.)
CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a
shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut), apparently
first used of a mixture of broken stone, tiles, &c, with some
binding material, and hence of any material capable of adhering
to, and uniting into a coherent mass, fragments of a substance
not in itself adhesive. The term is often applied to adhesive
mixtures employed to unite objects or parts of objects (see below),
but in engineering, when used without qualification, it means
Portland cement, its modifications and congeners; these are all
hydraulic cements, i.e. when set they resist the action of water, and
can, under favourable conditions, be allowed to set under water.
Hydraulic Cements. — It was well known to builders in the
earliest historic times that certain limes would, when set, resist
the action of water, i.e. were hydraulic; it was also known that
this property could be conferred on ordinary lime by admixture
of silicious materials such as pozzuolana or tufa. We have here
the two classes into which hydraulic cements are divided.
When pure chalk or limestone is " burned," i.e. heated in a
kiln until its carbonic acid has been driven off, it yields pure lime.
This slakes violently with water, giving slaked lime,
which can be made into a smooth paste with water j an l^ 0m
and mixed with sand to form common mortar. The cement
setting of the mortar is due to the drying of the lime
(a purely physical phenomenon, no chemical action occurring
between the lime and the sand). The function of the sand is
simply that of a diluent to prevent undue shrinkage and cracking
in drying. Subsequent hardening of the mortar is caused by
the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from the air by the lime,
a skin of carbonate of lime being formed; but the action is
superficial. Mortar made from pure or " fat " lime cannot with-
stand the action of water, and is only used for work done above
water-level. If, however, such " fat " lime is mixed in the
presence of water, not with sand but with silica in an active
form, i.e. amorphous and (generally) hydrated, or with a silicate
containing silica in an active condition, it will unite with the
silica and form a silicate of lime capable of resisting the action
of water. The mixture of the lime and active silica or silicate is a
pozzuolanic cement. The simplest of all pozzuolanic cements
would be a mixture of pure lime and hydrated silica, but though
the latter is prepared artificially for various purposes, it is too
expensive to be used as a cement material. A similar obstacle
lies in the way of using a certain native form of active silica,
viz. kieselguhr, for it is too valuable as an absorbent of nitro-
glycerine, for the manufacture of dynamite, to be available fot
making pozzuolanic cement. There are, however, many silicious
654
CEMENT
substances occurring abundantly in nature which can thus be
used. They are mostly of volcanic origin, and include pumice,
tufa, santorin earth, trass and pozzuolana itself. The following
analyses show their general composition: —
Neapolitan
Pozzuo-
lana
(per cent).
Roman
Pozzuo-
lana
(percent).
Trass
(per cent).
Soluble silica (SiOi) .
Insoluble silicious residue
Alumina (Al 2 Oj)
Ferric oxide (Fe»Oa)
Lime (CaO) .
Magnesia (MgO) .
Sulphuric anhydride (SO»)
Combined water (H 2 0) .
Carbonic anhydride (CO2)
Moisture
Alkalis and loss
27-80
35-38
( 1980
5-68
°'35
Trace
| 4-27
672
3264
25-94
22-74 1
4-06
Trace
8-92 |
433
19-32
5040
1386
3-io
0-13
7-57
5*04
0-58
IOO-OO
IOO-OO
IOO-OO
An artificial product which serves perfectly as a pozzuolana is
granulated blast-furnace slag. The slag, which must contain a
high percentage of lime, is granulated by being run while fused
into abundance of water. This granulated slag differs from the
same slag allowed to cool slowly, in that a portion of the energy
which it possesses while fused is retained after it has solidified.
It bears to ordinary slowly-cooled slag a similar relation to that
borne by plastic sulphur to ordinary crystalline sulphur. This
potential energy becomes kinetic when the slag is brought into
contact with lime in the presence of water, and causes the forma-
tion of a true hydraulic silicate of lime. The following analysis
shows the composition of a typical slag: —
Insoluble residue
Silica (SiOj)
Alumina (AlsOs) .
Manganous oxide (MnO)
Lime (CaO)
Magnesia (MgO)
Soda (Na 2 0)
Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)
Sulphur (S).
Deduct oxygen equivalent to sulphur
Per cent.
1 -04
3I-50
18-56
044
42-22
3'i8
0-70
o-45
2-21
I00-30
I-IO
99-20
Granulated slag of this character is ground with slaked lime
until both materials are in a state of fine division and intimately
mixed. The usual proportions arc three of slag to one of slaked
lime by weight. The product termed slag cement sets slowly,
but ultimately attains a strength scarcely inferior to that of
Portland cement. Although it is cheap and suitable for many
purposes, its use is not large and tends to decrease. Pozzuolanic
cements are little used in England. Generally speaking, they
are only of local importance, their cheapness depending largely
on the nearness and abundance of some suitable volcanic deposit
of the trass or tufa class. They are not usually manufactured
by the careful grinding together of the pozzuolana and the lime,
but are mixed roughly, a great excess of pozzuolana being
Portland
employed. This excess does no harm, for that part which fails
to unite with the lime serves as a diluent, much as does sand in
mortar. In fact, ordinary pozzuolanic cement made on the spot
where it is to be used may be regarded as a better kind of common
mortar having hydraulic qualities. Good hydraulic mortars may
be made from lime mixed with furnace ashes or burnt clay as the
pozzuolanic constituent.
Cements of the Portland type differ in kind from those of the
pozzuolanic class; they are not mechanical mixtures of lime and
active silica ready to unite under suitable conditions,
but consist of definite chemical compounds of lime and
silica and lime and alumina, which, when mixed with
water, combine therewith, forming crystalline substances of great
mechanical strength, and capable of adhering firmly to clean inert
material, such as stone and sand. They are made by heating to a
high temperature an intimate mixture of a calcareous substance
and an argillaceous substance. The commonest of such substances
in England are chalk and clay, but where local conditions demand
it, limestone, marl, shale, slag or any similar material may be
used, provided that the correct proportions of lime, silica and
alumina are maintained. The earliest forms of cements of the
Portland class were the hydraulic limes. These are still largely
used, and are prepared by burning limestones containing clayey
matter. Some of these naturally possess a composition differing
but little from that of the mixture of raw materials artifici-
ally prepared for the manufacture of Portland cement itself.
Although hydraulic limes have been in use from the most ancient
times, their true nature and the reason of their resistance to
water have only become known since 1791. Next in antiquity
to hydraulic lime is Roman cement, prepared by heating an
indurated marl occurring naturally in nodules. Its name must
not be taken to imply that it was used by the ancients; in point of
fact the manufacture of this substance dates back only to 1796.
With the growth of engineering in the early part of the 19th
century arose a great demand for hydraulic cement. The supply
of materials containing naturally suitable proportions of calcium
carbonate and clay being limited, attempts were made to produce
artificial mixtures which would serve a similar end. Among those
who experimented in this direction was Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds,
who added clay to finely ground limestone, calcined the mixture,
and ground die product, which he called Portland cement.
The only connexion between Portland cement and the place
Portland is that the cement when set somewhat resembles
Portland stone in colour. True, it is possible to manufacture
Portland cement from Portland stone (after adding a suitable
quantity of clay), but this is merely because Portland stone is
substantially carbonate of lime; any other limestone would serve
equally well. Although Portland cement is later in date than
either Roman cement or hydraulic lime, yet on account of its
greater industrial importance, and of the fact that, being an
artificial product, it is of approximately uniform composition
and properties, it may conveniently be treated of first. The
greater part of the Portland cement made in England is manu-
factured on the Thames and Medway. The materials are chalk
and Medway mud; in a few works the latter is replaced by gault.
The composition of typical samples of chalk and clay is shown in
the following analyses : —
Chalk.
Clay.
Silica (SiO«) ....
Alumina + ferric oxide (AI2O3 +
Fe,0 3 )
Lime (CaO) ....
Magnesia (MgO)
Carbonic anhydride (C0»)
Per cent.
0-92
0-24
55-00
0-36
43-40
9992
Insoluble silicious matter
Silica (Si0 2 )
Alumina (AUO») .
Ferric oxide (FejOj)
Lime (CaO)
Magnesia (MgO) .
Soda (Na,0)
Potash (K s O)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Combined water, organic
matter, and loss
Per cent.
26-67
31-24
1600
8-66
0-25
1-91
I-OO
o-45
1-86
1136
ioo-oo
Consisting of
Quartz (Si0 2 )
Silica (SiO») . .
Alumina (AljOs) •
Magnesia (MgO)
Soda (Na,0) . .
19-33
5*19
1-47
003
065
26-67
Felspar
7-34%
CEMENT
655
oportion of about 3 :i by weight
approximately 75% of calcium
ing clay. The mixing may be
These materials are mixed in the proportion
so that the dried mixture contains approxinr
M carbonate, the balance being clay. The mixing may
mtxtB *» effected in several ways. The method once exclusivi ly
used consists in mixing the raw materials with a large quantity of
water in a wash mill, a machine having radial horizontal arms driven
from a central vertical spindle and carrying harrows which stir up
and intermix any soft material placed in the pit in which the
apparatus revolves. The raw materials in the correct proportion
are fed into this mill together with a large quantity of water. The
thin watery " slip " or slurry flows into large settling tanks (" backs ")
where the solids in suspension are deposited; the water is drawn off,
leaving behind an intimate mixture of chalk and clay in the form
of a wet paste. This is dug out, and after being dried on floors heated
by flues is ready for burning. This process is now almost obsolete.
According to present practice the raw materials are mixed in a wash
mill with so much water that the resulting slurry contains 40 to
50 % of water. The slurry, which is wet enough to flow, is ground
between millstones so as to complete the process of comminution
begun in the wash mill. Thorough grinding and mixing are of the
utmost importance, as otherwise the cement ultimately produced
will be unsound and of inferior quality. The drying of the slurry is
generally effected by the waste neat of the kilns, so that while one
charge is burning another is drying ready for the next loading of the
kilns. The kilns commonly employed are " chamber kilns," circular
Landim* structures not unlike an ordinary running lime kiln, but
theiJLa having the top closed and connected at the side with a
«■»• w ide ff ue j n w hich the slurry is exposed to the hot products
of combustion from the kiln. The farther ends of the flues of several
such kilns are connected with a chimney shaft. The slurry, in
-drying on the floor of the flue, forms a fairly tough cake which cracks
spontaneously in the process of drying into rough blocks suitable
for loading into the kiln. At the bottom of the kiln is a grate of
iron bars, and on this wood and coke are piled to start the fire. A
layer of dried slurry is loaded on this, then a layer of coke, then a
layer of slurry, and so on until the kiln is filled with coke and slurry
evenly distributed. Fresh slurry is run on to the drying floors, and
the kiln is started. The construction of an ordinary chamber kiln
may be gathered from the accompanying diagram (fig. 1). The
Chimney
Plan
Kiln
Fig. 1.
operation of burning is a slow one. An ordinary kiln, which will
contain about 50 tons of slurry and 12 tons of coke, will take two
days to get fairly alight, and will be another two or three days in
burning out. Therefore, allowing adequate time for loading and
unloading, each kiln will require about one week for a complete run.
The output will be about 30 tons of " clinker " ready to be ground
into cement. The grinding of the hard rock-like masses of clinker
is effected between millstones, or in modern plants in ball-mills,
tube-mills and edge-runners. It is an important part of the manu-
facture, because the finished cement should be as fine and " floury "
as possible. The foregoing description represents the procedure in
use in many English factories. There are various modifications in
practice according to local conditions: a few of these may be
described. In all cases, however, the main operations are the same,
viz. intimately mixing the raw materials, drying the mixture, if
necessary, and burning it at a clinkering temperature (about 1500J C.
= 2732° F.). Thus when hard limestone is the form of calcium
carbonate locally available, it is ground dry and mixed with the
correct proportion of clay also dried and ground. The mixture is
slightly damped, moulded into rough bricks, dried and burned. A
possible alternative is to burn the limestone first and mix the result-
ing lime with clay, the mixture being burned as before. By this
method grinding the hard limestone is avoided, but there is an extra
expenditure of fuel in the double burning.
many different forms of kiln are used for burning Portland
cement. Besides the chamber kilns which have been described,
there are the old-fashioned bottle kilns, which are similar
to the chamber kilns, but are bottle-shaped and open
at the top; they do not dry the slurry for their next
charge. Their use is becoming obsolete. There are also stage kilns
Other
kilns.
Upper shaft
containing
row material
of the Dietzsch type, which consist of two vertical shafts, one above
the other, but not in the same vertical line, connected by a horizontal
channel. At this middle portion and in the upper part of the lower
shaft the burning proper proceeds; the upper shaft is full of unburnt
raw material which is heated by the not gases coming from the
burning zone, and the lower shaft contains clinker already burned
and hot enough to heat the incoming air which supplies that necessary
for combustion at the clinkering zone. A pair of Dietzsch kilns,,
built back to back, are shown in fig. 2. There are other forms of
shaft kiln, such as the Schneider, in which there is a burning zone,
a heating and cooling zone as in the Dietzsch, but no horizontal
stage, the whole shaft being in the same vertical plane. Another
form is the Hoffmann or ring kiln, made up of a number of compart-
ments arranged in p. ring and connected with a central chimney;
in these compartments rough brick-shaped masses of the raw
materials are stacked, and between these bricks fuel is sprinkled.
At a given moment one of these compartments is burning and at its
full temperature ; the air for combustion is drawn in through one or
more compartments behind it which have just finished burning, and
is thereby strongly heated ; the products of combustion pass away
through one or more compartments in front of it and neat their
contents before they are subjected to actual combustion. It will
be seen that the principle of the ring kiln is similar to that of the stage
kiln. In each case the clinker which has just been burned and is fully
hot serves to heat
the air-supply to
the compart-
ment where com-
bustion is actu-
ally proceeding;
in like manner
the raw materials
about to be
burned are well
heated by the
waste gases from
the compartment
in full activity
before they them-
selves are burned.
(It may be noted
that here and
generally in this
article " burn "
is used in the
technical sense ;
it is technically
correct to speak
of cement clinker SurnHlO toff)
being " burned," ^^
although it is not
a fuel; in accur- ,
ate terms it is . _* -.
the fuel which is £M&
burned, and it is hot clinker
the heat it gen-
erates which
raises the clinker
to a high temper-
ature, i.e. tech-
nically " burns " Fig. 2.
it.) By this de-
vice a great part of the heat is regenerated and a saving of fuel is
effected.
The methods of burning cement described above are obsolescent.
They are being replaced by the rotatory process, so called because
the cement is burned in rotating cylinders instead of in 00******
fixed kilns. These cylinders vary from 60 to 150 ft. in j^t*^
length, an ordinary length in modern practice being 100
to 120 ft. ; their diameter correspondingly varies from 6 ft. to 7 ft.
6 in. The cylinders are made of steel plate, lined with refractory
bricks, are carried on rollers at a slight angle with the horizontal,
and are rotated by power. At the upper end the raw material is fed
in either as a dry jpowdcr or as a slurry ; at the lower end is a power-
ful burner. In the early days of rotatory kilns producer gas was
used as a fuel, but with little success; about 1805 petroleum was
used in the United States with complete success, but at a relatively
heavy cost. At the present time, finely powdered coal injected by
a blast of air is almost universally employed, petroleum being used
only where it is actually cheaper than coal. In the working of this
type of kiln the rotation and slight inclination of the cylinder cause
the raw material to descend towards the lower end. At the upper
end the raw material is dried and heated moderately. As it descends
it reaches a part of the kiln where the temperature is higher; here
the carbonic acid of the carbonate of lime, and the combined water
of the clay are driven off, and the resulting lime begins to act chemi-
cally on the dehydrated clay, "£ he material is then in a partially
burnt and slightly sintered state, but it is not fully clinkered and
would not make Portland cement. The material continues to
descend by the rotation of the kiln and reaches the lower end nearest
656
CEMENT
the burner where the temperature is highest, and is there heated so
highly that the union of the lime, silica and alumina is complete,
and fully burnt clinker falls out of the kiln. It is extremely hot,
and is cooled usually by being passed down one or more rotating
cylinders, similar to the first, but smaller, and acting as coolers
instead of kilns. On its way down the cylinders the canker meets
a current of cold air and is cooled, the air being correspondingly
warmed and passing on to aid in the combustion of the fuel used
in heating the kiln. This regenerative heating is similar in principle
and effect to that obtained by means of the shaft and ring kilns
described above. The output of these kilns varies from 200 to 400
tons per kiln per week according to their size and the nature of the
raw materials burned, as against 30 tons per week for an ordinary
chamber kiln. A large saving in labour is also secured. The rotatory
system presents many advantages and is rapidly replacing the older
methods of cement making. Fig. 3 represents diagrammatically a
Fig. 3.
rotatory cement plant on the Hurry & Seaman system, which was
one of the first to make cement by the rotatory process successfully
on a large scale, using powdered coal as fuel. Rotatory kilns of
various other makes are now in use, but the same principles are
embodied, namely, the employment of a rotating inclined cylinder
for burning the raw materials, a burner fed with powdered coal and
a blast of air, and some device such as a cooling cylinder or cooling
tower by which the clinker may be cooled and the air correspondingly
heated on its way to the burner.
Another method of making Portland cement which has been
proposed and tried! with some success consists in fusing the raw
materials together in an apparatus of the type of a blast furnace.
The high temperature necessary to fuse cement clinker makes this
process difficult to accomplish commercially, but it has many
inherent merits and may be the process of the future, displacing
the rotatory method.
Portland cement clinker, however produced, is a hard, rock-like
substance of semi-vitrified appearance and very dark colour. The
Cement product from a well-run rotatory kiln is all evenly burnt
cUaker. an< * properly vitrified ; that from an ordinary fixed kiln
of whatever type is apt to contain a certain amount (5
to 15%) of underburnt material, which is yellowish and friable and
is not properly clinkered. This material must be picked out, as such
underburnt stuff contains free lime or unsaturated lime compounds.
These may slake slowly in the finished cement and cause such ex-
pansion as may destroy the work of which it forms part. Well-burnt,
well-picked clinker when ground yields good Portland cement.
Nothing is added during or after grinding save a small amount
(1 to 2 %) of calcium sulphate in the form either of gypsum or of
plaster of Paris, which is sometimes needed to make the cement
slower-setting. For the same purpose a small quantity of water
(up to 2 %) may be added either by moistening the clinker or by
blowing steam into the mills in which the clinker is ground. This
small addition for this specified purpose is recognized as legitimate,
but the employment of various cheap materials such as ragstone
and blast-furnace slag, sometimes added as diluents or make-weights,
is adulteration and therefore fraudulent.
The composition of Portland cement varies within comparatively
narrow limits, and for given raw materials the variations are tending
Compost' to bec° me smaller as regularity and skill in manufacture
U toffl# increase. The following analysis may be taken as typical
of cements made from chalk and clay on the Thames and
Medway : —
Per cent.
Silica (SiO,) 22-0
Insoluble residue i-o
Alumina (A1»0») 7-5
Ferric oxide (FejOa) 3-5
Lime (CaO) 62-0
Magnesia (MgO) i*o
Sulphuric anhydride (SOa) . . . . 1-5
Carbonic anhydride (COj) . . . 0*5
Water (H 2 0) 0-5
Alkalis . . . . 4 N . . . 0-5
ioo-o
There may be variations from this composition according to the
nature of the raw materials employed. Thus the silica may range
from 19 to 27 %, the alumina and ferric oxide jointly from 7
to 14 %, the lime from 60 to 67 %. All such variations are per-
missible provided that the quantity of silica and alumina is sufficient
to saturate the whole of the lime and to leave none of it in a " free "
condition, likely to cause the cement to expand after setting. Other
things being equal, the higher the percentage of lime within the limits
indicated above the stronger is the cement, but such highly limed
cement is less easy to burn than cement containing about 62 % of
lime ; and unless the burning is thorough and the raw materials are
intimately mixed, the cement is apt to be unsound. Although the
ultimate composition of cement, that is, the percentage of each base
and acid present, can be accurately determined by analysis, its
proximate composition, i.e. the nature and amount of the compounds
formed from these acids and bases, can only be ascertained indirectly
and with difficulty. The foundations of our knowledge on this
subject were laid by H. le Chatelier, whose work
has since been supplemented by that of Spenser
B. Newberry, W. B. Newberry and Clifford Richard-
son. As the outcome of these inquiries it has been
established that tricalcium silicate 3CaO-SiOt is the
essential constituent of Portland cement. The con-
stituent of next importance is an aluminate, but
whether this is dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO-Al t Oj, or
tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO A1 2 3| is still in doubt.
In the following description it is assumed to be the
tricalcium aluminate. The remaining silicates and
aluminates present, and ferric oxide and magnesia,
if existing in the moderate quantities which are
usual in Portland cement of good quality, are of
minor importance and may be regarded as little more
than impurities. The silicates and aluminates of
m which Portland cement is composed are believed to
exist not as individual units but as solid solutions of each other, these
solid solutions taking the form of minerals recognizable as individuals.
The two principal minerals are termed alite and celite; according
to the best opinion, alite consists of a solid solution of tricalcium
aluminate in tricalcium silicate, and celite of a solid solution of
dicalcium aluminate in dicalcium silicate. Celite is little affected
by water, and has but small influence on the setting; alite is de-
composed and hydrated, this action constituting the main part of
the setting of Portland cement. Both the components of alite react,
and for simplicity their reactions may be stated in separate equations,
thus: —
(1) 2(3CaOSiO,)-f9H,0=2(CaOSiO,).5H,0-f4Ca(OH)2
Tricalcium silicate. Hydrated mono- Calcium
calcium silicate. hydroxide.
(2) 3CaOAl,0,+12H 2 =3CaOAl,0,12H 2
Tricalcium aluminate. Hydrated tricalcium aluminate.
Since alite is a solid solution and, although an individual mineral,
is not a chemical unit, the proportion of tricalcium silicate to tri-
calcium aluminate in a given specimen of alite will vary ; but, what-
ever the proportions, each of these substances will react in its char-
acteristic manner according to the equations given above.
The precise mechanism of the process of setting of Portland
cement is not known with certainty, but it is probably analogous
to that of the setting of plaster of Paris, consisting in the dissolution
of the compounds produced by hydration while they are in a more
soluble form, their transition to a less soluble form, the consequent
supersaturation of the solution, and the deposition of the surplus
of the dissolved substance in crystals which interlock and form a
coherent mass. This theory being accepted, it is evident that a
small quantity of water, by successive dissolution and deposition
of a substance capable of existing in a more soluble and in a less
soluble form, is able to bring about the crystallization of an in-
definitely large quantity of material. It is not necessary that there
should be present sufficient water to dissolve the whole of the react-
ing substance at any one time ; it is sufficient if there is enough for
hydration and a small surplus for the crystallization by successive
stages as above described. It is generally admitted that the alu-
minate is the chief agent in the first setting of the cement, and that
its ultimate hardening and attainment of strength are due to the
tricalcium silicate.
As mentioned above, the constituents other than the tricalcium
silicate and tricalcium aluminate of which alite is composed, are of
minor importance. The function of the ferric oxide present in
ordinary cement is little more than that of a flux to aid the union of
silica, alumina and lime in the clinker; its r61e in the setting of the
cement is altogether secondary. In fact, excellent Portland cement
can be prepared from materials free from iron. Such cement, if free
also from manganese, is white, and its manufacture has been proposed
for exterior decorative use. Magnesia, if present in Portland cement
in quantity not exceeding 5%, appears to be inert, but there is
evidence that in larger proportion, e.g. 10-15%, it may hydrate
and set after the general setting of the cement, and matrix* ~
to disruptive strains causing the cement t~ " 5 ••*»*•"/_ ft/ — »„
so-called natural cement which. /^'^V
magnesia appear* to be,/
present.
^^o^d cement which 'mfluence.
CEMENT
657
its setting time is calcium sulphate, naturally formed from the
sulphur in the raw materials or fuel, or intentionally added to the
finished cement as gypsum or plaster of Paris. It has a remarkable
retarding effect on the hydration of the calcium aluminate, and
consequently on the setting of the cement; thus it is that a little
gypsum is often added to convert a naturally quick-setting cement
into one which sets slowly. It will be observed that in the hydration
of tricalcium silicate, the main constituent of Portland cement, a
large portion of the lime appears as calcium hydroxide, i.e. slaked
lime. It is evident that this will form a pozzuolanic cement if a
suitable silicious material such as trass is added to the cement. The
ultimate product when set may be regarded as a mixed Portland
and pozzuolanic cement. The use of trass in this manner as an
adjunct to Portland cement has been advocated by W. Michaelis,
and undoubtedly increases the strength of the material, but it has
not become general.
The quality of Portland cement is ascertained by its analysis
and by determining its specific gravity, fineness, mechanical strength
Testla* an< ^ soundness. A good sample will usually have a com-
* UB ** position within the limits cited above and approximating
to the typical figures Riven above. It will be ground so finely that
not more than 3% will be left on a sieve of 76X76 meshes per sq.
in., the wires of the sieve being 0*005 in. in diameter. It will have,
when freshly burned, a specific gravity not lower than 3*15, and
briquettes made from it and kept in water will possess a tensile
strength of 400-500 lb per sq. in. seven days after they are made,
while briquettes made from a mixture of 3 parts by weight of sand
and 1 of cement will give about 225 lb per sq. in. at twenty-eight
days. Formerly the soundness of cement was determined by keep-
ing thin parts of the cement in cold water for twenty-eight days,
or in warm water (no°-i20° F.) for twenty-four hours, and examin-
ing for cracks or other signs of expansion. Modern practice is to
measure the expansion of a test piece of cement kept in water at a
temperature of 2 12° F. The simplest and most generally used
method is due to H. L. le Ch&telier, and consists in measunng the
increase in circumference of a cylinder of cement 40 mm. in diameter
by means of a split ring encircling the cylinder, the motion of which
is magnified by two light rods extending radially. Another Quanti-
tative test for soundness is that formulated by L. Deval, who has
shown that briquettes of 3 of sand and 1 of cement kept in water
for two days at 80 ° C. = I76° F. attain approximately the same
strength as similar briquettes attain at seven days in water at the
ordinary temperature. In like manner briquettes kept at 176° F.
for seven days are approximately equal in strength to those kept at
the ordinary temperature for twenty-eight days. A cement not
perfectly sound will give low results in the hot test, and a cement of
indifferent soundness will crack and go to pieces. The test is ad-
mittedly severe, but can be passed without difficulty by cement
made with proper care and skill. There are many modifications and
elaborations of all the tests which have been mentioned. Cement
for all important work is submitted to a rigorous system of testing
and analysis before it is accepted and used.
Hydraulic Lime is a cement of the Portland as distinct from
the pozzuolanic class. The most typical hydraulic lime is tha,t
known as Chaux du Theil, made from a limestone found at
ArdSche in France. This limestone consists of calcium carbonate
most intimately intermixed with very finely divided silica. It
contains but little alumina and oxide of iron, which are the
constituents generally necessary to bring about the union of
silica and lime to form a cement, but in spite of this the silica is so
finely divided and so well distributed that it unites readily with
the lime when the limestone is burned at a sufficiently high
temperature. English hydraulic limes are of a different class;
they contain a good deal of alumina and ferric oxide, and in
composition resemble somewhat irregular Portland cement.
Analyses of the two classes of hydraulic lime are as follows: —
Chaux de Theil. Blue Lias.
Insoluble silicious matter .
Silica (SiOi) ....
Alumina (AljOs)
Ferric oxide (FejOi) .
Lime (CaO) ....
Magnesia (MgO)
x Sulphuric anhydride (SOs) .
Carbonic anhydride (CO») )
Water (H*0) / '
' Alkalis and loss
Per cent.
Per cent.
03
2-39
21.7
14-17
1-8
679
0-6
2-34
74.0
6343
0.7
i-54
03
1-63
o»6
J 269
1-38
1000
100*00
Hydraulic lime contains a good deal of uncombined lime, and has
to be slaked before it is used as a cement. In France this slaking
is conducted systematically by the makers, the freshly burned lime
being sprinkled with water and stored in large bins where slaking
proceeds slowly and regularly until the whole of the surplus uncom-
bined lime is slaked and rendered harmless, while the cementitious
compounds, notably tricalcium silicate, remain untouched. In
English practice hydraulic lime is slaked by the user. Seeing that
regular and perfect slaking is more easily attained when working
systematically on a large scale and by storing the material for a long
period, the French method is the better and more rational. The
product may then be regarded as a cement of the Portland class
mixed with slaked lime. When gauged with water and made into
a mortar it sets slowly, but ultimately becomes almost as strong as
Portland cement. Its slow setting is an advantage for some purposes,
e.g. for foundations and abutments where settlements may occur.
The structure is free to take its permanent position before the lime
sets, and cracks are thus avoided. A case in point is the employ-
ment of hydraulic lime in place of Portland cement as grouting out-
side the cast-iron tubes used for lining tunnels made by the shield
system.
Roman Cement is another cement of the Portland class which
came into use shortly before the manufacture of artificial Port-
land cement was attempted. It is still in use, though only for
special purposes where a quick-setting material is required. It
is made from septaria nodules which are dredged up on the Kent
and Essex coasts and consist of about 60 % of calcium carbonate
mixed with clay, the mass being sufficiently indurated to remain
coherent under water. The nodules are not prepared in any
way, but simply burned at a moderate red heat.
The resulting cement varies somewhat in composition, but ap-
proximates to the following figures : —
Per cent.
Insoluble silicious matter .... 5*86
Silica (SiOi) 1962
Alumina (AljOs) 10-30
Ferric oxide (FejO») . . . .7*44
Manganese dioxide (MnOi) . . . 1-57
Lime (CaO) 44*54
Magnesia (MgO) . . . .2-92
Sulphuric anhydride (SOs) .... 2«6i
Carbonic anhydride (COt) . . . • 3*43
Water (H»0) 0-25
Alkalis and loss 1*46
1 0000
The most characteristic constituent is the oxide of iron, which gives
the cement a reddish colour, and the presence of manganese also
differentiates Roman from Portland cement, which rarely contains
appreciable quantities of that element. The high percentage of
alumina causes the cement to be quick-setting, and it becomes hard
in about five minutes. It resists the action of water, salt or fresh,
very well, and is therefore useful in situations where the work is
likely to be submerged immediately after it has been put in place.
The term Natural Cements is applied to cements made by
burning mixtures of clay and carbonate of lime naturally occur-
ring in approximately suitable proportions. They may be
regarded as badly-mixed Portland cements, and need no special
description. American " natural " cements are of a somewhat
different class. They are usually made from a silicious limestone
containing magnesia, and are comparatively lightly burned.
The following analysis is typical of a cement of this kind . —
Per cent.
Silica (S1O2) 24-30
Alumina (Al»0») 7*22
Ferric oxide (FetOi) 5-06
Lime (CaO) 3370
Magnesia (MgO) ..... 20-94
Water, carbonic anhydride, and loss . . 8-78
ioo-oo
These irregular cements of the Portland class are good building
materials for ordinary purposes, but are not so suitable as good
artificial Portland cement for heavy and important undertakings.
Pas sow Cement is a recent product which is in a class by itself.
It is made by granulating blast furnace slag of suitable com-
position and finely grinding the product, either alone or with an
admixture of about 10 % of Portland cement clinker. It differs
from ordinary slag cement (see above) in that it is not a pozzuo-
lanic cement depending on the interaction of granulated slag
and lime. The particular method of granulating slag for Passow
cement produces a material which sets per se and attains a
strength comparable with that of Portland cement. Passow
cement has been successfully made from slag of different
compositions in Germany, England and America.
6.5 8
CEMENT
The chief use of hydraulic cements, whether of the pozzuolanic
or Portland class, is to act as an adhesive material in work which
is to be exposed to water. No doubt in times of remote
JfjJJ^fc antiquity it was found that the jointing of masonry
cements, which was to be immersed required the use of a cement
indifferent to the action of water. Ordinary mortar
failed in such positions; mortar made from lime prepared from
limestones or chalks containing a little clay was found to stand;
mortar made from lime mixed with trass or similar active
silicious material was also found to stand. On this observation
rests the whole of the present enormous employment of hydraulic
cements. It was a natural transition to utilize these cements
not merely for jointing masonry but also for making concrete,
and the only reason why hydraulic cements, as distinct from
cements which are not hydraulic (e.g. ordinary mortar), are used
for the latter purpose is their great mechanical strength. Their
use in above-water work is checked by the low price of common
brick. Even in such work, where it would be thought that
masses of burnt clay would be the cheapest conceivable material,
concrete is at least on level terms with its rival. It must be
remembered that one of the great advantages of concrete is that
five-sixths of its total mass may be provided from local sand and
gravel, on which no carriage has to be paid. The cement, on
which alone freight is to be reckoned, converts these from loose
incoherent material into a solid stone. Thus it comes about that
the largest use of cement is for manufacturing concrete for dock
and harbour work, and for. the making of foundations. It is also
employed for the building of light bridges, floors, and pipes
constructed of cement mortar disposed round a skeleton of iron
rods. Such composite structures take advantage at once of the
high tensile strength of iron and of the high compressive strength
of cement mortar. (See also Concrete.)
Good hydraulic cements are highly permanent materials
provided certain conditions be observed. It might be supposed
that hydraulic cements from their nature would be indifferent
to the action of water, but this is only true if the structures of
which they form part are sufficiently compact. In this case the
action of the water is checked by the film of carbonate of lime
which eventually forms on the surface of calcareous cement.
This, together with the compactness of the mortar, hinders the
ingress and egress of water, and prevents the dissolution and
ultimate destruction of the cement. But where the concrete or
mortar is not well made and is porous, the continual passage of
water through it will gradually break up and dissolve away the
calcareous constituents of the cement until its strength is utterly
destroyed. This destructive action is increased if the water
contains sulphates or magnesium salts, both of which act
chemically on the calcareous constituents of the cement. As
sea-water contains both sulphates and magnesium salts, it is
especially necessary in concrete for harbour work to take every
care to produce an impervious structure. There are various
minor external causes for the failure and ultimate destruction
of cement mortar and concrete, but their discussion is a matter
for the specialist. Failure from inherent vice in the cement has
been already touched on; it can always be traced to want of
skill and care in manufacture.
Calcium Sulphate Cements. — Under this term are comprehended
all cements whose setting properties primarily depend on the
hydration of calcium sulphate. They include plaster of Paris,
Keene's cement and many variants of these two types. The
raw material is gypsum (q.v.). This may be almost chemically
pure, when it is generally used for Keene's cement; or it may
contain smaller or greater quantities of impurities, in which
case it is suitable for the preparation of cements of the plaster
of Paris class. The mode of preparation is to calcine the gypsum
at temperatures which depend on the class of cement to be
produced. If plaster of Paris is to be made, calcination is
carried out at about 204 C. ( = 400° F.); at this temperature,
gypsum, CaS04-2HjO, loses three-quarters of its combined
water and becomes 2CaS04-HjO. If a cement of the Keene's
cement class is to be prepared the temperature used is higher,
e.g. 500 C. ( s =932° F.), and the whole of the combined water of
the gypsum is expelled, the anhydrous sulphate CaS0 4 being
obtained.
To produce plaster of Paris European practice consists in baking
the mineral in ovens, and in America in heating it in kettles. Both
processes are inferior in economy to calcination in rotatory »-•!•- /
kilns, a process which may be regarded as the method of jj^,.
the present and the immediate future. Keene's cement §ceene f M
and its congeners are made in fixed kilns so constructed ^m^nL
that only the gaseous products of combustion come into
contact with the gypsum to be burnt, in order to avoid contamination
with the ash of tne fuel.
The setting of plaster of Faris depends on the fact that when
2CaS04'H 2 is treated with water it dissolves, forming a super-
saturated solution of CaSO^HaO. The excess held temporarily in
solution is then deposited in crystals of CaS04*2HjO. In the light
of this knowledge the mode of setting of plaster of Paris becomes
clear. The plaster is mixed with a quantity of water sufficient to
make it into a smooth paste; this quantity of water is quite in-
sufficient to dissolve the whole of it, but it dissolves a small part,
and gives a supersaturated solution of CaSO<'2H 2 0. In a few minutes
the surplus hydrated calcium sulphate is deposited from the solution,
and the water is capable again of dissolving 2CaS04»HjO, which in
turn is fully hydrated and deposited as CaS04*2HiO. The fwocess
goes on until a relatively small quantity of water has by instal-
ments dissolved and hydrated the 2CaS(VH»0, and has deposited
CaS04*2HsO in felted crystals forming a 6olid mass well cemented
together. The setting is rapid, occupying only a few minutes, and
is accompanied by a considerable expansion of the mass. There is
reason to suppose that the change described takes place in two stages,
the gypsum first forming orthorhombic crystals and then crystal-
lizing in the monosym metric system. Gypsum thus crystallized
is in its normal monosymmetric form, more stable under ordinary
conditions than the orthorhombic form. Correlatively in its process
of dehydration to form plaster of Paris, monosymmetric gypsum
is converted into the orthorhombic form before it begins to be
dehydrated.
The principles which govern the preparation and setting of the
other class of calcium sulphate cements, that is, cements of the Keene
class, are not fully understood, but there is a fair amount of know-
ledge on the subject, both empirical and scientific. The essential
difference between the setting of Keene's cement and that of plaster
of Paris is that the former takes place much more slowly, occupying
hours instead of minutes, and the considerable heating and expansion
which characterize the setting of plaster of Paris are much less
marked.
It is the practice in Great Britain to burn pure gypsum at a low
temperature so as to convert it into the hydrate 2CaSO«-HtO, to soak
the lumps in a solution of alum or of aluminium sulphate, and to
recalcine them at about 500 C. On grinding they give Keene's
cement. Instead of alum various other salts, e.g. borax, may be
used. The quantity of these materials is so small that analyses of
Keene's cement show it to be almost pure anhydrous calcium
sulphate, and make it difficult to explain what, it any, influence
these minute amounts of alum and the like can exert on the setting
of the cement. It seems probable that the effect of the salts is
inconsiderable, and that the governingcondition is the temperature
at which the cement has been burnt. The setting of Keene's cement
takes place by the same sort of process which has been described for
the setting of plaster of Paris, the chief differences being that the
substance dissolved is anhydrous calcium sulphate and that the
operation takes a longer time.
AH cements having calcium sulphate as their base arc suitable only
for indoor work because of the solubility of this substance. They
form excellent decorative plasters on account of their clean white
colour and the sharpness of castings made from them, this latter
quantity being due to their expansion when setting.
See D. B. Butler, Portland Cement (London, 1905); E. C. Eckel,
Cements, Limes and Plasters (New York, 100O ; G. K. Redgrave and
Charles Spackman, Calcareous Cements (London, 1005) ; F. H. Lewis,
" Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements in the United States," The
Mineral Industry (New York, 1898) ; W. H. Stanger and Bertram
Blount, "Cement Manufacture . in Great Britain," The Mineral
Industry, New York, 1897 and 1905; Id, " The Testing of Hydraulic
Cements," Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind„ 1894, 13, .p. 455; Id., Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng., 1901; B. Blount, ".Recent Progress in the Cement
Industry," Journ. Soc. Chem. Ipd., 1.906, 25, p. 1020; H. L. le
Chatelier, Recherches exphimentales sur la constitution des mor tiers
hydr antiques; Desch, Concrete, N^o. 2, pp. 101-I02; Davis, Journ.
Soc. Chem. Itid., 1905, 26, p. 727. (B. Bl.)
Adhesive Cements. — Mixtures of animal, vegetable and mineral
substances are employed in great variety in the arts for making
joints, mending broken china and other objects, &c. A strong
cement for alabaster and marble, which sets in a day, may be prepared
by mixing 12 parts of Portland, cement, 8 of fine sand and I of in-
fusorial earth, and making them into a thick paste with silicate of
soda; the object to be cemented need not be heated. For stone,
marble, and earthenware a strong cement, insoluble in water, can be
made as follows : — skimmed-milk cheeseis boiled in water till of a gluey
consistency, washed, kneaded well in cold water, and incorporated
CEMETERY
&59
with quicklime; the composition is warmed for use. A similar
cement is a mixture of dried fresh curd with ^>th of its weight
of quicklime and a little camphor; it is made into a paste with
water when employed. A cement for Derbyshire spar and china,
&c, is composed of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of wax, with a little plaster
of Paris; a small quantity only should be applied to the surfaces to
be united, for, as a general rule, the thinner the stratum of a cement,
the more powerful its action. Quicklime mixed with white of egg,
hardened Canada balsam, and thick copal or mastic varnish are also
useful for cementing broken china, which should be warmed before
their application. For small articles, shellac dissolved in spirits of
wine is a very convenient cement. Cements such as marine glue are
solutions of shellac, india-rubber or asphaltum in benzene or naphtha.
For use with wood which is exposed to moisture, as in the case of
wooden cisterns, a mixture may be made of 4 parts of linseed cil
boiled with litharge, and 8 parts ot melted glue; other strong
cements for the same purpose are prepared by softening gelatine
in cold water and dissolving it by heat in linseed oil, or b> mixing
glue with one-fourth of its weight of turpentine, or with a little
bichromate of potash. Mahogany cement, for filling up cracks in
wood, consists of 4 parts of beeswax, I of Indian red and yellow-
ochre to give colour. Cutler's cement, used for fixing knife-blades in
their hafts, is made of equal parts of brick-dust and melted rosin,
or of 4 parts of rosin with 1 each of beeswax and brick-dust. For
covering bottle-corks a mixture of pitch, brick-dust and rosin is
employed. A cheap cement, sometimes employed to fix iron rails
in stone-work, is melted brimstone, or brimstone and brick-dust.
For pipe-joints, a mixture of iron turnings, sulphur and sal ammoniac,
moistened with water, is employed. Japanese cement, for uniting
surfaces of paper, is made by mixing rice-flour with water and boiling
it. Jewellers' or Armenian cement consists of isinglass with mastic
and gum ammoniac dissolved in spirit. Gold and silver chasers keep
their work firm by means of a cement of pitch and rosin, a little
tallow, and brick-dust to thicken. Temporary cement for lathe-work,
such as the polishing and grinding of jewelry and optical glasses, is
compounded thus: — rosin, 4 oz. ; whitening previously made red-
hot, 4 oz. ; wax, } oz.
CEMETERY (Gr. Kocurrrfiptov, from icoinav, to sleep), literally
a sleeping-place, the name applied by the early Christians to the
places set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally
extra-mural and unconnected with churches, the practice of
interment in churches or churchyards being unknown in the
first centuries of the Christian era. The term cemetery has,
therefore, been appropriately applied in modern times to the
burial-grounds, generally extra-mural, which have been sub-
stituted for the overcrowded churchyards (q.v.) of populous
parishes both urban and rural.
From 1840 to 1855, attention was repeatedly called to the
condition of the London churchyards by correspondence in the
press and by the reports of parliamentary committees, the first
of which, that of Mr Chad wick, appeared in 1843. The vaults
under the pavement of the churches, and the small spaces of
open ground surrounding them, were crammed with coffins.
In many of the buildings the air was so tainted with the products
of corruption as to be a direct and palpable source of disease
and death to those who frequented them. In the churchyards
coffins were placed tier above tier in the graves until they were
within a few feet (or sometimes even a few inches) of the surface,
and the level of the ground was often raised to that of the lower
windows of the church. To make room for fresh interments the
sextons had recourse to the surreptitious removal of bones and
partially-decayed remains, and in some cases the contents of
the graves were systematically transferred to pits adjacent to the
site, the grave-diggers appropriating the coffin-plates, handles
and nails to be sold as waste metal. The neighbourhood of the
churchyards was always unhealthy, the air being vitiated by the
gaseous emanations from the graves, and the water, wherever
it was obtained from wells, containing organic matter, the source
of which could not be mistaken. In all the large towns the evil
prevailed in a greater or less degree, but in London, on account
of the immense population and the consequent mortality, it
forced itself more readily upon public attention, and after more
than one partial measure of relief had been passed the church-
yards were, with a few exceptions, finally closed by the act of
1855, and the cemeteries which now occupy a large extent of
ground to the north, south, east and west became henceforth
the burial-places of the metropolis. Several of them had been
already established by private enterprise before the passing of
the Burial Act of 1855 (Kensal Green cemetery dates from 1832),
but that enactment forms the epoch from which the general
development of cemeteries in Great Britain and Ireland began.
Burial within the limits of cities and towns is now almost every-
where abolished, and where it is still in use it is surrounded by
such safeguards as make it practically i nnocuous . This tendency
has been conspicuous both in the United Kingdom and the
United States. The increasing practice of cremation (q.v.) has
assisted in the movement for disposing of the dead in more
sanitary conditions; and the proposals of Sir Seymour Haden
and others for burying the dead in more open coffins, and
abandoning the old system of family graves, have had consider-
able effect. The tendency has therefore been, while improving
the sanitary aspects of the disposal of the dead, to make the
cemeteries themselves as fit as possible for this purpose, and
beautiful in arrangement and decoration.
The chief cemeteries of London are Kensal Green cemetery
on the Harrow Road; Highgate cemetery on the slope of
Highgate Hill; the cemetery at Abney Park (once the residence
of Dr Watts); the Norwood and Nunhead cemeteries to the
south of London; the West London cemetery at Brompton;
the cemeteries at Ilford and Leytonstone in Essex; the Victoria
cemetery and the Tower Hamlets cemetery in East London;
and at a greater distance, accessible by railway, the great
cemetery at Brookwood near Woking in Surrey, and the cemetery
at New Southgate. The general plan of all these cemeteries
is the same, a park with broad paths either laid out in curved
lines as at Kensal Green and Highgate, or crossing each other
at right angles as in the case of the West London cemetery.
The ground on each side of these paths is marked off into grave
spaces, and trees and shrubs are planted in the intervals between
them. The buildings consist of a curator's residence and one or
more chapels, and usually there is also a range of family graves
with imposing tombs, massive structures containing in their
corridors recesses for the reception of coffins, generally closed
only by an iron grating. The provincial cemeteries in the main
features of their arrangements resemble those of the metropolis.
One of the most remarkable is St James's cemetery at Liverpool,
which occupies a deserted quarry. The face of the eastern side
of the quarry is traversed by ascending gradients off which open
catacombs formed in the living rock, — a soft sandstone; the
ground below is planted with trees, amongst which stand hundreds
of gravestones. The main approach on the north side is through
a tunnel, above which, on a projecting rock, stands the cemetery
chapel, built in the form of a small Doric temple with tetrastyle
porticos.
Many of the cities of America possess very fine cemeteries.
One of the largest, and also the oldest, is that of Mount Auburn
near Boston. Others of importance are the Laurel Hill cemetery
(1836) at Philadelphia; the Greenwood cemetery (1838) at
Brooklyn (New York); the Lake View cemetery at Cleveland,
Ohio; while the cemeteries at New Orleans (q.v.) are famous
for their beauty.
The chief cemetery of Paris is that of PSre la Chaise, the
prototype of the garden cemeteries of western Europe. It takes
its name from the celebrated confessor of Louis XIV., to whom
as rector of the Jesuits of Paris it once belonged. It was laid out
as a cemetery in 1804. It has an area of about 200 acres, and
contains about 20,000 monuments, including those of all the great
men of France of the 19th century — marshals, generals, ministers,
poets, painters, men of science and letters, actors and musicians.
Twice the cemetery and the adjacent heights have been the scene
of a desperate struggle; in 1814 they were stormed by a Russian
column during the attack on Paris by the allies, and in 187 1 the
Communists made their last stand among the tombs of PSre la
Chaise; 000 of them fell in the defence of the cemetery or were
shot there after its capture, and 200 of them were buried in
quicklime in one huge grave and 700 in another. There are
other cemeteries at Mont Parnasse and Montmartre, besides the
minor burying-grounds at Auteuil, Batignolles, Passy, La
Villette, &c. In consequence of all these cemeteries being more
or less crowded, a great cemetery was laid out in 1874 on the
plateau of Mery sur Oise, 16 m. to the north of Paris, with which
66o
CENCI
it is connected by a railway line. It includes within its circuit
fully 2 sq. m. of ground. The French cemetery system differs
in many respects from the English. Every city and town is
required by law to provide a burial-ground beyond its barriers,
properly laid out and planted, and situated if possible on a rising
ground. Each interment must take place in a separate grave.
This, however, does not apply to Paris, where the dead are
buried, forty or fifty at a time, in the fosses communes, the poor
being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being
made in all other cases. The fosse is filled and left undisturbed
for five years, then all crosses and other memorials are removed,
the level of the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and
interments begin again. For a fee of 50 francs a concession
temporaire for ten years can be obtained, but where it is desired
to erect a permanent monument the ground must be bought by
the executors of the deceased. In Paris the undertakers 1 trade
is the monopoly of a company, the SociiU des pompes funebres,
which in return for its privileges is required to give a free burial
to the poor.
The Leichenhtiuser, or dead-houses, of Frankfort and Munich
form a remarkable feature of the cemeteries of these cities. The
object of their founders was twofold — (1) to obviate even the
remotest danger of premature interment, and (2) to offer a
respectable place for the reception of the dead, in order to
remove the corpse from the confined dwellings of the survivors.
At Frankfort the dead-house occupies one of the wings of the
propylaeum, which forms the main entrance to the cemetery.
It consists of the warder's room, where an attendant is always on
duty, on each side of which there are five rooms, well ventilated,
kept at an even temperature, and each provided with a bier on
which a corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers is placed a
ring connected by a light cord with a bell which hangs outside
in the warder's room. The use of the dead-house is voluntary.
The bodies deposited there are inspected at regular intervals by
a medical officer, and the warder is always on the watch for the
ringing of the warning bell. One revival, that of a child, has been
known to take place at Frankfort. The Leichenhaus of Munich
is situated in the southern cemetery outside the Sendling Gate.
At one end of the cemetery there is a semicircular building with
an open colonnade in front and a projection behind, which
contains three large rooms for the reception of the dead. At
both Frankfort and Munich great care is taken that the
attendants receive the dead confided to them with respect, and
no interment is permitted until the first signs of decomposition
appear; the relatives then assemble in one of the halls adjoining
the Leichenhaus, and the funeral takes place. In any case
there is, with ordinary care, little fear of premature interment,
but in another way such places of deposit for the dead are of
great use in large towns, as they prevent the evil effects which
result from the prolonged retention of the dead among the
living. Mortuaries for this purpose have also been established
in many places in England.
In Italy the Campo Santo (Holy Field) is best illustrated by
the famous one at Pisa, from which the name has been given to
other Italian burying-grounds. Of the cemeteries still in use
in southern Europe the catacombs (q.v.) of Sicily are the most
curious. There is one of these under the old Capuchin monastery
of Ziza near Palermo, where in four large airy subterranean
corridors 2000 corpses are ranged in niches in the wall, many of
them shrunk up into the most grotesque attitudes, or hanging
with pendent limbs and head from their places. As a preparation
for the niche, the body is desiccated in a kind of oven, and then
dressed as in life and raised into its place in the wall. At the end
of the principal corridor at Ziza there is an altar strangely
ornamented with a kind of mosaic of human skulls and bones.
Cemeteries have been in use among many Eastern nations
from time immemorial. In China, the high grounds near Canton
and Macao are crowded with tombs, many of them being in the
form of small tumuli, with a low encircling wall, forcibly recalling
the ringed barrows of western Europe. But the most picturesque
cemeteries in the world are those of the Turks. From them it
was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern cemetery, with
its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around Constantinople
the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods under whose
branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never
reopened; a new resting-place is formed for every one, and so
the dead now occupy a wider territory than that which is covered
by the homes of the living. The Turks believe that till the body
is buried the soul is in a state of discomfort, and the funeral,
therefore, takes place as soon as possible after death. No coffin
is used, the body is laid in the grave, a few boards are arranged
round it, and then the earth is shovelled in, care being taken to
leave a small opening extending from the head of the corpse to
the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently enlarged
by dogs and other beasts which plunder the grave. A tombstone
of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban
in the case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low
relief if the grave is that of a woman. The turban by its varying
form indicates not only the rank of the sleeper below but also
the period of his death, for the fashion of the Turkish head-dress
is always changing. A cypress is usually planted beside the grave,
its odour being supposed to neutralize any noxious exhalations
from the ground, and thus every cemetery is a forest, where by
day hundreds of turtle doves are on the wing or perching on the
trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at night.
Especially for the Turkish women the cemeteries are a favourite
resort, and some of them are always to be seen praying beside
the narrow openings that lead down into a parent's, a husband's,
or a brother's grave. Some of the other cemeteries of Constan-
tinople contrast rather unfavourably with the simple dignity
of those which belong to the Turks. That of the Armenians
abounds with bas-reliefs which show the manner of the death of
whoever is buried below, and on these singular tombstones there
are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging
on the gallows.
See also the articles Burial and Burial Acts; Cremation;
Funeral Rites; Churchyard.
CENCI, BEATRICE (1 577-1599), a Roman woman, famous
for her tragic story; poetic fancy has woven a halo of romance
about her, which modern historic research has to a large extent
destroyed. Born at Rome, she was the daughter of Francesco
Cenci (1 549-1 598), the bastard son of a priest, and a man of
great wealth but dissolute habits and violent temper. He seems
to have been guilty of various offences and to have got off with
short terms of imprisonment by bribery; but the monstrous
cruelty which popular tradition has attributed to him is purely
legendary. His first wife, Ersilia Santa Croce, bore him twelve
children, and nine years after her death he married Lucrezia
Petroni, a widow with three daughters, by whom he had no
offspring. He was very quarrelsome and lived on the worst
possible terms with his children, who, however, were all of them
more or less disreputable. He kept various mistresses and was
even prosecuted for unnatural vice, but his sons were equally
dissolute. His harsh treatment of his daughter Beatrice was
probably due to his discovery that she had had an illegitimate
child as the result of an intrigue with one of his stewards (A.
Bertolotti, in his Francesco Cenci, publishes Beatrice's will in
which she provides for this child), but there is no evidence that
he tried to commit incest with her, as has been alleged. The
eldest son Giacomo was a riotous, dishonest young scoundrel,
who cheated his own father and even attempted to murder him
(1595). Two other sons, Rocco and Cristoforo, both of them
notorious rakes, were killed in brawls. Finally Francesco's
wife Lucrezia and his children Giacomo, Bernardo and Beatrice,
assisted by a certain Monsignor Guerra, plotted to murder him.
Two bravos were hired (one of them named Olimpio, according
to Bertolotti, was probably Beatrice's lover), and Francesco was
assassinated while asleep in his castle of Petrella in the kingdom
of Naples (1598). Giacomo afterwards had one of the bravos
murdered, but the other was arrested by the Neapolitan
authorities and confessed everything. Information having been
communicated to Rome, the whole of the Cenci family were
arrested early in 1599; but the story of the hardships they
underwent in prison is greatly exaggerated. Guerra escaped;
CENOBITES— CENSOR
661
Lucrezia, Giacomo and Bernardo confessed the crime; and
Beatrice, who at first denied everything, even under torture,
also ended by confessing. Great efforts were made to obtain
mercy for the accused, but the crime was considered too heinous,
and the pope (Clement VIII.) refused to grant a pardon; on
the nth of September 1599, Beatrice and Lucrezia were
beheaded, and Giacomo, after having been tortured with red-
hot pincers, was killed with a mace, drawn and quartered.
Bernardo's penalty, on account of his youth, was commuted to
perpetual imprisonment, and after a year's confinement he was
pardoned. The property of the family was confiscated.
The romantic character of the history of this family has been the
subject of poems, dramas and novels. Shelley's tragedy is well
known as a magnificent piece of writing, although the author adopts
a purely fictitious version of the story. Nor is F. D. Guerrazzi's
novel, Beatrice Cenci (Milan, 1872), more trustworthy. The first
attempt to deal with the subject on documentary evidence is
A. Bertolotti's Francesco Cenci e la sua famiglia (2nd ed., Florence,
1879), containing a number of interesting documents which place
the events in their true light; cf. Labruzzi's article in the Nuova
Antologia, 1879, vol. xiv., and another in the Edinburgh Review,
January 1879.
CENOBITES (from Gr. koiv6s } common, and files, life),
monks who lived together in a convent or community under a
rule and a superior, — in contrast to hermits or anchorets who
live in isolation. The Basilians (q.v.) in the East and the Bene-
dictines (q.v.) in the West are the chief cenobitical orders (see
Monasticism).
CENOMANI, a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, whose
territory corresponded generally to Maine in the modern depart-
ment of Sarthe. Their chief town was Vindinum or Suindinum
^corrupted into Subdinnum), afterwards Civitas Cenomanorum
(whence Le Mans), the original name of the town, as usual in
the case of Gallic cities, being replaced by that of the people.
According to Caesar (Bell. Gall. vii. 75. 3), they assisted Vercin-
getorix in the great rising (52 B.C.) with a force of 5000 men. Under
Augustus they formed a civitas stipendiariaoi Gallia Lugdunensis,
and in the 4th century part of Gallia Lugdunensis iii. About
400 B.C., under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy v. 35), a large
number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans
southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of
Cato (in Pliny, Nat. Hist. iii. 130), that some of them settled near
Massilia in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route
taken by them. The limits of their territory are not clearly
defined, but were probably the Athesis (Adige or Etsch) on the
east, the Ollius (Oglio, or perhaps the Addua) on the west, and
the Padus on the south. Livy gives their chief towns as Brixia
(Brescia) and Verona; Pliny, Brixia and Cremona. The Ceno-
mani nearly always appear in history as loyal friends and allies
of the Romans, whom they assisted in the Gallic war (225 B.C.),
when the Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, and
during the war against Hannibal. They certainly joined in
the revolt of the Gauls under Hamilcar (200), but after they had
been defeated by the consul Gaius Cornelius (197) they finally
submitted. In 49, with the rest of Gallia Transpadana, they
acquired the rights of citizenship.
The orthography and the quantity of the penultimate vowel
of Cenomani have given rise to discussion. According to
Arbois de Jubainville, the Cenomani of Italy are not identical
with the Cenomani (or Cenomanni) of Gaul. In the case of the
latter, the survival of the syllable " man " in Le Mans is due to
the stress laid on the vowel; had the vowel been short and
unaccented, it would have disappeared. In Italy, Cenomani
is the name of a people; in Gaul, merely a surname of the
Aulerci.
See A. Voisin, Les CSnomans anciens et modernes (Le Mans, 1862) ;
A. Desjardins, Gtographie historique de la Gaide romaine, ii. (1876-
1893); Arbois de Jubainville, Lis Premiers Habitants de V Europe
(1 889-1 894); article and authorities in La Grande Encyclopidte;
C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydop&die, iii. pt. 2 (1899) ;
full ancient authorities in A. Holder, Alt-celtischer Sprackschatz, i.
(1896).
CENOTAPH (Gr. ks>6s, empty, rd^os, tomb), a monument or
tablet to the memory of a person whose body is buried elsewhere.
The custom arose from the erection of monuments to those
whose bodies could not be recovered, as in the case of drowning.
CENSOR (from Lat. censere, assess, estimate; in Gr. n/xipr^s).
I. In ancient Rome, the title of the two Roman officials who
presided over the census, the registration of individual citizens
for the purpose of determining the duties which they owed to
the community. In the etymology of the word lurks the idea
of the arbitrary assignment of burdens or duties. Varro defines
census as arbitrium, and derives the name censores from the
position of these magistrates as arbitri populi (Varro, de Ling.
Lat. v. 81; ap. Non. p. 519). This original idea of "discre-
tionary power " was never entirely lost; although ultimately
it came to be more intimately associated with the appreciation
of morals than with the assignment of burdens. From the point
of view of its moral significance the censorship was the Roman
manifestation of that state control of conduct which was a not
unusual feature of ancient societies. It is true that Rome
possessed sumptuary laws, and laws dealing with moral offences,
which it was the duty of other magistrates to enforce; but the
organization for the control of conduct was mainly exhibited
in the censorship, and, as thus exhibited, was at once simple and
comprehensive.
The censorship was believed to have been instituted in 443 B.C.
to relieve the consuls of the duties of registration. Since the
periods of registration were quinquennial, it was not a continuous
office; but its tenure does not seem to have been fixed until
434 B.C., when a lex Aemilia provided that the censors should
hold office for eighteen months. This magistracy was at first
confined to patricians; a plebeian censor is first mentioned in
351 B.C. A lex PublUia of 339 B.C. is said to have enacted that
one censor must be a plebeian. Two plebeian censors were for
the first time elected in 131 B.C. The election always took place
in the Comitia Centuriata (see Comitia). The censorship,
although lacking the powers implied in the imperium and the
right of summoning the senate and the people, was not only one
of the higher magistracies, but was regarded as the crown of a
political career. It was an irresponsible office; and the only
limitations on its powers were created by the restriction of
tenure to a year and a half , the fact that re-election was forbidden,
and the restraint imposed on each censor by the fact that no act
of his was valid without the assent of his colleague.
The original functions of the censors were (1) the registration
of citizens in the state-divisions, such as tribes and centuries;
(2) the taxation of such citizens based on an estimate of their
property; (3) the right of exclusion from public functions on
moral grounds, known as the regimen morum; (4) the solemn
act of purification (lustrum) which closed the census. Two
other functions were subsequently added: — (5) the selection of
the senate (lectio senatus, see Senate), and (6) certain financial
duties such as the leasing of the contracts for tax-collecting and
for the repair of public buildings. The first four of these functions
were those of the census, which was a detailed examination of
the citizen body as represented by heads of families (patres
familiarum) in the Campus Martius. The equites were a select
portion of this citizen body; but the review of these knights
took place, not in the Campus, but in the Forum (see Equites).
It was in connexion with this review of the ordinary citizens and
the knights, as well as with the choice of senators, that the
censors published their edicts stating the moral rules which
they intended to enforce. The offences which they punished
were sometimes concerned with family life and private relations,
sometimes with breaches of political duty. Certain professions,
such as that of an actor or gladiator, also invoked their stigma,
and at times the disqualifications they pronounced were the
consequence of a previous judicial condemnation. Infamia
was the general name given to the disabilities pronounced by
the censor. These varied in degree from the deprivation of a
senator of his seat, or a knight's loss of his horse, to exclusion
from the tribes or centuries, an exclusion which entailed the loss
of voting power. All the disabilities pronounced by one pair of
censors might be removed by their successors.
The censorship, although its control over the senate came to
66a
CENSORIN US— CENSUS
be weakened (see Senate), lasted as long as the republic; and
It was only suspended, not abolished, during the principate.
Although the princeps exercised censorial functions, he was
seldom censor. Yet the office itself was held by Claudius I. and
Vespasian. Domitian assumed the title of life censor (censor
perpetuus), but the precedent was not followed. A fruitless
attempt to galvanize the republican office into new life was made
in a.d. 251, during the reign of the emperor Decius.
Authorities. — Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. 331 foil.
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Da remberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des anti-
quitis grecques et romaines, i. 990 foil. (1875, &c); Lange, Romische
Alterthumer, i. 572 foil. (Berlin, 1856, &c.) ; de Boor, Fasti Censorii
(Berlin, 1873); Gerlach, Die romische Censur in ihrem Verhalt-
nisse zur Verfassung (Basel, 1842); Nitzsch, " Ober die Census"
in Neues Jahrbuch f. Phil, lxxiii. 730 (Leipzig, 1856); Zumpt,
44 Die Lustra der Romer " in Rhein. Museum, xxv. 465, xxvi. 1.
(A. H. J. G.)
II. In modern times the word " censor " is used generally for
one who exercises supervision over, or criticizes, the conduct of
other persons. In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge it
is the title of the official head or supervisor of the non-collegiate
students (i.e. those who are not attached to a college, hall or
hostel) . In Oxford the censor is nominated by the vice-chancellor
and the proctors, and holds office for five years; in Cambridge
he is similarly appointed, and holds office for life. The censors
of the Royal College of Physicians are the officials who grant
licences.
Council of Censors, in American constitutional history, is the
name given to a council provided by the constitution of Pennsyl-
vania from 1776 to 1790, and by the constitution of Vermont
from 1777 to 1870. Under both constitutions the council of
censors was elected once in seven years, for the purpose of
inquiring into the working of the governmental departments,
the conduct of the state officers, and the working of the laws,
and as to whether the constitution had been violated in any
particular. The Vermont council of censors, limited in number
to thirteen, had power, if they thought the constitution required
amending in any particular, to call a convention for the purpose.
A convention summoned by the council in 1870 amended the
constitution by abolishing the censors.
For the censorship of the press, see Press Laws; for the censor-
ship of plays, Theatre: Law, and Lord Chamberlain.
CENSORINUS, Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer,
flourished during the 3rd century a.d. He was the author of a
lost work De Accentibus, and of an extant treatise De Die Natali,
written in 238, and dedicated to his patron Quintus Caerellius
as a birthday gift. The contents are of a varied character: the
natural history of man, the influence of the stars and genii,
music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the Greek
philosophers. The second part deals with chronological and
mathematical questions, and has been of great service in deter-
mining the principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is
full of curious and interesting information. The style is clear
and concise, although somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity,
for the period, good. The chief authorities used were Varro
and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold that the entire
work is practically an adaptation of the lost Praium of Suetonius.
The fragments of a work De Natali Institution, dealing with
astronomy, geometry, music and versification, and usually
printed with the De Die Natali of Censorinus, are not by him.
Part of the original MS., containing the end of the genuine work,
and the title and name of the author of the fragment are lost.
The only good edition with commentary is still that of H. Linden-
brog (1614) ; the most recent critical editions are bv O. Jahn (1845),
F. Hultsch (1867), and J. Cholodniak (1889). There is an English
translation of the De Die Natali (the first eleven chapters being
omitted) with notes by W. Maude (New York, 1900).
CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected
by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds), a term used to
denote a periodical enumeration restricted, in modern times,
to population, and occasionally to industries and agricultural
resources, but formerly extending to property of all kinds, for
the purpose of assessment.
Operations of this character have been conducted with
different objects from very ancient times. The fighting strength
of the children of Israel at the Exodus was ascertained by a
count of all males of twenty years old and upwards, made by
enumerators appointed for each clan. The Levites, who were
exempted from military duties, were separately enumerated
from the age of thirty upwards, and a similar process was
ordained subsequently by Solomon, in order to distribute
amongst them the functions assigned to the priestly body in
connexion with the temple. The census unwillingly carried out
by Joab at the behest of David related exclusively to the fighting
men of the community, and the dire consequences ascribed to it
were quoted in reprobation of such inquiries as late as the middle
of the 1 8th century. It appears, too, that a register of the
population of each clan was kept during the Babylonian captivity
and its totals were published on their return to Jerusalem. In
the Persian empire there was apparently some method in force
by which the resources of each province were ascertained for the
purpose of fixing the tribute. In China, moreover, an enumera-
tion of somewhat the same nature was an ancient institution in
connexion with the provincial revenues and military liabilities.
In Egypt, Amasis had the occupation of each individual annually
registered, nominally to aid the official supervision of morals
by discouraging disreputable means of subsistence; and this
ordinance, according to Herodotus, was introduced by Solon
into the Athenian scheme of administration, where it developed
later into an electoral record.
It was in Rome, however, that the system from which the
name of the inquiry is derived was first established upon a
regular footing. The original census was ascribed to Servius*
Tullius, and in the constitution which goes by his name it was
decreed that every fifth year the population should be enumer-
ated along with the property of each family — land, live-stock,
slaves and freedmen. The main object was to ensure the
accurate division of the people into the six main classes and
their respective centuries, which were based upon considerations
of combined numbers and wealth. With the increase of the
city the operation grew in importance, and was followed by an
official lustrum, or purificatory sacrifice, offered on behalf of the
people by the censors or functionaries in charge of the classifica-
tion. Hence the name of lustrum came to denote the intercensal
term, or a period of five years. The word census, too, came to
mean the property qualification of the class, as well as the
process of registering the resources of the individual. Later,
it was used in the sense of the imposition itself, in which it has
survived in the contracted form of cess. Unfortunately the
statistics of population thus collected were subordinated to the
fiscal interests of the inquiry, and no record has been handed
down relating to the population of the city and its neighbourhood.
In the time of Augustus the census was extended to the whole
empire. In the words of the Gospel of St Luke, he ordered
" the whole world to be taxed," or, according to the revised
version, to be enrolled. The compilation of the results of this
the most comprehensive enumeration till then attempted was
engaging the attention of the emperor, it is said, just before his
death, but was never completed. The various inquiries instituted
during the middle ages, such as the Domesday Book and the
Breviary of Charlemagne, were so far on the Roman model that
they took little or no account of the population, the feudal
system probably rendering information regarding it unnecessary
for the purposes of taxation or military service.
The foundations of the census on the modern system were
laid in Europe towards the middle or end of the 17th century.
Sweden led the way, by making compulsory the parish record
of births, deaths and marriages, kept by the clergy, and extending
it to include the whole of the domiciled population of the parish.
In France, Colbert, in 1670, ordered the extension to the rural
communes of the system which had for many years been in force
in Paris of registering and periodically publishing the domestic
occurrences of the locality. Five years before this, however,
a periodical enumeration by families and individuals had been
established in the colony of New France, and was continued in
CENSUS
663
Quebec from 1665 till 1754. This, therefore, may be considered
to be the earliest of modern censuses.
Efforts have been almost unceasingly made since 1872 by
statistical experts in periodical conference to bring about a
general understanding, first, as to the subjects which may be
considered most likely to be ascertained with approximate
accuracy at a census, and secondly — a point of scarcely less
importance — as to the form in which the results of the inquiry
should be compiled in order to render comparison possible
between the facts recorded in the different areas. In regard
to the scope of the inquiry, it is recognized that much is practic-
able in a country where the agency of trained officials is employed
throughout the operation which cannot be expected to be
adequately recorded where the responsibility for the correctness
of the replies is thrown upon the householder. The standard
set up by eminent statisticians, therefore, may be taken to repre-
sent an ideal, not likely to be attained anywhere under present
conditions, but towards which each successive census may be
expected to advance. The subjects to which most importance
is attached from the international standpoint are age, sex,
civil condition, birthplace, illiteracy and certain infirmities.
Occupation, too, should be included, but the record of so detailed
a subject is usually considered to be better obtained by a special
inquiry, rather than by the rough and ready methods of a
synchronous enumeration. This course has been adopted in
Germany, Belgium and France, and an approach to it is made
in the decennial census of Canada and the United States.
Religious denomination, another of the general subjects suggested,
is of considerably more importance in some countries than in
others, and the same may be said of nationality, which is often
usefully supplemented by the return of mother-tongue. Nor
should it be forgotten that the internal classification and the
combinations of the above subjects are also matters to be treated
upon some uniform plan, if the full value of the statistics is to
be extracted from the raw material. On the whole, the progress
towards a general understanding on many, if not most, of the
questions, here mentioned which has been made in the present
generation, is a gratifying tribute to those who have long
laboured in the cause of efficient enumeration.
The British Empire
England and Wales. — Up to the beginning of the 19th cdntury
the number of the population was a matter of estimate and
conjecture. In 1753 a bill was introduced by a private member
of the House of Commons, backed by official support, to provide
for the annual enumeration of the people and of the persons in
receipt of parochial relief. It was violently opposed as " sub-
versive of the last remains of English liberty " and as likely to
result in " some public misfortune or an epidemical distemper."
After passing that House, however, the bill was thrown out by
the House of Lords. The fear of disclosing to the enemies of
England the weakness of the country in fighting-material was
one of the main objections offered to the proposal. By the end
of the century, however, owing to a great extent to the publica-
tion of the essays of Malthus, the pendulum had swung far in the
opposite direction, it was thought desirable to possess the means
of judging from time to time the relations between an increasing
population and the means of subsistence. A census bill, accord-
ingly, again brought in by a private member, became law without
opposition at the end of 1800, and the first enumeration under
it took place in March of the following year, the operations being
confined to Great Britain. The inquiry was entrusted in England
to the overseers, acting under the justices of the peace and the
high constables, and in Scotland, to village schoolmasters, under
the sheriffs. A supplementary statement of births, deaths and
marriages for each parish was required from the clergy, who
transmitted it to parliament through the bishops and primates
successively. There was no central office or control. The
schedule required the number of houses, inhabited and otherwise,
the population of each family, by sex, and the occupation, under
one of the three heads, (a) agriculture, (b) trade, manufacture or
industry, or (c) other than these two. The results, which were
not satisfactory, were published without comment. Ten years
later, the chief alteration in the inquiry was the substitution of
the main occupation of the family for that of the individual.
The report on this census contained a very valuable exposition
of the difficulties involved in such operations and the numerous
sources of error latent in an apparently simple set of questions.
In 1 82 1 an attempt to get a return of ages was made, but it was
not repeated in 183 1, when the attention of the enumerators
was concentrated upon greater detail in the occupation record.
Their efforts were successful in getting a better, but still far from
complete result. The creation, in 1834, of poor law unions, and
the establishment, in 1836, of civil registration districts, as a
rule coterminous with them, provided a new basis for the taking
of a census, and the operations in 1841 were made over accord-
ingly to the supervision of the registrar-general and his staff.
The inquiry was extended to the sex, age and occupation of
every individual; those born in the district were distinguished
from others, foreigners being also separately returned. The
number of houses inhabited, uninhabited and under construction
respectively, was noted in the return. The parish statement of
births, deaths and marriages was sent up by the clergy for the
last time. The most important innovation, however, was the
transfer of the responsibility for filling up the schedule from
the overseers to the householders, thereby rendering possible
a synchronous record.
With some modification in detail, the system then inaugurated
has been since maintained. In 1851 the relationship to the head
of the family, civil condition, and the blind and deaf- mute were
included in the inquiry. On this occasion, the act providing
for the census was interpreted to authorize the collection of
details regarding accommodation in places of public worship
and the attendance thereat, as well as corresponding informa-
tion about educational establishments; A separate report was
published on the former subject which proved something of a
storm centre. The census of 187 1 obtained for the first time a
return of persons of unsound mind not confined in asylums.
During the next ten years, the separate areas for which popula-
tion returns had to be prepared were seriously multiplied by the
creation of sanitary districts, to the number of 966. The necessity,
for administrative or other purposes, of tabulating separately
the returns for so many cross-divisions of the country constitutes
one of the main difficulties of the English census operations,
more particularly as the boundaries of these areas are frequently
altered. In anticipation of the census of 1891, a treasury
committee was appointed to consider the various suggestions
made in regard to the form and scope of the inquiry. Its pro-
posals were adopted as to the subdivision of the occupation
column into employer, employed and independent worker, and
as to the record upon the schedule of the number of rooms
occupied by the family, where not more than five. Separate
entry was also made of the persons living upon property or
resources, but not following any occupation. No action was
taken, however, upon the more important recommendation that
midway between two censuses a simple enumeration by sex and
age should be effected. A return was also prepared in 1891, for
Wales, of those who could speak only Welsh, only English, and
both languages, but, owing to the inclusion of infants, the results
were of little value. In 1901 the same information was called
for, excluding all under three years of age. The term tenement,
too, was substituted for that of storey, as the subdivision of a
house, whilst in addition to inhabited and uninhabited houses,
those occupied by day, but not by night, were separately recorded.
The nationality of those born abroad, which used to be returned
only for British subjects, was called for from all not born within
the kingdom.
Scotland. — In the acts relating to the census from 1801 to
1 85 1, provision for the enumeration of Scotland was made with
that for England and Wales, allowance being made for the
differences in procedure, which mainly concerned the agency
to be employed. In 1855, however, civil registration of births
and deaths was established in Scotland, and the conduct of the
census of 186 1 was, by a separate act, entrusted to the registrar-
66 4
CENSUS
general of that country. The same course was followed at the
three succeeding enumerations, but in iooi the former practice
was resumed. The complexity of administrative areas, though
far less than in England, was simplified, and the census com-
pilation proportionately facilitated, by the passing of the Local
Government Act for Scotland, in x88o. In 1 88 1, the definition
of a house in Scotland was made identical with that in England,
since previously what was called a house in the northern portion
of Great Britain was known as a tenement in the south, and vice
versa. Since 1861 a return has been called for in Scotland of
the number of rooms with one or more windows, and that of
children of school-age under instruction is also included in the
inquiry. The number of persons speaking Gaelic was recorded
for the first time in 188 1. The question was somewhat expanded
at the next census, and in 1001 was brought into harmony with
the similar inquiry as to Welsh and Manx.
Ireland. — An estimate of the population of Ireland was made
as early as 1672, by Sir W. Petty, and another in 17 12, in con-
nexion with the hearth-money, but the first attempt to take a
regular census was made in 181 1, through the Grand Juries.
It was not successful, and in 182 1 again, the inquiry was con-
sidered to be but little more satisfactory. The census of 1 83 1 was
better, but the results were considered exaggerated, owing to
the system of paying enumerators according to the numbers they
returned. The census, therefore, was supplemented by a re-
visional inquiry three years afterwards, in order to get a good
basis for the newly introduced system of public instruction.
The completion of the ordnance survey and the establishment
of an educated constabulary force brought the operations of
1 841 up to the level of those of the sister kingdom. The main
difference in procedure between the two inquiries is that in
Ireland the schedule is filled in by the enumerator, a member
of the constabulary, or, in Dublin, of the metropolitan police,
instead of being left to the householder. The tabulation of the
returns, again, is carried out at the central office from the
original schedule, and not, as in England, from the book into
which the former has been copied by the enumerating agency.
The inquiry in Ireland is more extensive than that in Great
Britain. It includes, for instance, a considerable amount of
information regarding holdings and stock. The details of house
accommodation are fuller. A column is provided for the degree
of education, and another for religious denomination, an addition
which has always been successfully resisted in England. This
last information was made voluntary in 1881 and the following
enumerations without materially affecting the extent of the
record. The inquiry as to infirmities, too, is made to extend to
those temporarily incapacitated from work, whether at home
or in a hospital. There is also a column for the entry of persons
speaking the Irish language only or able to speak both that and
English. In the report of 1901 for England and Wales (p. 170)
a table is given showing, for the three divisions of the United
Kingdom, the relative number of persons speaking the ancient
languages either exclusively or in addition to English.
British Colonies and Dependencies. — A simultaneous and
uniform census of the British empire is an ideal which appeals
to many, but its practical advantages are by no means com-
mensurate with the difficulties to be surmounted. Scattered
as are the colonies and dependencies over the world, the date
found most suitable for the inquiry in the mother country and
the temperate regions of the north is the opposite in the tropics
and inconvenient at the antipodes. Then, again, as to the scope
of the inquiry, the administrative purposes for which information
is thus collected vary greatly in the different countries, and the
inquiry, too, has to be limited to what the conditions of the
locality allow, and the population dealt with is likely to be able
and willing to answer. By prearrangement, no doubt, uniformity
may be obtained in regard to most of the main statistical facts
ascertainable at a census, at all events in the more advanced
units of the empire, and proposals to this effect were made by
the registrar-general of England and Wales in his report upon
the figures for 1001. Previous to that date, the only step towards
compilation of the census results of the empire had been a bare
statement of area and population, appended without analysis,
comparison or comment, to the reports for England and Wales,
from the year 1861 onwards. In 1905, however, the returns
published in the colonial reports were combined with those of
the United Kingdom, and the subjects of house-room, sex, age,
civil condition, birthplace, occupation, and, where available,
instruction, religion and infirmities, were reviewed as fully as
the want of uniformity in the material permitted (Command
paper, 2860, 1906). The measures taken by the principal states,
colonies and dependencies for the periodical enumeration of
their population are set forth below.
Canada. — The first enumeration of what was afterwards
called Lower Canada, took place, as above stated, in 1665, and
dealt with the legal, or domiciled, population, not with that
actually present at the time of the census, a practice still main-
tained, in contrast to that prevailing in the rest of the empire.
The record was by families, and included the sex, age and civil
condition of each individual, with a partial return of profession
or trade. Later on, the last item was abandoned in favour of a
fuller return of agricultural resources, a feature which has
remained a prominent part of the inquiry. After the British
occupation, a census was taken in 1765 and 1784, and annually
from 1824 to 1842, the information asked for differing from
time to time. Enumerations were conducted independently
by the different states until 1871, when the first federal census
was taken of the older parts of the Dominion. Since then, the
enumeration has been decennial, except in the case of the more
recently colonized territories of Manitoba and the North- West,
where an intermediate census was found necessary in 1 885-1886.
The census of Canada is organized on the plan adopted in the
United States rather than in accordance with British practice,
and includes much which is the subject of annual returns in the
latter country, or is not officially collected at all. The details
of deaths in the year preceding the census, for instance, are
called for, there being no registration of such occurrences in the
rural tracts. In consideration of the large immigrant population
again, the birthplace of each parent is recorded, with details as
to nationality, naturalization and date of immigration. Occupa-
tion is dealt with minutely, in conjunction with temporary
unemployment, average wage or salary earned, and other
particulars. No less than eleven schedules are employed, most
of them relating to details of industries and production. The
duty of filling up so comprehensive a return, involving an answer
to 561 questions, is not left to the householder, but entrusted
to enumerators specially engaged, working under the supervision
of the Department of Agriculture. Owing to the sparse popula-
tion and difficulties of communication in a great part of the
dominion, the inquiry, though referred to a single date, is not
completed on that day, a month being allowed to the enumerator
for the collection of his returns and their revision and trans-
mission to the central office. A special feature in the operations
is the provision, necessitated by the record of the legal population,
for the inclusion in the local return of the persons temporarily
absent on the date of the census, and their adjustment in the
general aggregates, a matter to which considerable attention is
paid. The very large mass of detail collected at these inquiries
entails an unusually long time spent in compilation; the
statistics of population, accordingly, are available considerably
in advance of those relating to production and industries.
Australasia. — As the sphere of the census operations in Canada
has been gradually spreading from the small beginnings on the
east coast to the immense territories of the north-west, so, in
the island continent, colonization, first concentrated in the
south-east, has extended along the coasts and thence into the
interior, except in the northern region. The first act of effective
occupation of the country having been the establishment of a
penal settlement, the only population to be dealt with in the
earlier years of British administration was that under restraint,
with its guardians and a few scattered immigrants in the
immediate neighbourhood of Sydney Cove. This was enumerated
from 1788 onwards by official " musters," at first weekly, and
afterwards at lengthening intervals. The record was so inaccurate
CENSUS
665
that it had no statistical value until 1820, when the muster was
taken after due preparation and with greater care, approximating
to the system of a regular census. The first operation, however,
called by the latter name, was the enumeration of 1828, when
an act was passed providing for the enumeration of the whole
population, the occupied area and the live-stock. The details
of population included sex, children and adults respectively,
religion and status, that is whether free (immigrants or liberated
convicts), on ticket-of-leave, or under restraint. A similar
inquiry was made in 1833 and again in 1836. In 1841 a separate
census was taken of New Zealand and Tasmania respectively.
The scope of the inquiry in New South Wales was somewhat
extended and made to include occupations other than agriculture
and stock-breeding. Five years later, the increase of the popula-
tion justified the further addition of particulars regarding
birthplace and education. The record of status, too, was made
optional, and in 1856 was omitted from the schedule. In that
year, moreover, Victoria, which had become a separate colony,
took its own census. South Australia, too, was enumerated
in 1846, ten years after its foundation as a colony. From 1861
the census has been taken decennially by all the states except
Queensland, where, as in New Zealand, it has been quinquennial
since 1875 and 1881 respectively. Up to and including the census
of 1 901 each state conducted separately its own inquiries. The
scheme of enumeration is based on that of Great Britain, modified
to suit the conditions of a thin and widely scattered population.
The schedules are distributed by enumerators acting under
district supervisors; but it is found impossible to collect the
whole number in a single day, nor does the mobility of the popu-
lation in the rural tracts make such expedition necessary. In
more than one state the police are employed as enumerators,
but elsewhere, a staff has to be specially recruited for the purpose.
The operations were improved and facilitated by means of an
interstatal conference held before the census of 1801, at which
a standard schedule was adopted and a series of general tables
agreed upon, to be supplemented in greater detail according
to the requirements of each state. The standard schedule, in
addition to the leading facts of sex, age, civil condition, birth-
place, occupation and house-room, includes education and
sickness as well as infirmities, and leaves the return of religious
denomination optional with the householder. Under the head
of occupation, the bread-winner is distinguished from his depend-
ants and is returned as employer, employed, or working on his
own account, as is now the usual practice in census-taking.
Each state issues its own report, in which the returns are worked
up in the detail required for both local administrative purposes,
and for comparison with the corresponding returns for the
neighbouring territory. The reports for New South Wales and
Victoria are especially valuable in their statistical aspect from
the analysis they contain of the vital conditions of a comparatively
young community under modern conditions of progress.
South Africa, — Almost from the date of their taking possession
of the Cape of Good Hope and its vicinity, the Netherlands East
Indian Company instituted annual returns of population, live-
stock and agricultural produce. The results from 1687 for
nearly a century were recorded, but do not appear to have been
more accurate than those subsequently obtained on the same
method by the British government, by whom they were dis-
continued in 1856. The information was collected by district
officials, unguided by any general instructions as to form or
procedure. The first synchronous census of the colony, as it
was then constituted, took place in 1865, on a fairly compre-
hensive schedule. Ten years later the inquiry was extended
to religion and civil condition, and for the census of 1891, again,
a rather more elaborate schedule was used. The next census
was deferred till 1904, in consequence of the disorganization
produced by the Boer war. The inquiry was on the same lines
as its predecessors, with a little more detail as to industries and
religious denomination. Speaking generally, the administration
of the operations is conducted upon the Australian plan, with
special attention to allaying the distrust of the native and more
ignorant classes, for which purpose the influence of the clergy
was enlisted. In some tracts it was found advisable to sub-
stitute a less elaborate schedule for that generally prescribed.
In Natal, indeed, where the first independent census was
taken in 1891, the Kaffir population was not on that occasion
enumerated at all. In 1904, however, they were counted on a
very simple schedule, by sex and by large age-groups up to 40
years old, with a return of birthplace, in a form affording a fair
indication of race. Natives of India, an element of considerable
extent and importance in this colony, are enumerated apart from
the white population, but in full detail, recognizing the remarkable
difference between the European and the Oriental in the matter
of age distribution and civil condition. The Transvaal and the
Orange River colonies were enumerated in 1004. In the latter,
a census had been taken in 1890, in considerable detail, but that
of the Transvaal, in 1806, seems to have been far from complete
or accurate even in regard to the white population. In Southern
Rhodesia the white residents were enumerated in 1891, but it
was not until 1004 that the whole population was included in
the census. The difficulty in all these cases is that of procuring
a sufficient quantity of efficient agency, especially where a large
and illiterate native population has to be taken into account.
For this reason, amongst others, no census had been taken up
to 1906 of Northern Rhodesia, the British possessions and
protectorates of eastern Africa, or, again, of Nigeria and the
protectorates attached to the West African colonies of Gambia,
Sierra Leone and Lagos.
The West Indies. — Each of the small administrative groups
here included takes its census independently of the rest, though
since 187 1 all take it about the date fixed for that of the United
Kingdom. The information required differs in each group, but
the schedule is, as a rule, of a simple character, and the results
of the inquiry are usually set forth with comparatively little
comment or analysis. In some of the groups distinctions of
colour are returned in general terms; in others, not at all. On
the other hand, considerable detail is included regarding the
indentured labourers recruited from India, and those of this class
who are permanently settled on the land in Guiana and Trinidad.
No census was taken in the former, or in Jamaica and Barbados,
in 1 901.
Ceylon. — Here the census is taken decennially, on the same
date as in India, in consideration of the constant stream of
migration between the two countries. The schedule is much the
same as in India with the substitution of race for caste. Until
1 901, however, it was not filled in by the enumerator, as in India,
but was distributed before and collected after the appointed
date as in Great Britain.
India. — The population of India is the largest aggregate yet
brought within the scope of a synchronous and uniform enumera-
tion. It amounts to three-fourths of that of the British Empire,
and but little less than a fifth of the estimated population of the
world. Between 1853 and 1881 each province conducted its
own census operations independently, with little or no attempt at
uniformity in date, schedule or tabulation. In the latter year the
operations were placed for the first time under central administra-
tion, and thelike procedure wasadoptedin 189 1 and i90i,withsuch
modification of detail as was suggested by the experience of the
preceding census. On each occasion new areas had to be brought
within the sphere of enumeration, whilst the necessity for the
use in the wilder tracts of a schedule simpler in its demands than
the standard, grew less as the country got more accustomed to
the inquiry, and the efficiency of the administrative agency
increased. Not more than 5% of the householders in India can
read and write, and the proportion capable of fully understanding
the schedule and of making the entries in it correctly is still
lower. From the literate minority, therefore, agency has to be
drawn in sufficient strength to take down every particle of the
information dictated by the heads of families. As it would be
impossible for an enumerator to get through this task in the
course of the census night for more than a comparatively small
number of houses, the operation is divided into two processes.
First a preliminary record is made a short time before the night
in question, of the persons ordinarily residing in each house.
666
CENSUS
Then, on that night, the enumerator, reinforced if necessary by
aid drafted from outside, revisits his beat, and brings the record
up to date by striking out the absent and entering the new
arrivals. The average extent of each beat is arranged to include
about 300 persons. Thus, in 1901, not far from a million men
were required for enumeration alone. To this army must be
added the controlling agency, of at least a tenth of the above
number, charged with the instruction of their subordinates, the
inspection and correction of the preliminary record, and the
transmission of the schedule books to the local centre after the
census has been taken. The supply of agency for these duties is,
fortunately, not deficient. Irrespective of the large number
of clerks, village scribes and state and municipal employes
which can be drawn upon with but slight interruption of official
routine, there is a fair supply of casual literary labour up to the
moderate standard required. The services, too, of the educated
public are often voluntarily placed at the disposal of the local
authorities for the census night, with no desire for remuneration
beyond out-of-pocket expenses, and the addition, perhaps, of
a personal letter of thanks from the chief official of the district.
By means of a well-organized chain of tabulating centres, the
preliminary totals, by sexes, of the 294 millions enumerated in
1 90 1 were given to the public within a fortnight of the census,
and differed from the final results by no more than 94,000, or
•03%. The schedule adopted contains in addition to the
standard subjects of sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, occupa-
tion and infirmities, columns for mother- tongue, religion and
sect, and caste and sub-caste. It is printed in about 20 lan-
guages. The results for each province or large state are tabulated
locally, by districts or linguistic divisions. The final compilation
is done by a provincial superintendent, who prepares his own
report upon the operations and results. This work has usually
an interest not found in corresponding reports elsewhere, in the
prominent place necessarily occupied in it by the ethnographical
variety of the population.
Foreign Countries
Inquiries by local officials in connexion with measures of
taxation, such as the hearth- tax in France, were instituted in
continental Europe as early as the 14th century; but as the
basis of an estimate of population they were intrinsically untrust-
worthy. Going outside Europe, an extreme instance of the
results of combining a census with more definite administrative
objects may be found in the census of China in 171 1, when the
population enumerated in connexion with a poll-tax and liability
to military service, was returned as 28 millions; but forty years
later, when the question was that of the measures for the relief
of widespread distress, the corresponding total rose to 103
millions 1 The notion of obtaining a periodical record of popula-
tion and its movement, dissociated from fiscal or other liabilities,
originated, as stated above, in Sweden, where, in 1686, the birth
and death registers, till then kept voluntarily by the parish
clergy, were made compulsory and general, the results for each
year being communicated to a central office. A census, as a
special undertaking, was not, however, carried out in that country
until 1749. The example of Sweden was followed in the next
year by Finland, and twenty years later, by Norway, where the
parish register was an existing institution, as in the neighbouring
state. Several other countries followed suit in the course of the
18th century, though the results were either partial or inaccurate.
Amongst them was Spain, though here a trustworthy census
was not obtained until 1857, or perhaps 1887. Some of the small
states of Italy, too, recorded their population in the middle of
the above century, but the first general census of that country
took place in 186 1, after its unification. In Austria, a census was
taken in 1754 by the parish clergy, concurrently with the civil
authorities and the military commandants. Hungary was in
part enumerated thirty years later. The starting-point of the
modern census, however, in either part of the dual monarchy, was
not until 1857. Speaking generally, most of the principal
countries began the current series of their censuses between
1825 and i860. The German empire has taken its census
quinquennially since its foundation, but long before 1871 a
census at short intervals used to be taken in all the states of
the Zollverein, for the purpose of ascertaining the contribution
to the federal revenue, the amount of which was revisable every
three years. The last great country to enter the census field
was Russia. From 1721, what are known as revisions of the
population were periodically carried out, for military, fiscal and
police purposes; but these were conducted by local officials
without central direction or systematic organization. In 1897
a general census was taken as synchronously throughout the
empire as was found possible. It embraced a population second
to that of India alone, as China, probably the most populous
country in the world, has not yet been subjected to this test*
The inquiry was made in great detail, under central control,
and on a plan sufficiently elastic to suit the requirements of so
varied a country and population. As in India, the schedules
had to be issued in an unusual number of languages, and were
dealt with locally in the earlier stages of tabulation. The
principal regions of which the population is still a matter of mere
conjecture are the Turkish empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China
and the Indo-Chinese peninsula, in Asia, nearly nine-tenths of
Africa, and a considerable portion of South America. (J. A. B.)
United States
Modern census-taking seems to have originated in the United
States. Professor von Mayr declares in a recent and authoritative
work, " It was no European state, but the United States of
America that made a beginning of census-taking in the large
and true sense of that word," and Professor H. Wagner, writing
of the censuses of Sweden, said to have been taken in the 18th
century, uses these words, " Since 1749 careful parish registers
have been kept by the clergy and have in general the value of
censuses." The same authority, although mentioning a reported
census of Norway in 1769, indicates his conviction that the first
real census of that country was in 181 5. Sweden, Norway and
the United States are the only countries with any claim to have
taken the first modern census, as distinguished from a register
of tax-payers, &c, the lineal descendant of the old Roman census,
and the innovation seems to be due to the United States. If so,
the first modern census was the American census of 1790. At
the present date more than three-fifths of the estimated popula-
tion of the world has been enumerated in this way. It is of
interest accordingly to note how and why the device originated.
The Federal census, which began in 1790 and has been taken
every ten years since under a mandate contained in the Con-
stitution of the United States, was the outgrowth of a controversy
in the convention which prepared the document. Represen-
tatives of the smaller states as a rule claimed that the vote, and
so the influence, of the states in the proposed government should
be equal. Representatives of the larger states as a rule claimed
that their greater population and wealth were entitled to recogni-
tion. The controversy ended in the creation of a bicameral
legislature in the lower branch of which the claim of the larger
states found recognition, while in the upper, the Senate, each
state had two votes. In the House of Representatives seats were
to be distributed in proportion to the population, and the con-
vention, foreseeing rapid changes of population, ordained an
enumeration of the inhabitants and a redistribution or reappor-
tionment of seats in the House of Representatives every ten years.
The provision of the Constitution on the subject is as follows: —
" Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among
the several states which may be included within this Union
according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined
by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those
bound to service for a term of years and excluding Indians not
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration
shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent
term of ten years, in such manner as they shall bylaw direct."
In 1790 the population was reported classed as slaves and
free, the free classed as white and others, the free whites as males
and females, and the free white males as under or above sixteen
CENSUS
667
years of age. In 1800 and 18 10 the same classification was
preserved, except that five age-groups instead of two were given
for free white males and the same five were applied also to free
white females. In connexion with the census of 1810 an attempt,
perhaps the earliest in any country, was made to gather certain
industrial statistics showing " the number, nature, extent,
situation and value of the arts and manufactures of the United
States." In 1820 a sixth age class was introduced for free white
males, an age classification of four periods was applied to the free
coloured and the slaves of each sex, and the number of aliens
and of persons engaged in agriculture, in manufactures and in
commerce was called for. The inquiry into industrial statistics
begun in 18 10 was also repeated and extended.
In 1830 thirteen age classes were employed for free whites of
each sex, and six for the free coloured and the slaves of each sex.
The number of aliens, of the deaf and dumb and the blind were
also gathered.
The law under which the census of 1840 was taken contained
a novel provision for tne preparation in connexion with the
census of statistical tables giving " such information in relation
to mines, agriculture, commerce, manufactures and schools as
will exhibit a full view of the pursuits, industry, education and
resources of the country." This was about the first indication
of a tendency, which grew in strength for half a century, to load
the Federal census with inquiries having no essential or necessary
connexion with its main purpose, which was to secure an accurate
enumeration of the population as a basis for a reapportionment
of seats in the House of Representatives. This tendency was
largely due to a doubt whether the Federal government under
the Constitution possessed the power to initiate general statistical
inquiries, a doubt well expressed in the 9th edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica by Francis A. Walker, himself a prominent
member of the party whose contention he states: —
44 The reservation by the states of all rights not granted to the
general government makes it fairly a matter of question whether
purely statistical inquiries, other than for the single purpose of
apportioning representation, could be initiated by any other
authority than that of the states themselves. That large party
which advocates a strict and jealous construction of the constitution
would certainly oppose any independent legislation by the national
Congress for providing; a registration of births, marriages and deaths,
or for obtaining social and industrial statistics, whether for the
satisfaction of tne publicist or for the guidance of the legislature.
Even though the supreme court should decide such legislation to
be within the grant of powers to the general government, the distrust
and opposition, on constitutional grounds, of so large a portion of
the people, could not but go far to defeat the object sought."
The difficulty stated in the foregoing quotation, although now
mainly of historic importance, exerted great influence upon the
development of the American census prior to 1900.
The pioneer work of the census of 1840 in the fields of educa-
tional statistics, statistics of occupations, of defective classes
and of causes of death, suffered from numerous errors and defects.
Public discussion of them contributed to secure radical modifica-
tions of scope and method at the census of 1850. Before the
census law was passed, a census board, consisting of three members
of the president's cabinet, was appointed to draft plans for the
inquiry, and the essential features of its report prepared after
consultation with a number of leading statisticians were embodied
in the law.
The census of 1850 was taken on six schedules, one for free
inhabitants, one for slaves, one for deaths during the preceding
year, one for agriculture, one for manufactures and one for social
statistics. The last asked for returns regarding valuation,
taxation, educational and religious statistics, pauperism, crime
and the prevailing rates of wages in each municipal division.
It was also the first American census to give a line of the schedule
to each person, death or establishment enumerated, and thus to
make the returns in the individual form indispensable for a
detailed classification and compilation. The results of this
census were tabulated with care and skill, and a preliminary
analysis gave the salient results and in some cases compared them
with European figures.
The census of i860 followed the model of its predecessor with
slight changes. When the time for the next census approached
it was felt that new legislation was needed, and a committee of
the House of Representatives, with James A. Garfield, afterwards
president of the United States, at its head, made a careful and
thorough study of the situation and reported an excellent bill,
which passed the House, but was defeated by untoward influences
in the Senate. In consequence the census of 1870 was taken with
the outgrown machinery established twenty years earlier, a law
characterized by Francis A. Walker, the superintendent of the
census, who administered it, as " clumsy, antiquated and bar-
barous." It suffered also from the fact that large parts of the
country had not recovered from the ruin wrought by four years
of civil war. In consequence this census marks the lowest ebb
of American census work. The accuracy of the results is generally
denied by competent experts. The serious errors were errors of
omission, were probably confined in the main to the Southern
states, and were especially frequent among the negroes.
Since 1870 the development of census work in the United
States has been steady and rapid. The law, which had been
prepared for the Census of 1870 by the House committee, furnished
a basis for greatly improved legislation in 1879, under which the
tenth census was taken. By this law the census office for the
first time was allowed to call into existence and to control an
adequate local staff of supervisors and enumerators. The scope
of the work was so extended as to make the twenty-two quarto
volumes of the tenth census almost an encyclopaedia, not only of
thepopulation,but also of theproductsand resources of the United
States. Probably no other census in the world has ever covered
so wide a range of subjects, and perhaps none except that of India
and the eleventh American census has extended through so many
volumes. The topics usually contained in a census suffered from
the great addition of other and less pertinent matter, and the
reputation of the work was unfavourably affected by the length
of time required to prepare and publish the volumes (the last
ones not appearing until near the end of the decade), the original
underestimate of the cost of the work, which made frequent
supplementary appropriations necessary, the resignation of the
superintendent, Francis A. Walker, in 1882, and the disability
and death of his successor, Charles W. Seaton. The eleventh
census was taken under a law almost identical with that of the
tenth, and extended through twenty-five large volumes, present-
ing a work almost as encyclopaedic, but much more distinctively
statistical.
The popular opinion of a census, at least in the United States,
depends largely upon the degree to which its figures for the
population of the country, of states, and especially of cities,
meet or fail to meet the expectations of the interested public.
Judged by this standard, the census of 1890 was less favourably
received than that of 1880. The enumerated population of the
country in 1880 was larger than had been anticipated; and in
the face of these figures it was difficult for local complaints, even
where they were made, to find hearing and acceptance. But
according to the eleventh census the decennial rate of growth
of population fell suddenly from over 30%, which the figures had
shown between 1870 and 1880, and in every preceding decade
of the century, except that of the Civil War, to less than 25%,
in spite of an immigration nearly double that of any preceding
decade. For this change no adequate explanation was offered
by the census office. Hence the protests of those who believed
that the figures for population were too small swelled into a
general chorus of dissatisfaction. But the census was probably
more correct than the critics. Most of the motives influencing
popular estimates of population in the United States tend to
exaggeration. The convention which drafted the Constitution
of the United States attempted to secure a balance of interests
by apportioning both representatives in Congress and direct
taxes according to population. A passage in The Federalist
suggests the motives of the convention as follows: —
" As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will
necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if
not co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the
states should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the
668
CENSUS
amount of their numbers. Were their share of representation
alone to be governed by this rule, they would have an interest in
exaggerating their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their
share of taxation alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By
extending the rule to both objects the states will have opposite
interests, which will control and balance each other, and produce
a requisite impartiality."
With the disappearance of direct taxation as a source of federal
revenue, the motive mentioned for understating the population
disappeared. On the other hand, the desire for many repre-
sentatives in Congress has been reinforced by the more influential
feelings of local pride and of rivalry with other cities of somewhat
similar size. Hence a complaint that the population is overstated
is seldom heard, and hence, also, popular charges of an under-
count afford little evidence that the population was really larger
than stated by the census.
After the detailed tabulation had been completed, it was shown
that the number of persons under ten years of age in 1890 was
surprisingly small, and that this deficiency in children was a
leading cause of the slow growth in population. Before the
tabulation had been made Francis A. Walker wrote: — " If the
birth-rate among the previously existing population did not
suffer a sharp decline ... the census of 1890 cannot be vindi-
cated. To ascertain the facts we must await the tabulation of
the population by periods of life, and ascertain how many of
the inhabitants of the United States of 1890 were under ten years
of age." These results thus confirmed the accuracy of the
count of 1890. Efforts to invalidate the census returns by com-
parison with the registration records of Massachusetts cannot be
deemed conclusive, since in the United States, as in Great Britain,
the census must be deemed more accurate and less subject to
error than registration records. A strong argument in favour
of the eleventh census, apart from its self-consistency, is that its
results as a whole fit in with the subsequent state enumerations.
In eleven cases such enumerations have been taken; and on
computing from them and the results of the federal census of
1880 what the population at the date of the eleventh census
should have been, if the annual rate of increase had been uniform,
it appears that in no case, except New York City and Oregon,
was the difference between the enumerations and these estimates
over 4%. In Oregon about 30,000 more people were found in
1890 than the estimate would lead one to expect; in New York
city, about 100,000 less. It seems not improbable that in the
latter, where the difficulties incident to a count during the
summer are almost insurmountable, serious omissions occurred.
Still, such a comparison confirms the accuracy of the eleventh
census as a whole.
The results of the twelfth census (1900) further refute the
argument that would maintain the eleventh census to be
inaccurate because it showed a smaller rate of increase in popula-
tion during the preceding decade than had been recorded by
other censuses during earlier decades. The rate of increase dur-
ing the decade ending in 1900 was even less than that for the
preceding decade; and it is impossible that a falling off so marked
could in two successive enumerations be the result of sheer
inaccuracy. The rate of increase from 1890 to 1900, eliminating
from the computation the population of Alaska, Hawaii, Indian
Territory and Indian reservations, was 20-7; the rate of increase
if these places are included — in which case the figures of the
population of Hawaii in 1890 must be taken from the census of
the Hawaiian government in that year — was 21 %.
The law regulating the twelfth census deserves to rank with
those of 1790, 1850 and 1879 as one of the four important laws
relative to census work. By this law the census office was far
more independent than ever before. Appointments and removals
were made by the director of the census rather than by the secretary
of the interior, and in all plans for the execution of the law the
head of the office was responsible for success. The law divided the
subjects of census inquiry into two parts— first, those of primary
importance, requiring the aid of the enumerator; and, secondly,
those of subsidiary importance, capable of production without the
aid of the enumerator. The former had to be finished and published
by 1st July 1902; the latter were not to be undertaken until the
former were well advanced towards completion. By this means
the attention of the office could be concentrated on a small number
of subjects rather than distributed over the long list treated in the
volumes of the tenth and eleventh censuses.
Under the federal form of government, with its delegation of all
residuary powers to the several states, the United States have no
system of recording deaths, births and marriages. Hence there is
no such basis as exists in nearly every other civilized state for a
national system of registration, and the country depends upon
the crude method of enumerators' returns for its information on
vital statistics, except in the states and cities which have estab-
lished a trustworthy registration system of their own. These are
the New England states and a few others in their vicinity or influ-
enced by their example. Enumerators' returns in this field are so
incomplete that hardly two-thirds of the deaths which have occurred
in any community during the preceding year are obtained by an
enumerator visiting the families, no satisfactory basis for the com-
putation of death-rates is afforded, and the returns have compara-
tively little scientific value. In the regions where census tables and
interpretations are derived from registration records kept by the
several states or cities they are often made more complete than
those in the state or municipal documents. The census of agricul-
ture is also liable to a wide margin of error, owing to defects in farm
accounts and the inability of many farmers to state the amount or
the value even of the leading crops. The census figures relate to
the calendar year preceding 1st June 1900, and hurried and careless
answers about the preceding year's crop are almost sure to have been
given by many farmers in the midst of the summer's work.
The difficulties facing the manufacturing census were of a different
character. A large proportion of the industries of the country
keep satisfactory accounts, and can answer the questions with some
correctness. But manufacturers are likely to suspect the objects
of the census, and to fear that the information given will be open
to the public or betrayed to competitors. Furthermore, the manu-
facturing schedule presupposes some uniformity in the method of
accounting among different companies or lines of business, and this
is often lacking. Another source of error in the manufacturing
census of the United States is that the words of the census law are
construed as requiring an enumeration of the various trades and
handicrafts, such as carpentering. The deficiencies in such returns
are gross and notorious, but the census office feels obliged to seek
for them and to report what it finds, however incomplete or in-
correct the results may be. Even on the population returns certain
answers, such as the number of the divorced or the number unable
to read and write, may be open to question.
The wide range of the American census, and the publication of
uncertain figures, find a justification in the fact that the develop-
ment of accurate census work requires a long educational process
in the office, and, above all, in the community. Rough approxi-
mations must always precede accurate measurements; ana these
returns, while often inaccurate, are better than nothing, and probably
improve with each decade.
Besides the breadth of its scope, in which the American census
stands unrivalled, the most important American contribution to
census work has been the application of electricity to the tabula-
tion of the results, as was first done in 1890. The main difficulties
which this method reduced were two. The production of tables
for so enormous a population as that of the United States through
the method of tallying by hand requires a great number of clerks
and a long period of time, and when complete cannot be verified
except by a repetition of the process. The new method abbreviates
the time, since an electric current can tally almost simultaneously
the data, the tallying of which by hand would be separated by
appreciable intervals. The method also renders comparatively
easy the verification of the results of certain selected parts.
Judged by European standards the cost of the American census
is very great. The following table gives the total and the per
capita cost of each enumeration.
Date.
Cost.
Date.
Cost.
Total in
Per Capita
Total in
Per Capita
dollars.
in cents.
dollars.
in cents.
1790
44,377
66,109
I-I2
1850
I.423.35I
613
1800
1.24
2-46
i860
1.969.377
626
1810
178,445
1870
3,421,198
8-87
1820
208,526
2-16
1880
5,790,678
11-48
1830
378,545
833.371
2-94
1890
11,547,127
18-33
1840
4-88
1900
16,116,930
21-16
For the sake of comparison it may be stated that the per capita
cost of the English census of 1901 was 2-24 cents, or little more than
one-tenth that of the American census. This difference is due in
part to the greater scope and complexity of the American census,
and in part to the fact that in the United States the field work is
done by well-paid enumerators, while in England it is done in most
cases by the heads of families, who are not paid.
The course of events has clearly established the fact that the
authority of the Federal government in this field is greater than
the strict constructionists of a previous generation as represented
CENTAUREA— CENTIPEDE
669
by General Walker in the passage already quoted believed it to be.
Decision after decision of individual instances has made it a settled
practice for the Federal government to co-operate with or to supple-
ment the state governments in the gathering of statistics that may fur-
nish a basis for state or Federal legislation. The law has allowed the
Federal census office in its discretion to compile and publish the
birth statistics of divisions in which they are accurately kept ; one
Federal report on the statistics of marriages and divorces through-
out the country from 1867 to 1886 inclusive was published in 1889,
and a second for the succeeding twenty-year period was published in
iqo8-iqoq; an annual volume gives the statistics of deaths for
about naif the population of the country, including all the states
and cities which nave approximately complete records of deaths;
Federal agencies like the bureau of labour and the bureau of cor-
porations nave been created for the purpose of gathering certain
social and industrial statistics, and the bureau of the census has
been made a permanent statistical office.
The Federal census office has been engaged in the compilation
and publication of statistics of many sorts. Among its important
lines of work may be mentioned frequent reports during the cotton
ginning season upon the amount of cotton ginned, supplemental
census reports upon occupations, on employees and wages, and on
further interpretation of various population tables, reports on
street and electric railways, on mines and quarries, on electric light
and power plants, on deaths in the registration area 1900- 1904,
on benevolent institutions, on the insane, on paupers in almshouses,
on the social statistics of cities and on the census of manufactures
in 1905. Congress has recently entrusted it with still further duties,
and it has developed into the main statistical office of the Federal
government, finding its nearest analogue probably in the Imperial
Statistical Office in Berlin. (W. F. W.)
CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Com-
positae, containing between four and five hundred species, and
of wide distribution, but with its principal centre in the Medi-
terranean region. The plants are herbs with entire or cut often
spiny-toothed leaves, and ovoid or globose involucres surrounding
a number of tubular, oblique or two-lipped florets, the outer of
which are usually larger and neuter, the inner bisexual. Four
species are native in Britain. C. nigra is knapweed, common
in meadows and pastureland; C. Cyanus is the bluebottle or
cornflower, a well-known cornfield weed; C. Calcitrapa is star-
thistle, a rare plant, found in dry waste places in the south of
England, and characterized by the rose-purple flower-heads
enveloped by involucral bracts which end in a long, stiff spine.
Besides cornflower, a few other species are worth growing as
garden plants; they are readily grown in ordinary soil: — C.
Cineraria, a half-hardy perennial, native of Italy, is remarkable
for its white downy foliage; C. babylonica (Levant) has large
downy leaves and a tall spike of small yellow flowers; C. dealbata
(Caucasus) is a low-growing plant with larger rose-coloured heads;
C. macrocephala (Caucasus) has large yellow heads; C. montana
(Pyrenees) large handsome blue heads; and C. ragusina (S.E.
Europe) beautiful silver-haired leaves and yellow flowers.
CENTAURS, in Greek mythology, a race of beings part horse
part man, dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia.
The name has been derived (1) from Kontiv (goad) and raOpos
(bull), implying a people who were primarily herdsmen, (2) from
Kfvr&v and the common termination -avpos or atpa. ("air")
i.e. " spearmen." The former is unsatisfactory partly from the
philological standpoint, and the latter, though not certain, is
preferable. The centaurs were the offspring of Ixion and Nephele
(the rain-cloud), or of Kentauros (the son of these two) and some
Magnesian mares or of Apollo and Hebe. They are best known
for their fight with the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to
carry off Deidameia on the day of her marriage to Peirithous,
king of the Lapithae, himself the son of Ixion. Theseus, who
happened to be present, assisted Peirithous, and the Centaurs
were driven off (Plutarch, Theseus, 30; Ovid, Metam, xii. 210;
Diod. Sic. iv. 69, 70). In later times they are often represented
drawing the car of Dionysus, or bound and ridden by Eros, in
allusion to their drunken and amorous habits. Their general
character is that of wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the
slaves of their animal passions, with the exception of Pholus and
Chiron. They are variously explained by a fancied resemblance
to the shapes of clouds, or as spirits of the rushing mountain
torrents or winds. As children of Apollo, they are taken to
signify the rays of the sun. It is suggested as the origin of the
legend, that the Greeks in early times, to whom riding was
unfamiliar, regarded the horsemen of the northern hordes as one
and the same with their horses; hence the idea of the Centaur
as half-man, half-animal. Like the defeat of the Titans by Zeus,
the contests with the Centaurs typified the struggle between
civilization and barbarism.
In early art they were represented as human beings in front, with
the body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back: later, they
were men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae,
and the adventure of Heracles with Pholus (Apollodorus, ii. 5;
Diod. Sic. iv. 11) are favourite subjects of Greet art (see Sidney
Colvin, Journal of Hellenic Studies, i. 1881, and the exhaustive article
in Roscher's Lextkon der Mythologie). Fig. 34 in article Greek Art
(the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia) represents the
attempt of the Centaurs to carry off the bride of Peirithous.
CENTAURUS (" The Centaur "), in astronomy, a constella-
tion of the southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th
century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), Ptolemy catalogued
thirty-seven stars in it. a-Centauri is a splendid binary star.
Its components are of the 1st magnitude, and revolve in a period
of eighty-one years; and since its parallax is 0-75', it is the
nearest star to the earth; w-Centauri, the finest globular star-
cluster in the heavens, consists of about 6000 stars in a space
of about 20' diameter, of which about 125 variables have been
examined. Nova Centauri, a " new " star, was discovered in
1895 by Mrs Fleming in photographs taken at Harvard.
CENTAURY (Erythraea Centaur turn f natural order Gentian-
aceae), an annual herb with erect, smooth stem, usually branched
above, and a terminal inflorescence with numerous small red or
pink regular flowers with a funnel-shaped corolla. The plant
occurs in dry pastures and on sandy coasts in Britain, and
presents many varieties, differing in length of stem, degree of
branching, width and shape of leaves, and laxity or closeness of
the inflorescence. Several other species of the genus are grown
as rock-plants.
CENTENARY (from Lat centenarius, of or belonging to a
hundred, from centeni, distributive of centum, hundred), a space
of a hundred years, and particularly the celebration of an event
on the lapse of a hundred years, a centennial anniversary. The
word " centennial " (from Lat. centennis, from centum, and annus,
a year), though usually an adjective as in "the Centennial
State," the name given to Colorado on its admission to statehood
in 1876, is also used as a synonym of centenary.
CENTERVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Appanoose
county, Iowa, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about
90 m. N.W. of Keokuk. Pop. (1890) 3668; (1900) 5256; (1905,
state census) 5967 (487 being foreign-born) ; (1910) 6936. Center-
ville is served by the Chicago, Burlington &Quincy, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific and the Iowa Central railways. Among
the principal buildings are the county court-house and the
Federal building, and the city has a public library and a hospital.
It is in one of the most productive coal regions of the state;
it ships coal, limestone and livestock, has large bottling works,
and manufactures iron, brick and tile, machine-shop products,
woollen goods, shirts, cigars and flour. The place was platted
in 1846, was called Chaldea until 1849, when the present name
was adopted, was incorporated as a town in 1855, and in 1870
was chartered as a city of the second class. The city limits were
extended in 1 906-1 907.
CENTIPEDE, the characteristic member of the group Chilopoda,
a class of the Arthropoda, formerly associated with the Diplopoda
(Millipedes), the Pauropoda and the Symphyla, to constitute
the now abandoned group Myriapoda. The resemblance between
the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda is principally superficial and
due to the elongation and vermiform shape of the body, which
in both is composed of a number of similar or subsimilar somites
not differentiated as are those of Insecta, existing Arachnida
and most Crustacea, into series or " tagmata " of varying
function. Until 1893 no one doubted the correctness of the
assumption that the Chilopoda and Diplopoda were orders of a
class Myriapoda of the same systematic status as the Arachnida
or Hexapoda. But in that year, R. I. Pocock and J. S. Kingsley
independently pointed out that they differ as much from each
other as either differs from the Hexapoda; and should, therefore,
670
CENTIPEDE
rank as distinct classes of Arthropods. Pocock, indeed, definitely
associated the Chilopoda with the Hexapoda in a group, the
Opisthogoneata (Opisthogonea), equivalent to a group, the
Progoneata (Prosogonea), comprising the Diplopoda, Pauropoda
and Symphyla. As the basis for this classification was taken
the position of the generative orifices which open in the Opistho-
gonea at the posterior end and in the Prosogonea near the anterior
end of the body. As a matter of fact, in the Chilopoda they are
situated on the penultimate or pretelsonic somite; in the
Hexapoda upon the antepenultimate somite (male) or a little
farther forward (female). Moreover, the recent researches of
Heymons into the embryology of Scolopendra, one of the
Chilopods, has shown a close correspondence in the number of
cephalic metameres between the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, a
correspondence which has not yet been established in the case
of the Diplopoda or Symphyla. This last discovery bears out
the view of relationship between the centipedes and insects, to
the exclusion of the Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda.
But even if in the future it can be shown that all these groups
can be brought into line with respect to the metamerism of the
head, the position of the generative orifices will remain as a
fundamental and constant character, distinguishing the Chilo-
poda from the other groups of so-called " Myriapods " and the
Hexapoda from the Symphyla, which in many particulars they
resemble.
Structure of the Chilopoda, — The exoskeletal elements of a typical
somite consist of a dorsal plate or tergum, a ventral plate or sternum,
a lateral or pleural membrane, often strengthened with chitinous
sclerites, and a pair of appendages. At the anterior extremity
there is a head-shield or cephalite, which bears eyes, when present,
and a pair of antennae. In all centipedes, except the Scuttgeridae,
the preantennal portion of the cephalite is sharply reflexed, ventrally
forming an area called the clypeus. The inferior edge of this bears
the labrum, which is usually represented by a small median, and two
large lateral plates. The appendages are modified as a single pair
of antennae, four pairs of jaws or gnathites, a variable number of
walking legs and a single pair of generative limbs or gonopods. The
antennae, articulated to the forepart of the head and preoral in
position, are long and flexible and consist of fourteen or more seg-
ments. The jaws of the first pair of mandibles are stout and bi-
segmented, with a dentate cutting edge. Those of the second pair
or maxillae vary considerably in structure in different groups. They
are foliaceous and are usually regarded as biramous. In some genera
(Scutigera, Lithobius) the inner branch consists of two distinct seg-
ments meeting those of the opposite side in the middle line. The
outer branch, which is always larger, consists of three or four seg-
ments. Generally, however, the basal segments of the two branches
are coalesced with each other and with the corresponding segments
of the opposite side to form a single broad transverse plate. The
above described condition seen in Scutigera suggests that two pairs
of jaws may be involved in the formation of the maxillae in the
Chilopoda. The jaws of the third pair, the palpognaths or second
pair of maxillae, resemble dwarfed walking legs, and consist of five
or six segments, of which the basal or coxa is united mesially to its
fellow. The jaws of the fourth pair, the toxicognaths or poison-
jaws, are long and powerful, and consist like the legs primarily of
six segments, whereof the basal is large and usually fused with its
fellow to form a large coxal plate, the second is small and generally
suppressed by fusion with the third, the fourth and fifth are also
small, while the sixth is transformed into a great piercing fang, at
the tip of which opens the duct of a poison gland lodged within
the appendage.
The tergal elements of the somites bearing the antennae, man-
dibles and maxillae appear to be represented by the head-shield
or cephalite. The tergal element of the somite bearing the palpo-
gnath is usually suppressed; that of the toxicognath is sometimes
of large size as in some Geophilomorpha (Himantarium), sometimes
small as in Scutigera, Lithobius, Crater ostigmus, sometimes suppressed
probably by fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite
as in the Scolopendromorpha. The sternal plates of all the jaw-
bearing somites have disappeared, except in the case of the somite
of the toxicognath, where it may be vestigial. In the case of the
somites bearing the walking legs the tergal and sternal elements
are preserved without fusion with the corresponding plates of the
preceding or succeeding somites, so that great flexibility of the body
is retained. The only exception to this is presented by Scutigera,
where the terga corresponding to the somites bearing the fifteen
pairs of legs are reduced by fusion and suppression to seven. The
walking legs are articulated to the inferior portion of the pleural
or lateral area of the somites close to the external margins of the
sterna, which widely separate those of the left from those of the
right side. Generally speaking the legs resemble each other, although
as a rule they progressively increase in length towards the posterior
end of the body. They consist typically of six segments, of which the
basal is termed the coxa and the apical the tarsus. The tarsus is
armed with a single terminal claw, and, except in the Geophilo-
morpha and a few genera of other orders, is divided by a mesial
transverse joint into two segments, as is the case in Scolopendra and
Lithobius for example. But in some of the longer-legged, swift-
footed centipedes of the order Lithobiomorpha (e.g. Henicops,
Cermatobius) the tarsi are further subdivided. The multiplication
of sub-segments reaches its maximum in Scutigera, where the tarsi
are extremely long, slender, flexible and annulated. The legs of
the last pair are directed backwards in a line parallel with the long
axis of the body, so that their coxae, fused in some cases with the
pleural sclerites (Scolopendra, Geophtlus), or free and of large size
(Scutigera, Lithobius), serve to protect the small genital and anal
somites. They are often greatly modified. In the males of some
species of Lithobius one or more of the segments is inflated or fur-
nished with tubercle-bearing, tactile bristles; in some Geophilo-
morpha the whole limb is thickened in the male sex. In most
Scolopendromorpha the basal segment is armed beneath with spines
or spikes (Dacetum, Scolopocryptops) ; sometimes the whole appen-
dage is thickened and terminated by a sharp and serrate claw
(Tneatops, Plutonium). In these cases the legs act as weapons of
defence and offence. In other cases (Newportta) the tarsi lose the
claw, become many- jointed and act as feelers, while in Alipes the
terminal segments are flattened, leaf-like and furnished with a
peculiar stridulating organ. The genital somite is always small
and sometimes retractile within the somite bearing the last pair
of legs. Its tergal plate is usually retained, but its sternal plate is
generally suppressed. In females of the Lithobiomorpha and
Scutigeromorpha the appendages of this somite — the gonopods —
are jointed, forcipate and relatively well developed although small.
In the females of the other orders they are greatly reduced or absent.
In the males their development varies considerably. They are well
developed in Scutigera, where they form two pairs of digitiform
sclerites, whereas in the Geophilomorpha they are reduced to a pair
of very short, two-jointed limbs. The anal somite is always small
and limbless. In Crater ostigmus the genital and anal somites are
represented by a pair of elongate valves projecting between the legs
of the last pair. The structure of the gonopods is unknown, and
the homology between the two valves and the skeletal elements
of the somites in question not clearly understood.
A study of the development of Scolopendra has shown that the
antennae of the adult are the appendages of the second postoral
metamere and the mandibles
those of the fourth, the first
postoral metamere, which has a
pair of transient preantennal
appendages, and the third, which
has no appendages, being ex-
calated at an early stage of
embryonic growth. Further-
more, behind the legs of the last
pair two pairs of appendages are
present. The second of these
persists as the gonopods of the
adult, but the first is suppressed.
Possibly, however, it is repre-
sented in the male of Scutigera
by the anterior branches of
the gonopods. The cerebral or
cephalic portion of the nervous
system consists of a quadrilobate
mass. From the two upper
lobes, which are set transversely,
arise the ocular nerves; from
the two lower lobes, which are
united by a transverse commis-
sure, spring the antennal nerves
in front and the chords which
form the oesophageal collar be-
hind. These chords unite below
Modified from Heymons, Bib. Zool., ioox,
by permission of £. Nkgele.
Fig. 1.
A, Diagram of anterior ex-
^ tremity of an early embryo of
the^sophagustolormVhe^com" Scolopendra, ventral view; d,
pound suboesophageal ganglion, clypeus; lb, labrum; m, mouth;
whence the nerves for the four M. preantennal appendage; a,
pairs of jaws arise. The ventral antenna ; ml, premandibular rudi-
• ■ • ment ; mdl, mandible ; mx, max-
illa; p.g, palpognath; l.g, toxico-
gnath ; Ig. 1 , first pair of walking
legs.
B, Posterior end of a later
embryo of Scolopendra, ventral
view, showing the anal segment
or telson (/) ; the legs of the last
pair in the adult (Ig. 21) and the
When present they may be either two rudimentary pairs of legs
simple or compound, i.e. consist- W 22 » *£• 2 3)«
ing externally of a single lens
(monomeniscous) of or an aggregation of lenses (polymeniscous).
Simple eyes vary in number on each side of the head from one, as in
Henicops, to as many as forty, as in some species of Lithobius. In
system consists of a double
chord uniting in each of the leg-
bearing segments in a ganglionic
swelling which gives off four
pairs of nerves to the limbs and
tissues of the somite. There is
a single ganglion in the genital
segment.
Eyes are frequently absent.
CENTIPEDE
671
Scolopendra, where there are four, the corneal lens is a biconvex thick-
ening of the cuticle. The soft or retinal portion of the eye beneath
the lens consists of an aggregation of large cells forming a single layer
continuous with the epidermic cells of the circumocular area. Thus
the eye is monostichous. The arrangement of the cells, however,
is peculiar. They are invaginated to form what may be described
as a very deep cup with exceedingly thick walls and correspondingly
narrow median space, the outer surface of the cup being formed
by the inner or proximal ends of the cells and the inner surface by
their outer or distal ends. It results from this arrangement that
the cells forming all but the bottom of the invagination lie horizon-
tally, i.e. at right angles to the vertical axis of the eye. From the
distal ends of the cells are secreted chitinous rhabdomeres, forming
a rhabdom which occupies and fills up the central portion of the cup
beneath the middle of the corneal lens. The outer ends of the cells
are nucleated and are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve,
rv ant
large accessory glands; and a pair of tubes, or vesiculae seminales,
open, one on each side, into the divided sperm ducts close to their
point of origin above the intestine.
The organs of the female are very
similar. There is a large median
ovary followed by a short oviduct
forming a circum-intestinal collar
and a common atrium. Into the
latter open a pair of short re-
ceptacula seminis and the slender
duct of two pairs of large acces-
sory glands. There is nothing in
the female corresponding to the
supra-intestinal vesiculae semin-
ales of the male. In the male of
Scolopendra, on the contrary, there
Urv.
71* opt
A and B alter Hcymons, Bibl. Zool., 1901, by permission of £. Nagele.
A, Brain of Scolopendra, n.ant, Antennal nerves;
n.opt, ocular nerves; n.pr.ant, preantennal nerves;
oes.cotnm, oesophageal commissure.
W-...
^e.«5.—'
Fig. 2.
B, Section of Eye of Scolopendra. len,
Corneal lens; ret, retinal or visual cells;
n.opt, optic nerve.
r^ SW.opt
C after Adensamer, Verh. s . b. Verein, Vienna, 1893, pi. vii.
which passes from the outer surface of the bottom of the cup to the
brain. Compound eyes are found only in the Scutigeridae. Exter-
nally the eye consists of one hundred or
more little lenses or lenticles. The retinal
portion is composed of a corresponding
number of ocular units or ommatidia.
Each ommatidium is an elongated cone
with its broad extremity abutting against
the corneal lenticle. It consists of a
non-nucleated crystalline cone developed
from embryonic cells, and is enveloped
in three tiers of large nucleated cells.
The cells of the outermost tier are heavily
pigmented; those of the middle and
innermost (proximal) tiers, the retinal
cells, are at their inner extremities pro-
duced into threads continuous with the
fibres of the optic nerve. In the space
between these cells and the crystalline
cone which they surround, there is a layer
of rhabdomeres deposited apparently by
the cells.
The alimentary canal is a simple tube
running without convolutions from the
mouth to the anus. Its anterior portion
or pharynx, which arises from the stomo-
daeal invagination in the embryo, is
short; a pair of large, so-called salivary
glands open into it. The mesenteric part
of the canal is relatively wide and
receives at its junction with the hind-gut
the excretory products of a pair of very
long and slender malpighian tubes of
Fig. 3. — Diagram of proctodaeal origin. The posterior end of
Alimentary Canal of the canal, arising from the proctodaeum,
r -•'»- -«---- is relatively short and narrow.
The generative organs vary in struc-
tural details in different centipedes. In
the male of Liihobius the testes consist
of a single coiled tube lying above the
alimentary canal. The slender vas de-
ferens which proceeds from its hinder
end divides posteriorly into a right and
left branch, embracing the gut and unit-
ing beneath it to form a common chamber or atrium within the
genital orifice. The atrium receives the secretion of two pairs of
Lithobius,
a, Anus.
mg, Mid-gut.
hg, Hind-gut.
mt, Malpighian tubule.
s.gl, Salivary gland.
lg> 1 » lg- 1 5» Legs of first
and fifteenth pairs.
C, Ocular unit or ommatidium
of compound Eye of Scutigera.
len, corneal lenticle ; c.c, crystal-
line cone; 1, pigmented cells of
outermost tier; 2, 3, retinular
cells of middle and innermost
tiers; rbd, rhabdomeres; n.opt,
optic nerve; pg f pigment cells.
are as many as twelve pairs of
somewhat sausage-shapea testes,
approximated two by two. From
each pair proceed two slender
ducts which open into a median
duct coiled in the posterior third of the body and much expanded
in the last three of the leg-bearing segments. The right and left
portions of the intestinal nng of the genital duct are unequally de-
veloped, and there are no vesiculae seminales, but two pairs of
pLacc
After Heymons, Bibl. Zool., 1901, by permission of E. Nagele.
Fig. 4. — Posterior portion of generative organs of male of
Scolopendra (A), of female (B). /, Testes; v.d, vas deferens; ov,
ovary; r.s, receptaculum seminis; gl.acc, accessory glands; g.o,
generative orifice.
accessory glands communicate with the genital atrium as in
Lithobius. In the female Scolopendra the right and left portions
of the intestinal collar are also unequally developed, and only a
single pair of accessory glands besides the receptacula seminis open
into the atrium.
The heart is tubular and lies in the middle dorsal line immediately
672
CENTIPEDE
beneath the integument. It consists of a series of chambers corre-
sponding roughly to the leg-bearing segments, and lies in a blood-
sinus formed by a pericardial membrane whence larjge alary muscles
extend to the sides of the body. Each chamber gives off in Scolo-
pendra a pair of fine lateral vessels, and is furnished at its posterior
B
A after Newport, PhU. rr«w. t 1843.
f-flft
B after Haase, Zool. Beitr&ge, i. pt. 65, 1884, by permission of J. N. Kern.
C after Haase, loc. cit.
A, Anterior extremity of
Scolopendra, showing two
chambers of the heart (h), the
aortic ring (a), the alae cordis
(a.m) and a cardiac orifice (0).
Fig. 5.
B, Two segments of Scolo-
pendra, showing the branching
and anastomosing tracheae and a
spiracle (sp).
C, A pair of tufted tracheae
of Sculigera. d t Dorsal plate;
t.s, tracheal sac; tr, tracheal
tubes.
extremity with a pair of orifices by which the blood re-enters the
organ from the pericardial space. From the anterior chamber,
which Ijes in the first or second leg-bearing segment, proceed three
arteries, a median which runs forwards into the head to supply
the brain and other organs, and a lateral which with its fellow of the
opposite side forms an oesophageal aortic collar. From the sides
of the latter arise vessels to thegnathites, andirom its inferior portion
an unpaired vessel passes forwards into the head and another back-
wards above the nerve chord to the posterior end of the body,
supplying each segment in its course with a delicate lateral branch.
In Scolopendra the chambers of the heart, excepting the first and
last, which are small, are subequal in size; but in forms like Sculigera
where the terga are very unequal in size a corresponding inequality
in the size of the chambers is manifested.
In all centipedes, except Sculigera, respiration is effected^ by
chitinized tracheal tubes which extend with their ramifications
throughout the body and open to the exterior by means of
spiracles perforating the lateral or pleural membrane of more or
fewer of the somites below the edge of the terga. Spiracles are never
present upon the anal, genital ana last leg-bearing somites, and only
rarely, as in Henicops, upon the somite bearing the legs of the first
pair. In the majority of cases the spiracles are circular, sigmoid
or slit-like orifices, with chitinized rim, leading into a pocket-like
integumental infolding, from which emanate numerous small tracheal
tubes which soon anastomose to form the main tracheal trunks.
In Dace turn, one of the Scolobendridae, there is no pocket-like in-
folding, the small tracheal tubes opening direct to the exterior on
a large subcircular plate where their apertures fuse to form a com-
plicated network. The apertures, as in the case of other
genera, are protected by fine hairs; and the tracheae
themselves are strengthened by a fine spiral filament. In the
Lithobiidae the tracheae do not anastomose; but in Scolopendra
and Geophilus the main trunks in each segment fuse transversely
with those of the opposite side and also longitudinally with those
of the preceding ana succeeding segments.
In Sculigera the tracheae differ both in structure and position
from those of all other Chilopoda. The spiracles, unpaired and
seven in number, open in the median dorsal line. Each leads into
a short sac from which five tracheal tubes depend into the peri-
cardial blood-sinus.
Existing Chilopoda may be classified as follows, into five orders
referable to two subclasses —
Subclass I. Pleurostjgma.
Order 1 Geophilomorpha.
„ 2 Scolopendromorpha.
,, 3 Craterostigmomorpha.
„ 4 Lithobiomorpha.
Subclass II. Notostigma.
Order 5 Scutigeromorpha.
Subclass i, Pleurostigma. — Chilopods furnished with a rich
system of branching tracheal tubes, the spiracles of which are
paired and open upon the pleural area of more or fewer of the
somites. Each leg-bearing somite contains a distinct tergum
and sternum, the number of sterna never exceeding that of
the terga. Eyes are either preserved or lost; when preserved
they are represented either by a single one-lensed ocellus or
by an aggregation of such ocelli on each side of the head.
The anterior portion of the head, bearing the labrum, is bent
sharply downwards and backwards beneath the larger posterior
portion lying behind the antennae, so that these appendages,
approximated in the middle line, project directly forwards
from the margin of the head formed by this retroversion of
the labral area. The maxillae are short and have no sensory
organ; the palpognaths consist of four segments, and the
toxicognaths have their basal segments fused to form a single
coxal plate.
Order 1. Geophilomorpha. —
Chilopods with a large and in-
definite number of somites, most
of which are partially or com-
pletely divided into a smaller
anterior segment, represented by
a pretergal and two presternal
sclerites, and a larger posterior
segment bearing the spiracles and
legs. Spiracles are present upon
all the leg-bearing somites except
the first and last ; and the legs
which are short and subequal in
length consist of six segments,
the basal of which remains small.
There are no eyes, and the an-
tennae consist invariably of four-
teen segments. The tergal plate of the somite bearing the toxi-
cognaths always remains distinct and separates the head-shield from
the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The penultimate and
antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are reduced on the
preaxial side of the appendage to the condition of arthrodial integu-
mental folds and suppressed on the postaxial side where the distal
segment or fang is firmly jointed to the femoral segment. In the
last leg-bearing somite the pleural sclerites coalesce with the coxa
of the appendage; but the second segment (trochanter) of this
appendage does not fuse with the third (femur). The genital and anal
somites are not retractile within the last leg-bearing somite, and
the gonopods typically persist in A
the male as small two- jointed A
appendages and in the female as
jointed or unjointed sclerites. The
young are hatched with the full
number of segments.
Remarks. — The Geophilomorpha
are universally distributed in suit-
able localities. The number of
families into which the order should
be divided is as yet unsettled, some
authors admitting several groups of
this rank, others referring all the
genera to a single family, Geo-
philidae. In habits the Geophilidae
are mostly subterranean, living in
Fig. 6.
A, Upper view of anterior ex-
tremity in Geophilus.
a, Basal segments of antennae.
c, Cephalic plate. [palpognaths.
t.palp, Tergal plate of somite, bearing
t.tox, Tergal plate of somite, bearing
toxicognaths (tox).
Ug. 1 , Tergal plate of somite, bearing
legs of first pair.
B, Toxicognaths of Scolopendra,
showing the large coxal plate and
the reduced penultimate and ante-
penultimate segments.
C, Terminal segment or fang of
the same, showing the orifice of the
poison gland.
(After Latzel, Die Myr. 6st.-ung. Mon. vol.
i. "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.)
the earth and feeding principally upon earthworms. Occasionally
they may be found eating fruit or fungi, probably for the sake of
moisture. Although without eyes, they are extremely sensitive to
light, and when exposed to it crawl away in serpentine fashion to the
nearest sheltered spot, feeling the way with their antennae. They
CENTIPEDE
673
can, however, progress with almost equal facility backwards, using
the legs of the posterior pair as feelers. Differing from the majority
of the family in habits are the two species Linotaenia mariHma and
Schendyla submaHna, which live under stones or seaweed between
tide-marks on the coasts of western Europe. Most, if not all, the
species are provided with glands, which open upon the sterna and
secrete a fluid which in some forms (Himantarium) is blood-red, while
in others it is phosphorescent. In the tropical form Orphnaeus phos-
phareus the fluid is known to possess this property ; and its lumin-
osity has been repeatedly observed in England in the autumn in the
case of Linotaenia acuminata and L. crassipes.
The number of pairs of legs within this family varies from between
thirty and forty to over one hundred and seventy. Corresponding
discrepancies are observable in size, the smallest specimens being
less than 1 in. long and barely 1 mm. wide, while the largest example
recorded, a specimen of Notiphilides from Venezuela, was 11 in.
lone and i of an inch wide.
When pairing takes place the female fertilizes herself by taking
up a spermatophore which a male has left upon a sheet of web for
that purpose. The female lays a cluster of eggs in some sheltered
spot, sometimes in a specially prepared nest, and encircling them
with her body, keeps guard until the young
disperse and shift for themselves.
Order 2. Scolopendromorpha.— Chilopods
differing principally from the Geopnilo-
morpha in that the number of leg-bearing
somites is definitely fixed at twenty-three
or twenty-one. These are differentiated
into larger and smaller, which alternate
with nearly complete regularity. The
anterior portion of each somite is only
partially cut off as a subsegment. The
tergal plate of the somite bearing the
toxicognaths is suppressed, probably by
fusion with the tergum of the first leg-
bearing somite. The antennae consist of a
number of segments varying from seventeen
to about thirty, and usually differing in the
individuals of a species. The second seg-
ment (trochanter) of the legs of the last pair
is coalesced with the third (femur). In
only one genus, namely Plutonium, which
occurs in Italy, is there a pair of spiracles
for each leg-bearing segment, except the
first and last, as in the Geophilomorpha.
In most genera there are only nine pairs of
spiracles situated upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th,
10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th leg-
bearing segments, as in Scolopendra, Cormo-
cephalus, Cryptops, &c. In genera with
twenty-three pairs of legs, like Scolopo-
Fig. 7. — Scolopendra cryptops, there is an additional pair of
morsitans (after Buffon). spiracles on the twenty-second pedigerous
A, a, Cephalic plate.
b,
Tergum of segment,
bearing first pair of
legs (a).
Tip of palpognath.
Antenna.
Toxicognath.
Last pair of append-
ant; and a few genera such as Rhy*
sida, Edentistoma, possess a pair upon the
7th segment. Eyes, when present, are
always four in number on eacn side. The
newly hatched young has the full com-
plement of appendages.
This order is divided into four families : —
Scolopendridae (Scolopendra, Rhysida),
ages, enlarged and Cryptopidae (Cryptops, Theatops), Scolopo-
directed back- cryptopidae (Scolopocryptops, Otocryptops)
wards. and Newportiidae (NewporHa). Apart from
the frigid zones it is cosmopolitan in distri-
bution, though only one genus (Cryptops) extends into north temperate
latitudes. In the tropics and warmer countries of the southern
hemisphere the genera and species are particularly abundant, and
individuals reach the greatest dimensions, some specimens of the
tropical American species Scolopendra gigantea exceeding 12 in. in
length. They are strictly carnivorous, their diet consisting of any
animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, small enough to be overcome.
They live in damp obscure places, under logs of wood or stones, and
are nocturnal, shunning, like the Geophilidae, exposure to light ; and
as in the Geophilidae, the females guard their eggs and young until
the latter disperse to lead an independent life.
Order 3. Craterosti^momorpha. — Chilopods with twenty-one tergal
plates as in the typical genera of Scolopendromorpha, but with
only fifteen pairs of legs as in the Lithobiomorpha. As in some
members of the latter order there is a single ocellus on each side
of the head, the penultimate and antepenultimate segments of the
toxicognaths are complete on the postaxial side of the appendage,
and spiracles are present upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, ioth, 12th and 14th
leg-bearing somites. In the size and shape of the head, of the toxi-
cognaths, of the tergal plate of this somite, and of the first leg-bearing
somite, great similarity to some genera of Geophilomorpha (e.g.
Mecistocephalus) is presented ; but in the structure of the posterior
end of the body thisorder differs from'all the other orders of Chilopoda.
The skeletal elements of the last leg-bearing segment are welded
together to form a subcylindrical tube, and the genital and anal
t.tox -•
II9L.
tOX
somites are represented by a pair of chitinous valves capable of
opening below for the escape of the genital and intestinal products.
This order, containing the family Craterostigmidae, is based upon
a remarkable genus and species Craterostigmus tasmanianus, of
which only two specimens are known. These were collected under
stones upon the A
summit of Mount *
Rumney in Tas-
mania. They are
about 1 J in. in length ;
but nothing has been
recorded of their
habits. The chief
morphological in-
terest attaching to
Craterostigmus is
that, apart from cer-
tain structural pecu-
liarities of its own,
it presents features
previously believed
to be found exclu-
sively either in the
Sc olopendromorpha,
or the Geophilo-
morpha, or the Litho-
biomorpha; and it
shows how the Litho-
biomorpha may be
derived: from a Scolo-
pendromorphous
type most nearly re-
sembling Plutonium
by the excalation
of the third, sixth,
ninth, eleventh, four-
teenth and seven-
teenth leg - bearing
somites.
Order 4. Lithobio-
morpha. Chilopoda
with fifteen pairs of
lee-bearing somites
differentiated into
larger and smaller,
the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th,
8th, ioth, 1 2th and
14th being large, the
others small. Spir-
acles present upon all
the larger with the
exception sometimes
of the 1st. The toxicognaths are relatively weaker than in the orders
hitherto considered, and have their basal segments less firmly fused
mesially. In correlation with their weaker muscularity tne first
leg-bearing segment is relatively small. The gonopods, present
and usually jointed in both sexes, are especially well developed
and forcipate in the female, and arise from a large ventral plate
resulting from the fusion of their coxae with the sternum of the
genital somite. The antennae are many-jointed, and there is a
single ocellus or a cluster of ocelli on each side of the head. The
coxae of the legs are large, and those of the last four or five pairs
usually contain glands opening by large orifices. The newly-hatched
young has only seven pairs of legs, the remaining pairs being succes-
sively added as growth proceeds.
The genera of this order are divisible into three families, the
Lithobiidae (Lithobius, Bothropolys), Henicopidae (Henicops, Haasi-
ella), the Cermatobiidae (Cermatobius). Cermatobius, based upon a
single species, martensii, from the island of Adenara, is of peculiar
interest, since in the absence of coxal pores, and the length and
multi-articulation of the antennae and tarsal segments, it approaches
more nearly to Scutigera than does any other pleurostigmousChilopod.
It is also stated that the spiracles have assumed a more dorsal
position, thus foreshadowing the completely dorsal situation they
have taken up in the Notostigma. The Henicopidae, containing
centipedes of small size, attains its maximum of development in
the southern continents and islands, more particularly Australia.
New Zealand, South Africa and South America. One g^nus(Lamyctes)
however, occurs in Europe. The Lithobiidae, on the contrary, are
almost exclusively northern in range, being particularly abundant and
of large size individually in Europe, extra-tropical Asia, and North
and Central America. In habits the Lithobiidae closely resemble the
Scolopendridae. They are, however, comparatively far more agile
with their shorter, more compact bodies and stronger legs. They
are mostly of small size, the largest species, Lithobius fusciatus, of
south Europe measuring only 2 in. in length of body. The females
do not guard their eggs, but coat them with soil and leave them to
their fate.
Subclass 2, Notostigma. — Chilopods with a series of median
v. 22
After Pocock. QJ.MS. vol. 4s, pi. 33, 100a.
Fig. 8.
A, Anterior end of Craterostigmus horn above.
a, Basal segments of antennae.
c, Cephalic plate with eyes (0).
t.tox, Tergal plate of somite bearing toxi-
cognaths (tox).
t.lg.i, Tergal plate of somite bearing legs of
first pair.
B, Maxillae.
C, Palpognath.
D, Toxicognath.
E, Last segment with genital capsule (g.c) ,and
basal segments of legs of 14th and 15th
pairs (Ig. 14, Ig. 15).
674
CENTLIVRE— CENTRAL AMERICA
dorsal tracheal sacs furnished with tubes dipping into the
pericardial blood space, and opening each by an unpaired
spiracle upon the ist, 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-
Fig. 9. — A, Scutigera rubrolineata (after Buff on). B, Tergum and
part of a second of the same enlarged to show the position of the
stigmata 0, 0; p, hinder margin of tergum.
bearing somites. This characteristic is accompanied by the
complete disappearance of the tergum of the 7th, either by
fusion with that of the 8th or by escalation, and by the evanes-
cence of the terga of the and, 4th, 6th, 9th, nth and 13th
pedigerous somites. The preantennal area of the head is not
strongly reflexed inferioriy, and the eyes are large and compound.
The maxillae are long and have a sensory organ; the palpognaths
are long, spiny and composed of five segments, like the primitive
Chilopod leg, and the toxicognaths have their basal segments
disunited and independently movable. Gonopods duplicated
in the male.
This subclass contains the single order Scutigeromorpha and the
family Scutigeridae. As in the Lithobiomorpha there are fifteen pairs
of legs, the gonopods are well developed in both sexes and the young
is hatched with only seven
pairs of legs. The legs and
antennae in the adult are
extremely lone and many
jointed. In habits as well as
in structure the Scutigeridae,
of which Scutigera is the best-
known genus, differ greatly
from other centipedes.
Although they hide under
stones and logs of wood like
Lithobius, they are not luci-
fugous but diurnal, and may
be seen chasing their foes in
the blazing sun. They run
with astonishing speed and
have the power of dropping
their legs when seized. South
of about the 40th parallel of
north latitude they are uni-
versally distributed in suit-
able localities. In most
species the body only reaches
a length of about 1 in.; but
twice that size or more is
reached by examples of the
Indian species Scutigera
longicornts.
After Latzd, Die Myr. dst.-ung. Mom. vol. i.
"Chilopod*," Vienna, 1880.
Fig. 10. — Gnathites of Scutigera.
I. Mandibles. II. Maxillae.
III. Palpognaths. ,IV. Toxicognaths.
Some fossils of Carboniferous age have been described as Chilopoda
by Scudder, who refers them to two families, Gerascutigeridae and
Eoscolopendridae. But until the specimens have been examined by
zoologists the genera they are alleged to represent cannot be taken
seriously into consideration. Remains of centipedes closely related to
existing forms have been recorded from Oligocene beds. (R. I. P.)
CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA (c. 1667-17 23), English dramatic
writer and actress, was born about 1667, probably in Ireland,
whither her father, a Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman,
had been forced to flee at the Restoration on account of his
political sympathies. When sixteen she married the nephew of
Sir Stephen Fox, and on his death within a year she married
an officer named Carroll, who was killed in a duel. Left in
poverty, she began to support herself, writing for the stage, and
some of her early plays are signed S. Carroll. In 1706 she
married Joseph Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne, who
survived her. Her first play was a tragedy, The Perjured
Husband (1700), and she herself appeared for the first time at
Bath in her comedy Love at a Venture (1706). Among her most
successful comedies are — The Gamester (1705); The Busy Body
(1709) ; A Bold Stroke for a Wife (1718) ; The Basset-table (1706) ;
and The Wonder! a Woman keeps a Secret (17 14), in which, as the
jealous husband, Garrick found one of his best parts. Her plots,
verging on the farcical, were always ingenious and amusing,
though coarse after the fashion of the time, and the dialogue
fluent. She never seems to have acted in London, but she was
a friend of Rowe, Farquhar and Steele. Mrs Centlivre died on
the ist of December 1723. Her dramatic works were published,
with a biography, in 1761 (reprinted 1872).
CENTO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara,
18 m. S.E. direct from the town of Ferrara; 50 ft. above sea-
level; it is reached by road (6 m. to the W.) from the station
of S. Pietro in Casale, 15 m. S.W. by W. of Ferrara, and also by a
steam tramway (18 m. N.) from Bologna to Pieve di Cento, on
the opposite bank of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 4307 (town), 19,078
(commune). It is connected by a navigable canal with Ferrara.
It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Francesco Barbieri
(Guercino) . The communal picture-gallery and several churches
contain works by him, but none of first-rate importance. A
statue of him stands in front of the 16th century Palazzo Govern-
ativo. The town was surrounded by walls, the gates of which
are preserved. The origin of the name is uncertain.
CENTO (Gr. KkvrfMv, Lat. cento, patchwork), a composition
made up by collecting passages from various works. The
Byzantine Greeks manufactured several out of the poems of
Homer, among which may be mentioned the life of Christ by
the famous empress Eudoxia, and a version of the Biblical history
of Eden and the Fall. The Romans of the later empire and the
monks of the middle ages were fond of constructing poems out
of the verse of Virgil. Such were the Cento Nuptialis of Ausonius ,
the sketch of Biblical history which was compiled in the 4th
century by Proba Falconia, wife of a Roman proconsul, and the
hymns in honour of St Quirinus taken from Virgil and Horace
by Metellus, a monk of Tegernsee, in the latter half of the
1 2th century. Specimens may be found in the work of Aldus
Manutius (Venice, 1 504 ; Frankfort, 1 54 1 , 1 544) . In 1 53 5 Laelius
Capitulus produced from Virgil an attack upon the dissolute
lives of the monks; in 1536 there appeared at Venice a Petrarca
Spirituale; and in 1634 Alexander Ross (a Scotsman, and one
of the chaplains of Charles I.) published a Virgilius Evangelitans,
seu Historia Domini nostri Jesu Christi Virgilianis verbis et
versibus descripta.
CENTRAL AMERICA, that portion of the American continent
which lies between Mexico and Colombia, comprising the British
crown colony of British Honduras, and the six independent
republics of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa
Rica and Panama. These seven divisions are described in
separate articles. Central America is bounded towards the N.
by the Caribbean Sea, and towards the S. by the Pacific Ocean,
and extends between 7 12' and 18 3' N. and between 77 12'
and 92 17' W. It has an area of about 208,500 sq. m., and
stretches for some 1300 m. from N.W. to S.E., in a succession of
three serpentine curves, reaching its greatest breadth, 450 m.,
between the Peninsula of Nicoya and the north coast of Honduras,
and diminishing to 35 m. in the Isthmus of Panama. The
eastern boundary of Central America was usually regarded as
identical with that of Costa Rica until 1903, when the republic
of Panama was formed out of the northern territories of Colombia;
and the more modern definition given above does not command
the universal assent of geographers, because it fails to include
the whole region up to the natural frontier on the north-west,
i.e. the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. It has, however,
the support of political and historical considerations, as well as
of common usage; and it may therefore be regarded as adequate,
although, in respect of climate and natural products, it would
be more accurate to define Central America as lying between
Tehuantepec and Darien.
CENTRAL AMERICA
675
Physical Features. — The Cordilleras, or mountain chains of Central
America do not form a complete link between the western ranges
in the north and south of the continent, for their continuity is
interrupted by various depressions, of which the chief is the lacustrine
basin of Nicaragua. With these exceptions, they traverse Central
America from end to end, their main axis trending from north-west
to south-east. They do not, as a rule, rise in sharply serrated ridges
or series of volcanic crests, like the Andes, but the central Cordilleras
are disposed in a succession of mountain masses, with many lesser
chains radiating from them. The principal summits have an altitude
of 12,000 and even, in a few cases, of 13,000 ft., and the general
character of the ranges is volcanic, many craters being still active.
Large tracts of land remained imperfectly surveyed at the beginning
of the 20th century, owing to the unhealthiness of the tropical
climate, and the dense underwoods which impede exploration.
In the northern part of Guatemala, on the Pacific coast of the same
country, in British Honduras, along the Segovia river,on the Mosquito
Coast, and in the basin of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river,
there are broad stretches of comparatively flat country. The main
line of watershed is everywhere nearer to the Pacific than to the
Atlantic, except in southern Costa Rica and Panama, where it is
almost equidistant from the two oceans. In consequence, the rivers
of the Pacific seaboard are mostly short and swift, — mere mountain
torrents, in many instances, until they reach the sands and swamps
which border the sea. The rivers of the Atlantic littoral descend
more gradually, and by longer channels. The largest of them is the
Segovia, in Nicaragua and Honduras, which has a course of 450 m.
Lake Nicaragua, the largest inland sheet of water, has an area ex-
ceeding 3500 sq. m. There are also several mountain lakes of excep-
tional interest and beauty, such as Atitlan and Amatitlan, in
Guatemala, besides two great land-locked salt-water lakes — the
Pear] Lagoon of the Mosquito Coast, and the Carataska Lagoon
in Honduras.
Geology. — The neck of land which unites the continents of North
and South America is not, geologically, the direct continuation of
either, but constitutes a third element which is wedged, as it were,
between the other two. The folds in the earth's crust which form
the Andes and the Western ranges of North America, are not con-
tinued along the connecting isthmus, where, on the contrary, the
strata are folded from west to east, obliquely across the trend of
the continent. It should, however, be noticed that the Andes, as
they approach the Caribbean sea, bend round towards the east;
and it is probable that the folds of the North American Cordillera
similarly bend eastward beneath the volcanic rocks of Mexico.
The folds of Central America are tangential to the two arcs thus
formed.
By far the greater part of Central America and Mexico is covered
by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, both sedimentary and volcanic ;
but the foundation on which they rest is exposed at intervals. From
the Rio Grande to the southern declivity of the Mexican plateau
the existence of ancient crystalline rocks at the surface is yet un-
proved, but they probably occur in the Sierra Madre del Pacifico.
South of the plateau, in the state of Oaxaca, low mountain ridges
composed of granites and gneisses, supposed to be of Archaean age,
begin to appear. They strike from west to east, and mark the front
of the senes of east and west folds which stand en Schelon across
the Central American region. Between the 15th and 17th parallels
of latitude, in the state of Chiapas and in the republic of Guatemala,
there is a second group of ridges composed of granites and schists
with an eastward trend. In this case the evidence of age is clear,
for the rocks are covered by a limestone which is proved to be Pre-
Carboniferous. Similar rocks, supposed to be of Archaean or at
least of early Palaeozoic age, occupy considerable areas in British
Honduras, Honduras and northern Nicaragua, and occur also
in Costa Rica and perhaps in Panama; ana wherever the strike
has been observed, it is approximately from west to east. The
presence of Palaeozoic rocks has been proved in Guatemala and
the adjacent state of Chiapas, where limestones have been found
containing many unmistakable Carboniferous fossils, and below
these is a considerable thickness of beds supposed to be Silurian.
Nowhere else in the Central American region is there any
palaeontological evidence of Palaeozoic rocks.
The Mesozoic series begins with sands and red or yellow
clays containing plant remains and possibly of Triassic age; but
the occurrence of these deposits is limited to a few small isolated
outcrops. Jurassic beds have been found in Mexico but not in
Central America. The Cretaceous system, consisting of a lower
series of clays, sandstones and conglomerates, followed conformably
by an upper series of limestones, covers a considerable area in Chiapas,
Guatemala and Honduras, and is found also in Costa Rica. The
upper series contains hippurites. The greater part of the eastern
half of the Mexican plateau is also formed of Cretaceous beds.
The Tertiary system may be conveniently divided into two
divisions. The lower, of Eocene and Oligocene age, consists generally
of sand and clays which were evidently laid down near a shore line.
The upper division also, including the Pliocene and Pleistocene
(which have not yet been clearly distinguished from each other),
is usually of shallow water origin; but in the northern part of
Yucatan it includes beds of chalky limestone, like those of the Antilles,
which may have been deposited in a deeper sea.
It is probable that folding took place at more than one geological
epoch, and the whole series of beds up to the Oligocene is involved
in the folds. The Pliocene, on the other hand, is usually undis-
turbed, and the final effort must, therefore, have occurred during the
Miocene period, which appears to have been a period of great
earth movement throughout the Caribbean region. From the
southern extremity of the Mexican plateau to the Colombian border,
the strike of the folds — of the Mesozoic and early Tertiary deposits,
as well as of the older rocks — is in general from east to west ; but
there is one considerable exception. On both sides of the deep
depression which crosses Honduras from Puerto Cortez to the Gulf of
Fonseca, the strike is commonly from north to south. The depression
is probably a " Graben " or trough formed by faulting.
The great volcanoes of Mexico and Central America stand upon
the Pacific side of the continent, and it is only where the land con-
tracts to a narrow neck that their products spread over to the
Caribbean shore. The extent of the volcanic deposits is very great,
and over a wide area they entirely conceal the original structural
features of the country. The eruptions began towards the close
of the Cretaceous period and continue to the present day. The rocks
are lavas and ashes, chiefly of andesitic or basaltic composition,
but rhyolites and trachytes also occur, and phonolite has been met
with in one or two places.
According to R. T. Hill, there is but little geological evidence
of any Tertiary or later connexion between the Caribbean Sea and
the Pacific, excepting, perhaps, a shallow opening during the Eocene
period. It should, however, be stated that all authorities are not
agreed upon this point, and K. Sapper found marls and sandstones
which he believes to belong to the Upper Tertiary, lying horizontally
at a height of about 7500 ft. in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Un-
fortunately the fossils obtained from these beds were lost.
Climate. — The climate of Central America is subject to the most
marked local differences of heat and cold, owing partly to the
proximity of two oceans, partly to the variations of altitude which
render such territories as the swamps of the coast, or the lowlands
of British Honduras and northern Guatemala, totally unlike
the alpine regions of Salvador and Costa Rica. The whole area may,
however, be roughly divided into a tropical zone (tierra calienle),
from sea-level to about 1500 ft. ; a temperate zone {tierra templada),
from 1500 to 5000 ft.; and a cold zone (tierra fria), above 5000 ft.
These figures are, of course, only approximately correct; and it
often happens that, at the same elevation, the heat is greater
on the Pacific than on the Atlantic versant. The rainy season on
the Pacific slope varies in duration from four to six months, between
April and December. It lengthens as the altitude increases. On
the coast, it corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west
monsoon, the tempestuous Cordonazo ae San Francisco, or " Flagella-
tion of St Francis, as it is called in Mexico, and it is often interrupted
by an interval of two or three weeks of fine weather, known
as the Veranillo de San Juan, or " Little summer of St John." In
the rainy season, the morning has usually a clear sky; about two
or three o'clock in the afternoon the clouds begin to gather in great
cumulus masses; suddenly the lightning flashes out and the rain
crashes down; and by evening the sky is clear and starry. North
winds are most usual during the dry season. On the Atlantic coast
the trade- winds may bring rain in any month, and, owing to the moist
atmosphere, the heat is more oppressive. The rainfall may vary
in successive years from less than 50 in. to nearly 200 in., owing to
the occurrence of cloud-bursts. Frosts are not rare above 7000 ft.,
but snow seldom falls.
Fauna. — The fauna of Central America is more closely connected
with the fauna of South than with that of North America. As the
676
CENTRAL AMERICA
region is comparatively small, and its limits conventional, there are
comparatively few species that it can claim as peculiarly its own.
It is almost entirely free from the presence of animals dangerous
to man. Of felines it possesses the jaguar (Felis onza), popularly
called the tiger; the cuguar (Felts concolor), popularly called the
lion; the tigrillo (Felts tigrina) t which is sometimes kept tame;
and other species. Several species of monkeys (Mycetes and A teles)
are numerous in the warm coast region. The Mexican deer (Cervus
mexicanus) has a wide range both in the lowlands and highlands.
Besides the tapir there are several varieties of wild pig, such as
the marrano ae monte (Sus torquatus) and the jabali or javali
(Sus labiatus javali). The Edentata are represented by a species
of armadillo, the honey -bear (Myrmecophaga tomandua), and the
Myrmecophaga didactyla ; and among the rodents may be mentioned,
besides rats, hares and rabbits, the fruit -eating cotorra and tepes-
cuinte (Dasyprocta aguti and Coelogenys paca), and the troublesome
Geomys mexicana. The manatee is common in all the larger streams.
Much annoyance is caused to the agriculturist by the little marsupial
called the tacuacine, or the Didelphys carcinora, its allied species.
The bats are so numerous that villages have sometimes had to be
left to their undisputed occupancy, in the south-east of Costa Rica
the inhabitants are at times compelled to withdraw, with all their
live-stock, before the swarms of large migratory vampires which in
a single night can bleed the strongest animal to death. Most of the
domestic animals — the horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, rabbit,
sheep,
of Eur<
nd
common fowl, peacock and pigeon — are ot European origin, and
are popularly grouped together as animales de Costilla. Tor the
bird collector there is a rich harvest. The catalogue of the National
Museum at Washington shows that Costa Rica atone possesses more
than twice as many species of birds as the whole of Europe. Among
birds of prey it is sufficient to mention Corogyps atratus, the
commonest of the vultures, which acts as a universal scavenger,
the Cathartes aura, the beautiful Polyborus vulgaris, and the king of
the vultures (Sarcorhamphus papa). Neither the condor of the
southern continent nor the great eagles of the northern are known.
The parrot, macaw and toucan are found in all parts; the crow,
blackbird, Mexican jay, ricebird, swallow, rainbird, wood-pecker,
humming-bird and trogon are also widely distributed. A bird
of the last-named genus, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (Trogon
resblendens) is of special note, not only from the fact that its yellow
tail-feathers. 2 or 3 ft. long, were formerly worn as insignia by the
Indian princes, but because it has been adopted as the emblematical
figure on the national arms of Guatemala. The gallinaceous order
is well represented, and comprises several peculiar species, as the
pavo de cacho, and the Peten turkey (Meleagris ocellata), which has
a bronze sheen on its plumage; and aquatic birds, it is almost need-
less to add, are unusually numerous in a region so richly furnished
with lagoons, rivers and lakes.
Besides the alligator, which swarms in many rivers, the almost
endless varieties of Central American reptiles include the harmless
boba or chicken-snake, python and black snake; the venomous
coral i, taboba, culebra de sangre and rattlesnake; iguanas of great
size, scorpions, edible lizards and other lizards said to be poisonous.
In the rivers and lakes, as in both seas, fish of many kinds abound ;
turtles and tortoises are exported ; and there are valuable pearl and
oyster fisheries. Insect life is even richer and more varied. Of the
Coleoptera, the Camelicorns, the Longicorns, the Curculionids, and
the Cnrysomelines are said to be best represented, and of the Lepido-
ptera the prevalent genera are — Ageronta, PapUio, Heliconia, Sphinx
and Bontbyx. There are five species of bees, and the European
honey-bee, known as aveja de Costilla or " bee of Castile," has been
naturalized. Ants are common, and may sometimes be seen march-
ing in a column 3 or 4 m. long. The mosquito, wood-tick, flea and
locust are unfortunately no less plentiful in certain districts, but
their distribution varies greatly, the mosquito being almost unknown
in parts of Honduras. A curious species of butterfly is the Timetes
Chiron, which migrates in countless multitudes from the forests
of Honduras to the Mosquito Coast, but is never known to return.
Flora. — The flora of Central America ranges from the alpine
to the tropical, with the transition from one climatic zone to another.
Although its forest growths are, on the whole, inferior in size to those
of corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere, it is unsurpassed
for beauty, luxuriance and variety. In the volcanic districts, the
soil is extremely fertile, yielding, where cultivated and irrigated,
magnificent crops of sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, coffee, cocoa and
maize. Indigo is produced in small quantities; sugar yields two
or three crops, and maize as many as four, this cereal supplying
a chief staple of food. Plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes, yams,
arrowroot, pine-apples, guavas, citrons and many other tropical
fruits are also cultivated, while the extensive primeval forests
abound in mahogany, cedars, rosewood, ironwood, rubber, gum
copal, vanilla, sarsaparilla, logwood and many other dye-woods,
medicinal plants, and valuable timbers. Conspicuous amongst
the forest trees are the giant ceiba, or pyramidal bombax, and trie
splendid Coyal palm (Cocos butyracea, L.), with feathery leaves 15
to 20 ft. long, golden flowers 3 ft. high, and a sap which when fer-
mented produces the intoxicating chicna or vino de Coyol. In Guate-
mala occurs the remarkable Herrania purpurea, a " Chocolate tree,"
whose seeds yield a finer flavoured chocolate than the cocoa itself.
The same country is famous for its magnificent orchids, huge arbores-
cent thistles, and a remarkable plant called by the Spaniards Flor de
la Calentura, " fever flower," from the heat which it is said to emit
at the moment of fertilization. Salvador produces an abundance
of medicinal plants, notably the so-called Peruvian balsam (Myro-
spermum salvatorense) ; in Honduras there are immense forests
of conifers, resembling those of the Landes in France ; in Nicaragua
a characteristic tree is the cortes (Tecoma sideroxyUm) yielding
timber as hard as ebony, and noteworthy for the golden blossom
with which it is entirely covered after the leaves have fallen.
Inhabitants — In 1905 the population of Central America
numbered about 4,750,000, and this total tends to increase,
despite the unhealthy climate of many districts, the terribly high
average of infant mortality, and the slow progress of immigration.
Some authorities estimate it at 5,500,000. The vast majority of
the inhabitants are of mixed Indian and Spanish blood, but the
Indian element predominates everywhere except in Costa Rica,
where the whites are exceptionally numerous. The Indian races
have not shown the same power to adapt themselves to modern
civilization as the Mexicans; in some regions there are tribes
remaining in a state of complete savagery although before the
Spanish conquest their ancestors attained a high level of culture
(see below under Archaeology). The density of population
throughout Central America is little more than 25 per sq. m.;
and it is clear that several large areas now thinly peopled once
maintained a far greater number of inhabitants. Such are parts
of the Nicaraguan lake district, where the flora consists in great
measure of plants that were formerly cultivated by the Indians.
The depopulation of these areas was effected partly by tribal
wars, partly by the harsh rule of the Spaniards. Apart from the
German agricultural settlements in Guatemala and elsewhere,
the foreign population is chiefly confined to the seaports and other
centres of commerce, Great Britain, Germany and the United
States being largely represented among the wealthier classes of
residents; while the foreign labourers are mostly Italians or
negroes, with a few Chinese on the Pacific coast
History. — Central America was discovered^ by Columbus in
August 1502; and part of the territory which is now Costa Rica
was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro Arias de Avila after
1 513. Between 1522 and 1525, the authority of Avila was
superseded, and his work of conquest completed by Hernando
Cortes, who had already subjugated Mexico. Panama formed
part of a distinct Spanish government, " New Granada ";
British Honduras was colonized, though not formally annexed,
in the 18th century; and over the Mosquito Coast the British
government exercised a nominal protectorate after 1665. Other-
wise the rest of Central America remained a Spanish dependency
bearing the general name of " Guatemala," until 182 1. It
ranked as a captaincy-general under the rule of a military
governor, and was organized in five departments, corresponding
in area with the modern republics of Guatemala, Honduras,
Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For three centuries it
was administered by Spanish officials, who almost invariably
devoted their whole energy to enriching themselves and the home
authorities. The old Indian civilization was swept away; the
native races were enslaved, maltreated and, for a time,
demoralized. But their history offers no parallel to that of the
West Indian Caribs, who failed to survive, and were replaced by
hordes of African slaves. In Central America the Indians not
only survived, thus leaving no room for any large negro popula-
tion, but quickly acquired the language, religion and habits of
their masters, with whom they intermarried. By the close of
the 1 8th century, the majority had attained something like
uniformity of life and thought. Racial distinctions had been
obscured by intermarriage; even the term Ladino, or " Latin,"
came to mean an educated man, whether of Spanish or Indian
blood. Nowhere, except in Mexico, has a mixed or coloured
race more completely absorbed the civilization of its white rulers;
but so gradual and silent was the process that it passed almost
unnoticed. Its result, the successful revolt of the Spanish
colonies — colonies mainly peopled by Indians or half-castes — was
no more a conflict of rival races or civilizations than the rebellion
of the British colonies in North America.
" New Granada " attained its independence in 1810; and in
182 1 " Guatemala " declared itself free. That the subsequent
V. 6 7 6.
Encry Walker sc.
(4)
CENTRAL AMERICA
677
history of the Central American republics has been largely a
record of civil war, maladministration and financial dishonesty, is
perhaps due in part to racial inferiority. In part, however, it may
be explained by the absence of any tradition of good government;
perhaps also by the brevity and artificiality of the evolution
which converted a debased slave-population into the citizens of
modern democratic states. The five divisions of " Guatemala "
were temporarily incorporated in the Mexican empire during
1822, but regained their autonomy (as Guatemala, Honduras,
Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) on the declaration of a
Mexican republic, and in July 1823 combined to form the
Republic of the United States of Central America. The Liberal
or Federalist party, which was supreme in Honduras, found itself
opposed by the Conservatives, including the clergy and former
Spanish officials, who were very influential in Guatemala. A
bitter and protracted struggle ensued. In 183 7- 1839 a Con-
servative rising, under Rafael Carrera, president of Guatemala,
resulted in the overthrow of the Liberals, under General Francisco
Morazan of Honduras; and in 1842, after a vain attempt to
restore the Federal republic, Morazan was captured and shot. A
fresh union of the republics (except Costa Rica) was concluded in
1 842, and dissolved in 1845. The year 1850 was signalized by the
conclusion, on the 19th of April, of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty
{q.v.) between Great Britain and the United States, which was
designed to facilitate the construction of an interoceanic canal.
The history of this project is given in detail under Panama
Canal. One important result of the treaty was the abandon-
ment, in i860, of the British protectorate over the Mosquito
Coast. This event had been preceded by a decade of political
disturbances. In 1850 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua had
combined to restore federal unity; but their allied armies were
defeated by the Guatemalans under Carrera. In 1856 the
American adventurer, William Walker, endeavoured to usurp
the government of Nicaragua; in i860 he invaded Honduras
and was captured and shot. His object was to assist the slave-
holders of the United States by adding new slave-states to the
Union. A further attempt to restore federal unity failed in 1885,
and its promoter, Justo Rufino Barrios, president of Guatemala,
lost his life. In 1 895 the Greater Republic of Central America was
formed by the union of Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras;
and a constitution was framed providing for the admission of
Guatemala and Costa Rica; in December 1898 it was dissolved,
as unsatisfactory to Salvador. On the 4th of November 1903
Panama, which had since 1863 formed part of Colombia, declared
itself an autonomous republic. Its independence was immedi-
ately recognized by the United States, and shortly afterwards
by the European powers. The United States also forbade the
landing of any Colombian force on the territories of Panama,
and thus guaranteed the security of the new state.
Bibliography. — For a general description of Central America,
and especially of its physical features, the following monographs by
K. Sapper are of prime importance : — In den Vulcangebieten MitteU
amerikas und Westindiens (Stuttgart, 1905); MiUelamerikanische
Reisen und Studien aus den Jahren 1888 bts igoo (Brunswick, 1902),
and Das nordliche Mittelamerika nebst einem Ausflug nach dent
Hochland van Anahuac (Brunswick, 1897); these all contain many
useful illustrations and maps. See also Central America and the
West Indies, by A. H. Keane, edited by Sir C. Markham (London,
iqoi, 2 vols., with maps and illustrations); Central and South
America, by H. W. Bates (London, 1882); The Spanish American
Republics, by T. Child (London, 1892); and Expedition nach Zentral
und SUdamerika, by P. Preuss (Berlin, 1901). For geology, see
41 The Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and Portions
of Costa Rica," by R. T. Hill, in Bull. Mus. Camp. Z00L Harvard,
vol. xxviii., No. 5 (1898); and the following by K. Sapper: —
" Grundziige der physikalischen Geographie von Guatemala," in
Petermann^s Mitt. Ereknzungsheft, No. 113 (1894), "OberGebirgsbau
und Boden des nordlichen Mittelamerika," tbtd., No. 127 (1899),
and " Cber Gebirgsbau und Boden des stidlichen Mittelamerika,"
ibid., No. 151 (1905). The States of Central America, by E. G. Squier
(New York, 1858), is still valuable, as are others of the numerous
essays, pamphlets, &c, on Central American affairs left by this
author; see the bibliography of his writings published in New
York in 1876. The Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics
(Washington, from 1893) give ample information en commerce and
industry. See also History of Central America, by H. Bancroft
(San Francisco, 1 881-1887, 3 vols.).
Archaeology op Central America
Discoveries and investigations carried on during the 19th
century have thrown much light on the splendid past of Central
America. The still extant ruins of great buildings, unlike any-
thing which is known in the old world, testify to the high culture
attained in pre-Columbian days by several native peoples differing
greatly from one another in speech and racial affinities. As a
science the archaeology of Central America has scarcely yet
emerged from its infancy. Entire branches are still wholly
uninvestigated. Amongst the numerous problems which await
solution must still be reckoned the decipherment of the inscrip-
tions, which hitherto has not progressed beyond the discovery
of calendar systems and the relative darings involved in such
systems.
For a complete survey of this ancient civilization, so far as it
has been investigated, it is necessary to include with Central
America, properly so called, a considerable portion of the Mexican
territories south and east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The
peoples inhabiting Yucatan, Campeche, Guatemala, Chiapas
and Oaxaca present at the first view striking ethnical differences.
On a linguistic basis, however, they may be united into several
large groups. Thus, Yucatan and the greater part of Guatamala
are inhabited by the Mayas, with whom may be included the still
savage Lacantun or Lacandones. Related to these linguistically
are the Tzendals in Chiapas and the Quiches and Cackchiquels
in Guatemala, as well as the less important tribes of the Mam,
Pokoman, Pokonchi, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil and Ixil. Between these
there are patches of country in which dialects of the Mexican are
spoken. In Oaxaca there is an extraordinary mixture of lan-
guages, some of which, like that of the Huave of Tehuantepec,
are of quite unknown affinities; the bulk of the population,
however, is composed of Mixtecs and Zapotecs with which the
Mixe and Zoque on the east are connected. Mexican dialects
also occur in isolated parts of Oaxaca.
Mayan Culture. — The civilization of the Mayas may well have
been reared upon one more ancient, but the life of that culture of
which the ruins are now visible certainly lasted no more than
500 years. The date of its extinction is unknown, but in
certain places, notably Mayapan and Chichenitza, the highest
development seems to be synchronous with the appearance of
foreign, viz. Mexican or Nahua elements (see below) . This quite
distinctive local character suggests that the cities in question
played a certain preponderating role, a hypothesis with which
the scanty documentary evidence is in agreement. On the other
hand the Mayan culture evinces an evident tendency to assimilate
heterogeneous elements, obliterating racial distinctions and
imposing its own dominant character over a wide area. Oaxaca,
the country of the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, became, as was natural
from its geographical position midway between Yucatan and
Mexico, the meeting-ground where two archaeological traditions
which are sharply contrasted in their original homes united.
Central American architecture is characterized by a fine
feeling for construction, and the execution is at once bold and
aesthetically effective. Amongst the various ruins,
some of which represent the remains of entire cities,
while others are no more than groups of buildings or
single buildings, certain types persistently recur. The commonest
of such types are pyramids and galleries. The pyramids are
occasionally built of brick, but most usually of hewn stone with
a covering of finely-carved slabs. Staircases lead up to the top
from one or more sides. Some pyramids are built in steps.
Usually the platform on the top of a pyramid is occupied by
buildings, the typical distribution of which is into two parts,
viz. vestibule and sanctuary. In connexion with the pyramid
there are various subsidiary structures, such as altars, pillars,
and sacrificial stones, to meet the requirements of ritual and
worship, besides habitations for officials and " tennis-courts "
for the famous ball-game like that played by the Mexicans.
The tennis-courts always run north and south, and all the
buildings, almost without exception, have a definite orientation
to particular points of the compass. Frequently the pyramids
Archheo
678
CENTRAL AMERICA
constitute one of the four sides of a quadrangular enclosure,
within which are contained other pyramids, altars or other
buildings of various dimensions.
The normal type of gallery is an oblong building, of which
the front facing inwards to the enclosure is pierced by doors.
These divide it into a series of rooms, behind which again there
may be a second series. Occasionally the rooms are distributed
round a central apartment, but this is ordinarily done only when
a second storey has to be placed above them. The gallery-
buildings may rise to as much as three storeys, the height, size
and shape of the rooms being determined by the exigencies of
vaulting. The principle of the true arch is unknown, so that the
vaults are often of the corbelled kind, the slabs of the side-walls
being made to overlap in succession until there remains only so
narrow a space as may be spanned by a single flat stone. At
Mitla, where the material used in the construction of the buildings
was timber instead of stone, the larger rooms were furnished with
stone pillars on which the beams could rest. The same principle
recurs in certain ruins at Chichenitza. The tops and sides of
the doors are of ten decorated with carved reliefs and hieroglyphs,
and the entrances are sometimes supported by plain or carved
columns and pilasters, of which style the serpent columns of
Chichenitza afford the most striking example. On its external
front one of these galleries may have a cornice and half-pillars.
Above this is a plain surface of wall, then a rich frieze which
generally exhibits the most elaborate ornamentation in the whole
building. The subjects are geometrical designs in mosaic,
serpents' heads and human masks. The corners of the wall
terminate in three-quarter pillars, above which the angles of the
frieze frequently show grotesque heads with noses exaggerated
into trunks. The roof of the gallery is flat and occasionally
gabled.
Principal Sites. — Such are the general characteristics of Central
American buildings, but it must be understood that almost every
site exhibits peculiarities of its own, and the number of the
ruined settlements even as at present known is very large. The
most considerable are enumerated below.
Yucatan. — Of the very numerous ruins which are distributed
over Yucatan and the islands of the east coast the majority still
await exploration. A few words of special notice may be devoted
to one or two sites in the centre of the peninsula which have
already become famous. At Uxmal the buildings consist of five
considerable groups, viz. — the Casa del Adivino, which is a step-
pyramid 240 ft. long by 160 ft. wide and 80 ft. high, crowned by
a temple 75 ft. long by 1 2 ft. wide; the Casa de Monjas, a striking
erection of four oblong buildings on an extensive terrace; the
Casa de Tortugas, Casa del Gobernador, and Casa de Palomas,
the last of which is a group of six galleries surrounding a court.
At Izamal there is a very imposing group of ruins, as yet quite
insufficiently explored. At Chichenitza, a city of first-rate
importance, situated 22 m. west of Valladolid, the ruins consist
of eight principal groups, the chief of which are as follows. The
Casa de Monjas, a three-storeyed building, attributable to
several distinct periods; the Caracol, a round structure with
dome in imitation of a snail-shell, showing evident traces of
Mexican influence; £1 Castillo, a large temple standing on a
base 200 ft. long and 75 ft. high, approached by staircases on all
four sides, and furnished with serpent-pillars of a kind unknown
anywhere else except at Uxmal and Tula near Mexico; an
unnamed temple-pyramid, which is remarkable for a group of
caryatid figures; a tennis-court; and finally the Tiger Temple,
which contains marvellous coloured reliefs representing figures
of warriors and place-hieroglyphs, all executed in a distinctively
Mexican style. Yet another evidence of Mexican influence at
Chichenitza is to be noted in five figures of the so-called Chac-mol
type, that is to say, horizontal figures in which the amis are
extended to the navel which is indicated by a cup-like depression.
This Chac-mol type is characteristic of such sites as Tlascala
and Cempoallan.
Other important sites in Yucatan are Chacmaltun, with fine
wall-paintings; Tan tan, with remarkable pillared facades; the
ruins of Labna, Chunhuhub, and the caves of Loltun; and
Xlabpak de Santa Rosa, where there is a three-storeyed temple
palace. Two sculptured reliefs are of great interest; they
represent a person holding a staff on which is a figure of the
god Ah-bolon-tzacab.
Guatemala. — The Guatemalan ruins are distributed over a wide
area. The most numerous and extensive are on the Usumacinta
river. The most important sites in that district axe Piedras
Negras, and Yaxchilan or Menche Tinamit, where there are
temples covered with sculptured reliefs and hieroglyphic inscrip-
tions, and stelae and slabs carved with human figures placed in
niches. In the Peten district, Tikal is famous for its splendid
sculptures representing Kukulkan and other divinities. Near
the modern city of Guatemala are the vast ruins of Guatemala-
Mixco. Chacuj&l, which Cortes visited on his expedition of
1524-1525 is very possibly to be identified with the modern
Pueblo Viejo on the river Tinaja. ChacuU and Quen-Santo
between the headwaters of the Rio de Chiapas and the Rio
Lacantun are two sites of a strongly marked local character.
Series of three pyramids are peculiar to these two settlements,
as also are pyramids with human figures on their platforms.
Stelae discovered at Quen Santo have a calendar character,
which proves that Mayan science had penetrated into what was
probably the home of an old Lacantun culture.
Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, on the Pacific slope of the Cor-
dilleras, is a very peculiar site. The ruins are those of a settle-
ment which had already been deserted before Alvarado's
expedition of 1522. The sculptures of gods, goddesses and
other figures, executed on enormous blocks of stone, show a dis-
tinctively Mexican character, with which, however, various Mayan
features are blended. They may perhaps be attributed to some
offshoot of the Nahua stock, probably the Pipil Indians, which
developed on lines of its own in this remote corner.
Near the frontier of Honduras are the remarkable ruins of
Quirigua, which rival Copan in importance and have suffered
less from the ravages of the climate. The ruins of temples and
palaces contain gigantic stone stelae of very fine workmanship,
on which are sculptured human and animal figures representing
hieroglyphs of the calendar dates.
Honduras. — Copan, one of the most important seats of Mayan
civilization, lies close to the borders of Guatemala. The ruins
comprise great buildings, temples, pyramids, &c. and contain
sculptures of the highest interest. Especially noteworthy are
altars in the form of a turtle and stelae covered with hieroglyphs.
The hieroglyphs are of the kind usually found in such ruins,
the meaning of which is so far clear that it is known that the
commencement of an inscription records certain dates in the
complicated calendar system of the Mayas. A collation of these
dates demonstrates that the most ancient on record are separated
from the most recent by an interval of only a few centuries.
From this it may be concluded that the Mayan civilization,
whether or not it was preceded by anything older, flourished for
only a comparatively short period, the beginning of which cannot
be placed many centuries before a.d. iooo.
According to Squier (Honduras, London, 1870, p. 75) the other
principal ruins of Honduras are to be found in plains of the
department of Comayagua, near Yarumela, near Lajamini, and
in the ruined town of Cururu. They are " large, pyramidal,
terraced structures, often faced with stones, conical mounds of
earth and walls of stone." Further ruins, such as those of Cala-
mulla, Jamalteca, Maniana, Guasistagua, Chapuluca and
Chapulistagua, are found in the department of Comayagua in
the side valleys and adjoining tablelands. The most interesting
and most extensive are the ruins of Tenampua (Pueblo Viejo),
about 20 m. south-east of Comayagua. Here ramparts, defence
works, terraced stone mounds and numerous large pyramids
are to be found. Squier found further ruins in the west of
Honduras, which have also been described in part by Stephens,
and were probably first mentioned in 1576 by Diego Garcia de
Palacio (Carta dirigida al Rei de EspaOa, published by Squier,
New York, i860).
At Rio Ulloa are remains which testify to the existence of a
large population in past days. Possibly they may be identified
CENTRAL AMERICA
679
with a site of the name of Naco mentioned by Las Casas and by
Bernal Diaz {Histoire veridique de la conquite de la NouveUe
Espagne, translated by D. Fourdanet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1877,
ch. 178, p. 690).
Chiapas (Mexico). — The principal site is Palenque, the ruins
of which were amongst the earliest of all to attract attention.
The style of architecture, with the gigantic vaults and singular
comb-shaped gables, distinguishes Palenque from Copan and
Quirigua, which it surpasses also in the unequalled magnificence
of its sculptures. Five out of the remarkably uniform series of
buildings may be specially mentioned. They are the Great
Palace, a complex structure of galleries and courts commanded
by a three-storeyed tower, the Temples of the*Cross, which are
galleries constructed on terraces and containing the well-known
reliefs, the Temple of Inscriptions, the Sun Temple and the
Temple of the Relief. The sculptured figures of Palenque are
familiar from many reproductions. The most characteristic
groups represent a deity standing between worshippers who hold
a staff surmounted by the water-god Ah-bolon-tzacab, the " god
of the nine medicines." The inscriptions on the famous Cross
and in the Sun Temple contain calendar-datings which are
remarkable as showing a particular combination of numbers and
hieroglyphs, which does not occur elsewhere.
A whole series of sites is included within the geographical
limits of Chiapas, which from the archaeologist's standpoint
must be considered as belonging properly to Guatemala. The
country has been quite insufficiently explored.
Oaxaca (Mexico). — The bulk of the population of the province
of Oaxaca is composed of a distinct racial group, best represented
by the Zapotecs, who have been for an unknown length of time
the intermediaries between the Nahua civilization of Mexico
on the west and the Mayan on the east. The influence of the
two separate currents may be detected in the bastard calendar
system no less than in the still undeciphered inscriptions. The
principal ruins are those of Mitla, the burial city of the priests
and kings of the ancient Zapotecs, which bear a quite distinct
character, though presenting certain analogies with the Mexican.
One of the chief structures is a step-pyramid, rising in three steps
to a height of 130 ft., another is a pyramid of brick. Besides
these there are courts, surrounded by palaces which represented
necropolises, the dwellings of the priests, of the chief priest, and
of the king (with an audience-hall). The wall paintings of the
"palaces" are especially admirable, and it is to be noted that
the deities represented in them are those of the Mexican pantheon.
Monte Alban is interesting for the definitely Zapotec character
of its sculptures. Quiengola near Tehuantepec is a site with
extensive ruins including a fine tennis court.
British Honduras. — The antiquities of British Honduras have
been but little investigated. In the scanty literature relating to
them a few accounts of ruined places are to be found. In style
these buildings closely resemble those of the neighbouring
Yucatan. The ruins in the colony New Boston, mentioned by
Froebel {Central America, p. 167), are of this kind. F. de P.
Castells (see American Antiquarian, Chicago, 1904, vol. xxvi.
PP- 32-37) describes the ruins, in the north of the colony, of
" Ixim chech," supposed to be the Indian form of the English
name " Indian Church." They are on the road to the Lake of
Yaxha (green water), where further ruins are to be found.
Thomas Gann gives detailed accounts of numerous mounds also
in the northern part of British Honduras (see igth Annual Report
of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1900, part i.
pp. 661-692, with plates). The most interesting ruins are those
which have been discovered in Santa Rita, at the mouth of the
New River, near the town of Corosal. Here wonderful wall
paintings in stucco came to light, which unfortunately Gann
could only save in part. The remainder were destroyed by
Indians. It should be remarked that a number of the mounds
in Santa Rita were erected over ruins of buildings which must
therefore be of older date than the mounds.
Salvador. — Pedro de Alvarado in his expedition of 1524 calls
this whole district Cuscatan (Mex. Cozcatlan), that is, " Land of
precious stones, of treasures, of abundance." A further descrip-
tion of the land is given by Palacio (I.e.) in 1576. Although
there are numerous relics of Mayan civilization buried in the
earth, few ruins are to be seen on the surface. Karl Sapper has
described three large ruins: Cuzcatlan near the capital, Tehuacan
near S. Vicente, and Zacualpa on the Lake of Giiija in the extreme
north-west of the country. The ruins show a distinct affinity
in style to those of the Mayan buildings in Guatemala, but they
are less fine and artistically perfect. Probably the central and
western districts of San Salvador were originally peopled by the
same race of Mayas, and these tracts of country were later
settled by the Mexican-speaking Pipiles.
A characteristic feature of the extensive ruins of Zacualpa is
that the pyramids and ramparts have perpendicular steps which
are higher than they are broad, and this peculiarity may be
attributed to the influence of the Maya tribes, who are related to
the Mams of Guatemala.
Decipherment of the Mayan Hieroglyphs. — The key to the
decipherment, so far as this has progressed at present, was
furnished by the His tor ia de las Cosas de Yucatan, a work written
by Diego de Landa, the first bishop of the country. This pro-
fessed to give, with much other more or less doubtful information,
the full account of a calendar system analogous to that of the
Mexicans, which was said to have been used by the Mayas (see
Mexico). The signs for each of the 20 days and for the 18
weeks of 20 days are figured by Landa. The first step was to
compare these with the hieroglyphic characters contained in the
few Mayan picture manuscripts (Codex Troano, Cortesianus,
Peresianus, Dresden Codex) which have survived the destructive
fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries. Fdrstemann's acute
analysis detected that the bars and dots which occur along the
margin and in the body of the pictorial scenes represented
numerals, dots standing for each integer up to five, while for
five a bar was used. Next, it was found that the order in which
these numeral-signs are placed is regular, and that there are
never more than five in a group. It was established that the
first sign in such a group is that for the numeral 1 {Kin), the next
that for 20 {Uinal), the third for 18X20 {Tun), the fourth for
18X20 X 20 {Katun), B,nd the fifth for 18X20X20X20, that is to
say, a cycle.
Had the available material for study been confined to the
manuscripts, little more progress would have been made beyond
establishing subsidiary details in the actual calendar. But
when a similar analysis was applied to the numerous monuments
discovered and figured by Maudslay and others, some important
results of a general bearing were obtained. It was found that
many of the hieroglyphs of various forms upon the stones were
also of numeral value, and, what was of great importance, that
they all referred back to a single starting-point. This starting-
point or zero is no doubt the mythological date at which, accord-
ing to Mayan cosmology, the world was created. It is placed at
nine or ten cycles before the time when Copan and Quirigua were
erected and the picture manuscripts made. And it is by reference
to it in the inscriptions that such students as Seler, Goodman
and others have been enabled, as already stated, to obtain a
record of the relative chronology of the most famous monuments,
to confine the period of their erection within the space of a few
centuries, and approximately to fix even their absolute antiquity.
Though much yet remains to be done, these are substantial
results which have already been won from the study of the
hieroglyphs.
Bibliography. — The AntiquitSs mexicaines of Dupaix (Paris,
1 834) ,the Voyage pittoresque et archSologique dans la province d' Yucatan
of F. de Waldeck (Paris, 1838), and the Monuments anciens du
Mexique of Brasseur de Bourbourg and Waldeck (Paris, 1866) are
quite out of date and superseded. Stephen's Incidents of Travel
in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan (New York, 1841 and
1867), and B. M. Norman's Rambles in Yucatan (New York, 184*),
are still of value, the first-mentioned especially for the drawings by
Catherwood. Among the earlier writers may also be mentioned
Charnay, Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde (Paris, 1885) and
Otis et mines amSricaines (Paris, 1863), the latter written in colla-
boration with Viollet-le-Duc. Those, however, who are not primarily
bibliophiles will be content to study the following: — Maudslay (in
Godman and Salvin's Biologia Centrali-Americana, sect. Archaeology,
68o
CENTRAL FALLS— CENTRAL INDIA
London, 1889, &c.) f a pioneer work containing the admirably pre-
sented results of scientific exploration. Maler, in Memoirs of the
Peabody Museum, vol. ii. 1, 2 (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1901 and I9?3);
Holmes, Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Mexicans (Field
Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895); E ' ^^ Die ***** Ansie 4 e "
lungen von Chacula (Berlin, 1901), Wandmalereicn von Mitla (Berlin,
1895), Ges. Abhandlunien, vol. i. (Berlin, 1902) and vol. ii. (1904),
Fuhrer von Mitla (Berlin, 1006). E. Fdrstemann has contributed
many valuable essays to Globus and the Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic
(Berlin) ; especially important are his commentaries to the Dresden
Codex (Dresden, 1901), to the Codex Tro-Cortesianus Madrilensis
(Danzig, 1902), and to the Codex Peresianus (Danzig, 1903). See
also "The Archaic Maya Inscriptions," by F. T. Goodman (in
Biologic Contrali-Americana, section Archaeology, viii., 1897), and
Report of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881, by A. F. Ban-
delier (Boston, 1884). Valuable bibliographies have been made by
Bandelier (Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America,
Worcester, U. S. A., 1881) and by K. Habler (" Die Maya Literatur
und der Maya Apparat zu Dresden," in the Zentralblatt fur Biblio-
thekwesen, xii., 1895). The Mayan picture MSS. have been published
in facsimile as follows: — the Dresden Codex by F6rstemann (Leipzig,
1880, and Dresden, 1892), and the Codex Tro by Brasseur de Bour-
bourg — Manuscrit Troano, itude sur le svstemc graphique et la langue
des Mayas (Paris, 1869-1870), the Codex Cortestanus by Leon de
Rosny (Paris, 1883) and by F. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado and
F. L. de Ayala y del Hierro (Madrid, 1893), the Codex Peresianus
by Duruy and Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) and by L. de
Rosny (Paris, 1887). The following relate especially to the ruins in
Salvador: — La Universidad, by D. Gonzalez, vol. hi. ser. 3, No. 6,
p. 283 (San Salvador, 1892-1893) ; Le Salvador pr£-Colombien, Hudes
archeologiques, by F. de Montcasusde Ballore (Paris, 1891), 25 plates;
Karl Sapper in Arch, fur Ethnologic, 9, p. 3 ft. (1896). (W. L.*)
CENTRAL FALLS, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island,
U.S.A., on the Blackstone river, about 5 m. N. of Providence.
Pop. (1900) 18,167; (1905, state census) 19,446, of whom 8792
were foreign-born, 4164 being French-Canadian, 1587 being Eng-
lish, and 1292 being Irish; (1910) 22,754. It is served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The Blackstone furnishes
good water-power, and the chief industry of the city is the manu-
facture of cotton goods; other important industries are the
refining of copper and the manufacture of woollens, silks and
hair-cloth. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$5,090,984, being 12*9% more than in 1000. A settlement was
established here about 1763 and was first a part of Smithfield,
and then, after 187 1, of Lincoln. About 1780 a chocolate mill
was erected, and from then until 1827 the settlement was known
as Chocolateville. It was incorporated as the Central Falls Fire
District of Smithfield in 1847, and in 1895 was chartered as a city.
CENTRALIA, a city of Marion county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
S. part of the state, about 62 m. E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890)
4763; (1000) 6721, of whom 571 were foreign-born. The city
is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Illinois
Central, the Illinois Southern, and the Southern railways; the
first two have repair shops here. Centralia is situated in the
central part of southern Illinois, popularly known as " Egypt."
Among its manufactures are window glass, envelopes, cigars,
concrete blocks and flour. In and near the city coal is mined, and
apples, strawberries and other fruits are raised, and the city
is a shipping point for coal and fruit. Centralia was first settled
in 1853, and was first chartered as a city in 1859.
CENTRAL INDIA, a collection of native states in India forming
a separate agency, which must not be confounded with the
Central Provinces. The Central India agency was formed in
1854, when Sir R. Hamilton was appointed agent to the governor-
general. It lies between 21 24' and 26 52' N. and between
74 o' and 83 o' E., and may be said to consist of two large
detached tracts of country which, with Jhansi as a pivot, spread
outwards east and west into the peninsula, reaching northward
to within some 30 m. of Agra, and southward to the valley of the
Nerbudda and the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The total area
is 78,772 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the United
Provinces, on the W. and S. W. by Rajputana, some native states
of the Bombay presidency, and Khandesh. The Central Pro-
vinces and the Bengal district of Chota Nagpur enclose it on the
S. and E., while the Jhansi district of the United Provinces
separates the two tracts.
Central India may be divided into three great natural divisions:
the highlands of the Malwa plateau, with a mean elevation of
some 1500 ft. above sea-level; the low-lying country some 600 ft.
above sea-level, comprising the greater part of the eastern section
of the agency; and the hilly tracts, which lie mostly to the south.
The Malwa plateau consists of great undulating plains, separated
by flat-topped hills, whose sides are boldly terraced, with here
and there a scarp rising above the general level; it is covered
with long grass, stunted trees and scrub, which owing to the
presence of deciduous plants is of a uniform straw colour, except
in the rains. The foundation of this plateau is a bed of sandstone
and shales belonging to the Vindhyan series. This bed, which
stretches east and west from Sasseram to Neemuch, and north
and south from Agra to Hoshangabad, comprises the whole of the
agency except the northern part of Bundelkhand. On the
plateau itself the sandstone is generally overlaid by the Deccan
trap, a blackish-coloured basaltic rock of volcanic origin, the high
level tableland having been formed by a succession of lava flows,
the valleys of Central India being merely " denudation hollows "
carved out by the action of rain and rivers. It is apparently
the northern limit of what was once a vast basaltic plain stretch-
ing from Goona to Belgaum, " one of the most gigantic outpour-
ings of volcanic matter in the world." The sandstone bed on
which it rests is visible at a point just north of Goona, and in a
small area round Bhilsa and Bhopal, as it is in those places freed
from the layer of trap. The low-lying land includes roughly that
part of the agency which lies to the east of the plateau and
comprises the greater part of the political divisions of
Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand and the country round Gwalior.
The formation save in north Bundelkhand is sandstone of the
Vindhyan series, free as a rule from " trap." In the north of
Bundelkhand the prevailing rock is gneiss and quartz. The
quartz takes the shape of long serrated ridges, which are in many
places a characteristic feature of the landscape. Trap appears
here and there in intrusive dykes. The hilly tracts lie chiefly
to the south of the agency, where the Vindhya, Satpura and
Kaimur ranges are met with. The country is rough forest and
jungle land little used for cultivation. The greater part of Central
India is covered with the well-known " black cotton soil,"
produced by the disintegration of the trap rock. It is a very
rich loamy earth, possessing great fertility and an unusual power
of retaining moisture, which makes artificial irrigation little
needed. Opium and millet are the principal crops grown upon
it. The ordinary " red soil " covers a laige part of northern
Bundelkhand, and as it requires much irrigation, tanks are a
special feature in this country. Ethnologically as well as
climatically the differences between the plateau and the eastern
part of the agency are distinct and the languages markedly so.
The plateau is inhabited by pure-blooded Rajput races, whose
ancestry can be traced back for centuries, with all their numerous
offshoots. The inhabitants of the low-lying country are also
Rajputs, but their descent is mixed and as a rule the families
of the plateau will have no marriage connexion with them.
The races of the hilly tracts are semi-civilized tribes, who often
flee at the mere sight of a white man, and have as yet been but
little affected by the Hindu religion of their Rajput rulers. Of
the climate of the plateau, Abul Fazl, the author of the Ain4-
Akbari, says: " The climate is so temperate that in the winter
there is no occasion for warm clothing, nor is it necessary in
summeT to cool the water with saltpetre. But in the four rainy
months the night here is cold enough to render a quilt necessary. "
The rains of the south-east monsoon reach Central India as a
rule about the 12th of July, and last until the end of September.
Administrative Divisions. — The Central India agency is
divided for administrative purposes into eight units, two classed
as residencies and six as agencies. These are the residencies of
Gwalior and Indore, and the agencies of Baghelkhand, Bhopal,
Bhopawar, Bundelkhand, Indore and Malwa. But these
divisions are purely an artificial grouping for the purposes of
the British government, the original native divisions consisting
of 16 states and 98 minor states and estates. The 1 5 large states
are Gwalior, Indore, Rewa, Bhopal, Dhar, Barwani, Datia,
Orchha, Charkhari, Chhattarpur, Panna, Dewas (senior branch),
Dewas (junior branch), Jaora and Ratlam. At the close of the
CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR
68 1
Pindari War in 1818 the whole country that is now under the
Central India agency was in great confusion and disorder, having
suffered heavily from the extortions of the Mahratta armies
and from predatory bands. It had been the policy of the great
Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Sindhia, to trample down into
complete subjection all the petty Rajput princes, whose lands
they seized and from whom they levied heavy contributions of
money. Many of these minor chiefs had been expelled from their
possessions, had taken refuge in the hills and forest, and retaliated
upon the Mahratta usurpers by wasting the lands which they had
lost, until the Mahrattas compounded for peace by payment of
blackmail. In this state of affairs all parties agreed to accept
the interposition of the British government for the restoration
of order, and under Lord Hastings the work of pacification was
effected. The policy pursued was to declare the permanency
of the rights existing at the time of the British interposition,
conditionally upon the maintenance of order; to adjust and
guarantee the relations of subordinate and tributary chiefs to
their superiors so as to prevent all further disputes or en-
croachments; and to settle the claims of the ousted landholders,
who had resorted to pillage or blackmail, by fixing grants of
land to be made to them, or settling the money allowances to be
paid to them. The general result was to place all the
privileges, rights and possessions of these inferior chiefs under the
guarantee or protection of the British government, to whom all
disputes between the superior and inferior states must be referred,
and whose decision is final upon all questions of succession to
hereditary rights or rulership. The states have no general
ethnological affinity, such as exists in Rajputana. Their terri-
tories are in many cases neither compact nor continuous, consist-
ing of a number of villages here and there, with a nucleus of more
or less importance round the chief town. Their relations to the
government of India and to each other present many variations.
Ten of them are under direct treaty with the government of
India; others are held under sanads and deeds of fealty and
obedience; while a third class, known as the mediatized states,
are held under agreements mediated by the British government
between them and their superior chiefs.
Population. — The total population of the Central India agency
in 1901 was 8,628,781, showing a decrease during the decade of
16-4%. Considerable losses were caused by the famines of
1 89 7- 1 898 and 1 899-1900, which were severely felt, especially
in Bhopal and Malwa. The greater part of the population of
Central India is of the Hindu religion, but a few Mahommedan
groups still exist, either traces of the days when the Mogul
emperors extended their sway from the Punjab to the Deccan,
or else the descendants of those northern adventurers who hired
out their services to the great Mahratta generals. Of the first
Bhopal is the only example, while Jaora is the only notable
instance of the other. Roughly there are four great sections of
the population: the Mahratta section, who belong to the ruling
circles; the Rajputs, who are also hereditary noblemen; the
trading classes, consisting chiefly of Marwaris and Gujaratis;
and lastly, the jungle tribes of Dravidian stock. The Mahrattas
are foreigners, and, though rulers of the greater part of Central
India, have no true connexion with the soil and are little met
with outside cities, the vicinity of courts, and administrative
centres. The Rajputs with all their endless ramifications form
a large portion of the population. Originally invaders, they have
so long held a stake in the soil that they have become almost
part of the indigenous population. The Marwaris hold practically
all the trade of Central India, with the exception of the Bora
class of Mahommedans. They are either Vaishnavite Hindus
or else Jains. Their advent into Central India dates, except in
the case of one or two families, from the time of the Mahratta
invasion only. The Jain portion of this community is very
wealthy. The last section, that of the jungle tribes, is mostly
of Dravidian or mixed Aryo-Dravidian origin, these tribes being
the modern representatives of the former rulers and inhabitants
of this country.
The British agent to the governor-general resides at Indore,
and there are British cantonments at Mhow, Neemuch and
Nowgong. The whole country is fairly provided with railways,
largely at the expense of Sindhia.
CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR, a province of British
India, which was formed in October 1903 by the amalgamation
of the Central Provinces and the Hyderabad Assigned Districts.
The total areaof the provinces is 1 13,281 sq. m., and the population
on that area in 1901 was 10,847,325. As is shown by its name
the province is situated in the centre of the Indian peninsula,
comprising a large proportion of the broad belt of hill and plateau
country which separates the plains of Hindustan from the
Deccan. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Central India
states, and along a small strip of the Saugor district by the
United Provinces; on the W. by Bhopal, Indore and the
Khandesh district of Bombay; on the S. by Hyderabad and the
large zamindari estates of the Madras presidency; and on the
E. by these latter estates and the tributary states of Bengal.
In October 1905 most of Sambalpur and five Oriya-speaking
hill-states were transferred from the Central Provinces to Bengal,
while the Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur were transferred
from Bengal to the Central Provinces. The province, therefore,
now consists of the five British divisions of Jubbulpore, Ner-
budda, Nagpur, Chhattisgarh and Berar, which are divided into
the twenty-two districts of Saugor, Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla,
Seoni, Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara,
Wardha, Nagpur, Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat, Raipur, Bilaspur,
Amraoti, Akola, Ellichpur, Buldana and Wun; and the fifteen
tributary states of Makrai, Bastar, Ranker, Nandgaon, Kaira-
garh, Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, Sakti, Raigarh, Sarangarh,
Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur. }
The Central Provinces are divided into two parts by the Satpura
range of hills (q.v.) t which runs south of the Nerbudda river from
east to west; so that, speaking generally, it consists of ceatnl
districts north of the Satpuras, districts on the Satpura pyovioca*
plateau, and districts south of the Satpuras. North of *
the Satpuras is the rich valley of the Nerbudda, which may be said
to begin towards the north of the Jubbulpore district and to extend
westward through the district of Narsinghpur as far as the western
limit of Hoshangabad, a distance of nearly 300 m. The elevation
of the valley above the sea varies from iaoo ft. at Jubbulpore
to 1 120 at Hoshangabad. In breadth it is about 30 m., extending
between the Satpuras and the southern scarp of the Vindhyas.
This great plain, 10,613 fQ« m. in extent, contains for the most
part land of extreme fertility. The continuation of the valley west
of Hoshangabad forms the northern portion of the district of
Nimar, the farther limit of which touches the Khandesh district
of the Bombay presidency. Towards the river, though rich in parts,
this tract of country is generally wild and desolate, but nearer the
base of the hill range there is a large natural basin of fertile land
which is highly cultivated. South of the Satpuras lies the great
plain of Chhattisgarh at a mean elevation above the sea of 1000 ft. ;
it has an area of 23,000 sq. m., and forms the upper basin of the
Mahanadi. Farther to the west and again divided off by hills is the
great plain of Nagpur, extending over 24,000 sq. m. Its general
surface inclines towards the south from 1000 ft. above the sea at
Nagpur to 750 ft. at Chanda. To the south the province is shut in
by the wide mountainous tract which stretches from the Bay of
Bengal through Bastar to the Godavari, and west of that river is
continued onward to the rocky ridges and plateaus of Khandesh by
a succession of ranges that enclose the plain of Berar along its
southern border.
Berar consists mainly of the valley lying between the Satpura
range of mountains in the north and the Ajanta range in the south.
The Gawilgarh hills, a range belonging to the Satpura Bermr
mountains, form the northern border. On the east the
frontier is marked by the Wardha river down to its confluence with
the Penganga, and on the south by the Penganga for about two-thirds
of the frontier's length. The tract is half surrounded on the east,
north and north-west by the Central Provinces, with which it is
amalgamated. In addition to the Melghat mountain tract which
walls it in on the north, Berar is divided into two sections, the
Payanghat or lowland country, bounded on the north by the
Gawilgarh hills, and on the south by the outer scarps of the Ajanta
range, and the Balaghat or upland country above the Ajanta ridge,
sloping down southwards beyond the ghats or passes which lead
up to it. The Payanghat is a wide valley running up eastward
between this ridge and the Gawilgarh hills, varying in breadth from
40 to 50 m., and broader towards the end than at its mouth. It
contains all the best land in Berar; it is full of deep, rich, black
alluvial soil, of almost inexhaustible fertility, and it undulates
sufficiently to maintain a natural system of drainage, but there is
nothing picturesque about this broad strip of champaign country.
The upland tract, on the contrary, is diversified with low-lying
v. 22 a
682
CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR
plains, high plateaus* fertile bottoms and rocky wastes, and is
rendered picturesque by rivers and groves.
Natural Features, — The provinces may be divided into two tracts
of upland and three of plain, consisting erf the Vindhya and Satpura
plateaus, and the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. To the
north the districts of Saugor and Damoh form the southern boundary
of the Vindhyan escarpment. In this region the sandstone rocks
are generally overlaid with heavy black soil formed from the decay-
ing trap, which is principally devoted to the cultivation of the spring
crops, wheat and grain, while rice and hill millets are sown in the
lighter and more sandy soils. Next, the long and narrow valley of
the Nerbudda from Jubbulpore to Hoshangabad is formed of deep
alluvial deposits of extreme richness and excellently suited to the
growth of wheat. To the south of the Nerbudda the Satpura range
stretches across the province, containing the greater part of five
districts, its crystalline and sandstone rocks rising in places through
the superficial stratum of trap, and with large areas of shallow stony
land still covered to a great extent with forest interspersed by
black-soil valleys of great fertility. In the latter are grown wheat
and other spring crops, while the lighter kinds of rice and the hill
millets are all that the poorer land can bear. To the south of the
Satpuras and extending along its base from west to east lie success-
ively the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. The surface soil of
Berar is to a great extent a rich black vegetable mould; and where
this surface sou does not exist, there are muram and trap with a shallow
upper crust of inferior light soil. The Nagpur country, drained by
tne Wardha and^ Wainganga rivers, contains towards the west the
shallow black soil in which autumn crops like cotton and the large
millet, juar, which do not require excessive moisture, can be success-
fully cultivated. The eastern part of the Nagpur country and the
Chhattisgarh plain, comprising the Mahanadi basin, form the great
rice tract of the province, its heavy rainfall and hard yellowish soil
rendering it excellently adapted for the growth of this crop.
Climate. — As retards climate the districts of the Central Provinces
are generally divided into hot and cool ones. In the latter division
are comprised the two Vindhyan districts of Saugor and Damoh,
Jubbulpore at the head of the Nerbudda valley, and the four Sat-
pura districts of Mandla, Seoni, Betul and Chhindwara, which enjoy,
owing to their greater elevation, a distinctly lower average tem-
perature than the rest of the province. The ordinary variation is
from 3 to 4 degrees, the mean maximum reading in the shade in
a cooler district being about 105 as against 108 in the hotter ones
for the month of May, and 79 as against 83 for the month of
December. In the cold weather the temperature in Nagpur and the
other hot districts is about the same as in Calcutta and substantially
higher than that of northern India. The climate of Berar differs
very little from that of the Deccan generally, except that in the
Payanghat valley the hot weather may be exceptionally severe.
The rainfall of the province is considerably heavier than in northern
India, and the result of this is a cooler and more pleasant atmosphere
during the monsoon season. The average rainfall, before it was
affected by the abnormal seasons which followed 1802, was 51 in.,
varying from ^3 in. in Nimar to 65 in Balaghat. In the autumn
months malarial fever is prevalent in all thickly forested tracts and
also in the rice country; but on the whole the province is considered
to be healthy, and as the rains break fairly regularly in June and
produce an immediate fall in the temperature, severe heat is only
experienced for a period of from two to three months.
AgricuUutt. — Broadly speaking, the northern districts of the pro-
vince produce principally cold weather crops, such as wheat and
grain, and the eastern ones principally rice. At the beginning of the
decade 1891-1901 wheat was the staple product of the Vindhyan
and Nerbudda valley districts, and was also grown extensively in
all the Satpura districts except Nimar and in Wardha and Nagpur.
Cotton and juar were produced principally in Nimar, Nagpur,
Wardha and the southern portion of Chhindwara, and the latter
also in Chanda. In the Satpura districts the inferior soil was and is
principally devoted to hill millets. Rice is an important crop in
Damon, Jubbulpore, Mandla, Seoni and Chanda, and is the chief
staple of Bhandara, Balaghat, and the two eastern districts of
Raipur and Bilaspur. The staple crops of Berar are cotton and juar.
The succession of bad seasons which marked the end of the decade
affected the distribution of the principal crops, but with the advent
of more prosperous seasons things tend to return to their old level.
Industries. — The only important industries are connected with
cotton and coaL In 1904 the total number of factories was £91,
almost entirely cotton presses and ginning factories, which received
an immense impetus from the rise in cotton prices. In 1896 a
brewery was established at Jubbulpore. Two coal-mines are
worked in the Central Provinces, at Warora and Mopani, to each
of which there is a branch line of railway. In 1 003-1 904 there was
a total yield of 160,000 tons, valued at about £45,000. In connexion
with the Warora colliery there is a fire-clay business. The Mopani
colliery, which dates back to i860, is worked by a joint-stock
company.
Trade.— The trade of the Central Provinces is conducted mainly
by rail with Bombay and with Calcutta. The chief imports are
cotton piece goods, cotton twist, salt, sugar, provisions, railway
materials, raw cotton, metals, coal, tobacco, spices and kerosene oil.
The chief exports are raw cotton, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, hides and
lac. The exports of wheat are liable to extreme fluctuations,
especially during famine periods.
Railways. — Until recently, the only railway in the Central Pro-
vinces was the Great Indian Peninsula, with two branches, one
terminating at Nagpur, the other at Jubbulpore, whence it was
continued by the East Indian system to Allahabad. The Bengal-
Nagpur line has now opened up the eastern portion of the country,
bringing it into direct connexion with Calcutta; and a new branch
of the Indian Midland, from Saugor through Damoh, has been partly
constructed as a famine work. Large portions, however, in the hilly
centre and in the south-east, are still remote from railways.
Administration. — The administration of the province is conducted
by a chief commissioner on behalf of the governor-general of India
in council, assisted by members of the Indian civil service, provincial
civil service, subordinate civil service, district and assistant super-
intendents ofpolice, and officers specially recruited for various de-
partments. The form of the administration of Berar was in 1903
entirely reorganized. Under the original settlement concluded by the
treaties of 1853 an d i860 the revenues of the province were assigned
primarily for the maintenance of the Hyderabad contingent, such
surplus as accrued from year to year being made over to the nizam,
while the province itself was administered in trust by the government
of India through the resident at Hyderabad. In November 1902
a fresh settlement was arranged and Berar was leased in perpetuity
to the British government in return for an annual rental of 25 lakhs.
It remained under the administration of the resident until the 1st of
October 1903, from which date it was amalgamated with the Central
Provinces for administrative purposes. As the immediate result of
this change the offices of heads of departments in Berar, except the
judicial commissionership and the conservatorship of forests, were
amalgamated with the corresponding appointments in the Central
Provinces, and Berar is now treated as one of the divisions of that
province for purposes of revenue administration, with a divisional
commissioner as its immediate head.
Population. — The population of the Central Provinces and Berar
as now defined according to the census of 1901 was 10,847,325, and
is of very diverse ethical construction, having been recruited by
immigration from the countries surrounding it on all sides. There
are six main divisions of the people: the Dravidian tribes, who
formerly held the country; Hindi-speaking immigrants from the
north and north-west into Saugor, Damoh, the Nerbudda valley
and the open country of Mandla and Seoni; Rajasthani-speaking
immigrants from Central India into Nimar, Betul and parts of
Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur and Chhindwara; Marathi-speaking
immigrants from Bombay into Berar, the Mahratta districts and the
southern tahsil of Betul; the Telugu castes in the Sironcha and
Chanda tahsil of Chanda and the south of Bastar; and the Hindu
immigrants into Chhattisgarh, who are supposed to have arrived
many centuries ago when the Haihaya dynasty of Ratanpur rose
into power.
Language. — Owing to the diversity of race, the diversity of lan-
guage is equally great. Thirty languages and a hundred and six
dialects are founcfin the Central Provinces alone, and twenty-eight
languages and sixty-eight dialects in Berar. The chief of these
languages are Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi,
Oriya, Telugu and Dravidian dialects. Of these last the chief
dialects are Gondi, Oraon or Kurukh, Kandhi and Kanarese, of
which Gondi is by far the most important. There are also the
Munda languages, of which the chief are Korku, Kharia and Munda
or KoL The chief languages of Berar are Marathi, Urdu, Gondi,
Banjari, Hindi, Marwan, telugu, Korku and Gujarati.
History. — The authentic history of the greater part of the
country embraced in the Central Provinces does not begin till
the 1 6th century a.d. By the people of northern India the
country was known as Gondwana, after the savage tribes of
Gonds by whom it was inhabited. The Mussulman invaders
of the Deccan passed it by, not caring to enter its mountain
fastnesses and impenetrable forests; though occasional inscrip-
tions show that parts of it had fallen from time to time under
the dominion of one or other of the great kingdoms of the north,
e.g. of Asoka, of the Guptas of Maghada, or of the ancient Hindu
kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar); and inscriptions and numerous
discoveries of coins prove that, during the middle ages, the open
spaces were occupied by a series o Rajput dynasties. Of these
the most important was that of the Haihayas of Ratanpur, a
family which, settled from time immemorial in the Nerbudda
valley, had towards the close of the 10th century succeeded the
Pandava dynasty of Maha Kosala (Chhattisgarh) and ruled,
though from the 16th century onwards over greatly diminished
territories, until its overthrow by the Mahrattas in 1745. The
second ruler of this dynasty, Ratnaraja, was the founder of
Ratanpur.
The inscriptional records cease abruptly in the 12th century,
and no more is known of the country until the rise of the Gond
CENTUMVIRI
685
dynasties from the 14th to the x6th centuries. The first of these
is mentioned in 1398, when Narsingh Rai, raja of Kherla, is said
by Ferishta to have ruled all the hills of Gondwana. He was
finally overthrown and killed by Hoshang Shah, king of Mahra.
The 1 6th century saw the establishment of a powerful Goad
kingdom by Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th
of the petty Gond rajas of Garha-Mandla, and extended his
dominions so as to include Saugor and Damoh on the Vindhyan
plateau, Jubbulpore and Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda vattey,
and Seoni on the Satpura highlands. Sangram Sah died in 1 530;
and the break up of his dominion began with the enforced cession
to the Mogul emperor by Chandra Sah (1563-1575) of Saugor
and Damoh and of that portion of his territories which after-
wards formed the state of Bhopal.
About 200 years after Sangram Sah's time, Bakht Buland,
the Gond chieftain of a principality seated at Deogarh in Chhind-
wara, having visited Delhi, set about introducing the civilization
he had there admired. He founded the city of Nagpur, which
his successor made his capital. The Deogarh kingdom, at its
widest extent, embraced the modern districts of Betul, Chhind-
wara, Nagpur, with parts of Seoni, Bhandara and Balaghat.
In the south of the province Chanda was the seat of another
Gond dynasty, which first came into prominence in the 16th
century. The three Gond principalities of Garha-Mandla, Deo-
garh and Chanda were nominally subject to the Mogul em-
perors. In addition to the acquisitions made in the north at
the expense of Garha-Mandla, the Moguls, after the annexation
of Berar, established governors at Paunar in Wardha and Kherla
in Betul. Having thus hemmed in the Gond states, however,
they made no efforts to assert any effective sovereignty over
them; the Gond rajas for their part were content with practical
independence within their own dominions. Under their peaceful
rule their territories flourished, until the weakening of the Mogul
empire and the rise of the predatory Bundela and Mahratta
powers, with the organized forces of which their semi-barbarous
feudal levies were unable to cope, brought misfortune upon them.
In the 17th century Chhatarsal, the Bundela chieftain, deprived
the Mandla principality of part of the Vindhyan plateau and the
Nerbudda valley. In 1 733 the peshwa of Poona invaded Bundel-
khand; and in 1735 the Mahrattas had established their power
in Saugor. In 1742 the peshwa advanced to Mandla and exacted
the payment of chautk (tributary blackmail), and from this time
until 1 78 1, when the successors of Sangram Sah were finally
overthrown, Garha-Mandla remained practically a Mahratta
dependency. Meanwhile the other independent principalities
of Gondwana had in turn succumbed. In 1743 Raghoji Bhonsla
of Berar established himself at Nagpur, and by 1751 had con-
quered the territories of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh.
In 1 74 1 Ratanpur had surrendered to the Mahratta leader
Bhaskar Pant without a blow, and the ancient Rajput dynasty
came to an end. In Chanda and Deogarh the Gond rajas were
suffered by Raghoji Bhonsla and his successor to carry on a
shadowy existence for a while, in order to give them an excuse
for avoiding the claims of the peshwa as their overlord; though
actually decisions in important matters were sought at Poona.
Raghoji died in 1755, and in 1769 his son and successor, Janoji,
was forced to acknowledge the peshwa's effective supremacy.
The Nagpur state, however, continued to grow. In 1 78 5 Mudhoji
(d. 1788), Janoji's successor, bought from the Poona court the
cession of Mandla and the upper Nerbudda valley, and between
1796 and 1798 this was followed by the acquisition of Hoshanga-
bad and the larger part of Saugor and Damoh by Raghoji II.
(d. 1 8 16). Under this latter raja the Nagpur state covered
practically the whole of the present Central Provinces and Berar,
as well as Orissa and some of the Chota Nagpur states.
In 1803 Raghoji joined Sindhia against the British; the
result was the defeat of the allies at Assaye and Argaon, and the
treaty of Deogaon, by which Raghoji had to cede Cuttack,
Sambalpur and part of Berar. Up to this time the rule of the
Bhonsla rajas, rough warriors of peasant extraction, had been
on the whole beneficent; but, soured by his defeat, Raghoji now
set to work to recover some of his losses by a ruthless exploitation
of the peasantry, and until the effective intervention of the
British in 1818 the country was subjected to every kind of
oppression. After Raghoji II.'s death in 1816 his imbecile son
Parsaji was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji, known as Appa
Sahib. In spite of a treaty signed with the British in this year,
Mudhoji in 18 17 joined the peshwa, but was defeated at Sitabaldi
and forced to cede the rest of Berar to the nizam, and parts of
Saugor and Damoh, with Mandla, Betul, Seoni and the Nerbudda
valley, to the British. After a temporary restoration to the
throne he was deposed, and Raghoji III., a grandchild of
Raghoji II., was placed on the throne. During his minority,
which lasted till 1840, the country was well administered by a
British resident. In 1853, on the death of Raghoji III. without
heirs, Nagpur lapsed to the British paramount power. Until
the formation of the Central Provinces in 1861, Nagpur province,
which consists of the present Nagpur division, Chhindwara and
Chhatisgarh, was administered by a commissioner under the
central government.
The territories in the north ceded in 18 17 by the peshwa (parts
of Saugor and Damoh) and in 1818 by Appa Sahib were in 1820
formed into the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories under an agent
to the governor-general, and in 1835 were included in the newly
formed North- West Provinces. In 1842, in consequence of a
rising, they were again placed under the jurisdiction of an agent
to the governor-general. Restored to the North- West Provinces
in 1853, they were finally joined with the Nagpur province to
constitute the new Central Provinces in 1861. On the 1st of
October 1003 Berar also was placed under the administration of
the commissioner of the Central Provinces (for history see Berajr) .
In 1005 the greater part of Sambalpur district, with the feudatory
states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi, were
transferred to Bengal, while the feudatory states of Chang
Bhakar, Korea, Surguja, Udaipur and Jashpur were transferred
from Bengal to the Central Provinces.
During the decade 1891-1901 the Central Provinces suffered
from famine more severely than any other part of India. The
complete failure of the rain in the autumn of 1896 caused scarcity
to develop suddenly into famine, which lasted until the end of
1897. The total number of persons in receipt of relief reached
its maximum of nearly 700,000 in May 1897. The expenditure
on relief alone was about a million sterling; and the total cost
of the famine, including loss of revenue, amounted to nearly
twice that amount. During 1897 the death-rate for the whole
province rose to sixty-nine per thousand, or double the average,
while the birth-rate fell to twenty-seven per thousand. The
Central Provinces were stricken by another famine, yet more
severe and widespread, caused by the complete failure of the
rains in 1899. The maximum of persons relieved for the whole
province was 1,971,000 in June 1900. In addition, about 68,000
persons were in receipt of relief in the native states. During the
three years 1899-190 2 the total expenditure on famine relief
amounted to about four millions sterling. Berar also suffered
from the famines of 1897 and 1000.
See The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), x. 99, for list
of authorities.
CENTUMVIRI (centum, hundred; wr, man), an ancient court
of civil jurisdiction at Rome, probably instituted by Servius
Tullius. 1 Its antiquity is attested by the symbol and formula
used in its procedure, the lance (kasta) as the sign of true owner-
ship, the oath or wager (sacramentum), the ancient formula for
recovery of property or assertion of liberty. It is probably
alluded to in Livy's account of the Valerio-Horatian laws of
449 B.C. (Livy iii. 55, Consoles . . . fecerunt sanciendo ut qui
tribunis plebis, aedilibus, judicibus, decemviris nocuisset, ejus
caput Jovi sacrum esset). If ihejudices here mentioned are the
centumviri, it is clear that they formed a tribunal which repre-
sented the interests of the plebs. This is in accordance with
Cicero's account (de Oral. i. 38. 173) of the sphere of their juris-
diction. He says this was mainly concerned with the property
of which account was taken at the census; it was therefore in
1 Mommsen (Staatsrecht, i 1 . 275, n. 4, ii*. 231, n. i, 590 f.) believed
that the Centumviri were instituted about 150 B.C.
68 4
CENTURION— CEPHALONIA
their power to make or unmake a citizen. They also decided
questions concerning debt. Hence the plebs had an interest in
securing their decisions against undue influence. They were
never regarded as magistrates, but merely asjudices, and as such
would be appointed for a fixed term of service by the magistrate,
probably by the praetor urbanus. But in Cicero's time they were
elected by the Comitia Tributa. They then numbered 105.
Their original number is uncertain. It was probably increased
by Augustus and in Pliny's time had reached 180. The office
was probably open in quite early times to both patricians and
plebeians. The term is also applied in the inscriptions of Veii to
the municipal senates and Cures, which numbered 100 members.
Authorities. — Tigerstrom, De Judicibus apud Romanos (Berlin,
1826); Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's time, pp. 40 ff., 58 ff.,
182 ff., 264 (Oxford, 1901); Bethmann-Hollweg, Der romische
Civilprozess, ii. 53 ff. (Bonn, 1864); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclo-
pddie, iii. 1935 ff. (Wlassak). (A. M. Cl.)
CENTURION (Lat. cenlurio), in the ancient Roman army, an
officer in command of a centuria, originally a body of a hundred
infantry, later the sixtieth part of the normal legion. There
were therefore in the legion sixty centurions, who, though
theoretically subordinate to the six military tribunes, were the
actual working officers of the legion. For the most part the
centurions were promoted from the ranks: they were arranged
in a complicated order of seniority; the senior centurion of the
legion (primus pilus) was an officer of very high importance.
Besides commanding the centuries of the legion, centurions were
" seconded " for various kinds of special service, e.g. for staff em-
ployment, the command of auxiliaries. See further Roman Army.
CENTURIPE (formerly Centorbi, anc. Kerripara or Cen-
turipae)j a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated
2380 ft. above sea-level in a commanding situation, 7 m. N. of
the railway station of Catenanuova-Centuripe, which is 28 m.
W. from Catania. Pop. (1001) 11,311. Thucydides mentions it
as a city of the Sicels. It became an ally of the Athenians at
the time of their expedition against Syracuse, and maintained
its independence almost uninterruptedly (though it fell under
the power of Agathocles) until the First Punic War. Cicero
describes it, perhaps with some exaggeration, as being far the
largest and richest city of Sicily, and as having a population of
10,000, engaged in tie cultivation of an extensive territory.
It was granted Latin rights before the rest of Sicily. It appears
to have suffered much in the war against Sextus Pompeius, and
not to have regained its former prosperity under the empire.
Frederick II. entirely destroyed it in 1233, but it was soon
rebuilt. Considerable remains of the ancient city walls and of
buildings, mostly of the Roman period, still exist, and numerous
antiquities, including some fine Hellenistic terracottas, have been
discovered in casual excavations.
, See F. Ansaldi, I Monument* deW aniica Centuripi (Catania, 1851) ;
P. Orsi in Atti del Congresso Internationale di Scienze Storiche (Rome,
1904), v. 177. (T. As.)
. CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men),
the name for a unit in the Roman army, originally amounting
to one hundred men, and for one of the divisions into which the
Roman people was separated for voting purposes (see Comitia).
The word is applied to any group of one hundred, and more
particularly to a period of a hundred years, and to the suc-
cessive periods of a hundred years, dating before or after
the birth of Christ. The " Century-plant " is a name given to
the Agave (4. v.), or American aloe, from the supposition that it
flowered once only in every hundred years.
CEOS (Gr. K£<i#, mod. Zea or Tzia), an island in the Aegean
Sea, belonging to the group of the Cyclades and the eparchy of
Syra, 14 m. off the coast of Attica. Its greatest length is about
15 m. and its breadth about 8 m. It rises gradually towards the
centre, where it culminates in Mount Elias, 1864 ft. high. Among
its natural productions are lemons, citrons, olives, wine and
honey; it also exports a considerable quantity of valonia.
There were formerly four towns of some importance in the
island: — Iulis, about 3 m. from the north-west shore; Coressia,
the harbour of Iulis, with a temple of Apollo Smintheus in the
neighbourhood; Carthaea, in the south-east, with a temple of
Apollo; and Poieessa, in the south-west. Of these Iulis is
represented by the town of Zea, and Cartiiaea by the village of
'S tais Polais; traces of the other two can still be made out.
Iulis was the birthplace of the lyric poets Simonides and
Bacchylides, the philosophers Prodicus and Ariston, and the phy-
sician Erasistratus; the excellence of its laws was so generally
recognized that the title of Cean Laws passed into a proverb.
One of them forbade a citizen to protract his fife beyond sixty
years. The people of Ceos fought on the Greek side at
Artemisium and Salamis; they joined the Delian League and
also the later Athenian alliance in 377 B.C. They revolted in
363-362, but were reduced again, and the Athenians established
a monopoly of the ruddle, or red earth, which was one of the most
valuable products of the island. In a.d. 1207 it was divided
between four Italian adventurers; after forming part of the
duchy of Naxos in 1537, it passed under Turkish rule in 1566.
Silver coins of Carthaea and Coressia have been found dating
from the 6th century b.c. (see Numismatics: Greek, " Cyclades
and Sporades "). The present population of the island is about
4000, of which the capital has about 2000.
See Pridik, De Cei Insulae rebus (1892). (E. Gr.)
CEPHALIC INDEX, the term in use by anthropologists to
express the percentage of breadth to length in any skull. The
principle employed by Retzius is to take the longer diameter of
a skull, the antero-posterior diameter, as 100; if the shorter or
transverse diameter falls below 80 the skull may be classed as
long (dolichocephalic), while if it exceeds 80 the skull is broad
(brachycephalic) (see Craniometry).
CEPHALONIA (Ital. Cefalonia, ancient and modern official
Greek CephaUenia, Ke^oXXi/pia)* 3Ln island belonging to the
kingdom of Greece, and the largest of those known as the Ionian
Islands, situated on the west side of the mainland, almost
directly opposite the Gulf of Corinth. The name was traditionally
derived from Cephalus, the Attic hero who was regarded as
having colonized the island. The tradition, which is repeated by
Aristotle, is probably due solely to the similarity of the names
(see J. G. Frazer, Pausanias, i. 37, 6 note). Pop. (1907) 71,235.
Its extreme length is 31 m., and its breadth varies from about
20 m. in the southern portion to 3 m. or less in the projecting
part, which runs parallel with the island of Ithaca, at a distance
of about 4 m. across the strait of Guiscardo or Viscaro. The
whole island, with its area of 348 English sq. m., is covered with
rocky hills of varying elevation, the main range running from
north-west to south-east. The ancient Mount Aenos, now Elato,
Monte Negro, or the Black Mountain (53 1 5 ft.) , frequently retains
the snow for several months. It is not only the loftiest part of
the sierra, but also the highest land in the whole Ionian group.
The name " Black" was given from the darkness of the pine
woods which still constitute the most striking feature in Cepha-
lonian scenery, although their extent has been greatly curtailed
by fire. The summit is called Megalo Soros. The island is ill
supplied with fresh water; there are few permanent streams
except the Rakli, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers.
In the western part of the island a gulf runs up from the south,
a distance of about 7 m.; on its east side stands the chief town
Argostoli, with about 10,000 inhabitants, and on its west side
the rival city of Lixouri, with 6000. About a mile west of the
town are the curious sea mills; a stream of sea water running
down a chasm in the shore is made to turn the wheels. About
5 m. from Argostoli is the castle of St George, a building of
Venetian origin, and the strongest fortification in the island.
On an eminence east-south-east of Argostoli are the ruins of the
ancient Cranii, and Lixouri is close to or upon those of Pale;
while on the other side of the island are the remains of Samos
on the bay of the same name, of Proni or Pronni, farther south
above the vale of Rakli and its blossoming oleanders, and of
an unknown city near the village of Scala. The ruins of this
city include Roman baths, a brick-built temple, rock-cut tombs,
and tessellated pavements; and Cranii, Proni and Samos are
remarkable for stretches of Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, partly
of the most irregular construction, and partly preserving almost
unimpaired the results of the most perfect skill. The inhabitants
CEPHALOPODA
685
of Cephalonia have all along been extremely active; and no
slight amount of toil has been expended in the construction of
terraces on the steep sides of the hills. Owing to the thinness
of the population, however, but a small proportion of the soil
is under cultivation, and the quantity of grain grown in the
island is comparatively meagre. The staple is the currant, in
the production of which the island surpasses Zante. The fruit
is smaller than that of the Morea, and has a peculiar flavour; it
finds a market mainly in Holland, Belgium and Germany. The
grape vine also is grown, and the manufacture of wine is a rising
industry. The olive crop is of considerable importance, and the
culture of cotton in the low grounds has been successfully
attempted. Manufactures are few and undeveloped, but lace
from the aloe fibre, Turkey carpets and basket-work are pro-
duced by the villagers, and boats are built at both the principal
towns. Of all the seven Ionian islands Cephalonia and Zante are
most purely Greek, and the inhabitants display great mental
activity.
In the Homeric poems Cephalonia is generally supposed to
be mentioned under the name of Same, and its inhabitants,
among the subjects of Ulysses, to be designated Cephallenes
(see, however, under Ithaca) . In the Persian War they took but
little part; in the Peloponnesian they sided with the Athenians.
The town of Pale was vainly besieged by Philip of Macedon in
218 B.C., because it had supported the Aetolian cause. In 189
B.C. all the cities surrendered to the Romans, but Same afterwards
revolted, and was only reduced after a siege of four months.
The island was presented by Hadrian to Athens, but it appears
again at a later date as " free and autonomous." After the
division of the Roman empire, it continued attached to Byzan-
tium till 1082, when it was captured by Robert Guiscard, who
died, however, before he could repress the revolt of 1085. In
1204 it was assigned to Gaius, prince of Tarentum, who accepted
the protection of Venice in 12 15; and after 1225 it was held
along with Santa Maura and Zante by a succession of Ave counts
of the Tocco family at Naples. Formally made over to Venice
in 1350 by the prince of Tarentum, it was afterwards captured
by the Turks in 1479; but the Hispanico- Venetian fleet under
Benedetto Pessaro and Gonsalvo of Cordova effected their
expulsion in 1 500, and the island continued in Venetian possession
till the fall of the republic. For some time it was administered
for the French government, but in 1809 it was taken by the
British under Cuthbert, Lord Collingwood. Till 1813 it was in
the hands of Major de Bosset, a Swiss in the British service, who
displayed an industry and energy in the repression of injustice
and development of civilization only outdone by the despotic
vigour of Sir Charles Napier, who held the same office for the nine
years from 1818 to 1827. During the British protectorate the
island made undoubted advances in material prosperity, but
was several times the scene of political disturbances. It retained
longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence exerted
by the landed proprietors, but has been gradually becoming
more democratic. Under the Venetians it was divided into eight
districts, and an elaborate system of police was in force; since
its annexation to Greece it has been broken up into twenty
demarchies, each with its separate jurisdiction and revenues,
and the police system has been abolished.
Authorities. — A special treatise on the antiquities of Cephalonia
was written by Petrus Maurocenus. See Holland's Travels (181 5);
Ansted's Ionian Islands (1863); Viscount Kirkwall's Four Years
in Ionian Islands (1864); Wiebel's Die Insel Kephalonia; parlia-
mentary papers. Riemann, Recherches archkologiques sur lis lies
Ioniennes (Paris, 1 879-1 880); Partsch, Kephallenia und Ithaka
(1890); see also Corfu; Ionian Islands. (E. Gr.)
CEPHALOPODA, the fifth of the classes into which the
zoological phylum Mollusca is divided (see Molltjsca). The
Cephalopoda are mainly characterized by the concrescence of the
foot and head. The foot grows forward on each side so as to
surround the mouth, the two upgrowths meeting on the dorsal
side of the head — whence the name Cephalopoda. The perioral
portion of the foot is drawn out into paired arm-like processes;
these may be beset with sheathed tentacles or with suckers or
hooks, or both. The epipodia are expanded into a pair of
muscular lobes right and left, which are bent round towards one
another so that their free margins meet and constitute a short
tube — the siphon or funnel. The hind-foot is either very small
or absent. A distinctive feature of the Cephalopoda is their
bilateral symmetry and the absence of anything like the torsion of
the visceral mass seen in the Anisopleurous Gastropoda.
The anus, although it may be a little displaced from the median
line, is approximately median and posterior. The mantle-skirt is
deeply produced posteriorly, forming a large sub-pallial chamber
around the anus. By the side of the anus are placed the single or
paired apertures of the nephridia, the genital apertures (paired only
in Nautilus, in female Octopoda, female Ommatostrephes and male
Eledone), and the paired ctenidia. The visceral hump or dome is
elevated, and may oe very much elongated in a direction almost at
right angles to the primary horizontal axis of the foot.
A shell is frequently, but not invariably, secreted on the visceral
hump and mantle-skirt. The shell is usually light in substance or
lightened by air-chambers in correlation with the free-swimming
habits of the Cephalopoda. It may be external or internal, that is,
enclosed in folds of the mantle. Very numerous minute pigmented
sacs, capable of expansion and contraction, and known as chromato-
phores, are usually present in the integument. The sexes are separate.
The ctenidia are well developed as paired gill-plumes, serving as
the efficient branchial organs (figs, a, 24).
The vascular system is very highly developed ; the heart consists
of a pair of auricles and a ventricle (figs. 12, 28). Branchial hearts
are formed on the afferent vessels of the branchiae. It is not known
to what extent the minute subdivision of the arteries extends, or
whether there is a true capillary system.
The pericardium is extended so as to form a very large sac, passing
among the viscera dorsalwards and sometimes containing the ovary
or testis — the viscero-pericardial sac — which opens to the exterior
either directly or through the renal organs. It has no connexion
with the vascular system. The renal organs are always paired sacs,
the walls of which invest the branchial afferent vessels (figs. 28, 29).
They open each by a pore into the viscero-pericardial sac, except in
Nautilus. The anal aperture is median and raised on a papilla,
laws (fig. 6, e) and a radula (fig. 9) are well developed. The jaws
have the form of powerful beaks, either horny or calcified (Nauttlus),
and are capable of inflicting severe wounds.
Cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia are present, but the connectives
are shortened and the ganglia concentrated and fused in the cephalic
region. Large special ganglia (optic, stellate and supra-buccal) are
developed. Sense-organs are highly developed; the eye exhibits
a very special elaboration of structure in the Dibranchiata, and a
remarkable archaic form in the nautilus. Otocysts are present in
all. The typical osphradium is not present, except in Nautilus, but
other organs are present in the cephalic region, to which an olfactory
function is ascribed both in Nautilus and in the other Cephalopoda.
Hermaphroditism is unknown in Cephalopoda; male and female
individuals always being differentiated. The genital aperture and
duct is sometimes single, when it is the left ; sometimes the typical
pair is developed right and left of the anus. The males of nearly all
Cephalopoda have been shown to be characterized by a peculiar
modification of the arm-like processes or lobes of the fore-foot, con-
nected with the copulative function. The term hectocotylization
is applied to this modification (see figs. 6, 24). Elaborate spermato-
phores or sperm-ropes are formed by all Cephalopoda, and very
usually the female possesses special capsule-forming and nida-
mental glands for providing envelopes to the eggs (fie. 4, g.n). The
egg is large, and the development is much modified by the presence
of an excessive amount of food-material diffused in the protoplasm
of the egg-cell. Trochosphere and veliger stages of development
are consequently not recognizable.
The Cephalopoda are divisible into two orders, Tetrabranchiata
and Dibranchiata, the names of which (due to Sir R. Owen)
describe the number of gill-plumes present; but in fact there are
several characters, of as great importance as those derived from
the gills, by which the members of these two orders are separated
from one another.
Order i. Tetrabranchiata ( = Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera).
Characters. — The inrolled lateral margins of the epipodia are
not fused, but form a siphon by apposition (fig. 4). The circum-
oral lobes of the fore-foot carry numerous retractile tentacles,
not suckers (fig. 6). There are two pairs of ctenidial gills (hence
Tetrabranchiata), and two pairs of renal organs, consequently
four renal apertures (fig. 4). The viscero-pericardial chamber
opens by two independent apertures to the exterior, and not into
the renal sacs. There are two oviducts (right and left) in the
female, and two sperm-ducts in the male, the left duct in both
sexes being rudimentary. A large external shell, either coiled or
straight, is present, and is not enclosed by reflections of the
686
CEPHALOPODA
mantle-skirt. The shell consists of a series of chambers, the last-
formed of which is occupied by the body of the animal, the
hinder ones (successively deserted) containing gas (fig. i). The
pair of cephalic eyes are hollow chambers (fig. 14, A), opening to
the exterior by minute orifices (pinhole camera), and devoid of
refractive structures. A pair of osphradia are present at the base
of the gills (fig. 4, olf) . Salivary glands are wanting. An ink-sac
is not present. Branchial hearts are not developed on the
branchial afferent vessels.
Visceral Hump and Shell. — The visceral hump of Nautilus (if
we exclude from consideration the fine siphuncular pedicle which
it trails, as it were, behind it) is very little, if at all, affected by the
coiled form of the shell which it carries, since the animal always
slips forward in the shell as it grows, and inhabits a chamber
Fig. I. — Lateral view of the female Pearly Nautilus, contracted by spirit
and lying in its shell, the right half of which is cut away (from Gegenbaur,
after Owen).
a, Visceral hump.
b, Portion of the free edge of the
mantle-skirt reflected on to the 0,
shell, — the edge of the mantle- /,
skirt can be traced downwards
and forwards around the base
of the mid-foot or siphon t.
/, /, Superficial origin of the retractor
muscle of the mid-foot (siphon),
more or less firmly attached to v,
the shell, of which a small piece
(s) is seen between the letters
5, (farther back) points to the siph- V,
uncular pedicle, which is broken
off short and not continued, as
in the perfect state, through the
whole length of the siphuncle of
the shell, also marked 5 and s'.
points to the right eye.
is placed near the extremities of
the contracted tentacles of the
outer or annular lobe of the
fore-foot — the jointed tentacles
are seen protruding a little from
their long cylindrical sheaths.
The dorsal " hood " formed by
an enlargement in this region
of the annular lobe of the fore-
foot (m in figs. 2, 3).
A swelling of the mantle-skirt,
indicating the position on its
inner face of the nidamental
gland (see fig. 4, g.n.).
which is practically cylindrical (fig. 1). Were the deserted
chambers thrown off instead of being accumulated behind the
inhabited chamber as a coiled series of air-chambers, we should
have a more correct indication in the shell of the extent and form
of the animal's body. Amongst Gastropods it is not very un-
usual to find the animal slipping forward in its shell as growth
advances and leaving an unoccupied chamber in the apex of the
shell. This may indeed become shut off from the occupied
cavity by a transverse septum, and a series of such septa may be
formed, but in no Gastropod are these apical chambers known to
contain a gas during the life of the animal in whose shell they
occur. A further peculiarity of the nautilus shell and of that of
the allied extinct Ammonites, Scaphites, Orthoceras, &c, and of
the living Spirula, is that the series of deserted air-chambers is
traversed by a cord-like pedicle extending from the centro-
dorsal area of the visceral hump to the smallest and first-formed
chamber of the series. No structure comparable to this siphun-
cular pedicle is known in any other MoUusca. The siphuncle
does not communicate with the coelomic cavity; it is a simple
vascular process of the mantle, whose cavity consists of a venous
sinus, and whose wall contains a ramification of the pallial
artery. There appears to be no doubt that the deserted chambers
of the nautilus shell contain in the healthy living animal a gas
which serves to lessen the specific gravity of the whole organism.
This gas is said to be of the same composition as the atmosphere,
with a larger proportion of nitrogen. With regard to its origin we
have only conjectures. Each septum shutting off an air-contain-
ing chamber is formed during a period of quiescence, probably
after the reproductive act, when the visceral mass of the nautilus
may be slightly shrunk, and gas is secreted from the dorsal
integument so as to fill up the space previously occupied by the
Imal. A certain stage is reached in the growth of the animal
when no new chambers are formed. The whole process of the
loosening of the animal in its chamber and of its slipping forward
when a new septum is formed, as well as the mode in which the
air-chambers may be used as a hydrostatic apparatus, and the
relation to this use, if any, 4 of the siphuncular pedicle, is involved
in obscurity, and is the subject of much ingenious speculation.
In connexion with the secretion of gas by the animal, besides the
parallel cases ranging from the protozoon Arcella to the physo-
clistic fishes, from the hydroid Siphonophora to the
insect-larva Corethra, we have the identical phenomenon
observed in the closely allied Sepia when recently hatched.
Here, in the pores of the internal rudimentary shell, gas
is observable, which has necessarily been liberated by
the tissues which secrete the shell, and not derived from
any external source (Huxley).
The coiled shell of Nautilus, and of the majority of
extinct Tetrabranchiata, is peculiar in its relation to the
body of the animal, inasmuch as the curvature of the
coil proceeding from the centro-dorsal area is towards the
head or forwards, instead of away from the head and
backwards as in other discoid coiled shells such as
Planorbis; the coil is in fact absolutely reversed in the
two cases. Such a shell is said to be exogastric. But
in some extinct forms, e.g. Pkragmoceras, Cyrtoceras,
Ptenoceras, the shell is coiled towards the ventral side,
when it is termed endogastric. Amongst the extinct
allies of the nautilus (Tetrabranchiata) we find shells of
a variety of shapes, open coils such as Scaphites, leading
on to perfectly cylindrical shells with chamber succeeding
chamber in a straight line {Orthoceras), whence again we
may pass to the corkscrew spires formed by the shell
of Turrilites. In some extinct genera, e.g. Gomphoceras,
among the Nautiloidea the aperture of the shell is con-
tracted and the edge of the aperture is lobed. In these
cases the animal was probably able only to protrude its
appendages and not its whole head. The ventral part
of the aperture corresponding to the funnel is separated
from the dorsal part by a constriction. Hence it is
possible to distinguish the ventral and dorsal sides of
the shell and to decide whether it was exogastric or
endogastric. The direction of the coil of the shell cannot be
determined by the position of the siphuncle, which traverses
the septa centrally, ventrally or dorsally. Contracted shell
apertures occur also in Ammonitoidea, the condition reaching
an extreme in Morphoceras, where the original aperture is sub-
divided by the ingrowth of the sides, so that only five small
separate apertures remain. Of these the central probably corre-
sponded to the mouth, two lateral to the eyes, and the remaining
two to the pedal appendages.
Head , Foot, Mantle-skirt and Sub-paUial Chamber.— In the pearly
nautilus the ovoid visceral hump is completely encircled by the free
flap of integument known as mantle-skirt (figs. 2, 3, d, e). In the
antero-dorsal region this flap is enlarged so as to be reflected a little
over the coil of the shell which rests on it. In the postero- ventral
region the flap is deepest, forming an extensive sub-pallial chamber,
at the entrance of which e is placed in fig. 3. A view of the interior
CEPHALOPODA
687
of the sub-pallial chamber, as seen when the mantle-skirt is retro-
verted and the observer faces in the direction indicated by the
reference line passing from e in fig. 3, is given in fig. 4. With this
should be compared the similar view of the sub-pallial chamber of
the Dibranchiate Sepia. It should be noted as a difference between
Nautilus and the Dibranchiates that in the former the nidamental
gland (in the female) lies on that surface of the paliial chamber
Fig. 2. — Spirit specimen of female Pearly Nautilus, removed from
its shell, and seen from the antero-dorsal aspect (drawn from nature
by A. G. Bourne).
m, The dorsal " hood " formed c,
by the enlargement of the d,
outer or annular lobe of the
b,
fore-foot, and corresponding
to the sheaths of two tenta-
cles (g, z in fig. 6).
Tentacular sheaths of lateral
portion of the annular lobe.
The left eye.
The nuchal plate, continuous
at its right and left posterior
angles with the root of the
mid-foot, and corresponding
to the nuchal cartilage of
Sepia.
g.a
Visceral hump.
The free margin of the mantle-
skirt, the middle letter d
points to that portion of the
mantle-skirt which is re-
flected over a oart of the
shell as seen in tag. 1, b; the
cup-like fossa to which b and
d point in the present figure
is occupied by the coil of the
shell.
, points to the lateral con-
tinuation of the nuchal plate
b to join the root of the mid-
foot or siphon.
formed by the dependent mantle-flap (fig. 4, £.».; fig. 1, V), whilst
in the latter it lies on the surface formed by the body- wall; in fact
in the former the base of the fold forming the mantle-skirt comprises
in its area a part of what is unreflected visceral hump in the latter.
The apertures of the two pairs of renal sacs, of the viscero-peri-
cardial sac, of the genital ducts, and of the anus, are shown in
position on the body-wall of the paliial chamber of Nautilus in
figs. 4, 5. There are nine apertures in all, one median (the anus)
Fig. 3. — Lateral view of the same specimen as that drawn in fig. 2.
Letters as in that figure with the following additions —
serving to hold the animal
in its place.
/, The siphuncular pedicle of
the visceral hump broken
off short.
points to the concave margin
of the mantle-skirt leading
into the sub-pallial chamber.
The mid-foot or siphon.
The superficial origin of its
retractor muscles closely
applied to the shell and
v,v, The superior and inferior
ophthalmic tentacles.
and four paired. Besides these apertures we notice two pairs of
gill-plumes which are undoubtedly typical ctenidia, and a short
papilla (the osphradium) between each anterior and posterior ^ill-
plume (see figs. 4, 5, and explanation). As compared with this in a
Dibranchiate. we find (fig. 25) only four apertures, viz. the median
anus with adjacent orifice of the ink-sac, the single pair of renal
apertures, and one asymmetrical genital aperture (on the left side)
except in female Octopoda and a few others, where the genital ducts
and their apertures are paired. No viscero-pericardial pores are
present on the surface of the paliial chamber, since in the Dibranchiata
the viscero-pericardial sac opens by a pore into each nephridium
instead of directly to the surface. A single pair of ctenidia (gill-
plumes) is present instead of the two pairs in Nautilus, The existence
of two pairs of ctenidia and of two pairs of renal sacs in Nautilus,
placed one behind the other, is highly remarkable. The interest
of this arrangement is in relation to the general morphology of the
Mollusca, for it is impossible to view this repetition of organs in a
linear series as anything else than an instance of metameric seg-
mentation, comparable to the segmentation of the ringed worms and
Arthropods. The only other example which we have of this meta-
merism in the Mollusca is presented by the Chitons. There we find
not two pairs of ctenidia merely, but sixteen pairs (in some species
more) accompanied by a similar metamerism of the dorsal integu-
ment, which carries eight shells. In Chiton the renal organs are
not affected by the metamerism as they are in Nautilus. It is im-
possible on the present occasion to discuss in the way which their
importance demands the significance of these two instances among
Mollusca of incomplete or partial metamerism; but it would be
vi*cptr.
Fig. 4. — View of the postero-ventral surface of a female Pearly
Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely reflected so as to
show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber (drawn from nature
by A. G. Bourne).
o,
ft,
Muscular band passing from
the mid-foot to the integu-
ment.
The valve on the surface of
the funnel, partially con-
cealed by the inrolled lat-
eral margin of the latter.
The mantle-skirt retroverted.
The median anus.
Post-anal papilla of unknown
l.ov, Aperture of the rudimen-
tary left oviduct (pyriform sac
of Owen).
neph.a, Aperture of the left an-
terior renal sac.
neph.p, Aperture of the left pos-
terior renal sac.
viscper, Left aperture of the
viscero-pericardial sac.
0//, The left osphradium placed
near the base of the anterior
gill-plume.
c,
an,
*,
significance.
g.n. 9 Nidamental gland,
r. ov> Aperture of the right oviduct.
The four gill-plumes (ctenidia) are not lettered.
wrong to pass them by without insisting upon the great importance
which the occurrence of these isolated instances of metameric seg-
mentation in a group of otherwise unsegmented organisms possesses,
and the light which they may be made to throw upon the nature of
metameric segmentation in general.
The foot and head of Nautilus are in the adult inextricably grown
together, the eye being the only part belonging primarily to the
head which projects from the all-embracing foot. The fore-foot
or front portion of the foot has the form of a number of lobes carrying
tentacles and completely surrounding the mouth (figs. 2, 3). The
epipodia incline towards each other posteriorly so as to form an
incomplete siphon (fig. 4), a condition which is completed and
rendered permanent in the tubular funnel of Dibranchiata. The
epipodial nature of the funnel is well seen in young embryos, in
which this organ is situated laterally and posteriorly between the
mantle and the foot.
The lobes of the fore-foot of Nautilus and of the other Cephalopoda
require further description. It has been doubted whether these
lobes were rightly referred (by T. H. Huxley) to the fore-foot, and
it has been maintained by some zoologists (H. Grenacher, H. von
688
CEPHALOPODA
Fig. 5. — View of the postero- ventral surface
of a male Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c)
being completely reflected so as to show the
inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber, and the
fourctenidia and the foot cut short (drawn from
nature by A. G. Bourne), be, Penis, being the
enlarged termination of the right spermatic
duct; l.sp, aperture of the rudimentary left
spermatic duct (pyriform sac of Owen). Other
letters as in fig. 4.
Jhering) that they are truly processes of the head. It appears to
be impossible to doubt that the lobes in question are the fore-portion
of the foot, when their development is examined (see fig. 35), further,
when the fact is considered that they are innervated by the pedal
ganglion. The fore-foot of Nautilus completely surrounds the buccal
cone (fig. 6, e), so as to present an appearance with its expanded
tentacles similar to that of the disk of a sea-anemone (Actinia).
A. G. Bourne, of University College, prepared from actual specimens
the drawings of
this part in the
male and female
Nautilus repro-
duced in fig. 6,
and restored the
parts to their
natural form when
expanded. The
drawings show
very strikingly the
difference between
male and female.
In the females
.tlf. (lower figure), we
observe in the
centre of the disk
the buccal cone e
carrying the beak-
like pair of jaws
which project
from the finely
papillate buccal
membrane. Three
tentaculiferous
lobes of the fore-
foot are in im-
mediate contact
with this buccal
cone; they are the
right and left (c, c)
inner lobes, and
the inferior inner
lobe (d) — called
inferior because it really lies ventralwards of the mouth. This
inner inferior lobe is clearly a double one, representing a right
and left inner inferior lobe fused into one. A lamellated org-\n
on its surface, known as Owen's organ, probably olfactory in
function (»), marks the separation of the constituent halves
of this double lobe. Each half carries a group of fourteen
tentacles. The right and the left inner lobes (c, c) each carry twelve
tentacles. External to these three lobes the muscular substance of
the mouth-embracing foot is raised into a wide ring, which becomes
especially thick and large in the dorsal region where it is notably
modified in form, offering a concavity into which the coil of the shell
is received, and furnishing a protective roof to the retracted mass
of tentacles. This part of the external annular lobe of the fore-foot
is called the " hood " (figs. 2, 3, w). The median anteroposterior
line traversing this hood exactly corresponds to thelineof concrescence
of the two halves of the fore-foot, which primitively grew forward
one on each side of the head, and finally fused together along this
line in front of the mouth. The tentacles carried by the great an-
nular lobe are nineteen on each side, thirty-eight in all. They are
called " digital," and are somewhat larger than the " labial "
tentacles carried on the three inner lobes. The dorsalmost pair of
tentacles (marked g in fig. 6) are the only ones which actually belong
to that part of the disk which forms the great dorsal hood m. The
hood is, in fact, to a large extent formed by the enlarged sheaths of
these two tentacles. All the tentacles of the circu moral disk are set
in remarkable tubular sheaths, into which they can be drawn. The
sheaths of some of those belonging to the external or annular lobe
are seen in fig. 3, marked n . The sheaths are muscular as well as the
tentacles, and are simply tubes from the base of which the solid
tentacle grows. The functional significance of this sheathing arrange-
ment is as obscure as its morphological origin. With reference to the
latter, it appears highly probable that the tubular sheath represents
the cup of a sucker such as is found on the fore-foot of the Di-
branchiata. In any case, it seems to the writer impossible to doubt
that each tentacle, and its sheath on a lobe of the circu moral disk of
Nautilus, corresponds to a sucker on such a lobe of a Dibranchiate.
W. Keferstein follows Sir R. Owen in strongly opposing this identi-
fication, and in regarding such tentacle as the equivalent of a whole
lobe or arm of a Decapod or Octopod Dibranch. The details of these
structures, especially in the facts concerning the hectocotylus and
spadix, afford the most conclusive reasons for dissenting from
Owens view. On the ventral side an extensive part of the internal
surface of the muscular ring is laminated, forming the so-called
" organ of Valenciennes," peculiar to the female and serving for the
attachment of the spermatophores. We have so far enumerated
in. the female nautilus ninety tentacles. Four more remain which
have a very peculiar position, and almost lead to the suggestion
that the eye itself is a modified tentacle. These remaining tentacles
Fig. 6. — Male (upper) and female (lower) specimens of Nautilus
pompilius as seen in the expanded condition, the observer looking
down on to the buccal cone e ; one-third the natural size linear. The
drawings have been made from actual specimens by A. G. Bourne,
B.Sc., University College, London.
a, The shell. lobes, and fringing the pro-
b % The outer ring-like expansion truded calcareous beaks or
(annular lobe) of the circum- jaws with a series of minute
oral muscular mass of the papillae,
fore-foot, carrying nineteen /, The tentacles of the outer
tentacles on each side — pos- circumoral lobe or annular
teriorly this is enlarged to lobe of the fore-foot pro-
form the " hood " (marked jeering from their sheaths.
v in fig. 1 and m in figs. 2 g, The two most posterior ten-
and 3), giving off the pair tacles of this series belonging
of tentacles marked g in the to that part of the annular
S resent figure. lobe which forms the hood
e right and left inner lobes (tn in figs. 2 and 3).
of the fore-foot, each carry- i, Superior ophthalmic tentacle,
ing twelve tentacles in the fe, Inferior ophthalmic tentacle,
female, in the male sub- /, Eye.
divided into p, the "spadix" m, Paired laminated organ on
or hectocotylus on the left each side of the base of the
side, and q, the " anti- inner inferior lobe (d) of the
spadix," a group of four female,
tentacles on the right side — n, Olfactory lamellae upon the
it is thus seen that the sub- inner inferior lobe (in the
divided right and left inner female),
lobes of the male correspond 0, The siphon (mid-foot),
to the undivided right and p, The spadix (in the male), the
left inner lobes of the female. hectocotylized portion of the
d t The inner inferior lobe of the left inner lobe of the fore-foot
fore-foot, a bilateral structure representing four modified
in the female carrying two tentacles, eight being left
groups, each of fourteen ten- unmodified,
tacles, separated fromonean- q, The anti-spadix (in the male),
other by a lamellated organ being four of the twelve
n, supposed to be olfactory in tentacles of the right inner
function— in the male the lobe of the fore-foot isolated
inner inferior lobe of the from the remaining eight,
fore-foot is very much re- and representing on the right
duced, and has the form of side the differentiated spadix
a paired group of lamellae of the left side. The four
(d in the upper figure). tentacles of the anti-spadix
e, The buccal cone, rising from are set, three on one base
the centre of the three inner and one on a separate base.
CEPHALOPODA
689
are placed one above (before) and one below (behind) each eye, and
bring up the total to ninety-four (fig. %v,v).
In the adult male nautilus we find the following important differ-
ences in the tentaculiferous disk as compared with the female (see
upper drawing in fig. 6). The inner inferior lobe is rudimentary,
and carries no tentacles. It is represented by three groups of lamellae
(d), which are not fully exposed in the drawing. The right and left
inner lobes are subdivided each into two portions. The right shows
a larger portion carrying eight tentacles, and smaller detached
groups (q) of four tentacles, of which three have their sheaths united
whilst one stands alone. These four tentacles may be called the
" anti-spadix." The left inner lobe shows a similar larger portion
carrying eight tentacles, and a curious conical body behind it corre-
sponding to the anti-spadix. This is the " spadix." It carries no
tentacles, but is terminated by imbricated lamellae. These lamellae
appear to represent the four tentacles of the anti-spadix of the right
internal lobe, and are generally regarded as corresponding to that
modification of the sucker-bearing arms of male Dibranchiate
Siphonopods to which the name " hectocotylus " is applied. The
spadix is in fact the hectocotylized portion of the fore-foot of the
male nautilus. The hectocotylized arm or lobe of male Dibranchiata
is connected with the process of copulation, and in the male nautilus
the spadix has probably a similar significance, though it is not possible
to suggest how it acts in this relation. It is important to observe that
the modification of the fore-foot in the male as compared with the
female nautilus is not confined to the existence of the spadix. The
anti-spadix and the reduction of the inner inferior lobe are also male
peculiarities. The external annular lobe in the male does not differ
From that of the female; it carries nineteen tentacles on each side.
The four ophthalmic tentacles are also present. Thus in the male
nautilus we find altogether sixty-two tentacles, the thirty-two
additional tentacles of the female being represented by lamelhform
structures.
Musculature, Fins and Cartilaginous Skeleton.— Without entering
into a detailed account of the musculatuie of Nautilus, we may point
out that the great muscular masses of the fore-foot and of the mid-
foot (siphon) are ultimately traceable to a large transverse mass of
muscular tissue, the ends of which are visible through the integument
on the right and left surfaces of the body dorsal of the free flap of the
mantle-skirt (fig. 1, /, /, and fig. 3, *)• These muscular areae have a
certain adhesion to the shell, and serve both to hold the animal in
its shell and as the fixed supports for the various movements of the
tentaculiferous lobes and the siphon. They are to be identified with
the ring-like area of adhesion by which the foot-muscle of the limpet
is attached to the shell of that animal. In the Dibranchs a similar
origin of the muscular masses of the fore-foot and mid-foot from the
sides of the shell— modified, as this is, in position and relations— can
be traced. „ ... • c *l • *
In Nautilus there are no fin-like expansions of the integument,
whereas such occur in the
Decapod Dibranchs along
the sides of the visceral
hump (figs. 15, 16). As an
exception among Octopoda
lateral fins occur in Pin-
noctopus (fig. 38, A), and
in Cirrhoteuthis (fig. 38, D).
In Nautilus there is a
curious plate-like expansion
of integument in the mid-
dorsal region just behind
the hood, lying between
that structure and the por-
tion of mantle-skirt which
is reflected over the shell.
This is shown in fig. 2, b.
If we trace out the margin
of this plate we find that
it becomes continuous on
each side with the sides of
the funnel. In Sepia and
other Decapods (not in
Octopods) a closely similar
plate exists in an exactly
corresponding position (see
b in figs. 10, 26). In Septa a
cartilaginous development
occurs nere immediately be-
low the integument forming
the so-called "nuchal plate," drawn in fig. 8, D. The morpho-
logical significance of this nuchal lamella, as seen both in Nautilus
and in Sepia, is not obvious. Cartilage having the structure shown
in fig. 7 occurs in various regions of tne body of Cephalopoda. In
all Qossophorous Mollusca the lingual apparatus is supported by
internal skeletal pieces, having the character of cartilage; but in
the Cephalopoda such cartilage has a wider range.
In Nautilus a large H-shaped piece of cartilage is found, forming
the axis of the funnel (fig. 8, A, B). Its hinder part extends up into
the head and supports the peri-oesophageal nerve-mass (a), whilst
Fig. 7. — Minute structure of the
cartilage of Loligo (from Gegenbaur,
after Furbringer).
Simple cells.
Dividing cells.
Canaliculi.
An empty cartilage capsule with its
pores.
Canaliculi in section.
its two anterior rami extend into the tongue-like siphon. In Sepia,
and Dibranchs generally, the cartilage takes a different form, as
shown in fig. 8, C. The processes of this cartilage cannot be identi-
fied in any way with those of the capito-pedal cartilage of Nautilus.
The lower larger portion of this cartilage in Sepia is called the cephalic
cartilage, and forms a complete ring round the oesophagus; it com-
pletely invests also the ganglionic nerve-collar, so that all the nerves
from the latter have to pass through foramina in the cartilage. The
outer angles of this cartilage spread out on each side so as to form
a cup-like receptacle for the eyes. The two processes springing right
and left from this large cartilage in the median line (fig. 8, C) are the
44 pre-orbital cartilages "; in front of these, again, there is seen a
piece like an inverted T, which forms a support to the base of the
arms " of the fore-foot, and is the " basi-brachial " cartilage.
The Decapod Dibranchs have, further, the " nuchal cartilage "
already mentioned, and in Sepia, a thin plate-like " sub-ostracal "
or (so-called) dorsal cartilage, the anterior end of which rests on and
fits into the concave nuchal cartilage. In Octopoda there is no
nuchal cartilage, but two band-like dorsal cartilages." In Deca-
pods there are also two cartilaginous sockets on the sides of the funnel
— " siphon-hinge cartilages " — into which fleshy knobs of the mantle-
Fig. 8. — Cartilaginous skeleton of Cephalopoda (after Keferstein.)
A, Capito-pedal cartilage of
Nautilus pompilius.
a points to the ridge which
supports the pedal portion
of tne nerve-centre.
B, Lateral view of the same —
the large anterior processes
are sunk in the muscular
substance of the siphon.
C, Cephalic cartilages of Sepia
officinalis.
D, Nuchal cartilage of Sepia
officinalis.
skirt are loosely fitted. In Sepia, along the whole base-line of each
lateral fin of the mantle (fig. 15), is a '* basi-pterygial cartilage."
It is worthy of remark that we have, thus developed, in Dibranch
Cephalopods a more complete internal cartilaginous skeleton than
is to be found in some of the lower vertebrates. There are other
instances of cartilaginous endo-skeleton in groups other than the
Vertebrata. Thus in some capito-branchiate Chaetopods cartilage
forms a skeletal support for the gill-plumes, whilst in the Arachnids
(Mygale, Scorpio) and in Litnulus a large internal cartilaginous plate
— the ento-sternite — is developed as a support for a large series of
muscles.
Alimentary Tract. — The buccal cone of Nautilus is terminated by
a villous margin (buccal membrane), surrounding the pair of beak-
like jaws, of which the ventral projects over the dorsal. These are
very strong and dense in Nautilus, being calcified. Fossilized beaks
of Tetrabranchiata are known under the name of rhyncholites. In
Dibranchs the beaks are horny, but similar in shape to those of
Nautilus, They resemble in general those of a parrot, the lower
beak being the larger, and overlapping the upper or dorsal beak.
The lingual ribbon and odontophoral apparatus have the structure
which is typical for Glossophorous Mollusca. In fig. 9, A is repre-
sented a single row of teeth from the lingual ribbon of Nautilus,
and in fig. o, B, C, of other Cephalopoda.
In Nautilus a long and wide crop or dilated oesophagus (fig. 10, cr)
passes from the muscular buccal mass, and at the apex of the visceral
hump passes into a highly muscular stomach, resembling the gizzard
of a bird (fig. 10, gizz). A nearly straight intestine passes from the
muscular stomach to the anus, near which it develops a small
caecum. In other Cephalopods the oesophagus is usually narrower
and the muscular stomach more capacious, whilst a very important
feature in the alimentary tract is formed by the caecum. In all
but Nautilus the caecum lies near the stomach, and may be very
capacious — much larger than the stomach in Loligo vulgaris — or
elongated into a spiral coil. The simple U-shaped flexure of the
alimentary tract, as seen in fig. 10, is the only important one which
it exhibits in the Cephalopoda. The acini of the large liver of
Nautilus are compacted into a solid reddish-brown mass by a firm
690
CEPHALOPODA
membrane, as also
four paired lobes in
is the case in the Dibranchiata. The liver has
Nautilus, which open by two bile-ducts into the
Fig. 9. — Lingual dentition of Cephalopoda. A, A single row of
lingual teeth of Nautilus pompiiius (after Keferstein). B, Two
rows of lingual teeth of Sepia officinalis (after Troschel). C, Lingual
teeth of EUdone cirrhosa (after Loven).
alimentary canal at the commencement of the intestine. The bile-
ducts unite before entering the intestine. In Dibranchiata the two
large lobes of the liver are placed antero-dorsally (beneath the shell
Fig. 10. — Diagram representing a vertical approximately median
antero-posterior section of Nautilus pompilius (from a drawing by
A. G. Bourne). The parts which are quite black are the cut muscular
surfaces of the foot and buccal mass.
The shell.
e>
/.
r,
St
t,
x,
The nuchal plate, identical
with the nuchal cartilage of
Sepia (see fig. 2, b).
The integument covering the
visceral hump.
The mantle flap or skirt in the
dorsal region where it rests
against the coil of the shell.
The inferior margin of the
mantle-skirt resting on the
lip of the shell represented
by the dotted line.
The pallial chamber with two
of the four gills.
g , The vertically cut median por-
tion of the mid-foot (siphon) .
h, Thecapito-pedalcartilage(see
fig. 8).
t, The valve of the siphon.
/, The siphuncular pedicle (cut
short).
m, The hood or dorsal enlarge-
ment of the annular lobe of
the fore-foot.
in Decapoda), and the bile-ducts open into the caecum. Upon the
bile-ducts in Dibranchiata are developed yellowish glandular diver-
ticula, which are known as " pancreas, though neither physio-
logically nor morphologically is there any ground for considering
either the so-called liver or the so-called pancreas as strictly
equivalent to the glands so denominated in the Vertebra ta. In
Tentacles of the annular
lobe.
Tentacles of the inner in-
ferior lobe.
Buccal membrane.
Upper jaw or beak.
Lower jaw or beak.
Lingual ribbon.
The viscero - pericardial
sac.
Nerve-collar.
Oesophagus.
Crop.
Gizzard.
Intestine.
Anus.
nept, Aperture of a nephridial
sac.
Renal glandular masses on
the walls of the afferent
branchial veins (see fig.
11).
a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel.
e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel.
vt, Ventricle of the heart.
n.c,
oe,
cr,
p»-
%nt,
an,
r.e,
Nautilus the equivalents of the pancreatic diverticula of the
Dibranchs can be traced upon the relatively shorter bile-ducts.
Posterior salivary glands are not developed in Nautilus, but on
each side in the wall of the buccal mass is a gland corresponding
to the anterior salivary gland of the Dibranchiata. No ink-sac is
present in Nautilus.
Cotlom, Blood-vascular System and Excretory Organs. — Nautilus and
the other Cephalopoda conform to the general Molluscan characters
in regard to these organs. Whilst the general visceral cavity forms a
lacunar blood-system or series of narrow spaces, connected with
the trunks of a well-developed vascular system, that part of the
original coelom surrounding the heart and known as the Molluscan
pericardium is shut off from this general blood-lymph system, and
communicates, directly in Nautilus, in the rest through the renal
sacs, with the exterior. In the Cephalopoda this specialized peri-
cardial cavity is particularly large, and has been recognized as
distinct from the blood-carrying spaces, even by anatomists who
have not considered the pericardial space of other Mollusca to be
thus isolated. The enlarged pericardium, which may even take the
form of a pair of sacs, has been variously named, but is best known
as the viscero-pericardial sac or chamber. In Nautilus this sac
vent an.
Fig. 11. — Diagram to show the relations of the four nephridial
sacs, the viscero-pericardial sac, and the heart and large vessels in
Nautilus (drawn by A. G. Bourne).
neph, neph, on the right side
point to the two nephridia
of that side (the two of
the opposite side are not
lettered) — each is seen to
have an independent
aperture.
x is the viscero-pericardial sac,
the dotted line indicating
its backward extension.
vise. per. apert, marks an arrow
introduced into the right
aperture of the viscero-
pericardial sac.
r.e, r.e. point to the glandular en-
larged walls of the afferent
branchial vessels — two
small glandular bodies of
the kind are seen to pro-
ject into each nephridial
sac, whilst a larger body of
the same kind depends from
each of the four branchial
afferent vessels into the
viscero-pericardial sac.
v.c, Vena-cava.
vent, Ventricle of the heart.
ao, Cephalic aorta (the small
abdominal aorta not
drawn).
a.b.v, Branchial vessel.
e.v.b, Efferent branchial vessel.
occupies the whole of the postero-dorsal surface and a part of the
antero-dorsal (see fig. 10, x), investing the genital and other viscera
which lie below it, and having the ventricle of the heart suspended
in it. Certain membranes forming incomplete septa, and a curious
muscular band — the pallio-cardiac band — traverse the sac. The
four branchial afferent veins, which in traversing the walls of the four
renal sacs give off, as it were, glandular diverticula into those sacs,
also give on at the same points four much larger glandular masses,
which hang freely into the viscero-pericardial chamber (fig. 11, r.e).
In Nautilus the viscero-pericardial sac opens to the exterior
directly by a pair of apertures, one placed close to the right and one
close to the left posterior renal aperture (fig. 5, vise. per). This direct
opening of the pericardial sac to the extenor is an exception to what
occurs in all other Mollusca. In all other Molluscs the pericardial
sac opens into the renal organs, and through them or the one renal
organ to the exterior. In Nautilus there is no opening from the
viscero-pericardial sac into the renal sacs. Therefore the external
pore of the viscero-pericardial sac may possibly be regarded as a shift-
ing of the reno- pericardial orifice from the actual wall of the renal
sac to a position alongside of its orifice. Parallel cases of such shifting
are seen in the varying position of the orifice of the ink-bag in
Dibranchiata, and in the orifice of the genital ducts of Mollusca, which
in some few cases (e.g. Spondylus) open into the renal organs, whilst
in other cases they open close by the side of the renal organs on the
surface of the body. The viscero-pericardial sac of the Dibranchs
is very large also, and extends into the dorsal region. It varies in
CEPHALOPODA
691
shape — that is to say, in the extensions of its area right and left
between the various viscera — in different genera, but in the Deca-
pods is largest. In an extension of this chamber is placed the ovary
of Sepia, whilst the ventricle of the heart and the branchial hearts
and their appendages also lie in it. It is probable that water is
drawn into this chamber through the renal sacs, since sand and other
foreign matters are found in it. In all it opens into the pair of renal
sacs by an orifice on the wall of each, not far from the external
orifice (fig. 29, y, /). There does not seem any room for doubting that
each orifice corresponds to the reno-pericardial orifice which we have
seen in the Gastropoda, and shall find again in the Lamellibranchia.
The circulatory organs, blood-vessels and blood of Nautilus do
not differ greatly from those of Gastropoda. The ventricle of the
heart is a four-cornered body, receiving a dilated branchial efferent
vessel (auricle) at each corner (fig. 11). It gives off a cephalic aorta
anteriorly, and a smaller abdominal aorta posteriorly. The diagram,
fig. 12, serves to show how this simple form of heart is related to the
dorsal vessel of a worm or of an Arthropod, and how by a simple
flexure of the ventricle (D) and a subsequent suppression of one
auricle, following on the suppression of one branchia, one may obtain
the form of heart characteristic of the anisopleurous Gastropoda
(excepting the Aspidobranchia). The flexed condition of the heart
is seen in Octopus, and is to some extent approached by Nautilus,
the median vessels not presenting that perfect parallelism which is
shown in the figure (B). The most remarkable feature presented
by the heart of Nautilus is the possession of four instead of two
auricles, a feature which is simply related to the metamerism of
the branchiae. By the left side of the heart of Nautilus, attached
Fig. 12. — Diagram to show the relations of the heart in the
Mollusca. (From Gegenbaur.)
A, Part of the dorsal vascular E, Of a Gastropod.
trunk and transverse trunks a, Auricle,
of a worm. [Nautilus, v, Ventricle.
B, Ventricle and auricles of ac, Arteria = cephalica = (aorta).
C, Of a Lamelli branch, of Chiton, at, Arteria abdominalis. The
or of Loligo. arrows show the direction
D, Of Octopus. of the blood-current.
to it by a membrane, and hanging loosely in the viscero-pericardial
chamber, is the pyriform sac of Owen. This has been shown to be
the rudimentary left oviduct or sperm-duct, as the case may be
(E. R. Lankester and A. G. Bourne), the functional right ovi-sac and
its duct being attached by a membrane to the opposite side of the
heart.
The cephalic and abdominal aortae of Nautilus appear, after
running to the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal re-
spectively, to open into sinus-like spaces surrounding the viscera,
muscular masses, &c. These spaces are not large, but confined and
shallow. Capillaries are stated to occur in the integument. In the
Dibranchs the arterial system is very much more complete; it
appears in some cases to end in irregular lacunae or sinuses, in other
cases in true capillaries which lead on into veins. An investigation
of these capillaries in the light of modern histological knowledge is
much needed. From the sinuses and capillaries the veins take origin,
collecting into a large median trunk (the vena cava), which in the
Dibranchs as well as in Nautilus has a ventral (postero-ventral)
position, and runs parallel to the long axis of the animal. In Nautilus
this vena cava gives off at the level of the gills four branchial afferent
veins (fig. 11, v.c), which pass into the Four gills without dilating.
In the Dibranchs at a similar position the vena cava gives off a right
and a left branchial afferent vein, each of which, traversing the wall
of the corresponding renal sac and receiving additional factors,
dilates at the base of the corresponding branchial plume, forming
there a pulsating sac — the branchial neart. Attached to each
branchial heart is a curious glandular body, which may possibly be
related to the larger masses (fig. 11, r.e) which depend into the
viscera-pericardia! cavity from the branchial afferent veins of
Nautilus. From the dilated branchial heart the branchial afferent
vessel proceeds, running up the adpallial face of the gill-plume.
From each gill-plume the blood passes by the branchial efferent
vessels to the heart, the two auricles being formed by the dilatation
of these vessels.
The blood contains the usual amoeboid corpuscles, and a diffused
colouring matter — the haemocyanin of Fredericque — which has
been found also in the blood of Helix, and in that of the Arthropods
Homarus and Limulus. It is colourless in the oxidized, blue in the
deoxidized state, and contains copper as a chemical constituent.
The renal sacs and renal glandular tissue are closely connected
with the branchial advehent vessels in Nautilus and in the other
Cephalopoda. The arrangement is such as to render the typical
relations and form of a renal tube difficult to trace. In accordance
with the metamerism of Nautilus already noticed, there are two
pairs of renal organs. Each assumes the form of a sac opening by a
pore to the exterior. As is usual in renal tubes a glandular and a
non-glandular portion are distinguished in each sac ; these portions,
however, are not successive parts of a tube, as happens in other cases,
but they are localized areae of the wall of the sac. The glandular
renal tissue is, in fact, confined to a tract extending along that part
of the sac's wall which immediately invests the great branchial
afferent vein. The vein in this region gives off directly from its wall
a complete herbage of little venules, which branch and anastomose
with one another, and are clothed by the glandular epithelium of the
renal sac. The secretion is accumulated in the sac and passed by its
aperture to the exterior. Probably the nitrogenous excretory pro-
duct is very rapidly discharged ; in Nautilus a pink-coloured powder
is foundaccumulated in the renal sacs, consisting of calcium phos-
phate. The presence of this phosphatic calculus by no means proves
that such was the sole excretion of the renal glandular tissue. In
Nautilus a glandular growth like that rising from the wall of the
branchial vessel into its corresponding renal sac, but larger in size,
depends from each branchial afferent vessel into the viscero-peri-
cardial sac and forms the pericardial gland — probably identical with
the " appendage " of the branchial hearts of Dibranchs.
The chief difference, other than that of number, between the renal
organs of the Dibranchs and those of Nautilus, is the absence of the
accessory growths depending into the viscero-pericardial space just
mentioned, and, of more importance, the presence in the former of
a pore leading from the renal sac into the viscero-pericardial sac
(y, y' in fig. 29). The external orifices of the renal organs are also
more prominent in Dibranchs than in Nautilus, being raised on
papillae (np in fig. 29; r in fie. 25). In Sepia the two renal sacs give
off each a diverticulum dorsalwards, which unites with its fellow and
forms a great median renal chamber, lying between the ventral
portions of the renal organs and the viscero-pericardial chamber,
in Loligo the fusion of the two renal organs to form one sac is still
more obvious, since the ventral portions are united. In Octopus the
renal sacs are quite separate.
Gonads and Genital Ducts. — In Nautilus it has been shown by
E. Ray Lankester and A. G. Bourne that the genital ducts of both
sexes are paired right and left, the left duct being rudimentary and
forming the " pyriform appendage/' described by Sir R. Owen as
adhering by membranous attachment to the ventricle of the heart,
and shown by W. Keferstein to communicate by a pore with the
exterior. The ovary (female gonad) or the testis (male gonad) lies
in Nautilus, as in the Dibranchs, in a distinct cavity walled off from
the other viscera, near the centro-dorsal region. This chamber is
formed by the coelomic or peritoneal wall; the space enclosed is
originally part of the coelom, and in Sepia and Loligo is, in the adult,
part of the viscero-pericardial chamber. In Octopus it is this genital
chamber which communicates by a right and a left canal with the
renal sac, and is the only representative of pericardium. The ovary
or testis is itself a growth from the inner wall of this chamber, which
it only partly fills. In Nautilus the right genital duct, which is
functional, is a simple continuation to the pore on the postero-dorsal
surface of the membranous walls of the capsule in which lies the ovary
or the testis, as the case may be. The gonad itself appears to repre-
sent a single median or bilateral organ.
The ovary forms a large projection into the genital coelom, and
the coelomic epithelium is deeply invaginated into the mass of the
gonad, so as to constitute an ovarian cavity communicating with the
coelom by a narrow aperture. The ova originate in the epithelium,
migrate below it and then, as they enlarge, project into the ovarian
cavity, pushing the epithelium Before them. Each ovum is sur-
rounded by a follicular epithelium which is nourished by numerous
blood-vessels, and which penetrates into the surface of the ovum
in numerous folds. When mature, the ovum is contained in a mem-
brane or chorion with a micropyle, and escapes by dehiscence of the
follicle into the genital coelom and duct, in its passage to the ex-
terior the ovum passes a glandular structure on the wall of the
genital capsule, which probably secretes the gelatinous substance
enclosing the eggs. In addition to this internal gland there are
other accessory glands, which are not related to the genital duct
or sac but are differentiations of the wall of the pallial cavity, and
occur on the inner wall of the pallium in Nautilus, on the somatic
wall in Dibranchiata. In Nautilus they form a continuous mass.
These produce the external envelopes of the eggs.
In the male the testis is a specialized portion of the wall of the
genital coelom, and has a structure comparable to that of the ovary.
The spermatozoa pass through an orifice from the cavity of the testis
to the genital capsule, and thence to the spermiduct. The spermi-
duct is provided with a glandular pouch, and opens into a terminal
reservoir known as Needham's sac or the spermatophore sac. The
function of this pouch is to form the spermatophore, which is an
elastic tube formed of structureless secretion and invaginated into
itself. The deeper part contains the spermatozoa, the external part
is called the connective, and is usually much contracted and spirally
692
CEPHALOPODA
coiled. When the spermatophore is expelled into the water the
connective is extended and e vagina ted, and the sac containing the
sperms bursts. In Nautilus the spermatophore when uncoiledf is a
little over %o mm. in length. These spermatophores are somewhat
similar to those formed in certain pulmonate Gastropods.
The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In Nautilus they are
laid separately, each being about 4 cm. long and contained in two
thick shells, the outer of which is partly open.
Nervous System. — Nautilus, like the other Cephalopoda, exhibits
a great concentration of the typical Molluscan ganglia, as shown
in fig. 13. The ganglia take on a band-like form, and are but little
differentiated from their commissures and
connectives — an archaic condition remind-
ing us of Chiton. The special optic out-
growth of the cerebral ganglion, the optical
ganglion (fig. 13, o), is characteristic. The
cerebral ganglion-pair (a) lying above the
oesophagus is connected with two sub-
oesophageal ganglion-pairs, of band-like
form. The anterior of these is the pedal
b, b, and supplies the ci re u moral lobes and
tentacles, and the funnel, a fact which
proves the pedal origin of these organs.
The hinder band is the visceral and
pleural pair fused; from its pleural por-
tion nerves pass to the mantle, from its
visceral portion nerves to the branchiae
and genital ganglion (fig. ix, d), and in
immediate connexion with the latter is a
nerve to the osphradium or olfactory
papilla. A labial commissure arises by a
double root from the cerebral ganglia and
gives off a stomatogastric commissure,
which passes under the pharynx immedi-
ately behind the radula and bears a buccal
ganglion on either side.
Special Sense-Organs. — Nautilus pos-
sesses a pair of osphradial papillae (fig. 4,
olf) corresponding in position and inner-
vation to Spengel's organ placed at the
base of the ctenidia (branchiae) in all
classes of Mollusca. This orcan has not
been detected in other Cephalopoda.
Nautilus possesses other olfactory organs
largements on i n the region of the head. Just below the
nerves passing from e ye is a small triangular process (not seen
the pedal ganglion i n our figures), having the structure of a
to the inner series shortened and highly-modified tentacle
of tentacles. and sheath. By A. Valenciennes, who is
Nerves to the ten- followed by W. Keferstein, this is regarded
tacles of the outer a s a n olfactory organ. The large nerve
or annular lobe. which runs to this organ originates from
_, Pedal ganglion-pair, the point of juncture of the pedal with
a, Cerebral ganglion- the optic ganglion. The lamelliform organ
pair. upon the inner inferior tentacular lobe
Pleuro-visceraljgang- f Nautilus is possibly also olfactory in
function. In Dibranchs behind the eye is
a pit or open canal supplied by a nerve
T . corresponding in origin to the olfactory
enital ganglion nerve of Nautilus above mentioned. Pos-
placed on the course sably the sense of taste resides in certain
of the large visceral processes within the mouth of Nautilus
nerve, just before and other Cephalopoda,
it ^ives off its bran- The otocysts of Nautilus were discovered
chialanditsosphra- by J. D. Macdonald. Each lies at the
dial branches. side of the head, ventral to the eye, rest-
Nerves from the fag on the capito-pedal cartilage, and
pleural ganglion to supported by the large auditory nerve
the mantle-skirt. which apparently arises trom the pedal
ganglion but originates in the cerebral.
It has the form of a small sac, 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and contains
whetstone-shaped crystals, such as are known to form the otoliths
of other Mollusca.
The eye of Nautilus is among the most interesting structures of
that remarkable animal. No other animal which has the same bulk
and general elaboration of organization has so simple an eye as that
of Nautilus. When looked at from the surface no metallic lustre, no
transparent coverings, are presented by it. It is simply a slightly
projecting hemispherical box like a kettle-drum, half an inch in
diameter, its surface looking like that of the surrounding integument,
whilst in the middle of the drum- membrane is a minute hole (fig. 3, u) .
Sir R. Owen very naturally thought that some membrane had covered
this hole in life, and had been ruptured in the specimen studied by
him. It, however, appears from the researches of V. Hensen that
the hole is a normal aperture leading into the globe of the eye, which
is accordingly filled by sea-water during life. There is no dioptric
apparatus in Nautilus, and in place of refracting lens and cornea we
have actually here an arrangement for forming an image on the
principle of the pin-hole camera." There is no other eye known
in the whole animal kingdom which is so constructed. The wall
Fig. 13. — Nervous
system of Nautilus pom-
pilius (from Gcgenbaur,
after Owen).
/,/, Ganglion-like en
t' t
b,
lionic band (fused
pleural and visceral
[lion-pairs).
m,
of the eye-globe is tough, and the cavity is lined solely by the naked
retina, which is bathed by sea-water on one surface and receives
the fibres of the optic nerve on the other (see fig. 14, A). As in other
Cephalopods (e.g. fig. 33, Ri, Re, p). the retina consists of two layers
of cells, separated by a layer of dark pigment. The most interesting
consideration connected with this eve of Nautilus is found when the
further facts are noted— (1) that the elaborate lens-bearing eyes of
Dibranchiata pass through a stage of development in which they have
the same structure as the eye of Nautilus — namely, are open sacs
(fig- 34) J an d (2) that amongst other Mollusca examples of cephalic
eyes can be found which in the adult condition are, like the eye of
Nautilus and the developing eye of Dibranchs, simple pits of the in-
tegument, the cells of which are surrounded by pigment and con-
nected with the filaments of an optic nerve. Sucn is the structure
of the eye of the limpet (Patella), and in such a simple eye we obtain
the clearest demonstration of the fact that the retina of the Molluscan
cephalic eye, like that of the Arthropod cephalic eye and unlike that
of the vertebrate myelonic eye, is essentially a modified area of the
general epiderm, and that the sensitiveness of its cells to the action
of light and their relation to nerve-filaments is only a specialization
and intensifying of a property common to the whole epiderm of the
surface of the body. What, however, strikes us as especially remark-
able is that the simple form of a pit, which in Patella serves to
accumulate a secretion which acts as a refractive body, should in
Nautilus be glorified and raised to the dignity of an efficient optical
apparatus. In all other Mollusca, starting as we may suppose from
the follicular or pit-like condition, the eye has proceeded to acquire
the form of a closed sac, the cavity of the closed vesicle being then
&& Cep JSTcm
Fig. 14. — Diagrams of Sections of the Eyes of Mollusca.
A, Nautilus (and Patella). Z 1 , Outer portion of the lens.
B, Gastropod (Limax or Helix). Co.ep, Ciliary body.
C, Dibranchiate Cephalopod R f Retina.
(Oigopsid). N.op, Optic nerve.
Pal, Eyelid (outermost fold). G.oh, Optic ganglion.
Co, Cornea (second fold). x, inner layer of the retina.
Ir, Iris (third fold). N.S., Nervous stratum of the
Int 1 ,*,*, 4 , Different parts of the retina. (From Balfour, after
integument. Grenadier.)
/, Deep portion of the lens.
filled partially or completely by a refractive body (lens) secreted by
its walls (fig. 14, B). This is the condition attained in most Gastro-
poda. It presents a striking contrast to the simple Arthropod eye,
where, in consequence of the existence of a dense exterior cuticle, the
eye does not form a vesicle, and the lens is always part of that cuticle.
The development of Nautilus is still entirely unknown. Dr Arthur
Willey, during his sojourn in the East Indies, made special efforts
to obtain fertilized eggs, both by offering rewards to the native
fishermen and collectors and by keeping the living adults in cap-
tivity, but without success.
Phytogeny and Classification. — As Nautilus is the only living genus
of the Tetrabranchiata, our knowledge of all the rest is based upon
the study of their fossil shells. A vast number of species of shell
similar in structure to that of Nautilus are known, chiefly from
Primary and Secondary formations. These are divided into two
sub-orders by differences in the form and structure of the initial
chamber. In the Nautiloidea this chamber has the form of an obtuse
cone, on the apex of which is a slit-like mark or cicatrix, elongated
dorso-ventrally and placed opposite to the blind end of the siphuncle,
which indents the front wall of the initial chamber but does not enter
its cavity. In the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the initial
chamber is inflated, and is spheroidal, oval or pyriform in shape,
with no cicatrix, and separated from the first air-chamber by a
constriction. The siphuncle also commences with a dilatation
which deeply indents the front wall of the initial chamber, called
the protoconch, but does not penetrate into its cavity. Munier-
Chalmas has shown that the cavity of the protoconch is traversed
by a tubular organ, the " prosiphon," which does not communicate
with the true siphuncle, the place of which it is supposed to take in
the early life of the animal. It is generally held, as suggested by
CEPHALOPODA
693
Alpheus Hyatt, that the initial chamber of the Nautiloidea corre-
sponds not to the protoconch of the Ammonoids, but to the second
chamber of the latter, and that there existed in the young Nautiloids
a true initial chamber, a protoconch which was either uncalcified or
deciduous. The shell of the living nautilus does not decide this
question, as its early stages are unknown, and there is a little vacuity
in the centre of the spirally coiled shell which may have been origin-
ally occupied by the true protoconch.
The septa in the Nautiloidea are generally concave towards the
aperture of the shell, their curvature therefore directed backwards
(fig. 1); in the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the convexity is
usually towards the aperture, the curvature therefore directed
forwards. The lines along which the edges of the septa are united
to the shell are known as " sutures," and these in the Nautiloidea
are simply curved or slight lv lobed, whereas in the Ammonoidea
they are folded in various degrees of complexity; the projections
of the suture towards the mouth of the shell are called saddles, those
in the opposite direction lobes. The siphuncle in the Nautilus
pierces the centres of the septa, and in fossil Nautiloids it is usually
central or sub-central. In a few cases it is marginal, and in that
case may be external, i.e. ventral, or internal, i.e. dorsal. In Ammo-
noids the siphuncle is always marginal, and usually external. Its
walls in the living Nautilus are strengthened by the deposit of cal-
careous granules, and in some fossil forms the wall is completely
calcified. But this proper calcified wall is quite distinct from cal-
careous tubes surrounding the siphuncle, which are developed from
the septa. In the pearly nautilus each septum is prolonged back-
wards at the point where it is pierced by the siphuncle, forming
a shelly tube somewhat like the neck of a bottle. In many fossil
forms these septal necks are continued f roni the septum from which
they arise to the next, so that the siphuncle is enclosed in a complete
secondary calcareous tube. In the majority of Nautiloids the septal
necks are directed backwards, and they are said to be retrosiphonate.
In the majority of the Ammonoids the septal necks are continued
forwards from the septa to which they belong, and such forms are
termed prosiphonate.
The TetraDranchiata were most abundant in the Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic periods. The Nautiloidea are the most ancient, appearing
first in the Upper Cambrian, the genera being most numerous in the
Palaeozoic penod, and comparatively few surviving into the Second-
ary. On the other hand, the Ammonoidea are scarce in Palaeozoic
formations, being represented in deposits earlier than the Carboni-
ferous only by comparatively simple types, such as Clymenia and
Goniatites. I n the Secondary period Ammonoids were very abu ndant ,
both in genera and species and in individuals, and with few local excep-
tions none are known to have survived even to the commencement
of the Tertiary. # In the widest sense the genus Nautilus has existed
since the Ordovician (Silurian) period, but the oldest types are not
properly to be placed in the same genus as the existing form. Even
with this qualification the genus is very ancient, shells very similar
to those of the living Nautilus being found in the Upper Cretaceous.
It has been maintained by some zoologists that the Ammonoidea
were Dibranchiate, though it would not follow from this that the
shell was, therefore, internal. They are, however, generally classed
with the Tetrabranchiata, and the absence of all evidence of the
possession of an ink-sac is in favour of this view. There can be
little doubt that they gave rise to the Dibranchiata.
About 2500 fossil species are included in the Nautiloidea, but only
a few species of the genus Nautilus survive. Some of the fossil forms
are very large, the shell reaching a length of 2 metres, or 6 ft. 6 in.
Of the Ammonoidea more than 5000 species have been described,
and some of the coiled forms are 70 cm., or nearly 2 ft. 6 in. in
diameter.
Associated with various forms of Ammonoids there have been
found peculiar horny or calcified plates, sometimes contained within
the body-chamber of the shell, sometimes wholly detached. The
most typical form of these structures has been named aptychus.
It consists of two bilaterally symmetrical halves, of somewhat semi-
circular shape, and attached to one another by their straight inner
margins, like a pair of doors. In some cases the aptychus is thin and
horny, but more often it is thick and calcified, in which case the
Erincipal layer has a peculiar cellular structure. The surface may
e smooth or sculptured, and one side is usually marked by con-
centric lines of growth. Another type is similar, except that the
two halves are united in the middle line; bodies of this character are
called synaptychus; they occur in the body-chamber of species of
Scaphites. Another form called anaptychw consists of a thin horny
undivided plate which is concentrically striated. This is associated
with species of Ammonites and Goniatites.
Many theories have been proposed in explanation of these struc-
tures. According to Sir Richard Owen, the aptychus is an oper-
culum developed in a part of the body corresponding to the hood
of Nautilus. E. Ray Lankester suggested that the double plate was
borne on the surface of the nidamental gland, with the form and
sculpturing of which in Nautilus it closely agrees. On this view the
aptychus would occur only in females. The most recent view is that
these structures could not have been opercula because of their constant
position inside the body-chamber, and that they were not external
secretions at all, but a calcified internal cartilage situated at the
base of the funnel.
Classification of Tetrabranchiata. — Cephalopoda in which the
mantle is entirely enclosed by a multilocular siphunculated shell,
which may or may not be coiled. Only the last compartment of the
shell occupied by the body of the animal. Numerous pedal tentacles
around the mouth, which are retractile within sheaths. Halves of
the funnel not united. Two pairs of ctenidia, and two pairs of
renal tubes without reno-pericardial apertures. Pericardium opens
directly to exterior. Cephalic cartilage wholly ventral. Optic
vesicles with apertures, without crystalline lens.
Sub-order 1. Nautiloidea. — Initial chamber not inflated, with
dorso-ventral cicatrix at extremity.
Fam. 1. Orthoceratidae. Shell straight or slightly curved, with a
simple aperture, large terminal chamber and cylindrical
siphuncle. Orthoceras, Silurian to Trias. Baltoceras, Silurian.
Fam. 2. Actinoceratidae. Shell straight or slightly curved, with
wide siphuncle contracted at level of septa. Actinoceras,
Silurian to Carboniferous. Discosorus, Silurian. Huronia,
Silurian. Loxoceras, Silurian to Carboniferous.
Fam. 3. Endoceratidae. Shell straight, with a wide marginal
siphuncle, necks produced into tubes fitting into one another.
Endoceras, Silurian.
Fam. 4. Gomphoceratidae. Shell globular, straight or arcuate,
aperture contracted. Gomphoceras, Silurian. Phragmoceras,
Silurian.
Fam. 5. Ascoceratidae. Shell straight, ampulliform, summit
truncate, terminal chamber extending nearly whole length of
shell ventrally. Ascoceras, Silurian. Glossoceras, Silurian.
Fam. 6. Poterioceratidae. Shell straight or curved, fusiform,
aperture simple, siphuncle contracted at septa. Poterioceras,
Silurian to Carboniferous. Streptoceras, Silurian.
Fam. 7. Cyrtoceratidae. Shell slightly curved, aperture simple,
siphuncle wide, septa approximated. Cvrtoceras, Devonian.
Fam. 8. Lituitidae. Shell coiled in one plane with the terminal
part uncoiled, aperture contracted. Lituites, Silurian. Ophidio-
ceras, Silurian.
Fam. 9. Trochoceratidae. Shell helicoidally coiled, dextral or
sinistral, the last whorl generally uncoiled. Trochoceras,
Devonian. Adelphoceras, Devonian.
Fam. 10. Nautilidae. Shell coiled in one plane, aperture wide
and simple, siphuncle central. Nautilus, recent. Trocholites,
Silurian. Gyroceras, Silurian to Carboniferous. Hercoceras,
Silurian. Ptenoceras, Devonian. Discites, Carboniferous.
Fam. 11. Bactritidae. Shell straight, conical, siphuncle narrow
and marginal, necks long, infundibuliform, sutures undulating.
Bactrites, Silurian and Devonian.
Sub-order 2. Ammonitoidea. — Initial chamber spheroidal;
siphuncle narrow and simple; septa convex towards aperture;
sutures complex.
Tribe 1. Retrosiphonata. — Siphuncular necks projecting behind
the septa as in Nautiloidea. Sutures form simple undulations.
Occur exclusively in Palaeozoic strata from Devonian upwards.
Fam. 1. Goniatitidae. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures and
ventral siphuncle. Goniatites, Devonian and Carboniferous.
Anarcestes, Devonian.
Fam. 2. Clymeniidae. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures,
siphuncle dorsal, that is, internal. Clymenia, Upper Devonian.
Trioe 2. Prosiphonata. — Siphuncular necks projecting in front
of the septa. Sutures form deeply indented lobes and saddles.
Fam. 1. Arcestidae. Globular and smooth or nearly smooth,
with reduced umbilicus, terminal chamber very deep, an
aptychus present. Popanoceras, Permian. Cyclolobus, Permian,
Arcestes, Trias. Lobites, Trias.
Fam. 2. TropUidae. Shells globular, but having radiating and
tuberculated costae. Thalassoceras, Permian. Tropites, Trias.
Sibirites, Trias.
Fam. 3. Ceratitidae. Shells coiled, with a large umbilicus, ter-
minal chamber short, sutures with simple saddles. Trachyceras,
Upper Trias. Ceratites, Trias. Dinarttes, Trias.
Some genera with helicoidal shells are related to these coiled
forms, viz. Cochloceras, Trias; also some straight forms, e.g. Rhab-
doceras, Trias.
Fam. 4. Pinacoceratidae. Shell compressed, smooth, terminal
chamber short, sutures very complicated, convex. Pinacoceras,
Trias.
Fam. 5. Phylloceratidae. Shell coiled, the whorls overlapping
each other, sutures formed of numerous lobes and saddles.
PhyUoceras, Jurassic.
Fam. 6. Lytoceratidae. Shell discoid, whorls loosely united or
uncoiled, sutures deeply indented, but with only three saddles
and lobes. Lytoceras, Jurassic and Cretaceous. Macroscaphites,
Cretaceous. Hamites, Cretaceous. Ptychoceras, Cretaceous.
Turrilites, Cretaceous. Baculites, Cretaceous.
Fam. 7. Ammonitidae. Shell coiled, with narrow whorls which
do not embrace one another, aperture simple, a horny anap-
tychus present. Ammonites, Jurassic. Arietites, Jurassic.
Aegoceras, Lias.
Fam. 8. Harpoceratidae. Shell discoid and flattened, with a
carinated border, aperture provided with lateral projections,
694
CEPHALOPODA
a calcareous aptychus, formed of two pieces. Harpoceras,
Jurassic. Oppelia, Jurassic. Lissoceras, Jurassic and Cre-
taceous.
Fam. 9. Atnaltheidae. Shell flattened, with a prominent carina
continued anteriorly into a rostrum. Amaltheus, Lias. Cardio-
ceras, Jurassic. Scnl&enbachia, Cretaceous.
Fam. 10. Stephanoceratidae. Shell not carinated, but with radiat-
ing costae, which are often bifurcated, aperture often with
lateral projections which contract it, aptychus formed of two
?ieces. Stebhanoceras, Morphoceras, Perisphinctes, Peltoceras,
urassic. Hopliies, Cretaceous. Acanthoceras, Cretaceous.
Cosmoceras, Jurassic. Various more or less uncoiled forms are
related to this family, viz. Scaphites, Crioceras, Cretaceous.
Order 2. Dibranchiata ( = Holosiphona, Acetabulifera)
Characters. — Cephalopods in which the inflected margins of
the epipodia are fused so as to form a complete tubular siphon
(fig. 24, i). The circumoral lobes of the forefoot carry suckers
Fig. 15. — Sepia officinalis, L., half the natural size, as seen when
dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the pouches
at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life when
not actually in use. a, Neck; b t lateral fin of the mantle-sac;
c, the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot ; d t the two long prehensile
arms; e, the eyes.
disposed upon them in rows, not tentacles (see figs. 15, 24).
There is a single pair of typical ctenidia (fig. 25) acting as gills
(hence Dibranchiata), and a single pair of renal organs, opening
by apertures right and left of the median anus (fig. 25, r) and by
similar internal pores into the pericardial chamber, which conse-
quently does not open directly to the surface as in Nautilus.
The oviducts are sometimes paired right and left (Octopoda,
Oigopsida), sometimes that of one side only is developed (Myop-
sida). The sperm-duct is always single except, according to
W. Keferstein, in Eledone moschata.
A plate-like shell is developed in a closed sac formed by the
mantle (figs. 20, 21), except in the Octopoda, which have none,
and in Spirula (fig. 17, D) and the extinct Belemnilidae, &c,
which have a small chambered shell resembling that of Nautilus
with or without the addition of plate-like and cylindrical acces-
sory developments (fig. 17, A, C, fig. 19).
The pair of cephalic eyes are highly-developed vesicles with a
refractive lens (fig. 33), cornea and lid-folds, — the vesicle being
in the embryo, an open sac like that of Nautilus (fig. 34). Os-
phradia are not present, but cephalic olfactory organs are recog-
Fig. 16. — Decapodous Cephalopods; one-fourth the natural
size linear.
A, Ckeiroteuthis Veranyi, d'Orb. (from the Mediteixanean).
B, Thysanoteuthis rhombus, Troschel (from Messina).
C, Loligopsis cyclura, Fer. and d'Orb. (from the Atlantic Ocean).
nized. One or two pairs of large salivary glands with long ducts are
present. An ink-sac formed as a diverticulum of the rectum and
opening near the anus is present in all Dibranchiata (fig. 25, /),
and has been detected
even in the fossil Belem-
nitidae. Branchial
hearts are developed on
the two branchial affer-
ent blood-vessels (fig.
28, vc'. w).
In the Dibranchiata
the shell shows various
stages of degeneration,
culminating in its com-
plete disappearance in
Octopus. As in other
Mollusca, there is a tend-
ency in Cephalopods for
the mantle to extend
over the outside of the
shell from its edges, and
when these secondary
mantle-folds entirely
cover the shell and meet
or fuse together the shell
is surrounded by the
mantle both externally
and internally, and is
said to be internal,
though it remains always
a cuticular structure ex-
ternal to the epidermis,
by a reduction of the
Fig. 1 7. — Internal Shells of Cephalopoda.
A, Conoteuthis dupiniana, d'Orb. (from
the Neocomian of France).
B, Shell Sepia orbigniana. Fer. (Medi-
terranean).
C, Shell of Sptrulirostra Bellardii, d'Orb.
(from the Miocene of Turin). The
specimen is cut so as to show in
section the chambered shell and the
laminated " guard " deposited upon
its surface
D, Shell of Spirula laevis, Gray (New
Zealand).
This process is generally accompanied
size of the shell in comparison with
that of the body, so that the relations of the two are gradu-
ally reversed, the body outgrows its house and instead of the
CEPHALOPODA
6 95
After Chun, from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. i&.—Sjnrula.
A, Dorsal aspect.
B, Ventral aspect,
a, Arms.
e, Eyes,
fi, Fins.
/«, Funnel.
£a, Mantle.
io, Posterior fossa.
sh, SheU.
fe, Tentacular arms.
mantle being enclosed by the shell, the shell is enclosed] by
the mantle. The earliest stage of this process is shown in
the recent Spirula,
though it is perhaps
not impossible that in
some of the later fossil
Ammonoids the shell
was becoming more
and more internal.
The shell of Spirula
(fig. 18) is coiled
somewhat like that of
Nautilus, but the coils
are not in contact, the
direction of the coil is
endogastric or ventral
instead of exogastric,
and the shell is very
much smaller than the
body. Like that of
Nautilus it is divided
by septa and traversed
by a siphuncle. The
relation of the animal
to the terminal
chamber is as in Nau-
tilus, but the body
'ii % terminal paiiial extends far beyond
disk. the aperture, and folds
of the mantle grow up over the shell
and cover it everywhere except part
of the dorsal and ventral surfaces.
The next modification in the en-
closed shell is the addition to it
of secondary deposits of calcareous
matter, by the inner surface of the
shell-sac. Successive layers are de-
posited on the posterior part of the
original shell, whether coiled or straight,
and these layers form a conical mass,
which may attain great thickness. A
somewhat coiled shell with such a
deposit is seen in Spirulirostra (fig.
17, C) of the Miocene. In the next
stage of modification secondary secre-
tion forms a long and broad
projection of the dorsal lip of
the aperture; this is well
developed in the belemnites
(fig. 19). Thus in these modi-
fied shells three parts are to
be distinguished: the original
septate shell, which has been
called the phragmacone; the
posterior conical deposit, called
the rostrum or guard; and the
anterior somewhat flat projec-
tion, called the proostracum.
In the living Dibranchiata
other than Spirula the phrag-
macone and rostrum have be-
come very rudimentary. The
Fig. 19. — Diagram of shell of Sepia (fig. 20) consists
Belemnite (after Phillips). almost entirely of the proos-
^trlrum^r^^on^ltracum^ the little ventral
cavity or " alveolus," in hollow posteriorly representing
which the chambered the phragmacone, and the pos-
" nhmcmiarri^ " (rt U terior panted projection, the
rostrum. In the Oigopsida the
shell is represented by a pro-
(fig. 21) and Sepiolidae. Lastly, in the Octopoda the shell is
represented only by small chitinous rudiments to which the
retractor muscles of the head and funnel are attached; these are
paired in Octopus, unpaired in other cases as in Cirrhoteuthis.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 20. — The calcareous internal shell of Sepia officinalis, the so-
called cuttle-bone, a, Lateral expansion; b, anterior cancellated
region ; c, laminated region, the laminae enclosing air.
Fig. 21. — The horny internal shell or gladius or pen of Loligo.
The early appearance of the sac of the mantle in which
the shell is enclosed has led to an erroneous identification
of this sac with the primitive shell-sac or shell-gland of
the Molluscan embryo. The first appearance of the shell-
sac in Dibranchiata is shown in figs. 35, 36. Its forma-
tion as an open upgrowth of the centro-dorsal area, and
the fact that it appears and disappears without closing in
Argonauta and Octopus, was demonstrated by E. Ray Lankester.
1 phragmacone
contained ; g,
or " rostrum."
(0
' guard,"
Fig. 22. — The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers.) Tr. Float;
Br. a, anterior arms; Brj>, posterior arms; V, the expanded portion of them,
once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En, the funnel.
ostracum which is no longer calcified but forms a chitinous I In Argonauta (the paper nautilus) the female only possesses
plume or gladius, and a similar rudiment occurs in LoUginidae | a shell, in which the body is contained; but this is not
6 9 8
CEPHALOPODA
cava passing backwards ventrally from the cephalic region and
dividing into two afferent branchial veins, each of which receives a
Fig. 28. — Circulatory and excretory organs of Sepia (from Gegen-
baur, after John Hunter).
br, Branchiae (ctenidia).
c, Ventricle oi the heart.
a, Anterior artery (aorta).
a', Posterior artery.
v, The right and left auricles
(enlargementsoftheefferent
branchial veins).
v', Efferent branchial vein on
the free face of the gill-
plume.
v.c, Vena cava.
w, vS, Afferent branchial vessels
(branches of the vena cava,
see fig. 20).
vc", Abdominal veins. [ages.
x, Branchial heartsandappend-
re, e, Glandular substance of the
nephridia developed on the
wall of the great veins on
their way to the gills. The
arrows indicate the direc-
tion of the blood-current.
pallial and an abdominal vein. Each of these afferent branchial
vessels is enclosed in the cavity of a renal organ and is covered ex-
ternally by the glandular tissue which forms the excretory part of
the " kidney " (fig. 29). Each afferent vessel is expanded into a
Fig. 29. — Diagram of the nephridial sacs, and the veins which run
through them, in Sepia officinalis (after Vigelius). The nephridial
sacs are supposed to have their upper walls removed.
v.c,
r.d.v.c t
r.s.v.c y
v.b.a,
v.m,
v.a.d,
v.a.s,
v.p.d,
v.p.s y
c.b,
c.v,
Vena cava, [of the same, np,
Right descending branch
Lett descending branch
of the same.
Vein from the ink-bag.
Mesenteric vein.
Genital vein.
Right abdominal vein.
Left abdominal vein.
Right pallial vein.
Left pallial vein.
Branchial heart.
Appendage of the same.
Capsule of the branchial
heart.
External aperture of the
right nephridial sac.
Reno- pericardial orifice plac-
ing the left renal sac or
nephridium in communi-
caton with the viscero-
pericardial sac, the course
of which below the nephri-
dial sac is indicated by
dotted lines.
The similar orifice of the
right side.
Glandular renal outgrowths.
w.k, Viscero-pericardial sac
(dotted outline).
/,
a.r,
contractile branchial heart, which is provided with a glandular
appendage. The latter corresponds to the glandular masses which
are attached to the afferent branchial veins in Nautilus, and to the
pericardial glands of other Molluscs.
Coelom.-^The coelom forms a large sac with a constriction between
Foramen in the nerve-mass
formed by pedal, pleural
and visceral ganglion-pairs,
traversed by a blood-vessel.
Fig. 30. Fig. 31.
Figs. 30, 31. — Nerve-centres of Octopus. Figure 30 gives a view
from the dorsal aspect, figure 31 one from the ventral aspect.
hue, The buccal mass. oes t Oesophagus.
ped t Pedal ganglion. /,
opt, Optic ganglion.
cer, Cerebral ganglion.
pi, Pleural ganglion.
vise, Visceral ganglion.
the anterior or pericardial division and the posterior or genital
division, and it is produced into lateral diverticula which contain
the branchial hearts; but in the Octopoda the pericardial divi-
sion is suppressed and the genital division communicates by
long ducts with sacs containing the appendages of the branchial
hearts. The renal sacs com-
municate with the pericardium
by pores near tne external
renal apertures; in the Octo-
poda the reno- pericardial open-
ings are in the capsules ot the
branchial hearts. The genital
ducts pass from the genital
coelom to the exterior. They
are paired in female Oigopsida
and Octopoda except Ctrrho-
teuthidae, but only the left
persists in the males of all
Dibranchiata, and in the
female Myopsida.
In the oviduct is a glandular
enlargement, and in addition
to this the females are pro-
vided with the so-called nida-
mental glands which are de-
veloped on the somatic wall of
the pallial cavity, one on each
side of the rectum, except in
certain Oigopsida (Enoploteu-
this, Cranchia, Leachia) and in
the Octopoda, in which these
organs are absent. The latter
fact is related to the habit of
the majority of the Octopoda
of guarding or " incubating "
their eggs, which have little
protective covering. In the
other cases the eggs are sur- Fig. 32. — Lateral view of the
rounded by a tough gelatinous nervous centres and nerves of the
elastic material secreted by the right side of Octojms vulgaris (from
nidamental glands. a drawing by A. 6. Bourne)
The vas deferens is at first bg, ~
narrow and convoluted, then cer,
dilates into a vesicula semin- ped,
alis at the end of which is a pl t
glandular diverticulum called
Buccal ganglion.
Cerebral ganglion.
Pedal ganglion.
Pleural, and rise, visceral region
of thepleuro-visceral ganglion,
the prostate. By the vesicula gang, stell, The right stellate ganglion
and the prostate the sperma-
tophores are formed. These
have a structure similar to n.visc,
those of Nautilus, and in the n.olf,
Octopoda may be as much as
50 mm. in length. Beyond the n.br,
prostate the duct opens into a
large terminal reservoir which has been called Needham's sac, and
in which the spermatophores are stored.
Nervous System and Sense-Organs. — The figures (jo, 31, 52) repre-
senting the nerve-centres of Octopus serve to exhibit the disposition
of the mantle connected by a
nerve to the pleural portion.
The right visceral nerve.
Its (probably) olfactory
branches.
Its branchial branches.
CEPHALOPODA
699
of these parts in the Dibranchiata. The ganglia are more distinctly
swollen than in Nautilus. In Octopus an inf ra-buccal ganglion-pair
are present, corresponding to the buccal ganglion-pair of Gastropoda.
In Decapoda a supra-buccal ganglion-pair connected with these
are also developed. Instead of the numerous radiating pallial nerves
of Nautilus, we have in the Dibranchiata on each side (right and left)
a large pleural nerve passing from the pleural portion of the pleuro-
visceral ganglion to the mantle, where it enlarges to form the stellate
ganglion. From each stellate ganglion nerves radiate to supply the
powerful muscles of the mantle-skirt. The two stellate ganglia are
connected, except in Sepiola, by a transverse supra-oesophageal
commissure, which represents the pallial cords united by a com-
missure above the intestine in Amphineura. The nerves from the
visceral portion of the pleuro-visceral ganglion have the same course
as in Nautilus, but no osphradial papilla is present. An enteric nervous
system is richly developed in the Dibranchiata, connected with the
somatic nervous centres through the buccal ganglia, as in the Arthro-
poda through the stomato-gastric ganglia, and anastomozing with
deep branches of the visceral nerves of the viscero-pleural ganglion-
pair. It has been especially described by A. Hancock in Omtnato-
strcphes. Upon the stomach it forms a single large and readily
detected gastric ganglion.
In the Dibranchiate division of the Cephalopoda the greatest
elaboration of the dioptric apparatus of the eye is attained, so that
Fig. 33. — Horizontal section of the eye of Sepia (Myopsid).
(From Gegenbaur, after Hensen.)
KK, Cephalic cartilages (see fig. 8). 0, Optic nerve.
C, Cornea (closed). go, Optic ganglion.
L, Lens. ci, Ciliary body. r and V, Capsular cartilage.
Ri, Internal layer of the retina.
Re, External layer of the retina.
P, Pigment between these.
ik, Cartilage of the iris.
w, White body.
ae, Argentine integument.
we have in this class the extremes of the two lines of development
of the Molluscan eye, those two lines being the punctigerous and the
lentigerous. The structure of the Dibranchiate's eye is shown in
section in fig. 14, C, and in fig. 33, and its development in figs. 34. and
37. The open sac which forms the retina of the young Dibranchiate
closes up, and constitutes the posterior chamber of the eye, or
Crimitive optic vesicle (fig. 37, A, poc). The lens forms as a structure-
:ss growth, secreted by both the internal and external surfaces of
the front wall of the optic vesicle (fig. 37, B, /). The integument
around the primitive optic vesicle which has sunk below the surface
now rises up and forms firstly nearest the axis of the eye the iridian
folds (*/ in B, fig. 37 ; ik in fig. J3 ; Ir in fig. 14), and then secondly
an outer circular fold grows up like a wall and completely closes over
the iridian folds and the axis of the primitive vesicle (fig. 33, C).
This covering is transparent, and is the cornea. In the oceanic
Decapoda the cornea does not completely close, but leaves a central
aperture traversed by the optic axis. These forms are termed
Oigopsidae by C. d'Orbigny, whilst the Decapoda with closed cornea
are termed Myopsidae. In the Octopoda the cornea is closed, and
there is yet another fold thrown over the eye. The skin surrounding
the cornea presents a free circular margin, and can be drawn over
the surface of the cornea by a sphincter muscle. It thus acts as an
adjustable diaphragm, exactly similar in movement to the iris of
Vertebrates. Sepia and allied Decapods have a horizontal lower
eyelid, that is to say, only one-halt of the sphincter-like fold of
integument is movable. The statocysts are situated ventralty
between the pedal and visceral ganglia, and are entirely enclosed
Fig. 34. — Diagrams of sections showing the
early stage of development of the eye of
Loligo when it is, like the permanent eye of
Nautilus and of Patella, an open sac. .(From
Lankester.)
A, First appearance of the eye as a ring-
like upgrowth.
B, Ingrowth of the ring-like wall so as to
form a sac, the primitive optic vesicle of
Loligo, f
in the cranial cartilage. The cavity of each is continued into a small
blind process which is the remnant of the embryonic connexion of
the vesicle with the external surface. The sensory epithelium is at
the anterior end of
the vesicle forming a
macula acustica, and
in the cavity is a
single otolith, partly
calcareous and partly
organic except in
Etedone, in which it*
is entirely organic.
The nerve arises
from the cerebral
ganglion on each
side and passes
through the pedal
ganglion.
There is no bran-
chial osphradium
in the Dibranchiata
corresponding to
that of Nautilus, but
the olfactory organ
or rhinophore near
the eye is present.
In Sepia and the
majority of the Dibranchiata it is a simple pit, in some of the
Oigopsida it is a projection which may be stalked.
Reproduction and Development — The modification of one or a
pair of the arms in the male for purposes of copulation has already
been described. In many genera the sexes differ from one another
in other characters also. As a rule the males are more slender or
smaller than the females. The maximum degree of sexual dimor-
phism occurs in Argonauta among the Octopods; in this genus
the female may be fifteen times as large as the male, and the peculiar
modification of the dorsal arms for the secretion of the shell occurs
in the female only, no shell being formed in the male. In most
cases the females are much more numerous than the males, but the
opposite relation appears to exist in those Octopoda in which the
hectocotylus is autotomous, for as many as four hectocotyli have been
found in the pallial cavity of a single female. When the hecto-
cotylus is not detached it is usually inserted into the pallial cavity
of the female so as to deposit the spermatophores in or near the
aperture of the oviduct, but in Septa and Loligo they are merely
deposited on the ventral lobes of the buccal membrane.
The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In the Octopoda and
in Sepia, Sepiola and Rossia, each egg has a separate envelope con-
tinued into a long stalk by which it is attached with several others
in a cluster. In Argonauta the eggs are carried by the female in the
cavity of the shell. In Loligo the eggs are very numerous, and are
enclosed in cylindrical transparent gelatinous strings united at one
end into a cluster.
The Cephalopoda appear to be the only Invertebrates in which
the egg is mesoblastic and telolecithal like that of Vertebrata. This
is the result of the large quantity of the yolk, and the position the
latter assumes in relation to the blastoderm. In all other Mollusca
the segmentation is complete though in some cases very unequal.
In the egg of Loligo, which has been chiefly studied (fig. 35), the
protoplasmic pole is at the narrower end of the egg, and segmentation
is restricted to this end, forming a layer of ectoderm cells. From
one part of the periphery of the ectoderm proliferation of cells takes
place and gives rise to a layer of scattered nuclei over the whole
surface of the yolk. The region of proliferation marks the anal side
of the ectoderm, and the layer of nuclei forms the perivitelline
membrane. This process must be regarded as equivalent to the
first stage of invagination, the yolk being surrounded by hypoblast
cells or their nuclei. Later on the same anal edge of the ectoderm
forms another cellular layer, the endoderm proper, which forms a
continuous sheet below the ectoderm.
The mesoderm also originates at the anal side of the ectoderm and
extends in two bands right and left between ectoderm and endoderm.
After the mesoderm is thus established, a little vesicle lying upon
and open to the yolk is formed from the endoderm, and this vesicle
ultimately gives rise to the stomach, the two lobes of the liver and
the intestine. The buccal mass and oesophagus arise from a stomo-
daeal invagination, and the anus is formed later from a short procto-
daeal invagination.
The external changes of form are as follows: — The mantle is the
middle of the embryonic area, and in its centre is the shell-gland,
which, however, behaves in a different way from that seen in other
Molluscs. Its borders grow inwards and approach each other to form
the shell-sac. E. Ray Lankester showed that in Argonauta and other
Octopods the shell-sac disappears before it is closed up, but in other
forms except Spirula it closes completely and the shell develop
within it. The lateral and posterior borders of the embryo form the
foot, and these borders grow out into ten or eight lobes which become
the arms, and which at first, as seen in fig. 35 (8), are entirely posterior
to the mouth. Development actually shows the anterior arms
gradually growing round the mouth and uniting in front of it.
700
CEPHALOPODA
2.
Fig. 35. — Development of Loligo.
View of the cleavage of the
egg during the first formation
01 embryonic cells.
Lateral view of the egg at a
little later stage, a, Limit
to which the layer of cleav-
age-cells has spread over the
egg; 6, portion of the egg
(shaded) as yet uncovered by
cleavage-cells ; af, the auto-
plasts ; kp, cleavage-pole
where first cells were formed.
3. Later stage, the limit a now
extended so as to leave but
little of the egg-surface (b)
unenclosed. The eyes (d),
mouth (e) and mantle-sac (u)
have appeared.
4. Later stage, anterior surface,
the embryo is becoming
nipped off from the yolk-
sac (g).
5. View of an embryo similar to
(3) from the cleavage-pole
or centro-dorsal area.
6. Later stage, posterior surface.
7. Section in a median dorso-
ventral and antero-posterior
plane of an embryo of the
same age as (4).
8. View of the anterior face of
an older embryo.
9. View of the posterior face of an
embryo of the same age as (8).
Letters in (3) to (9) : — a, lateral
fins of the mantle ; 6, mantle-
skirt; c y supra-ocular in-
vagination to form the
11 white body "; d, the eye;
e, the mouth ; /\ 2 , s , 4 , 6 , the
five paired processes of the
fore-toot ; g, rhythmically
contractile area of the yolk-
sac, which is itself a hernia-
like protrusion of the median
portion of the fore-foot;
n, dotted line showing inter-
nal area occupied by yolk
(food- material of the egg);
k f first rudiment of the epi-
podia (paired ridges which
unite to form the siphon or
funnel); /, sac of the radula
or lingual ribbon; m,
stomach; n, rudiments of
the gills (paired ctenidia):
0, the otocysts — a pair of
invaginations of the surface
of the epipodia; p, the optic
ganglion; q, the distal por-
tion of the ridges which form
the siphon, k being the basal
portion of the same struct-
ure; r, the vesicle-like
rudiment of the intestine
formed independently of the
parts connected with the
mouth, 5, k, m, and without
invagination; s, rudiment
of the salivary glands; t in
(7), the shell-sac at an earlier
stage open (see fig. 36), now
closed up ; u, the open shell-
sac formed by an uprising
ring-like growth of the centro-
dorsal area; w in (5), the
mantle-skirt commencing to
be raised up around the area
of the shell-sac. In (7) mes
points to the middle cell-
layer of the embryo, ep to
the outer layer, and h to the
deep layer of fusiform cells
which separates everywhere
the embryo from the yolk or
food-material lying within it.
Between the mantle and the foot are two ridges which form the
funnel, and their position shows them to be the epipodia. The
otocysts and eyes are formed as invaginations of ectoderm, the
former behind the eyes, at the sides of the funnel. All the nerve-
centres, cerebral, visceral, pedal and optic, are formed as prolifera-
tions of the ectoderm- At the sides of the optic ganglia a pair of
ectodermic invaginations are formed, which in the adult become the
white bodies of the eyes, surrounding the optic ganglion. These are
vestiges of lateral cerebral lobes which degenerate in the course of
development.
The coelomic cavity appears as a symmetrical pair of spaces in
the mesoderm, right and left of the intestine, and from it grow out
the genital ducts and the renal organs. The gonad develops from
the wall of the coelom.
Phytogeny and Classification. — The order is divided into two sub-
orders, Decapoda and Octopoda, by the presence or absence of the
tentacular arms. The Decapoda are more adapted for swimming
than the Octopoda, the body being usually provided with fins. In
the former also there is generally an internal shell of considerable
size, often calcified, while in the Octopoda only the merest vestiges
of a shell remain. There can be no doubt that the Octopoda were
derived from the Decapoda, although from the absence of skeletal
structures fossil re-
mains of Octopods <pm m
are almost entirely
unknown. P aloe-
octopus, however,
occurs in the Cre-
taceous, while shells
of Argonauta do not
appear before the
Pliocene. The De-
capoda are abund-
antly represented in
the Secondary for-
mations by the
Belemnitidae, whose
shell (fig. 19) con-
sists of a straight
conical phragma-
cone covered posteriorly by a very thick rostrum, and produced
anteriorly into a thin long proostracum which is only occasionally
preserved. In certain cases remains of the arms provided with
hooks, and of the ink-sac, have been recognized. The Belemnitidae
appear first in the Upper Trias, attain their maximum development
in the Jurassic rocks, and are not continued into the Tertiary period,
though represented in the Eocene by a few allied forms.
There is no difficulty in deriving the typical existing Decapoda
from Belemnitidae, and many of the extinct forms may have been
directly ancestral. Chitinous " pens " like that of Loligo, however,
begin to appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, so that in this
case as in many others the parent form and the modified form
existed contemporaneously, and the latter alone has survived.
The oldest shells of the Sepia type are from the Eocene, and it is
perhaps possible that the Sepiidae arose separately from the Belem-
mtes *
It is a curious fact that no fossil specimens of the genus Spirula
have been found, but this may be due to the fact that it occurs only
in deep water. At any rate there is no evidence that the shell of
Spirula has lost a rostrum and a proostracum ; its characters must
be regarded as primitive, not secondary. In the characters of the
protoconch and of the commencement of the siphuncle, the shell of
Spirula agrees with that of the Ammonoids, and in both its position
is ventral, although in most Ammonoids the shell being exogastric
the ventral side is the convex or external, while in Spirula the shell
is endogastric and the siphuncle internal. The fact that the shell
is not completely enclosed by the mantle is also a primitive character.
With regard to the general morphology of the Cephalopoda, it is
difficult to reconcile the existence of two pairs of renal tubes as well
as a pair of genital ducts in Nautilus with the view that the original
Mollusc was unsegmented and had only one pair of coelomoducts.
Considering the great specialization, however, and high degree of
organization of the Cephalopods, it is evident that the earliest
Nautiloid whose remains are known to us must have had a long
evolutionary history behind it, and such metamerism as exists may
have been developed in the course of its own history. In the other
direction the evidence seems to prove that the Dibranchiata with
only two renal ducts have been derived from the Tetrabranchiata.
Fig. 36. — Section through aboral end of
embryo of Loligo showing shell-sac still open.
ep, ectoderm; m, mesoderm; m\ endoderm;
sns, shell-sac ; y, yolk.
CEPHALOPODA
701
Suborder i. Decapoda. — Four pairs of ordinary non-retractile
arms which are shorter than the body, and one pair of tentacular
arms, situated between the third and fourth normal arms on each
side and retractile within special pouches. Suckers pedunculated
and provided with horrty rings, on the tentacular arms confined
usually to the distal extremities. Usually a well-developed internal
shell, and lateral fins on the edges of the body. Heart in a coelomic
cavity ; nidamentary glands usually present.
Tribe 1. Oigopsida. — A wide aperture in the cornea. Two ovi-
ducts in the female. In fossil genera and Spirula, shell has a multi-
locular phragmacone with a siphuncle; initial chamber globular
and larger than the second chamber. The most ancient forms char-
acterized by the small size of the rostrum and proostracum, and large
Fig. 37. — Right and left sections through embryos of Loligo.
(After Lankester.)
A,
B,
al,
is,
ep,
mes,
ym,
»£»
ot,
wb,
Same stage as fig. 35 (4).
Same stage as fig. 35 (8) ;
only the left side of the mtf,
sections is drawn, and the g,
food-material which occu- ps,
pies the space internal to
the membrane ym is dg,
omitted. poc.
Rectum.
Ink-sac. /,
Outer cell-layer. r,
Middle cell-layer. soc,
Deep cell-layer of fusiform
cells (yolk-membrane). if,
Optic nerve-ganglion. C,
Otocyst.
The " white body " of the
adult ocular capsule form-
ing as an invagination of
the outer cell-layer.
Mantle-skirt.
Gill.
Pen-sac or shell-sac, now
closed.
Dorsal groove.
Primitive optic vesicle, now
closed (see fig. 34).
Lens.
Retina.
Second or anterior optic
chamber still open.
Iridean folds.
The primitive invagination
to form one of the otocysts,
as seen in fig. 35 (5) and
(6).
6ize of the phragmacone. In the living genera, except Spirula, the
shell is a chitinous gladius.
Fam. 1. BelemnoUuthidae. Extinct; shell with well-developed
phragmacone, and rostrum merely a calcareous envelope;
siphuncular necks directed backwards as in Nautiloidea; ten
equal arms provided with hooks. Phragmoteuthis, Trias. Belem-
noteuthis, Jurassic and Cretaceous. Acanthoteuthis, Jurassic.
Fam. 2. AulacoceraUdac. Extinct; phragmacone with widely
separated septa; rostrum well developed and claviform.
Aulacoceras, Trias. Atractites, Trias and Jurassic. Xipho-
teuthis, Lias.
Fam. 3. Belemnitidae. Extinct; phragmacone short with ventral
siphuncle, prolonged dorsally into long proostracum; rostrum
large and cylindrical. Belemnites, 350 species from Jurassic and
Cretaceous. Diploconus, Upper Jurassic.
Fam. d. Belopteridae. Extinct; rostrum and phragmacone
well developed, phragmacone often curved; initial chamber
small. Beloptera, Eocene. Bayanoteuthis, Eocene. Spirulirostra,
Miocene.
Fam. 5. Spirulidae. Dorsal and ventral sides of posterior ex-
tremity of shell uncovered by mantle; no rostrum or pro-
ostracum; shell calcareous, coiled endogastrically and siphun-
culated; fins posterior. Spirula, three living species known,
abyssal.
Fam. 6. Ommaiostrephidae. Shell internal and chitinous, ending
aborally in a little narrow cone; tentacular arms short ana
thick; suckers with denticulate rings. Omtnatostrephes, fins
aboral, simple and rhomboidal, British. Ctenopteryx, fins
pectinate, as long as the body; Bathyteuthis, fins terminal,
rudimentary; tentacular arms, filiform; abyssal. Rhyncho-
teuthis, tentacular arms united to form a beak-shaped appendage.
Symplectoteuthis. Tracheloteuthis. Doridicus. Architeuthis; this
is the largest of Cephalopoda, reaching 60 ft. in length including
arms.
Fam. 7. Thysanoteutkidae. Arms enlarged, bearing two rows
of suckers and filaments; fins triangular, extending whole
length of body. Thysanoteuthis, Mediterranean.
Fam. 8. Onychateuihidae. Fins terminal; tentacular arms long ;
suckers with hooks. Onychoteutkis, hook-bearing suckers on
tentacular arms only. Enoploteuthis, hook-bearing suckers
on all the arms. Veranya, body very short, tentacular arms
atrophied in the adult, Mediterranean. Chauno teuthis, body
elongated, tentacular arms atrophied. Pterygioteuthis. Ancis-
troteuthis. Abralia. Teleoteuthis. Lepidotcuthis.
Fam. 9. Gonatidae. Body elongated; fins terminal; radula
with only two lateral teeth. Gonatus.
Fam. 10. Cheiroteuthidae. Tentacular arms long, not retractile ;
resisting apparatus well developed. Cheiroteuthis, suckers
along the whole length of the tentacular arms. Doratopsis,
body very long and slender with aboral spine, dorsal arms very
short. Histioteuthis, six dorsal arms united by membrane,
photogenous organs present. Histiopsis, membrane of dorsal
is\
38
-Octopodous Cephalopods; one-fourth the natural size
linear.
A, Pinnoctopus cordiformis, Quoy and Gain (from New Zealand).
B, Tremoctopus violaceus, Ver. (from the Mediterranean).
C, Cranchia scabra, Owen (from the Atlantic Ocean ; one of the
Decapoda).
D, Cirrhoteuthis MiUleri, Esch. (from the Greenland coast),
arms only half-way up the arms, photogenous organs present.
Calliteuthis, no brachial membrane, photogenous organs present.
GrimaldiUuthis, two fins on each side, no tentacular arms.
Fam. 11. Cranchiidae. Eight normal arms, very short; eyes
prominent; fins small and terminal. Cranchia, body short,
purse-shaped, normal arms short, fins entirely aboral. Loligopsis,
tody elongated, conical, tentacular arms slender. Leachia,
tentacular arms absent, funnel without a valve. Taonius, body
elongated, normal arms, rather short, eyes pedunculated.
Tribe 2. Myopsida. — No aperture in the cornea. Left oviduct
only developed in female. Internal shell without a distinct phrag-
macone, calcified or simply chitinous.
Fam. 1. Sepiidae. Body wide and flat; fins narrow, extending
the whole length of the body ; shell calcareous and laminated.
Belosepia, a rudiment of rostrum and phragmacone present in
shell, Eocene. Sepia, shell with a rostrum, British. Sepiella,
shell without a rostrum.
yo2
CEPHEUS— CERAM
Fam. 2. SepMidae. Body short, rounded at the aboral end ; fins
rounded, inserted in middle of body-length; shell chitinous,
small or absent. Sepiola, head united to mantle dorsally,
British. Rossia, head not united to mantle, British. Stoloteuthis
and Inioteuthis, without shell. Heteroteuthis. Euprymna.
Fam. 3. Idiosepiidae. Body elongated, with rudimentary ter-
minal fins; internal shell almost lost. I dio septus, 1-5 cm. long,
Indian Ocean.
Fam. 4. Sepiadariidae. Body short; mantle united to head
dorsally; no shell Sepiaaarium, Pacific Ocean. Sepioloidea,
Australian.
Fam. 5. Loliginidae. Body elongated and conical ; fins extending
forward beyond the middle of body-length; shell chitinous,
well developed. LoUgo, fins triangular, aboral, British. Sepio-
teuthis, fins rounded, extending along whole of body-length.
Loliolus. Loliguncula. The following fossil genera, known only
by their gladius and ink-sac, have been placed near Loligo: —
Teuthopsts, Beloteuthis and Geoteutkis, Lias; Phylloteuthis,
Cretaceous; Plesioteuthis, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
Suborder 2. Octopoda. — Only four pairs of arms, all similar
and longer than the body. Body short and rounded aborally.
Fig. 30. — Palaeoctopus Newboldi, the oldest Octopod known. From
the Cretaceous rocks of Lebanon. (After H. Woodward.)
Suckers sessile. Heart not contained in coelom. No nidamentary
glands.
Tribe 1. Leioglossa. — No radula. Arms united by a complete
membrane. Fins on sides of body.
Fam. Cirrhoteuthidae. Tentacular filaments on either side of
the suckers. Cirrhoteuthis, pallial sac prominent, fins large,
pelagic. Opisthoteuthis, body flattened, with small fins, deep-
sea. Vampyroteuthis, four fins. Palaeoctopus, fossil, Cretaceous.
Tribe 2. Trachyglossa. — Radula present. No fins.
Fam. 1. Amphitretidae. Arms united by membrane; funnel
attached to mantle, dividing the pallial aperture into two.
Amphitretus, pelagic.
Fam. 2. Alloposidae. All arms united by membrane; mantle
joined to head by dorsal band and two lateral commissures.
AUoposus, pelagic.
Fam. 3. Octopodtdae. Arms long and equal, without membrane ;
hectocotylus not autotomous. No cephalic aquiferous pores.
Octopus, two rows of suckers on each arm, British. Etcdone,
single row of suckers on each arm. Scaeurgus. Pinnoctopus.
Cistopus. Japetella.
Fam. 4. Philonexidae. Hectocotylus autotomous; arms unequal
in size; aquiferous pores on head and funnel. Tremoctojpus,
two dorsal pairs of arms united by membrane. Ocythoi, without
interbrachial membrane.
Fam. 5. Argonautidae. Hectocotylus autotomous; no inter-
brachial membrane; extremities of dorsal arms in female
expanded and secreting a shell; males very small, without
shell. Argonauta.
Literature. — Use has been freely above made of the article by
E. Ray Lankester, on Mollusca, in the 9th edition of this Encyclo-
pedia. For the chief modern works, see Bashford Dean, " Notes
on Living Nautilus," Amer, Nat. xxxv., 1901; Arthur Willey,
11 Contribution to the Natural History of the Pearly Nautilus,"
A. Willey's Zoological Results, pt. vi. (1902); Foord, Cat. Fossil
Cephalopoda in British Museum ; Alpheus Hyatt, " Fossil Cephalo-
pods of the Museum of Comp. Zoology," Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
(Cambridge, U.S., 1868) ; Jalta, " I Cefalopodi viventi nel golfo di
Napoli," Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, xxiii. (1896);
E. Ray Lankester.
(J. T. C.)
CEPHEUS, in Greek mythology, the father of Andromeda
(q.v.) ; in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere,
mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars in this constellation,
Tycho 11, and Hevelius 51. The most interesting star in it is
d Cephei, a remarkable double star, the brighter component of
which is a short period variable (5-37 days), with a range in
magnitude of 3-7 to 4*9; it is also a spectroscopic binary.
CEPHISODOTUS, the name of the father and of the son of
Praxiteles, both sculptors like himself. The former must have
flourished about 400 B.C. A noted work of his was Peace bearing
the infant Wealth, of which a copy exists at Munich. Peace is a
Madonna-like figure of a somewhat conservative type; the child
Wealth is less successful. Cephisodotus also made, like his son,
a figure of Hermes carrying the child Dionysus, unless indeed
ancient critics have made two works of one. He made certain
statues for the city of Megalopolis, founded in 370 B.C. Of the
work of the younger Cephisodotus, his grandson, we have no
remains; he was a prolific sculptor of the latter part of the 4th
century B.C., especially noted for portraits, of Menander, of the
orator Lycurgus, and others (see J. Overbeck, Aniike Schrifl-
quellen, p. 255).
CERAM (Strang), an island of the Dutch East Indies, in the
Molucca group, lying about 3 S., and between 127 45' and 131
E. Its length is a little over 200 m., its greatest breadth about
50 m., and its area, including neighbouring islets, 6621 sq. m.
It consists of two parts, Great Ceram and Little Ceram or
Huvamohel, united by the isthmus of Taruno; and, for ad-
ministrative purposes, is assigned to the residency of Amboyna,
being divided into Kairatu or West Ceram, Wahai and Amahai,
the northern and the southern parts of Middle Ceram, and Warn
or Eastern Ceram. No central chain of mountains stretches
west and east through the island, but near the north coast hills,
rising 2300 to 2600 ft. , slope steeply to the shore. Near the south
coast, west of the Bay of Elpaputeh, a complex mass of mountains
forms a colossal pyramid, with peaks rising to nearly 5000 ft.
The isthmus connecting the two parts of the island is very
narrow, and has a height of only 460 to 490 ft. The chief rivers
flow north and south into bays, but are navigable only for a few
miles during the rainy season. The rainfall is very heavy,
amounting to 121 in. (mean annual) on the south coast. On the
north coast the bays of Savai and Warn are accessible for small
vessels. The geological structure, consisting chiefly of eruptive
rocks and crystalline limestone, is similar to that of northern
Amboyna. In the eastern section the prevailing rock is crystal-
line chalk, similar to that of Buru. Several hot springs occur,
and earthquakes are not infrequent. About 4000 persons
CERAMICS
703
perished in the earthquake of 1899. A large part of the interior is
covered with dense forests, and except along the coast the popu-
lation is scanty. For the naturalist Ceram is without much
interest, lacking characteristic species or abundance of specimens.
The Bandanese pay occasional visits to shoot bears and deer;
there are numbers of wild goats and cattle; and among birds are
mentioned cassowaries, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and the
swallows that furnish edible nests. A large number of fish are
to be found in the various rivers; and as early as i860 no fewer
than 2 13 species were described. The most valuable timber tree
is the iron-wood. Rice, maize, cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane and a
variety of fruits are grown; and some tobacco is exported to
Europe; but by far the most important production is the sago
palm, which grows abundantly in the swampy districts, especially
of Eastern Ceram, and furnishes a vast supply of food, not only
to Ceram itself, but to other islands to the east. The Dutch
have established cocoa and coffee plantations at various points.
The coast-villages are inhabited by a mixed Malay popula-
tion, Buginese, Macassars, Balinese and other races of the
archipelago. The interior is occupied by the aborigines, a people
of Papuan stock. They are savages and head-hunters. The
introduction of Christianity was hampered by the baneful
influence of a secret society called the Kakian Union, to which
pagans, Mahommedans and Christians indiscriminately attached
themselves; and it has several times cost the Dutch authori-
ties considerable efforts to frustrate their machinations (see
Tijdschrift van Ned. Ind., fifth year). The total population is
estimated at 100,000, including 12,000 Christians and 16,000
Mahommedans. The chief settlements are Savai at the north
and Elpaputeh at the south end of the isthmus of Taruno.
There was a Dutch fort at Kambello, on the west side of Little
Ceram, as early as 1646.
CERAMICS, or Keramjcs (Gr. /tcpa/xos, earthenware) , a general
term for the study of the art of pottery. It is adopted for this
purpose both in French (cer antique) and in German (Keramik) , and
thus has its convenience in English as representing an inter-
national form of description for a study which owes much to the
art experts of all nations, though " ceramic " and " ceramics "
do not appear in English as technical terms till the middle of the
19th century.
The word " pottery " (Fr. poterie) in its widest sense includes
all objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire, though
there is a growing tendency to restrict the word to the commoner
articles of this great class and to apply the word "porcelain" to
all the finer varieties. This tendency is to be deprecated, as it is
founded on a misconception; the word " porcelain " should only
be applied to certain well-marked varieties of pottery. The very
existence of pottery is dependent on two important natural
properties of that great and widespread group of rocky or earthy
substances known as clays, viz. the property of plasticity (the
power of being readily kneaded or moulded while moist), and
the property of being converted when fired into one of the most
indestructible of ordinary things.
The clays form such an important group of mineral substances
that the reader must refer to the article Clay for an account of
their occurrence, composition and properties. In this article we
shall only deal with the various clays as they have affected the
problems of the potter throughout the ages. The clays found on
or close to the earth's surface are so varied in composition and
properties that we may see in them one of the vital factors that
has determined the nature of the pottery of different countries
and different peoples. They vary in plasticity, and in the hard-
ness, colour and texture of the fired product, through an astonish-
ingly wide range. To-day the fine, plastic, white-burning clays of
the south of England are carried all over Europe and America
for the fabrication of modern wares, but that is a state of affairs
which has only been attained in recent times. Even down to
the 18th century, the potters of every country could only use on
an extensive scale the clays of their own immediate district, and
the influence of this controlling factor on the pottery of bygone
centuries has never yet received the attention it deserves. 1
1 The archaeologist is frequently puzzled as to the place of origin.
General Evolution of Pottery. — The primitive races of mankind,
whether of remote ages or of to-day, took perforce such clay as
they found on the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and
with the rudimentary preparation of spreading it out on a stone
slab if necessary and picking out any rocky fragments of appreci-
able size, then beating it with the hands, with stones or boards, or
treading it with the feet to render it fairly uniform in consistency,
proceeded to fashion it into such shapes as need or fancy dictated.
Fired in an open fire, or in the most rudimentary form of potter's
kiln, such pottery may be buff, drab, brown or red — and these
from imperfect firing become smoked, grey or black. How many
generations of men, of any race, handed on their painfully
acquired bits of knowledge before this earliest stage was passed,
we can never know; but here and there, where the circumstances
were favourable or the race was quick of observation, we can
trace in the work of prehistoric man in many countries a gradually
advancing skill based on increased technical knowledge. For
ages tools and methods remained of the simplest — the fingers
for shaping or building up vessels, a piece of mat or basket-
work for giving initial support to a more ambitious vase, — until
some original genius of the tribe finds that by starting to build up
his pot on the flattened side of a boulder he can turn his support
so as to bring every part in succession under his hand, and lo!
the potter's wheel is invented — not brought down from heaven by
one of the gods to a favoured race, as the myths of all the older
civilizations or barbarisms, Egyptian, Chaldean, Greek, Scythian,
and Chinese have fabled, but born from the brain and hand of
man struggling to fulfil his allotted task.
Formerly every writer on the history of pottery seemed to
imagine that the very rudest pottery must have been the inven-
tion of Egyptian, Chinese or some other distinct race from which
the knowledge radiated to all the other races of the prehistoric
world. No conception could be more erroneous. Since the
middle of the 19th century research has established beyond doubt
that wherever clay was found men became potters of a sort, just
as they became hunters, carpenters, smiths, &c, by sheer force of
need and slowly-gathered tradition. The not yet exploded view
that Egypt or Assyria was the special cradle of this art, and that
the pottery of the Greeks and Romans directly descended from
such a parent stock, cannot survive in view of the incontestable
evidence that pottery was made by the prehistoric peoples of
what we now call Greece, Italy, Spain and other countries, long
before they were aware that any other peoples lived on the earth
than themselves.
For centuries this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by
drying in the sun, so that it would serve for the storage of dried
grain, &c, but the increasing use of fire would soon bring out the
amazing fact that a baked clay vessel became as hard as stone.
Then, too, came the knowledge that even in one district all the
clays did not fire to the same colour, and colour decoration arose,
in a rude daubing or smearing of some clay or earth (a ruddle or
bole perhaps), which was found to give a bright red or buff colour
on vessels shaped in a duller-coloured clay — most precious of all
were little deposits of white clay which kept their purity unsullied
through the fire, — and by these primitive means the races of the
dawn made their wares. On this substructure all the pottery
of the last four thousand years has been built, for behind all
Egyptian, Greek or Chinese pottery we find the same primitive
foundations.
We now reach the beginnings of recorded history, and as the
great nations of the past emerge from the shadows they each
develop the potter's art in an individual way. The Egyptians
evolve schemes of glowing colour— brilliant glazes fired on
objects, shaped in sand held together with a little clay, or actually
carved from rocks or stones; the Greeks produce their marvels
of some example of ancient pottery — was it made in the district
where it was found, or had it been imported from some other centre?
When we possess a sufficient body of analytical data obtained by the
use of one general chemical method, an analysis of a fragment will
frequently enable such a question to be answered, where now all is
doubt and speculation. But the analytical results published hitherto
are often not worth the paper they are printed on for such a purpose,
the older methods of silicate analysis being only approximate.
7°4
CERAMICS
[GENERAL
of plastic form, and then, excited by their growing skill in metal
work, turn the plastic clay into imitations of metal forms. These
nations are overthrown, and the Romans spread some knowledge
— only a tincture, it must be confessed — over all the lands they
hold in fee; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from Egypt
to the Wall of Hadrian, they set alight potters' fires that have
never since been extinguished. The Roman empire falls, and
over Europe its pottery is forgotten along with its greater
achievements; yet still pottery-making goes on in a very simple
way, to be slowly revived and modified once more by the com-
munities of monks, who, in later centuries, replace the Roman
legions as the great civilizing influence in Europe. Meantime
Egypt and the nearer East continued, in a debased form, the
splendours of their glorious past, and glazed and painted pottery
was still made by traditional methods. What part the Byzantine
civilization and the Persians played during this obscure time, we
are only just beginning to realize; but we now know that many
interesting kinds of decorated pottery were made at Old Cairo, at
Alexandria, at Damascus, in Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere (on
which the later Moslem potters founded their glorious works),
at a time when all over Europe crocks of simple red or drab clay,
covered only with green and yellow lead-glazes, were the sole
evidence of the potter's skill. What the Arab conquests destroyed,
and what their breath quickened into life, we can only guess;
but the fact is indisputable that with the Mahommedan con-
quests there came a time when the potter's art of the Occident
reached its highest expression, and when methods and knowledge
hitherto confined to Egypt, Syria and Persia were spread from
Spain and the south of France to India — even, it may be, into
China.
Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese — the greatest race
of potters the world has ever seen — were quietly gathering
strength, until from their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged
the marvellous, white translucent porcelain, one of the wonders
of the medieval world.
With the- dawn of the 15th century of our era, the state of
affairs was practically this: — In European countries proper we
find rudely fashioned and decorated wares in which we can trace
the slow development of a native craft from the superposition
of Roman methods on the primitive work of the peoples. The
vessels were mostly intended for use and not for show; were
clumsily fashioned of any local clay, and if glazed at all then only
with coarse lead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no case
above the level of workmanship of the travelling brick- or tile-
maker. The finest expression of this native style is to be found
in the Gothic tile pavements of France, Germany and England,
where all the colours are due to the clays and there is no approach
to painting. In the Moslem countries — including the greater
part of Spain and Sicily, Egypt and the nearer East, probably
even to the very centre of Asia — pottery was being made either
of whitish clay and sand, or of a light reddish clay coated with a
white facing of fine clay or of tin-enamel, on which splendid
decorative patterns in vivid pigments or brilliant iridescent
lustres were painted.
As early as the 12th century of our era this superior artistic
pottery of the Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of
Europeans as an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may
well believe the traditional accounts that Saracen potters were
brought into Italy, France and Burgundy to introduce the
practice of their art, while Italian potters certainly penetrated
into the workshops of eastern Spain and elsewhere, and gathered
new ideas. In Italy certainly, and in the south of France
probably, efforts were continuously in progress to improve the
native wares by coating the vessels with a white " slip " and
drawing on them rude, painted patterns in green, yellow and
purplish black. The increasing intercourse with Spain, in war
and peace, also introduced the use of tin-enamel after the fashion
of the famous Hispano-Moresque wares, and by the end of the
14th century a knowledge of tin-enamel was widespread in Italy
and paved the way to the glorious painted majolica of the 15th
and 1 6th centuries. From Italy and Spain, France and Holland,
Germany, and finally, though much later, England learnt this art,
and the tin-enamelled pottery of middle and northern Europe, so
largely made during the 17th and 18th centuries, was the direct
offshoot of this movement of the Italian Renaissance. 1
During the 15th and 16th centuries Chinese porcelain also
began to find its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its
substance and its marvellous translucence excited the attention
of the Italian majolists and alchemists. The first European
imitation of this famous oriental porcelain of which we have
indubitable record was made at Florence (1575-1585) by alche-
mists or potters working under the patronage, and, it is said, with
the active collaboration of Francesco de' Medici. This Florentine
porcelain was the first of those distinctively European wares,
made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connect-
ing link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered
either as pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered
opaque by shaping and firing a mixture containing a large
percentage of glass with a very little clay. After the cessation of
the Florentine experiments we know of no European porcelain
for nearly a century, though the importation of Chinese porcelain
had largely increased owing to the activity of the various " India"
companies. The next European porcelain, made like the
Florentine of glass and clay, was that of Rouen (1673) and St
Cloud (1696); and during the 18th century artificial glassy
porcelain was made in France and England largely, and in other
countries experimentally. German experimenters worked in
another direction, and the first porcelain made in Europe from
materials similar to the Chinese was produced at Meissen by
Bottger (1710-1712). During the 18th century not only was
there a very large trade in imported Chinese and Japanese
porcelain, but there was a great development of porcelain
manufacture in Europe; and in every country factories were
established, generally under royal or princely patronage, for the
manufacture of artificial porcelain like the French, or genuine
porcelain like the German. The English made a departure in
the introduction of a porcelain distinct from either, through
adding calcined ox-bones to the other ingredients; and this
English bone-porcelain — a well-marked species — is now largely
made in America, France, Germany and Sweden as well as in
England.
By the end of the 18th century the risks and losses attendant
on the manufacture of the French glassy porcelain had caused its
abandonment, and a porcelain made from natural materials like
the Chinese has since been generally made on the continent of
Europe.
The older tin-enamelled wares — derived from the Hispano-
Moresque and the Italian majolica — so largely made in France,
Holland, Germany and elsewhere during the 17th and 18th
centuries, met with a fate analogous to that of the French
porcelain. Tin-enamelled earthenware is always a brittle
substance, soon damaged in regular use; so that, when, in the
middle of the 18th century, the English potter first appeared as a
serious competitor with a fine white earthenware of superior
durability and precision of manufacture, the old painted faience
gradually disappeared between the upper millstone of European
porcelain and the nether millstone of English earthenware.
The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the
output of porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the
United States. Mechanical methods were largely called in to
supplement or replace what had hitherto remained almost pure
handicraft. The English methods of preparing and mixing the
materials of the body and glaze, and the English device of replac-
ing painted decoration by machine printing, to a large extent
carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical aspects of the
1 It must always be borne in mind that, side by side with the
production of artistic wares in all countries, the traditional craft
of the village pot-maker continued, and has probably been less
interfered with than is generally imagined, except in the British
Isles. Any country market-place in Spain, Italy, Greece, France,
Germany, or Holland is provided to-day with a simple peasant
pottery little removed in its forms, its decorations, or its technical
skill from the country work of the middle ages. In England the
cheapness of machine-made pottery has largely destroyed such
village industries.
GENERAL]
CERAMICS
705
work and in many cases with an entire extinction! of its artistic
spirit. Even the hand-work that still remained was largely
affected by the growing dominance of machinery; and the
painting, gilding and decoration of pottery and porcelain, in the
first half of the 19th century, became everywhere mechanical and
hackneyed. During the latter half of the ioth century another
influence was fortunately at work. Side by side with the increas-
ing mechanical perfection of the great bulk of modern pottery
there grew up a school of innovators and experimentalists, who
revived many of the older decorative methods that had fallen
into oblivion and produced fresh and original work, in certain
directions even beyond the achievements of the past. The 20th
century opened with a wider outlook among the potters of Europe
and America. In every country men were striving once again to
bring back to their world-old craft something of artistic taste
and skill.
Technical Methods. — All primitive pottery, whether of ancient or
of modern times, has been made by the simplest methods. The clay,
dug from the earth's surface, was or is prepared by beating and
kneading with the hands, feet or simple mallets of stone or wood ;
stones and hard particles were picked out; and the mass, well
tempered with water, was used without any addition. From this
clay, vessels were shaped by scooping out or cutting a solid lump
or ball, by building up piece by piece and smoothing down one layer
upon another or by squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object
or prepared mould or form. The potter's wheel, though very
ancient, was a comparatively late invention, arrived at independ-
ently by many races of men. In its simplest form it was a heavy
Fig. 1. — Potter mould-
ing a vessel on the wheel
(from a painting in a tomb
at Thebes about 1800 B.C.).
Compare the wheel on the
left in fig. 5.
Fig. 2. — Potter's wheel of
the time of the Ptolemies,
moved by the foot (from a
wall-relief at Philae). Com-
pare fig. 5, the wheel on the
right.
disk pivoted on a central point to be set going by the hand, as the
workman squatted on the ground; and it may be seen to-day in
India, Ceylon, China or Japan, in all its primitive simplicity (see
fig. 1). This form of potter's wheel was the only one known until
about the Christian era, and then, in Egypt apparently, the improve-
ment was introduced of lengthening the spindle which carries the
throwing-wheel and mounting on it near the base a much larger disk
which the potter could rotate with his foot, and so have both hands
free for the manipulation of the clay (fie. 2). No further advance
seems to have been made before the 17th century, when the wheel
was spun by means of a cord working over a pulley; and though a
steam-driven wheel was introduced in the middle of the 19th century,
this form remains the best for the production of fine pottery.
A prevalent misconception with regard to the potters wheel
needs correction. For anything beyond very simple shapes it is
impossible to carry the work to completion on the wheel at one
operation as is generally imagined. All that the potter can do while
the clay is soft enough to " throw " on the wheel is to get a rough
shape of even thickness. This operation completed, the piece is
removed from the wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about
leather-hard, it may be re-centred carefully on the wheel (the old
practice), or placed in a horizontal lathe (since 16th century) and
turned down to the exact shape and polished to an even, smooth
surface. The Greek vase-makers were already adepts in what is
often reckoned a modern, detestable practice. Many Greek vases
have obviously been " thrown " in separate sections, and when these
had contracted and hardened sufficiently they were luted together
with slip, and the final vase-shape was smoothed and turned down
on the wheel, and even polished to as fine a degree of mechanical
finish as the modern potter ever attains. So too with the Chinese ;
many of their forms have been made in two or three portions, subse-
?uently joined together and finished on the outside as one piece,
ndeed, it is remarkable how the Greeks and Chinese had discovered
for themselves many devices of this kind which are generally held
up to opprobrium as the debased methods of a mechanical age.
Always it should be borne in mind that the shaping of pottery by
" pressing " cakes of clay into moulds is much older tnan the potter s
wheel, and has always been the method of making shapes other than
those in the round. The modern method of " casting " pottery by
pouring slip, a fluid mixture of clay and water, into absorbent moulds
seems to have originated in England about the middle of the 18th
century; and this too is a genuine potter's method which does not
merit the disapproval with which it has been generally regarded
by writers on the potter's art.
In all ages the work of the " thrower " or " presser " has been
largely supplemented by the modeller, who alters the shape,* and
applies to it handles, spouts or modelled accessories at will.
Firing. — The firing of pottery has become in modern times such a
specialized branch of the manufacture that the student can only be
referred here to the technological works mentioned in the biblio-
graphy at the end of this
article. It is, however,
necessary that we should
briefly describe the earlier
forms of potters' kilns
used by the nations whose
pottery counts among the
treasures of the collector
and the antiquary. Here
again we now know that
the primitive types of kiln
used by the potters of
ancient Egypt or Greece
have not vanished from
the earth; it is only in
the civilized countries of
the modern world that
they have been replaced
by improved and perfected
devices. The potters of
the North- West Provinces
of India use to-day a kiln
practically identical with
that depicted in severest
silhouette on the rock-
tombs of Thebes; and the
skilful Japanese remain
content with a kiln very
similar to tjie one shown
in fig. 3. This Greek type
of kiln was improved and Fig. 3.— Early Greek pottery-kiln,
enlarged by the Romans, about 700-600 B.C. (from a painted
and its use seems to have votive tablet found at Corinth, how in
been introduced wherever the Louvre). The section shows the
pottery was made under probable construction of the kiln,
their sway, for remains of
Roman kilns have been found in many countries (see fig. 4). With the
end of Roman dominance we have ample evidence that their technical
methods fell into disuse, and the northern European potter of the
period from the 6th to the 12th century had to build up his methods
Fig. 4. — Roman kiln found at Castor. The low arch is for the
insertion of the fuel; the pots rested on the perforated floor, made
of clay slabs; the top of the kiln is missing, — it was probably a
dome.
afresh, and improved kilns were invented. The general type of
medieval potter's kiln is illustrated for us in the manuscript of an
Italian potter of the 16th century, now in the library of the Victoria
and Albert Museum l (fig. 5). Kilns of a different type, horizontal
reverberatory kilns, were used for making the hard-nred pottery of
1 I tre libri delV Arte del Vasajo, by Cipriano Picco!passo of Castel
Durante, a.d. 1548.
V. 23
706
CERAMICS
[GENERAL
Europe (Rhenish stoneware, &c), as well as for Chinese porcelain
and the earliest German porcelains. With the organization of pottery
as a factory industry in the 18th century, improved kilns were intro-
duced, and the type of kiln now so largely used in civilized countries
is practically a vertical reverberatory furnace of circular section,
from 10 to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, there-
fore, of containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would
have formed the output of a medieval potter for a year. Every
device that can be thought of for the better utilization of heat and
Fig. 5. — Two forms of Italian potter's wheels, about 1540.
its even distribution throughout the kiln or oven has been experi-
mented with; and, though the results have been most successful
from the point of view of the potter, even the most recent coal-fired
ovens remain very wasteful types of apparatus, the amount of
available heat being relatively small to the fuel consumption. Gas-
fired kilns and ovens are now being used or experimented with in
every country, and their perfection, which cannot be far distant,
will improve the most vital of the potter's processes both in certainty
and economy.
Glazes. — We are never likely to known when glaze (ix. a coating of
fired class) was first applied to pottery, though the present state of
knowledge would incline us to the opinion that the earliest glazed
objects we possess are those of ancient Eeypt, 1 but the practice
may have been originated independently wherever a knowledge of
the elements of glass-making had spread, as all the early glazes
were of the alkaline type, which must first be fused into a glass
before they can be applied to pottery.
Many primitive races seem to have burnished their pottery after
it was fired, in order to get a glossy surface ; and in otner cases the
surface was rendered shining and waterproof by coating it with
waxy or resinous substances which were often coloured. It is
possible that the black varnish of Greek vases was obtained by such
a method, and though that point is not settled, we have many types
of primitive pottery, both modern and ancient, which are coated in
this way. Such a coating is only a substitute for glaze in the work of
peoples who do not know or have not mastered the technical secrets
of true glazes. We can only consider as glazes those definite super-
ficial layers of molten material which have been fired on the clay
substance. Glazes are as varied as the various kinds of pottery,
and it must never be forgotten that each kind of pottery is at its
best with its appropriate glaze. The earliest known glazes (Egyptian
and Assyrian) were silicates of soda and lime containing very little
alumina and no lead. Such glazes are very uncertain in use, and
can only be applied to pottery unusually rich in silica (i.e. deficient
in clay). Consequently these alkaline glazes cannot be used on
ordinary clay wares, and when they have been used successfully, the
clay has always been coated with a surface layer of highly siliceous
substance (e.g. the so-called Persian, Rhodian, Syrian and Egyptian
pottery of the early middle ages). The fact that glazes containing
lead-oxide would adhere to ordinary pottery when alkaline glazes
would not was discovered at a very early period; for lead glazes
were extensively used in Egypt and the nearer East in Ptolemaic
times, and it is significant that, though the Romans made singularly
little use of glazes of any kind, the pottery that succeeded theirs,
either in western Europe or in the Byzantine empire, was generally
covered with glazes ricn in lead. Throughout Europe, and over the
greater part of the world, leaded glazes have been continuously used
and improved for all ordinary pottery, and it is only with certain
special nard-fired types of ware that they have yet been successfully
replaced. Chinese porcelain and all the European porcelains made
by analogous methods are fired at so high a temperature that a glaze
by felspar softened by lime and silica is found most suitable for them,
and the hard-fired stonewares, rich in silica, are often glazed with a
salt glaze, or a melted earth rich in oxide of iron.
Every kind of potter's clay (the mixture of clay, sand, flint, &c,
from which the potter shapes his wares) has its own type of glaze,
and from the earliest time down to our own what the potter could
groduce in form or glaze or colour has been largely decided for him
y the clay material at his command. With any good plastic clay
1 The earliest glazed objects found in Egyptian tombs (once
dignified by the name of Egyptian porcelain) are hardly to be called
pottery at all, though we have no other name for them. The
material is largely sand held together by a little clay and glass.
which cannot be fired at the highest temperature, lead glazes have
always proved the most practicable. A similar clay, to which large
quantities of sand are added, may be glazed by the vapours of
common salt ; and mixtures rich in felspar, like Chinese or European
porcelain, can be glazed by melting fefspathic materials upon them.
Naturally those species of pottery which are the hardest fired are the
most durable — the glazes of hard porcelain are more unchangeable
than lead glazes, and these in their turn than alkaline glazes.
The most important types of glaze are (1) alkaline glazes (e.g.
Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, &c), the oldest and most uncertain;
(2) lead glazes, the most widespread in use and the best for all
ordinary purposes; (3) felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired
porcelains, generally unsuited to any other material ; (4) salt glaze,
produced by vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stonewares.
Many intermediate glazes have been devised to meet special needs,
but these remain the only important groups. Fuller details on this
important subject must be sought m the technical works.
Colours. — The primitive potters of ancient and modern times
have all striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest,
and therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in
natural earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition
that they fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream,
buff, red, brown, or even to a bronze which is almost black. One
clay daubed or painted upon another formed the primitive palette
of the potter, especially before the invention of glaze. When glaze
was used these natural clays were changed in tint, and native earths,
other than clays, containing iron, manganese and cobalt, were
gradually discovered and used. It is also surprising to note that some
of the very earliest glazes were coloured glasses containing copper or
iron (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes of the ancient Egyptians
and Assyrians) . Marvellous work was wrought in these few materials,
but the era of the finest pottery-colour dawns with the Persian,
Syrian and Egyptian work that preceded the Crusades. By this time
the art of glazing pottery with a clear soda-lime glaze had been
thoroughly learnt. Vases, tiles, &c, shaped in good elastic clay,
were covered with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive
glazes of this type, and giving the best possible ground for the painted
colours then known. With this rudimentary technique the potters
of the countries south and east of the Mediterranean produced,
between the <)th and 16th centuries of our era, a type of pottery
that remains ideal from the point of view of colour : for, with nothing
more than the greens given by oxide of copper and iron, the turquoise
of pure copper, the deep yet vivid blue ot cobalt, the beautiful un-
certain purple of manganese, and in certain districts the rich red of
Armenian bole, they achieved colour schemes that have never been
surpassed in their brilliant yet harmonious richness.
When the coating of white # siliceous clay was replaced by an
opaque tin-enamel as in Spain, Italy, France, Holland, &c, a
necessary change in the colour schemes resulted. At first only the
copper-greens and cobalt-blues could be used on such a ground;
the fine manganese purple turned to brown or black and the rich
iron-reds to filthy shades of yellow. We cannot wonder that the
Spanish- Arab potters paid more attention to their lustre decoration,
for that was the natural thing to do. How strong and fine a palette
could be evolved for use on a tin-enamel ground was shown by the
Italian majolists of the 15th and 1 6th centuries; and when the
later developments of tin-enamelled pottery took place in France.
Holland, Germany, &c. their colour schemes are only echoes of
Italian majolica crossed with Chinese porcelain. Delft, Nevers,
Moustiers and Rouen may each charm us with its individuality;
Nuremberg and other south German towns may show us that they
too had mastered the use of tin-enamel; yet our minds always go
back to the colour schemes of Italian majolica and of the Persian and
Syrian pottery that lie behind and beyond them.
The colours already spoken of were either clay colours or what are
known as 4< under glaze colours, because they were painted on the
pottery before the glaze was fired.
The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have been
white, but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of
coloured glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along
with the painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and
Persian potters. Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the
only artistic productions of the medieval European potters' kilns,
and their use everywhere preceded the introduction of painted
pottery. The most extensive application of coloured glazes was,
nowever, that made by the Chinese, who developed this type of
colour decoration before they used painted patterns in underglaze
colour. The earliest Chinese porcelains, and the hard-fired stone-
wares out of which their porcelain arose, were decorated in this way,
and the beauty of many of the early Sung coloured glazes has never
been surpassed.
With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese
porcelain very few underglaze colours could 6e used; and the
prevalence of blue and white among the early specimens of Chinese
porcelains is due to the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance
Known to the potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the
high temperature needed to melt tneir glazes. Consequently the
Chinese were driven to invent the method of painting in coloured
fusible glasses on the already fired glaze. They adopted for this
purpose the coloured enamels used on metal; hence the common
PRIMITIVE]
CERAMICS
707-
term " enamel decoration," which is so generally applied to painting
in those colours which are attached to the already fired glaze by
refiring at a lower temperature. With the introduction of this many-
coloured Chinese porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly
followed by our European potters, and a new palette of colours and
fresh styles of decoration soon arose amongst us. Painting in on-
glaze colours, being executed on the fired glaze, resembles glass
painting, and it generally offers a striking contrast both in technique
and colour-quality to the painting executed in colours under the
glaze. In the former the work can be highly finished and the most
mechanical execution is possible, but the colours are neither so rich
nor so brilliant as under-glaze colours, nor have they the same
softness as is given by the slight spread of the under-glaze colour
when the glaze is melted over it.
It must oe pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method
of pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at
which the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally
more limited in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in
their turn than the on-glaze colours.
When, about the middle of the 18th century, European pottery
took on its modern form, of earthenware made after the English
fashion, and porcelain like the French and German, the lead or
felspathic glazes used brought about another revolution in the
potter's palette. The growing ideal of mechanical perfection dis-
counted the freedom of the earlier brushwork, and printed patterns,
or painting that might almost have been printed, removed the mind
still farther from the richness of painted faience or majolica. It is
useless to look for the glorious colour of Persian faience, Italian
majolica, or Chinese porcelain, in modern wares produced by manu-
facturing processes where mechanical perfection is demanded to a
degree undreamt of before the 19th century. The finest modern
pottery colour is only to be sought in the work of those enthusiasts
and experimenters wjho are striving to produce work as rich and free
as the Dest of past times.
Metals. — The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver,
have, since the early years of the 18th century, been largely used as
adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white earthen-
wares and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the gold was
applied with a kind of japanner's size and was not fired to the glaze,
but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally been
fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing the
metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass. There
can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia, Syria and
Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their decorative
effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been. The
early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to
have been " sized ' or water-gilt, not fired ; and it seems probable
that the use of " fired " gold was taught to the Oriental by the
European in the 18th century. To-day " liquid " gold is exported
to China and Japan from Europe for the use of the potter.
Primitive Pottery
We can group together that great and widely-spread class of
vessels made by the primitive races of mankind, whether before
the dawn of civilization or at the present day, for it is interesting
to note that many modem races still make pottery by the same
rude method as the Neolithic races of Europe and Asia, and with
striking similarity of result. In fact, the knowledge of the methods
and practices of the primitive potters of our own time furnishes
the best possible guide to the methods of fabrication and orna-
mentation of the ancient specimens that are dug up from barrows,
grave mounds, and tumuli. It is only natural that the materials
and methods of such pottery are always of the simplest. The clay
is used with very little preparation, and it is no unusual thing to
find bits of stone, gravel, &c, embedded in the paste of such
wares, though at a later stage of development they would have
been removed. It must be remarked, however, that no race of
potters practised the art for long without discovering that their
vessels were not so liable to crack in drying, or lose their shape in
firing, if fine sand or pounded " potsherds " were mixed with the
clay; and when we are dealing with the work of races that have
passed beyond the Stone Age and have learned the use of metals
we find this custom universal.
There are three methods of shaping which seem to be common
to almost every primitive race: —
1. The scooping out of a vessel from a ball of clay.
2. The building up of a form, often on a piece of basket-work or
matting, gradually raising the walls higher by applying and
smoothing down successive layers of clay.
3. Coiling; in which the clay is rolled out into thin ropes, and
these are coiled round and round upon each other and
smoothed down with the hands and with simple tools of bone,
wood or metal.
The use of the potter's wheel is unknown, while it is remarkable
how beautifully true and finely-fashioned much primitive pottery
is. The primitive red and black vases discovered by Flinders
Petrie in Egypt, and the somewhat similar vessels of prehistoric
date from Spain, are remarkable instances of this. Some primi-
tive races leave their pottery without decoration, especially
when they have a fine red-burning clay to work in, but, generally
speaking, primitive pottery of every race and time is elaborately
decorated, but only with the simplest patterns. Such decora-
tions consist of lines, dots or lunette-shaped depressions arranged
in crosses, chevrons, zigzags or all-over repeated pattern. AH
this ornament is scratched or impressed into the clay before it
is fired. Simplest of all is, perhaps, the pattern which has so
obviously been produced by pressing a twisted thong round the
neck or bowl of a vase; though the thong may have been used in
the first instance merely to serve as a support while the vessel was
dried. At a later stage the ornament is generally obtained by
scratching with a tool, by pressing the end of a hollow stick into
the clay to form rows of circles, by using a stick cut at the end
into the shape of a half -moon, or other equally simple decorative
device. In certain tropical countries this rudimentary pottery
becomes hard enough for a certain amount of use when merely
dried in the sun, but in all northern and temperate countries
it must have been fired, probably in the most imperfect way, in an
open fire or in such a kiln as could be formed by sinking a hole into
the ground and erecting round it a screen of stones. How imper-
fect the firing was is shown by the ashen-grey colour due to smoke.
In those countries where the ware has been more perfectly fired
the pieces naturally become buff, drab, brown or red.
The primitive vessels that have been found in the grave-
mounds of England and the northern countries generally have
received a number of fanciful names for which there is very little
warrant except in the case of the cinerary urns. These are
generally the largest vessels of this class, and as they were used
to contain burnt bones there seems sufficient warrant for the sup-
position that they were made for this and for no other purpose.
Our knowledge of primitive pottery has been greatly improved
during recent years by the labours of a number of American
students connected with the United States Geological Survey,
who have carefully recorded the present-day practices of those
native tribes who make and use pottery in various parts of North ,
America and Mexico; while, in the same way, Peruvian, Bra-
zilian and other South American pottery has been as closely
investigated by European observers. It should be noted that no
primitive pottery reveals any trace of a knowledge of glaze,
though much of it has been highly polished after firing, and in
some cases a varnish has been applied which may perhaps be
regarded as the earliest kind of " glazing " ever applied to pottery
vessels.
Literature. — On primitive pottery the following works may be
specially mentioned. W. Greenwell, British Barrows (1877); Boyd-
Dawkins, Early Man in Britain (1880); Mortimer, Forty Years'
Researches in British and Saxon Burial-mounds of East Yorkshire
(1905) ; Abercromby, " The Oldest Bronze-age Ceramic Type in
Britain," /. Anth. Inst. vol. xxxii. (1902), 373; Guide to Antiquities
of the Bronze Age (British Museum, 1 004); Koenen, Gefdsskunde
der vorromischen, romischen und frankischen Zeit in den Rheinlandern
(189^); Wosinsky, Der inkrustierte Keramik der Stein- und Bronze-
zeit (1904) ; Walters, History of Ancient Pottery (Greek and Roman)
(1905); Holmes, Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States
(Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1899) » a k° Holmes and Cush-
ing in Report of Bureau of Ethnology for 1882; W r iener, Perou et
Bolivie (1880); Von der Steinen, Natur-Volkerei Central Brasiliens
(1894); Hart man, Archaeological Researches in Costa Rica (1905);
Strebel, on " Mexican Pottery " in Publications of Museum fur
Valkerkunde (Berlin, vol. 6, 1899); Werner, British Central Africa
(1007); FUllborn, Deutsche Ost-Afrika, vol. ix. (1907); Macluer,
41 Kabyle Pottery," Journ. Anth. Inst. vol. xxxii. p. 245, and " Upper
Egypt," ibid. xxxv. p. 20; Myres, " Early Pottery Fabrics of Asia
Minor," Jburn. Anth. Inst, xxxiii. p. 367; Turveren Museum, Notes
analytiques sur les collections ethnographiques du Congo, tome ii. (1907) ;
Cupart, Dibuts de Vart de Vancienne Egypte (1903)- (W. B.*)
Egypt and Western Asia
Egyptian Pottery. — Egypt affords us the most striking instance
of the development of the potter's art. As in other countries
708
CERAMICS
[EGYPT
pottery was made even in Neolithic times, for die Nile mud forms
a fine plastic clay and sand is of course abundant. With these
materials various kinds of pottery, often extremely well made
and of good form, have been continuously produced for common
domestic requirements, but such pottery was never glazed.
The wonderful glazes of the Egyptians were applied to a
special preparation which can hardly be called pottery at all,
it contained so little clay. Yet as early as the 1st Dynasty
the Egyptians had learnt to shape little objects in this tender
material and cover them with their wonderful turquoise glazes.
We have therefore to study the development of two independent
things: (i) the ordinary pottery of common clay left without
glaze; (2) the brilliant glazed faience which appears to be special
to Egypt, though it may have been the groundwork for the
technique of the slip-faced painted and glazed pottery of the
nearer East.
We probably do not possess any specimens of the most
primitive Neolithic pottery; the oldest type known to us, the
black and red ware of Ballas and Nagada (1), dates from the later
Neolithic age, when copper was just beginning to be used. This
ware is very hard and compact and the face is highly burnished.
The red colour was produced by a wash of fine red clay; the
black is an oxide of iron obtained by limiting the access of air
in the process of baking, which was done, Professor Petrie
suggests, by placing the pot's mouth down in the kiln, and
leaving the ashes over the part which was to be burnt black.
Both red and black colour go right through in every case. All-red
and ail-black vases are occasionally found, the red with geo-
metrical decorations in white colour, and the black with incised
decoration. The forms are usually very simple, but at the same
time graceful, and the grace of form is more remarkable when it
is remembered that none of this early pottery was made on the
wheel. Pottery of almost similar technique was found in Crete
in 1905 during the American excavations at Vasiliki near Hiera-
petra. The general appearance of the Cretan pottery is much
the same as that of the Egyptian, and the duller red and black
decoration (which here has a spotted or mottled appearance) was
probably obtained in the same way, the black spots being due to
the action of separate fragments of the baking material. This
discovery is important in view of the probable early connexion
of the Cretan and Egyptian culture-centres.
A very similar red and black ware, usually of thinner and
harder make, and often with a brighter surface, was introduced
into Egypt at a later date (Xllth Dynasty), probably by Nubian
tribes who were descended from relatives of the Neolithic
Egyptians. From their characteristic graves these people are
called the Pan-Grave people, and their pottery is known by the
same name.
Perhaps rather later in date than the early red and black wares,
but by no means certainly so, the second characteristic type of
primeval Egyptian pottery is a ware of buff colour with surface
decorations in red. These decorations are varied in character,
including ships, birds and human figures; wavy lines and
geometrical designs commonly occur. The whole facies of this
ware seems very un-Egyptian, and it has been compared with
the decorated " Kabyle pottery " of modern times. To call the
people who made this ware " Libyans " on the strength of this
resemblance of their pottery to that of the modern Kabyles, six
thousand years later, seems, however, rash. The prehistoric
Egyptians were not Kabyles or Libyans, but Nilotes, and the
peculiar decoration of their pottery, which seems so strangely
barbaric, is in reality merely the most ancient handiwork of the
Egyptian painter, and marks the first stage in the development
of pictorial art on the banks of the Nile (2). Other types of
pottery (3), in colour chiefly buff or brown, were also in use at
this period; the most noticeable form is a cylindrical vase with
a wavy or rope band round it just below the lip, which developed
out of a necked vase with a wavy handle on either side. This
cylindrical type outlived the red and black and the red and buff
decorated styles (which are purely Neolithic and predynastic)
and continued in use in the early dynastic period, well into
the Copper age. The other unglazed pottery of the first three
dynasties is not very remarkable for beauty of form or colour,
and is indeed of the roughest description (4), but under the
IVth Dynasty we find beautiful wheel-made bowls, vases and
vase-stands of a fine red polished ware (4). This fine ware con-
tinued in use at least as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty, though
the forms of course differed from age to age. Under the Xllth
Dynasty, and during the Middle Kingdom generally, either this
or a coarser unpolished red ware was in use. The forms of this
period are very characteristic (5) ; the vases are usually footless,
and have a peculiar globular or drop-like shape — some small
ones seem almost spherical. At this period the foreign " Pan-
Grave " black and red pottery was also in use (see above).
The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy
body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been
known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period
immediately preceding the 1st Dynasty (4000 B.C.). Under
the Xllth Dynasty pottery made of this characteristic Egyptian
faience seems to have come into general use, and it continued
in use down to the days of the Romans, and is the ancestor of the
glazed wares of the Arabs and their modern successors (6).
The oldest Egyptian glazed ware is found usually in the shape
of beads, plaques, &c. — rarely in the form of pottery vessels.
The colour is usually a light blue, which may turn either white
or green; but beads of the grey-black manganese colour are
found, and on the light blue vases of King Aha (who is probably
one of the historical originals of the legendary " Mena " or
Menes) in the British Museum (No. 38,010) we have the king's
name traced in the manganese glaze on (or rather in) the blue-
white glaze of the vase itself, for the second glaze is inlaid. This
style of decoration in manganese black or purple on copper-blue
continued till the end of the " New Empire " shortly before the
XXVTth (Saite) Dynasty. It was not usual actually to inlay the
decoration before the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The light
blue glaze was used welt into the time of the Xllth Dynasty
(British Museum, No. 36,346), but was then displaced by a new
tint, a brilliant turquoise blue, on which the black decoration .
shows up in sharper contrast than before. This blue, and a
somewhat duller, greyer or greener tint was used at the time
for small figures, beads and vases, as well as for the glaze of
scarabs, which, however, were usually of stone-schist or steatite
— not faience. The characteristically Egyptian technique of
glazed stone begins about this period, and not only steatite or
schisfwas employed (on account of its softness), but a remarkably
brilliant effect was obtained by glazing hard shining white
quartzite with the wonderfully delicate Xllth Dynasty blue.
A fragment of a statuette plinth of this beautiful material was
obtained during the excavation of the Xlth Dynasty temple at
Deir el-Bahri in 1904 (British Museum, No. 40,948). Vessels of
diorite and other hard stones are also found coated with the blue
glaze. A good specimen of the finest Xllth Dynasty blue-
glazed faience is the small vase of King Senwosri I. (2400 B.C.)
in the Cairo Museum (No. 3666) (6). The blue-glazed hippopo-
tami of this period, with the reeds and water-plants in purplish
black upon their bodies to indicate their habitat, are well known.
Fine specimens of these are in the collection of the Rev. Wm.
MacGregor at Tamworth (8).
The blue glaze of the Xllth Dynasty deepened in colour under
the Xlllth, to which the fine blue bowls with designs (in the
manganese black) of fish and lotus plants belong (8) (British
Museum, Nos. 4700, &c). The finest specimens of XVTIIth
Dynasty blue ware have come from Deir el-Bahri, in the
neighbourhood of which place there may have been a factory
for the manufacture of votive bowls, cups, beads, &c., of this
fine faience, for dedication by pilgrims in the temple of Hathor
(good collection in British Museum). Towards the end of this
dynasty polychrome glazes came into fashion; white, light and
dark blue, violet, purple, red, bright yellow, apple-green and other
tints were used, not only for smaller objects of faience, such as
rings, scarabs, kohl-pots, &c, but also for vases, e.g. No. 3965 of
the Cairo Museum(Amenophis III. wine-bottle) , the ground colour
of which is white with a decoration of flower wreaths in blue,
yellow and red, with an inscription in delicate blue (6). This
E0YPT1
CERAMICS
7<*>
polychrome faience was also now used lor the ushahti figures
which were placed, in the tombs; hitherto they had been made
exclusively of stone or wood, never of glazed stone or pottery;
henceforward they were made exclusively of faience, but the
polychrome glazes (e.g. British Museum, Nos. 34,180, 34,185)
were soon abandoned, and the plain blue and black of the
ordinary vases was adopted. ITie ushabtis of Kir\g Seti I.
(British Museum, No. 22,81$, &c.) (9) are fine specimens of this
type. Under the XXth Dynasty the blue paled and became
weak in quality, but the priest-king family of the XXIst used
for their ushabtis a most brilliant blue glaze, an extraordinary
colour which at once distinguishes the faience of this period
from that of all others (9). The same brilliant glaze was used
for vases of various kinds as well. The polychrome ware had
developed into a style of inlaying with glazed faience, which we
see at Tel el-Amarna under the XVIIIth Dynasty (1400 B.C.)
(10), and at Tel ekYahudlya under the XXth (1200 bjc),
used for wall decoration. After this time polychrome ceramic
decoration seems to have died out in Egypt, but was retained
in Asia (see below).
The technical skill of the New Empire potters is shown by
such a remarkable object as the gigantic l/<w-sceptre of blue
glazed faience, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (12, 3).
This is the largest known piece of Egyptian glazed faience;
really laige vases of faience are not found. Faience vases were
very commonly built up or carved out of a ball of the dried
material, perhaps held together by some mucilaginous substance
— it seems impossible that such a substance could ever have been
fashioned on the wheel. Sometimes even small vases were made
of separately moulded pieces united by a glassy material (6).
Under the XXIInd Dynasty small glazed vases with figures of
deities or animals in relief became common; these were made in
moulds (6) . In the matter of form the faience pottery of the
New Empire follows the lead of the new earthenware types.
Forms had altered considerably from those of the Xllth Dynasty.
In place of the simple flowing lines of that period, we now find
egg-shaped bodies with cylindrical necks, with or without
handles; great amphorae with almost pointed bases, sometimes
with the handles perched upon the shoulders of the vase; flat-
tipped, squat jugs; little handleless vases somewhat resembling
the modern bulla, " mil mehrfach eingezogenem BauchV (V.B.),
and the common flat flask-like type known as the " pilgrim
bottle" (6, 18, 14, 16).
Owing to the extended foreign relations of Egypt at this time,
imported vases from Greece and Asia, including Mycenaean
Biigelkannen and Cypriote black " base ring " jugs, have been
found in the tombs and deposits of this age (14). Imitations of
foreign forms, especially the Biigelkannen, are found 1 chiefly in
faience (British Museum, 22,731, is an imitation of a Minoan jug
from Crete). The faience forms of
the XVIIIth and XXIInd Dynasties
include also the kulla shape, the
pilgrim bottle, miniature amphorae,
&c. (see fig. 6), and miscellaneous
forms not found in common pottery,
imitating metal and stone vases, e.g.
the blue-green ribbed pots of the
XXIInd Dynasty, imitating bronze
originals, and the alabastron of the XVIIIth; these last go
back to the Xllth Dynasty. Very pretty cups in the shape of
lotus flowers (see fig. 7) are to be seen in most museums; they are
of the XlXth Dynasty, and mostly came from Tuna (6, 8).
The continuance of the old red polished ware of the IVth
Dynasty during the Middle Kingdom to the time of the XVIIIth
1 Foreien pottery had been imported into Egypt at least as early
a9 the Xllth Dynasty, e.g. the Cretan polychrome ware of the
Middle Minoan period (Kamares style) found at Medinet Ghuraib
(" Kahun ") and the Cypriote (?) i( punctuated " black ware from
the same site, and from Khata'anah (17). The date between the
Xllth and XHIth Dynasties is certain (14), but the Middle Kingdom
Egyptians do not seem to have imitated these earlier foreign forms.
British Museum, No. 17,046, is, however, probably an instance of an
Egyptian idea imitated! by the foreign potter (17).
Fig. 6. — Egyptian pottery
made of fine blue paste.
Fig. 7. — Egyptian blue-glazed pottery.
-Dynasty has already been mentioned* Characteristic of the latter :
period of this ware are long jugs with attenuated body and single.,
•handle, which, because they, have been found with Mycenaean
objects in Cyprus, have
been considered tp be {0 ■ f 1
of foreign, probably of ? 1 i ^^H *
Syrian origin. They
may, however, be Egyp-
tian. Vases of the same
ware in the shape of men
and animals are not un
common (17). Another
ware of this period has a highly polished yellow face, some-
times becoming ruddy, and passing off into a pinkish red; in
this ware the pilgrim bottles are common. An unpolished,
brittle, and thin yellow ware was also used largely for wine-
vases. The rougher, commoner red and brown ware at this
period became decorated with designs, chiefly of lily wreaths,
&c», in paint of various colours (13). This new development hid
the ugly colour of the common pottery and was a cheaply
obtained imitation of the expensive, polychrome glazed ware of
the period (see fig. 8). This painted pottery continued in use
until about the time of the XXIInd Dynasty. From this time
onwards, till the Ptolemaic period, the commonest pottery was a
red ware, usually covered with a white slip. Under the XXVIth
Dynasty a finer homogeneous white ware occurs, usually for
vases with a rude representation of the face of the god Bes on their
bodies.
The XX VTth Dynasty marks a new period of development in
the history of Egyptian faience. The old deep blue colour had
gradually deteriorated into an ugly green (British Museum,
No. 8962), which was replaced by the Saite potters with a new
light blue of very delicate tint, imitated, in accordance with the
archaistic spirit of the time, from the old light blue of the earliest
Dynasties. The glaze itself is very thin and " sugary " in
texture, The old decoration of the blue with designs and in-
scriptions in manganese-black is abandoned; on the ushabtis the
i nscriptions are now incised . Side
by side with this light blue glaze
was used an unglazed faience, a
sort of composition paste with the
colour going right through. 2 It
has more variety of colour than
the glazed faience, light green and
a dark indigo blue being found as
well as the Saite light blue. Some-
times it is of a very soft, almost
chalky consistency. It was used
for vases, but more generally for ^ SI^
small figures and scarabs (6). The
commonest vase-form of this period is the pilgrim bottle, now'
made with the neck in the form of a lily flower, and with inscrip-
tions on the sides wishing good luck in the New Year to the.
possessor. These flasks appear to have been common New
Year's gifts.
Under the Sebennyte kings of the XXXth Dynasty a further
new development of glaze began, of a more radical character than
ever before. The colour deepened, and the glaze itself became
much more glassy, and was thickly laid on. The new glaze was
partly translucent, and differed very greatly from the old opaque
glaze. It first appeared on ushabtis at the end of the Saite period.
A curious effect was obtained by glazing the head-dress, the
inscription &c; of the ushabtis in dark blue, and then covering
the whole with translucent light blue glaze. This method was
regularly used during the succeeding Ptolemaic and Roman
periods, when the new style of glaze came into general use. A '
yellowish green effect was obtained by glazing parts of the body
of the vases in yellow and covering this with the translucent blue
glaze. This method was used to touch up the salient portions of
* Some of these figures appear to have been made with a mixture
of sand, clay and coloured glass which produced a real glassy porce-
lain — the earliest porcelain of which we have any record.
Fig, 8. — Egyptian pottery
with painted ornament and,
yio
CERAMICS
[WESTERN ASIA
the designs in relief, imitated from foreign originals, a style
which now became usual on vases. The usual decoration is
mixed Egyptian and classical, the latter generally predominating.
A large range of colours was employed; purple, dark blue, bhie-
green, grass-green, and yellow glazes all being found. The glaze
is very thickly laid on, and is often " crazed " (6, 8). A remark-
able instance of this Romano-Egyptian faience is the head of the
god Bes in the British Museum (No. 3 5 ,028) . A hard, light blue,
opaque glaze like that of the XXVIth Dynasty is occasionally,
but rarely, met with in the case of vases (British Museum,
Nos. 37,407, 37,4o8).
We know something of the common wares in use during this
period from the study of the ostraka, fragments of pottery on
which dated tax-receipts, notes, and so forth were written.
From the ostraka we see that during the Ptolemaic period the
commonest pottery was made of red ware covered with white
slip, which has already been mentioned. At the beginning of the
Roman period we find at Elephantine a peculiar light pink ware
with a brownish pink face, and elsewhere a smooth dark brown
ware. About the 3rd century a.d. horizontally ribbed or fluted
pots, usually of a coarse brown ware, came into general use.
These were often large-sized amphorae, with very attenuated
necks and long handles (see fig. 9). During the Byzantine
(Coptic) period most of the pottery in use was ribbed, and usually
pitched inside to hold water, as
the ware was loose in texture and
porous.
During the Coptic period, a
lighter ware was also in use, decor-
ated with designs of various kinds
in white, brown or red paint on
the dull red or buff body. In
Nubia a peculiar development of
this ware is characteristic of the
later period (Brit. Mus. No. 30,712).
A polished red ware of Roman
origin (imitation Arretine or
Samian ") was commonly used as
well.
Fig. 9.— Egyptian pottery The heavily glazed blue faience
under the Ptolemies, show- continued & USG until rep laced in
mg Greek influence in the ^"*- 111 ** cu *» «*° uuui i^u li±
shapes. tne early Arab period by the well-
known yellow and brown lead-
glazed pottery, of which fragments are found in the mounds
of Fostat (Old Cairo).
Western Asia.— -Palestine. The most ancient Palestinian
pottery is the rough " Amorite " ware from Lachish (Tel el-Hesi)
which sometimes has wavy handles like the prehistoric Egyptian
(18). Later we find actual Mycenaean pottery in Philistia (19),
an interesting testimony to the truth of the legend which brings
the Philistines from Crete; the fourth and fifth cities of Lachish
(1200-1000 B.C.) show us the first ordinary Phoenician or Israelite
pottery — buff or red lamps and bowls, the latter with the handles
sometimes painted in bistre, and vases showing strong Egyptian
influence; while pottery from Cyprus and elsewhere is found
as in Egypt.
The only remarkable later development of Palestinian pottery
is the Phoenician imitation of Egyptian faience of the Saite
period, of which the characteristics are well known. Some of
this may actually have been made in Egypt.
The course of the potter's art in Mesopotamia and Persia
appears to have run on lines of development parallel with the
art in Egypt, for the country between the Tigris and the
Euphrates is rich in good clays, and, wherever the invention of
glass arose, its application to pottery decoration was certainly
developed at an early period in Egypt and in Mesopotamia.
Two characteristic uses of clay wares must, however, be pointed
out, though they have nothing to do with vase-making.
1 . The Babylonian and Assyrian use of clay shaped into tablets,
cylinders and prisms, to produce an imperishable record of the
literature of the time. The cylinders and prisms were thrown on
the potter's wheel and are consequently hollow; the circular form
was then sliced down, and the surface was impressed with cuneiform
inscriptions, the prism, tablet or cylinder being subsequently dried
and fired.
2. The architectural use of glazed bricks and slabs. While the
Egyptians remained content for the most part with the application
of their brilliant alkaline glazes to small and delicately-finished
objects, the Babylonians and Assyrians developed an architecture
decorated with glazed and coloured brickwork. The bricks were of
very open texture, and the ornamental pattern or figure subjects
were obtained by a strong outline in dark-coloured clay which
formed a kind of cloison or boundary, the shallow cells between being
filled in with coloured clays — yellow, red or white^-or with coloured
glazes of turquoise, green or blue, yellow and purplish brown. These
glazes are obviously like the Egyptian, but they are more coarsely
prepared and are always full of bubbles and consequently more or
less opaque. Yet the severe simplicity of the method, the splendid
colour effect, strong yet sumptuous, entitles these productions to
a very high rank among all the world's work in clay and glaze.
The Frieze of the Archers " now in the Louvre may be mentioned
as one of the finest productions of its kind, and the Louvre and
British Museum possess the finest collections of this early architec-
tural use of glazed and coloured clay. (See also Mural Decoration. )
Coming to ordinary pottery we find that in early times well-
formed vases made of good clay, unglazed and unpainted, were
made. Small figures of deities made of the same clay are often
found. It is practically the same terra-cotta as that of the
inscribed tablets. None of the forms are particularly distinctive
(see fig. 10). The excavations of the French in Persia have
Fig. 10. — Assyrian biscuit pottery.
brought to light at Moussian in Susiana an extremely interesting
painted ware, which belongs to a very early period The decora-
tion is usually geometrical. The technique seems to be analogous
to the Mycenaean-Greek (Firnismalerei), and the whole effect
is very like that of the Greek, Late Mycenaean or Dipylon
pottery. The ware is buff in colour and fine in texture, with a.
polished surface. The decoration is sometimes in polychrome,
but usually in the grey-brown iron-glaze (?) alone. This pottery
degenerates later and finally disappears (20).
During the Sargonide period in Assyria (7th century B.C.) we
find a polychrome faience (colours usually white and brown)
obviously of Egyptian origin. It was used, not for vases, but,
architectonically for friezes, ornamental bosses, &c. Its origin
may be found in Egypt under the XVIIIth Dynasty, when
Egyptian influence extended to the Tigris, and Babylonia had
regular diplomatic relations with Egypt. In Asia this polychrome
decoration in glazes continued to be used long after it had ceased
Fig. 11. — Assyrian glazed and enamelled pottery.
to be made in the country of its origin; the enamelled brick
decoration of Persepolis is the descendant of the glazed inlay
decorations of Tel el-Amarna, Tel el-Yahudiya and Kuyunjik.
In the Sargonide period blue glazed vases occur (see 'fig. 11)
which are probably of Egyptian origin or are Phoenician imita-
tions of Egyptian faience.
Characteristic of the Parthian period is a coarse green glazed
pottery of which the slipper-shaped coffins of the time were made
GREEK]
CERAMICS
711
(British Museum, Nos. 1645-1647) (21). This glaze possibly con-
tains a small amount of lead; in appearance it is not unlike the
contemporary translucent blue glaze of Egypt. The Egyptian
glaze certainly spread into western Asia, and we find the last
specimens of it in the tiles from the destroyed city of Rhagae
in Persia, which may be as late as the 13th century a.d. The
lead glazes, unknown in Egypt till the late Roman period, may
be of Asiatic origin, though this important point is by no means
clear.
References. — (1) Petrie-Quibell, Ballas and Nagada (date
erroneous); (2) Jacques de Morgan, V Age de la pierre et des mitaux ;
(3) Petrie, Diospolis Parva, frontispiece (also for " sequence-dates "
of pottery); (4) Garstang, Mahasna and Bit Khalldf, pis. xxix.-
xxxii. ; (5) Petrie, IUahdn, pi. xii. (corr. by V. Bissing in (14)) ;
(6) V. Bissing, Catalogue generate du muskede Caire, " Die Fayence-
gefasse"; (7) Petrie, Abydos, ii., frontispiece; (8) Henry Wallis,
Egyptian Ceramic Art (Macgregor Collection); (9) Guide to Third
and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, British Museum, p. 252 if.; (10)
Petrie, Tel-el- Amarna; (11) Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian
Rooms, p. 261 ; (12) Petrie, Nag&da, pi. xxviii. ; (13) Petrie, Iuah&n,
els. xx., xxi.; (14) V. Bissing, Strena Helbipana, p. 20 ff.; (15)
rarstang, El Ardbah, pis. xviii.*xxi., xxviii., xxix.; (16) Hall,
Oldest Civilization of Greece, p. 143 ff. ibid. figs. 29, 30, 69; (17)
Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, pi. viii. ; (18) Petrie,
Tell-el-Hesy, pi. v. ; (19) Welch, Ann. Brit. Sch. Ath. vi. ; (20) de
Morgan, Delegation en Perse, viii. (1905); (21) Brit. Mus.: Guide
to Babylonian and Assyrian Room. (H. R. H.)
Greek, Etruscan and Roman
Greek. Study of Greek Vases. — It is not so many years since
an account of Greek pottery would naturally have followed
chronologically the history of Egyptian pottery with little over-
lapping; but recent discoveries have reversed all such ideas, and,
while up to the end of the 19th century the earliest remains to be
traced on Greek, soil could be assigned at the furthest to the
period 2500-2000 B.C., it is now possible not only to show that at
that period technical processes were highly developed, but even
to trace a continuous development of Greek pottery from the
Neolithic age. This result has been mainly brought about by
Dr Arthur Evans's researches at Cnossus in Crete, but traces of
similar phenomena are not wanting in other parts of Greece.
Whether the race which produced this pottery can strictly be
called Greek may be open to question, but at all events the ware
is the independent product of a people inhabiting in prehistoric
times the region afterwards known as Greece; its connexion with
the pottery of the historic period can now be clearly traced, and
in its advanced technical character and the genuinely artistic
appearance of its decoration even this early ware proclaims
itself as inspired by a similar genius.
The study of Greek vases has thus received an additional
impetus from the light that it throws on the early civilization of
the country, and its value for the student of ethnology. But it
has always appealed strongly to the archaeologist and in some
degree also to the artist or connoisseur, to the former from its
importance as a contribution to the history of Greek art, myth-
ology and antiquities, to the latter from its beauty of form
and decoration. Attention was first redirected to the painted
vases at the end of the 17th century, though for a long time they
served as little more than an adjunct to the cabinet of the amateur
or a pleasing souvenir for the traveller; but even during the
1 8th century it dawned on the minds of students that they were of
more than merely artistic importance, and attention was devoted
to the elucidation of their subjects, and attempts made to arrive
at a chronological classification. Two facts must, however,
be borne in mind: firstly, that down to the middle of the 19th
century the great majority of painted vases had been found only
in Italy; secondly, that these vases were mostly of the later and
more florid styles, which, if artistically advanced, are now known
to represent a decadent phase of Greek art.
From the former cause arose the notion that these vases were
the product not of Greek but of Etruscan artists, and so the
term " Etruscan vase " arose and passed into the languages of
Europe, surviving even at this day in popular speech in spite of
a century of refutation. Meanwhile, the study of the subjects
depicted on the vases passed through the successive stages of
Fig. 12. — Jue from Cyprus of
Oriental style, 10 in. high.
allegorical, historical and mystical interpretation, until a century
and more of painstaking study led to the more rational principles
of modern archaeologists.
Sites and Discoveries. — The sites on which Greek vases have been
found cover the whole area of the Mediterranean and beyond, from
the Crimea to Spain, and from Marseilles to Egypt. By far the great
majority, at all events of the finer specimens, nave been extracted
from the tombs of Vulci and other sites in Etruria; those of the
later period or decadence have been found in large numbers on
various sites in southern Italy, such as Capua, Cumae and Nola in
Campania, Anzi in Lucania, and Ruvo in Apulia. In the western
Mediterranean, Sicily has also been a fruitful field for this pottery,
early varieties being found at Syracuse, later ones at Gela, Girgenti
and elsewhere. Painted vases have also come to light in Sardinia
and in North Africa, especially in the Cyrenaica, where the finds
mostly belong to the 4th century B.C. In Greece proper the most
Efolific site has been Athens, where the finds extend from the
)ipylon vases of the 8th cen-
tury B.C. down to the decadent
productions of the 4th century ;
one group, that of the white
funeral lekythoi, is almost
peculiar to Athens. Next to
this city, Corinth has been
most productive, especially in
pottery of the archaic period
and of local manufacture.
Large quantities of pottery of
all periods have been yielded
by Thebes, Tanagra and other
sites in Boeotia, and remains
of the " Mycenaean " period at
Mycenae, Argos and elsewhere.
But on the whole painted pot-
tery is rare in other parts of
the mainland. Among the
western islands of the archi-
pelago, Aegina and Euboea
have proved fruitful in vases
of all periods; Thera, Melos
and others of the Cyclades are
remarkable for pottery of the
prehistoric period with rudely painted designs; and above all
Crete is now famous for the wondrous series of painted and orna-
mented pottery of pre-Mycenaean date, which can be traced back
even to the Neolithic period, and the discovery of which has entirely
revolutionized the preconceived theories on the appearance of
painted pottery in
Greece. This has been
found in the recent ex-
cavations at Cnossus,
Palaeokastro and else-
where. In Asia Minor
there have been some
important finds on the
mainland, but only
along the coast ; some
of the islands, more
especially Samos and
Rhodes, have been more
fruitful in this respect.
At Kertch and else-
where in the Crimea,
large numbers of fine
but somewhat florid
vases of the 5th and
4th centuries B.C. have
come to light. Cyprus
has long been known as
a rich field for pottery of all periods, from the Mycenaean onwards,
the later varieties being marked by strong local quasi-oriental
characteristics, with little development from the more primitive
types (figs. 12 and 13). The principal sites are Salamis, Amathus,
Marion (Poli) and Curium. Lastly, in the Egyptian delta two
sites, Naucratis and Daphnae, have yielded results of considerable
importance for the history of early Greek vase-painting.
The great majority of these vases have been found in tombs;
but some important discoveries have been made on the sites of
temples and sanctuaries, as on the Acropolis of Athens, or at Nau-
cratis. In such cases the vases are seldom complete, having been
broken up and cast away into rubbish-heaps, where the fragments
have remained undisturbed. The tombs vary greatly in form, those
of Greece being usually small rock-graves or shafts, those of Italy
often fine and elaborate chambers with architectural details, and
the manner in which the vases are found in these tombs varies
greatly. Plain unornamented pottery is almost universal, and may
e considered to have formed the ' tomb-furniture " proper — the
painted vases being as in daily life merely ornamental adjuncts.
Fig. 13. — Pottery from Cyprus with
geometrical ornament.
712
CERAMICS
(GREEK
Shapes and Uses of Greek Vase$*-~The enormous number of
painted vases now collected in museums is in itself sufficient evidence
of the important part they must have played in the daily life of the
Greeks, and the care which was bestowed on their decoration shows
the high estimation in which they were held. It is, however, remark-
able that, with the exception of general allusions to pottery and its
use in daily life, there are singularly few passages in classical litera-
ture which throw light on the purposes tor which these vases were
used. Where any are described at full length there is always evidence
that metal vases are intended. Athenaeus and the lexicographers
have indeed put on record a long list of names of shapes, but
it is only in a few cases that we can be certain what forms they
describe, or whether any of the typical forms of existing vases can be
identified with the literary descriptions.
We have then two questions to consider in this section: firstly,
the uses to which painted vases were put by the Greeks; secondly,
the classical names of the various forms of plain and painted pottery
which have come down to us.
As we have seen, the majority of painted vases have been dis-
covered in tombs, which at first sight seems to suggest that they were
made principally for sepulchral purposes; but that they also had
their uses in daily life as much as plain pottery or earthenware
cannot be doubted. They stand, in fact, in the same relation to the
commoner wares of their day as china or porcelain does with us,
being largely ornamental only, but used by wealthy people or on
special occasions for the purposes of daily life, as for instance at
banquets or in religious ceremonies.
Vases were used as measures, as in the case of a small one-handled
cup in the British Museum (see fig. 15), found at Cerigo (Cylhera) and
inscribed with the word ifiiucorbXiov or " half-kotyle," equivalent
to about one-fourth of a pint. Another vase founo! at Athens is
supposed to represent the official x<Xv£ or quart, having a capacity
of 0-96 litre; it is inscribed hupboiov or " official measure," and bears
the official stamp of the state. Conversely many names of vases,
such as the amphora or the kotyle, were adopted to indicate measures
of capacity for liquid or dry commodities. Earthenware vessels were
used for storing both liquids and food, for the preparation of foods
and liquids, and for the various uses of the table and the toilet.
That trie painted ware was used at' banquets or on great occasions
we learn from scenes depicted on the vases themselves, in which
vases painted with subjects appear in use. In connexion with
athletics, they were given as prizes, as in the case of the Panathenaic
amphorae , a class 01 vases given for victories in the games held at
Athens at the Panathenaic festivals, where, however, they do not
represent prizes so much as marks of honour corresponding to modern
racing cups. Vases were also used as toys for children, as is proved
by the discovery of many diminutive specimens, chiefly jugs, in the
tombs of children at Athens, on which are depicted children playing
at various games. They also served a purely decorative use as
domestic ornaments, being placed on columns or shelves ; or, in the
case of flat cups and plaques, suspended on the wall. Many of the
later Greek and Italian painted vases are very carelessly decorated
on the one side, which was obviously not intended to be seen.
We come now to the use of vases for religious purposes, dedicatory,
sacrificial or funerary. Of all these uses, especially the last, there
is ample evidence. That vases were often placed in temples or shrines
as votive offerings is clear from the frequent mention in literature of
the dedication of metal vases, and it can hardly be doubted that
painted pottery served the samepurpose for those who could only
afford the humbler material. Of late years much light has been
thrown upon this subject by excavations, notably on the Acropolis
of Athens, at Corinth, and at Naucratis in the Egyptian delta,
where numerous fragments have been found bearing inscriptions
which attest their use for such purposes. It was a well-known
Greek custom to clear out the temples from time to time and form
rubbish-heaps (favissae) of the disused vases and statuettes, which
were broken in pieces as useless, but it is to this very fact that we
owe their preservation. At Naucratis many of the fragments bear
incised inscriptions, such as *AtAXXwv6$ el^u, " I am Apollo's "
(possibly a memorandum of the priest's, to mark consecrated
property), or 6 6&v6. jz« Av#i7« to 'A^poWrp, "So-and-so dedicated
me to Aphrodite." Fig. 14 gives another example with a dedication
to Apollo. At Penteskouphia, near Corinth, a large series of painted
tablets (ttIvclms). dating from 600 to 550 B.C., with representations of
Poseidon and dedicatory inscriptions to that deity, were found in
187^. Votive offerings in this latter form were common at all
periods, and tablets painted with figures and hung on trees or walls
are often depicted on the vases, usually in connexion with scenes
representing sacrifices or offerings.
There is no doubt that vases (though not necessarily painted ones)
must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of
the Greeks. We read of them in connexion with the Athenian
festival of the Anthesteria, and that of the gardens of Adonis.
They were also used in sacrifices, as shown on an early black-figured
cup in the British Museum and on a vase at Naples with a sacrifice to
Dionysus. In scenes of libation the use of the jug and bowl (phiale)
is invariable.
But their most important use, and that to which their preservation
is mainly due, was in connexion with funeral ceremonies. They were
not only employed at the burial, but were placed both outside the
tombs to receive offerings, and inside them either to hold the aabes
of the dead or as " tomb-furniture," in accordance with Greek
religious beliefs in regard to the future life. Several classes of vases
are marked out by" their subjects as exclusively devoted to this
purpose, such as the large jars found in the Dipylon cemetery at
Athens, which were placed outside the tombs, tne white Athenian
Ukythoi of the 5th and 4th centuries' B.C., and the large krateres and
Fig. 14. — Part of vase from Naucratis with dedication to Apollo.
other vases of the 4th century B.C. found in the tombs of Apulia
and other parts of southern Italy. Their use as cinerary urns was
perhaps more restricted, at all events as regards the painted vases,
though the custom is well known and is referred to in literature
fronvHomer downwards. In " Mycenaean '* times coffers (Xap voices)
of clay >were used for this purpose, especially in Crete, where fine
painted examples have been found; but of Greek pottery of the
best periods there are but isolated instances.
The diagrams in fig. 15 show the principal shapes characteristic of
Greek pottery in all but the earliest periods, when the variety of form
was as yet too great to permit of more than the vaguest nomen-
clature; each form has its conventional name appended.- These
shapes may be classified under the following heads: (1) Vases in
which food or liquids were preserved; (2) vases in which liquids
were mixed or food cooked; (3) those by means of which liquids
were poured out or food distributed; (4) drinking-cups; (5) other
vases for the use of the table or toilet. Thus we have the pWws
and amphora for storing wine, the krater for mixing it, the psykUr
for cooling it,, the kyathos for ladling it out, and the oinochoe W
prochoos for pouring it out; the hydrta was used for fetching watfi
from the well. The names and forms of drinking-cups are innumer-
able, the principal being the kylix, kotyle, kantharos t rhyton (drinkingV
horn) and phiale (libation bowl). The pyxis was used by womem
at their toilet, and the lekythos, alabastron. and askos for oil and]
unguents. \
Technical Processes. — Though the Greeks succeeded in making
pottery of a very higjh order from the point of view of form and
decoration, the technical processes remained throughout of the most
elementary — for glaze was not used at all, the colour was of the
simplest, and the^ temperature at which the ware was fired was not
high enough to introduce any serious difficulties. As we should
expect, it is possible to trace a gradual improvement in the technical
processes in the direction of greater precision and refinement, for no
vase-painter of the best period could have achieved his decorative
triumphs, on wares so coarse in substance and so rough in finish as
those that satisfied his predecessors. As in every other case technical
and artistic refinement went hand in hand. In the earliest times the
clay was used with very little preparation; at all events before the
introduction of the potter's wheel the finish is not to be compared
with that of the early races in Egypt. As the practice developed
no doubt, specially good clays were found in certain districts, and
these became centres of manufacture or the clays were carried to
other established centres. The primitive wares usually exhibit the
natural buff, yellow, grey or brownish colours of other elementary
pottery, and the surface is somewhat rough and possesses no gloss.
Thenceforward it becomes appreciably warmer in tone as it becomes
finer in texture, until it reaches its perfection in the glowing orange,
inclining to red, of the best Attic vases of the 5th century B.C. In
the vases of the later Italian centres the colour again reverts to a
paler hue.
The clay for the potter was doubtless prepared by a system of
sedimentation, so as to get rid of all coarse particles. It was mixed
with water and decanted into a series of vats so that ultimately
fine clay of two or three grades was obtained. Both red and whitAsn.
clays were used, and the best potters gradually discovered that
mixtures of different clays gave the best results. The clay for the
Athenian vases was obtained from Cape Kolias in Attica ; and as it
did not burn to a very warm tone, ruddle or red ochre (r«£rico) was
added to it to produce the lovely deep orange glow that distinguishes
the best vases. Corinth, Cnidus, Samos and other places were
also famous for their clays, and at the first named tablets have
GREEK]
CERAMICS*
7*3
5t
ie
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oss.
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ibced
itely
itish
that
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lishes
*ere
have
been found bearing representations of the digging of clay for
pottery. ...
The improved manipulation of the days, and the increasing
knowledge that the colour of a clay could be modified by admixture
of other substances such as ruddle and ochre, really paved the way
Bronze age tombs of 2500*1500 B.C. contain only hand-made pottery, »
but in the next period (1500-1000 B.C.) we find hand-made and coarse •
vases side by side with a more developed kind of painted pottery—
the " Mycenaean "-—obviously made on the wheel. It seems prob-
able, therefore, that the wheel was introduced into Greece about
Amphora C*ly»-krater
Fig. 15.— Shapes
for what is known as the glaze of the Greek painted vases. This
delicate gloss, so thin as to defy analysis, has been commonly called
glaze, but it cannot be a glaze in the sense of a separate coating of
finely-ground glass superimposed upon the clay. In all probability,
as the Greek potter used nner and finer clays and so was enabled
to perfect his snapes, he found that after a vase had been " thrown "
he could get a closer texture on it by dipping it in a slip of still finer
clay material and then smoothing it down and polishing it on the
wheel when sufficiently dry. But the mixtures he would use for
such a purpose^— of very siliceous clay and ochre — would, when
they were burnt in the Greek kiln, not only fire to a beautifully bright
colour, but also to a glossy surface, especially where the flames had
freely played about them ; and it is more in accordance with our
knowledge to believe that the exquisitely thin gloss of the finest
Greek red vases was produced in this way, for it seems impossible
that it can have been a coating of any special glaze.
In any case we may state broadly that the body of Greek vases is
always fine in grain, fired hard enough to give forth a dull metallic
sound when it is struck, but seldom fired above a temperature of
about 900 C., which a modern potter would consider very low.
When broken the inside is generally found to be duller in colour, and
is often yellow or grey, even where the external surface is red. The
material is exceedingly porous, and allows water to ooze through it
(another proof that it was not glazed). Numerous analyses of the
material of Greek vases have been published, but they tell us nothing
of the secrets of the Greek potter. The results of a great number of
these analyses may be summed up as follows; silica, 52-60 parts;
alumina, 13-19 parts; lime, 5-IO parts; magnesia, 1-3 parts;
oxide of iron, 12-19 parts* Analyses of a thousand ordinary simple
red burning clays would give a similar result. It is to the glory of
the Greek potter that with, such ordinary materials, by the exercise
of selection, patience and skill, he achieved the fine artistic results
we see. He did as much as can be done with natural clay materials,
but the glory of painted colour and glaze, like the later Persian or
Chinese, was not for him.
Manufacture of Vases. — The earliest Greek pottery, is, like all
primitive pottery, hand-made.. The introduction of the potter's
wheel into Greece was the subject of various ancient traditions, but
we now know that it can be easily traced by a study of the primitive
pottery of Crete, Cyprus or Troy. In Cyprus, foe instance, the
Kalpis
of Greek Vases.
1500 b.c; it was certainly known to Homer, as a familiar allusion
shows (//. xviii. 600). It was still a low circular table turned with
the hand, not the foot ; representations of its use are seen on several
vases of the archaic period (ficr. 16), and they further prove that the
vase was replaced on the wheel for the subsequent processes of
painting, polishing and adding separately modelled parts, as well as
for the original shaping or " throwing."
The method of shaping the vase on the wheel, which is the same
as that still in use, need not be described in detail ; the feet, necks,
mouths and handles were modelled separately or shaped in moulds,
and attached while,
the clay was moist, fjrpAmfy
as is also indicated
on a vase. Large
and coarse vases,
such as wine casks
(tWqi), were always
modelled by hand
on a kind of hooped
mould {nkwafios).
Parts of vases
were modelled by
hand at all periods
by way of decora-
tion. Even in the
geometrical period
we find horses
modelled in the
round on the
covers of vases and
later on
Fig. 16.— Votive tablet from Corinth, full.
vtK . size ; a potter applying painted bands while the
handles vesse * revolves on the wheel,
enriched with moulded figures of serpents twining round them. Such
embellishments are frequently, if not always, deliberate imitations
of metal forms, but the plastic principle is one which obtained in
Greek pottery from the very first, as for instance in the primitive
pottery of Troy, in which the vases are often modelled in human or
animal forms; and the same principle is involved in the common
practice of speaking of the " neck/' " shoulder " or " foot "of a
vessel. In the best period the practice of adding moulded ornaments
or of modelling vases in natural forms took a subsidiary place; b^t
v. 23 a
7^4
CERAMICS
[GREEK
examples occur from time to time, as in the beautiful rhyta or
drinking-horns of the red-figure period (Plate II., fig. 58), or in smaller
details such as are seen in handles enriched with heads in relief, a
favourite practice of the potter Nicosthenes. In the 4th -century
vases of southern Italy the handles are often much ornamented in
this fashion, as in the large krateres, where they are adorned with
masks in relief.
The system of moulding whole vases or ornamenting them with
designs in relief taken from moulds really belongs to the decadence
of the art, when imitations of metal were superseding the painted
pottery. Even then it is rare to find whole vases produced from a
mould, except in the case of those in the form of human figures or
animals (Plate II., figs. 57 and 58), which almost come under the
heading of terra-cotta figures, except for the fact that they are
usually painted in the manner of the vases. But in southern Italy
the tendency to imitate metal led to the popularity of ornaments
made separately from moulds and attached or let in to vases other-
wise plain. Vases of this period, with reeded bodies, must also have
been made from moulds, as were a series of phialae or libation-bowls
associated with Cales in Campania (Plate II., fig. 56), which are
known to be direct imitations of metal.
All or nearly all of these vases are covered with a plain black
glaze or varnish, and painted decoration is rare except in the case of
those moulded in special forms or of a certain class made in Apulia
with opaque colouring laid on the varnish. Some of these plain black
vases of the 4th century are ornamented with stamped patterns made
with a metal punch impressed in the moist clay. This decoration is
confined to simple patterns.
After the vases had been made on the wheel they were dried
in the sun and lightly baked, after which they were ready for varnish-
ing and painting; it is also probable that the gloss was brought
out by a process of polishing, the surface of the clay being smoothed
with a piece of wood or hard leather. On a vase in Berlin a boy is
seen applying a tool of some kind to an unfinished cup, probably
for this purpose; the cup, being shown in red on the vase, has
evidently not been varnished. Many vases are varnished black all
over the exterior (whether decorated with designs or not) with the
exception of the foot and lip.
The process of baking was regarded as one of the most critical in
the potter's art. It was not indeed universal, as we read of sun-
dried vessels for utilitarian purposes, but all the vases that have
come down to us have been baked. The amount of heat required
was regulated by the character of the ware, but was not very high.
Many examples exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected
to too much or too little heat, the varnish having acquired a greenish
or reddish hue. Or again the red gloss is sometimes turned to an
ashen-grey colour, the black
remaining unimpaired.
Other accidents were liable
to occur in the baking, such
as cracking under too great
heat, or the damaging of the
shape by vases knocking
against one another and so
being dented in or crushed.
The form of the oven was
of the simplest (fig. 17)- No
furnaces have been found in
Greece, and only one or two
in Italy, but we have a
variety of evidence from
vase-paintings. They were
fed by fires from beneath,
a long shovel. They were
and there are representations
Fig. 17. — Model of Kiln found in
Essex.
and the vases were inserted with
heated with charcoal or wood fuel,
of men poking or raking the fires with long-handled implements.
One vase-painting gives a bird's-eye view, in horizontal section, of
the interior of an oven full of jugs of various forms. Others have
more complete presentations of potteries, with men engaged in the
different processes of vase manufacture, modelling, painting or
supplying the kilns with newly-made wares.
The Painting of Vases.— we may distinguish three principal
classes of painted pottery, of which two admit of subdivision.
1. Primitive Greek vases with simple painted ornaments, chiefly
linear and geometrical, laid directly on the clay with the brush.
The colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red passing
into black. The execution varies, but is often extremely coarse.
2. Greek vases painted with figures. These may be subdivided as
follows: —
(a) Vases with figures in shining black on a red glossy ground.
\b) Vases with figures left in the glossy red on a ground of
shining black.
3. Vases with polychrome decoration.
(a) Vases of various dates with designs in outline or washes in
various colours on white ground (these range from the
6th to the 4th century B.C.).
Vases of various dates with designs in opaque colour laid
W
over a ground of shining black (ranging from the primitive
- ■:.)
period to the 3rd century b.c ,
Of these the second group is by far the largest and most im-
portant, including the majority of the finest specimens of Greek
vase-painting, and the following account will deal mainly with the
technical processes by which the most successful results were ob-
tained. In both the classes (a) and (6) the colouring is almost
confined to a contrasting of the glossy red ground and shining black.
This black varnish (?) is particularly deep and lustrous, but varies
under different circumstances according to differences of locality,
of manufacture or accidents of production. It is seen in its greatest
perfection in the " Nolan " amphorae of the earlier red-figure period,
at its worst in the Etruscan and Italian imitations of Creek vases.
The gradations of quality may be partly due to the action of heat,
i.e. stoving at a higher or lower temperature. It also varies in
thickness. At present no certainty has been attained as to its
composition — Brongniart's oft-quoted analysis cannot be accepted
— nor has any acid been found to have an effect upon k, though the
chemical action of the earth sometimes causes it to disappear.
The method of its use forms the chief distinction between the
black-figured and red-figured vases, but there is a class of the former
which approaches near in treatment to the latter, the whole vase
being covered with black except a framed panel which is left red to
receive the figures. It is obvious that the transition to merely
leaving the figures red is but a slight one. But in all black-figured
vases the main principle is that the figures are painted in black
silhouette on the red ground, the outlines being first roughly indicated
by a pointed instrument making a faint line. The surface within
these outlines being filled in with black, detail$ of anatomy, dress,
&c, were brought out by incising inner lines with a pointed tool.
After a second baking or perhaps stoving had taken place, the
designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple
and white pigments, which follow certain conventional principles in
their respective use. After a third baking at a lower heat still to fix
these colours the vase was complete.
In the red-figured vases the shining black is used as a background.
But before it is applied the outlines of the figures are indicated not
by incised lines, but by drawing a thick line of black round their
contours. Recent researches have attempted to show that the
instrument with which this was achieved may have been a feather
brush or pen, by which the lines were drawn separately, not con-
currently. The other tools used for painting would be an ordinary
metal or reedpen and a camel's-hair brush, or at any rate something
analogous. Thus the outlines of the figures were clearly marked,
and the process is one of drawing rather than painting, but it was
in draughtsmanship that the best yase-painters excelled. t The next
stage was to mark the inner details by very fine black lines or by
masses of black for surfaces such as the
hair; white and purple were also em-
ployed, but more sparingly than on the
earlier vases. The main processes always
remain the same down to the termination
of vase-painting, though the tendency to
polychromy, which came in about the end
of the 5th century B.C., effected some
modifications. The blacking of the whole
exterior surface — a purely mechanical
process — took place after the figures
nad been completed and protected from
accidents by the thick black border of
which we have spoken.
A fragment of an unfinished vase pre-
served in the Sevres Museum gives a very
clear idea of the process just described,
the figures being completed, but the back- (From a photo supplied by the
ground not yet applied (fig. 18). There is Director of the Sevres Museum),
also another vase in existence whichjgives
the interior of a vase-painter's studio, in
which three artists are at work with their
brushes, their paint-pots by their side.
In the class of vases (3 (a)), with polychrome figures on a white
ground, the essential feature is the white slip or engobe with which
the naturally pale clay is covered. In the archaic vases of the 7th
and 6th centuries B.C., especially in the Ionian centres, as at Rhodes,
Naucratis and Cyrene, this slip is frequently employed, but with this
difference, that the figures are painted in the ordinary black-figure
method, the only additional colour being purple laid on the black.
We first find polychrome decoration, whether in wash or outline,
in a small class of fragments from Naucratis, of the 6th century B.C.,
which technically are of a very advanced character. The colours
used either for outline or wash include purple, brown, yellow,
crimson and rose-colour, but some, if not all, of these colours were
not fired.
In the 5th century this practice was revived at Athens, chiefly in
the class of lekyihoi or oil-flasks devoted exclusively to sepulchral
uses. Here the vases, after leaving the wheel and being fitted with
handles, &c, were covered with a coating of white clay. A second
coating of black was applied to the parts not required for decoration,
and the white was then finely polished, acquiring a dull gloss, and
finally fired at a low temperature. The decoration was achieved as
follows: a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines,
ignoring draperies, &c, and not always followed when the colours
were laid on. This was done when the first lines were dry, the colour
Fig. 18. — Fragment of
unfinished rea- figured
vase.
GREEK]
CERAMICS
715
being applied with a fine brush in monochrome — black, yellow or
red — following the lines of the sketch. For the drapery and other
details polychrome washes were employed, laid on with a large brush.
All varieties of red from rose to brown are found, also violet, yellow,
blue, black and green. Hair is treated either in outline or by means
of washes.
Finally, we have to deal with the class of vases (3 (b)) in which
opaque pigments are laid over the surface of the shining black with
which the whole vase is coated. This method is met with at three
distinct periods in the history of vase-painting, separated by long
distances of time.
We first find it in the earlier Cretan or Kamares ware, where
it seems to have been introduced not long after the close of the
Neolithic period, about 2500 B.C., and where it holds its own for about
a thousand years against the contrasted method of " dark on light "
painting, till it was finally ousted by the latter at the height of
Mycenaean " civilization in Crete. The colouring is vexy varied,
orange, brown, pink and white being the principal tints employed.
The process appears again at the end of the 5th century in a
small class of Attic vases, which have been regarded as a sort of
transition between the black-figured and red-figured. White and
orange-red are here employed, sometimes with accessory details in
purple and black and incised lines, so that the technique is virtually
black-figured, though the appearance of the vases is often red-
figured. Lastly, it appears in southern Italy as a final effort of
vase-painting to flicker into life again about the end of the 3rd
century. Some of these vases were made in Campania, where the
method resembles that of the Attic class just described, others in
Apulia, probably at Gnathia. The latter have feeble conventional
decoration in purple and white with details in yellow, confined to one
side of the vases, and are also distinguished by the use of ornaments
in relief. They were also occasionally made in Greece proper.
Remarkably few colours were used by the Greek vase painters,
especially in the best periods. The deep purple used for accessory
details was produced from iron oxide, but the red used for lines on
the white lekythoi is an ochre (jUkros, rubrica). The white also used
for accessories is an earth or clay ; in the sup coating of the white
ground vases it assumes the consistency of pipe-clay. Yellow,
where used for details on the later vases, is an ochre, and blue and
green are produced from artificial compounds containing copper.
A number of the colours, such as blue, rose and green, used by the
polychrome painters, are obviously artificial pigments which have
not been fired. When gilding was employed It was laid on over a
raised ground of clay finely modelled with a small tool or brush,
and was attached by varnish, not by fire.
Potters and Inscriptions. — The potters who made these vases were
mostly — at least at Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries, B.C. — ptroucot,
or resident aliens, as their names in many cases imply. We have an
Amasis (an Egyptian name), a Brygus (a Scythian), a Lydus and a
Scythes. The dialect of many of the inscriptions on Attic vases
seems to show foreign influence, though in other cases peculiarities
may be merely due to the use of a vernacular. They formed a gild
or fraternity, and in each pottery there was probably more or less
division of labour, the more simple processes being the work of slaves.
This seems to be implied in the vase-paintings representing the
interior of potteries. Others again ' ' specialized in different shapes,
and were known as x^rporX&doi, Xijxufoiroiof, and so on.
Over a hundred names of artists are known, found on some five
hundred vases. They go back to about 700 B.C., the earliest names
being found on Corinthian and Boeotian vases; but the majority
of the signatures are found on Attic black- and red-figured wares.
Some, such as Andocides, made vases in which the two methods are
combined. The best known is Nicosthenes, whose signature occurs
eighty times. The ordinary forms of signature are four — (1) 6 Wiva
kvolrptv, (2) 6 8eira typaj/w; (3) 6 tetvaly p*+* ical krolrptr; (4)
A *y/>«^€. B brolnatv. Where trofrpre alone occurs (as in a signa-
ture of Euxitheus), it probably refers to the master of the pottery
who designed the vase and superintended its production ; in other
cases the share of the actual artist is clearly indicated. Some
artists, such as Duris and Makron, sign frypa^c alone; in all cases,
the form of signature affords us a useful guide to their style.
Space forbids the discussion of other inscriptions found on vases,
which include those descriptive of subjects or persons, ejaculations
uttered by the figures, convivial exclamations, or the «aXfe names
discussed below; all these are painted on the designs themselves.
There is also another class of graffiti inscriptions, which includes those
incised by the owners with their names and memoranda scratched
under the foot, probably made by the potter or his workmen relating
to the number of vases in a batch or '' set " and their price.
Vitreous and Lead-glazed Wares.— In Greek tombs a class of
pottery is often found which approximates more in appearance to
porcelain, but, though often spoken of by that name, it is not porce-
lain at all, but is analogous to the Egyptian glazed faience, of which
it is in point of fact an imitation. It is distinguished by the white
gritty material of which it is made, largely composed of sand, and
forming what is sometimes known as " frit " from its semi-vitreous
consistency. The surface is covered with a glaze, usually of a pale
blue or cream colour, but other colours such as a manganese-purple
or brown are sometimes found. Some of the earliest examples of
this ware have been found in Mycenaean tombs at Enkomi in Cyprus,
in the form of vases moulded in the shape of human or animal heads.
These exhibit a remarkably advanced skill in modelling, and are more
like Greek work of the 6th century B.C. Apart from the technique
they have nothing in common with the Egyptian importations so
often found in Mycenaean tombs.
In a subsequent period (8th~7th century B.C.) Egyptian objects
in faience became a common import into Greek cities, such as those
of Rhodes, and to a less degree in Sardinia and southern Italy,
through the commercial medium of the Phoenicians. Flasks of
faience occur in the Polledrara tomb at Vulci (610-600 B.C.) and
similar vases with a pale green glaze at Tharros in Sardinia in tombs
of the same date. In Rhodes, small flasks and jars are found orna-
mented with friezes of men and animals in relief, or imitating in
colour and design the glass vessels of the Phoenicians. It also seems
probable that the Greeks of Rhodes and ^^^^
other centres attempted the imitation of ^s^sw ♦
this ware (see fig. 19), for we find faience
aryballi or globular oil-flasks modelled in
the form of helmeted heads or animals, ^^H^^^L I
which are purely Greek in style. ^swMs^sM •
In the Hellenistic period the fashion was
revived at Alexandria, and under the
Ptolemies large jugs of blue-enamelled
faience with figures in relief and bearing
the names of reigning sovereigns were ^^^^^^
made and exported to the Cyrenaica and ^■^■^^" t
to southern Italy. Two of these are in the Fig. 10. — Enamelled
British Museum (Egyptian department), pottery from tombs in
The same collection includes a very beauti- Rhodes, made under
ful glazed vase in the form of Eros riding Egyptian influence,
on a duck, found in a tomb at Tanagra,
but undoubtedly of Alexandrine make, and a head of a Ptolemaic
queen, with a surface of bright blue glaze.
Subsequently in the 1st century B.C., this so-called porcelain ware
was replaced by a variety of ware characterized by a brilliantly
coloured glaze coating, in which the presence of lead is often indicated.
This ware was principally made at three centres; at Tarsus in Asia
Minor, at Alexandria and at Lezoux in central Gaul. But it was
probably also made in western Asia Minor and in Italy. It is not
confined to vases, being also employed for lamps and small figures;
the vases are usually of small size, in shapes imitated from metal
(Plate II., fig. 59). The colour of the glaze varies from a deep green
to bright yellow, and the inside of a vessel is often of a different
tint from the exterior. Many of these vases are decorated with
figures or designs in relief, others are quite plain. The colours of
these glazes are of course due to the addition of oxide of copper and
oxide of iron to a lead glaze, and they are strictly analogous to the
green and yellow glazes of medieval Europe. 1
Historical Account of Greek Va6e-painting.— It has been
indicated in the section dealing with technical processes that
Greek vases may be classified under four headings according to
the character of the decoration, and this classification may with a
slight modification be adopted as a chronological one, the history
of the art falling under four main heads, under which it will be
convenient to describe its development from the earliest speci-
mens of painted pottery down to the period when it was finally
replaced by other methods of decoration.
These four classes and their main characteristics may be sum-
marized as follows: —
I. Vases of the Primitive Period from about 2500 or 2000 to 600
B.C., including both the Cretan-Mycenaean epoch and the early ages
of historical Greece. In the former the pottery is either decorated
in polychrome on a shining black ground or conversely in shining
black on a buff ground; in the latter, the decoration is in brown
or black (usually dull, not shiny) on an unglazed ground varying
from white to pale red. In the former again the decoration is marked
by its naturalistic treatment of plant and animal forms; in the
latter the ornaments are chiefly linear, floral or figures of animals;
human figures and mythological scenes being very rare.
II. Black-figured Vases from about 600-500 B.C.; figures painted
in shining black on a glossy ground varying from cream colour to
bright orange red, with engraved lines and white and purple for
details; subjects mainly from mythology and legend.
III. Red-figured Vases, from 520 to 400 B.C.; figures drawn in
outline on red clay and the background wholly filled in with shining
black, inner details indicated by painted lines or dashes of purple
and white, scenes from daily life or mythology. With these are
included the vases with polychrome figures on white ground. In
these, which are exclusively made at Athens, the perfection of
vase-painting is reached between 480 and 450 B.C.
IV. Vases of the Decadence, from 400 to 200 B.C.; mostly from
southern Italy, technique as in Class III. , but the drawing is free
l On this subject see in particular Mazard, De la connaissance par
les ancxens des glacures plombiferes, a scientific and valuable mono-
graph (l^7§)-; also Rayet and Collignon, Hist, de la ctramique
grecque, p. 365 (or B.M. Cat. of Roman Pottery, Introduction).
7r6
CERAMICS
[GREEK
and often careless, and the general effect gaudy; subjects funereal,
theatrical and fanciful. At the end of this period vases are largely
replaced by plain shining black pottery modelled in various forms,
or with decorations in relief, all these being imitations of the metal
vases which began to take the place of painted wares in the estimation
of the Hellenistic world.
L Vases of the Primitive Period. — It has been noted in the
introductory section that it is possible to trace the development
of pottery in Greece as far
back as the Neolithic period,
Rowing chiefly to the light
neatly thrown on the sub-
ject by the excavations in
Crete. These have yielded
krge quantities of painted
pottery of high technical
merit, usually with decoration
in polychrome or white on a
dark ground, in what is known
as the Kamares ware, cover-
ing the period 2500-1500 B.C.
(fig. 20). This was gradually
superseded by painting in dark
shining pigments on a light
flossy ground during the later
Minoan period (1506-1000
B.C.), forming what is known
as the "Mycenaean" style.
„ The subjects, though chiefly
FlG ' a °^T^ ^ r ^f mareS confined to floral ornaments or
ware, from Crete. . ,
aquatic plants and creatures,
are marvellously naturalistic yet decorative in their treatment,
often rivalling in this respect the pottery of the Far East.
In the latter part of this period this class of pottery was spread
all over the Mediterranean, and large quantities have been found
in Greece, especially at Mycenae, in
Rhodes and other Greek islands, and
in Cyprus, where a series of vases
with animals, monsters, and even
human figures shows what is prob-:
ably the latest development or the
pure Minoan or Mycenaean style.
Outside Crete the earliest Greek
pottery has been found in Cyprus
and at Troy, with simple incised or
painted patterns on a black polished
ground, the vases being all hand-
made, and often treated in a plastic
fashion with rude modelling of
human or animal forms (figs. 21, 22); these cover the period
2500-2000 B.C. Early painted pottery, parallel with the
Kamares ware, has been found in Thera and in the important
cemeteries of Phylakopi in Melos. But until the general spread
From Annual of the British School at
Athens.
Fig. 21. — Primitive black
pottery from the Troad.
FiG. 22.— Primitive red pottery from the Troad.
of Mycenaean civilization and art in the latter half of the second
millennium there is no site except Crete where a continuous and
successful development can be studied.
About the time which is represented in Greek tradition by
the Dorian invasion (1100 B.C.) the then decadent Mycenaean
civilization was replaced by a new one much more backward in
development, making pottery of a far simpler and more con-,
ventional type, the decoration being largely confined to geo-
metrical patterns to the exclusion of motives derived from plant
forms. This is usually known as the geometrical style, and the
pottery covers the period from about 1000 to 700 B.C. It is
found all over the mainland and islands of Greece, and exhibits
a certain development towards a more advanced stage. The
patterns include the chevron, the triangle, the key or maeander,
and the circle, in various combinations, painted in dull black on
a brown ground. In most places the art advanced no further,
but in Boeotia, and still more at Athens, we can trace the gradual
growth of decorative skill, first in
the introduction of animals, and
then in the appearance of the
human figure. In the Athenian
cemetery outside the Dipylongate
a series of colossal vases has come
to light, on which are painted such
subjects as sea-fights and funeral
processions. The human figures
are exceedingly rude and conven-
tional, painted almost entirely in
silhouette, but there is a distinct
striving after artistic effect in the
composition and arrangement. In
Boeotia the vases do not advance
beyond the animal stage, and
many exhibit a tendency to de-
cadence in their carelessness, as Fig. 23. — Vase with bands
contrasted with the painstaking °* * ni,na *J> Oriental in style,
helplessness of the Athenian (British Museum.)
artists.
In Ionia and the islands of the Aegean such as Rhodes, the
art of vase-painting from the first carried on the Mycenaean
tradition, and was distinguished by its naturalism and originality,
and by the bold and diverse effects produced by variety of colour
Fig. 24. — Ionic amphora, with contest between Heracles and Hera,
and bands of birds and animals; black, with incised lines.
or novelty of subject. The ornamentation is at first elementary,
consisting of friezes of animals, especially lions, deer and goats
(figs. 23 and 24). These figures stand out sharply in black
against the creamy buff ground which is characteristic of nearly
all Ionic pottery, and details are brought out by means of en-
graved lines, patches of purplish iron pigment, or by drawing
parts of the figures, especially the heads, in outline on the clay
ground. Another feature is the general use of small ornaments
such as rosettes and crosses in grea£ variety of form to cover
CREEK]
CERAMICS
717
the background and avoid the vacant spaces which the Greek-
artist abhorred. The system of decoration has been thought to
owe much to Assyrian textile fabrics.
One of the best though most advanced examples of early Ionic
pottery is a pinax or plate from Rhodes in the British Museum,
on which is represented the combat of Menelaus and Hector over
the body of Euphorbus (&g. 25); their names are inscribed
over the figures, and this is almost the earliest known instance
of a mythological subject, the date of the painting being not later
than 600 B.C. To a slightly later date belongs another remark-
able group of cups with figures on a white ground, probably
made at Cyrene in North Africa. Of these the most famous has
a painting in the interior, of Arcesilaus II., king of Gyrene from
580 to 550 B.C., weighing goods for export in a ship. Others have
mythological subjects, such as Zeus, Atlas and Prometheus,
Cadmus and Pelops.
But these vases, though still retaining the older technique,
really belong to the second class, that of black-figured vases,
and they belong to a time when in all Ionian centres this method
was being superseded by the new technique which Corinth had
Fig. 25. — Early inscribed pinax from Rhodes, with contest of
Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus.
introduced and Athens perfected, to the consideration of which
we must return.
For some 1 50 years Corinth almost monopolized the industry
of pottery on the west of the Aegean. , Large numbers of examples
have been found in or near the city itself, many bearing inscrip-!
tions in the peculiar local alphabet. They show a continuous
progress from the simplest ornamentation to fully-developed
black-figured wares. In the earliest (Plate I. fig. 52) oriental
influence is very marked, the surface being so covered with the
figures and patterns that the background disappears and the
designs are at times, almost unintelligible. The general effect isi
thus that of a rich oriental tapestry, and the subjects are largely
chosen from the fantastic and monstrous creations of Assyrian
art, such as the sphinx and gryphon. The, vases are mostly
small, the ground varies from cream, to yellow, and the figures
are painted in black and purple.
Both in Ionia and at Corinth during the early part of the 6th
century the same tendencies are seen to be at work, tending to a
unification of styles under the growing influence of Athens.
In Ionia (see above) figure subjects become more common, and
the technique approaches gradually nearer to the black-figure
method. Similarly at Corinth the ground ornaments diminish
and disappear, the friezes of animals are restricted to the borders
of the .designs, and human figures are introduced, first singly,'
then in friezes or groups, and finally engaged in some definite
action such as combats or hunting scenes. In the last stages
Greek myths and legends are freely employed. A new develop-
ment, traditionally associated with the painter Eumarus of
Athens, was the distinguishing of female figures by the use of
white for flesh tints. A somewhat similar development was in
progress at Athens, though represented by comparatively few
vases. Here the adoption of Corinthian and Ionian technical
improvements evolved by the middle of the 6th century the
fully developed black-figure style which by degrees supplanted
or assimilated all other schools.
IL Black-figured Vases.— At the head of this new development
stands the famous Francois vase at Florence, found at Chiusi
in 1844 (Plate I. fig. 53). Its shape is that of a krater or mixing-
bowl, and it bears the signatures of its maker and decorator in
the form " Ergotimos made me, Klitias painted me." It might
be described as a Greek mythology in miniature, with its
numerous subjects and groups of figures all from legendary
sources such as the stories of Peleus, Theseus and Meleager, or
the return of Hephaestus to heaven. All the figures have their
names inscribed.
The general technique of the black-figured vases has already
been described. It may be no ted. as a chronological guide that
the use of purple for details is much commoner in the earlier
vases, white in the later, but towards the end of the century
when the new fashion of red figures was gaining ground, both
colours were almost entirely dropped. The drawing of the
figures is, as might be expected, somewhat stiff and conventional,
though it advanced considerably in freedom before the style
went out of fashion. Many vases, otherwise carefully , and
delicately executed, are marred by an excess of mannerism and
affectation, as in the works of the artists Amasis and Exekias
(Plate I. fig. 54). The treatment of drapery is a good indication
of date, ranging from flat masses of colour to oblique flowing
lines of angular falling folds.
The shapes most commonly employed by the Athenian potters
of this period are the amphora, hydria, kylix, oinochoe and lekythos,
the first-named being the most popular. A special class of
amphorae is formed by the Panathenaic vases, which were given
as prizes in the Athenian games, and were adorned with a figure
of the patron goddess Athena on one side and a representation
of the contest in which they were
won on the other (fig, 26) . They
usually bear the inscription r&v
'Adrjvjfav &0W dpi, "I am
(a prize) from the games at
Athens." Some of these can be
dated by the names of Athenian
archons which they bear, as late
as the 4th century, the old
method of painting in black
figures with a stiff conventional
pose for the goddess being re-
tained for religious reasons.
The chief interest of the black-
figured vases is really derived
from their subjects, which range
over every .conceivable field,> the
proportion of myth and legend
to scenes from daily life being
much greater than in the suc-
ceeding period. They include
groups of Olympian and other deities, and the various scenes
in which they take part, such as the battle of the gods and giants,
or the birth of Athena (treated in a very conventional manner,
as on a fine amphora in the British Museum); Dionysus and his
attendant satyrs and maenads, the labours and exploits of
Heracles and other heroes, subjects taken from the tale of Troy
and other less familiar legends; and scenes from daily life,
battle scenes, athletics, the chase and sp on. The same classifica-
tion of course holds good for the later periods of vase-painting,
with some exceptions. The proportion of genre-scenes subse-
quently becomes greater, and some myths disappear^ others rise
Fig. 26.— Panathenaic amphora.
718
CERAMICS
[GREEK
into prominence, new deities such as Eros (Love), and Nike
(Victory) appear for the first time, and, generally speaking, the
later subjects are characterized by a sentimentality or tendency
to emotion which is entirely foreign to the conventional stereo-
typed compositions of the 6th century artist.
A remarkable feature of the subjects on black-figured vases is
.that a stereotyped form of composition is invariably adopted
at least for the principal figures, but minor variations are gener-
ally to be found, as, for instance, in the number of bystanders;
and it is almost an impossibility to find any two vase-paintings
which are exact duplicates. The form of the composition was
partly determined by the field available for the design ; when
this took the form of a long frieze the space was filled up with a
series of spectators or the repetition of typical groups, but when
the design is on a framed panel or confined by ornamental borders
the method of treatment is adapted from that of a sculptured
metope, and the figures limited to two or three. In many cases
it is difficult to decide, in the absence of inscriptions, whether or
no a scene has mythological signification; the mythological
types are over and over again adopted for scenes of ordinary
life, even to the divine attributes or poses of certain figures.
Among the artists of the period who have left their names on
the vases, besides those already mentioned, the most conspicuous
is Nicosthenes, a potter of some originality, from whose hand
the artist Andocides, who not only produced vases in each
method, but also several in which the two are combined (fig. 27).
In two or three cases the subject is actually the same on each
side, almost every detail being repeated, except that the colouring
is reversed.
The date at which the change took place was formerly placed
well on in the 5th century, on account of the great advance in
drawing which most of the red-figured vases show, as compared
with the black. They were thus regarded as contemporary
with the painter Polygnotus, if not with Pheidias. But the
excavations on the Acropolis of Athens yielded so many frag-
ments in the advanced red-figured style which must be earlier
than 480 B.C., that it has become necessary to find an earlier
date for its appearance. This is now usually placed at about
520 B.C., overlapping with the preceding period.
The red-figure period is usually subdivided into four, marking
the chief stages of development, and known respectively as the
" severe," " strong," " fine," and " late fine " periods. Their
principal characteristics and representative painters may be
briefly enumerated.
In the severe period there is no marked advance on the black-
figured vases as regards style. The figures are still more or less
stiff and conventional, and some vases even show signs of an
analogous decadence. The real development is partly technical,
Vase by Andocides. Black figures on obverse.
Fig. 27.
Vase by Andocides. Red figures on reverse.
we have over seventy examples, a few being in the red-figure
method. He is supposed to have introduced at Athens a revival
of the Ionic fashion of painting on a cream-coloured ground
instead of on red, of which some very effective examples have
been preserved. He was always a potter rather than a painter,
and most of his vases are remarkable for their forms — intro-
ducing plastic imitations of metal vases — rather than for their
painted decoration. Most of the artists of this period, as in the
succeeding one, have left their signatures on cups (kylikes), but
this form did not receive so much attention from the painter
as at a later period, and many of these examples bear only
inscriptions and no painted decoration.
III. Red-figured Vases. — The sudden reversal of technical
method involved in the change from black figures on a red ground
to red figures on black is not at first sight easy of explanation.
Some artists, like Nicosthenes and Andocides, used both methods,
sometimes on the same vase, and there is no doubt that the two
went on for some years concurrently. As, however, no inter-
mediate stage is possible, there is no question of development or
transition. The new style was in fact a bold and ingenious
innovation. It may possibly have been suggested by a small
class of vases in which the figures are painted in the black-figure
method, but have the converse appearance, that is to say they are
painted in a thick red pigment on a ground of shining black.
It may therefore have occurred to the artist that he could
obtain the same effect merely by leaving the figures unpainted
on the red clay and surrounding them with the black. The
change, must, however, be closely associated with the career of
partly in the introduction of new subjects. Although the change
of style probably had its actual origin in the amphora, as treated
by Andocides, the new developments are best seen in the kylix,
a form of vase which now sprang into popularity and called
forth the chief efforts of the principal artists. Its curved surface
gave ample scope for skilful effects of drawing and decorative
arrangement, and the earlier painters devoted all their attention
to perfecting it as a work of decorative art. For other shapes,
such as the hydria and lekythos, the old method was for a time
preferred.
The most typical artist of the period was Epictetus, and other
famous cup-painters were Pamphaeus, Cachrylion and Phintias.
The earliest cups are decorated in a quite simple fashion like
those of the black-figure period, often with a single figure each
side between two large " symbolical " eyes, and a single figure
in a circle in the interior. To the latter the artist at first devoted
his chief efforts, though even here his scope was at first limited.
But although he had not yet attained to skill in composition,
he did discover that the circular space was well adapted for
exhibiting his newly-acquired abilities as a draughtsman and
for disposing figures in ingeniously conceived attitudes. In all
cases the object was to fill the space as far as possible, a char-
acteristic of all the best Greek art. By degrees more attention
was paid to the designs on the exterior, and the single figures
were replaced by groups, but regular compositions in the form
of friezes telling some story were not introduced until quite the
end of this period. Epictetus was throughout his career a
thoroughly " archaic " artist, but a considerable advance was
GREEK]
CERAMICS
719
made by Cachiylion, who stands on the verge of the succeeding
stage.
The strong period centres round the name of Euphronius, the
author of a really great artistic movement. His capacity for
inventing new subjects or new
poses — or otherwise overcoming
technical and artistic difficulties
— marks a great advance on all
previous achievements, and he
seems to represent the stage of
development traditionally associ-
ated with the painter Cimon of
Cleonae, the in-
ventor of foreshort-
ening and other
novelties. Thus
figures were no
longer represented
exclusively in pro-
file, as in the black-
figured vases which
had made no ad-
vance beyond the
conventions of
Egyptian art. Ten vases signed
by him are in existence (though
it is not certain that all were
actually painted by him), most
of them having mythological sub-
jects (fig. 28).
Of his contemporaries, Duris,
Hieron and Brygus take foremost
rank, all three being, like Euphro-
nius, essentially cup-painters,
though they use other forms at
times. For decorative effect and beauty of composition their
vases have never been surpassed. As an example we may quote
a kotyle or beaker in the British Museum signed by Hieron, with
a group of Eleusinian deities.
The larger vases of this period
are more rarely signed, but many
of them rival the cups in execu-
tion, though the subjects are
characterized by greater sim-
plicity and largeness of style.
In the fine style (460-440 B.C.)
breadth of effect and dignity are
aimed at, and although cup-
painting had passed its zenith,
and signed specimens become
rarer, yet, considering the red-
figured vases as a whole, this
period exhibits the perfection
of technique and drawing. In
many of the larger vases the
scenes are of a pictorial char-
acter, landscape being intro-
duced, with figures ranged at
different levels, and herein we
may see a reflection of the style
of the painter Polygnotus. One
of the finest cups in this style is
in the Berlin Museum, it is signed
by the artists Erginus and Aris-
tophanes, and the subject is the
battle of the gods and giants.
To the end of the period belongs
a beautiful hydria in the British
Museum by the painter Meidias
with subjects from Greek legend in two friezes (fig. 29).
Generally speaking, there is a reaction in favour of mythological
subjects.
Fig. 28.— *Cup by Euphronius.
Fig. 29. — Hydria by Meidias in the style of Polygnotus.
In the late fine style, which begins about 440 B.C., the pictorial
effect is preserved, but with perfected skill in drawing the com-
positions deteriorate greatly in merit, and become at once over-
refined and careless. The figures are crowded together without
meaningorinterest. The fashion
also arose of enhancing the de-
signs by means of accessory
colours — almost unknown in the
previous stages — such as white
laid on in masses, blue and green,
and even with gilding. Athletic
and mythological subjects yield
place to scenes from
the life of women
and children or
meaningless groups
of figures (fig. 30).
A good example
of this style is
an amphora from
Rhodes with the
subject of Peleus
wooing Thetis, in
which polychrome
colouring and gilding are intro-
duced. There are also many
imposing and elaborate speci-
mens found (and perhaps made)
in the colonies of the Crimea and
the Cyrenaica; in particular one
signed by Xenophantus with the
Persian king hunting, and an-
other representing the contest of
Athena and Poseidon for the soil
of Attica, both from the Crimea.
Contemporary with the red-figure method is one in which the
figures are painted on a white slip or engobe resembling pipe-
clay, with which the whole surface was covered; the figures are
drawn in outline in red or black,
and partly filled in with washes
of colour, chiefly red, purplish
red, or brown, but sometimes
also with blue or green. This
style seems to have been popular
about the middle of the 5th
century B.C. and was employed
for the funeral lekythoi which
came into fashion at Athens
about that time. These vases,
which form a class by them-
selves, were made specially for
funeral ceremonies and were
painted with subjects relating to
the tomb, such as the laying-out
of the corpse on the bier, the
ferrying of the dead over the
Styx by Charon, or (most fre-
quently) mourners bringing offer-
ings to the tomb (fig. 31). They
continued to be made well on
into the 4th century, but the
later examples are very de-
generate and careless.
Of other forms, especially the
kylix and the pyxis (toilet-box),
some exceedingly beautiful speci-
mens have come down to us,
which show a delicacy of draw-
ing and firmness of touch never
surpassed, although the lines were probably only drawn with a
brush. The technique of these vases may reflect the methods of
the painter Polygnotus and his contemporaries, who used a
720
CE&ftMIGS
[GREEK
limited number of colours on a white ground. Among them no
finer specimen exists than the cup in the British Museum with
Aphrodite riding on a goose; the design is entirely in brown
outlines, and the drawing, if slightly archaic, full of grace and
refinement.
In the subjects on red-figured vases we do not find the same
Fig. 30. — Painting from a small toilet-box or pyxis, showing
painted vases used to decorate a lady's room. On the left is a gilt
pyxis with a tall lid, and an oenochoe on a low table; on the right
two tall vases (lebes) on a plinth. All except the pyxis are decorated
with painted figures, and contain flowers.
variety of choice as on the black-figured, but on the other
hand there is infinitely greater freedom of treatment. The
stereotyped form of composition is almost entirely discarded,
and each painter forms his own conception of his subject. The
class of slim amphorae, known as " Nolan "
from the place where they were mostly
found, are distinguished by having the
design limited to one or at most two
figures on each side, often on a large
scale; these vases are also famous ior
the marvellous brilliance of their shining
black (fig. 32).
Towards the middle of the 5th century
the patriotism of the Athenian artist finds
expression in the growing importance
which he attaches to local legends, especi-
ally those of Theseus, the typical Attic
hero. He seems to have been regarded
as the typical Athenian athlete or
ephebus, and his contests as analogous to
episodes of the gymnasium. Hence the
grouping on some vases of scenes from
his labours are like so many groups of
athletes (fig. 33), and hence, too, a general
tendency of the red-figured vases, especi-
ally the cups, to become a sort of
glorification of the Attic ephebus, the
representations of whom in all sorts of
occupations are out of all proportion to
Other subjects.
We find evidence of this, too, in another
3 1 * — Funeral form. Many vases, especially the cups of
us* toftss the " se r e " and ." st rs " pe f K S' ^ ear
tomb. names of persons inscribed on the designs
with the word xaXos, "fair" or " noble,"
attached; sometimes merely, "the boy is fair." The exact
meaning of this practice has been much discussed, but evi-
dence seems to show that the persons celebrated must have
been quite young at the time, and were probably youths famous
for their beauty or athletic prowess. Same of the names are
those of historical characters, such as Hipparchus, Miltiades
or Alcibiades, and, though they cannot always be identified
with these celebrated personages, enough evidence has been
obtained to be of great value for the chronology of the vases.
F*o.
Further, the practice of the vase-painter df adopting his own
particular favourite name or set of names has enabled us to
increase our knowledge of the characteristics of individual
artists by identifying unsigned vases with the work of particular
schools.
IV. Vases of the Decadence. — For all practical purposes the
red-figure style at Athens came to an end with the fall of the
city in 404 B.C. Painted vases did not then altogether cease to
be made, as the Panathenaic prize vases and the funeral lekythoi
testify, but at the same time a rapid decadence set in. The
whole tendency of the 4th century b.c. in Greece was one of
decentralization, and the art of vase-painting was no exception,
for we find that there must have been a general migration of
craftsmen from Athens, not only to the Crimea and to North
Africa, but also to southern Italy, which now becomes the chief
centre of vase production. Here there were many rich and
flourishing Greek colonies or Grecianized towns, such as Taren-
tum, Paestum and Capua, ready to welcome the new art as an
addition to their many luxuries. In the character of the vases
of this period we
see their tend- .^^^^^H^^^ A
encies reflected,
especially in their
splendid or showy
aspect; the only
aim being size and
gaudy colouring.
The general
method of paint-
ing remains that
of the Athenian
red-figure vases,
but with entire
loss of simplicity
or refinement,
either in the orna-
mentation, the
choke of colours,
or the drawing of
the figures. Large
masses of white
are invariably em-
ployed, especially
for the flesh of
women or of Eros,
the universally
P 1 ""^^ 6as Achilles.
Love, and for
architectural details. Yellow is introduced for details of hair
or features, and in attempts at shading, nor is a dull iron-
purple uncommon. The reverses of the vases, when they have
subjects, are devoid of all accessory colouring, and the figures
are drawn with the greatest carelessness, as if not intended to be
seen. There is throughout a lavish use of ornamental patterns
such as palmettes, wreaths of leaves, or ornaments strewn over
the field (a reversion to an old practice).
The drawing, having now become entirely free, errs in the
opposite extreme; the forms are soft and the male figures often
effeminate. The fanciful and richly-embroidered draperies of
the figures and the frequent architectural settings seem to
indicate that theatrical representations exercised much influence
on the vase-painters. The great painters of the 4th century may
also have contributed their share of inspiration, but rather
perhaps in the subjects chosen than in regard to style; though
the effect of many scenes on the larger vases is decidedly pictorial^
they are chiefly remarkable for their emotional and dramatic
themes.
The influence of the stage is twofold, for tragedy as well as
comedy plays its part. Many subjects are taken directly, others
indirectly, from the plays of Euripides, such as the Medea,
Hecuba (Plate II. fig, 6©), or Hercules Furens, and the arrange-
ment of the scenes is essentially theatrical. The influence of
Fig. 32. — *' Nolan " amphora by Euxitheus
(c. 4*0 b.c ) f . figure of Bnseis; the other side
Ac" "
ETRUSCAN]
CERAMICS
721
comedy is seen in subjects derived from the phlyakes, a kind of
farce or burlesque popular in southern Italy, and here again
the setting is adapted from the stage, some vases having parodies
of myths, others comic scenes of daily life.
Many vases of this period, especially those of large size, were
expressly designed for funeral purposes. Some of these bear
representations of the underworld, with groups of figures under-
going punishment. On others shrines or tombs are depicted —
sometimes containing effigies of the deceased, at which the
relatives make offerings — as on the Athenian lekythoi. But by
far the greater portion of the subjects are taken from daily life,
many of these being of a purely fanciful and meaningless character
like the designs on Sevres or Meissen china; the commonest
type is that of a young man and a woman exchanging presents,
the presence of Eros implying that they are scenes of courtship.
The vases of this period are usually grouped in three or four
different types, corresponding to the ancient districts of Lucania,
Campania and Apulia, each
with its special features of
technique, drawing and sub-
jects. In Lucanian vases the
drawing is bold and restrained,
more akin to that of the Attic
vases; in Campania a fondness
for polychromy is combined
with careless exe-
cution. In Apulia
a tendency to mag-
nificence exempli-
fied in the great
funeral and the-
atrical vases is fol-
lowed by a period
of decadence char-
acterized by small
vases of fantastic
form with purely
decorative sub-
jects. Besides these we have
the school of Paestum, repre-
sented by two artists who
have left their names on their
vases, Assteas and Python.
A well-known example of the
work of the former is a krater in
Madrid with Heracles destroy-
ing his children, a theatrical
and quasi-grotesque composi-
tion, and there is a fine example of Python's work in a krvter
in the British Museum, with Alkmena, the mother of Heracles,
placed on the- funeral pyre by her husband Amphitryon, and
rain-nymphs quenching the flames (Plate I. fig. 55).
About the end of the 3rd century b.c. the manufacture of
painted vases would seem to have been rapidly dying out in
Italy, as had long been the case elsewhere, and their place is
taken by unpainted vases modelled in the form of animals and
human figures, or ornamented with stamped and moulded reliefs.
These in their turn gave way to the Arretine and so-calle4
" Samian " red wares of the Roman period. In all these wares we
see a tendency to the. imitation of metal vases, which, with the
growth of luxury in the Hellenistic age, had entirely replaced
painted pottery both for use and ornament; the pottery of the
period is reduced to a subordinate and utilitarian position, merely
supplying the demands of those in the humbler spheres of life.
Collections,— -The majority of the painted vases now in existence
are to be found in the various public museums and collections of
Europe, of which the largest and most important are the British
Museum* the Louvre and the Berlin Museum. Next to these come
the collections at Athens, Naples, Munich, Vienna, Rome and
St Petersburg; isolated specimens of importance are to be found
in other museums, as at Florence, Madrid or the Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris. Most of the great private collections of the two
preceding centuries have now been dispersed. In recent years the
Fig. 33. — Cup with exploits of Theseus.
Boston Museum has raised America to a level with Europe in this
respect; and the Metropolitan Museum at New York contains a
vast collection of Cypriote pottery.
Literature. — Important original articles are to be found in
various archaeological journals such as American Journal of Archae-
ology (1885, &c.) ; Annual of the British School at Athens (1894, &c.) ;
Athentsche Mitteilungen (1876, &c); Bulletin de correspondence
helUnioue (1877, &cj; Comptes rendus de la commission imperiale
archiotogique (St Petersburg, 1859-1888); Gazette archiologique
(Paris, 1 875- 1 889); Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen archao-
togischen Instituts, Berlin (1886, &c); Journal of Hellenic Studies
(1880, &c); Monumenti antichi (Milan, 1890, &c); Monuments
grecs (Pans, 1 872-1 898); Monuments Piot {Paris, 1894, &c);
Kevue arcJUologique (Paris, 1844, &c.}. The older works have been
recently superseded by important publications embodying the latest
views such as Hartwig, Dte griechischen Meisterschalen des strengen
rotfigurigen StUs (1893); Louvre, Catalogue des vases antiques de
terre cuite, by E.Pottier (1896, &c.) ; S. Reinach, Repertoire des vases
Peints (Paris, 1899-1000); H. B. Walters, History of Ancient Pottery
(Greek, Etruscan and Roman), 1905, with an excellent bibliographical
list; also art. " Hischylos M in J. U.S. xxix. (1909) P- *°3-
Etruscan Pottery.—
Parallel with thedeveiopmentof
the art of pottery in Greece runs
the course of the art in Etruria,
though with far inferior results;
in its later stages it is actually
no more than a feeble imitation
of the Greek. The period of
time which wemust
consider extends
from the Bronze
age (1000 b.c. or
earlier) down to
the 3rd century
b.c, when Etrus-
can civilization
was merged into
Roman.
The earliest civil-
ization traced in
Italy is not, strictly
speaking, Etruscan, but may
perhaps be more accurately
styled "Umbrian." It is
usually referred to as the
" Terramare " period from the
remains discovered in that dis-
trict in the basin of the
Po. These people were lake-
dwellers, barely removed from
the Neolithic stage of culture!
and their pottery was of the rudest kind, hand-made and
roughly baked. Cups and pots have been found sometimes
with simple decoration in the form of knobs or bosses,, and
many have a crescent-shaped handle serving as a support for
the thumb.
The next period, the earliest which can be spoken of as
" Etruscan," is known as the " Villanova " period, from a site
of that name near Bologna, or aa the period of pit-tombs (a
pozvo), from the form of the graves in which the pottery has been
found (see Villanova). It begins with the 9th century b.c.
and lasts for about two hundred years. The pit-tombs usually
contain large cinerary urns or ossuaHo, (containing the ashes of
the dead), fashioned by hand from a badly-levigated volcanic
clay known as impasto Italico. These vessels were irregularly
baked in an open fire, and the colour of the. surface varies from
red-brown to greyish black. They appear to have been covered
with a polished slip, intended to give the vases a metallic appear-
ance. The shape of the urns is peculiar, but uniform; they have
a small handle at the widest part, and a cover in the form of an
inverted bowl with handle (Plate III. fig. 63). . Their ornamenta-
tion consists of incised or stamped geometrical ornaments formed
in the moist clay in bands round the neck and body; more
rarely patterns painted in white are found. Common pottery
is also found showing little advance on that of the Terramare
722
CERAMICS
[ETRUSCAN
period except in variety of decoration. The technique and
ornament are the same as in the case of the urns. They corre-
spond in development, though not in date, to the early pottery
of Troy and Cyprus, as well as to the primitive pottery of other
races, but one marked difference is the general fondness of the
Italian potter for vases with handles.
Sometimes the cinerary urns take the form of huts (tuguria),
though these are more often found in the neighbourhood of
Rome. One of the best examples is in the British Museum; it
still contains ashes which were inserted through a little door
secured by a cord passing through rings. The ornamentation
suggests the rude carpentry of a primitive hut, the cover or roof
being vaulted with raised ridges to represent the beams. The
surface is polished, and other specimens are occasionally painted
with patterns in white.
In the next stage a change is seen in the form of the tombs,
the pit being replaced by a trench; this is accordingly known
as the " trench-tomb " or a fossa period, and extends from the
8th century B.C. to the beginning of the 6th. Importations of
Greek pottery now first make their appearance. The character
of the local pottery actually remains for some time the same as
that of the preceding period, but it improves in technique. By
degrees an improvement in the forms is also noted, and new
varieties of ornamentation are introduced; there is, however,
no evidence that the wheel was used.
Two entirely new classes of pottery are found at Cervetri
(Caere) belonging to the 7th century. One consists of large jars
(vlSoc) of red ware, the lower part being moulded in ribs, while
the upper has bands of design stamped round it in groups or
friezes. These designs were either produced from single stamps
or rolled out from cylinders like those used in Babylonia. The
subjects are usually quasi-oriental in character, and it is not
certain that this ware was made in Etruria, especially as similar
vases have been found in Rhodes and Sicily; either it was
imported, or it was a local imitation of Greek models.
The other class is similar as regards the shapes and the nature
of the clay, but is distinguished by having painted subjects in
white outlines on a red glossy ground. The clay, a kind of
impasto Italico, was first hardened by baking, and then a mixture
of wax, resin and iron oxide was applied and polished; on this
the pigments, a mixture of chalk and earth, were laid. The
subjects are from Greek mythology or are at least Greek in
character, but the technique is purely Etruscan, and the drawing
is crude and un- Greek in the extreme.
The fourth period shows a close continuity with the third;
but the difference is denned firstly by the appearance of a new
type of tomb in the form of a chamber (a camera), secondly, by
the all-pervading influence of oriental art, and to a less extent
of that of the Greeks. The period extends from about 650 to
550 B.C., and is further marked by the general introduction of
the wheel into Etruria and by the appearance of inscriptions in
an alphabet derived from western Greece. In the earlier tombs
the typical local pottery is of hand-made impasto Italico resem-
bling that of the previous periods; in the later we find what is
known as bucchero ware — the national pottery of Etruria — which
is made on the wheel and baked in a furnace, and shows a marked
tendency to imitate metal.
To this period also belongs the famous Polledrara tomb or
Grotto d'Iside at Vulci, the contents of which are now in the
British Museum and include some remarkable specimens of
pottery. It dates from about 620-610 B.C. The most remarkable
of the vases is a hydria, of reddish-brown clay covered with a
lustrous black slip on which have been painted designs in red,
blue and a yellowish white. The colours have unfortunately now
almost disappeared, and it is doubtful if they had been fired. The
principal subject is from the story of Theseus and Ariadne. This
tomb also contained a large wheel-made pithos of red impasto
ware with designs painted in polychrome. In the Regulini-
Galassi tomb at Cervetri (about 650 B.C.) large cauldrons of red
glossy ware were found, with gryphons' heads projecting all
round, to which chains were attached. A similar cauldron from
Falerii on a high open-work stand is now in the British Museum.
We now come to the bucchero ware, which is characteristic of
the later portion of this period, though the earliest examples go
back to the end of the 7th century. Its main feature is the black
paste of which it is composed, covered with a more or less shining
black slip. Modern experiments seem to indicate that the clay
was smoked or fumigated in a closed chamber after baking,
becoming thereby blackened throughout, and the surface was then
polished with wax and resin. Analyses of the ware have proved
that it contains carbon and that it had been lightly fired. The
oldest bucchero vases are small and hand-made, sometimes with
incised geometrical patterns engraved with a sharp tool like
metal-work. Oriental influence then appears in a series of
chalice-shaped cups found at Cervetri with friezes of animals.
From about 560 B.C. onwards the vases are all wheel-made, with
ornaments in relief either stamped from a cylinder or composed of
separate medallions attached to the vase. The subjects range
from animals or monsters to winged deities or suppliants making
offerings (fig. 34) ; in other cases we find meaningless groups of
figures or plant forms. These types are found chiefly in southern
Etruria, but at Chiusi (Clusium)
a more elaborate variety found
favour from about 500 to 300
B.C. The shapes are very varied
and the ornament covers the
vase from top to bottom, the
covers of the vases being also
frequently modelled in various
forms. The figures are stamped
from moulds, incised designs
being added to fill up the spaces.
The range of subjects is much
widened, including scenes from
Greek mythology and oriental
types combining Egyptian and
Assyrian motives, which must
have been introduced by the
Phoenicians.
Thus the technique of the
bucchero wares is purely native,
but the decoration is entirely
dependent on foreign types
whether Greek or oriental, and
throughout the whole series the _ _,
tendency to imitate metal-work J 1 ^^™"** oin ^ oe ' «*
. A , *\ ,. 1 . .1 black bucchero ware, with figures
is to be observed m every detail, in relief . (British Museum )
both in the forms and in the
methods of decoration. Some are mere counterparts of existing
work in bronze.
The last variety of peculiarly Etruscan pottery which calls for
notice is the Canopic jar, so called from its resemblance to the
Kkvwcoi in which the Egyptians placed the bowels of their
mummies. They are rude representations of the human figure,
the head forming the cover, and in the tombs were placed on
round chairs of wood, bronze or terra-cotta. An example of such
a jar on a bronze-plated chair may be seen in the Etruscan Room
of the British Museum (Plate III. fig. 65). Their origin has been
traced to the funeral masks found in the earliest Etruscan tombs.
From these a gradual transition may be observed from the mask
(1) placed on the corpse, (2) on the cinerary urn, (3) the head
modelled in the round and combined with the vase, and (4) at
last the complete human figure. The earliest of these jars are
found in the " pit-tombs " of the 8th century B.C., and the latest
and most developed types belong to the 5th century B.C.
The skill shown by the Etruscans in metal-work and gem-
engraving never extended to their pottery, which is always purely
imitative, especially when they attempted painted vases after
the Greek fashion. The kinds already described are all more or
less plastic in character and imitative of metal, except in the case
of the Cervetri and Polledrara finds, which have little in common
with anything Greek, and exhibit a quite undeveloped art. But
towards the end of the 6th century B.C., when Greek vases were
coming into the country in large numbers, attempts were made to
ROMAN]
CERAMICS
723
imitate the black-figure style, especially of a particular class of
Ionian vases. Imitations of these are to be found in most
museums and may be readily recognized as Etruscan from
peculiarities of style, drawing and subject, as well as their
inferior technique (fig. 35).
Fig. 35. — Etruscan Amphora imitating Greek style; parting scene
of Alcestis and Admetus, with Etruscan inscriptions.
At a later date (4th-3rd century b.c.) they began to copy red-
figured vases with similarly unsuccessful results. With the
exception of a small class of a somewhat ambitious character
made at Falerii (Civita Castellana), of which there is a good
example in the British Museum with the subject of the infant
Heracles strangling the serpents, they are all marked by their
inferior material and finish and their bizarre decoration. The
style is often repulsive and disagreeable, as well as ineffective,
and the grim Etruscan deities, such as Charun, are generally
introduced. Some of these vases have painted inscriptions in the
Etruscan alphabet. The latest specimens positively degenerate
into barbarism.
Painted vases of native manufacture are also found in the
extreme south of Italy and have been attributed to the indigenous
races of the Peucetians and Messapians; their decoration is
partly geometrical, partly in conventional plant forms, and is
the result of natural development rather than of imitation of
Greek types. Some of the shapes are characteristic, especially
a large four-handled krater. They cover the period 600-450
B.C., after which they were ousted by the Graeco-Italian pro-
ductions we have already described.
Roman Pottery. — Roman vases are far inferior to Greek;
the shapes are less artistic, and the decoration, though sometimes
not without merits of its own, owes most of its success to the
imitation or adaptation of motives learnt from earlier Grecian,
Egyptian or Syrian potters. They required only the skill of
the potter for their completion, and, being made by processes
largely mechanical, they are altogether on a lower scale of artistic
production.
It has been noted that during a certain period — namely, the
3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. — ceramic art had reached the same
stage of evolution all round the Mediterranean, painted pottery
had been ousted by metal-work, and such vases as continued to
be made were practically imitations of metal both in Greece and
Italy. These latter we must regard as representing ordinary
household pottery, or as supplying to those who could not afford
to adorn their houses and temples with costly works in metal,
a humble but fairly efficient substitute. There is a terra-cotta
bowl of the 2nd century B.C. in the British Museum which is
an exact replica of a chased silver bowl with reliefs in the same
collection, and may serve as an illustration of this condition of
things (Plate II. fig. 56).
These imitations of metal were largely made in southern Italy,
a district which enjoyed close artistic relations with Etruria,
and we have already seen that the same principle had long been
in vogue among the Etruscans. Hence it is not suprising that
an important centre of pottery manufacture should have sprung
up in Etruria, in the 2nd century B.C., which for many years set
the fashion to the whole Roman world. But before discussing
such products it may be as well to say something on the technical
character, shapes and uses of Roman pottery in general.
Technical Processes. — Roman pottery regarded in its purely tech-
nical aspect is in some ways better known to us than the Greek,
chiefly owing to extensive discoveries of kilns and potters' apparatus
in western Europe. It may be classified under two heads, of which
only the second will concern us for the most part as yielding by far
the greater amount of material and interest: (1) the plain, dull
earthenware used for domestic purposes, and (2) the fine, red,
shining wares, usually known to archaeologists as terra sigillata,
clay suited to receive stamps (sigilla) or impressions.
For both classes all kinds of clay were used, varying somewhat in
different regions, and ranging in colour when fired from black to grey,
drab, yellow, brown and red. The clays varied greatly in quality ;
most of the pottery made in southern Gaul was fashioned from the
ferruginous red clay of the Allier district, but at St-Remy-en-Rollat
and in that neighbourhood a white clay was used. In Italy we find
a carefully levigated red clay in use, great care being devoted to its
preparation and admixture. But apart from decoration and style
there is a great similarity in the general appearance of the Italian
and provincial pottery made under Roman influence, and it is often
very difficult to decide whether the vases were manufactured where
they had been found or were imported from some famous centre of
manufacture. The secret of the glossy red surface seems to have
been common property and found its way from Italy to Gaul, Spain
and Germany, and perhaps even to Britain.
The manner in which this glossy red surface was produced has
been a much-disputed question, some, as for instance Artis, the
excavator of the Castor potteries in Northamptonshire, claiming
that it was a natural result obtained in the baking, after polishing
of the surface, by means of specially contrived kilns. But it is now
generally agreed that it was artificial. It is true that the Roman
lamps and many of the commoner wares have a ^loss produced by
polishing only, varying in colour and brightness with the proportion
of iron oxide in the clay and the degree of heat at which the pieces
were fired. But the surface finish of the finer or terra sigillata wares
is something quite distinct, and reaches a high and wonderfully
uniform perfection.
It is possible that the technical secret of the potters of the Roman
world was only a development from the practice of the Greeks, but it
does seem as if the finer Roman wares were coated with a brilliant
glossy coating so thin as to defy analysis, yet so persistent as to leave
no doubt of its existence as a definite glossy coat. Repeated at-
tempts have been made to determine its nature by analysis, but
chemists ought to have known better, for the coating is so thin that
it is impossible to remove it without detaching much more body
than glaze. Examination shows it to be much more than a surface
polish or than the gloss of the finest Greek vases, and we shall have
to wait for a final determination of its nature until some one who is at
once a chemist and a potter can reconstruct it synthetically. What-
ever its nature and method of production, it is certain that the glaze
itself was a transparent film which heightened the natural red colour
of the clay, until in the finest specimens it has something of the
quality of red coral.
In the manufacture of vases the Romans used the same processes
as the Greeks. They were all made on the wheel, except those of
abnormal size, such as the large casks (dolia), which were built up
on a frame. Specimens of potters 1 wheels have been found at
Arezzo and Nancy, made of terra-cotta, with a pierced centre for
the pivot, and bearing small cylinders of lead round the circum-
ference to give a purchase for the hand and to aid the momentum
of the wheel. For the ornamental vases with reliefs an additional
process was necessary, and the decoration was in nearly all cases
produced from moulds. The process in this case was a threefold
one: first the stamps had to be made bearing the designs; these
were then pressed upon the inside of a clay mould which had been
previously made on the wheel to the size and shape required;
finally, the clay was impressed in the mould and the vase was thus
produced, decoration and all. Handles being of rare occurrence in
Roman pottery, the vases were thus practically complete, requiring
only the addition of rim and foot. The stamps were made in various
materials, and had a handle at the back (Plate III. fig. 64). The
moulds were of lighter clay than the vases, and were lightly fired
when completed, so as to absorb the moisture from the pressed-in
clay. Large numbers of these moulds are in existence (Plate III.
fig. 61), and the British Museum possesses a fine series from Arezzo.
Tnose discovered in various parts of Gaul have afforded valuable
evidence as to the sites of the various pottery centres, as their
presence obviously denoted a place of manufacture, and the value of
this evidence is increased when they bear potters' names.
Remains of kilns for baking Roman pottery 1 are very numerous
in western Europe, especially in Gaul, where the best examples are
at Lezoux near Clermont, at Chatelet in Haute-Marne, and near
Agen in Lot-et-Garonne. In Germany good remains have come
to lijjht at Heiligenberg in Baden, at Heddernheim near Frankfort,
Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe, and Westerndorf in Bavaria. In
England the best kilns are those discovered by Artis in 1821-1827 at
Castor in Northamptonshire (see fig. 4).
Shapes. — As is the case with Greek vases, a long list of names of
*For a full description and lists of such kilns see Walters, Ancient
Pottery, ii. 443-454-
724
CERAMICS
[ROMAN
shapes may be collected from Latin literature, and the same diffi-
culties as to identification arise in the majority of cases. They may,
however, be classified in the same manner; as vases for storing
liquids, for mixing or pouring wine, for use at the table, and so on.
In addition Varro and other writers have preserved a number of
archaic and obscure names chiefly applied to the vases used in
sacrifices.
The principal vases for storing liquid or solid food were: — The
dolium, a large cask or barrel of earthenware; the amphora, a jar
holding about six gallons; and the cadus, a jar about half as large
as the amphora. The dolium had no foot, and was usually buried
in the earth ; it was also used for purposes of burial. The amphora
corresponds to the Greek wine-jar 01 that name, and had, like its
prototype, a pointed base. Many examples were found at Pompeii
stamped with the names of consuls (cf. Hor. Od. iii. 21. 1), or with
painted inscriptions relating to their contents. The cadus is men-
tioned by Horace and Martial.
Of smaller vases for holding liquids, such as jugs, bottles and
flasks, the principal were the urceus, answering to the Greek olvoxbv*
the ampulla, a kind of flask with globular body, and the lagena, a
narrow-necked flask or bottle. Of drinking-cups the Romans had
almost as large a variety as the Greeks, and the great majority of the
ornamented vases preserved to the present day were devoted to this
purpose. The generic name for a cup was poculum, but the Romans
borrowed many of the Greek names, such as cantharus and scyphus.
The calix appears to have answered in popularity, though not in
form, to the Greek kytix, and is probably the name by which the
ornamented bowls were usually known. The names for a dish are
lanx, patina and catinum. Another common form is the olla (Greek
xirpa), which served many purposes, being used for a cooking-pot,
for a jar in which money was kept, or for a cinerary urn. The
form of vase identified with this name has a spherical or elliptical
body with short neck and wide mouth. Of sacrificial vases the
principal was the patera or libation-bowl, corresponding to the
Greek <t>i&Xv-
Arreline Ware. — The Latin writers, and in particular Pliny,
mention numerous places in Italy, Asia Minor and elsewhere,
which were famous for the production of pottery in Roman times.
Pliny mentions with special commendation the " Samian Ware,"
the reputation of which, he says, was maintained by Arretium
(Arezzo). Samian pottery is also alluded to by other writers,
and hence the term was adopted in modern times as descriptive
of the typical Roman red wares with reliefs, whether found in
Italy, Germany, Gaul or Britain. But it was only accepted
with diffidence as a convenient name, and as early as 1840
discoveries at Arezzo made it possible to distinguish the vases
found there as a local product, now known as " Arretine " ware.
The name " Samian " has, however, adhered to the provincial
wares and at the present day is often used even by archaeologists.
But recent researches have shown that nearly all the provincial
wares can be traced to Gaulish or German potteries, and, since
it is implied by Pliny that " Samian " pottery is older than
" Arretine," the name may now be fairly rejected altogether,
as we have rejected the name " Etruscan " for Greek pottery.
The Romans probably used it as a generic term, just as we speak
of " china, 11 and the real Samian ware is to be seen in the later
Greek pottery, with reliefs, of the 3rd century B.C.
There were, as Pliny and other writers imply, many pottery-
centres in Italy, at Rhegium, Cumae, Mutina and elsewhere,
• as well as at Saguntum in Spain, but all were surpassed in
excellence by Arretium. In more modern times its pottery came
under notice even in the middle ages, and discoveries were made
in the time of Leo X. (about 1 500) and again in the 18th century.
The Arretine ware may be regarded as the Roman pottery par
excellence, and its popularity extended from about 150 B.C. down
to the end of the 1st century of the Empire, reaching its height
in the 1st century B.C., after which it rapidly degenerated, and
its place was taken by the wares of the provinces. Its general
characteristics may be summed up as follows: — (1) The fine local
red clay, carefully levigated and baked very hard to a rich coral
red or a colour like sealing-wax; (2) the fine red glaze, which
has already been discussed; (3) the great variety of forms
employed, showing the marked influence of metal-work; (4)
the almost invariable presence of stamps with potters' names.
The majority of the specimens have been found at Arezzo itself,
but there was a branch of the industry at Puteoli, producing
pottery almost equal in merit, and it was also exported to central
and eastern Europe and Spain.
The earliest examples are of black glossy ware, but the red
appears to have been introduced by 100 B.C., when the first
potters 1 stamps appear. These are usually quadrangular in
form, though other shapes are found, and are impressed in the
midst of the design on the ornamented vases, or on plain wares
on the bottom of the interior. The number of potters' names
is very large, though some appear to have been more prolific
than others, and to have employed a large number of slaves,
whose names appear with their masters' on the stamps. The
best known is Marcus Perennius, whose wares take highest rank
for their artistic merit, the designs being copied from good Greek
models. He employed seventeen slaves, of whom the best known
is Tigranes, the stamps usually appearing as M'PEREN and
TIGRAN. The slave-name of Bargates is found on one of his finest
vases, in the Boston Museum, the subject being the fall of
Phaethon. We may suppose that the stamps for the figures
were designed by the masters, but that the vases were actually
moulded by the slaves. Other important artists are Calidius
Strigo, who had twenty slaves; P. Cornelius, who had no less
than forty; Aulus Titius, who signs himself ATITTFIGVL-
ARRET; the Annii and the Tetii; and L. Rasinius Pisanus,
a degenerate potter of the Flavian period, who imitated Gaulish
wares.
The forms of the vases are all, without exception, borrowed
from metal shapes and are of marked simplicity (see fig. 37,
Nos. 1, 8, 9, 11). They are mostly of small size and devoid of
handles, but a notable exception is a bell-shaped krater or mixing-
bowl, of which there is a very fine example in the British Museum,
found at Capua and decorated with the four seasons (Plate
III. fig. 62). For the decoration and subjects the potters
undoubtedly drew their inspiration from the " new- Attic " re-
liefs of the Hellenistic period, of which the krater just cited is
an example. So, too, are such subjects as the dancing maenads
or priestesses with wicker head-dresses, or the Dionysiac scenes
which are found, for instance, on the vases of Perennius. Others
again are distinguished by a free use of conventional ornament,
figures when they occur being merely decorative. There is
throughout a remarkable variety both in the ornamentation
and in the methods of composition.
Provincial Wares. — The Arretine ware, as has been noted,
steadily degenerated during the 1st century of the Empire, and
the manufacture of ornamental pottery appears to have entirely
died out in Italy by the time of Trajan. Its place was taken by
the pottery of the provinces, especially by that of Gaul, where the
transference of artistic traditions led to the rise of new industrial
centres in the country bordering on the Rhone and the Rhine.
As to the general characteristics of the provincial wares, that is,
of the ornamented wares or terra sigUlata t the clay is fine and
close-grained, harder than the Arretine, and when broken shows
a light red fracture; the surface is smooth and lustrous, of a
brighter yet darker red colour (i.e. less like coral) than that of
Arretine ware, but the tone varies with the degree of heat used.
The most important feature is the fine glaze with which it is
coated, similar in composition to that of the Arretine; it is
exceedingly thin and transparent, and laid equally over the
whole surface, only slightly brightening the color of the clay.
The ornament is invariably coarser than that of Arretine ware, by
which, however, it is indirectly inspired.
The vases are usually of small dimensions, consisting of various
types of bowls, cups and dishes, of which two or three forms are
preferred almost to the exclusion of the rest, and they frequently
bear the stamp of the potter impressed on the inside or outside.
Although this ware is found all over the Roman world, by far
the greater portion comes from Gaul, Germany or Britain, and
evidence points to two — and only two — districts as the principal
centres of manufacture: the valleys of the Loire and the Rhine
and their immediate neighbourhood. In the 1st century a.d.
Gaulish pottery was largely exported into Italy, and isolated
finds of it occur in Spain and other parts.
The recent researches of Dr Dragendorff and M. D6chelette
have shown that a chronological sequence of the pottery may be
clearly traced, both in the shapes employed and in the method of
ROMAN]
CERAMICS
7*5
decoration; and, further, that it is possible— at least as regards
fGaul — to associate certain potters' names and certain types of
figures, though found in many places, with two centres in par-
ticular, Graufesenque near Rodez (department of Aveyron) in
the district occupied by the Ruteni, and Lezoux near Clermont
(department of Puy-de-D6me) in the country of the Arverni.
t9 The periods during
<„ ■ . vr s^ mm Srr ^ *~- ~ — » which these potteries
flourished are con-
secutive, or rather
overlapping, but not
contemporaneous,
the former being
practically coinci-
dent with the ist
century a.d., the
latter with the 2nd
and 3rd down to
about a.d. 260, when,
the manufacture of terra sigillata practically came to an end in
Gaul.
There were also certain smaller potteries, some of which mark a
transition between the Italian and provincial wares, in the north
of Italy and on the Rhine and upper Loire, e.g. St Remy-en-
Rollat, and others of later date, as at Banassac and Montana in.
the latter district, but none of these produced pottery of special
Fig. 36. — Bowl of Gaulish ware, with
moulded patterns in slight relief.
^
is usually spoken of as No. 29. This is characterized by its
moulded rim engraved with finely incised hatchings, and by the
division of the body by a moulding into two separate friezes for
the designs (fig. 36). Its ornament is at first purely decorative,
consisting of scrolls and wreaths, then small animals and birds
are introduced, and finally figure subjects arranged in rectangular
paneb or circular medallions. About the middle of the century a
second variety of bowl (known as No. 30; see fig. 37) was intro-
duced; this is cylindrical in form, and, being found both at
Graufesenque and Lezoux, may be regarded as transitional in
character. In the latter half of this century a new form arises
(No. 37-, fig. 37) , a more or less hemispherical bowl which holds
the field exclusively on all sites down to the termination of the
potteries. In this form and in No. 30 a new system of decoration
is introduced, the upper edge being left quite plain. The panels
and medallions at first prevail, but are then succeeded by arcad-
ing or inverted semicircles enclosing figures, and finally after the
end of the ist century (and on form 37 only) we find the whole
surface covered with a single composition of figures unconfined by
borders or frames of any kind, but in a continuous frieze; this is
known as the " free " style (Plate IV. fig. 69)*
As regards the figure subjects, it may be generally laid down
that the conceptions are good, but the execution poor. Many are
obvious imitations of well-known types or works of art, and the
absence of Gaulish subjects is remarkable. They include repre-
sentations of gods and heroes, warriors and gladiators, hunters
45
^
Fxo. 37.— -Shapes used in Roman Pottery. 1-11, Arretine; 18-65, Gaulish and German.
merit ox importance. The early Rhenish wares are, strictly
speaking, of a semi-Celtic or Teutonic character, while the later
German terra sigillata, for which the principal centres were
.Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe and Westerndorf in Bavaria, are of
similar character but inferior to the and-century pottery of
Lezoux. A mould from Rheinzabern is illustrated, Plate IV.
fig. 66.
The ornamented vases produced in these potteries are, as we
•have said; almost confined to two or three varieties, which
follow one another chronologically. A shape favoured at first is
the kraier, which has been mentioned as one of the characteristic
Arretine forms; but this enjoyed but a short term of popularity.
Early in the ist century we find a typical form of bowl in use,
which, following the numeration, of Dn DragendorflPs treatise,
and animals, the two latter classes being pre-eminently
popular.
The potters' names at Graufesenque are nearly all of a common
Roman type, such as Bassus, Primus, Vitalis; those at Lezoux
are Gaulish in form, such as Advocisus, Butrio, IUixo or Lax-
trucisa. This seems to imply that Roman influence was still strong
in the earlier centre which drew its inspiration more directly from
Arretium. But even the purely Roman names are sometimes
converted into Gaulish forms, as Masdus for Masculus, Or
Torno* for Turnus. The stamps are quadrangular in form,
depressed in the surface of the vase with the letters in relief;
on the plain wares they are usually in the centre of the interior, but
on the ornamented vases are impressed on the exterior among the
figures. The usual formula is OF (for qjfkina) or M (for manu)
726
CERAMICS
[SYRIAN
with the name in the genitive, or F, FE or FEC for fecit with the
nominative.
Besides the ordinary terra sigillata with figures produced in
moulds we find other methods of decoration employed. In the
south of France, about Aries and Orange, vases were made with
medallions separately moulded and attached round the body;
these have a great variety of subjects, both mythological and
gladiatorial or theatrical, or even portraits of emperors. There
is a remarkable specimen in the British Museum with a scene
from the tragedy of the Cycnus, on which Heracles and Ares are
represented, with seated deities in the background (Plate IV.
fig. 67). The date of these reliefs is the 3rd century after Christ.
Of the same date is a somewhat similar ware made at Lezoux.
Here each figure is attached separately to the vase, and the
background is filled in with foliage produced by the method
known as en barbotine (slip-painting), of which we shall speak
presently. The effect of these vases, which are mostly large jars
or oUae (Plate IV. fig. 70), is often very decorative, and there is
a fine specimen in the British Museum from Felixstowe, on which
the modelling is really admirable. Other good examples have
been found in various parts of Britain.
The " slip-decoration " process is practically unknown in Italy,
but it is found early in the 1st century of our era in Germany,
and appears to have originated in the Rhine district. It is not
confined to the red ware, but in the early German examples is
applied on a dull grey or black back-
ground. On the continent its use is
almost limited to simple decorative
patterns of scrolls or foliage, but in
Britain it was largely adopted, as in
the well-known Castor ware made
on the site of that name (Durobrivae)
in Northamptonshire. Many of the
vases found or made here have
gladiatorial combats, hunting-scenes,
or chariots executed by this method
Fig. 38. — Jar of Castor (fig. 38). The decoration was applied
ware, with reliefs of a stag in the form of a thick viscous slip,
pursued by a hound, exe- usuall of the same colour the
cuted in semi-fluid slip. , f A , , A - .
6 in. high. ^v* but reduced to this consistency
with water, and was laid on by
means of a narrow tube or run from the edge of a spatula. The
Castor ware appears to date from the 3rd and 4th centuries a.d.
Painted wares are at all times rare, but were occasionally
produced in Gaul, Germany and Britain. A notable class of such
ware seems to have been produced in the Rhine district, repre-
sented by small jars covered with a glossy black coating, on
which are painted in thick white slip inscriptions of a convivial
character, such as BIBE, REPLE, DA VINUM, or VIVAS
(Plate IV. fig. 68) . A very effective ware, obviously imitating cut
glass, by means of sharply incised patterns, was made at Lezoux
in both the red and black varieties.
Literature. — Dragendorff in Bonner Jahrbucher, xcvi. 37 ff. ;
Dechelette, Vases ceramiques de la Gaule romaine (1904) ; Walters,
Ancient Pottery, ii. chaps, xxi.-xxiii. ; British Museum Catalogue
of Roman Pottery (1908). (H. B. Wa.)
Persian, Syrian, Egyptian and Turkish Pottery 1
. Formerly, in all general accounts of the potter's art, it was
the custom to pass over the period between the fall of the Roman
empire and the appearance of the beautiful Persian and Syrian
pottery of the early middle ages, as if the intervening centuries
had produced nothing worthy of note. Even yet the successive
steps by which this beautiful art arose are largely matters of
inference and deduction, but it must be borne in mind that while
the Greeks and Romans made singularly little use of glaze and
painted colour, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria and
Mesopotamia had long been noted for their skill in this direction.
In discussing the pottery of these peoples we have already
pointed out at what a very early period they had developed the
production of rich and beautiful coloured glazes — the Egyptians
1 See examples in colour on Plate V.
as a jewel-like decoration of small pieces made in a very sandy
paste, or actually carved from stone, and the Assyrians, on a
bolder scale, in their glazed and coloured brickwork. Though
the Egyptian and Syrian empires were overthrown, the peoples
of these countries remained; and, as we are now aware, carried
on their traditional craft, though in a less splendid way. There
is abundant evidence that pottery was made in the Egypt of
Roman times and later with rich turquoise blue and yellow
glazes, though the potters had learned to produce this glaze on
a material containing more clay and less sand than that used in
earlier days. We know also that they had learned that the
addition of lead oxide to a glaze enabled such glaze to be applied
on vessels formed from clay which was sufficiently plastic to be
shaped on the wheel. This knowledge was not confined to Egypt,
but appears to have been spread over Syria and parts of Asia
Minor; and throughout the Byzantine empire many forms of
pottery were made which were clearly the starting-points of
much of the fine pottery produced in Europe in later times.
We find, for instance, side by side, a manufacture of bowls,
dishes and vases of very simple shape, yet made of two distinct
materials: (1) a whitish sandy body on which turquoise blue,
green or even white glaze, consisting mainly of silicates of soda
and lime, was used either without ornament or with simple
painted patterns in black or cobalt blue under the glaze; (2)
similar vessels made of a lightish red clay, also rather sandy and
porous, coated with a white slip (pipeclay or impure kaolin)
covered with a yellowish lead glaze. These vessels were
decorated in a variety of ways: (1) GraffiaH; patterns cut or
scratched through the coating of white slip while it was still soft,
down to the red ground, so that when the vessel was glazed it
displayed a pattern in dark upon a light ground. (2) Yellow
and red ochre and copper scales were rudely " dabbed " over
the white slip surface, so that when the vessel was glazed it
presented a marbled or mottled appearance with touches of red,
yellow, brown or green, on a yellowish-white ground. (See the
section on Egyptian pottery above.) (3) Oxides of copper or iron
were added to the lead glaze, and the resulting green or yellow
glazes were applied to plain vases or to vessels decorated with
moulded reliefs. In all these methods we see the continuation
of old tradition in simpler forms, but we shall also see that these,
in their turn, became the starting-point of much of the medieval
pottery of Europe, particularly of Italy and the other southern
countries.
In the same way, a little farther east, the Persians of Sassanian
times seem to have preserved some of the traditions of the potters
of Assyria, just as they inherited their skill; and the Assyrian
device of raising strong brown outlines round a design to control
the flow of coloured glazes, which is exemplified in the Frieze
of Archers in the Louvre, was carried on by them, for it appears
unchanged in the tiles of the Mosque of Mahommed I. buiit at
Brusa in the 15th century. The intercourse between the Persian
and Byzantine empires at this time must have led to a general
diffusion of technical knowledge among the pottery centres of
the various countries round the eastern end of the Mediterranean,
though our knowledge is too fragmentary to furnish sufficient
data for any definite placing of the progress made. Our informa-
tion is mainly derived from the examination of the rubbish
mounds at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in Egypt, by Dr Fouquet, and
by eager inquirers like Henry Wallis. Fostat was built in a.d. 640
by Amr and destroyed in the 12th century; partially rebuilt,
it was given Over to pillage in 1252 by a Mameluke sultan, and
all that remains is the Old Cairo of to-day, the rest of the site
being covered with accumulated rubbish heaps. In the same
way Rhagae or Rai, one of the ancient capitals of Persia, the
site of which lies a few miles east of Teheran, was destroyed about
1 220 by Jenghiz Khan. Like Fostat it was partially rebuilt, but
was destroyed again in the following century, so that its existence
practically ceased in the 14th century. Rhagae was once an
important centre of the ceramic industry, but this was transferred
to the neighbouring town of Veramin, in the 13th century.
Excavations have also been made on the site of Rakka, near
Aleppo, in Syria, and from all these sources, and a few others of
PERSIAN]
CERAMICS
727
minor importance, much interesting light has been thrown on
the development of the potter's art in these countries during the
period between the 4th and 1 2th centuries. Yet, until systematic
excavations have been made in Persia, Anatolia, Syria and the
Delta, on the same scale as those which have proved so valuable
in Greece, Crete, Cyprus and the valley of the Nile, we cannot
hope to possess sound chronological data of the developments
of the arts in these countries. Meantime the exact share which
should be allotted to each district for its discoveries will remain
ground of contention for scholars of conflicting schools, though
there can be little doubt that Egypt and the southern part of
Syria played a more important part than has generally been
supposed in the development of the potter's art at this period.
Persian Pottery. — The most important pottery of the nearer
East, whether considered on its own merits or from the influence
it has exercised on the pottery of later times, is that so highly
valued by collectors under the distinctive name of Persian;
though much that passes under that name may not have been
made in Persia. From the 10th to the 16th centuries the crafts-
men of Persia were perfect masters of decorative design and
colour; and, as potters, they possessed a sense of the forms
proper to clay, such as none of the great races of antiquity ever
exhibited. The shapes of Greek pottery speak more strongly
of metal than of clay, but the best Persian work exhibits a feeling
for the material that has rarely been equalled. The shapes are
not only true clay-shapes but they are designed so as best to
exhibit the qualities of the glaze and colour with which they
were to be decorated. Certainly from the 12 th to the 16th
centuries the pottery of the Persians must rank among the
greatest achievements of the potter's art. The ware was shaped
from various mixtures such as we have already spoken of — but
whether its body was a mixture of white clay with a large pro-
portion of sand, or some inferior clay that burnt to a yellowish
or red tint, and was surfaced with a fine white coating of siliceous
slip, or with a mixture of soda-glass, clay and oxide of tin,
which made it whiter still — the one aim was to produce a white
pottery. On this white ground — with a coarsish absorbent
surface — beautiful patterns, in conventional floral or animal
forms, were deftly painted in cobalt-blues, manganese-purples,
copper-greens and turquoise, with mixtures for intermediate
tints; while a strong brownish-black outline colour was com-
pounded by mixing the oxides of iron and manganese, to be turned
into a fine, still black by the addition of a trace of cobalt and
later of oxide of chromium. Over this freely painted colour,
often used in broad flat masses, a singularly limpid alkaline glaze,
generally of considerable thickness, was fired until it just fused;
and the resultant effect is of the most rich and brilliant colour
relieved on a ground of slightly toned white. Judging from
fragments which have been found at Rai, and which can scarcely
therefore be later than the 13th century, we find the characteristic
Persian style of ornament already developed; dumpy little
figures kneeling, standing or riding on grass between cypress
trees, or animals and birds similarly disposed, with conventional
borders and bands of Cufic inscriptions. Another well-known
type of pattern consists of highly conventionalized floral orna-
ment which often runs to a beautiful tracery of. " arabesque "
lines. The drawing is generally finely outlined with brown
or black (a survival of the ancient Assyrian practice), and in the
earliest pieces the flat washes of colour are laid in only in cobalt-
blue, turquoise or green from copper, and shades of purple and
brown from manganese. From the 16th century onwards
Chinese influence is strongly felt both in the designs and in the
colour schemes, particularly in the wares painted with patterns
in blue only (fig. 39), which sometimes carry the imitation of
Chinese porcelain so far as to bear forged Chinese marks.* Finally,
Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) is said to have brought a number
of Chinese artificers, among them many potters, to Ispahan,
and we find that Chinese porcelain was largely painted at King-
t6-Ch£n, with blue decorations in the Persian taste, so that we
cannot be surprised at the growth of a hybrid Perso-Chinese style
of decoration. From this period, however, Persian pottery
deteriorated .both in its technical and artistic aspects. Crudely
moulded figures in fairly high relief, coloured with an opaque
yellow and green as well as with transparent blue and turquoise,
began to make their appearance, especially on the famous
Persian tiles; and in the 18th century the brown and black
outlines of the drawing (a most valuable decorative resource)
vanish, and we get brighter and more glittering, yet poorer
colours, including a rose-red enamel fired over the glaze, evidently
imitated from the Chinese famiUe-rose porcelains of the 18th
century.
The finest work appears to have been produced from the
nth to the 14th centuries; yet so imperfect is our knowledge
of what is truly Persian, Syrian or Egyptian, that we are forced
to accept many conventional names that have perhaps little but
custom to recommend them. There is, for instance, an important
class of pottery known, until recently, only from a few remark-
ably handsome vases, and once called " Siculo-Arab " because
these few examples had been mostly found in Sicily. This ware
is characterized by its fine quality and its distinguished ornament
— leaf-shaped panels with arabesques; interlacing patterns;
striped and dotted bands ; friezes of animals or birds amidst
' i rsfe.
1 <f> *\.^fr^ W*4*
Fig. 39. — Persian Plate painted in blues only. (Victoria and
Albert Museum.)
flowers and foliage, inscriptions, &c; all strongly and firmly
drawn in black or brown outlines and washed in with a very pure
cobalt-blue or with turquoise. In spite of the resemblance of
these pieces to the oldest Persian wares, we know that bowls,
dishes, vases and spoilt pieces of the same kind ha\e been dug up
on the site of Rakka near Aleppo; similar ware has been found
at Fostat, together with evidences of local manufacture, and
occasional pieces have been brought from Persia; so that
probably this distinguished ware was made at Rakka in Syria
between the 9th and the 13th centuries, and was afterwards
made by Syrian potters both in Persia and Egypt.
Other Persian Wares. — We have already spoken of the pre-
valent use of coloured glazes in all the countries of the nearer
East — from Egypt to Persia — from remote times, either as the
sole colour decoration or in conjunction with modelled or painted
ornament. The fragments from Rai and Fostat include rich
turquoise glazes (derived from the ancient Egyptian), deep and
light-green glazes containing lead and copper, imitations of
ancient Chinese celadon-green, a brownish-purple glaze, a coffee-
brown glaze and a deep cobalt-blue glaze. 1 All these may be
l A peculiarity of the Persian and allied blue glazes, of many
shades, is that they appear to have been produced not by dissolving
the colouring matter in the glaze, but by coating the white ground
of the ware with a thin wash of some cobaltiferous substance —
probably an earth containing varying proportions of cobalt, man-
ganese and iron — and then melting a thick alkaline glaze over it.
728
CERAMICS
[PERSIAN
found either on plain vases, or on vessels with modelled orna-
ment; or covering delicate floral or arabesque patterns painted
in white slip or incised in the paste, Sometimes, even at this
early period, there are traces of applied gold-leaf attached, but
not fired, to the glaze.
At a very early period, too, we find those beautiful bowls,
dishes and vases decorated with geometrical or arabesque
patterns in a singularly still underglaze black, and covered with
the blue turquoise or green copper glazes. This characteristic
and beautiful ware is common to Persia, Syria and Egypt in
Saracen times, and it was soon prized in Europe, as is shown by
the famous fragment found by the late Mr Drury Fortnum built
into the outer walls of S. Cecilia in Pisa, where it was apparently
placed in the 12th century. 1
At a later date a shining black glaze made its appearance,
and in the 13th century pale and lapis-lazuli blues, while there
is a comparatively modern sage-green glaze found only on pieces
bearing patterns modelled in low relief.
Persian Porcelain. — This beautiful and somewhat mysterious
ware — often called " Gombroon " ware — apparently made its
appearance in the 13th century, though the bulk of the known
examples are not earlier than the 17th or 18th century. The
ware is quite translucent and is of soft and delicate texture.
Unlike Chinese porcelain, it was made from a mixture of pipe-clay
and glass, and was glazed with a soft lead glaze; so that a
fragment of it would melt to an opaque glass in an ordinary
porcelain oven. It is principally met with in the form of dishes,
bowls (often mounted on feet) and saucers. The pieces are
generally very thin and are either perfectly plain or bear flutings
or simple wavy patterns incised in the paste. Most characteristic
and beautiful is the decoration by means of delicate perforations
either straight or lozenge-shaped. In the finest pieces the
perforations are filled with glaze, and then they form a decoration
analogous to the well-known " rice-grain " decoration of the
Chinese. Occasional pieces are found decorated with colour,
either a delicate green, producing an effect like pale bright
celadon, or the well-known Persian blue ground; and this is
sometimes decorated with lustre patterns. Nowhere can this
rare and delicately beautiful ware be so well studied as in the
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Lustred Ware. — The decoration of pottery with iridescent
metallic films is one of the most astonishing and beautiful inven-
tions ever made by the potter. Hitherto we have seen only
coloured clays, coloured glazes, or colours fired under the glaze,
but we are now brought face to face with a colour effect produced
by retiring the finished glazed pieces, at a lower temperature,
with pigments painted upon the glaze (fig. 40; see also Plate V.
13th-century Persian lustre). How such a practice originated
is probably an idle speculation, but it may have come through
repeated attempts to decorate pottery with gold. If gold was
painted under the glazes of these ancient vases, it would probably
vanish and leave no trace; but gold, alloyed with much silver,
applied over the finished glaze and refired, in the attempt to make
it adhere, may have given the first films of iridescent colour.
We know certainly that before the 13 th century the elements of
the process had been mastered, and that the potters of the nearer
East had learnt that by mixing some compound of silver (doubt-
less the sulphide) with clay, and painting the mixture on the
finished. vase, which was refired in such a way that the pieces
were only raised to a dull red heat and were then exposed to the
vapours of the wood-fuel, glowing lustrous patterns were left
on the ware that looked like metal — but metal shot over with
all the hues of the rainbow, golden, rosy, purple and green.
Numerous fragments of this lustred pottery had been disinterred
from the site at Rhagae, and it was therefore assumed that the
beautiful process was of Persian origin, particularly as most of
the examples then known bore designs of distinctly Persian style.
We are now inclined to think that the process really arose in
Egypt or in Syria, and was carried eastward to Persia, just as it
was afterwards carried westward to Spain. In support of this
view there is the written record of the Persian traveller Nasiri
1 See Drury Fortnum, Archaeologia, vol. xlii.
Khosrau, who visited Old Cairo in the nth century (1035- 1042).
He was apparently familiar wkh the pottery of his own country,
and notes all the novel forms that he found in the bazaars of
Old Cairo, which was both a great trading emporium for the
traffic of East and West, and a pottery centre of note. He
mentions, specially, certain translucent bowls of earthenware
decorated with colours resembling a stuff called " bougalemoun,"
" the tints changing according to the position which one gives
to the vase." Such a description could only apply to " lustred "
pottery, and it would seem as if this process must have been
known in Egypt or Syria before it was practised in Persia (see
Plate V., 13th-century Syro-Persian). In any case the secret
was soon carried to Persia, for we have ample evidence that it
was practised at Rhagae in the next century.
The earliest dated example of Persian lustred ware is a star-
shaped tile of the year a.d. 12 17 (a.h. 614), decorated with
spotted hares, heraldically confronted, in a ground of lustre
relieved by dots and curls, and surrounded by an inscribed
border. A vase in the Godman collection bears the date a.d. i 23 i
(a.h. 629), and some of the well-known " star and cross " tiles
from Veramin belong to the year a.d. 1262. The early Persian
Fig. aO. — Persian Ewer, white ground, with pattern in brown
copper lustre; the upper part has a blue ground. The mounting
is gilt bronze, Italian 16th-century work. (British Museum.)
lustre is chiefly known to us through the tiles with which the
walls of mosques and public buildings were decorated; the more
ephemeral vases, bowls and dishes have survived in smaller
numbers and very rarely in perfect condition. Common motives
of decoration were animals and birds (sometimes showing
Chinese influence), the hare and the deer being favourites;
roughly drawn sack-like figures of men and women, mounted
or on foot (probably heroes of Persian legend), conventional
foliage and arabesques. The designs are usually reserved in a'
lustred ground, which is relieved by small scrolls, curls and dots
etched in the lustre (as though the glazed piece had been covered
all over with the lustre mixture and the ornament scratched out
of this when it was dry), and showing beneath the ivory-white
tin-enamel with which the early wares are generally coated.
The lustre itself when viewed directly may look like some golden
or deep chocolate-brown colour, but as the piece is turned to
catch a side-light this deep colour is seen to bear a thin iridescent
film, which glows with golden, green) purple or ruby-red metallic
reflets. On the earliest examples the decoration is often entirely
in lustre, but later, lustre is often used to eke out a pattern
painted with masses of pale cobalt-blue or turquoise under the
glaze. Similar tiles with rather more elaborate ornament bear
r4th-century dates, and another variety has parts of the decora-
tion, more particularly the large letters of the inscriptions, raised
in low relief and heightened with blue. Yet another class,
belonging to the 14th century, has a fine dark-blue alkaline glaze,
TURKISH]
CERAMICS
<7*9
with designs in low relief , picked out with scrolls and arabesques
in white enamel or bold floral sprays in leaf-gold. Lustre is
frequently found applied to the rich cobalt-blue ground, and
there are still existing a few magnificent vases which show the
artistic possibilities of this scheme of decoration. It should be
noted that when the pieces are in the round, the pattern is
usually painted in lustre and not reserved in a lustre ground as
on the flat tiles. In the later examples the tin-enamel was
replaced entirely by white slip, and the lustre decoration con-
tinued in use until the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I.
( 1 587-1629). To the last period belong many charming bowls,
narghilis, cups and dishes in a brown lustre, with ruby reflets ,
on a white or a deep blue ground; this ware is pure white in sub-
stance and generally translucent, and the pieces are occasionally
signed (see Persian porcelain above).
Damascus Ware. — This time-honoured name (for " Damas
Ware " was often mentioned in medieval inventories, and
appears to have included many varieties of oriental pottery
which were highly prized in Italy, France and England in the
middle ages) 1 forms rather a puzzle nowadays for the archaeo-
logist, for many diverse wares have been included under this
title, some of which were
not made at Damascus.
Yet Damascus is one of
the oldest cities in the
world, and has seen
unnumbered dynasties
come and go around its
desert-fringed oasis. An
important centre of cara-
van traffic, a nexus of
palpitating life from east
and west, north and
south, we cannot wonder
if it developed a special
pottery of its own, tinged
with something of a cos-
mopolitan spirit. For-
merly the Damascus
wares were treated as a
variety of the Persian
pottery we have just de-
scribed, but the best ex-
amples of the class now
known under this name
exhibit a mingling of
various influences such as
we might expect, and have well-marked affinities both with the
Persian wares and those brilliant productions now commonly
recognized as Syrian and Turkish, while even far-off echoes oi
Chinese decorative mannerisms are not wanting. The character-
istic Damascus ware of the collector is marked by its quality; the
ground is of very dear white, the colours are pure and brilliant,
and the vessels, whether dishes or vases, are soundly made. The
decoration, which is purely floral or conventional, recalls the more
formal Persian style, but the colours recall those of the Turkish
pottery with one remarkable substitution. The piled-up red-clay
pigment of the latter is absent, but where it would inevitably
occur in the design of a Turkish piece its place is taken by a purple
made from manganese, which is often thin and rather washy in
quality. Fine examples of this famous ware are to be seen in the
British Museum and in the Louvre; its characteristic style of
pattern is well shown in the 16th-century Damascus piece
reproduced in Plate V. Another splendid example is the lamp
from the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, also in the British
Museum (fig. 41); and this has generally been classed with the
Damascus wares, though its colouring and its technique belong
rather to Lower Syria or to Egypt. This magnificent piece bears
a dated inscription, " In the year 956 in the month JemaziA-oda.
1 Specimens of Turkish and other Eastern wares exist with elabor-
ate English silver mounts of the time of Elizabeth, and these were
doubtless included under the name of " Damas Wares."
Fig. 41. — Lamp from the Mosque of
Omar.
The painter is the poor and humble Mustafa." This is reckoned
as June a.d. 1549. It may be remarked that our difficulties of
identification are increased by the fact that, under Arab rule,
Syrian and Persian potters were at work in Damascus, in Old
Cairo and elsewhere. Among the Fostat fragments classified
by Dr Fouquet are many bearing the signatures of Syrian work-
men. In the 15th and 16th centuries, too, imitations of Chinese
blue-and-white porcelain became common throughout the
nearer East, and quantities of fragments have been found at
Fostat, Ephesus and elsewhere.
Turkish Pottery. — This beautiful and striking ware, formerly
called Persian, and till lately Rhodian because Rhodes was a
known centre of manufacture, seems to have been fabricated in
all the countries overrun by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th
century, so that the name " Turkish," in spite of some opposition,
is now generally applied to it. (See fig. 42 ; and the 1 6th-century
Rhodian or Turkish pieces, Plate V.) It has a fine white body
of the usual sandy texture, covered, as a rule, with a wash of
pure white slip; it is painted in strong brilliant colours, chiefly
blue, turquoise, green, and a peculiar red pigment which is heaped
up in palpable relief — the whole of the ornament being outlined
with black or dark green.
The ware was glazed
with an alkaline glaze of
great depth, so that the
colours soften and some-
times run, producing one
of the most brilliant and
attractive of all the
oriental wares. In cer-
tain districts the white
ground was not used,
but over it a slip of the
red colour (Armenian
bole) , varying in strength
from bright red to pale
salmon, was laid over
the piece, reserving the
pattern only in the white
slip, which consequently
lies lower than the red
ground. Other examples
are known where the
ground has been covered
with lavender, blue,
sage, apple and turquoise
greens, chocolate or coffee-brown, and the sumptuous effect
of the whole was often increased by the application Of gold-
leaf over the fired glaze. The decorative motives are dis-
tinguished from those of the Persian wares by a breadth and
boldness which are in keeping with the brilliant, and not
always harmonious, colouring. They include, it is true, the
Persian arabesque, the floral scroll with feathery leaf, the thistle-
bloom and the cypress tree, but the naturalistic treatment
which permits immediate recognition of the favourite Turkish
flowers such as the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, fritillary, corn-
flower and lily (some of which were imported into Europe by
the Turks), is as original and distinctive as the arrangement of
the different elements of the design is artistic and charming.
Other styles of design include formal patterns and diapers, rarely
human and animal figures, and occasionally armorial devices
and ships. Tiles of this ware were extensively used for lining
the walls of public buildings, replacing the carpets and textile
hangings which their designs so freely imitated. Of domestic
articles, dishes are the most numerous, though vases, ewers,
sprinklers, jugs, tankard-shaped flower-holders, covered bowls
and mosque lamps are also plentiful. The tiles are found in all
parts of tie Turkish empire, though they were probably made at
certain centres, such as Nicaea (which gave its name to the ware
in the 16th century and no doubt supplied many of the mosques
in Constantinople), Kutaia, Demitoka, Lindus and other
centres in Rhodes and Damascus. Individual wares cannot fee
Fig. 42. — Rhodian Jug.
73°
CERAMICS
[HISPANO-MORESQUE
distinguished, except in some measure those of Damascus and
Xutaia. A small jug in the Godman Collection has an Armenian
inscription stating that it was made by " Abraham of Kutaia "
in the 16th century. A few fine bowls and vases, painted in
a beautiful blue with Persian arabesques and rosette scrolls,
recalling Chinese porcelains of the Ming dynasty, but of very
characteristic appearance, are also attributed to this place; and
later, in the 18 th and up to the end of the 19th century, an
inferior ware was largely manufactured here. This late ware
usually takes the form of small objects — plates, cups, jugs,
egg-shaped ornaments, &c. — with a thin, well-potted, white
body and slight patterns of radiating leaves, scale diapers, &c,
in blue, black and yellow. Turkish pottery was at its best in
the 1 6th and the early part of the 17th century, and though good
tile work of later date exists, the general pottery deteriorated
before the 18th century. An inferior ware of poor colour is
still produced in Turkey, Persia and Syria, and some attempt
has been made of late to revive the old lustre decoration,
but the results are not likely to be mistaken for those of old
times.
Collections, — The Victoria and Albert Museum contains the finest
collection of the # medieval pottery of the nearer East — the British
Museum collection, though much smaller, has some magnificent
examples. The Cluny Museum in Paris has a never-to-be-forgotten
collection of Turkish pottery, especially plates and dishes. The
museums of the Louvre ana of Sevres have also many beautiful
examples. Berlin, Frankfort and other German towns nave collec-
tions, but much smaller in extent. Private collectors in England and
France own many fine specimens, and mention may be made parti-
cularly of those owned by Mr Ducane Godman and Mr George
Salting.
Literature. — Fortnum, Majolica (1896) (also in South Kensing-
ton Museum Handbook); Falke, Majolica (Berlin, 1896); Fouquet,
Contributions d VHude de la ceramique orientale (Cairo, 1900) ; Kara-
bacek, " Zur muslimischen Keramik," in Monatsschriftfilr den Orient
(1884); Lane- Poole, Art of the Saracens in Egypt (1886); Migeon,
Manuel de Vart musulman, vol. ii. (1907) ; Sarre, Persiscke Keramik ;
and Jahrbuch der kdnielichen preussichen Kunstsammlung (1905),
part ii. ; H. Wallis, The Godman Collection (1) Lustred Vases (London,
1891); (2) The Tenth Century Lustred Wall-tiles (1894); Notes on
some Early Persian Lustre Vases (1885); Egyptian Ceramic Art
(1898). (R. L. H.; W. B.*)
HlSPANO-MORESQUE POTTERY
With the doings of the Moslem potters of the countries round
the eastern Mediterranean fresh in our minds, it is interesting
to follow the westward trend of the Moslem conquests, and see
how in their wake there also sprung up in Spain a ware of high
distinction and beauty. The Iberian peninsula had been the
scene of pottery-making from prehistoric times — a red unglazed
ware was made before the dawn of civilization as finely finished
as that found in the Nile valley by Flinders Petrie (see Egypt:
Art and Archaeology), and the Romans had one of their great
provincial pottery centres at Saguntum; but it was only when
a great part of Spain lay under Mussulman rule that artistic and
distinctive pottery was produced. What is by no means clear
is how it came to pass that when the traditional methods, learnt
by the Arabs in Egypt and Syria, were carried westward they
should have undergone such a radical change. Oxide of tin,
the opacifying and whitening material in glazes par excellence,
was certainly known and used in the East from at least the 6th
century B.C.; the ancient wares are coated with a covering of
white tin-enamel to hide the buff or reddish-coloured clay, and
it was similarly used elsewhere; but its use was sporadic and
not general in those countries, where we find instead a consistent
development of the pottery made with a white slip-coating and
a clear alkaline glaze. Perhaps it was that at this period tin
was almost as costly as gold, and it was only when potters with
an oriental training brought their skill to Spain, where tin
abounded, that the relative cheapness of the material led them
to employ it, so far as is known, exclusively. (There is a wide
distinction between the tin-enamelled and the slip-faced wares,
glazed with an alkaline glaze. In the latter, the more oriental
type, the slip-coating is of fine white clay and sand, and this is
finished with a transparent alkaline glaze containing little or
no lead ; in the former there is no need of a coating of slip, for
the addition of oxide of tin to a glaze rich in lead gives a dense
coating of white enamel, opaque enough to disguise the color
of the clay beneath.) Such colours as were used for painted
patterns were painted over this enamel coating before it was fired,
so that they became perfectly incorporated with it, and then this
ground furnished a splendid medium for the development of
those thin iridescent metallic films that we call " lustres." The
knowledge of this lustre process had been brought from the East
also, where it was used on another ground, and with the growing
use of lustre pigments containing copper as well as silver — until
the red, strongly metallic copper lustre almost ousted the quieter
silver lustres — we get the simple technique of one of the most
distinctive kinds of pottery known.
Briefly, the wares were " thrown " upon the wheel or
" pressed " on modelled forms — handles, ribs and dots of clay,
or strongly incised patterns were often added by hand — and they
were then fired a first time. A coating of the tin-enamel (rich
in lead as well as tin) was applied, and on this coating designs
were painted in cobalt and manganese; sometimes these colours
were only used as masses to break up the background. Then
the second firing took place and the piece came from the firing
all shining and white, except where the blue or brownish purple
Fig. 43. — Hispano-Moorish Plate, painted in blue and copper lustre.
had been painted (see fig. 43) . The lustre pigments, a mixture of
sulphide of copper or sulphide of silver, or both with red ochre
or other earth, was then painted over the glazed surface with
vinegar as a medium. The repainted piece was fired a third time
to a dull red heat, and smoked with the smoke from the wood
used in firing, and when cold the loosely adherent ochre and
metallic ash left were washed off, leaving the iridescent films in
all their beauty.
The technical practices of the Spanish potters and the com-
position of the lustre pigments are given in Cocks's account of
the processes followed at Muel (Aragon) in 1585. The Manises
receipt of 1785 gives: — copper 3 oz., red ochre 12 oz., silver
1 peseta piece, sulphur 3 oz., vinegar 1 qt. and the ashes scraped
off the pots after lustring 36 oz. 1 Interesting documents have
recently been published concerning the works executed by the
" Saracen," John of Valencia, at Poitiers in 1384, and it is certain,
from the list of materials supplied to him, that he made there
tiles that were enamelled and lustred.
The earliest record of lustred pottery in Spain is the geographer
Edrisi's mention of the manufacture of " golden ware " then
carried on at Calatayud in Aragon in 1 1 54. Ibn Sa'id (1 2 14-1 286)
1 See Riafio, Spanish Arts, Victoria and Albert Museum Hand-
book, pp. 149- 15 1 ; and Sobre la manera de fabricar la anHgua losa
dorada at Manises (1878).
ITALIAN]
CERAMICS
73*
speaks of the glass and the golden pottery Aade at Murcia
(city), Almeria and Malaga. From the 14th century the notices
which have come down to us divide themselves into two main
groups relating to the industry (a) at Malaga; (b) at various
localities, but especially Manises in Valencia.
Malaga. — Malaga was situated within the Moorish kingdom
of Granada, which formed, from 1235 until the late 15th century,
the last remnant of Moorish dominion in Spain. Here under
the art-loving Nasride dynasty, Mussulman arts and learning
flourished to an unprecedented degree. In 1337 Ahmed ben-
Yahya al-Omarf enumerates, among the craft productions of
Malaga, its golden pottery, the like of which he declares is not
to be met with elsewhere. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta
mentions (1350) the Malagan golden pottery, as does Ibn al-
Hatib (1313-1374) of Granada, in his description of Malaga.
The principal monument of the period is the royal palace of
Granada, begun in 1273, and finished during the 14th century,
from which period most of its ornamentation dates. Two vases
were discovered there, of which the existing one, known as the
" Alhambra vase," is admittedly the most imposing product
of Hispano-Moresque ceramic art extant. Its amphora-shaped
body (4 ft. s in. high) is encircled by a band of Arabic inscription,
above which are depicted gazelles reserved in cream and golden
lustre upon a blue field; the rest of the body and the prominent
handles are covered with compartments of arabesques and
inscriptions in the same colours; and panels on the neck, divided
by mouldings and decorated with strap-work and arabesques.
Vases similar in shape and technique, with ornament of Cufic
characters and arabesques in horizontal rows, are to be found in
the museums at St Petersburg, Palermo and Stockholm. As to
the exact date of these, experts are not agreed. Though pre-
senting all the characteristics of the 14th-century Hispano-
Moresque ornament, it seems probable that they were produced
at the same period as the large lustred wall-tile formerly in the
Fortuny (now in the Osma) collection, an inscription upon which
is by some held to refer to Yusuf III. of Granada (1400-1418),
not to Yusuf I. (1333-1354). Another remarkable example is a
dish (Sarre collection, Berlin), which, it is claimed, bears upon
its back, in Arabic, the word Malaga; it is ornamented with
eight segmental compartments filled alternately with strap-work
designs and arabesques in lustre. Malaga was reconquered by
Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, and after this its industry
probably decayed, as it is not mentioned by Lucio Marineo in
1 539 among the localities where ceramics then flourished.
Valencia. — The emirate of Valencia was reconquered by
Aragon in 1238. The history of its lustred ware is known from
1383, when Eximenes (whose evidence has been erroneously
held to date from 1499) mentions the golden ware (Obra dorado)
of Manises. Valencian pottery of this kind was an offshoot of
the Malagan industry, as in documents lately published (ranging
from 1405 to 1 51 7) it is repeatedly designated Malaga ware (Obra
de Malaga). Its decorative qualities became famous throughout
the whole of Europe and North Africa. The ware was chiefly
manufactured at Manises by the Moorish retainers of the Buyl
or Boil family, lords of Manises, who levied dues upon the output
of the kilns, and occasionally arranged for its sale. It is dis-
tinguished as regards its ornamentation from the pottery of
Malaga by the adoption of a more natural rendering of plant
form motives and by the use of armory. The ware consists of
drug pots, deep dishes, large and small plates, aquamaniles,
vases, &c. Some dozen varieties of ornament were employed
during the 15th and early 16th centuries, including mock arabic
inscriptions, various flower or foliage patterns taken from the
vine, bryony, &c., and gadroons. The centres of dishes frequently
bear the arms of a king or queen of Aragon, of the Buyls of
Manises, or other Valencian or Italian families for whom they
were made. Great dexterity is shown in the execution of minute
and complicated schemes of ornament and in the richness of
the colour schemes; golden lustre of various hues, with blue
and manganese, form the simple combinations, but the ruby,
violet or opalescent lustre combine to produce with the colours
a wonderful decorative effect. From 1500 the use of blue and
manganese was gradually discontinued and the ornament
quickly became nondescript, but the brilliancy of the lustre
pigment nevertheless obtained a wide popularity for the ware,
as is attested by Marineo (1539)1 Viciana (1564) and Escolano
(16x0). After the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609) the industry
was carried on by those who had escaped deportation or by
Spaniards who had learnt the craft; generally speaking their
productions can be summed up in the word " decadence." In
the course of the 1 5th century the manufacture of lustred pottery
was carried on at various other small towns near Valencia; in
1484 it was produced at Mislata, Pa tenia and Gesarte. It is
known to have flourished at Calatayud in 1507, and at Muel,
also in Aragon, in 1589. In the Valencia district much pottery
for ordinary use, ornamented with blue on white, was also
produced.
Majorca. — Scaliger, in 1557, states that Chinese porcelain was
imitated in the Balearic Isles, and that the Italians called these
imitations "majolica," changing the letter in the name of the
islands (then called Majorica) where they originated. The
truth would appear to be that Valencian wares, being exported in
Balearic vessels that called at Majorca on the voyage to Italy,
acquired a reputed Mallorcan origin. There is extant a potter's
petition praying for permission to establish himself in Majorca
(1560), in which he states that " Manises-ware," &c, had to be
imported, as it was not made there.
Collections. — In England, the Victoria and Albert and the British
Museums have fine collections of this ware. At Paris the Cluny
Museum collection, and the Louvre; the museum at Sevres contains
many fine typical pieces. Another good collection is that of the
archaeological museum at Madrid. The Berlin and the Hamburg
museums, the Metropolitan Art Museum at New York and the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts also contain good specimens. The
private collections of England, France and Italy are rich in these
wares, among the finest beine those of Mr F. D. Godman (Horsham),
and of Don G. J. de Osma (Madrid).
Literature.— A. Van de Put, Hispano-Moresque Ware of the
15th Century (1904) ; F. Sarre, " Die spanisch-maurischen Luster-
fayencen des Mittelalters," &c (in Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss.
Kunstsommlungen, xxiv. (1903); G. J. de Osma, " Apuntes sobre
ceramica morisca: textos y documentos valencianos," No. 1, 1906,
and " Los Letreros ornamentales en la ceramica morisca del siglo xv."
(in the review CulturaEspahola, No. ii, 1906; J. Font y Guma, Rajolas
valencianos y catalanas (1905) ; J. Tramoyeres Blasco, " Ceramica
valenciana del siglo xvii. (in the Almanaque, para 1908, del periodico
Las Provincias de Valencia; J. Gestoso y Perez, Historia de los barros
vidriados sevillanos (1904); also J. C. Davillier, Histoire des faiences
hispano-moresques a reflets mStalliques (1861). (A. v. de P.)
Medieval and Later Italian Pottery 1
Little is known of the potter's art in Italy after the fall of the
Roman empire till the 13th century. The traditions of the
Roman potters appear to have been gradually lost, leaving
behind only sufficient skill to make rude crocks for domestic use
and to coat them, if required, with a crude yellowish lead glaze
sometimes stained to a vivid green with copper oxide. Applied
ornament of roughly modelled clay and scratched designs were
the chief embellishments of such wares, which were of the same
class as the medieval pottery of Great Britain and the north of
Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, however, contact with
Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt and Spain, where ceramic skill had
been highly developed in fresh directions, as we have seen,
introduced into Italy as well as the rest of Europe those superior
wares characterized by a white surface decorated with bright
colours under a brilliant transparent glaze, and glorified by
metallic lustres. The Italian potters did not long remain
unaffected by these influences, but though Persian, Syrian and
Egyptian pottery must have been fairly plentiful in the house-
holds of the wealthy, it was the distinctively Hispano-Moresque
wares from which the potters of Italy drew the inspiration for
a new ware of their own. The technique of a siliceous slip-
coating with colour painted on that and covered with a trans-
parent alkaline glaze, was only sparingly used, and then not very
successfully; it is only the introduction of the tin-enamel that
was turned to fruitful account and led to the production of the
magnificent Italian majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries.
1 See examples in colour, Plate VI.
7 J*
CERAMICS
[ITALIAN
In the same way the practice of histre decoration might have been
learnt from the Orient, but its late appearance on Italian wares
(16th century) and its evident relationship to the lustres of Spain,
rather than to the earlier lustres' of Egypt, Syria and Persia, are
further evidence that though oriental decorative motives gave
the Italians certain early types of design, it is the Hispano-
Moresque potters from whom the Italians learnt the art they were
afterwards to develop so splendidly in a new direction. 1
All the Italian pottery above the level of common crocks may
be conveniently grouped into four classes.
i. The native wares, made of coarse and often dark-red clay,
coated with a white clay slip (a kind of pipe-clay) and covered
with a crude lead glaze, either yellow or green. The idea of
rendering this ware ornamental, and fitting it for more than
vulgar use, led to a great development of the graffiato process;
where, while the vessel, with its white clay coating was firm yet
soft enough, patterns were scratched or engraved through the
white slip to the red body beneath. This decorative method
has been already mentioned several times, for it was practised
during the early middle ages in all the countries from India to
Italy, and the Byzantine potters were adepts in its use. Nor
has its practice ever ceased in Italy, for through all the times
Fig. 44. — Italian Graffiato Plate, 16th century, (South
Kensington Museum.)
when painted majolica was the ware of the wealthy, this earlier
and humbler pottery was used by those who could not afford the
former; and the gaily-coloured later wares of this kind have a
fine decorative quality of their own. From the depth beneath
the present soil at which fragments of this ware have been
disinterred, it is obvious that the method was widely practised
in early times, and no simpler glazed wares are known except
those covered all over with green, yellow or brown glazes. Early
examples have been found all over northern Italy — in Faenza,
Florence, Pisa, &c, and particularly in Padua, where it seems to
have been extensively made. Pavia was another centre of its
manufacture, even to the end of the 17th century, and Citta di
Castello must have been noted for it in the 16th century, for
Piccolpasso describes this ware as " alia Castellana " (see fig. 44).
Apparently in the latter half of the 15th century a sudden
advance takes place in the colouring of this graffiato ware.
Instead of the simple glazes, of uniform colour, of the earlier
productions, underglaze colours — green, purple, blue and a
brown of the tint of burnt sienna which passes into a glossy black
where it is thick — were applied in bold splashes under the straw-
coloured glaze, producing a rich and decorative effect by very
1 There is ample documentary evidence to prove how largely the
lustred pottery of Spain was imported into Italy from the 12th
century onwards ; and it is important to note in this connexion that
almost all the fine examples of Hispano-Moresque in our modern
collections have been obtained from the palaces of ancient Italian
families.
simple means* As fine examples of this kind we may mention the
dish with the mandoline players, and one with cupids disporting
themselves in a tree, in the Victoria and Albert Museum; the
tazza> supported by three modelled lions, in the Louvre; and
the dish, with figures of the Virgin and two saints, in the museum
at Padua. The ware has often been called, quite erroneously,
mezza-wojolica. It had nothing to do with majolica, being the
natural development of a much older process; and its manu-
facture was carried on all through the period of majolica manu- •
facture and has never ceased.
2. Mezza- Majolica. — This name is accurately applied to certain
Italian wares that made their appearance in the 12th century
or even earlier, when rude patterns — a clumsy star,, a rude
crossing of strokes or some equally elementary work — are found
painted on a thin white ground covering a drab body. The
pieces, generally pitchers of ungainly forms, are uncouth in the
extreme; the body has been shaped in local clay and then thinly
coated by dipping it into a white slip, which seems at first to
have been of white clay only, though oxide of tin and lead were -
added to it even in the 12th century. The colours used for the
rude painting were oxide of copper and oxide of manganese,
and the final glaze, which is generally thin and often imperfectly
fused, seems to have been based on the alkaline glazes of the
nearer East. The specimens so assiduously recovered by
Professor Aragnani, some of which, or similar wares, are. to be
found in the Louvre, the British and the Victoria and Albert
museums, are typical of the rude work out of which, by a fuller '
knowledge of Spanish methods, the painted majolica grew.
3. Majolica. — For the last three centuries the word majolica .
has been used to signify an Italian ware with a fine but com- :
paratively soft buff body, coated with an opaque tin-enamel
of varying degrees of whiteness and purity, on which a painted -
decoration was laid and fired. In the later pictorial wares, a fine
coating of transparent alkaline glaze was fired over the painting ;
to soften the colours — really to varnish them. The word itself
appears to have been derived from the name of the island •
Majorca, and was originally applied by the Italians to the histred
wares of Spain which were largely imported into Italy, probably
arriving in ships that called at or hailed from Majorca, as we do
not believe that the ware was actually made in that island. That
the secret of the tin-glaze, which is the essential feature of Italian
majolica, was known in Italy in the 13th century is practically
proved; and there is both literary and archaeological proof of ;
its use there in the 14th. Mention of it is made in the Margarita .
Preciosa published at Pola by Pierre Le Bon in 1336, and the
well-known jug, bearing the arms of Astorgio I*, discovered under'
the Manfred i palace at Faenza f must have been made shortly 1
after 1393. Its development marched side by side with that of
the mezza-majoika, until it practically superseded the latter for .
painted wares in the 15th century; but the earliest examples
have little more than an archaeological interest, and it was only
after the last decade of the quattrocento or the first of the
cinquecento that it blossomed into an artistic creation. In its
prime the production of majolica was confined to a very small
part of Italy. Bologna on the north, Perugia to the south, Siena
on the west, and the Adriatic to the east, roughly enclose the
district in which lie Faenza, Forli, Rimini, Pesajjo, Cafaggiolo,
Urbino, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Perugia and Siena. Towards
the middle of the 16th century Venice on the one hand, and '
in the 17th and 18th centuries the Ligurjan factories at Genoa,
Albissola and Savona, made majolica of the later decadent
styles, while, at the end of the 17th and in the early part of the ,
1 8th centuries, the southern town, of Castelli, near Naples,
produced a ware which closes the period of artistic majolica.
4. Lustred Majolica. — This brilliant species of Italian pottery
(to which alone Piccolpasso applied the name majolica) seems to
have been mainly produced at Deruta and Gubbio, though
experiments were made at Cafaggiolo and probably at Faenza
and Siena. Considering how much the Italian majolist owed
to the Spanish-Moorish potter, it is remarkable that this beautiful .
method of decoration should have made so tardy an appearance,
for the earliest specimens do not appear to be much earlier than
CERAMICS
Plate I.
Fig. 52.— CORINTHIAN JAR.
Fig. 53.— FRANCOIS VASE.
(From Furtwangler and Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei,
by permission of F. Bruckmann.)
Fig. 54.— BLACK-FIGURED AMPHORA
BY EXEKIAS.
V. 732.
Fig. 55— VASE FROM SOUTHERN ITALY.
Signed by Python.
Plate II.
CERAMICS
Fig. 60.— AMPHORA OF APULIAN STYLE, WITH
SCENE FROM EURIPIDES' " HECUBA."
Fig. 59— FLASK OF VITREOUS GLAZED WARE.
(ROMAN PERIOD.)
CERAMICS
Plate III.
Fig. 6i.— MOULD FOR ARRETINE BOWL.
Fig. 62.— JAR OF ARRETINE WARE FROM CAPUA.
Fig. 63.— EARLY ETRUSCAN JAR.
(VILLANOVA PERIOD.)
Fig. 64— STAMP FOR ORNA-
MENTING ARRETINE VASE.
Fig. 65.— ETRUSCAN "CANOPIC"
JAR PLACED IN BRONZE CHAIR.
v. 740.
Plate IV.
CERAMICS
Fig. 66. -MOULD FOR BOWL OF GERMAN WARE.
(2nd CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
Fig. 67. — MEDALLION FROM VASE
MADE IN S. FRANCE, WITH SCENE
FROM TRAGEDY. (3rd CENT. AFTER
CHRIST.)
Fig. 68. — JAR OF RHENISH WARE
WITH INSCRIPTION. (3rd CENT.
AFTER CHRIST.)
Fig. 6q.— BOWL OF GAULISH (LEZOUX) WARE WITH FIGURES
IN "FREE" STYLE. 2nd CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
Fig. 70— JAR OF LATER LEZOUX WARE.
(3rd CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
ITALIAN]
CERAMICS
733
the end of the 15th century, and the process was apparently
abandoned by the middle of the 16th. The lustre wares of
Deruta, probably the earliest made in Italy, have strongly-
marked affinities with their Spanish prototypes; the earlier
examples are hardly to be distinguished from Spanish wares,
and to the last the ware remained technically like the earlier
ware, though with perfectly Italian decorative treatment. Yet
the best examples of Deruta silver lustre have a quality of tone
that has never been surpassed; a colour resembling a wash of
very transparent umber bearing a delicate nacreous film of the
most tender iridescence. The Gubbio lustre is best known to us
through the works of Maestro Giorgio, whose distinctive lustre
is a magnificent ruby-red unlike any other. In all probability
the lustre process was so quickly abandoned on the fine painted
majolica, because the increasing efforts to make a " picture "
were discounted by so uncertain a process. When one of the
later majolica painters had spent weeks on the decoration of
some vase or dish, with an elaborate composition of carefully
drawn figures, it was not likely that he would care to expose it
to any risks that could be avoided. The risks of the lustre process
were inordinately great — Piccolpasso says, " Frequently only
six pieces were good out of a hundred " — so that its use was rele-
gated only to inferior wares, and then the process was relinquished
and forgotten until its rediscovery in the second half of the
19th century.
The history of the development of these noble wares is by
no means clear, nor is it always certain what part was played
by each town in the successive inventions of technical methods,
decoration and colouring, so that it is better, in such a general
sketch as this, to treat the subject in its broadest features only.
In' the earlier painted wares the only colours used were
manganese-purple and a transparent copper-green as on the
mezza- majolica; but early in the 15th century cobalt-blue was
added to the palette, and, later on, the strong yellow antimoniate
of lead, mixed with iron. The decorations at this period were
largely influenced by the wares imported from Persia, Syria,
Egypt and Spain, specimens of which were so prized as to be
used for the decoration of church fronts and the facades of public
buildings. The lustre of the Saracenic wares was not yet under-
stood, but its place was taken first by manganese and afterwards
by yellow. The designs were chiefly conventional flower-patterns
in the Persian or Moorish style, arabesques, and floral scrolls,
the ground being filled at times with those tiny spirals, scrolls
and dots to which the Eastern potters were so partial. Figures,
human and animal, were introduced either among the formal
ornament or only sundered from it by panels, of which the
outlines often followed the contours of the central design (see
the early 15th-century Faenza piece, Plate VI.). The figures
were, in fact, drawn to conform to the outline of the vessel, and
not the vessel made to display the figure-subject as in the majolica
of the succeeding century. The earliest dated example of this
period is the pavement laid down in the Caracciolo chapel in the
church of San Giovanni a Carbonara, in Naples, about 1440.
Specimens of these tiles may be seen in the British Museum,
and from their style it has been suggested that they were made
by some Spanish potters brought over to Naples by Queen
Joanna, who was of the royal house of Aragon. To this period
also have been referred the large ovoid jars made to contain
drugs or confections, and decorated with bold scrolls of formal
oft k leaves enclosing spirited figures of men or animals, or heraldic
devices. These* are characterized by a rich blue colour generally
piled up in palpable relief and sometimes verging on black; the
outlines are usually in manganese, and transparent green is used
for details and occasionally even as a ground colour. This ware
has been definitely assigned to Florence on what seem very
inadequate grounds, and it is better to speak of it simply as
Tuscan. Then, essentially Italian ornament began to assert
itself, and it redounds to the credit of the Italian majolist that
he soon freed himself from repeating the styles of the wares from
which he obtained his methods, and produced a distinctive type
of ornament of his own. He revelled in patterns with bold floral
scrolls, or those based on peacocks' feathers (see fig. 45), &**d
Fig. 45. — Early Faenza plate, with
peacock-feather design, in blues, yellow
and orange-red. (victoria and Albert
Museum
&0N5I0R&I0
14Z?
Early Faenza
Potter's mark.
ft
Late Faenza
Potter's mark.
then he advanced to concentric bands of painted ornament,
borrowed from classic art yet breathing the true spirit of the
Renaissance; while cable
borders, chequer and
scale patterns, bands of
stiff radiating leaves,
festoons of fruit and
flowers, zigzags and
pyramidal scrolls occu-
pied nearly the whole |
.surface or framed anl
armorial or emblematic'
central subject. Figure-
subjects occur with in-
creasing frequency as
the century advanced;
Madonnas and other
sacred subjects, portraits,
and, occasionally, groups'
of figures after the early
Italian masters, or scenes
borrowed from the first
illustrated editions of the classics, gradually encroach on the
conventional borders and occupy more and more of the surface
of the piece. The provenance of these 1 5th-century pieces still
remains uncertain — Faenza, Forli, Florence, Siena and other
places offering rival claims, — but there is no doubt that from
the earliest times
Faenza was the
most fertile centre
of their manufac-
ture, and almost all
the motives of the
quattrocento wares
are found on fragments discovered there or on examples that
can be traced to Faventine factories.
It is customary to treat the enamelled terra-cottas of Luca
della Robbia, the great Florentine sculptor (1300-1482), and his
followers, Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia and other members
of the family, as belonging rather to the domain of sculpture than
of pottery, and this is right, for there is nothing certainly known
of the work of this great sculptor which connects it with painted
majolica. The old theory that Luca invented the tin-glaze is
long since exploded; what he did was to use coloured glazes
made with a basis of tin-enamel on his boldly modelled terra-
cottas — a very different thing, — and it is by no means certain
that he was the first to do even that. The Victoria and Albert
Museum is extraordinarily rich in della Robbia ware of every
kind; and one may see there these beautifully modelled figures
in high relief covered with pure white tin-enamel, set in a back-
ground of slatey blue or rich manganese purple and framed in
wreaths of flowers and fruit which are coloured with blue, green,
purple and sometimes yellow. There are altar vases too, of
classic shape with low relief ornament, covered with the same
peculiar blue glaze; these are sometimes furnished with modelled
fruit and flowers; and finally there is the rare set of roundels
painted on the flat with figure-subjects typifying the months;
but the attribution of these remains doubtful, and their method
is not that of painted majolica.
A remarkable development took place at the beginning of
the 1 6th century, and in the forty succeeding years the highest
perfection of manipulative skill, both in potting and painting,
was attained. Artistically regarded, the elaborate and detailed
methods of painting then adopted are too much allied to fresco-
painting to be considered as fit treatment for enamelled clay;
but this view was certainly not accepted at the time, nor is it
subscribed to by many modern collectors; yet, regarded as
decorated pottery, the 1 5th-century majolica, simpler and more
conventional in design and treatment, is eminently preferable.
The ruling families of northern Italy, who now took the industry
under their personal patronage, clearly inclined to the opposite
view and spared no expense to provide subjects for their
734
CERAMICS
[ITALIAN
pot-painters. During the first two decades the influence of Faenza
was paramount, and though the encroachments of purely pictorial
motives are clearly indicated on the wares, room was still found
for ornamental patterns. The broad rims of the dishes were
covered with beautiful arabesque designs, frequently including
grotesque figures, masks, dolphins and cherubs (see the Faenza
Casa Pirota piece, 1525, Plate VI.)- Sometimes reserved in the
white on a dark blue ground and shaded with light blue and
yellow, sometimes traced in dark blue on a paler grey-blue glaze
(called berettino) or painted in darker tints on a ground of orange
or full yellow, the Faventine arabesques form a conspicuous
feature of the early wares of this century. Honeysuckle patterns
and interlaced lines drawn in pure white on a toned tin-enamel
(white on white or sopra-bianco decoration) commonly appear
on the sides of the deep wells of the dishes, while in the centre
is a single figure, a coat of arms, or a small figure-subject. A
similar treatment, without the sopra-bianco, was accorded to the
fruit-dishes, shallow bowls on low feet, &c, with moulded
gadroons or scalloped sides, which are generally attributed to
Faenza or Castel Durante. The workshops of Siena were also
noted for delicately painted grotesques and arabesques, with a
rich brownish-yellow or deep black ground. At Gubbio, too,
the " grotesque " decoration was practised with marked success.
Other developments of this style are the " a candelieri " designs,
in which grotesques were symmetrically arranged round some
central subject, such as a candelabrum or vase, and " a trofei "
in which trophies of arms, musical instruments, and other objects
were symmetrically disposed, or arranged in studied disarray
throughout the design \ these patterns are generally associated
with the wares of Castel Durante and Deruta. Lovers' gifts,
dishes in which the whole space is occupied by a portrait bust
o£.a girl or man, with the name and a complimentary adjective
inscribed on a ribbon in the background, were common to
Faenza, Castel Durante and many other factories. Elaborate
figure-subjects also were attempted early in the century at
Faenza and with no little success, as may be seen from a dish in
the British Museum, which is entirely occupied by the scene of
the death of the Virgin, after a print by Martin Schongauer,
delicately painted in shades of blue, and dated about 1500.
In the early Faventine school the outlines of the figures are
almost always traced in blue, even when they are laid on the
grey-blue berettino ground, and blue was the prevailing colour
of the shading and details. In the third decade of the century
the style affected at Urbino superseded that of Faenza. The
majolica painter's palette was now complete; in addition to the
primitive blue, manganese-purple, transparent green and yellow,
we find black, white, orange, greens of varying shades, brown,
and a great number of intermediate tints obtained by mixing
the standard colours. All the colours of the majolica of the best
periods were painted on the tin-enamel before the final glazing,
and were capable of standing the full heat of the fire. Such a
thing as painting in enamels on the finished ware and retiring
them at a lower heat was unknown before the end of the 17 th
or beginning of the 18th century. A true red colour seems to
have been beyond the power of most of the Italian majolists,
and was only attained at Faenza, and with less complete success
at Cafaggiolo; the famous red of the Turkish pottery behaves
very indifferently on tin-enamel.
In the Urbino style, which now be-
came general, the ware was given over
entirely to pictorial subjects, scenes
from history or romance, scriptural and
mythological, copied from the com-
positions of the Italian painters and
usually set in a background of Italian
landscape. Guidobaldo II., duke of
Urbino, spared no pains to develop this
phase of the art; the cartoons of
Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio and others, were placed
at the disposal of the pot-painters, as well as the paintings of
Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Battista Franco, Rosso Rossi,
Perugino, Parmeggiano and many more, and these, together
Urbino Potter's mark.
with engravings by Agostino Venetiano, Marco Dente, Enea Vico
and others, were copied, with more or less fidelity, on the
majolica. Some of the painters, as, for instance, Xanto Avelli,
were eclectic in their tastes and made up their subjects by taking
a figure here or there from various pictures. Thus of three
figures on a plate in the British Museum, painted with the Dream
of Astyages, one is borrowed from Raphael and another from
Mantegna. These " istoriati " wares reached their zenith at
Urbino between the years 1530 and 1560, when the workshops
of the Fontana family were in full activity; but their popularity
was very general, and skilful painters at many other towns
produced specimens that it is hard to distinguish from those of
Urbino. Baldasara Manara was a prolific painter in this style
at Faenza; Pesaro and Castel Durante were little behind Urbino
in the skill of their artists, the Lanfranchi family in the former
town having a well-deserved reputation, while the founders of
the Fontana factories learnt their art in the latter; and a few
pieces of considerable merit bear the name of Rimini as their
place of origin.
There will always remain a large number of specimens of
majolica which cannot be assigned with certainty to any par-
ticular factory, partly because the same style of painting was in
vogue at many places at the same time, and partly because of
the itinerant propensities of many of the painters, whose signed
works prove that they moved from place to place to practise
their art. There are, however, a few prominent artists whose
touch is sufficiently well known from the examples that bear
their signatures to enable us to classify a considerable proportion
of the finest pieces. First of these is Niccola Pellipario, the
founder of the Fontana family, who moved from Castel Durante
to Urbino in 15 19, and worked at the latter place in the factory
of his son, Guido Fontana. There is little doubt that he was
the painter of the famous service in the Correr Museum at Venice,
which marks the transition from the style of Faenza to that of
Urbino, and his free figure-drawing, the oval faces with strongly
marked classical features, the peculiarly drawn knees, the careful
landscapes and the characteristic balls of cloud are easily recog-
nized in quite a number of pieces in the British Museum (see the
Gonzago Este piece, Plate VI.) . His pupil, who frequently signed
his name in full, Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, was one of the foremost
Urbino painters, and his work is characterized by bold colouring
and fine figure-drawing, with a marked fondness for yellowish
flesh tints. But Niccola's grandson, Orazio Fontana (see
example, Plate VI.), was perhaps the most celebrated exponent
of the pure Urbino style, and his free drawing and soft har-
monious colouring, in which a brilliant blue is usually conspicuous,
are unequalled by any other majolica painter of the period.
Certain characteristic wares of Faenza have already been
noted. Those with the grey-blue (berettino) glaze were principally
made at the factory called Casa Pirota,
though inferior imitations were also
produced at Padua, and a blue glaze
of paler tint was largely used at
Venice. Dolphins are a frequent
motive in the arabesque ornaments
of the same Faventine workshop, and
many of the wares are marked with a
circle divided by a cross and contain-
ing a dot in one of the quarters. A
capital P crossed with a line or paraph
is another Faventine mark, and a
somewhat similar monogram, witL an
S added to the upper part, is found
in the wares of Cafaggiolo. It has
already been stated that a red colour is peculiar to Faenza
and in an inferior and browner tint to Cafaggiolo; it was
used, according to Piccolpasso, at the factory of Vergiliotto
in the former place. At Cafaggiolo, the factory of the Medici
family, many fine pieces were painted, mostly in the Faven-
tine style; a deep blue, heavily applied and showing the
marks of the brush, was freely used in backgrounds, and
delicate running leaf scrolls in paler blue and reminiscent of
Venetian Majolica
Potter's mark.
ITALIAN]
CERAMICS
735
Later
Cafaggiolo
Potter's
mark.
Persian style often appear on the Cafaggiolo wares (see example,
Plate VI.). Not a little can be learnt from the ornament on the
reverse sides of the dishes and plates; those of Faenza and
Siena are richly decorated with scale patterns and concentric
bands; those of Cafaggiolo and Venice are either left blank or
have one or two rings of yellow. A few pre-
eminently beautiful dishes, with central figure sub-
jects of miniature-like finish in delicate landscapes
with poplar trees in a peculiar mannered style,
are probably the work of M. Benedetto of Siena.
Borders of arabesques with black or deep orange
ground belong to the same factory and were perhaps
decorated by the same hand. The dishes covered,
except for a few small medallions, with interlaced
oak branches (" a cer quale " decoration), are no
doubt the productions of Castel Durante; and a
certain class of large dishes with figure subjects in blue on a
toned blue glaze, and sometimes with formal ornaments in relief,
are of undisputed Venetian origin.
Another phase of majolica decoration began about the middle
of the 1 6th century and synchronized with the decline of the
pictorial style. The figure subjects were relegated to central
panels or entirely replaced by small medallions, and the rest
of the surface covered with fantastic figures among floral scrolls,
inspired by Raphael's grotesques painted on the walls of the
Loggie in the Vatican. The prevailing tone of this ornament
was yellow or orange, and the tin-enamel ground, which is always
more or less impure in colour on Italian pottery, was washed
over with a pure milk-white, known as bianco di Ferrara or
bianco allatato, said to have been invented by Alphonso L, duke
of Ferrara, who took an active interest in his private factory
founded at Ferrara, and managed by potters from Faenza and
Urbino.
The new style flourished at Urbino, Pesaro and Ferrara;
at the first-named particularly in the workshops of the Patanazzi
family, and lasted far into the 17th century. But the majolica
was now in full decline, partly through the falling off of princely
patronage, and partly, perhaps, owing to a reaction in favour
of Chinese porcelain, which was becoming more plentiful and
better known in Europe. The manufacture, however, never
entirely ceased, and revivals of the old style were attempted at
the end of the 17 th century by Ferdinando Maria Campori of
Siena, who copied Raphael's and Michelangelo's compositions,
and by the families of Gentile and Grue at Naples and Castelli.
The majolica of Castelli is distinguished by the lightness of the
ware, good technique, and harmonious but pale and rather weak
colouring; it continued into the 18th century. A coarse and
inferior ware was made at Padua and Monte Lupo; and the
factories of Faenza were still active, producing, among other
kinds, a pure white ware with moulded scallops and gadroons.
The industry continued to flourish in Venice and the north.
Black ware with gilt decoration was a Venetian product of the
17 th century, and at Savona
and Genoa blue painted ware
in imitation of Chinese blue
and white porcelain made
its appearance. In the 18th
century a new departure was
made in the introduction of
enamel painting over the
glaze, a method borrowed
from porcelain; but this process was common to all the faience
factories of Europe at the time, and though it was widely
practised in Italy no special distinction was attained in any
particular factory. In our own days imitations of the 16th
century wares continue to be made in the factories of Ginori,
Cantigalli and others, not excepting the lustred majolica of
Gubbio and Deruta; but, compared with the old pieces, the
modern copies are heavy to handle, stiff in drawing, suspiciously
wanting in the quality of the colours and the purity of the final
glaze which distinguish the work of the best period.
Lustred Wares. — The lustred wares of Deruta have marked
b lack ware witn gilt decoration ^
Turin
Potter's Savona Potter's marks,
mark.
characteristics, and, though differing in actual treatment from
the Hispano-Moresque, their appearance is eloquent in favour
of such a derivation. The most characteristic examples are
large dishes and plateaux, thickly made and with the enamel
on the upper face only, the back having a lead glaze. They are
often decorated (see fig. 46) with a single figure or bust in the
centre (with or without an inscribed ribbon), which is usually
set against a dark blue background which covers only half the
field, while in the other half is a formal flower, and in the borders
are radiating panels with palmettes alternating with scale pattern,
or some other formal design. The whole style is archaic, the
designs being heavily outlined in blue and washed over with a
greenish yellow lustre, with beautiful opalescent reflets recalling
mother of pearl. The lustre varies from this madreperla tint to
a brassy metallic yellow, and parts of the ornament are sometimes
modelled in low relief. In spite of its archaic appearance, the
Deruta lustred wares are scarcely older than the 16th century,
and the style was continued as late as the second half of that
century. Deruta pottery was not always lustred, and some of
the pieces signed by the painter El Frate, who flourished between
Fig. 46. — Early majolica plate, in blue and yellow lustre only,
made at Pesaro or Deruta, c. 1500. The motto on the scroll may be
Englished as follows: " He who steers well his ship will enter the
harbour." (Louvre.)
1 541 and i554» are without the lustre pigment, though showing
the heavy blue outlines of the lustred wares. The lustred
majolica of Gubbio owes its celebrity almost entirely to the work
of one man, Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who came thither from
Pavia, with his brothers Salimbene and Giovanni, and obtained
citizenship in 1498. His earliest efforts were in the direction
of sculpture, and some of his reliefs in the style of della Robbia
are still in existence; indeed the earliest dated piece of lustred
majolica attributed to him is a plaque of 1501, with the figure
of St Sebastian in relief, in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
It is not known whence he learnt the secret of the beautiful
transparent ruby lustre peculiar to Gubbio. A red or rosy
lustre is found in both Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares,
and no doubt the process was learnt from some Moslem potter
and developed by Giorgio to unusual perfection. Golden,
yellow, brown and opalescent lustres were also freely used at
Gubbio, the ruby being only sparingly applied. Finished
painted pieces were sent from other factories to receive the
addition of lustre at Gubbio, but these can almost always be
distinguished from the true Gubbio wares, in which the lustre
is an integral part of the decoration. Apart from the lustred
enrichment, the majolica of Gubbio has few distinctive qualities,
for its styles were various and almost all borrowed (see fig- 47)-
The archaic taste of Deruta, the arabesques and grotesques oi
73^
CERAMICS
[ITALIAN
Faenza and Castel Durante, and in a lesser degree the " istoriato "
style of Urbino, reigned in turn. Perhaps the most characteristic
paintings of Maestro Giorgio are the central medallions of cups
and deep dishes enclosing a single figure of a child or a cupid in
grisaille. Giorgio's larger figure compositions, if indeed his
Fig. 47. — Gubbio plate, with portrait in ruby lustre and blue outline.
(Victoria and Albert Museum.)
signature in lustre may be taken to imply that he painted the
designs as well as lustred them, show great inequality, some rising
to a very high standard — as the dish with " the Three Graces "
in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the " Bath of Nymphs "
in the Wallace collection — while in others the figure drawing is
quite inferior. The arabesques and grotesques on the Gubbio
wares are usually of great merit. There are a few known pieces
of unlustred Gubbio wares with figure subjects, painted chiefly
in blue and in the style of the early Faventine artists. After
1 5 1 7, when we may assume that the lustre process was thoroughly
mastered, the Gubbio wares were usually signed with the initials
or full name of Maestro Giorgio, and a few rapidly executed
$£ Awji-i
Gubbio Potters* marks.
scrolls in lustre completed the decorations of the reverse of the
plates and dishes. The master's latest signed work is dated 1 54 1 ,
and he died in 1552. It is probable that his brother Salimbene
assisted him, and Piccolpasso names his son Vincentio as possessor
of the lustre secret. Possibly the latter was the painter who
signed his wares with the initial N, but this conjecture rests
solely on the ingenious, but unsupported notion that N is a
monogram of the first three letters of the name Vincentio.
Other initials, M, D, R, also occur on Gubbio plates, and the
latest dated example of the ware is signed by one " Mastro
Prestino " in 1557, but it has little to recommend it save that it
is enriched with the Gubbio lustres, which after this time entirely
disappear.
The old majolica shapes are briefly as follows: — among the earliest
are small bowls (scodelle), often with flattened sides; jugs (boccali)
with large lip-spouts, and mouths pinched into trefoil form ; large
dishes with gradually shelving sides (bacili), or with flat broad rims
and deep centres ; akin to these are the plateaux with a raised flat
disk in the centre; small dishes with oroad flat rims and deep
though narrow central walls (tondini), suitable for handing a wine-
glass or sweetmeats; flat trencher-shaped plates (fnaUi or taglieri);
saucer-shaped dishes on low feet and sometimes with moulded sides
(tazze or fruttieri) suitable for holding fruit. Among the vase forms
ovoid shapes with short necks and a pair of flat handles are common
in the Tuscan wares of the 15th century; the jars for confectionery*
drugs, or syrups were often of the cylindrical form with graceful con-
cave sides known as the " albarello,' in shape of Eastern origin, and in
name perhaps derived from the Persian el barani (a vase for drugs,
&c); other vase forms with spouts and handles were used for the
same purpose; ornamental vases after classical designs (vasi a
bronzi antichi); and in the best Urbino period ai great variety of
fanciful forms — ewers, vases, cisterns, shells, salt-cellars, ink-pots,
&c, with applied masks and serpentine handles, were made in the
exuberant taste of the time. A complex piece of furniture for the
bedside of ladies in childbirth (vaso puerperal*) consisted of a bowl
with a foot surmounted by a flat trencher on which fitted an inverted
drinking-bowl (ongaresca) ; and above this again a salt-cellar with
cover. Many 01 these shapes were suited to daily use, but the richly
decorated majolica was designed to adorn the walls, the credence,
table-centres and cabinets of the rich. This alone could have been
the destination of the large dishes (piatti di pompa) with rim pieces
for suspension, and the smaller dishes (coppe atnatorii) with portraits
of young men and girls and lovers' symbols; and it is inconceivable
that the costly lustred wares of Gubbio or the fine madreperla dishes
of Deruta were designed for anything but decorative use. The ware
was in fact an article produced for the wealthy in the century of
Italy's glory, and under no other conditions could such magnificent
and expensive pieces have been made.
Technical Methods. — This is a convenient place to give an account
of the methods used by the early medieval potters — (1 ) because they
represent what had been learnt from Roman times to the 16th cen*
tury, and indeed to the introduction of modern methods, (2) because,
besides all that a potter could derive from an examination of the
wares, we have ample written accounts of the methods and processes
followed by the Italian majolist. Mr Solon has recently published
an epitome of the account given in Biringuccio's La Pyrotechnic*
(Venice, 154°)» and there is the memorable MS. of Piccolpasso, a
potter of Castel Durante, now in the library of the Victoria and
Albert Museum, which, besides giving an account of the processes,
contains illustrations of kilns, mills, decorative motives, &c l
1. The potter's clay was prepared from mixtures of various kinds
prepared by (a) beating ana picking out coarse particles, (b) mixing
with water, (c) passing through a sieve, (d) drying again into plastic
clay ready for the working potter. The essential point about the
potter's clay of the best tin-enamelled wares, whether Spanish,
Italian, French or Dutch, is that the clays are those known geo*
logically as " maris," which contain a large percentage of carbonate
of lime. Such clays always fire to a pinky red or buff colour, and
give a ware that is strong and yet light in substance, and on no other
kind of clay does the tin-enamel display its full perfection (see
Deck's La Faience). The analyses of certain tin-enamelled wares
are useful as showing the essential constitution of the best pottery
bodies for such purposes.
Delia
Robbia.
Majolica.
Delft.
French
Faience.
Silica ....
49-65
48-00
49-07
48-65
Alumina .
15-50
17-59
16-19
17*05
Lime ....
22-40
20-12
1801
19-43
Magnesia .
017
117
0-82
027
Oxide of iron
3-70
375
2-82
4*33
Carbonic Acid,
water, &c. . .
8-58
9.46
I309
10-27
2. Shaping. — The vessels were either " thrown " on the potter's
wheel (which had remained practically unaltered from Egyptian
times), or they were formed by " pressing " thin cakes of clay intp
moulds, made of a composition of plaster (gesso), bone-ash and
marble dust. In the latter way all shapes that were not circular
were made, as well as those with heavy bosses or gadroons imitated
from embossed metal forms. It is interesting, though not surprising,
to note that for the fine later wares, the roughly thrown vases, when
sufficiently dry, were recent red on the wheel or were placed in a
joiner's lathe and smoothed to a clean and accurate surface. The
Greek potters did the same, and this practice must always be followed
where fine painting or gilding is afterwards to be applied. In the
later florid vases of the Urbino style the piece was built up of
thrown parts and moulded parts (handles, masks, spouts, «c),
luted together with slip when they were dry enough to be safely
handled, and then retouched by the modeller or vase-maker, a
method followed to this day for elaborate pieces of pottery or
porcelain.
3. The Glaze. — The white enamel which formed at first both the
glaze and the ground for painting upon — bianco, as it was called —
was prepared in a complicated way. A clear potash glass (martacoUo)
was made by melting together clean siliceous sand (rena) and the
potash salt left as the lees of wine (feccia). This corresponds to
the alkaline glaze of the Egyptians with the substitution of potash
for soda. Such a glaze alone would have been useless to the Italian
potter, and accordingly the bianco was made by melting together
1 Piccolpasso, J Ire libri dell 1 arte del Vasajo, dated 1548. It has
been several times translated both into modern Italian and French.
The English reader will find an excellent abstract of this interesting
MS. in the volumes on Majolica by Drury E. Fortnum r
CERAMICS
Plate V.
"tfcmj*
i*-k
khodian or Turkish;
16th century.
Syro- Persian;
13th century.
hodian or Turkish;
16th century.
hodian or Turkish;
Jbth century.
Damascus: 16th century.
Persian, lustre and underglaze colour: 13th century.
FRENCH]
CERAMICS
737
thirty parts of martacoUo and twelve parts of lead and tin ashes. The
white enamel as used was therefore a mixed silicate of lead and
potash rendered opaque with oxide of tin.
4. Pigments (colon) were compounded from metallic oxides or
earths; the yellow, from antimoniate of lead, which was mixed
with oxide of iron to give orange; the green, from oxide of copper
(the turquoise tint given to the Egyptian and Syrian glazes by oxide
of copper is impossible with a glaze of lead and tin) ; and the greens
were made by mixing oxide of copper with oxide of antimony or
oxide of iron ; blue, from oxide of cobalt, used in the form of a blue
glass (smalto, or zaffara) ; brownish-purple, from manganese; black,
from mixtures of the other colours; and the rare red, or reddish
brown, of Faenza and Cafagpiolo was probably the same Armenian
bole that was used so magnificently by the makers of the Turkish
pottery, but on the white enamel ground this colour was most
treacherous and uncertain. ' It must he remembered that many of
these colours owe their tint to the lead used in their composition, or
to the grounds containing oxides of lead and tin on which they were
painted. Piccolpasso describes the preparation and composition of
the various colours used in his day.
5. Coperta, or transparent glaze. In the later majolica a thin
coating of soft rich glaze was applied over the fired painting to. give
a smooth bright surface. This coperta was a soft lead glass consisting
of silica (sand), 20 parts; oxide of lead, 17 parts; potash, 12 parts;
and common salt, 8 parts; fused together and then finely ground
in water.
6. Methods of Glazing and Decorating. — In the mezza-majolica and
the early majolica it is probable that the clay vessel was dipped in
the white bath to give it an envelope (invetriatura) before it was fired
at all; but it must soon have become apparent that it was much
better to fire first the shaped vessel until it was about as hard and
brittle as a clay tobacco-pipe, and then coat it with the white enamel,
by dipping it into a bath or pouring the fluid material upon it. This
was tne practice described by Piccolpasso. A coating of white enamel,
the thickness of glove leather, having bee"n obtained, the piece was
carefully taken by the painter, who first etched in the outline on the
absorbent powdery ground, and then shaded the figures, landscapes,
&c, in blue or in a mixture of blue and yellow, adding the other
colours as gradated washes. The vase was then fired a second
time to a heat greater than the first, so that the enamel was melted
on the vessel and the colours sunk into the enamel at one and the
same operation. This meth9d of painting on the unbaked enamel
demanded a bold direct treatment — for alteration or retouching
was impossible — and much of the vigour of the earlier designs is due
to this fact. As the ware became more refined in its treatment it was
felt that this method did not yield a sufficiently brilliant surface, and
so the painted and fired piece was coated with a film of coperta and
fired again at a slightly lower temperature to make it smoother and
more glossy. Still pursued by the idea of rivalling the triumphs of
pictorial art, the majolist carried his methods a step farther. The
white enamel coating was fired before painting, giving a glossy
surface on which the painter could draw or wipe out, and so could
execute outlining, tinting, or shading of the utmost delicacy. A film
of coperta was then washed over the painting, and the piece was
fired a third time in the cooler parts of the kiln. In some instances
it is not easy even for an experienced potter to decide which method
has been pursued, owing to the softening of the colours. Generally
we should expect that the later and more pictorial pieces had been
painted on a ground of fired white enamel, and we may be absolutely
certain when delicate white patterns have been " picked out " in
a coloured ground.
Where lustre decoration has been added to a piece of majolica
it indicates, as elsewhere, the use of a special process, and a final
firing at a lower heat. The lustre pigments were the same as those
used on the earlier lustred wares, and these were painted over an
otherwise finished piece. To obtain the lustre effect these were
placed in a special Kiln, so contrived that when the pots were just
visibly red the smoke of the burning fuel (rosemary or gorse) was
allowed to play upon them long enough to drive the metallic films
(silver or copper) into the already-fired glaze. 1
Collections. — The Victoria and Albert Museum contains perhaps the
most widely representative collection in the world, especially as at
the present time the pieces of the Salting and Pierpont Morgan
collections are on exhibition there. The British Museum collection
is valuable, being rich in " signed " pieces of the first quality. The
Wallace collection and the Asnmolean Museum at Oxford (Fortnum
collection, &c.) are also valuable and contain some remarkable
examples. The Cluny Museum, the Louvre and the museum at
Sevres have fine collections; while noteworthy pieces are to be
found in the Ceramic Museum at Limoges. In Germany the museum
at Brunswick contains one of the largest collections known, but many
inferior and doubtful examples. Berlin, Munich, Vienna and St
Petersburg have noteworthy collections. In Italy, the Bargello at
Florence and the museums of Venice, Milan, Turin, Faenza, resaro,
Urbino, Rome and Naples all have collections, whilst interesting
examples of local manufactures are to be found in many of the
1 For a full account of the lustre process see Franchet, Comptes
rendus for December 1905, and W. Burton, Society of Arts Journal,
2846, vol. lv., 1907.
smaller Italian towns. The American museums, especially those in
New York, Boston and Philadelphia, have some fine examples.
Literature. — F. Argnani, La Ceramiche et maioliche faentine
(Faenza, 1880 and 1903); D. Bonghi, Intorno alle Majoliche di
Castelli (Naples, 1856); Professor Douglas, " Siena," in the Nine-
teenth Century, September 1900; Hensel, Essai sur la majolique
(Paris, 1836) ; G. I. Montanari, Majoliche dipinte nella coUezume del
N.S.C. Domenico Mazza (Pesaro, 1836); L. Frati, Di un insigna
raccolta di majoliche (Bologna, 1844); also Di un pavimento in
majolica (Bologna, 1853); 7. C. Robinson, Italian Sculpture of the
Middle Ages (London, 1862); £. Darcel, MusSe du Louvre: Notice
des faiences peintes; Drury E. Fortnum, Contribution to the History
of Pottery (London, 1868); Delange, Recueil de faiences italiennes
du XV au XVII* silcle (Paris, 1869); M. Meurer, Italienische
Majolika Fliesen (Berlin) ; £. Molinier, Les MajoUques italiennes en
Italic (Paris, 1883), also La Ceramiaue italienne auXV* siecle (Paris,
1888) : C. Piccolpasso, / tre libri detV arte del Vasajo, Castel Durante
1548 (original MS.) and translations by C. Popelyn, Paris, 1841 and
i860, also Italian editions of Rome and Milan; V. Lazari, Notizia
delta raccolta Correr (Venice, 1859); Drury E. Fortnum, A Descrip-
tive Catalogue of the Majolica in the South Kensington Museum
(London, 1873) ; Beckwith, Majolica and Faience (New York, 1877) ;
G. Corona, La Ceramica (Milan, 1878); G. Vanzolini, Istoria delle
fabbriche di majoliche metaurensi (Pesaro, 1 879); A. Genolini,
Majoliche italiane (Milan, 188 1) ; Mely, La Ceramique italienne (Paris,
1884); J. E. Jacobsthal, Sud-italtenische Fliesen (Berlin, 1886);
Bertolotti, Figulini, fonditori, e scultori (Milan, 1890); H. Wallis,
Italian Ceramic Art (1897), The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic
Art of the Italian Renaissance (1900), The A rt of the Precursors (iqoi ),
The Majolica Pavements of the Fifteenth Century (1002), Oak-leaf
Jars: A Fifteenth Century Italian Ware (1903), The AlbareUo (1904),
also Seventeen Plates by Nicola Fontana (1905), and Italian Ceramic
Art: Figure Designs (1905); Tesorone, VAntico Pavimento delle
Logge di Raffaello %n Vaticano (Naples, 1891); Columba, // " Quos
Eg?' di Raffaello (Palermo, 1895); Drury E. Fortnum, Majolica
(London, 1896); also Fortnum Collection in the Oxford Museum
(London, 1896); O. von Falke, Majolika (Berlin, 1896); also
Sammlung R. Zschille: Katalog der italtenischen Majoliken (Leipzig,
1899); Antaldi Santinelli, Museo di Pesaro (Pesaro, 1897); De
Mauri. VAmatore di Majolica (Milan, 1 898); E. Hannover, De
Spanske-Mauriske, og de forste Italienske Fayence (Copenhagen,
1906). (R.L.H.; W.B. 1 )
French Pottery from the 15TH to the 19TH Century
The pottery of medieval France needs little attention here,
for it was, in the main, similar to that which was made generally
in Europe — rudely shaped vessels of ordinary clay often decorated
with modelled ornament and glazed with yellow or brown lead
glaze, or, if coated with white slip, decorated with bright green
glazes, and towards the end of the 15th century with greyish
blue. The later specimens of this simple ware — pronouncedly
Gothic in feeling — were often extremely decorative. Avignon,
Beauvais and Savigny are the best-known centres of this truly
national manufacture, and, as we might expect in French work,
the reliefs are often sharp and well designed. Evidence accumu-
lates that from time to time the princes and great nobles imported
Spanish or Italian workmen to make special tiles for the decora-
tion of their palaces or chapels. The duke of Burgundy brought
Jehan de Moustiers and Jehan-le-Voleur, " ouvriers en quar-
rieaux paints et jolis" in 1391, to paint tiles for his palaces at
Hesdin and Arras in the north, and we have already referred to
the tile-work in the Spanish fashion made at Poitiers by John of
Valencia, the " Saracen," in 1384 for Duke Jean de Berry .*
Other instances might be multiplied but that this foreign work
left little or no traces on contemporary French pottery. Even at
a later date, when Francis I. brought Girolamo della Robbia
from Italy to decorate his " Petit Chateau de Madrid " in 1529,
or when Masseot Abaquesne, about 1542, manufactured at
Rouen the painted tile pavements for the chateau of Ecouen, the
cathedral of Langres, and other places, nothing came of the
imported methods; the works were executed and left no traces
on the general pottery of the country. During the 1 5th century,
however, two remarkable kinds of pottery were made in France
of distinctive quality, and both eminently French — the Henri-
Deux ware and the pottery of Bernard Palissy and his imitators.
Henri-Deux, Oiron or St Porchaire ware, for aU these names
have in turn been applied to the enigmatic and wonderful pottery,
specimens of which are now valued at more than their weight in
• See Magne, Le Palais de Justice de Poitiers (Paris, 1904) ; also
Solon in Burlington Magazine (November 1907).
v. 24
738
CERAMICS
[FRENCH
Fig. 48. — Tazza of Oiron pottery.
(Louvre.)
gold, was once believed to have been made by the librarian
Bernard, and his assistant Charpentier, for their patroness
HelSne de Hangest about 1529 at her chateau at Oiron, near
Thouars. 1 A few years ago this theory was discarded in favour
of one which assigned them to some unknown potter of St
Porchaire in the same region; 1 but even of this theory there
is insufficient proof, and we are left in doubt both as to the
maker and the place of origin. All we know is that the ware
dates from the reign of Henry II., and that it was probably made
somewherenearOiron,
as most of the speci-
mens have been found
in that district. The
work is sui generis,
for it had no. direct
ancestry, neither did
it leave any mark on
contemporary French
pottery. Sixty-five
pieces of the ware (see
fig. 48) are known to
be in museums and
private collections;
the Louvre and the
Victoria and Albert
Museum have the best
collections of their
kinds, but the Roth-
schilds still hold the
greater number of ex-
amples. The ware is
fashioned in a simple
whitish pipeclay, and
ornamented with interlacing strap-work patterns, typical of
the period, inlaid in yellow, buff or dark-brown clay. The
forms are generally graceful, but some examples are over-
elaborate and overloaded with modelled ornament. The pieces
were designed to serve as candlesticks, salt-cellars, tazzas, ewers,
holy-water pots and dishes. After the vessels had been
" thrown " and " turned " to a perfect shape, metal tools, such
as were used by the bookbinders and casemakers of that day,
were pressed into the clay, so as to form sunk cells of ornamental
tooling. These cells were carefully filled with finely-prepared
slips of other clays, that would burn yellow, buff or dark-brown;
and when the whole was dry the piece was carefully smoothed
again, and moulded reliefs were
-*l attached, or touches of colour were
applied. After being fired the ware
was glazed, apparently with the
J ordinary lead glaze of the time care-
Oiron Potter's mark. ful1 / Prepared and fired again. At
a later period the ornament was
not inlaid in this elaborate manner, but was simply painted,
as indeed it might all have been so far as decorative effect is
concerned.
Palissy Ware. — Bernard Palissy was a genius of original
talent, but, at the hands of his literary admirers, he has gained
a legendary rank as one of the great potters of the world which
his pottery does not warrant. He is supposed to have spent
sixteen years in the search for the white enamel which was being
used all the time in Italy and Spain — probably he was searching
for the mystery of Chinese porcelain — and when he settled down
to make the " Palissy ware," he did nothing more than carry to
perfection the methods of the village pot-makers of his own
district. On a hard-fired red clay he disposed groups of moulded
plants, shells, fish and reptiles, painted them with crude green,
brown and yellow colours, and glazed the whole with a well-
prepared lead glaze. His style soon had numerous imitators,
like A. Clericy and B. de Blemont, who executed works quite as
good as those of their master; but their works also vanished and
1 See B. Fitlon* Les Faiences d' Oiron (1862).
2 See E. Bonaffe, Les Faiences de Saint-Porchaire (1898).
left no permanent impression on the general trend of French
pottery.
Meantime Italian, and, it may be, Spanish potters strayed
over the French border and attempted to introduce the manu-
facture of their tin-enamelled wares; for we know of the works
of Gambin and Tardessir of Faenza, established at Lyons about
1556; of Sigalbn at Nlmes in 1548; of Jehan Ferro at Nantes
about 1580, and other sporadic efforts. The needed impetus
came, however, when the Mantuan duke, Louis de Gonzague,
became duke of Nevers in 1565; and we find Italian majolists,
working under princely patronage, planting their decadent art
in the centre of France. The first efforts met with little success
until, with the appearance of the Comrades from Savona, who
were domiciled in Nevers in 1602, we get the genuine ware of
Nevers. Naturally the first productions, whether of the Con-
rades or their predecessors, were in the style of the debased
majolica of Savona, but the body and glaze of the ware is harder,
the colours are not so rich, and the execution is less spirited.
The first departure' from Italian traditions is seen in the ware
of the so-called " Persian style " of Nevers — probably adopted
from contemporary work in Limoges enamels on metal — where
conventional and fanciful designs of flowers and foliage, birds,
animals or figures were thickly raised in white enamel on a
ground of bright, intense cobalt-blue glaze. After the middle
of the 17 th century the Italian style of design appears to have
been entirely replaced by pseudo-oriental patterns painted in
blue or in polychrome, but really imitated from the "Delft"
copies of Chinese and Japanese porcelain. When Rouen and
Moustiers became famous for their distinctive wares Nevers
copied their designs also, and on a gradually descending scale
the manufacture continued to the end of the 18th century, when
Fig. 49. — Di9h of Rouen enamelled pottery, painted in blues and
deep red.
France was flooded with the rude Faiences palrioliques from
this centre.
The genuine French tin-enamelled ware, freed from the traces
of Italian influence, first developed itself at Rouen under the
famous Poterats in the later part of the 17 th century. A new
scheme of ornamentation was gradually evolved in the daintily-
designed scalloped and radiating patterns adapted from oriental
fabrics, lace and needlework, and from the ornamental devices
of contemporary printers. These designs, having been skilfully
drawn on the pieces, were filled in with bright blue, strong yellow,
light green, or a bright bricky-red in palpable relief, applied as
flat washes or in fine lines; and the result was a gay and sparkling
ware much superior in decorative value to the later Italian
majolicas (see fig. 49). So successful was this Rouen ware that
rival factories were quickly started at Saint Cloud, Sinceny,
GERMAN]
CERAMICS
739
Quimper, Lille, and other places in the north. Saint Cloud and
Lille made fine pottery of this class at the end of the 17th and
in the early 18th century. It was imitated at Nevers, the
potters' marks shown being those of J. Bourdu and H. Borne.
—L-- In the south of France, Pierre
\^m^^ UT ^ t Clenssy established the industry
■ ^J J I # l^m at Moustiers in 1686, and, though
'■ ^^^ ** #%^J^ tne early Moustiers ware bears a
J- ^^m \ ^q Q# strong resemblance to the debased
•^ Italian majolica of the time, the
Nevers Potters' marks. Moustiers painters soon left that
behind, and on a glaze of inimitable whiteness and .softness they
deftly pencilled blue patterns based on the engravings of designs
after Berain, Marot and Toro. At a later date Olerys, who had
been to Alcora to introduce the French faience into Spain,
returned to Moustiers and introduced a pale polychrome style
very inferior to that of Rouen. These pieces are covered with
patterns outlined in blue and filled in with yellow, pale green
and light purple. Olerys is also said to have introduced the
grotesque style of Moustiers, founded on the caricatures of
Callot. Other factories were started from Moustiers, such as
those at Apt, Ardus and Montauban, and even at Narbonne,
Bordeaux and Clermont-Ferrand; just as the northern factories
had sprung from Rouen.
We have already seen at Nevers the introduction of patterns
in the Chinese style, and the same course was increasingly
followed at all the French factories during the 18th century.
At Strassburg a fresh impetus was given in this direction when,
about 1 7 21, Charles Hannong introduced the practice of painting
his white tin-enamelled ware with the on-glaze colours used by
the porcelain painters. This process enabled the French potter
to produce many colours unobtainable by his older process, and
moreover helped him to make his wares look more like the
coveted porcelain, then becoming the rage all over Europe.
This new departure marks the end of the best period of French
faience, but so successfully did it meet the demands of the time
that it gradually displaced the old method of decoration where
the colours were painted on the raw glaze and fired along "with
it. Factories sprang up for the manufacture of this new ware
in the first half of the 18th century at NiederviHer, Luneville and
Sceaux, and it was quickly adopted by the older factories at
Rouen, Sinceny, Marseilles, &c. With its general adoption the
old French faience, developed from the Italian stock, departed,
to make way for a tin-enamelled imitation of famiUe-rose
porcelain. But this last style was not of long life. The wealthy
classes were no longer patrons of pottery but of porcelain, and
when, after 1786, the newly perfected English earthenware was
thrown upon the French market, the French faience-makers had
to give up their works, or adopt the manufacture of this neater
and, for domestic purposes, more suitable form of pottery.
This change, together with the disturbances of revolutionary
times, brought artistic pottery in France to a standstill, and we
shall treat of its revival during the last forty or fifty years in a
subsequent section.
Collections. — The Victoria and Albert Museum and the British
Museum contain typical examples; but not such collections as are
to be seen in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, the museum at Sevres,
or the French provincial museums at Rouen, Limoges, Marseilles,
Lille, St Omer, &c.
Literature. — Deck, La Faience (Paris, 1887); Gasnault and
Gamier, French Pottery (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks,
1884); Le Breton, Le MusSe chamique de Rouen (Rouen, 1883);
Milet, (?) Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de Rouen (Rouen,
1898); Pottier, Histoire de la faience de Rouen (Amiens, 1870);
L'Abbe" H. Requin, Histoire de la faience artistique de Moustiers,
tome i er (Paris, 1903); M. L. Solon, The Ola French Faience
(London, 1903) — the best survey of the whole subject, with a very
full bibliography. The various volumes of the Gazette des beaux-
arts contain many valuable original articles. (W. B.*)
German, Dutch and Scandinavian Pottery
In northern Europe until the tim« of the Renaissance the
making of tiles is the only branch of the potter's craft of artistic
rank. The pavement tiles of Germany of the Gothic period,
examples of which have been found in the valley of the Rhine
from Constance to Cologne, often bear designs of foliage or
grotesque animals full of character and Spirit. Their decoration
is effected either by impression with a stamp of wood or clay, or
by " pressing " the tile in a mould to produce a design in relief.
The surface is sometimes protected by a lead glaze — green,
brown or yellow — but is generally left Unglazed.
Glazed tiles with relief ornament were also made as early as
the 14th century for the construction of stoves, such as have
continued in use in Germany to the present day. About 1500 a
development took place in the combination of glazes of different
colours on a single tile. In the middle of the 16th century
Renaissance ornament appears in place of Gothic canopies and
tracery, and blue and white enamels begin to be used in com-
bination with lead glazes of other colours. Figures in the
costume of the period, or shields of arms, in round-arched niches
are a favourite motive alike in the stove tiles and in the wares
of similar technique known as Hafnergefctsse } which have been
wrongly attributed to Hirsvogel of Nuremberg. These were
made not only in that city but also in Silesia and at Salzburg,
Steyr, and elsewhere in ^Upper Austria; their manufacture
continued into the 18th century.
Imitations of Italian majolica with polychrome painting on
a white enamelled ground were first made in southern Germany
about 1525, and it is with these wares that the name of Hirsvogel
should really be associated. The same style survived for more
, than a century and a half in the stoves and pottery made by the
Pfau family at Winterthur in Switzerland, from the end of the
. 1 6th century onwards. An interesting development is exhibited
by certain rare productions, of Silesian origin, dating from about
1 5 S°> with decorations in coloured enamels which are prevented
from flowing together by a strong outline incised in the clay.
Stoneware. — The most important feature of the history of
German pottery is the development of stoneware along the
valley of the Rhine. This ware is of a highly refractory white
or grey body of intense hardness, glazed by the introduction of
salt into the kiln when the highest temperature was reached. It
was exported in large quantities through the markets of Cologne
and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to England, France and other parts 1
of northern Europe. The frequent occurrence in its decoration
of the arms of foreign cities and princes shows that the German
potters were alive to the requirements of foreign customers.
The oldest centre of this manufacture seems to have been at
Siegburg near Coblenz, where the white stoneware peculiar to
the neighbourhood, made from local clay, must have been made
and exported in considerable quantities at least as early as the
15th century; plain beer-jugs of that date with cylindrical neck
and slightly swelling body have been unearthed in London and
the eastern counties of England. In the 16th century an artistic
development took place, and the potters were formed into an
exclusive gild under stringent regulations. The manufacture
lasted till the sack of the town by the Swedes in 1632, subsequent"
attempts to re-establish it being unsuccessful. This ware, of a
creamy white colour, generally thinly glazed and only rarely
coloured by staining with cobalt blue, is decorated by impression
with small stamps or by the application of reliefs pressed from
separate moulds. The motives include sacred and classical
figure subjects, portraits of contemporary sovereigns, and
armorial bearings, with accessory foliage in which a survival
of Gothic feeling is often perceptible. Characteristic forms are
the high tankard (Scknelle) and the ewer with long spout (Schna-
belkrug), but the fancy of the potter also found expression in
various quaint or extravagant forms.
At Raeren in the duchy of Limburg this industry attained
importance about 1550, and was continued for over seventy
years; 1539 is the earliest date known to occur on this ware.
The pieces were of two kinds, brown-glazed and grey; the latter
usually decorated with blue. The favourite form is a baluster-
shaped jug with heraldic designs or a frieze of figures round the
middle. The subjects are from Scripture history or contemporary
peasant life as interpreted by Hans Sebald Beham and the
German and French " Little Masters." Examples are known
740
CERAMICS
[PUTCH
bearing dates and names or initials of mould-cutters, among
them Ian Emens and Baldem Mennicken; but it must not
always be inferred that a piece is as old as the date introduced
in its decoration, for the same set of moulds might be used for
many years.
Another important centre in the 16th century was at Frechen
near Cologne. Round-bellied jugs known as BarlmUnner, from
the bearded mask applied in front of the neck, covered with
a brown glaze, which in later examples is often coagulated
into thick spots, were first made here towards the end of the
15th century, and continued to be the staple product well into
the 17 th. The jugs of this type, known as Greybeards or
Bellarmines, which were exported in profusion to England,
Scandinavia and the Low Countries, were mostly made here.
At Cologne itself there were also factories, probably before
the 1 6th century, the later productions of which resemble
those of Frechen.
During the 17 th and 18th centuries the busiest stoneware
centre was the district surrounding Hdhr-Grenzhausen in Nassau
known as the Kannebackerlandchen, where artistic ware was
being made before 1600. Soon after that date manganese
purple was first used in the decoration in addition to cobalt
blue, and henceforward colour in combination with impressed
and incised ornament tended more and more to supersede
decoration in relief. Figure subjects gave place to rosettes,
foliage on wavy stems, and geometrical patterns. Vessels
of large size and fantastic shape appear beside the standard
forms of the earlier factories. In the 18th century the forms
of beer-vessels became stereotyped in the globular jug with
cylindrical neck and the cylindrical tankard, while tea and
coffee pots, inkstands and other vessels, hitherto unknown,
began to be made. A stoneware manufacture dating back
to the middle ages existed at Creussen in Bavaria, The
productions of this district during the 17th and 18th centuries
consist of tankards of squat shape, jugs and jars, of a dark red
body, covered with a lustrous dark brown glaze, frequently
painted after the first firing in brilliant enamel colours with
figures of the Apostles, the electors of the Empire, or other
oft-repeated motives. Imitations of the wares of Raeren and
Grenzhausen were made at Bouffioulx near Charleroi; other
minor centres of the manufacture were at Meckenheim near
Cologne and Bunzlau in Silesia.
As in England, so in Holland (by Ary de Milde and certain
Delft potters) and in Germany, attempts were made with
some success, early in the 18th century, to imitate the Chinese
red stoneware, known as boccaros. The early efforts of Bottger,
the discoverer of the secret of true porcelain, at Meissen, belong
to this category. His red ware is of such hardness that it was
cut and polished on the lapidary's wheel. For some time after
the manufacture of red ware at Meissen had ceased, a glazed
brown ware of less hard body with gilt or silver decoration
was made at Bayreuth. The products of other minor factories
of this class cannot now be identified.
Mention may be made of the lead-glazed peasant pottery,
such as the bowls produced at Marburg with quaint symbolical
devices modelled in relief and applied. Slip-covered wares
with graffiaio decoration, apparently of indigenous growth
and not inspired by foreign examples, were made well on into
the 19th century near Crefeld and elsewhere in Germany, at
Langnau in Switzerland, and by German emigrants in Penn-
sylvania. In Holland a peculiar green-glazed ware was made
in the 18th century with pierced geometrical decoration recalling
the Dutch carved woodwork of the period.
Delft. — One of the most remarkable phenomena in the history
of pottery is the appearance about 1600, in a highly developed
state, of the manufacture of a tin-enamelled earthenware at
Delft. It was introduced in that town by Herman Pietersz
of Haarlem, but whence he learned his art is unknown. The
faience-makers (plateelbackers) were one of the eight crafts of
Delft which formed the Gild of St Luke founded in 161 1. About
1650 a great development took place, and till the latter years
of the 18th century, when its faience was ousted by the more
serviceable wares of the English potteries, Delft remained
the most important centre of ceramic industry in northern
Europe. The ware is of fine buff-coloured clay, dipped after
the first firing in a white tin-enamel, which formed the ground
for painted decoration; after painting, this was covered with
a transparent lead glaze and fired a second time, so that in its
technique it belongs to the same class as the painted Italian
majolica and the old French faience. At its best it is rightly
ranked among the greatest achievements of the potter's art.
Characteristic of the first period are dishes and plaques in
blue monochrome with somewhat overcrowded scenes of popular
life in the style of the engravings of Goltzius. Imitations of
the oriental porcelain imported by the Dutch East India Company
were introduced about 1650 by Aelbregt de Keizer and con-
tinued for some time among the finest productions. At the
same time the earlier tradition was developed in the finely
painted landscapes and portraits of Abraham de Kooge and
Frederick van Frytom. Other potters of the best period were
Lambartus van Eenhorn and Louwys Fictoor, makers of the
large reeded vases with. Chinese floral designs in polychrome,
Augestyn Reygens, Adriaen Pynacker, and Lucas van Dale;
to the last are attributed the pieces with yellow decoration on
an olive-green enamel ground. The rare examples with poly-
chrome decoration on a black ground in imitation of Chinese
lacquer are the work of Fictoor and Pynacker, With the 18th
century came a largely increased demand and a consequent
deterioration in artistic quality. The rise of the German porce-
lain factories had its effect in the introduction of overglaze
painting fired in a muffle kiln, typified by the work of the Dextras,
father and son. This innovation, by which the Delft potters
attempted to compete with European porcelain, contributed
to the ruin of their art by eliminating the skilled touch required
for painting on the unfired enamel. The ware frequently, but
not invariably, bears a mark derived from the sign of the factory
(the rose, the peacock, the three bells, &c), or the name or initials
of its proprietor.
A smaJJ faience factory was started by Jan van Kerkhoff
about 1755 at Arnhem; its productions were of good quality,
chiefly in the rococo style, marked with a cock.
The exportation of the Delft ware to Germany occasioned
the rise of numerous factories in that country for making
faience in imitation of the Dutch. Among these may be named
Hanau (founded about 1670), Frankfort and Cassel. Others,
such as Kiel and Stralsund, drew their inspiration from the
productions of Marseilles and Strassburg (g.i>.). At Nuremberg
a factory was founded in 17 12, which was but little affected
by extraneous influences; among its characteristic productions
are dishes with sunk decoration in the form of a star, and jugs
with long necks and pear-shaped bodies, often spirally fluted.
Similar wares were made at Bayreuth. The Dutch and French
styles were carried by German potters into Scandinavia; fac-
tories were established at Copenhagen in 1722, at Rorstrand
and Marieberg near Stockholm in 1 7 28 and 1 7 58, and at Herreb^e
in Norway about 1759.
At the close of the 18th century the influence of imported
English earthenware was strongly felt. In Holland workshops
were established for painting the English cream-coloured ware
with subjects suited to the Dutch taste; and in Germany
cream-coloured wares and sleingut in imitation of Wedgwood's
productions were manufactured at Cassel, Proskau and else-
where. The " Delft " ware of Holland during the 17th century
was a beautiful decorative ware, in which the Dutch painters
caught successfully the spirit, and often the very colour value,
of Chinese blue and white porcelain. Its fame spread over
the whole of Europe, and its styles were readily imitated by
the potters of all other countries who made a similar ware.
Even the polychrome Delft, though not nearly so beautiful as
the " blue and white," is strongly decorative, and one sees in the
polychrome faience of northern France and of Germany more
than a trace of its influence. When this ware was supplanted
by English earthenware it was a clear instance of a ware that
was technically superior displacing a more artistic product.
CERAMICS
Plate VI.
JL
Urbitio.
Decorated by
Orazio Fori tana.
Urbino, 1525 (?).
A plate of the famous Gonzaga-Este service.
Faenza: early 15th century.
SPANISHJ
CERAMICS
7+i
Collections. — For German wares the German museums are natur-
ally best. The museums at Munich and Nuremberg contain splendid
collections of the tin-enamelled and peasant wares of South Germany.
Cologne has a wonderful collection of the Rhenish stoneware, and
Berlin and Hamburg have good general collections. Copenhagen
and Stockholm are especially good for Scandinavian wares, and
ZOrich for Swiss. There are also good collections of German stone-
ware in the Victoria and Albert and the British museums, and in the
Cluny Museum, the Louvre, and the museum at Sevres; but there
are no notable collections of the German tin-enamelled wares out
of Germany. The wares of Delft may be best studied in the
museums at the Hague and Amsterdam. There is an interesting
collection at the factory of Thooft and Labouchere in Delft. The
principal museums in England, France and Germany all have fair
to good collections of this renowned ware.
Literature. — For tiles and peasant pottery, see Forrer, Ge-
schichte der europdischen Fliesen-Keramik (Strassburg, 1900 ; chapters
on the Netherlands and Germany) ; Walcher von Molthein, Bunte
Hafnerkeramik der Renaissance in Osterreich ob der Enns und Salzburg
(Vienna, 1906); Hafner, Das Hafnerhandwerk und die alten Of en
in Winterthur (Winterthur, 1876-1877); Barber, Tulip^ware of the
Pennsylvania German Potters (Philadelphia, 1903). For stoneware,
see Solon, The Ancient Art Stoneware of the Low Countries and Ger-
many (London, 1892); Van Bastelaer, Les Grcs wallons (Mons,
1885). For Bftttger's red ware, see Berling, Das Meissner Porzellan
(Leipzig, .1900), chap. iii. For Dutch faience, see Havard, Histoire
de la faience de Delft (Paris, 1878), and article by same author on
" La Faience d'Arnhem " in Gazette des beaux-arts, 2nd series,
vol. xx. (1879). For German faience, see von Falke, Majolika
(Berlin, 1896), and articles by Stieda, " Deutsche Fayencefabriken
des 18. Jahrhunderts," in Keramische Monatshefte, vols. ii. and iii.
For Scandinavian pottery, see Nyrop, Danske Fajence og Porcellains-
maerker (Copenhagen, 1881); Strale, Ror strand et Marieberg (Stock-
holm, 1872); Grosch, Herreb+e-Fayencer (Christiania, 1901). Ex-
cellent accounts of most branches of the subjects are given by
Brinckmann, Das hamburgische Museum fur Kunst una Gewerbe
(Hamburg, 1894). (B. Ra.)
Later Wares of Spain and Portugal .
We shall only deal at length here with those important kinds
of pottery that have exerted real influence on the historical
development of the art. Offshoots from the main stem that have
developed little or no individuality can only be briefly mentioned.
When the characteristic Spanish- Moorish lustre wares ceased
to be desired by the wealthy they rapidly sank into insignificance,
though as a decorative peasant pottery their manufacture never
really ceased and has been revived again in our day. The course
of pottery importation was changed and the now fashion-
able Italian majolica was brought into Spain in the 16th and
17th centuries, as Hispano-Moresque wares had followed the
opposite course two centuries earlier. Besides the influence
which these imported wares had on the Spanish potters, a number
of wandering Italian majolists found their way into Spain, so
that we find the use of painted colour, particularly blue, yellow,
orange, green and purple, making its appearance at various
centres, around Valencia, at Triana near Seville, &c, but the
most important manufacture was at Talavera in the centre of
the peninsula. The best of this ware recalls the late Italian
majolica of Savona, and the influence of Chinese porcelain de-
signs, probably filtered through to the Spanish potters by the
then popular enamelled Delft wares, is very apparent. The
potteries of Talavera are mentioned as early as 1560, and they
continued at work, with varying fortunes, down to the end of
the 1 8th century. Many and varied wares were produced, in-
cluding tiles as well as pottery; the most common pottery
pieces are dishes, bowls, vases, tinajas, holy- water vessels, drug-
pots, and hanging flower vases,together with moulded and painted
snails, owls, dogs, oranges, almonds, walnuts, and every kind
of fruit. Apart from the poorer colour the baroque style of
ornament also rendered the ware much inferior to that of Italy
or of France. The popular Talavera wares were imitated else-
where in Spain, and a number of factories existed at Toledo in
the 17th century, but their wares are very inferior. In the 18th
century, besides debased imitations of this ware, some coarse
but striking pottery was made at Puente del Arzobispo near
Toledo.
An interesting offshoot from the Talavera potteries is to be
found in the tin-enamelled wares made at Puebla, Mexico, from
the early 17th century. It is said that Spanish potters were
settled at this place by the Dominicans soon after 1600; and the
making of a debased form of Spanish majolica continued there
for nearly two centuries. See Barber's "Tin-Enamelled Pottery,"
Bulletin of the Philadelphia Museum, 1907. During the 18th
century determined efforts were made by King Charles III. and
by the famous Count Aranda to improve the Spanish pottery
wares, as well as to introduce the manufacture of porcelain.
The efforts of the king led to the foundation of the porcelain
works at Buen Retiro near Madrid, which will be mentioned later,
and considerable success also attended the revival of strong
copper lustre, like that of the late Hispano-Moresque wares;
but the finest tin-enamelled wares were those made at Alcora
in the important factory founded by Count Aranda in 1726,
which continued in operation down to the French wars. For
his purposes the count brought from Moustiers, then one of the
famous French pottery centres (see above), Joseph Olerys, a
well-known pot-painter. He went to Alcora as chief draughts-
man and designer, having charge of a number of Spanish potters
and painters. Olerys introduced the Moustiers style of decora-
tion, and the glaze and body of the Alcora wares of the best period
recall the fine quality of Moustiers faience. It is only fair to add
that Olerys in his turn learnt the use of various delicate yellow
and green colours from the Spaniards, and when he returned to
France in 1737, having acquitted himself most honourably, he
introduced this new style of delicate polychrome decoration at
Moustiers. The mixture of motives and ideas that animated the
duke and his potters may be seen by the following list of wares
produced about 1750. Vases of different shapes; small teapots;
teapots and covers, Chinese fashion; teapots and covers, Dutch
fashion; cruets, Chinese style; entree dishes; salt-cellars, Chinese
style; escudillas (bowls) of Constantinople; barquillos (sauce-
bowls), Chinese style; cups, plates, and saucers of different
kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work,
and finally fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes, trays and
refrigerators. Later in the century the manufacture of
porcelain was introduced here, as well as white earthenware
made in imitation of the productions of Wedgwood, and the
tin-enamelled wares flickered out in Spain as they did elsewhere.
The manufacture of a kind of debased majolica was also prac-
tised in Portugal from the 16th century down to our own times;
but the ware never attained to any distinction and is little known
outside that country. The best-known specimens were made at
Rato, near Lisbon, where a factory was founded in 1767 under
the patronage of the court.
Mention must be made of the unglazed native pottery of Spain
and Portugal, for wine-jars, water-jars and bottles, cooking pots,
and other domestic utensils axe still made in these countries for
ordinary domestic use, in traditional forms and by methods of
the most primitive kind. Many of these vessels, especially the
tinajas (wine-jars) and water-coolers, are based on ancient,
classical or Arab forms, and in every country market-place it is
still common to see groups of vessels, in unglazed pottery of fine
shape and finish, exposed for sale — a very different state of
things from what obtains in France, Germany, and particularly
in England, where the primitive methods of the peasant are being
imitated by those who ought to know better. From the 16th to
the 1 8th century a special kind of unglazed pottery vessels known
as buccaros was extensively made both in Spain and Portugal.
The body of the ware is unglazed, whitish, black or red, accord-
ing to the special kind of clay. The curious point about this
ware is that, if we may believe contemporary documents, the
vessels were delicately scented, like a ware imported from Mexico ;
and the soft vessels are said to have been eaten — a custom
common enough in certain parts of Central and Southern America.
(See M. L. Solon, The Noble Buccaros, 1896.) (W. B.*)
English Pottery prom the i6th to the ioth Century 1
The course of pottery manufacture in England followed,
generally rather in the rear, that of France, Germany and other
northern countries. Before the coming of the Romans much
pottery of the late Stone age and the Bronze age was made in
1 See examples in colour, Plate X.
742
CERAMICS
[ENGLISH
Britain. The Romans introduced their more advanced technique,
and, besides importing Italian and Gaulish pottery, they founded
numerous centres of pottery manufacture, as at Upchurch,
Castor, Uriconium, &c. With the departure of the Roman
legions their simple, yet comparatively advanced, pottery
vanished, and Saxon and early Norman times have left us little
but wares resembling those of the Germanic and Frankish pro-
ductions (fig. 50). The early middle ages passed without much
improvement, and, though rare specimens — like the ewer in
Fig. 50. — Saxon cinerary urns; the stamped patterns are shown
full size.
the form of a mounted knight in Salisbury Museum — proved
that glazed wares were made in this country, the general run
of our medieval pottery vessels never soared above the skill of
the travelling brick or tile maker. 1 The monastic tile-makers,
with their strong, Gothic tile pavements, produced artistic
work of a very high order; but the patrons of the common
potter remained content with his rudely made and simply
glazed pitchers, flagons, dishes and mugs (see fig. 51). Even
in the 16th century the excellence of English pewter probably
acted as a barrier to the introduction of finer pottery, and it
was only the importation of foreign wares — Italian, German,
Dutcl? and French— that stirred up our native clay-workers
to the possibilities of their art. In early Tudor times there
was some importation of Italian majolica as well as of the
Hispano-Moresque pieces, and the religious wars as well as the
constant intercourse with the Low Countries brought over to
the eastern counties not
only the stonewares of
the Rhineland and the
" Delft " wares of Hol-
! land, but also emigrant
potters from those
countries who tried to
practise their native
crafts amongst us. The
Civil War appears to
have been unable to
Fig. 51.— Common forms of medieval check this new spirit, for
pottery; the upper part of the slender we have the evidence of
jug is covered with a green vitreous lead dated examples to show
5rS od^re° ther iS UnglaZed With StripeS that various immigrants
went on quietly practis-
ing their trade along the Thames side, in what were then the out-
skirts of London, and probably in the eastern counties and Kent
as well. It seems probable that the earliest influence was an
Italian one, but before this was firmly domiciled it was sup-
planted by that of the Dutch and Germans. The first wares of
an improved kind that were made in England are so closely re-
lated to the German stonewares and the " Delft " wares that it
is often difficult to determine whether actual specimens are of
English or foreign origin. The first, and in some senses the
greatest, of English potters was John Dwight, an educated man,
1 An excellent summary of the remains of English medieval
pottery will be found in Hobson's " Medieval Pottery found in
England," Archaeological Journal, vol. lix.
who had held the office of secretary to three successive bishops
of Chester, and who obtained a patent in 167 1 for the manu-
facture of certain improved kinds of pottery. We have no
knowledge where Dwight acquired his skill in the potter's art,
for when he obtained his patent he was residing at Wigan
(Lancashire), far removed from the districts where foreign
potters had settled. About 1672-1673 Dwight set up a factory
at Fulham, where he resided till his death in 1703. He was
always an eager experimenter, and from his diaries it seems
certain that he was searching after the, then, mysterious Chinese
porcelain. We have no grounds for believing that he ever at-
tained success in this search, for his known productions may
be grouped into two main classes: (1) Hard-fired red stone-
ware — mostly small vessels, teapots, mugs, &c, in imitation of
the Chinese buccaros. 2 (2) Whitish, grey, or drab salt-glazed
stoneware made in imitation of, and often not to be distinguished
from, the wares of the Rhineland. But Dwight produced a
considerable number of modelled portrait-busts, statuettes,
&c, all in stoneware of various tints, which entitle him to a
place in the very first rank of potters. The portrait-bust of
Prince Rupert (British Museum), the statuettes of Meleager
(British Museum), of Jupiter (Liverpool), &c, are worthy of a
sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, while the recumbent effigy
of Lydia Dwight (Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the
most beautiful works ever executed by an English potter.
Meantime the manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery, in the style
of' " Delft," was prosecuted with increasing industry in London
on the south side of the river, and particularly at Lambeth.
By the end of the 17th century the same imitation " Delft "
wares were made at Bristol and Liverpool, continuing until, in
the closing years of the 18th century, tin-enamelled earthenware
was abandoned in favour of the perfected English cream-colour.
There is a strong family likeness in all this English " Delft,"
whether made at Lambeth, Bristol or Liverpool. The body of
the ware is harder and denser than in the tin-enamelled wares
of the continent, and is not so suitable for its special purpose,
as it is generally deficient in lime. The decoration is usually
painted in cobalt blue of good tone, though inferior in softness
and richness of tint to that of the best Delft pieces; polychrome
painting was not so common, and it differs from that of the
Dutchmen in the greater prevalence of a pale yellow colour and
the general absence of any good red like that found on the poly-
chrome wares of Delft, Rouen, &c.
German stoneware also received a well-merited share of atten-
tion long before the time of Dwight, and it is often impossible
to distinguish the grey and brown ale- jugs, greybeards, &c,
presumably of English manufacture in the 17th and early 18th
centuries, from their German prototypes. Fulham remained an
important centre of this manufacture, and a fine brown stone-
ware was largely made at Nottingham as early as 1700; in each
case the manufacture continues in neighbouring districts to
this day.
The development of a native English pottery took place in
North Staffordshire. A growing community of peasant potters,
who manufactured some strongly decorative English wares
by very simple means, was established here from the middle of
the 17th century. Rudely fashioned dishes, jugs, bottles, &c,
were shaped in the local red-buriiing brick clays, and, while the
pieces were still soft, simple but effective decorative patterns
were drawn upon them in diluted white clay (slip), trailed on
through a quill or from a narrow-spouted vessel. This ancient
and world-wide process (for it was used by the Ptolemaic
Egyptian, the Roman arid the Byzantine potters) has furnished
the peasant potters of every European country with character-
istic wares, but nowhere was it used with greater skill than in
England. The English slip-decorated wares are often spoken
of as " Toft ware," because Thomas Toft, living in what is now
Hanley (Staffordshire) boldly signed and dated many of his
pieces (1670, &c); but similar wares were made at Wrotham
in Kent, in Derbyshire, Wales and elsewhere. The repute of
' Bottger at Meissen made a similar ware as his prelude to the
discovery of white porcelain, but this was after Dwignt's death.
ENGLISH]
CERAMICS
743
the Staffordshire district must have spread by the time of
the Revolution, for soon after 1690 John Philip Elers, a
Dutchman of good family, settled there and began to make a
superior pottery to any previously made in the district. Elers
is generally described as a great inventor who brought all kinds
of knowledge into the district, but the only wares he is known
to have made were singularly like those of Dwight, and, quite
recently, records of a lawsuit in which Dwight charged Elers
and some other Staffordshire potters with suborning his work-
men and infringing his patents have been brought to light. It
is certain that, from the time of Elers, the Staffordshire potters
made great advances in the fabrication of their wares, and during
the 1 8th century they evolved two distinctively English kinds of
pottery , (1) the white and drab salt-glaze, (2) English earthenware.
Staffordshire Salt-glaze. — It is uncertain when and how the
Staffordshire potters learnt that a highly siliceous pottery could
be glazed by throwing common salt into the kiln at the height
of the firing, for the practice had originated in the Rhineland
more than a century before. Many writers have maintained
that the practice was introduced by Elers, but this is uncertain.
Early in the 18 th century a fine, white, thin, salt-glazed ware
was made in Staffordshire, in many quaint and fanciful forms
largely influenced by Chinese porcelain — still an object of wonder
and mystery. Teapots, coffee-pots, tea-caddies, plates, dishes,
bowls, candlesticks, mugs and bottles were made in great variety,
and at its best the ware is a dainty and elegant one, so that a
brisk trade was developed in the district, and, for the first time,
a distinctively English pottery was exported to the continent
and to the American colonies.
English Earthenware. — The manufacture of tin-enamelled
pottery scarcely obtained a foothold in Staffordshire, but the
invention of the white salt-glazed ware paved the way for one
of the greatest revolutions in the potter's art that the world
has ever seen. This was nothing less than the abandonment of
the ordinary red or buff clays with a coating of white slip or of
tin-enamel, and the substitution of a ware white throughout its
substance, prepared by. mixing selected white-burning clays
and finely-ground flint (silica). 1 The change has generally been
associated with Wedgwood, most famous of English potters,
but he really only perfected, along with his contemporaries, the
Warburtons, Turners and others, the work of half a century's
experiment and discovery. The ware compared most favour-
ably, from the point of view of serviceableness, neatness and
mechanical finish, with all that had gone before it, and as the tin-
enamelled wares had almost everywhere in Europe sunk to the
position of domestic crockery — for the Chinese, German, French
and English porcelains had displaced it with the wealthy — this
better-fashioned and more durable English ware gave it its final
death-blow. English earthenware in its various forms was to be
met with all over Europe, from London to Moscow, and from
Cadiz to Stockholm; and, aided by emigrant English potters, the
continental nations soon began a similar manufacture for them-
selves. Everywhere this great change was encouraged by the
growing fondness for mechanical perfection, and it is not with-
out a sigh that a lover of pottery can witness the gradual dis-
appearance of the painted tin-enamelled wares — degenerate
survivals though they were of Italian majolica, French faience
and Dutch "Delft" — before the unconquerable advance of
another form of pottery which in its inception was based on
technical rather than artistic qualities, especially as nearly a
century passed before the new material was turned to artistic
account.
By general consent the name of Josiah Wedgwood has been
pre-eminently associated with this great change, and with good
reason, for though he had many contemporaries who equalled
or even excelled him in certain kinds of pottery, no other potter
ever approached him in the range of his products and the varied
applications to which he turned the exercise of his remarkable
1 For a discussion of the stages through which this was achieved
the reader is referred to special works, such as Prof. A. H. Church's
English Earthenware, and W. Burton's English Earthenware and
Stoneware.
talents. 2 True, he soon abandoned the simple Staffordshire
wares, coloured with mottled glazes or clay-slips, to which the
names of Astbury or Whieldon are commonly attached, but the
varied productions of his factory united the best work of a
district fruitful in new kinds of pottery, with something especial
to Wedgwood himself. Thus he adopted and improved the
green and yellow glazes which had come down from medieval
times (see the cauliflower ware piece, Plate X.),,and gave a
new direction to their use in his green-glazed dessert services,
candlesticks, &c. He carried on the manufacture of hard-
fired red-clay teapots, mugs, coffee-pots, cream-jugs, &c.,
introduced by Elers; and, along with his fellow-potters, he
invented drab, grey, brown and other colours in similarly hard-
fired unglazed bodies. He neither invented nor alone perfected
the Staffordshire cream-coloured earthenware, but he made it
so well that his " Queen's ware " was the best of its class. He
undoubtedly invented the Jasper ware, in which on grounds of
unglazed blue, green, black, &c, white figures and ornamental
motives, adapted from the antique by Flaxman, Webber and
other sculptors, were applied; and he even attempted to re-
produce the painted vases of the Greek decadence in dry colours
painted over a hard black body.
Wedgwood's " Jasper ware," his most original production
(see Plate X.), differed both in nature and composition from all
the species of pottery that had preceded it. In an attempt to
obtain the qualities of the finest porcelain biscuit, Wedgwood
discovered, after years of experiment, that by mixing together
a plastic white clay and " cawk " or barytes he could obtain a
" body " which might be " thrown " on the wheel or " pressed "
in moulds, and which, while it fired to a white and sub- trans-
lucent pottery, was capable of being coloured, by the usual metallic
oxides, to various shades of blue, green, yellow, lilac and black.
The ware resembled " biscuit " porcelain in that it needed no
glaze to render it impervious to water, and it thus marked the
culmination of those " dry " or unglazed wares that had been so
largely made in China, Japan and Europe, where the quality
resides in the fired clay material without any adventitious aid
from a glaze. The general practice was to make the body of
the vessel of a coloured material and to ornament this with
applied figures or ornamental reliefs, in " white " of the same
kind, " pressed " from intaglio moulds and then applied by wet-
ting the surface and squeezing — leaving the fire to unite the
vessel and its applied ornament into one piece. Sometimes the
ornament was in a coloured clay applied on a white body, and
we get in the same way black on red, buff on red or black, and
red or black on buff and drab bodies. The variety of bodies
produced by Wedgwood and his followers in this way is ex-
ceedingly great, and is only to be equalled by the diversity of
their application, for the pieces made include plaques, vases,
plates, dishes, jardinieres, bulb-pots, teapots, cups and saucers,
inkstands, scent-bottles, buttons, buckles, and, in a word, every
kind of thing that could be made in clay. Many of the applied
designs, whether of figures or ornament, were very beautiful in
a way, being copied or adapted from Greek and Roman gems,
vases, &c. At their best they are marvellous for the precision and
delicacy of their execution, and it is impossible to imagine that
anything better could have been done in this style. So per-
fectly did they represent the taste of their period that attempts
were made at Sevres, Meissen, Berlin and Buen Retiro to produce
something of the same kind in porcelain; but none of these can
be compared with the works of Wedgwood, or his great con-
temporary Turner (see Plate X.) , in beauty of colour or perfection
of workmanship.
It is obvious nowadays that much of this work was inspired
by mistaken motives; that it was founded on an imperfect
view of ancient art; and that it was marred by its mechanical
ideals; but it must be remembered that it was in perfect harmony
2 It is amusincror annoying to find in European museums the wares
of Wedgwood, Turner, Adams and one of the Leeds potteries, all
lumped together as " Wedgwood," and yet one can hardly wonder
at it, remembering how much has been written of Wedgwood and
how little of the other English potters of the 18th century.
744
CERAMICS
[CHINESE
with the spirit of the times, and that while it emphasizes for us
the pseudo-classic taste of the late 18th century, it marks an
advance in the technical skill of the potter which is simply
astounding. The co-ordination of labour, which had gone
further with the Greek and the Italian potter than is generally
supposed, was now brought to a climax. Mechanical appliances
were introduced for the performance of many portions of the
potter's work that had hitherto been indifferently performed
by rude and exhausting manual toil; and while the application
of mechanism was pushed too far — so that in the first half of the
10th century we find the most inartistic pottery the world has
ever seen — we must regard this even more as a cyclic movement
of human feeling than as the work of any individual, or group
of men. The late 18th century marks the period when pottery
was no longer produced, as Italian majolica, the Henri-Deux
ware, the Palissy wares, the best faience of Nevers, Rouen,
Moustiers, Delft or Nuremberg had been, for the noble or the
wealthy, but when it was largely in demand by the poorer classes,
anxious in their turn to have a useful ware which should imitate
the more costly porcelain used by the great. France, Germany,
Sweden, Russia, and later the United States, all followed in the
wake of the English potters, and the printing-press was applied
in all countries to produce elaborate engraved patterns in blue,
brown, green, &c, in order to get an effective-looking ware in
harmony with the spirit of the times, and at the same time
cheaper in price than the simple painted patterns of the
vanquished tin-enamel.
Collections. — The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums
naturally contain the most representative collections of English
pottery. The museums at Liverpool, Bristol, Burslem, Hanley and
Nottingham, also have §ood collections, while Birmingham, Man-
chester and Stoke-upon-Trent may be mentioned. The Guildhall
Museum, London, is rich in early wares found or made in London
and its vicinity. Continental collections of English pottery are
meagre in the extreme and badly described, even in the ceramic
museums at Sevres and Limoges. The collection at Dresden is
interesting, as it was purchased from the collection made by Enoch
Wood, a Staffordshire potter. In America, the Boston Museum
of Fine Arts, the Metropolitan Museum of New York, and the Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia, contain interesting
examples of wares exported to America in the late 18th and early
19th centuries.
Literature. — The earliest compilations, such as Jewitt's Ceramic
Art in Great Britain (1878), and Life of Josiah Wedgwood (1865);
Chaffers, Marks and Monograms (1863; 9th edition revised, 1900);
Meteyard's Life of Wedgwood (1865-1866), and Shaw's History of the
Staffordshire Potteries (1829; reissued London, 1900), must always
be of interest as original sources of information ; but the later works,
such as Church, English Earthenware (1884; new edition, 1906);
Josiah Wedgwood (1894, reissue 1903 and 1907) ; Solon, Art of the Old
English Potter (1883; 2nd ed., 1885); Hobson, Catalogue of English
Pottery in the British Museum (1903) ; Burton, English Earthenware
Chinese Pottery and Porcelain 1
In China, as in every other country where pottery-making
has been practised for centuries, we find a natural progression
from primitive pottery akin in shape, decoration and manu-
facture to the pottery of other primitive races the world over.
We find too the early use of bricks, tiles, &c, as in Egypt and
Assyria; and then the usual succession of domestic utensils,
funeral vases, and vessels for religious ceremonials. There is
nothing to show that the potter's wheel made its appearance in
China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese potters have used
the simple methods of carving and " pressing " from moulds
which preceded the use of the potter's wheel, even more than
other national In books of the Chow dynasty (1122-249 B.C.)
the difference between the processes of " throwing " and of
" pressing " from moulds is clearly described, 8 and it is instructive
to note that many early as well as late forms of Chinese pottery
are remarkably like their works in bronze. In the same way
there is no definite date to which we can refer the introduction
of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of glazed ware known
are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han dynasty
1 See examples in colour, Plates VII. and VIII.
* S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art (Victoria and Albert Museum Hand-
books, ii. 5-6).
(206 b.c.-a.d. 220), a date much later than that of the earliest
glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the inter-
course between China and the West, at times historically remote,
it is not impossible that the idea of coating a vessel of clay with
a glaze was carried into China from Chaldaea or Assyria. In any
case the Chinese developed the potter's art on their own lines,
for we have ample evidence that from very early times they
fired their pottery to a much higher temperature than was
common in the west of Asia, and so discovered types of glaze
and of pottery that remained for centuries a mystery elsewhere.
The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned are
quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in Syria,
Egypt or Europe, for the body of the ware is so hard that it can
scarcely be scratched by a knife, and the dark-greenish glaze
has become iridescent by age as though it contained oxide of
lead. The easily-fired friable wares of Assyria, Egypt and Greece
seem to have had no attraction for the Chinese, and the glazes
on their hard-fired wares were naturally different from those
already described. The Chinese appear to have been the first
potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high tempera-
ture pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic rock mixed
with lime. At first these glazes were used on any ordinary
refractory clay which might burn red, drab or buff; but in this
technique lay the germ of Chinese porcelain, the most advanced
form of pottery the world has yet seen. It is necessary to con-
sider the pottery that preceded porcelain, for not only was it
the matrix out of which porcelain grew, but in certain districts
of China, where the necessary materials for porcelain are not
found, similar wares have been manufactured without inter-
mission to the present time. Naturally, in progress of time, the
technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by
developments in the preparation and mixture of the clays, the
shaping and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured
enamels or glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our great
authority on the Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on
two outstanding types of Chinese pottery other than porcelain
which have exercised considerable influence on the doings of
European potters.
1. Yi-Hsing-Yao.* — This is the pottery, generally of unglazed
fawn, red or brown stoneware, made at Yi-hsing-hsien in the pro-
vince of Kiang-su. Articles of every kind are made in these nne-
coloured clays, but the general forms are dainty and skilfully finished
Cieces, such as small teapots, cups, saucers, dishes, trays, water-
ottles and wine cups. This ware was largely manufactured under
the Ming dynasty (a.d. 1368-1643) and later. 4 It was imported
into Europe by the Portuguese, who applied to it the name boccaro,
formerly given only to a scented terra-cotta brought from Mexico
and Peru. 6 This pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder
as the poles in nature as well as origin, but the potters of northern
Europe regarded every kind of pottery coming from the Far East
as a species of porcelain, and the manufacture of red teapots* mugs,
bowls, cups, &c, in imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread
during the late 17th and early 18th centuries under the name of red
porcelain. Dwight, Elers and BSttger are notable names in this
connexion.
2. Kuang-Yao. — The name given by the Chinese to the pottery
made in the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of
manufacture in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this
article it is sufficient to state that the best-known of these wares are
dense, hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-
coloured grey, red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with
thick, variegated or opalescent glazes, £rey, blue, green, yellow or
red, but flecked, veined and streaked with other tints. The wares
are so like the productions of the Sung dynasty (a.d. 960-1279)
that modern pieces are often confounded with the more precious
productions of that epoch. One of the first lessons to be learnt by
the student of Chinese pottery is that, with great reverence for their
own antiquities, the Chinese of every period have endeavoured to
reproduce the famous wares of their ancestors, and often with such
skill as to deceive the most expert. Even when the manufacture
of porcelain was at its highest in King-t6-ch§n, the potters in other
parts of China carried on the production of glazed or unglazed
pottery in coloured clays, and, further, the directors of the imperial
factory from time to time strove to reproduce the most archaic wares
that could be found in the Empire.
• Yao is the Chinese term equivalent of the English '
or " ware."
4 See Brinkley, Japan and China, ix. 353-365.
6 Solon, The Noble Buccaros (Stoke-upon-Trent, 1896).
pottery '
CERAMICS
Plate VII.
Chinese. Sang de Boeuf.
Chinese. Flamb6.
Chinese. Turquoise glaze "crackled."
Purple Souffle. Coral red.
Peach blow.
Pigeon's blood.
Lemon yellow. Apple green.
CHINESE]
CERAMICS
745
Porcelain. — By this word we distinguish broadly all those
pieces of pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and
translucent, and also, broadly speaking, in which the material
is white throughout, unless minute quantities of metallic oxides
have been definitely added to colour it. It is impossible to
draw any hard and fast line between porcelain and stoneware,
for both may be thoroughly vitrified and translucent in thin
pieces — but generally the stonewares are drab, red or brown in
the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the precious
quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is not
even vitrified, hdwever hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or earthen-
ware. The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to
fire their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified
stonewares before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed
these stonewares with fusible mineral substances, and from that
stage the natural refinements of methods must necessarily have
produced porcelain. In regions where beds of primary clay
were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter than
elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the fels-
pathic rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance
and one that was more readily fusible and would spread better
over the whole piece. How many centuries were needed before
a ware white enough and translucent enough to be now classed
as porcelain was produced we cannot know; but the process
was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some Chinese writers
in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote periods
the production of wares of this class. Where authentic speci-
mens are npt to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution,
and literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle
such a difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present
time is that something worthy of the name of porcelain was
made during the Tang dynasty (a.d. 618-907), but we have no
pieces earlier than the Sung dynasty (a.d. 960-1259), and the
majority of these are perhaps more fitly described as stoneware
than as porcelain.
Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material pro-
sperity, and all the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery
of distinguished merit was made in many districts, and much
of it has been classified as porcelain because the body is whitish
and vitrified, though it is much inferior in finish and in trans-
lucence to the perfect white porcelain of later times. It is
necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any pottery
with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13 th
century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs
incised or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration
is to be found in the varied coloured glazes with which the wares,
whether stoneware or porcelain, were covered. The glaze is
never clear and white as at later times; it is generally uneven,
imperfectly fused and presents all the marks of an imperfect
technique. The nearest approach to white is found in an opal-
escent grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The
glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the cSladons,
a family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth
and softness. Besides the celadons which are the most uniform
in tints of the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender,
brownish yellow and brownish black, but these are all subtly or
boldly mottled, splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones
of red, blue, purple, opalescent grey and black. The most famous
of these now very rare Sung wares were the stonewares of Chun-
chow, remarkable for their rich and varied glazes, the black
variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province, " hare's fur
cups " and " partridge cups " of collectors, and the four principal
wares that may be called porcelain, viz. — the Ju-Yao, made at
Ju-chow in Honan; the Kuan-Yao (Kuan—" official " or " im-
perial "), made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow;
the Ko-Yao, made at Liu-t'ien; and the Ting-Yao, made at
Tung-chow in Chih-li.
This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known
beyond its native country, for tne first mention of porcelain
outside China appears in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller,
Sulaiman, who visited China in the 9th century and wrote:
" They have in China a very fine day with which they make
vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen through
them 'V and its first appearance in the west is always given
as a.d. 1 171 (or 1 188), when Saladin sent a present of forty
pieces to the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an
export trade was developed, particularly in the ctladon wares of
Lung-chiian, a city in the south-west of the province of Cheh-
kiang. This famous ware, the " green porcelain " of the Chinese,
probably made as an imitation of jade, exists mostly in the form
of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing incised or fluted
patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green glaze of
indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is
white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the
glaze have a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste,
and when the ware was reproduced in later times this reddish-
brown tint had to be imitated artificially. The ware was highly
prized both in China and Japan, in the islands of the East Indies,
and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia it was largely
used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the last
century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco.
" Archbishop Warham's cup " at New College, Oxford, which
is the first specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that
we can now produce, is a celadon bowl with a silver-gilt mount
of the time of Henry VIII. 2
The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai
Khan (grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in
Tatar hands until 1368, when the great native dynasty of the
Mings was established. During this period (Yuan dynasty),
roughly a century, one can say little of ceramic progress, for the
wares of the period are singularly like those of Sung times. But
two important changes took place which had a marked influence
on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain — (1) the
concentration of the industry at King-t6-chen, which was con-
summated in the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the
introduction of painted decoration under a white transparent
glaze, the idea of which (and perhaps the necessary cobalt
mineral) was brought from Persia.
King-t6-chen was already a pottery centre when its factories
were rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming
dynasty, who made it the imperial factory, so that the best
porcelain workers were attracted thither, and in the other old
centres the industry was abandoned or some earlier manufacture
was continued, as in the southern province of Kiang-su. In the
province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain manufacture has
also continued. We have already mentioned the black glazed
cups, " hare's fur," &c, made in this province in Sung times,
and, while King-t6-chen was to be the scene of the develop-
ments of the coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien
perfected the manufacture of the famous and beautiful white
porcelain in bowls, dishes, cups and statuettes, best known
under its French title of blanc de Chine.
The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to
the beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be
older, speak strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia.
The pieces are massive both in form and substance, and the orna-
ment, consisting of figures mounted or on foot, animals, bands
of diaper or foliage, or pendant necklaces, is strongly silhouetted
by a raised outline recalling the decorative methods of the
Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also recall the
methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was
glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes,
similar in nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and
quite unlike the Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined
spaces and melted at a lower temperature. The Grandidier
1 M. Reinand, Relation des voyages f aits par les Arabes et Us Per sans
dans VInde et a la Chine dans le IX* siecle (Paris, 1845).
1 The suggestion has been made that the ciladon wares found in
Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the
Chinese, but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point
consult Karabacek, " Zur muslimischen Keramik " in Osterreichische
Monatsschrift fur den Orient, vol. x., 1884; A. B. Meyer, " Ober die
Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane" under "Ober die Marta
banis," ibtd. vol. xi. f 1885; Hirth, Ancient Porcelain (1888), and
Bushell, Oriental Ceramic Art (1899).
v. 24 a
746
CERAMICS
[CHINESE
collection in the Louvre, the Franks collection at the British
Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, as well as all the
great private collections of Chinese porcelain, contain samples
of this primitive and archaic-looking ware.
The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to
take an entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with
its brilliant painted decorations in blue, green and purple on
a pure white ground, exercised its natural fascination over men
as keen in colour-sense as the Chinese potters. With the con-
centration of the industry at King-tS-chSn, and the rapid im-
provement in technical skill and knowledge that followed, the
production of a fine porcelain with a transparent white glaze
was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian pot-painter
the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the Chinese
porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and
with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from
copper, the foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid.
It would be idle to try and fix any specific date for this important
development, which took more than a generation to perfect,
but it is reasonably accurate to say that the blue and white
painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th century and were
fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century. Chinese
collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of
Suen-tS (a.d. 1426-143 5), of Cheng-hwa (1465-1487), and next
of Yung-lo (1403- 1 4 24). It is interesting to note that the colour
used during these reigns is spoken of as " Mahommedan " blue,
so that it was evidently brought from some country to the west.
This 15th-century blue and white porcelain is admittedly the
finest of its class, and though the Chinese never abandon an old
method and have continued to make blue and white porcelain,
often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may be,
rarely equal these.
The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already
been mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours
was largely used during the same period. At first it appears as
a general ground colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then
vessels were made in special forms (persimmon fruit, &c.) to
display its qualities, finally it was used either alone or in con-
junction with blue in painted designs under a white glaze of
exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the 15 th century
describes one of his pieces as being decorated with " three red
fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly
outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as
to dazzle the eye."
Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in
Ming times are the marvellous " eggshell " porcelains, called
by the Chinese " body less " from their extreme thinness. As
early as the reign of Yung-lo (1403-1424) these delicate wares
were in high repute, and their manufacture has been continued
ever since with varying skill and success. In spite of their
extreme thinness the specimens have designs of dragons in the
midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &c, engraved in the
paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is
so delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with
liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured
glaze which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized
of these are the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi
(1488-1505) and ChGng-tS (1506-1521).
Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made
its appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware,
commonly spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as
" grain of rice " porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited
consummate skill in the manufacture of perforated pieces of all
kinds. Sometimes the perforations are left clear, but in the
rice-grain pattern the incisions are generally filled up with the
melted glaze so that they become like so many windows in the
walls of the piece. We have already seen that the Persian
potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century,
but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated
in China or in Persia. Its usein both countries is only an additional
proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia.
It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find
the first examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired
over the glaze. It seems probable that the practice grew out of
the use of enamels on metal, which had spread from Byzantium
to China, and which the Chinese developed with remarkable
skill. It is important to remember that the very nature of the
glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high temperature
to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to cobalt-
blue and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the
rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some
other means must be found, and so the device was adopted of
taking a finished piece of blue and white and decorating it
further by very fusible colours painted over the fired glaze and
then attached to it by refiring at a lower temperature equal
only to that used by the enameller on metals. At first the
on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in the
Ming (San is' at) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and
yellow. Then we get the Ming (Wan4i Wu ts* at) five-colour
scheme, in which the same three colours are combined with an
over-glaze red and all are painted over a skeleton pattern in
under-glaze blue. This development, as its name implies, only
took place in the reign of Wan-li (1 573-1620).
At this time King-t£-chen must have produced a very large
quantity of porcelain. The requirements of the court were
enormous, for in 1583 one of the supervising, censors, remon-
strating with the emperor, declared that one year's demands
comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell writes: " The
colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the abund-
ance of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present
day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large col-
lection of bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may *
be seen with sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter,
or ladling syrup out of large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher's
shop without a cracked Wan-li jar standing on the counter to
hold scraps of meat."
Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the
wares of this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship
to the wares of the preceding and also of later periods, but the
influence of the growing export trade doubtless told in the same
direction. For several centuries the native Chinese porcelain
had been exported to all the neighbouring countries, and through
Persia and Cairo to the West. No long time elapsed before
the Chinese adopted forms, colours and decorations for these
export wares, not in accordance with Chinese usage, but pre-
sumably more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence the
Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the
15th and 1 6th century wares found in other Asiatic countries.
Now, for the first time, there came a direct European demand,
and cargoes of ware were brought to Europe by the Portuguese
and afterwards by the Dutch, which were increasingly decorated
in fashions foreign to Chinese taste. The production of these
export wares slowly modified the taste of the Chinese themselves
and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th and early
1 8th centuries.
The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming
dynasty definitely separated the first great period of Chinese
porcelain from its second and culminating period. The works
at King-t6-ch6n were destroyed more than once in the 17th
century, but in spite of these difficulties the potters must have
remained, for the reigns of K'ang-hi (1662-1722), Yung-cheng
(1722-1735), and K'ien-lung (1736-1795) covered a century
and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic pro-
duction was reached and passed. It is only possible here to
sketch in broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which
has formed the subject of many learned works.
It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period,
when a spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions
of their ancient kilns should receive no less attention than the
new methods of decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the
same time many of the discoveries of the later Ming days were
carried on to perfection. The first remarkable productions of
the reign of K'ang-hi, the famous green and blood-red Lang-yao
glazes, were made in the attempt to produce glazes like those
CHINESE1
CERAMICS
747
of old times. With the more carefully prepared body and glaze
the results are strikingly different and, as we think, superior,
for it is/difficult to believe that any example of the " sacrificial "
red of the reign of Suen-t& can have been as glorious as the red
Lang-Yao, the crown of all that group of glazes known from
their general colour as sang de bceuf (see example, Plate VII.).
In the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming
period was continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue
pigment be not so pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative
effect of the blue and white of the reign of K'ang-hi (see example,
Plate VIII.) has never been equalled in Europe. The subjects of
the blue and white pieces of this period are very varied, including
religious, ceremonial, battle and hunting subjects, homely
scenes such as ladies and children amusing themselves in gardens,
or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous monsters dis-
porting themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called " hawthorn
ginger jars " form a class by themselves in the opinion of modern
collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen
being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for £5900. The fertility
of the painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and
white of this reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the
harmonious relation between the tones of the white and the blue,
especially when it is seen en masse, as in the famous Dresden
collection. 1
The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that
the pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened
by the use of slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of
powder-blue appear to have originated at this time. The cobalt-
pigment was not applied by a brush, but was blown on through
a tube, one end of which was covered with fine muslin, in a rain
of minute drops. This ground was either carried over the whole
piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating blue glaze — in which
case it was generally covered with conventional designs pencilled
in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze — or panels were reserved
in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in
on-glaze colours.
In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived
or re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as
of so many others in our great European collections, date only
from the beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and
pierced or reticulated pieces were made to great perfection, and
the coloured glazes in light green, turquoise, purple and black
(see Plate VII.) reached their height. The early glazes of this
type appeared in Sung times (see above) ,but on the finely prepared
K'ang-hi wares much more striking and brilliant colour effects
were obtained. As in old times, for the production of some of
these glazes a departure was made from the general Chinese
methods. The vessels were first fired to the " biscuit " state,
and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese
were fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give
the " peacock-blue," " kingfisher-green " and " aubergine-
purple " glazes. Many varieties of single-coloured glazes were
made by covering a white glazed piece with on-glaze colour, and
in this way new shades of coloured glaze, such as the coral-reds
(Plate VII.) ,wereob tained. The various brown or bronze-coloured
grounds, so well known in the so-called " Batavian " porcelain,
were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of some ochreous
clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do not
exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for they
carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze
colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance
of a vivid green enamel (Jamille verte; see Plate VIII.) , and finally,
in the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and
purple colours predominate (Jamille rose; see Plate VIII.). It
is probable that these latter colours, which owe their tint to gold,
were introduced into China from Europe, but the Chinese em-
ployed them whole-heartedly, until in fact they largely ousted
all the earlier types of colour decoration.
During the reign of Yung-Cheng (1 723-1735) the diverse
1 It is of interest to note that the " Delft " of Holland, also a
product of the 17th and early 18th centuries, makes the nearest
approach in quality to the blue and white porcelain of the Chinese.
styles seem to have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-
Cheng was an ardent collector of ancient Chinese porcelains,
and he sent to King-t6-chen specimens of the most ancient
wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to be reproduced, while
at the same time he and his court patronized the wares in foreign
styles and colours (Japanese and European.)
The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th
century, but in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the
" iron-rust " and " tea-dust " glazes of the reign of K'ien-lung
in harmony with old Chinese effects, what we must regard as
the inferior decorative style triumphed, and we see the gradual
disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of (1) wares of
a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze colours,
principally those of the jamille rose, and (2) a very large produc-
tion of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated
with on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste
of the 1 8 th century.
This " armorial " china, so much of which was once foolishly
ascribed to Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material
is seldom of the best quality, and the Chinese rendering of
European arms and crests, or stiff copies of European engravings
surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of diaper, &c, does nothing
to recommend it. A great deal of this ware, though manu-
factured at King-te-chen, was decorated at Canton, and the
school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this
export trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure
Chinese taste, especially some of the ruby-backed plates and
dishes and the small cups and saucers decorated with deftly-
painted designs of cocks, peonies, &c.
It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the
replacement of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by
those painted in colours over the glaze profoundly influenced
the style of painting. In the earlier wares the treatment is
bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery colour, and the
softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the artistic
charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting
on glass — fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or
cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are
impossible or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering
takes the place of conventional decorative treatment, and elabo-
rate minuteness of finish supplants the broad freedom of direct
brushwork. During the 18th century the same leaven was at
work on the porcelains of China and of Europe, the East in*
fluenced the West, and the West in its turn bore down the East.
If 'Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European counter-
feits, it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter
and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him.
There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th
century. The European demand was practically killed by the
growth of porcelain works at home, and the imperial patronage,
so great a factor in the production of artistic wares, was fitful
and uncertain. Tao-Kwang (1821-1850) gave some attention
to porcelain, and the pieces made for him and marked " Shen-
te-Vang " are valued by collectors. The so-called Peking bowls
of his reign (made of course at King-te'-chen) are also of repute.
But the political difliculties of China left little leisure for the
cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France anc!
England served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past
(see the Mus6e Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and (luring the reign
of the next emperor Hien-feng (1851-1861) the T'aipings over-
ran the province of Kiang-si and destroyed King-t6-chen and
its factories. Since then the town has been rebuilt and is once
again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless by the
high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the
Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the
single-coloured, sang de bceuf, flamU and other glazes are being
made, while the highly prized " hawthorn " jars and black-ground
vases are receiving the same undesirable attention.
Materials and Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain. — For many
centuries after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from
every other known species of pottery both in its material and it»
manufacture. While the pottery of all other countries was generally
74 8
CERAMICS
[EUROPEAN PORCELAIN
made of coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken " shards "
and fired at a comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain
was compounded from the purest white clays, sand and fusible
rock ; it was glazed with fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that
the entire mass became vitrified and translucent. The germ of the
manufacture lay in the discovery of large masses of primary clay
(kaolin) mixed with finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of
which were carefully washed, levigated and purified. The body of
Chinese porcelain varied from time to time within wide limits, but,
broadly speaking, it always consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and
quartz (sand), mixed in various proportions, sometimes with addi-
tional ingredients, according to the quality of ware desired. For the
glaze the purest and cleanest portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse)
were selected and mixed with lime — all being ground to fine powder.
The lime causes the glaze to melt at a lower temperature than would
be necessary for petuntse alone. The lime also gives the Chinese
glazes their luscious softness of aspect and the faint greenish or
bluish tone, while it enabled them to receive the later decorations in
piled-up enamels, impossible on the harder European porcelain
glazes of the 18th century. The finely- prepared glaze was applied
to the clay vessels, before they had been nred, either by dipping,
by painting, or by insufflation; and then glaze and body were
fired together at a very high temperature. For certain glazes —
turquoise, purple, &c. — which were not of the felspathic type, the
vessels were first fired to the " biscuit " state, and the glazes were
then applied and fired at a much lower temperature — the usual
practice of the potters of other countries. When painted wares in
blue and red were first introduced, the necessary pigments were
painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze was applied over them,
and then all was finished at one and the same firing. With the later
enamel colours the piece was first fired as above described, and the
fusible colours were then painted on the glaze, which was of course
like glass. A second firing at a lower temperature fused these on-
glaze colours to the ware. For information on Chinese materials
and methods the reader is referred to the letters of Pere d'Entrecolles
in the collection of Jesuit letters known asLettrestdifiantesetcurieuses.
The English reader will find reliable translations of the essential parts
in Bushell's Oriental Ceramic Art, Dillon's Porcelain, and Burton's
History of Porcelain. Later information will be found in Brongniart's
Traits' des arts ctr antiques, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and
in an article by G. Vogt, Bulletin de la Socieli d 1 encouragement pour
V Industrie naHonale, April 1900, pp. 530-612.
Collections. — The Franks collection in the British Museum; the
Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr
George Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collec-
tions oelonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at
the Louvre; the collection at the Musee Guimet; the Sevres
Museum. Fontainebleau, the Musee Chinoise. Dresden, the Porce-
lain Collection — the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of
Fine Arts. New York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the
Garland and other collections. Washington, the Hippisley collec-
tion ; as well as magnificent private collections, at the head of which
is that of the late W. T. Walters of Baltimore.
Literature. — The older European works on Chinese porcelain
have been superseded by the later books. The following list contains
the best recent books:— S. W. Bushell, Oriental Ceramic Art (New
York, 1897; text separately 1890); Chinese Porcelain before the
present Dynasty (Pekin, 1886); Chinese Art, vol. ii.; Victoria and
Albert Museum Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, Trait* des arts
Uramiques (3rd edition, with valuable supplements by Salv6tat,
1877); Dillon, Porcelain (1900); Sir A. W. Franks, Catalogue of
Oriental Pottery and Porcelain (1878); Grandidier, La Cktamique
chinoise (1894); Griggs, Examples of Armorial China (1887);
Hippisley, Ceramic Arts in China (Smithsonian Institute, Washing-
ton, 1890); Hirth, Ancient Chinese Porcelain (Leipzig, 1888T;
Julien, Histoire et fabrication de la porcelaine chinoise (Pans, 1856);
Meyer, Lung-chilan Yao, oder alter Seladon Porzellan (Berlin, 1889);
Monkhouse, History of Chinese Porcelain (1901); O. du Sartel, La
Porcelaine de Chine (Paris, 1881) ; Burton, Porcelain (1906) ; Bushell
and Laffan, The Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of
New York (1907). (W. B.*)
European Porcelain to the end of the i8th Century
Europe can claim no share in the discovery of porcelain, the
white and translucent pottery par excellence, for when the first
specimens of Chinese porcelain were brought to Europe, perhaps
as early as the nth or 12th century, they excited the greatest
wonder and admiration. Cairo was at this time the great mart
for the exchange of the products of East and West, and from this
centre porcelains were sent into Europe. Nasir i Khosrau,
the Persian traveller, who visited Old Cairo in a.d. 1035-1042,
was evidently acquainted with Chinese porcelain, and he also
speaks of a translucent ware made at Fostat (Old Cairo) which
may well have been the progenitor of the glassy porcelains of
Persia, as well as of those made in Italy during the 15th and 16th
centuries. In a.d. 1171 the famous Saladin sent from Cairo a
present of forty pieces of Chinese porcelain to the sultan of
Babylon; and from that time onwards we have frequent records
of pieces of this exotic pottery finding their way into the treasuries
of European princes. With the renewed attention paid to the
potter's art in Europe after the 14th century, it was but natural
that efforts should be made to imitate a material so mysterious
and beautiful. But knowledge of Chinese materials and methods
was nil, and for a further two centuries all that Europe manu-
factured in the shape of translucent pottery was the artificial
porcelain made with glass, which can only be looked upon as a
substitute for true porcelain. In Italy during the 16th century,
and in France during the century from 1670 to 1770 roughly,
this artificial porcelain was made and developed. At Meissen in
Saxony the famous Bottger made a true porcelain from materials
analogous to the Chinese about 1710-1712, and this manufacture
was pursued in Germany, Austria and elsewhere in Europe
(even in France, the home of the artificial glassy porcelain, after
1770), so that by the end of the 18th century, when Chinese
porcelain had reached and passed its zenith, the manufacture of a
similar material was well established in Europe, and the glassy
porcelains had been generally abandoned. The only country
which offered any departure from this general rule was England.
The earliest English porcelains were derived from the French,
and, like them, owed their translucence to the use of glass. Efforts
were made at Plymouth and at Bristol (1758^1781) to introduce
the manufacture of porcelain, like the Chinese and its German
counterparts, but these failed and the English potters finally
invented a third kind of porcelain, in which calcined ox-bones
were added to the clay and ground rock to give a white trans-
lucent porcelain capable of receiving any farm of decoration.
This distinctively English porcelain, perfected about 1800, is not
only the principal kind made in England in our own times, but
its manufacture has been adopted, to some extent in France,
Germany and Sweden, as well as in the United States.
It is impossible to describe these various efforts of European
potters without a certain amount of overlapping, for during the
1 8th century all the three kinds of European porcelain were
struggling for supremacy. It is advisable, therefore, to keep
clearly in mind which kind of porcelain » in question, for many
problems of manufacture and decoration are absolutely deter-
mined by the nature of the materials.
If we could trust to documentary evidence alone, the earliest
European porcelains were made at Venice in 1470, and again
in 1519; while we also read of its manufacture at Ferrara in
1 56 1. 1 Unfortunately, documentary evidence alone is not
conclusive, and the first European porcelam, known from actual
specimens as well as by documentary evidence, was that made
at Florence in the laboratory of Francesco de' Medici, between
1575 and 1 585. Specimens of this rare porcelain are to be found
only in great museums and private collections, where they rank
among our chief ceramic treasures. They show clearly that the
Florentine potters never fully mastered their difficult material,
for the ware is always imperfect and compares indifferently in
whiteness and translucence with fine porcelain, while the glaze
is neither smoothly melted nor free from defects. Obviously
the effect of Chinese blue and white porcelain was aimed at, the
decorations, reminiscent of the style of the Persian
pot-painters, being executed in cobalt blue alone.
These rare and interesting pieces bear distinctive
marks; for at their period the use of painters'
marks or monograms had become fairly general
on artistic pottery in Europe. One of the best
known marks is the " palle " or balls of the
arms of the Medici family, bearing the letters
"FMMED II." for " Franciscus Medici Magnus
Etruriae Dux II."; while other pieces have a Florentine
rude representation of the Great Dome of Florence Potter's mark,
and the letter " F."
Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine
porcelain that have survived to our day a manuscript has been
1 See Drake, Sir W. f Venetian Ceramics; and Davillier, Baron Ch.,
Les Origines de la porcelaine en Europe.
CERAMICS
Plate VIII.
Chinese. K'ang-hsi period.
Chinese. Black ground. K'ang-hsi period.
Chinese (Fami/le Vette).
K'ang-hsi period.
Chinese (Finn i lie Rose). Ch'ien-lung period.
Chinese. Plum-blossom jar. K'ang-hsi period.
GERMAN PORCELAIN]
CERAMICS
749
found in the Magliabechian Library at Florence which states
that the paste was composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass
(powdered rock crystal 10 and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth
of Faenza. To 12 parts of this mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic
clay of Vicenza were to be added, and the pieces glazed with
a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of the Italian
faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a material
unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine porce-
lain being the first of a long line of European porcelains the
artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing, a large
quantity of glass with a small quantity of day, so that they
may almost be regarded as a species of glazed and painted glass.
The technical methods used in their manufacture and decoration,
however, were those of the potter and not of the glass maker.
With the death of Francesco de* Medici in 1587 it seems prob-
able that this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end,
and we hear no more of porcelain in Italy for more than a century.
During this century (1587-1687) there can be no doubt that
efforts were made all over Europe to discover the secret of
porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable date we can point
to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of Rouen,
obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture
of porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased
with the death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are
extant in the shape of salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few
vases, the latter of considerable size. The pieces are. usually
decorated in blue with patterns in the Rouen style and were
evidently painted by an expert faience painter. In composi-
tion, the porcelain of Rouen,. like that of Florence, was of the
artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a similar ware
K ^ made its appearance at the faience
7V works of St Cloud near Paris, and at
j. *£\*^y various works in the city of Paris.
jEf j ^fS. T ^ Well-known pieces, bearing the marks
JTA^V* V fcere shown, formerly supposed to be
Paris Potters' marks. the earliest specimens of French
porcelain and the work of Poterat at
Rouen, are probably experimental pieces made in Paris after
the date of Poterat *s discovery, as they differ in important
particulars from his ware.
Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under
the patronage of the French court or of some great French
noble, rapidly assumed a position of importance. The works
at St Cloud received letters-patent from Louis XIV. in 1606,
and the manufacture was continued there, down to 1773. The
appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic, for
S. ^^ though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine
^f quality with a clear and brilliant glaze. TJie first
\^/ efforts appear to have consisted in frank imitations
T « 11 11 » of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces
decorated only with branches of flowering plum
s rl in relief, or pieces modelled with imbricated or
Potter's sca ^ e P*** 6131 or w * tn delicate flutings, were made,
mark. The earliest colour decoration was naturally in
under-glaze blue, and while quasi-oriental designs
were largely used, the commonest feature is the prevalence
of painted borders like those used on the faience of Rouen
and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze colours
and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never
reached to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manu-
factory at Sevres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most
distinctive French porcelains of the 18th century.
German Porcelains. — While the glassy porcelains of France
were being developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent
order was reached in Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector
of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed an extensive collection of
Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be seen in the Dresden
Museum, and he had established experimental pottery works,
bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief
investigators; appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Bbitger,
both alchemistsj and it was the glory of the latter to be the first
European to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the
nature of its materials, and in the appearance of its paste and
glaze. It may be surmised that Bottger was guided toward
this momentous discovery by information brought from China,
though such an idea is always stoutly denied by German
authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that Bottger at
the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European
experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the
problems offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first pro-
duction was an extremely hard redstone- ware — often erroneously
called ' 'Bottger's red porcelain" — resembling the Chinese
" boccaros " or red teapots of the Yi-hsing potteries. He had
been anticipated in this direction by Dwight of Fulham, but
the red pottery of Bottger was so intensely fired that it became
dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were
a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the
Leipzig fair of 17 10, and for many years it enjoyed great popu-
larity, as well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At
the same time (17 10) Bottger exhibited a few crude specimens
of greyish-white porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in
1713, and by 1716 its manufacture was definitely established,
though the pieces were -still far from perfect. Bottger died in
1 7 19, having had the rare fortune, in his short and eventful life,
to establish in Europe the manufacture of true porcelain.
The life of B&ttger reads like a page of romance, and the
story of the subsequent development of porcelain manufacture
throughout the German empire is hardly less romantic. When
the importance of Bottger's discovery was recognized, he and
his workmen were removed from Dresden to the Albrechtsburg,
a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so that the
manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All
concerned were practically state prisoners, and this, extreme
rigour doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped
from time to time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a
knowledge of the manufacture, found patrons among the German
princes all eager to gain reputation as experimenters in the new
art of porcelain. Some of these wandering " Arcanists," like
Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt from them, travelled
all over the empire, and the following list of dates will show
how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent factory at
Meissen: —
Meissen
Vienna
Ansbach
Bayreuth
1710
1718
1718
1720
St Petersburg . .1744
Berlin .... 1750
Nymphenburg . . 1758
Ludwigsburg ... 1758
Meissen. — Although the factory which was founded at Meissen
as a result of Bottger's discovery remained on its old site until
1863, the porcelain made there has been commonly known as
Dresden porcelain; probably because Dresden was the seat of
the Saxon court, and the enterprise was conducted at the ex-
pense of the electors of Saxony. So jealously were the secrets
of this factory guarded that when Napoleon, the master of
Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use at
Meissen in 181 2, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer,
the director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain
the processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best
example by which we may follow the changes of fashion and
taste that governed the styles of porcelain decoration in Europe
during the 1 8th century. The early Meissen porcelain was made
from the kaolin found at Aue, near Schneeberg, and while there
is no mention of any other material, we may be sure that clay
and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese hao-Hn and pe-
iun-tse, were obtained from the same quarries, and were used
together. Until after the death of Bdttger in 17 19 it cannot
be said that the venture was more than a succes d'estime. The
specimens preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the
pieces were generally thick in substance and clumsy in shape,
being often made from the moulds that had been designed for
Bottger's red-stoneware. Naturally enough these early examples
were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and decoration.
As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were
common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains,
the decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the
75°
CERAMICS
[MEISSEN
blue colour being much run and blistered; and when attempts
were made at decoration in enamel colours (i.e. colours fired on
the finished glaze) the result was unsatisfactory, as, owing to
the refractory nature of the hard f elspathic material, these colours
frequently scaled off. The later success of the Meissen factory
must be attributed to Herold or Horoldt (who joined the staff
in 1 720 as a colour maker and painter), and to Kandler, a sculptor,
who came to the works in 173 1. In the hands of these two men
the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese and
Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while
the composition of the body and the glaze, and the application
of colours and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was
appointed director of the works a few years after 1720, and
retained that post until 1765, while Kandler was chief modeller
from 1 731 to 1775. The years from 1730 (when the work de-
finitely emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775 (when
Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen
porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen
porcelain of this period is the most valuable, and genuine ex-
amples of All-Meissen command high prices in the sale rooms,
especially in Germany. This appreciation was quite as apparent
in the 18th century, for by 1740 Meissen porcelain had won the
greatest renown in Europe, and was actually exported by way
of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries of the Nearer
East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers as
being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was
its vogue between 1 740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen —
a large number for those days — were employed, and the industry
brought large profits as well as great reputation to the Saxon
court. Each year saw some fresh departure from the original
inspiration of the work, some fresh innovation of European
style in design. After 1730 the rude reproductions of Chinese
forms and decorations in white or blue and white were replaced
by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially those decorated
in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a race
with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations
in red and green and gold which spread in time to all' the porcelain
factories of Europe. Gradually European motifs became pre-
dominant. The simple oriental forms were replaced by dis-
tinctively European shapes with architectural mouldings,
handles and feet. Instead of the dainty Japanese patterns,
we perceive the gradual introduction of " Rococo " scroll-work
(as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or border
for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins, figure-subjects,
hunting scenes, &c, executed in the limited palette of on-glaze
colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from ;
oriental influence is to be found in the numerous " armorial "
services produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same
period we find the first appearance of a style of decoration that '
has persisted to our own times, as a means of passing off pieces
with small flaws in body or glaze, by hiding them among sprays
of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly or some other
winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the surface
of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used :
at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general,
and a device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture ,
was elevated into a distinct style of decoration by later European i
factories (e.g. Strassburg, Niederviller, &c).
The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but un-
satisfactory attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve
apostles, an equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic
proportions, and many models of animals intended for the
decoration of the Japanese palace at Dresden. Many of these
latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum y and create an
unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame ,
of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the
little statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed
in a steady stream from his facile hand; for though these figures
have prettiness rather than grace, and flair rather than style,
they are instinct with the spirit of the middle 18th century, and
were eagerly imitated or boldly copied at every factory in Europe.
Only in the biscuit porcelain figures of Sevres, and in some few
of the portrait figures of Derby, do we find anything artistically
superior. These Meissen statuettes look their best when they
are simply in white; many are grotesque and ugly, and the colour
decorations are usually in very poor taste, the harsh, shining
colours contrasting unpleasantly with the pronounced white of
the porcelain.
Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at
Meissen. Originating in the simple application of modelled
branches of prunus, &c> in imitation of the white porcelains of
Fu-kien, the method developed until we get not only the
characteristic " May-flower " decoration (see example, Plate IX.),
but also independent sprays and bouquets modelled in porcelain
and coloured with the utmost mechanical precision. It is not
quite clear whether this production of porcelain flowers was
first perfected at Meissen Or at Vincennes, 1 but it was largely
practised at both places.
Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames
and clock cases were modelled in the most outrS rococo forms
with applied scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their
modelled details picked out in gold and colours, while the success
of the French styles of decoration is still further shown by the
copies of Watteau figures and groups on the more important
vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the Great made sad havoc
with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven Years' War.
He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on the
latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models,
working moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks
the end of the most distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this
time S&vres became the most important porcelain factory in
Europe, and the later productions of Meissen were, for the most
part, German versions of the styles initiated at the French royal
factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was at the head
of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier. succeeded Kandler.
They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like
a blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under
the directorship of Count Marcolini (1 774-1814), when Meissen,
fallen from its high estate, was content to follow the lead of
Sevres.
After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of
Meissen. The old productions of the factory had become valuable,
and the custom of reproducing them, marks included, was adopted.
Suoh a practice was not likely to lead to further progress, and,
though the factory was removed from its old site in the
Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to have added anything
to the progress of European porcelain during
the 19th century.
dcn •• t£ yx
During the initiatory period the " Dresden '
pieces bore the monogram " A. R." interlaced
(Augustus Rex); and between 1 7 12 and
pieces intended, for. sale and not for the use « Dresden " Potter's
of the court were marked with the sign of . . mark.
Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff).
From about 1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze,
with or without accompanying stars, crosses, &c.> formed the general
mark, but the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that,
in itself, it is of slight value as a means of identification.
Vienna. — The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in
Vienna occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier,
was granted a patent. He had secured two runaways from
Meissen, Stolzel and Hunger, yet little progress was made until
after 1 744, when the factory was bought by the empress Maria
Theresa. At first the traditional styles of Meissen were continued,
but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was produced after
1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours and
elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner.
Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period,
succeeded in producing a more extensive and brilliant palette
of colours than was iri use at any other European porcelain
factory in the last quarter of the 18th century; and the gilding
1 A perfect tour deforce in this inartistic 6tyle of work, preserved
in the Dresden Museum and formerly attributed to Meissen, has
been shown to be the work of Vincennes. See Gaz. des beaux-arts*
September 1904.
EUROPEAN PORCELAIN]
CERAMICS
75*
Wegeli's
. mark.
was rich and elaborate. Apart from its technical merits the ware
has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of decoration showed
pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the saving merits
of the French work in the same style. The works was closed in
1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should
be reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small
Viennese factories, are to be found on the market.
Berlin. — The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper
Wegeli, aided by workmen from other German factories, as
W early as 1 7 50. This business was unsuccessful and
came to an end in 1757, but its productions are
highly prized on account of their rarity. Success
only came when: Frederick the Great brought
workmen, moulds and materials from Meissen
in 1 76 1, and, becoming proprietor of the works
in 1763, founded the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory.
Though Meissen workmen and methods had been imported, and
the Meissen style governed the earliest productions, Frederick's
well-known penchant for French art was doubtless respon-
sible for the fact that the rococo style of decoration was more
determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The
colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being
seldom decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-
coloured enamel, a favourite colour with the great Frederick,
is quite characteristic. The Royal Berlin Factory passed under
a cloud in the troubled condition of the Prussian monarchy
during the early years of the 19th century, and down to 1870
it was content to follow in the wake of Sevres like most of
the other European factories. Since about the year 1880,
however, it has developed into the most scientific of European
porcelain works, and it was here that Seger manufactured his
special porcelain, made to reproduce the qualities of the finest
Japanese wares. In spite of this scientific success it must be
remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is artistically disappoint-
ing, being too exuberant for our taste and recalling anything
rather than porcelain in its treatment.
Minor German Factories, — It is unnecessary to describe the pro-
ductions of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for
not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at
froducing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin,
n every case the industry was established under the patronage or
at the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate
the success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and
generally the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron
or from his unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his
purse.
The factory at Hochst was started about 1720 by wanderers from
Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the
patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The
general style of Hochst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary
wares of Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures
and groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780).
He modelled, at Hochst, more than three hundred figures, as well a9
many portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end
during the French invasion of 1794.
Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs
of Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector
palatine from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end
to its activities, Melchior, the sculptor,, came here from Hochst
after 1780, and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sevres and
Dresden were made.
Nymphenburg,(near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal
factory in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of
fine quality, but without special distinction. Melchior came on here
about 1800, remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenbure
figures are as highly esteemed as those he modelled at Hochst ana
Frankenthal. In the early years of the 19th century elaborate
painting became the rule here, as at the other royal factories, and
copies were made onporcelain of some of the famous paintings in the
Munich galleries. The works is still in existence, in the hands of a
private company, who unfortunately sell many reproductions of the
18th-century wares.
Ludwlgsburg, some 9 ni. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory
from 1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Wurttemberg.
Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because
the ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been
called " Kronenberg ** porcelain.
FUrstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick.
Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was pro-
duced before 1 770, FUrstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-
known styles: of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its
" biscuit • statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in
operation until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction,
imitations of the old pieces are now common.
Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bay-
reuth, Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach.
Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous
decorators, like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both
German and oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim,
produced effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a
diamond and rubbing black colour into the lines.
While France and Germany were each developing their own
particular type of porcelain, it was only natural that the
kings and princes of other countries should strive to emulate
them in the manufacture of this still rare and highly esteemed
form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the countries to the north
and east seem to have been influenced most by German methods,
whilst those to the south and west followed the French example.
Holland. — The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as
1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude
Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M ; O.L., or M. o. L.
After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the
11 Amstel "porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The
ware resembled the German both in material and decoration. The
best porcelain made in Holland was produced at a factory at the
Hague, founded some time after 1775. There is a choice collection
of this ware in the Gemeente Museum at the Hague. No porcelain
appears to have been made in Holland after about 18 10 until 1890
or later.
Denmark. — It has been stated that porcelain of the German type
was made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite
record of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when
potters, modellers and painters from some of the German works
founded the enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII.
in 1779 and converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king's
patronage, fine porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely
made down to the end of the 18th century. The collection in the
castle of Rosenburg contains many examples of the work of this
period. In the early years of the 19th century the Empire style of
decoration was adopted, and the artistic influence of Sevres became
paramount. Large sums of money were continually required from
the crown to maintain the establishment until, in 1867, it was sold
into private hands to get rid of an encumbrance. The subsequent
new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen porcelain works must
be noted in the next section.
Sweden. — The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is
connected with the factories at Rorstrand and Marieberg, both in the
environs of Stockholm, Tentative experiments were made at both
these places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the
1 8th century, though the Rorstrand works was reopened some fifty
years ago and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porce-
lains were of two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the
German, and the other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at
Mennecy in France. It is interesting, to note that the decorative
styles in both cases are distinctly French in character.
Russia. — Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain
factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third ot Saxony,
but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the
empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal
fashion 2 but although she brought over French artists, the Russian
porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French proto-
type. In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian
factory followed the example of Sevres in producing costly dinner
services and extravagant vases of large dimensions.
Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of
Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and
another by A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these
Moscow factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes,
the most interesting being those representing Russian peasant types;
Hungary. — The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at
Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this
factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived
many collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the
word " Herend " in the paste.
Switzerland. — Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland,
and considering the geographical position of the country it seems
natural that porcelain of the German type should have been made at
Zurich and of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but
these productions are of no particular importance.
French Porcelains. — The beginnings of French porcelain at
Rouen and St Cloud have already been mentioned, as they
preceded Bottger's discovery of true porcelain; but as nothing
was known in France of the methods and materials used by the
German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy porcelain held
sway in France through the greater part of the 18th century.
752
CERAMICS
[FRENCH PORCELAIN
IS Its uniiauon 01 me Japanese uu
The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded
at Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince
de Condi, an enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese
porcelains. One distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain
is its imitation of the Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century,
especially those bearing deli-
cate patterns in the Kakiemon
I style. This imitation was not
confined to the decoration
, ™_ ... t* , , alone, but great efforts were
Lille and Chantilly Potters marks. made t0 rep roduce the de-
licious tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the
body of the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel
used by the French faience makers. Similar imitation of the
Kakiemon style of decoration became the rage all over Europe,
and was largely followed at Meissen and in England as well as
in France; but no European imitations equalled those of the
famous Chantilly ware.
Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy
and at Lille, but the most important French factory was that
founded at Vincennes about 1740, not only because of the many
beautiful pieces produced there, but also because the works
was taken under the direct patronage of the king in 1753 and was
transferred to Sevres in 1756, becoming ultimately the most
important porcelain factory in Europe.
Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact
composition of the artificial porcelain (pdte tendre) of Sevres, and a
brief account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the
glassy porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by
preparing a glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt,
gypsum, soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered
and washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded
by adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or
marl and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in
water until the fluicf was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled
to a thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap
or parchment size was added to it to rive it enough plasticity for
the workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were
made from this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of
considerable thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and
were then either turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper
to reduce them to sufficient thinness ; while handles, spouts or other
ornaments in relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary
with every other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then
fired into what is known as the " biscuit '* condition ; the most
difficult part of the whole process. During this firing the pieces
frequently went out of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of
the material and its tendency to soften as it approached the meltine
point of the frit. Consequently an elaborate system of " propping
the pieces had to be resorted to, and even then a very large proportion
became deformed. When the porcelain was drawn from the oven
after the first firing, the supports were removed and the pieces were
rubbed with sand to clean the surface, and were then coated with
glaze by sprinkling with a brush ; the daze being a fusible glass very
rich in lead. The glaze coat was melted by retiring the piece at a
lower temperature; and it was frequently necessary to repeat this
process several times in order to get a perfectly even and brilliant
result. The difficulties of such a process were enormous, and it
was only by the financial support of wealthy patrons, or of the state,
that such a method of manufacture was ever carried on for any length
of time. At its best the material is art exceedingly beautiful one,
lending itself especially to decoration in on-glaze colours, and the
pieces produced at Vincennes and at Sevres, between 174.5 and 1770
or thereabouts, form a distinct class by themselves. Skilful chemists
Hke Hellot and Macquer were employed to direct the operations,
and many beautiful ground colours, such as the famous gros-bleu,
bleu de rot, rose Pompadour, pea-green and apple-green were invented.
Sevres Porcelains. — The forms of the Sevres porcelain are ex-
ceedingly varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by
Duplessis, the king's silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are
more proper to metal than to pottery; but the French glassy
porcelain is such an artificial material in every respect that such
a point should not be strained too far. Owing to the want of
plasticity in the paste the pieces were always made in moulds
of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were moulded in
separate parts and these united together with metal screws or
mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for
actual use were usually painted on a plain white ground with
the full palette of on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich
gilding. The decorative pieces such as vases, candelabra, jar-
dinieres, &c, were decorated in a much more sumptuous fashion
by covering the greater part of the piece with a ground of one
of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned, reserving only
panels in white on which delicate miniature-like decorations of
the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired (see
fig. 52; and examples of Sevres, Plate IX.). Such collections as
the Wallace at Hertford House, or
the Jones Bequest in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, show at once
the variety and perfection to which
the work attained.
This Sevres porcelain is entirely
devoid of the broad decorative
treatment and rich full colour of
any of the great kinds of fine
pottery or porcelain. Artistically
considered, it has no place beside
the triumphs of the Chinese or
Persian potters, or of the Italian
majolists. Its shapes are too
formal, and are not sufficiently
imbued with a sense of the quali-
ties of the material. The ground
colours defy every natural ten-
dency of pottery colour for they
are even, flawless and mechanical,
with none of the palpitating rich-
ness that comes so naturally from
the potter's processes. The paint- Fig. 52. — Sevres vase, pdte
ings, whether of flowers, birds or tendre; green body and gilt
fi ^r,- subjec H^ arce - t - a ? rdina ? y sifflPffSss.) ***
skilful regarded as miniatures, but
as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to
the swift, apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters
of earlier times. So pronounced was the demand of the period
for smooth even finish that such ground colours as gros-bleu and
bleu de roi, where the colour naturally came varied and uneven,
were subsequently decorated with small diapers or lines of gold
in the form of ceil de perdrix or vermicelle, so as to produce a more
regular and even effect. The most elaborate and costly of all
the varieties of old Sevres is what is known as " jewelled S&vres,"
which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such as turquoises,
pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones. These
imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased
mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found
examples of the punches and other tools used in making these
mounts. On account of the enormous expense involved in the
production of such costly triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled
Sevres are rare even in the best collections, but the English
student is fortunate in the fact that the Wallace collection
contains a considerable number of them.
Many reasons — the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory,
the knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of
cost, the mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and decora-
tion, as well as the fact that the
glassy porcelain was abandoned
as too costly and risky after
about 1780 — have all conspired
to raise the prices which modern
collectors are prepared to pay
for fine examples of vieux
Sevres. It is doubtful whether
even the prices paid for paint-
ings by old masters have advanced so rapidly as those paid
fox Sevres porcelain of the best period. In the 'seventies
of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of remark that
a sum of £10,000 should have been paid at public auction
for three old Sevres vases; thirty years later one such piece
would probably fetch the same price. It should be added that
the extravagant prices now paid for Sdvres porcelain, which is
much more a triumph of technical than of artistic skill, have led
Sevres Potters* marks,
1753 and 1772.
SfcVRES, &c.J
CERAMICS
753
to an extensive system of " faking " and even forging specimens
which are purchased at high prices by amateurs.
Beautiful as the old Sevres porcelain was, those who were
responsible for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that
the porcelain made at Meissen and other German factories was
both harder and whiter in substance, more truly resembling
the oriental porcelain in every respect. It was also known that
these German porcelains were not so difficult, and therefore so
costly to manufacture as the French, and all these causes com-
bined to make the directorate of Sevres unremitting in their
efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to
those used by the German and Chinese potters. Pere d'Entre-
colles, the famous Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France
long before an account of the methods used by the Chinese, as
well as samples of the materials they employed; and after many
years' research MUlot and Macquer discovered the precious
materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, History of
French Porcelain, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of
this French porcelain, similar in material to the German and
Chinese, appear to have been made about 1769; but it was
some years after this before the manufacture of the new product
was firmly established, and then to the end of the 18th century
more and more of the hard porcelain and less of the glassy porce-
lain was made at Sevres. Speaking broadly, we might say that
after 1780 comparatively little of the original French porcelain
was made in France; and from that time to this practically all
French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porce-
lain, viz. made with china clay and felspathic rock. This
technical change in the nature of the materials had a profound
influence on the artistic qualities of French porcelain, and the
change was doubtless accentuated by the neo-classical rage
which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern renderings
of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague,
and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter
of the 18th and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a
definite period in pottery design and decoration. The intro-
duction of hard-paste porcelain rendered the manufacture of
large vases and other pieces possible; and after 1780 we find
the manufactory at Sevres engaged in the production of enormous
vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been continued
there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first
production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies
of well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The
earliest of these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this
material it was only possible to make them of quite modest
dimensions; with the introduction of hard-paste porcelain very
large slabs were manufactured, and a series of these are to be seen
in the museum at Sevres.
The most artistic of all the productions of Sevres are un-
doubtedly the " biscuit " figures and groups. These were
modelled with great skill by many of the best French sculptors
of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle, Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri,
Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &c. The best of these Sevres
" biscuits '* have a real artistic value which places them in a
class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at
Meissen, Frankenthal and Hochst.
Paris* — Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges
and prerogatives had been given to the Sevres manufactory, such
as the exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the
breakdown of the monarchical regime, which was rapidly accelerated
after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris
and its environs of a number of factories for the production of
hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal
manufactory of Sevres. In order that the royal edicts might be
more easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the
patronage of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen
Marie Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of
these Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them,
such as those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king's
eldest brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoin-
ette) ; Rue de Bondy (patronized by the due d'AngoulGme), compare
not unfavourably with those of Sevres itself.
It is impossible to do more than mention the other important
French factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strasshurg,
*w
8=-
Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years
of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these
factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal
factory at Sevres passing through a kind of lingering death between
1792 and 1 80 1, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the
glories of Sevres that modern French porcelain really came into being.
Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into
Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &c, we find the manufacture
of a glassy porcelain analogous to the early French arising in
Belgium, Italy, Spain and England. The materials and methods
were so like those used in France that it would be ridiculous to
claim for them an independent origin, even were we unable to
prove by documentary evidence that workmen trained in the
French factories had migrated into those countries.
Italy. — In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano
(1 762-1825) ; Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese
Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by^ the same family) ; and Capo-di-
Monte near Naples ( 1 736-1 820) ; with
minor factories like those at Vinovo,
Treviso, and the Volpato factory at
Rome. The most important of these
were the factories at Doccia and Capo- T
di-Monte. The porcelain made at
Doccia was famous for its soft trans- Capo-di-Monte Potters'
lucent texture, so that it lent itself marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.
beautifully to the production of white
glazed porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of
Fu-kien.
The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of
Charles III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions
are in pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces,
though modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and
seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides
groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have
the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers,
plates, &c, are covered with groups of figures modelled in high
relief on a minute scale. This trivial style ofwork is greatly admired
because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period
the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but
after about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and
decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820.
Spain. — Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in
1759 and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the
Capo-di-Monte factory, as well as the best moulds and models.
He established a new china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a
palace outside Madrid. As long as Charles III. lived immense sums
were lavished on this factory, and the ware was not allowed to be
sold, but was either used for the decoration of the royal palaces or for
presentation to other European sovereigns. Enormous vases were
made, following the example of SeVres, ^^^
and these were often filled with "TE?
bouquets of flowers modelled in porce- rO
lain. The most famous productions
of this factory, however, were the p„ ot , p^ iV/% p^«.«.™t „,TT1
plaques and slabs of porcelain used Buen Retiro Potters marks,
for lining the walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of
these rooms still remain, and arc frightful examples of the Spanish
rococo style. The factory was entirely destroyed in 18 12 during the
French war, and since that date no porcelain of any importance has
been made in Spain.
English Porcelains of the i8lh century. — There can be no doubt
that whatever experimental work may have been conducted
by our early English potters, such as the famous John Dwight
of Fulham, nothing like an established manufacture of porcelain
existed in this country prior to about 1 740-1745. There are
records of many tentative experiments before this date, but no
real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important porcelain
works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby,
and when we examine the productions of these factories it is
impossible to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been
imported from France. The early English porcelains, like all the
French porcelains of that date, were composed of artificial or
glassy mixtures.
We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as
typical of the earliest English porcelain of which there is any
definite record. The material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand
from Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight, and glass, while the glaze
was a fusible English flint-glass rich in lead. It is obvious,
therefore, that we are dealing with substances very similar to
those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above), and such
mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to
great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries
v*
754
CERAMICS
[CHELSEA AND BOW
the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on
at the expense of some royal or princely patron; in England,
however, the manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and
it is probably for this reason that at a very early date we find the
English porcelain-makers experimenting with other materials
than glass and clay in order to make their processes more certain.
In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas Frye of the Bow works
we find mention of the use of bone-ash — the material that was
to make English porcelain a distinct species by itself. From
1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large
proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the
English porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced
into the paste in order to obtain a more refractory material;
yet it was not until about 1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-
Trent abandoned entirely the use of glass and composed his
porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic rock for the body,
glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the foundation of
distinctively English porcelain. The material has many merits
both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more
easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better
for ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it
permits the fullest range of decoration.
Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English
factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the
various influences that were at work in determining what the
porcelain-maker should do, both in the way of shape and decora-
tion. The eyes of all men were, of course, turned first to the
porcelain brought from the far East; and in the early efforts of
the English factories, as of those of France and Germany, we
notice a predominance of white pieces or of pieces decorated
with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously inspired by
the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea pro-
duced large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early
days of the Worcester factory little else was made there than
white, or blue and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese.
Another oriental influence was to be found in the Imari patterns
of Japan, particularly those in the style of Kakiemon. It has
been noted that Meissen, Chantilly and other continental factories
had already created a vogue for these reproductions of Japanese
decorations, and in our own country Bow, Chelsea and Worcester
foflowed suit. The later Imari patterns, heavily decorated with
blue and red and gold for the use of " the foreigner," furnished
another popular style for Worcester ani Derby, and the vogue
of these English " Japan " patterns, in the last quarter of the
1 8th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great
that they represent a large proportion of the output of our
English porcelain works during that period. The productions
of the German and French factories also exerted a profound
influence on English potters; so that throughout the 18th
century English porcelains largely consisted of imitations of
the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy.
We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration
which undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of
transfer-printing, whereby patterns printed on paper from
engraved copper plates are transferred to porcelain or pottery
and subsequently fired, either under or on the glaze. At the best
these printed patterns are in no way superior to the stencilled
work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at the worst, European
and American printed patterns have been perhaps the most in-
appropriate decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world.
It has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it
enables elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so
brings decorated pottery within the reach of the humblest. The
truer view is, that the simplest brushwork patterns, or even no
pattern at all, would be preferable to the tawdry results that the
cheapest forms of transfer-printing have rendered possible.
Chelsea. — Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was
the most important of all the English porcelain works, and fine
specimens of this period command high prices in the saleroom
to-day. We know little of the origin. of this important factory,
though it is believed to have been in existence from some time
after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally demolished and some of
the workmen and part of the plant were removed to the then
important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles
Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750.
Sprimont retained possession of the works until 1769, and died
in 1 77 1. It was during his management, from 1750 to 1770,
that the finest and most characteristic pieces of Chelsea porcelain
were made.
Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely
varied, little was produced there that was really English in
character. The earliest pieces appear to have been either in
pure white or in white decorated with paintings in under-glaze
blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish salt cellars, the
shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats, small cups and
saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the decora-
tions, mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed
by reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain.
Afterwards we find the appearance of table wares modelled in
imitation of leaves, animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently
adopted from current French and German practice.
In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown
by the production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.),
and of the small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of
which there is such a fine collection in the British Museum. In
the latter days of the factory (say after 1758) we find Chelsea
following in the wake of Sevres in the production of large and
elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and covers, scroll-
work bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen in the
Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of
this elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine
blue, turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour,
while white panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and
painted in enamel colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects
in absolute rivalry with the pieces manufactured at Sevres.
The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the
ill-health of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1760-1770 to Duesbury,
the proprietor of the Derby works. He carried on the establish-
ment from 1770 to 1784, but in this period a great change is
noticeable in the product of the factory. The " rococo " forms and
decorations of the true Chelsea porcelain were replaced by works
in the neo-classical style already rendered popular by the success
of Josiah Wedgwood, and the Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite
a distinct production from the early works of Chelsea. The most
distinctive mark of the Chelsea
porcelain is an anchor — either em-
bossed in the paste or painted in
gold or colour. Often the anchors
occur in pairs, and it is frequently
associated with other marks such Chelsea Potters' marks,
as a dagger or a cross. Some of
the Derby-Chelsea pieces are marked with a conjoined D and
an anchor.
Bow. — The date of the establishment of the factory at Stratford-
le-Bow, in what is now the East End of London, is quite uncertain,
but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were con-
nected with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture
of porcelain. The materials mentioned in this patent are not
such as would produce porcelain at all, and it appears likely
that the specification was made purposely defective. In 1748
a further patent was applied for in which we get the first mention
of bone-ash, so that from the technical point of view the wares
made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance as in-
dicating the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain
in which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the
works at Bow belonged to Messrs Weatherby & Crowther, and
was then known as " New Canton," and as 300 workpeople were
employed, the operations must have been conducted on a large
scale; but ultimately, from causes that can only be surmised, the
partnership was dissolved and the business failed, so that in 1775
the works was bought for a very small sum by the William
Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the
plant and moulds to his more prosperous works at Derby. It
would appear from what we know of the factory and its
&$Z
WORCESTER AND DERBY]
CERAMICS
755
productions that the business was conducted on simpler lines than
at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no elaborate vases
in imitation of Sevres, and no important groups of figures which
might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is common
with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the pro-
duction of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted
with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then
followed the well-known " Quail," or "Partridge," and " Wheat-
sheaf " patterns in red and green and gold in imitation of the
Japanese patterns; and the manufacture of table ware decorated
with these siniple yet bright and pleasant devices seems to have
formed the greater part of the work at the factory. Many figures
and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but they are fewer in
number and less cleverly made and decorated than the con-
temporary productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise
that there was considerable rivalry between these two works
. situated on the outskirts of
JL • Jk^ the metropolis, for we find the
1^ ^ jt J3L " anchor "mark, which, is the
I .^^^^ ' i I best recognized mark of Chelsea :
^\ -^J I V fcj^ porcelain, often occurring on
^^ _ _ , ■^■^ specimens that from internal
Bow Potters marks. evidence or from the piece
itself we should rather attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are
not very certain, but some of the likeliest are here given.
Worcester. — The third of the early English factories, and
ultimately the most important of all, was that founded at
Worcester in 1751 by Dr Wall, a man of unusual attainments,
and a number of his friends. How Dr Wall came to learn the
secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown, but even
assuming that he acquired some information from wandering
workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon
developed on original lines. The nature of the paste and the
glaze of the early Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety
of their decorations, stamp this factory as the first where English-
men really developed a native porcelain. Between 1751 and
1770, the first period of Worcester porcelain, the prevalent
influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white, and the pieces of
that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for their artistic
quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, . certainly nowhere in
England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied,
and a collection of this blue-and? white Worcester is most satis-
factory from the aesthetic point of view. The productions at
this time were tea and coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and
plates. The cups were usually made without handles in imitation
of the oriental practice, but large, two-handled covered cups
for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made during the early
period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed pattern
resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced
at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets
were also made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion.
, The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was
introduced at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock,
an engraver, came from York House, Battersea, where the process
was first employed for the decoration of the Battersea enamels.
The early Worcester prints comprised portraits of celebrities of
the time (the Frederick the Great mug), or adaptations of the
works of great artists such as Gainsborough and Watteau, or
copies of current engravings or sporting prints- The first print-
ing was done in black or purple, and transferred, on to the fired
glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of printing
in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to note
that for many years this process of transfer printing was
developed side by side with the older method of porcelain painting,
and until the end of the. 18th century the processes appear to
have been used at Worcester quite independently. The closing
of the Chelsea factory in 1770 led to the migration of some of
the Chelsea painters to Worcester, and from about that date a
considerable amount of Worcester porcelain was decorated on
the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the styles that
had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only fair
to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always
WA
distinguished by a certain English character both in the style
and the workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and
most artistic period of Worcester porcelain came to an end before
1783, when, after the death of Dr Wall, the works passed under
the control of Thomas Flight and his two sons, who had been
jewellers. The Flight influence was
soon noticeable from the fact that the
new shapes were more and more based
on those of Sevres and Meissen, while
the decoration became more mechanical
and precise as befitted the work of
jewellers rather than potters. King
George III. and Queen Charlotte visited Early Worcester Potters'
the works in 1788 and bestowed upon marks.
the firm the privilege of styling themselves " China Manu-
facturers to Their Majesties," since when the works has always
been known as the Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793
Martin Barr was taken into partnership; the " Flight & Barr "
period, so well known to collectors, lasted until 1807.
Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after
1784, viz. the Chamberlain factory, which was working in
rivalry with the original establishment; but its productions
are of no particular artistic merit, and in 1840 the two firms
became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the present Worcester
Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the pro-
ductions of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th
century were the " Armorial " services made for various royal
and noble families, and those adaptations of Imari patterns
known as " Old Japan."
Derby. — 'Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear
to have been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee,
Andrew Planch6; but the business, which was afterwards to
attain such a great development, was only founded in 1756 with
William Duesbury as its manager. Duesbury was originally a
decorator of china figures in London, and his career proves that
he was a man of great industry and energy, for within twenty-
five years he not only built up a large business at Derby, but he
absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in
the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most import-
ant china manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a
commercial success like this implied the absence of any distinct
artistic impulse. The porcelain produced at Derby is for the
most part only an echo of the successes of Meissen, Sevres, or
the earlier English factories. It is only fair to remark that a very
deep and rich under-glaze blue was attained at the Derby works,
Derby Potters' marks.
and that this was associated with very mechanical painting of
birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional quality. At
this factory', top, the old Japan patterns were imitated with
exceptional vigour, until " Crown-Derby Japan " became a
standard trade name for this clobbered oriental style.
Mention has already been made of the " biscuit " porcelain
figures made at Derby, which are superior in style to anything
else made in Europe in the 18th century except the " biscuit "
porcelains of Sevres. The. Derby " biscuits " of the best type
range from 1700 to 1810, and the finest specimens have a " waxy "
surface, though there is little or no sheen and every detail remains
as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its maker The most
famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and statuettes
of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an artist
named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups
adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a
workman named Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic
figures and animals.
Plymouth and Bristol. — The porcelain factories at Plymouth
75*>
CERAMICS
(MODERN
and Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only
English factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous
to the Chinese was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a
Quaker druggist of Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempt-
ing to discover in Cornwall and Devonshire minerals similar to
those which were described in the letters of P£re d'Entrecolles
as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain. After many years of
travel and research he ascertained the nature of the Cornish stone
and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at Plymouth
for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from these
native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise,
from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only
be referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the
factory was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly after-
wards transferred to Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant,
who had already been dabbling in the fashionable pursuit of
porcelain making. Champion's Bristol factory lasted from 1773
to 1 781, when the business had to be sold to a number of Stafford-
shire potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed. The
Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true fels-
pathic porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the
china clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder
and whiter than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh,
glittering glaze marks it off at once from the wares of. Bow,
Chelsea, Worcester or Derby.
The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much
in its style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One
can point to nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens
now command very high prices in the salerooms it is on account
of their rarity rather than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that
they possess.
Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the
production of the Bristol works, but a considerable number of
figures are known, in many cases obviously copied from those of
Meissen, and a few large hexagonal vases similar in style to
specimens produced at Chelsea and at Worcester. The most
distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are certain small
plaques or slabs in " biscuit " porcelain, usually bearing in the
centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by
a wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these
choice productions are to be seen in the British Museum.
The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its
general mark the alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was
also used to a limited extent at the Bristol factory, though the
general Bristol mark was
cross or a copy of the
crossed swords of Meissen.
The Staffordshire potters
who bought the rights of
+ ^j£ the Bristol porcelain factory
^V' frpm Champion" established
Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and a works at Shelton, near
Swansea marks. Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staf-
fordshire, under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they
never manufactured anything of artistic account.
Minor English Factories, — A number of other porcelain factories
were founded in England in the latter half of the 1 8th century, but
none of these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain
made at Longton Hall by William Littler (1 752-1 758), always clumsy
and ugly in form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour character-
istic oT the factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by
William Duesbury.
The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain
amount of porcelain, as well as " Delft " and other earthenwares,
and the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their
productions.
A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th
century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because
certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of " Ar-
morial " porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China.
Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was
only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in procfucing
cheap wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the
more important English factories.
Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English
porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of
Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English
factories of the early 19th century. For notices of the minor English
factories of the late 18th century and early ipth century, such as
Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred
to the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain.
Collections. — The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert
Museum contain the best general collections of English porcelain.
The museums at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local
wares; while the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works
has an admirable collection of the wares of that factory. Many
noteworthy private collections are in existence, of which we may
mention those of Mr Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnelf.
Literature. — Alex. Brongniart, Traite des arts cSr antiques
(1844); Jacquemart, Histoire de la c4ramique (Eng. ed. 1873);
Janmcke, Grundriss der Keramik (1879) ; Dr Brinkmann, Handbook
of European Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum; Marryat, History
of Pottery and Porcelain (1857) ; Jewitt, Ceramic Art of Great Britain
(1878); Auscher, A History and Description of French Porcelain
(1905); Burton, A History and Description of English Porcelain
(1902); Dillon, Porcelain (1904); Solon. Old English Porcelain
(1903); Burton, Porcelain (1906); R. Almstrdm, Lervaroma och
deras TUlverkning (1903). (W. B.*)
Pottery and Porcelain during the 19TH Century
The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain
in Europe and America throughout the 19th century need not
be treated in such detail as the history of its growth up to that
period, for modern means of communication and the general
diffusion of knowledge have tended to destroy the individual
character which was so marked a feature of the pottery of
different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century was
distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most part, it
witnessed the displacement by mechanical processes of those
methods of handicraft which made the older pottery individual
and interesting even in its simplest forms. Collectors are pre-
pared to pay very large sums for choice examples of the potter's
art of bygone centuries, but it is doubtful if much of the pottery
of the 19th century will ever be collected for its intrinsic merits,
though it may be preserved as an illustration of the spirit of
the age.
In preceding sections of this article the development of the
brightly painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated
porcelains of various European countries have been traced down
to the end of the 18th century, because that date marks, quite
distinctly, the period when the old handicraft of the potter was
for various reasons displaced by organized manufacture. The
disturbed economic condition of Europe in the last quarter of the
1 8th century and the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century
proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain works
where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional
methods was completed by the superior mechanical perfection and
cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by Wedgwood
and his contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more
perfectly finished and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled
pottery of the continent. It vied in finish with the expensive
continental porcelains, and for nearly half a century it carried
all before it, not only in England, but throughout the world.
An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de Saint Fond, writing in the
beginning of the 19th century, remarks of English pottery that
" Its excellent workmanship, its soKdity, the advantage which
it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine glaze im-
penetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and
the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active
and so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg,
from Amsterdam to the farthest parts of Sweden, and from
Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France one is served at
every inn upon English ware. Spain, Portugal and Italy are
supplied with it; and vessels are loaded with it for the East
Indies, the West Indies, and the continent of America." l It
was calculated that at this time three-fourths of the pottery
manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a state of things
was not likely to continue, and in most of the European countries,
after the settlement of 181 5, such of the older factories as had
survived, or new factories specially created 1 for the purpose,
adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases
1 Travels in England and Scotland (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97.
CERAMICS
Plate IX.
Sevres Pate-tendre, c. 1757, painted by Falot and Morin.
Meissen. May-flower vase mounted in ormolu. Pate-dure.
Meissen. Crinoline figure (Kandler), Pate-dure.
Sevres. Pate-tendre, c. 1756.
MODERN]
CERAMICS
757
experienced Staffordshire potters were procured to direct these
works, and so far as ordinary domestic pottery was concerned,
the first half of the 19th century witnessed the establishment in
every country of Europe and in the United States of America
of pottery works managed by Englishmen, where earthenwares
were made after the English fashion. We shall refer presently to
the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and porcelain,
but the English influence was undoubtedly paramount, with one
or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England
itself witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture,
which became more and more aggregated in that district of North
Staffordshire designated emphatically u The Potteries," where,
in spite of later developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters
of all the pottery and porcelain made in the British Isles is still
produced. This concentration of the industry in England has
resulted in a race of pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere
in the world, and while it was the supply of cheap coal and coarse
clay which first gave Staffordshire its pre-eminence, that pre-
eminence is now retained as much by the traditional skill of the
workmen of the district as by the enterprise of its manufacturers.
While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the
methods of manufacture which have placed England in the first
rank as a pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have
brought within the reach of the humblest domestic utensils of
high finish and great durability, it is impossible to say much for
the taste or art associated with them. Neatness, serviceableness
and durability, English domestic wares undoubtedly possess in
a degree unknown to any earlier type of pottery, but the general
use of transfer-printing as the principal method of decoration, and
the absence of any distinctive style of ornament, must cause them
to take a low rank in comparison with the wares of past centuries,
when mechanical perfection was impossible and rich colour
and truly decorative painting were the chief distinctions of the
pottery of every country. The London International Exhibition
of 1 85 1 is generally supposed to indicate the low-water mark of
art as applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as
marking the period when many of the old handicrafts had been
extinguished by the use of mechanical appliances and the growth
of the factory system, and when the delight of men in these
current developments was so great that they were regarded as
triumphs in themselves, when they were only " means to an end."
Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain
has followed two main directions: (1) an attempt on the part of
manufacturers to produce the most artistic results possible with
modern processes and methods, and (2) the interesting and valu-
able efforts of those individual potters in every country with whom
art was the first consideration and commercial production was
disregarded.
Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount
importance in the first half of the 19th century, it must be re-
membered that some of the oldest factories in Europe were still
alive and active. The royal factories in Sevres, Meissen, Berlin,
Vienna, St Petersburg and elsewhere, surviving the wreck of the
Napoleonic Wars, continued at the expense of their respective
states, to produce porcelains which were the legitimate develop-
ment of their work during the 18th century.
Meissen and Berlin. — At Meissen, efforts were made to improve
the technical process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen
wares had already become valuable, and they were reproduced,
marks included, until all initiative was destroyed, and the
factory continued to live, mainly, on its old reputation.
At Berlin, the financial troubles of the Prussian monarchy
throughout the early years of the 19th century were severely
felt, so that a cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured.
The only innovations that can be ascribed to the factory during
this period, though highly esteemed at the time, form striking
examples of the artistic decadence of the period. Such was the
lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in porcelain slip so
that on firing the thread burned away, leaving a porcelain fac-
simile; another was the production of slabs of porcelain modelled
in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted light it;
appeared like a picture painted en grisaille.
From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the
majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in
the world has greater attention been paid to the technical and
scientific problems of porcelain manufacture, and this establish-
ment has rendered the greatest service in the development of the
important chemical and electrical industries of Germany by the
splendid appliances it has invented for scientific use.
Since 1870 the works, removed to Charlottenburg, have been
conducted with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger
perfected his soft porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the
best Japanese porcelains, and here also he developed the manu-
facture of copper-red glazes in imitation of the old sang-de-bceuf
and flambf glazes of the Chinese, at the same time establishing
some of the scientific principles underlying their production. At
Berlin, too, all the modern methods of decoration, whether in
coloured glazes, raised enamels, pdle sur p&te, the elaborate
paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the use of crystalline
glazes, have been followed with great success; but the factory
has never yet given any special impetus or new direction to the
decorative side of porcelain.
Vienna. — Few European factories were so little affected by the
general trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have
already referred to the elaborate paintings and rich gilding
which became the distinguishing feature of its wares towards the
end of the 18th century, and this style, once perfected, seems to
have been continued with little change. It has been stated by
a renowned German authority, that the Viennese porcelain was
at its best between 1785 and 181 5. During this period the plan
of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was developed to its
utmost, and this, in combination with the richest gilding, marks
the apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to an end
in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a flood of cheap
porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and there-
fore styled " Viennese porcelain," has during the last twenty years
overwhelmed the English and American markets.
Sevres. — The important part played by the Royal French
manufactory at Sevres has already been sketched. During the
troublous years of the French Revolution the works practicaDy
came to a standstill, and under the Directory it was a question
whether this manufactory, along with certain other state estab-
lishments in France, should be closed. Napoleon, however,
decided that for the glory of France and as a means of encourag-
ing its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the English
potters, the establishment at Sevres should be conducted as a
national factory. By a splendid coincidence Alexander Brong-
niart, a man of great natural ability, and a noted scientist, was
appointed director, and retained that post under the successive
governments of France until his death in 1847. In the hands of
Brongniart the establishment at Sevres became at once a school
of research and a centre of practical accomplishment — the
influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its products
were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French
monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose
ideas of Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of
his victories, and after every campaign a fresh table service or
new suite of vases was produced to commemorate the emperor's
successes. The most striking piece of this kind was the vase
made to commemorate the marriage of Napoleon and Marie
Louise in 1810. It was designed by Isabey and was modelled with
figures in bas-relief. The principal group contains not less than
115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the
acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures.
This vase was three years in making, and is said to have cost
something like £1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary
example of the productions of S&vres, for under every successive
government of the 19th century the factory has been called to
produce enormous vases which are to be found in the rooms
or corridors of every palace and museum in France, and while
these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their
manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered,
very few of them possess either spontaneity or charm. They
are correct, frigid, cold, and compare most unfavourably from
75 8
CERAMICS
[MODERN
the artistic point of view with the masterpieces of oriental
pottery.
Everything was carried out on the grand scale, and once again
the influence of Sevres became paramount in Europe, and its
styles of painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830
to 1870 by all those European potters who were attempting to
make anything beyond useful domestic wares. As an instance of
its aims in the period between 1830 and 1850, large sums were
spent in the production of great slabs of porcelain many feet in
area, on which were painted copies of some of the famous portraits
and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of the Louvre. A
number of these are preserved in the museum at Sevres, and must
always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical
accomplishment.
The most noticeable invention of Sevres in the middle part of
the 19th century was the pdte sur pdte decoration in. which
porcelain clays of various colours are used as the artist's medium.
The idea appears to have been adopted from an old Chinese vase
by Robert, the chief painter, and at the London International
Exhibition of 1862 some small cups decorated in this method, by
Gely, were first shown. The most successful work in this style
was, however, that produced by M. Solon, who worked at Sevres
until 1870, In that year he came to England and was employed
at Min ton's, where for about thirty-five years he continued this
method of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of
pottery decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M.
Solon the pdte sur pdte decoration took the form of paintings
of figure subjects or dainty ornamental designs in white slip on
a coloured porcelain ground of green, blue, dark-grey or black.
On such grounds a thin wash of the slip gives a translucent film,
so that by washing on or building up successive layers of slip,
sharpening the drawing with modelling tools, or softening or
rounding the figure with a wet brush, the most delicate grada-
tions of tint can be obtained, from the brilliant white of the slip
to the full depth of the ground. This method was rapidly
adopted by all the principal European factories, though nowhere
was it carried to such perfection as at Sevres and at Min ton's.
M. Taxile Doat has executed many extraordinary pieces in this
style of decoration at Sevres, and in the British Museum there is
a large vase of his, presented by the French government at the
beginning of the present century. One great feature pf French
porcelain manufacture during the 19th century was the develop-
ment of the industry at Limoges and the neighbouring district
of central France. Limoges was a small centre of porcelain
production in the period between 1780 and 1850, but after the
latter date it rapidly developed into a pottery centre second only
in importance to that of the Potteries district in England. We
can do no more than mention this fact, because, for the most
part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the pro-
duction of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art.
The Franco-German War proved a disaster for Sevres, and all
work came to a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory,
which was almost completed before the outbreak of the war, was
opened by Marshal MacMahon in 1876, but for many years the
work was continued under great discouragement. Between 1879
and 1889 attention was paid to the study and imitation of old
Chinese methods, and this resulted in the reproduction of many
of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the despair of
European potters.
At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the display made by Sevres
was perhaps the most notable feature of the magnificent collec-
tion of ceramics gathered there. The collection included many
varieties of porcelain, both hard and soft paste, decorated in all
the current styles of the period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze
painting, flamb6 glazes and crystalline glazes, but most beautiful
of all were the magnificent groups of " biscuit " figures designed
as table garniture's by some of the best French sculptors of the
time.
English Progress. — The demand for elabdrate specimens of
painted porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between
1 85 1 and 1880, and this demand was undoubtedly fostered by
the series of international exhibitions held during that period,
when every European pottery works of note produced large and
costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware, smothered with
painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced
something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of
European factories during this period was that of Messrs Min ton
at Stoke-upon-Trent. M. Leon Amoux, a descendant of the
Amoux's of Apt, an old family of French potters, was at this
time the technical and artistic director of Messrs Min ton's
works, and he was the only pottery director during the 19th
century who could in any sense be compared with M. Brongniart
of Sevres. M. Amoux combined in a remarkable degree artistic
with technical skill, and under his management the works of
Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in
Europe. Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, Carriere-Belleuse,
and Protat, and pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill,
E, Lessore and L. Solon were engaged at this factory and pro-
duced many of the most characteristic European decorations of
the middle of the 19th century.
To this period, too, we must refer another English invention,
that of a special porcelain known as " Parian." This in its
finest expression was a "biscuit" porcelain used for the production
of statuettes and groups rivalling the finest 18th century " biscuit "
figures of Sevres and Derby. It seems probable that this Parian
was first made at the works of Copeland and Garratt, at Stoke-
upon-Trent; but it was immediately adopted at Min ton's,
Wedgwood's, and at Worcester; and each of these firms used it
in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured at
the Belleek Porcelain Works in Ireland (the only Irish porcelain
works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by
the Worcester Royal Porcelain Company, Moore Brothers of
Longton, and other English manufacturers until it became an
•important branch of the English porcelain made in the period
under review.
Japanese Influence.- rAt the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great
collection of the applied arts of Japan took Europe by storm,
and there was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese
art in Europe once more; not as in the 18 th century, when the
old Japanese patterns were copied or frankly imitated, but a
European-Japanese style arose, based on the methods and ideas
of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen, the workers in
metal, in iron, in lacquer and in silk. In England the Worcester
Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and
skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and
minute execution must be ranked before all other European
works of their kind. , .
The most admirable result of this revived interest in Japanese
art was, however, developed. at the Royal Copenhagen works,
the productions of which are not only famous all over the world,
but have set a new style in porcelain decoration which is being
followed at most of the continental factories. By the use of the
pure Swedish felspar and quartz and the finest china clays from
Germany or Cornwall a material of excellent quality is prepared,
and on this naturalistic paintings of birds, fishes, animals and
water or northern landscapes and figure subjects are painted in
delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens. The Royal Copen-
hagen works has also produced a profusion of skilfully modelled
animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or .delicately
tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours.
Not only have Berlin, Sevres and other European factories
adopted the modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the
Japanese are now imitating these skilful productions which were
originally inspired by" their own early work.
Stonewares. — Mention must be made of the revival of the
manufacture of artistic stonewares by Doultons of Lambeth, and
Villeroy and Boch, the great German potters. Doultons, besides
reviving the older forms of English stoneware, made some
entirely new departures, and their pieces with designs etched in
the clay are admirable examples of the right use of a refractory
material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old. Rhenish stone-
wares, and many interesting new departures in addition, but
mostly in German forms that have not commended the wares
to other nations.
CERAMICS
Plate X
Turner's jasper; c. 1780.
Wedgwood's jasper; c. 1780.
MODERN]
CERAMICS
759
Artistic Results. — While the great potteries of Europe have been
employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in
consolidating their knowledge on the technical and scientific
side, so that they are able to produce pottery more perfect
in shape, with a higher degree of finish and greater certainty of
result than was ever known before, it cannot be said that the
artistic results have been commensurate with the labour ex-
pended. Fortunately, however, the success of these important
industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited
a considerable number of clever men, either potters or artists,
to become artist-potters and producers of individual wares,
often recalling the works of the great schools of bygone centuries.
This movement, which to-day has its exponents in every European
country as well as in the United States of America, originated in
France between 1840 and 1850, when the formation of the earliest
ceramic museums and the new-born interest in the old French
faience led to various attempts at pottery-making by the old
methods of handwork and rule of thumb. Avisseau of Tours
(1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859) began to make
pieces in the style of Palissy, and Ulysse of Blois (1863) revived
painted faience in imitation of that of Nevers. Slowly a demand
for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs,
and in France and other countries artists began to dabble in the
painting of pottery. In some cases the artist retained his free-
dom, painting pieces obtained from some pottery manufacturer,
which he sold on his own account after they had been decorated
and fired; or he became attached to a particular factory and his
productions were sold by the potter; or the artist became an
amateur potter, and either worked alone or encouraged other
artists to co-operate with him.
It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent
men in each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their
own day, but are also likely to be regarded always as among
the distinguished productions of the 19th century. Emile
Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who were attracted by
the technique of the potter. For some time they bought speci-
mens of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at
Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial
art for that of the potter. Lessore painted in underglaze colours
in a delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from
old engravings. He worked for a short time at Sdvres, and then,
like so many other French pottery artists of this period, he
came to Minton's in England, and finally entered into an en-
gagement with the old firm of Josiah Wedgwood & Sons which
continued almost to his death ( 1 860-1 876) . On their fine cream-
coloured earthenware he sketched many thousands of fanciful
designs which had a great vogue in the 'seventies and 'eighties of
the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His
first innovation was a. method known as " Barbotine " or slip-
painting, in which coloured clays were used " impasto," often in
considerable thickness, so that after the work had been fired and
glazed it bore some resemblance to an oil painting. For a few
years this style of decoration became the rage all over Europe,
but it fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it had found favour,
and is now only used, for the decoration of common wares.
Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the
discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first
European potter to produce flambe" glazes after the manner of
the Chinese, and a fine collection of these productions of his is
preserved in the museum at Sevres.
The greatest of all the French innovators was, however,
Theodore Deck, who had been trained as a working potter and
was led to forsake the management of an ordinary tile and pottery
business in Paris to experiment on his own account. He started
a little workshop in the Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and
rapidly gathered round him a number of young painters all eager
to experiment in the magnificent colours which Deck with his
passionate love of Persian and other oriental pottery could place
at their disposal. Within a few years this venture was so success-
ful that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a great
potter, and his original creations, painted by men like Ranvier,
Collin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased
by the lovers of ceramic art in every country. The crown of
his career came in 1887, when he was appointed director of the
National Manufactory at Sevres, for he was the only practical
potter who had ever occupied that position; but he died in 1890
before he had been able to impress his personality on the work of
Sevres.
The same movement that was active in France found its ex-
ponents in other countries as well. In Italy and the south of
France the last quarter of the 19th century witnessed a revival
of Italian majolica and of lustre decoration. Prominent in this
direction were the productions of Cantegalli of Florence and of
the Massiers of Golf e- Juan near Cannes; while in England
William de Morgan created an artistic sensation by his tiles
and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours recalling
those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages. This
departure in England was, however, followed up by many
manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of
pottery colour, and Mr Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw &
Company of Jackfield, and Minton's of Stoke-upon-Trent, pro-
duced much excellent work, in tiles and vases inspired from the
same oriental sources.
Mean time.in America there had been growing up a manufacture
of pottery after the approved methods, in Trenton, New Jersey;
East Liverpool, Zanesville and Cincinnati (Ohio). To all these
centres English workmen had been attracted, and earthenware
after the current English styles was manufactured; but, as
was the case in Europe, individual efforts were made to produce
artistic pottery. The first and best known of these artistic de-
partures was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and
again it was an amateur, Mrs Bellamy Storer, who founded an
enterprise which has since produced some very original work.
From 1880 to 1889 the work was mainly carried on at the
expense of this lady, but since that date the enterprise has been
self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery has become known
throughout the world.
The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the develop-
ment of new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary pur-
poses — and it is not too much to say that much of the improved
sanitation of modern dwellings and towns has been rendered
possible by the special appliances invented by potters for these
purposes. In this direction the English potters undoubtedly
led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated
abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large
works in Germany, France and the United States of America.
Varieties, too, of hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares,
stonewares and porcelains, have been invented for use in the
chemical and electrical industries. But these belong to the great
modern branch of pottery manufacture, not to pottery art. In
,the same way, the revived attention paid to the various forms of
pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings belongs rather
to the question of mural decoration than of Jx>ttery.
At the beginning of the 20th century we find England and
Germany the leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany
excelling in the amount of its output, and England in the fineness
and finish of its productions. France, in addition to the National
Manufactory at Sevres, as much as ever divorced from commerce,
has its porcelain industry at Limoges and large manufactories
of tiles and earthenware in many departments; while there are
also a number of artist potters like Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Dela-
herche and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic pottery in
hard-fired stonewares (gres) and porcelain, while the production
of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been developed
by such firms as Bigot, Boulanger and E. Muller. A great
development has also taken place in the production of decorative
pottery and tiles in Holland. The famous Delft works, besides
producing quantities of painted blue and white earthenware
(made in the English and not in the old Dutch fashion), has
been experimenting largely in the development of crystalline
and opalescent glazes and in lustres, while the Rozenburg factory
at the Hague and a factory at Puramerende, near Amsterdam,
havemadesome distinctive but rather bizarre painted pottery and
porcelain. The success of the Royal Copenhagen factory has
760
CERARGYRITE— CERES
already been mentioned, and this success led to the foundation of
Bing & Grondhal of Copenhagen, who largely follow the styles
of decoration initiated at the Royal works. In Sweden there
are two important factories at Rorstrand and Gustafsberg.
Under the accomplished director of the Rorstrand factory, Mr
Robert Almstrom, a great variety of products have been success-
fully manufactured, including hard-paste porcelain, English
bone china, earthenware, majolica and stoves. Italy, Spain and
Belgium have also important modern pottery works.
In the United States of America there are large establishments
for the manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all
after the English fashion, while in addition there are a number
of experimental kilns at work producing artistic pottery. The
Rookwood factory has already been mentioned, but the wares
produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs Robineau and T.
Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See " Report on American
Art Pottery," pp. 922-935 of Special Reports of the U.S. Census
Office, Manufactures, pt. iii., 1905.)
Technical Pottery Works. — It is only possible to give a selection of
the best of the modern standard works dealing with the technical
side of pottery production. Brongniart, Traite des arts ciramiques
(3rd ed., Pans, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvetat; E.
Bourry, Traite des industries ciramiques (Paris, 1897); Theodore
Deck, La Faience (Paris, 1887) ; A. Granger, La Ceramtque industrielle
(Paris, 1905); E. S. Auscher, La Ceramtque cuisant d haute tempera-
ture (Paris, 1899); Technologie de la ceramique (Paris, 1901); Les
Industries ciramiques (Paris, 1 901); Seger, Gesammelte Schriften
(Berlin, 1896; Ene. trans., Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1902); Langenbeck,
The Chemistry of Pottery (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895) ; William
Burton, Porcelain (London, 1906). (W. B.*)
CERARGYRITE, a mineral species consisting of silver chloride;
an important ore of silver. The name cerargyrite is a Greek form
(from xkpas, horn, and &pyvpos, silver) of the older name
hornsilver, which was used by K. Gesner as far back as 1565.
The chloro-bromide and bromide of silver were also included
under this term until they were distinguished chemically in
1 84 1 and 1842, and described under the names emboli te and
bromargyrite (or bromyrite) respectively; the chloride then
came to be distinguished as chlorargyrite, though the name
cerargyrite is often now applied to this alone. Chloro-bromo-
iodide of silver has also been recognized as a mineral and called
iodembolite. All these are strikingly alike in appearance and
general characters, differing essentially only in chemical composi-
tion, and it would seem better to reserve the name cerargyrite
for the whole group, using the names chlorargyrite (AgCl),
embolite (Ag(Cl, Bl)), bromargyrite (AgBr) and iodembolite
(Ag(Cl, Br, I)) for the different isomorphous members of the
group. They are cubic in crystallization, with the cube and the
octahedron as prominent forms, but crystals are small and
usually indistinct; there is no cleavage. They are soft (H** 2J)
and sectile to a high degree, being readily cut with a knife
like horn. With their resinous to adamantine lustre and their
translucency they also present somewhat the appearance of horn;
hence the name hornsilver. The colour varies somewhat with the
chemical composition, being grey or colourless in chlorargyrite,
greenish-grey in embolite and bromargyrite, and greenish-yellow
to orange-yellow in iodembolite. On exposure to light the
colour quickly darkens. The specific gravity also varies with the
composition: for the pure chloride it is 5-55, and the highest
recorded for an iodembolite is 6-3.
The hornsilvers all occur under similar conditions and are often
associated together; they are found in metalliferous veins with
native silver and ores of silver, and are usually confined to the
upper oxidized parts of the lodes. They are important ores of
silver (the pure chloride contains 75-3 % of silver), and have been
extensively mined at several places in Chile, also in Mexico, and
at Broken Hill in New South Wales. The chloride and chloro-
bromide have been found in several Cornish mines, but never
in very large amounts. (L. J. S.)
CERBERUS, in Greek mythology, the dog who guarded the
entrance to the lower world. He allowed all to enter, but
seized those who attempted to escape. According to Hesiod
(Theog. 311), he was a fifty-headed monster with a fearful bark,
the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. He was variously
represented with one, two or (usually) three heads, often with
the tail of a snake or with snakes growing from his head or twined
round his body. One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles was to
fetch Cerberus from below to the upper world, a favourite subject
of ancient vase-paintings.
CERDIC (d. 534), founder of the West Saxon kingdom, is
described as an ealdorman who in 495 landed with his son Cynric
in Hampshire, where he was attacked at once by the Britons.
Nothing more is heard of him until 508, when he defeated the
Britons with great slaughter. Strengthened by fresh arrivals
of Saxons, he gained another victory in 519 at Certicesford, a
spot which has been identified with the modern Charford, and in
this year took the title of king. Turning westward, Cerdic appears
to have been defeated by the Britons in 520 at Badbury or Mount
Badon, in Dorset, and in 527 yet another fight with the Britons
is recorded. His last work was the conquest of the Isle of Wight,
probably in the interest of some Jutish allies. All the sovereigns
of England, except Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds and
William the Conqueror, are said to be descended from Cerdic.
See Anqlo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-
1899); Gildas, De excidio Britanniae, edited by Th. Mommsen
(Berlin, 1898) ; Nennius, Historia Brittonum, edited by Th. Mommsen
(Berlin, 1898) ; Bede, Historian ecclesiastical gentis Anglorum libri v.,
ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896) ; E. Guest, Oritines Celticae (London,
1883); J. R. Green, The Making of England (London, 1897).
CERDONIANS, a Gnostic sect, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian,
who came to Rome about 137, but concerning whose history
little is known. They held that there are two first causes — the
perfectly good and the perfectly evil. The latter is also the
creator of the world, the god of the Jews, and the author of the
Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good deity; he
was sent into the world to oppose the evil; but his incarnation,
and therefore his sufferings, were a mere appearance. Regarding
the body as the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians formed a
moral system of great severity, prohibiting marriage, wine and
the eating of flesh, and advocating fasting and other austerities.
Most of what the Fathers narrate of Cerdo's tenets has probably
been transferred to him from his famous pupil Marcion, like
whom he is said to have rejected the Old Testament and the
New, except part of Luke's Gospel and of Paul's Epistles. (See
Marcion, and Gnosticism.)
CEREALIS (Cerialis), PETILLIUS (1st century a.d.), Roman
general, a near relative of the emperor Vespasian. He is first
heard of during the reign of Nero in Britain, where he was com-
pletely defeated (a.d. 61) by Boadicea. Eight years later
he played an important part in the capture of Rome by the
supporters of Vespasian. In 70 he put down the revolt of
Civilis (q.v.). In 71, as governor of Britain, where he had as
a subordinate the famous Agricola, he inflicted severe defeats
upon the Brigantes, the most powerful of the tribes of Britain.
Tacitus says that he was a bold soldier rather than a careful
general, and preferred to stake everything on the issue of a
single engagement. He possessed natural eloquence of a kind
that readily appealed to his soldiers. His loyalty towards his
superiors was unshakable.
Tacitus, Annals, xiv. 32 ; Histories, iii. 59, 78, iv. 71, 75, 86, v. 21 ;
Agricola, 8, 17.
GERES, an old Italian goddess of agriculture. The name
probably means the "creator" or "created," connected with
crescere and create. But when Greek deities were introduced
into Rome on the advice of the Sibylline books (in 495 B.C.,
on the occasion of a severe drought), Demeter, the Greek goddess
of seed and harvest, whose worship was already common in
Sicily and Lower Italy, usurped the place of Ceres in Rome,
or rather, to Ceres were added the religious rites which the Greeks
paid to Demeter, and the mythological incidents which originated
with her. At the same time the cult of Dionysus and Persephone
(see Liber and Libera) was introduced. The rites of Ceres were
Greek in language and form. Her priestesses were Italian Greeks
and her temple was Greek in its architecture and built by Greek
artists. She was worshipped almost exclusively by plebeians,
and her temple near the Circus Maximus was under the care of
the plebeian aediles, one of whose duties was the superintendence
CERIGNOLA— CERIUM
761
of the corn-market. Her chief festivals were the Indi Ceteris
or Cerealia (more correctly, Cerialia), games held annually from
April 12-19 (Ovid, Fasti, iv. 392 ff.); a second festival,
in August, to celebrate the reunion of Ceres and Proserpine,
in which women, dressed in white, after a fast of nine days
offered the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest (Livy xxii. 56) ;
and the Jejuniutn Cereris, a fast also introduced (191 B.C.) by
command of the Sibylline books (Livy xxvi. 37), at first held
only every four years, then annually on the 4th of October. In
later times Ceres was confused with Tellus. (See also Demeter.)
CERIGNOLA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of
Foggia, 26 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Foggia. Pop. (1901)
34,195. It was rebuilt after a great earthquake in 1 73 1 , and has
a considerable agricultural trade. In 1503 the Spaniards under
Gonzalo de Cordoba defeated the French under the due de
Nemours below the town — a victory which made the kingdom
of Naples into a Spanish province in Italy. Cerignola occupies
the site of Furfane, a station on the Via Traiana between
Canusium and Herdoniae.
CERIGOfTO, called locally Lius (anc. Aegilia or Ogylos; mod.
Gr. officially Antikythera), an island of Greece, belonging to the
Ionian group, and situated between Cythera (Cerigo) and Crete,
about 20 m. from each. Some raised beaches testify to an
upheaval in comparatively recent times. With an area of about
10 sq. m. it supports a population of about 300, who are mainly
Cretan refugees, and in favourable seasons exports a quantity of
good wheat. It was long a favourite resort of Greek pirates. It is
famous for the discovery in 1900, close to its coast, of the wreck
of an ancient ship with a cargo of bronze and marble statues.
CERINTHUS (c. a.d. 100), an early Christian heretic, con-
temporary with the closing years of the apostle John, who,
according to the well-known story of Polycarp, reported by
Irenaeus (iii. 3) and twice recorded in Eusebius (Hist. Eccl.
iii. 28, iv. 14), made a hasty exit from a bath in Ephesus on
learning that Cerinthus was within. Other early accounts agree
in making the province of Asia the scene of his activity, and
Hippolytus (Haer. vii. 33) credits him with an Egyptian training.
There can be no truth in the notice given by Epiphanius (Haer.
xxviii. 4) that Cerinthus had in earlier days at Jerusalem led
the judaizing opposition against Paul.
The difficulty of defining Cerinthus's theological position is
due not only to the paucity of our sources but to the fact that the
witness of the two principal authorities, Irenaeus (1. 26, iii. n)
and Hippolytus (Syntagma), does not agree. Further, Irenaeus
himself in one passage fails to distinguish between Cerinthian
and Valentinian doctrines. It would appear, however, that
Cerinthus laid stress on the rite of circumcision and on the
observance of the Sabbath. He taught that the world had been
made by angels, from one of whom, the god of the Jews, the
people of Israel had received their Law, which was not perfect.
The only New Testament writing which he accepted was a
mutilated Gospel of Matthew. Jesus was the offspring of Joseph
and Mary, and on him at the baptism descended the Christ, 1
revealing the hitherto unknown Father, and endowing him with
miraculous power. This Christ left Jesus again before the Passion,
and the resurrection of Jesus was still in the future. Together,
with these somewhat gnostic ideas, Cerinthus, if we may trust
the notices of Gaius the Roman presbyter (c. 290) and Dionysius
of Alexandria (c. 340), held a violent and crude form of chiliasm.
But the chief significance of the man is his " combination of zeal
for legal observances with bold criticism of the Law itself as a
whole and of its origin," which reminds us of the Clementine
Recognitions, Cerinthus is a blend of judaizing christian and
gnostic.
CERIUM (symbol Ce, atomic weight 140*25), a metallic
chemical element which occurs with the rare earths in the minerals
cerite, samarskite, euxenite, monazite, parisite and many
yttrium minerals. The particular earth containing cerium was
discovered by M. H. Klaproth in 1803, whilst J. Berzelius at
about the same time also examined it and came to the conclusion
1 So Irenaeus. According to Hippolytus and Epiphanius it was
the Holy Ghost that thus descended.
that it was the oxide of a new metal, which he termed cerium.
The crude oxide of the metal is obtained from cerite, by evaporat-
ing the mineral with strong sulphuric acid, removing excess of
acid and dissolving the residue in ice-cold water; sulphuretted
hydrogen is passed through the solution, which is then filtered,
acidified with hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as oxalate
by oxalic acid; the oxalate is then converted into oxide by
ignition. From the crude oxide so obtained (which contains
lanthanum and didymium oxides) the cerium may be separated
by conversion into its double sulphate on the addition of potas-
sium sulphate, the sulphates of the cerium group being insoluble
in a saturated solution of potassium sulphate. The sulphate
is subsequently boiled with water, when a basic sulphate is
precipitated. For the preparation of pure cerium compounds
see Auer v. Welsbach, Monatshefte, 1884, v. 508.
The metal was first obtained, in an impure state, by C. G.
Mosander, by fusing its chloride with sodium. W. F. Hillebrand
and T. Norton have prepared it by the electrolysis of the melted
chloride (Pogg. Ann., 1875, 156, p. 466) ; and C. Winkler (BerichU,
1891, xxiv. 884) obtained it by heating the dioxide with mag-
nesium powder. The metal has somewhat the appearance of
iron, and has a specific gravity of 6-628, which, after melting,
is increased to 6-728. Its specific heat is 0-04479 (W. F. Hille-
brand). It is permanent in dry air, but tarnishes in moist air;
it can be hammered and rolled; it melts at 623 C. It burns
readily on heating, with a brilliant fame; and it also combines
with chlorine,bromine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus and cyanogen.
In the case of the two former elements the combination is
accompanied by combustion of the metal. With water it is
slowly converted into the dioxide. Cold concentrated nitric
and sulphuric acids are without action on the metal, but it
reacts rapidly with dilute nitric and hydrochloric acids. The
dioxide is used in incandescent gas mantles (see Lighting).
Three oxides of cerium are known. The sesquioxide, Ce20i, is
obtained by heating the carbonate in a current of hydrogen. It is a
bluish-green powder, which on exposure rapidly combines with the
oxygen of the air. By the addition of caustic soda to cerous salts, a
white precipitate of cerous hydroxide is formed. Cerium dioxide,
CeOj, is produced when cerium carbonate, nitrate, sulphate or.
oxalate is heated in air. It is a white or pale yellow compound,
which becomes reddish on heating. Its specific gravity is 6-730,
and its specific heat 0-0877. It is not reduced to the metallic condi-
tion ontieating with carbon. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves
this oxide, forming a yellowish solution and ozone. By suspending
the precipitated cerous hydroxide in water and passing chlorine
through tne solution, a hydrated form of the dioxide, 2CeO«»3HiO, is
obtained, which is readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric acids,
forming eerie salts, and in hydrochloric acid, where it forms cerous
chloride, with liberation of chlorine. A higher hydrated oxide,
CeOi-xHtO, is formed by the interaction of cerous sulphate with
sodium acetate and hydrogen peroxide (Lecoq de Boisbaudran,
Comptes rendu*, 1885, 100, p. 605).
Cerous chloride, CeCU, is obtained when the metal is burned in
chlorine; when a mixture of cerous oxide and carbon is heated in
chlorine; or by rapid heating of the dioxide in a stream of carbon
monoxide and chlorine. It is a colourless substance, which is easily
fusible. A hydrated chloride of composition 2CeCli'16H t O is also
known, and is obtained when a solution of cerous oxide in hydro-
chloric acid is evaporated over sulphuric acid. Double salts of
cerous chloride with stannic chloride, mercuric chloride, and platinic
chloride are also known. Cerous bromide, 2CeBrr3H*6, and iodide,
CeIr9H 2 0, are known. Cerous sulphide, Ce*Ss, results on heating
cerium with sulphur or cerium oxide in carbon bisulphide vapour.
It is a red infusible mass of specific gravity 5-1, and is slowly
decomposed by warm water. The sulphate, CeiCSOOs, is formed on
dissolving the carbonate in sulphuric acid, or on dissolving the basic
sulphate in sulphuric acid, in the presence of sulphur dioxide,
evaporating the solution, and drying the product obtained, at high
temperature (B. Brauner, Monatshefte, 1885, vi. 793). It is a white
powder of specific gravity 3*912, easily soluble in cold water. Many
hydrated forms of the sulphate are known, as are also double salts
of the sulphate with potassium, sodium, ammonium, thallium and
cadmium sulphates. Ceric fluoride, CeFrHjO, is obtained when the
hydrated dioxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and the solu-
tion evaporated on the water bath (B. Brauner). The sulphate,
Ce(SC>4)2-4H*0, is formed when the basic sulphate is dissolved
in sulphuric acid; or when the dioxide is dissolved in dilute sul-
phuric acid, and evaporated in vacuo over sulphuric acid. It
forms yellow crystals soluble in water; the aqueous solution on
standing gradually depositing a basic salt. Double sulphates of
composition2Ce(S0 4 V2K,S04-2H,0, Ce(S0 4 )r 3(NH4) 2 S04-4HjO are
762
cernuschi— .cerutti
known. Nitrates of cerium have been described, as have also phos-
phates, carbonates and a carbide.
. Cerium compounds may be recognized by the red precipitate of
eerie hydroxide, which is formed when sodium hypochlorite is added
to a colourless cerous salt. For the quantitative determination of
the metal, the salts are precipitated by caustic potash, the precipitate
washed, dried and heated, and finally weighed as the dioxide.
The atomic weight of cerium has been determined by B. Brauner
(Chem. News, 1895, Ixxi. 283) from the analysis of the oxalate; the
values obtained varying from 140*07 to 140*35.
CERNUSCHI, HENRI (1821-1896), Italian politician and
economist, was born of wealthy parents at Milan in 182 1, and
was destined for the legal profession. During his studies he
became involved in the revolutionary movement. He played a
conspicuous part in the insurrection at Milan in 1848, and also
at Rome in 1849, where he had a seat in the National Assembly.
On the collapse of the revolutionary government he was arrested
(1850), but managed to escape to France, where he engaged
in commerce and banking, became naturalized, and acquired
a large fortune. He took a prominent part in opposing the
Socialist movement, and in April 1870, having subscribed a
large sum to the funds of a committee formed to combat the
Napoleonic plebiscite, had to leave the country. In September
the formation of the Third Republic enabled him to return, but he
soon left Paris to travel in the East, whence he returned with a
fine art collection, particularly of Japanese objects. Cernuschi
is best known for his publications on financial questions, more
especially bimetallism. Of the latter he was an ardent champion,
and the word itself is commonly supposed to have originated
with him — at least in its English form it is first found in his
Silver Vindicated (1876). Among his other works may be
mentioned: Mecanique de Vkchange (1861); Illusion des soctitts
cooperatives (1886); Le BinUtaUisme en Angleterre (1879); Le
Grand Proces de I' Union latine (1884). He died at Men tone
on the 1 2th of May 1896.
CEROGRAPHY (from the Gr. mypos, wax, and ypbfaiv, to
write), the art of painting in wax. (See Encaustic Painting.)
CERRO DE PASCO, or Pasco, a mining town of Peru, capital
of the department of Junin, 107 m. (221 m. by rail, via Oroya)
N.E. of Lima. Pop. (1907 est.) 10,000. It is situated on the
plateau of Bombon, 14,280 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst
of one of the oldest and richest silver-mining districts of Peru.
There were 342 silver mines in this district in 1890, and at the
end of the 19th century the average annual output since the
discovery of the mines in 1630 was estimated at 1,600,000 02.
A decline in the silver production having set in, the American
company which had become owners of three-fourths of the
mining properties in the district turned its attention to the
extensive copper deposits there, built a railway to Oroya 83 m.
distant, another, 25 m. long, to the coal-fields of Gollarisquisga,
north of Pasco, and then erected large smelting works (in which
2500 men were regularly employed in 1907) 8 m. out of town and
4 m. from limestone beds. The railway to Oroya was completed
in 1903, the coal mine branch and smelter later on, and in 1907
the copper output was 20,152,000 lb. The town of Pasco is
badly built and unattractive, and is inhabited chiefly by mining
labourers and their families. Its population is increased 50% in
times of great mining activity. The name Cerro de Pasco is
that of a " knot " of mountains uniting the two great ranges
of the Andes at this point.
CERTALDO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of
Florence, 35 m. S.S.W. by rail and 18 m. direct from the town
of Florence. Pop. (1001) town, 4552; commune, 9120. It was
the home of the family of Giovanni Boccaccio, who died and was
buried here in 1375. His house (of red brick, like the other old
houses of the town) was restored in 1823 and fitted up with old
furniture. A statue of him was erected in the principal square in
1875. The Palazzo Pretorio, or Vicariale, the residence of the
Florentine governors, recently restored to its original condition,
has a picturesque facade and court adorned with coats of arms,
and in the interior are various frescoes dating from the 13th to
the 1 6th century. The town as a whole is picturesque, and lies
on a hill 426 ft. above sea-level.
See R. Pantini, S. Gitnignano e Certaldo (Bergamo, 1904) ,p. 101 seq.
Fig. 1.
CERUSSITE, a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbC0 3 ),
and an important ore of lead . The name (someti mes erroneously
spelt cerusite) is from the Lat. cerussa, " white lead." " Cerussa
nativa " was mentioned by K. Gesner in 1565, and in 1832
F. S. Beudant applied the name ce*ruse to the mineral, whilst the
present form, cerussite, is due to W. Haidinger (1845). Popular
names in early use were lead-spar and white-lead-ore.
Cerussite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is
isomorphous with aragonite. Like aragonite it is very fre-
quently twinned, the compound crystals being
pseudo-hexagonal in form. Throe crystals are
usually twinned together on two faces of the prism
m [ 1 10 J , producing six-rayed stellate groups (figs. 1
and 2) with the individual crystals intercrossing
at angles of nearly 6o°. Twinning on the faces of
the prism r{i3o|, the angles of which are also
nearly 6o°, produces a similar kind of grouping,
but is much less common. Crystals are of frequent
occurrence, and they usually have very bright
and smooth faces. The mineral. also occurs in
compact granular masses, and sometimes in
fibrous forms. It is usually colourless or white,
sometimes grey or greenish in tint; it varies
from transparent to translucent, and has an
adamantine lustre. It is very brittle, and has a conchoidal
fracture. Hardness 3-3 J; sp. gr. 6-5. A variety containing
7% of zinc carbonate, replacing lead carbonate, is known as
iglcsiasite, from Iglesias in Sardinia, where it is found.
The mineral may be readily recognized by its characteristic
twinning, in conjunction with the adamantine lustre and high
specific gravity. It dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric
acid. Before the blow-
pipe it fuses very readily,
and gives reactions for
lead. Cerussite occurs
in metalliferous veins in
association with galena,
and has been formed by
the action of carbonated
waters on the galena : it
is therefore found in the
upper parts of the lodes F IG « 2.
together with other secondary minerals, such as limonite. Finely
crystallized specimens have been obtained from the Friedrichs-
segen mine near Ems in Nassau, Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony,
Mies in Bohemia, Phenixville in Pennsylvania, Broken Hill in
New South Wales, and several other localities. Delicate acicular
crystals of considerable length were found long ago in the Pentire
Glaze mine near St Minver in Cornwall. It is often found
in considerable quantities, and contains as much as 77^% of
lead. (L. J. S.)
CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO (1738-1792),
French author and politician, was born at Turin on the 13th of
June 1 738. He joined the Society of Jesus and became professor
at the Jesuit college at Lyons. In 1762, in reply to the attacks
on his order, he published an Apologie ginirale de Vinstitut et de
la doctrine des JSsuites, which won him much fame and some
exalted patronage; notably that of the ex-king Stanislaus of
Poland and of his grandson the dauphin. During the agitations
that preceded the Revolution Cerutti took the popular side, and
in 1788 published a pamphlet, Mimoire pour le peuple fran^ais,
in which in a clear and trenchant style he advocated the claims
of the tiers Hat. In May 1789 he presided over the electors of
Paris, by whom in January 1791 he was chosen member of the
administration of the department and afterwards deputy to
the Legislative Assembly. He was a friend of Mirabeau, whose
policy he supported and whose funeral oration he pronounced.
He himself died on the 3rd of February 1792. Of Cerutti's
literary enterprises the most interesting, and probably the most
influential, was the popular newspaper founded by him, on the
30th of September 1790, in collaboration with Rabaut Saint-
fitienne and Philippe Antoine Grouvelle. Its character and
/j-7,
m
m *
a
x) \i\
,>L^z
CERVANTES
763
objects are explained by its title: La Feuitte villageoise,
adressie chaque semaine & tous les villages de France pour lei
instruire des lots, des evenements, des d&couvertes qui interessent
lout bon citoyen, &c. It was continued by Grouvelle after Cerutti's
death, the last number appearing on the 2nd of August 1795.
Cerutti's works were published in 1703 iii 3 volumes. On the
Memoire pour le peuple francais, see F. A. Aulard in La Revolution
frangaise, torn. xv. (1888).
CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE (1547-1616), Spanish
novelist, playwright and poet, was born at Alcala de Henares
in 1547. The attempts of biographers to provide him with an
illustrious genealogy are unsuccessful. The family history begins
with the author's grandfather, Juan de Cervantes (b. 1490), a
lawyer who at one time (1545-6) administered the estates of
the duke de Osuna, and resided later at Cordova, where he died
about 1555. Cervantes' father was Rodrigo de Cervantes, an
apothecary-surgeon, who married Leonor de Cortinas in 1540 or
1 541. The children of this marriage were Andr6s (b. 1543),
Andrea (b. 1544), Luisa (b. 1546), Miguel, Rodrigo (b. 1550),
Magdalena (b. 1554) and Juan (of whom nothing is known
beyond the mention of him in his father's will).
The exact date of Cervantes' birth is not recorded: he was
baptized on the 9th of October 1547, in the church of Santa
Maria la Mayor at Alcala. There are indications that Rodrigo
de Cervantes resided at Valladolid in 1554, at Madrid in 156 1, at
Seville in 1 564-1 565, and at Madrid from 1566 onwards. It
may be assumed that his family accompanied him, and it seems
likely that either at Valladolid or at Madrid Cervantes saw the
famous actor-manager and dramatist, Lope de Rueda, of whose
performances he speaks enthusiastically in the preface to his
plays. In 1569 a Madrid schoolmaster, Juan Lopez de Hoyos,
issued a work commemorative of Philip II.'s third wife, Isabel
de Valois, who had died on the 3rd of October 1568. This
volume, entitled Historia y relacidn verdadera de la enfermedad,
felicisimo trdnsito y sumptuosas exequias fUnebres de la Serenisima
Reyna de Espana Dona Isabel de Valoys } contains six contribu-
tions by Cervantes: a sonnet, four redondillas, and an elegy.
Lopez de Hoyos introduces Cervantes as " our dear and beloved
pupil," and the elegy is dedicated to Cardinal Espinosa " in the
name of the whole school." It has been inferred that Cervantes
was educated by Lopez de Hoyos, but this conclusion is untenable,
for Lopez de Hoyos' school was not opened till 1567. On the
13th of October 1568, Giulib Acquaviva reached Madrid charged
with a special mission to Philip II. ; he left for Rome on the 2nd
of December, and Cervantes is supposed to have accompanied
him. This conjecture is based solely on a passage in the dedica-
tion of the Galatea, where the writer speaks of having been
" camarero to Cardinal Acquaviva at Rome." There is, however,
no reason to think that Cervantes met Acquaviva in Madrid;
the probability is that he enlisted as a supernumerary towards
the end of 1568, that he served in Italy, and there entered the
household of Acquaviva, who had been raised to the cardinalate
on the 17th of May 1570. There exists a warrant (dated
September 15, 1569) for the arrest of one Miguel de Cervantes,
who had wounded Antonio de Sigura, and had been condemned
in absence to have his right hand cut off and to be exiled from
the capital for ten years; and it has been sought to identify
the offender with the future author of Don Quixote. No evidence
is available. All that is known with certainty is that Cervantes
was in Rome at the end of 1569, for on the 22nd of December
of that year the fact was recorded in an official information lodged
by Rodrigo de Cervantes with a view to proving his son's
legitimacy and untainted Christian descent.
If it is difficult to say precisely when Cervantes was in
Acquaviva's service, it is no less difficult to say when he left it
to join the regular army. There is evidence, more or less satis-
factory, that his enlistment took place in 1570; in 1571 he was
serving as a private in the company commanded by Captain
Diego de Urbina which formed part of Miguel de Moncada's
famous regiment, and on the 16th of September he sailed from
Messina on board the " Marquesa," which formed part of the
armada under Don John of Austria. At the battle of Lepanto
(October 7, 1571) the " Marquesa " was in the thickest of the
conflict. As the fleet came into action Cervantes lay below, ill
with fever; but, despite the remonstrances of his comrades,
he vehemently insisted on rising to take his share in the fighting,
and was posted with twelve men under him in a boat by the
galley's side. He received three gunshot wounds, two in the
chest, arid one which permanently maimed his right hand — " for
the greater glory of the right," in his own phrase. On the 30th
of October the fleet returned to Messina, where Cervantes went
into hospital, and during his convalescence received grants-in-
aid amounting to eighty-two ducats. On the 29th of April 1572
he was transferred to Captain Manuel Ponce de Le6n's company
in Lope de Figueroa's regiment; he shared in the indecisive
naval engagement off Navarino on the 7th of October 1572, in
the capture of Tunis on the 10th of October 1573, and in the
unsuccessful expedition to relieve the Goletta in the autumn of
1574. The rest of his military service was spent in garrison at
Palermo and Naples, and shortly after the arrival of Don John
at Naples on the 18th of June 1575, Cervantes was granted leave
to return to Spain; he received a recommendatory letter from
Don John to Philip II., and a similar testimonial from the duke
de Sessa, viceroy of Sicily. Armed with these credentials,
Cervantes embarked on the " Sol " to push his claim for pro-
motion in Spain.
On the 26th of September 1575, near Les Trois Maries off the
coast of Marseilles, the " Sol " and its companion ships the
"Mendoza" and the "Higuera" encountered a squadron of
Barbary corsairs under Arnaut Mami; Cervantes, his brother
Rodrigo and other Spaniards were captured, and were taken as
prisoners to Algiers. Cervantes became the slave of a Greek
renegade named Dali Mami, and, as the letters found on him
were taken to prove that he was a man of importance in a
position to pay a high ransom, he was put under special sur-
veillance. With undaunted courage and persistence he organized
plans of escape. In 1576 he induced a Moor to guide him and
other Christian captives to Oran; the Moor deserted them on the
road, the baffled fugitives returned to Algiers, and Cervantes
was treated with additional severity. In the spring of 1577
two priests of the Order of Mercy arrived in Algiers with a sum
of three hundred crowns entrusted to them by Cervantes'
parents; the amount was insufficient to free him, and was
spent in ransoming his brother Rodrigo. Cervantes made
another attempt to escape in September 1577, but was betrayed
by the renegade whose services he had enlisted. On being
brought* before Hassan Pasha, the viceroy of Algiers, he took
the blame on himself, and was threatened with death; struck,
however, by the heroic bearing of the prisoner, Hassan remitted
the sentence, and bought Cervantes from Dali Mami for five
hundred crowns. In 1577 the captive addressed to the Spanish
secretary of state, Mateo Vazquez, a versified letter suggesting
that an expedition should be fitted out to seize Algiers; the
project, though practicable, was not entertained. In 1578
Cervantes was sentenced to two thousand strokes for sending
a letter begging help from Martin de C6rdoba, governor of Oran;
the punishment was not, however, inflicted on him. Meanwhile
his family were not idle. In March 1578 his father presented
a petition to the king setting forth Cervantes' services; the duke
de Sessa repeated his testimony to the captive's merits; in the
spring of 1579 Cervantes' mother applied for leave to export
two thousand ducats' worth of goods from Valencia to Algiers,
and on the 31st of July 1579 she gave the Trinitarian monks,
Juan Gil and Ant6n de la Bella, a sum of two hundred and fifty
ducats to be applied to her son's ransom. On his side Cervantes
was indefatigable, and towards the end of 1579 ne arranged to
secure a frigate; but the plot was revealed to Hassan by Juan
Blanco de Paz, a Dominican monk, who appears to have con-
ceived an unaccountable hatred of Cervantes. Once more the
conspirator's life was spared by Hassan who, it is recorded,
declared that " so long as he had the maimed Spaniard in safe
keeping, his Christians, ships and city were secure." On the
29th of May 1580 the two Trinitarians arrived in Algiers : they
were barely in time, for Hassan's term of office was drawing
764
CERVANTES
to a close, and the arrangement of any ransom was a slow process,
involving much patient bargaining. Hassan refused to accept
less than five hundred gold ducats for his slave; the available
funds fell short of this amount, and the balance was collected
from the Christian traders of Algiers. Cervantes was already
embarked for Constantinople when the money was paid on the
19th of September 1580. The first use that he made of his
liberty was to cause affidavits of his proceedings at Algiers to be
drawn up; he sailed for Spain towards the end of October,
landed at Denia in November, and made his way to Madrid.
He signed an information before a notary in that city on the
18th of December 1580.
These dates prove that he cannot, as is often alleged, have
served under Alva in the Portuguese campaign of 1580: that
campaign ended with the battle of Alcantara on the 25th of
August 1 580. It seems certain, however, that he visited Portugal
soon after his return from Algiers, and in May 1581 he was sent
from Thomar on a mission to Oran. Construed literally, a
formal statement of his services, signed by Cervantes on the
2 1 st of May 1590, makes it appear that he served in the Azores
campaigns of 1582-83; but the wording of the document is
involved, the claims of Cervantes are confused with those of his
brother Rodrigo (who was promoted ensign at the Azores),
and on the whole it is doubtful if he took part in either of the
expeditions under Santa Cruz. In any case, the stories of his
residence in Portugal, and of his love affairs with a noble Portu-
guese lady who bore him a daughter, are simple inventions.
From 1582-3 to 1587 Cervantes seems to have written copiously
for the stage, and in the Adjunta al Parnaso he mentions several
of his plays as "worthy of praise"; these were Los Tratos de
Argel, La Numancia, La Gran Turquesa, La Batatta naval, La
Jerusalem, La Amaranta 6 la de Mayo, El Bosque amoroso, La
Unica y Bizarra Arsinda — " and many others which I do not
remember, but that which I most prize and pique myself on was,
and is, one called La Confusa which, with all respect to as many
sword-and-cloak plays as have been staged up to the present,
may take a prominent place as being good among the best."
Of these only Los Tratos de Argel (or El Trato de Argel) and
La Numancia have survived, and, though La Numancia contains
many fine rhetorical passages, both plays go to prove that the
author's genius was not essentially dramatic. In February
1584 he obtained a licence to print a pastoral novel entitled
Primera parte de la Galatea, the copyright of which he sold on
the 14th of June to Bias de Robles, a bookseller at Alcala de
Henares, for 1336 reales. On the 12 th of December he married
Catalina de Palacios Salazar y Vozmediano of Esquivias, eighteen
years his junior. The Galatea was published in the spring of
1585, and is frequently said to relate the story of Cervantes'
courtship, and to introduce various distinguished writers under
pastoral names. These assertions must be received with great
reserve. The birth of an illegitimate daughter, borne to Cervantes
by a certain Ana Francisca de Rojas, is referred to 1584, and
earlier in that same year the Galatea had passed the censor;
with few exceptions, the identifications of the characters in the
book with personages in real life are purely conjectural. These
circumstances, together with the internal evidence of the work,
point to the conclusion that the Galatea was begun and completed
before 1583. It was only twice reprinted — once at Lisbon
(1590), and once at Paris (161 1) — during the author's lifetime;
but it won him a measure of repute, it was his favourite among
his books, and during the thirty years that remained to him he
repeatedly announced the second part which is promised con-
ditionally in the text. However, it is not greatly to be regretted
that the continuation was never published; though the Galatea
is interesting as the first deliberate bid for fame on the part of a
great genius, it is an exercise in the pseudo-classic literature
introduced into Italy by Sannazaro, and transplanted to Spain
by the Portuguese Montemor; and, ingenious or eloquent as
the Renaissance prose-pastoral may be, its innate artificiality
stifles Cervantes' rich and glowing realism. He himself recog-
nized its defects; with all his weakness for the Galatea, he
ruefully allows that " it proposes something and concludes
nothing." Its comparative failure was a serious matter for
Cervantes who had no other resource but his pen; his plays
were probably less successful than his account of them would
imply, and at any rate play-writing was not at this time a
lucrative occupation in Spain. No doubt the death of his
father on the 13th of June 1 585 increased the burden of Cervantes'
responsibilities; and the dowry of his wife, as appears from a
document dated the 9th of August 1586, consisted of nothing
more valuable than five vines, an orchard, some household
furniture, four beehives, forty-five hens and chickens, one cock
and a crucible.
It had become evident that Cervantes could not gain his
bread by literature, and in 1587 he went to Seville to seek
employment in connexion with the provisioning of the Invincible
Armada. He was placed under the orders of Antonio de Guevara,
and before the 24 th of February was excommunicated for
excessive zeal in collecting wheat at ficija. During the next
few months he was engaged in gathering stores at Seville and
the adjacent district, and after the defeat of the Armada he was
retained as commissary to the galleys. Tired of the drudgery,
and without any prospect of advancement, on the 21st of May
1590 Cervantes drew up a petition to the king, recording his
services and applying for one of four posts then vacant in the
American colonies: a place in the department of public accounts
in New Granada, the governorship of Soconusco in Guatemala,
the position of auditor to the galleys at Cartagena, or that of
corregidor in the city of La Paz. The petition was referred to
the Council of the Indies, and was annotated with the words: —
" Let him look for something nearer home." Cervantes perforce
remained at his post; the work was hard, uncongenial and
ill-paid, and the salary was in constant arrears. In November
1590 he was in such straits that he borrowed money to buy
himself a suit of clothes, and in August 1592 his sureties were
called upon to make good a deficiency of 795 reales in his accounts.
His thoughts turned to literature once more, and on the 5th of
September 1592, he signed a contract with Rodrigo Osorio
undertaking to write six plays at fifty ducats each, no payment
to be made unless Osorio considered that each of these pieces
was " one of the best ever produced in Spain." Nothing came
of this agreement, and it appears that, between the date of
signing it and the 19th of September, Cervantes was imprisoned
(for reasons unknown to us) at Castro del Rio. He was speedily
released, and continued to perquisition as before in Andalusia;
but his literary ambitions were not dead, and in May 1595 he
won the first prize — three silver spoons-^at a poetical tourney
held in honour of St Hyacinth at Saragossa. Shortly afterwards
Cervantes found himself in difficulties with the exchequer
officials. He entrusted a sum of 7400 reales to a merchant
named Sim6n Freire de Lima with instructions to pay the
amount into the treasury at Madrid; the agent became bankrupt
and absconded, leaving Cervantes responsible for the deficit.
By some means the money was raised, and the debt was liqui-
dated on the 21st of January 1597. But Cervantes' position was
shaken, and his unbusinesslike habits lent themselves to mis-
interpretation. On the 6th of September 1597 he was ordered
to find sureties that he would present himself at Madrid within
twenty days, and there submit to the exchequer vouchers for
all official moneys collected by him in Granada and elsewhere.
No such sureties being available, he was committed to Seville
jail, but was released on the 1st of December on condition that
he complied with the original order of the court within thirty
days. He was apparently unable to find bail, was dismissed
from the public service, and sank into extreme poverty. During
a momentary absence from Seville in February 1599, he was
again summoned to Madrid by the treasury, but does not appear
to have obeyed: it is only too likely that he had not the money
to pay for the journey. There is some reason to think that he
was imprisoned at Seville in 1602, but nothing positive is known
of his existence between 1600 and the 8th of February 1603:
at the latter date he seems to have been at Valladolid, to which
city Philip III. had removed the court in 1601.
Since the publication of the Galatea in 1585 Cervantes'
CERVANTES
7&5
contributions to literature had been limited to occasional poems.
In 1 591 he published a ballad in Andr6s de Villalta's Flor de
varies y nuevos romances; in 1595 he composed a poem, already
mentioned, to celebrate the canonization of St Hyacinth; in
1 596 he wrote a sonnet ridiculing Medina Sidonia's tardy entry
into Cadiz after the English invaders had retired, and in the
same year his sonnet lauding Santa Cruz was printed in Crist6bal.
Mosquera de Figueroa's Comentario en breve compendia de
discipline militar; to 1597 is assigned a sonnet (the authenticity
of which is disputed) commemorative of the poet Herrera; in
1598 he wrote two sonnets and a copy of quintUlas on the death
of Philip II.; and in 1602 a complimentary sonnet from his pen
appeared in the second edition of Lope de Vega's Dragontea.
Curiously enough, it is by Lope de Vega that Don Quixote is
first mentioned. Writing to an unknown correspondent (appar-
ently a physician) on the 14th of August 1604, Lope de Vega
says that " no poet is as bad as Cervantes, nor so foolish as to
praise Don Quixote/ 7 and he goes on to speak of his own plays
as being odious to Cervantes. It is obvious that the two men
had quarrelled since 1602, and that Lope de Vega smarted under
the satire of himself and his works in Cervantes' forthcoming
book; Don Quixote may have been circulated in manuscript,
or may even have been printed before the official licence was
granted on the 26th of September 1604. It was published early
in 1605, and was dedicated to the seventh duke de B6jar in
phrases largely borrowed from the dedication in Herrera's
edition (1580) of Garcilaso de la Vega, and from Francisco de
Medina's preface to that work.
The mention of Bernardo de la Vega's Pastor de Iberia shows
that the sixth chapter of Don Quixote cannot have been written
before 1591. In the prologue Cervantes describes his master-
piece as being " just what might be begotten in a jail "; on the
strength of this passage, it has been thought that ^e conceived
the story, and perhaps began writing it, during one of his terms
of imprisonment at Seville between 1 597 and 1602. Within a
few weeks of its publication at Madrid, three pirated editions
of Don Quixote were issued at Lisbon; a second authorized
edition, imperfectly revised, was hurried out at Madrid; and
another reprint appeared at Valencia with an aprobacidn dated
18th July 1605. With the exception of Aleman's Guzmdn de
Alfarache, no Spanish book of the period was more successful.
Modern criticism is prone to regard Don Quixote as a symbolic,
didactic or controversial work intended to bring about radical
reforms in church and state. Such interpretations did not occur
to Cervantes' contemporaries, nor to Cervantes himself. There
is no reason for rejecting his plain statement that his main object
was to ridicule the romances of chivalry, which in their latest
developments had become a tissue of tiresome absurdities. It
seems clear that his first intention was merely to parody these
extravagances in a short story; but as he proceeded the
immense possibilities of the subject became more evident to
him, and he ended by expanding his work into a brilliant
panorama of Spanish society as it existed during the 16th century.
Nobles, knights, poets, courtly gentlemen, priests, traders,
farmers, barbers, muleteers, scullions and convicts; accomplished
ladies, impassioned damsels, Moorish beauties, simple-hearted
country-girls and kindly kitchen-wenches of questionable morals
— all these are presented with the genial fidelity which comes of
sympathetic insight. The immediate vogue of Don Quixote was
due chiefly to its variety of incident, to its wealth of comedy
bordering on farce, and perhaps also to its keen thrusts at eminent
contemporaries; its reticent pathos, its large humanity, and
its penetrating criticism of life were less speedily appreciated.
Meanwhile, on the 12 th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized
his publisher to. proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who
threatened to introduce their piratical reprints into Castile. By
June the citizens of Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote
and Sancho Panza as proverbial types. Less gratifying ex-
periences awaited the popular author. On the 27th of June
1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute
life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes
and his family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by
Cervantes 9 sister Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That
same day Cervantes, his natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra),
his sister Andrea and her daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion
of being indirectly concerned in Ezpeleta's death; one of the
witnesses made damaging charges against Cervantes' daughter,
but no substantial evidence was produced, and the prisoners
were released. Little is known of Cervantes' life between 1605
and 1608. A Relacidn of the festivities held to celebrate the
birth of Philip IV., and a certain Carta d don Diego Astudillo
CarrWo have been erroneously ascribed to him; during these
three, years he apparently wrote nothing beyond three sonnets,
and one of these is of doubtful authenticity. The depositions
of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was living in poverty five
months after the appearance of Don Quixote, and the fact that
he borrowed 450 reales from his publisher before November 1607
would convey the idea that his position improved slowly, if at
all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his circumstances
with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter revealed
in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was
stated to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605;
the settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608
describes her as the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a
daughter eight months old, and as owning house-property of
some value. These particulars are perplexing, ancl the situation
is further complicated by the publication of a deed in which
Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner of this house-
property, and that his daughter has merely a life-interest in it.
This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily
be reconciled with Cervantes' statement towards the end of his
life, that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos
and of Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo.
In 1609 he joined the newly founded confraternity of the Slave?
of the Most Blessed Sacrament; in 16 10 Lemos was appointed
viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes was keenly disappointed at
not being chosen to accompany his patron. In 161 1 he lost his
sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the Tertiaries
of Saint Francis; in 161 2 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and:
there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with
Lope de Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his Novelas exemplar es to
the count de Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 reales
and twenty-four copies of the book. The twelve tales in this
volume, some of them written very much later than others, are
of unequal merit, but they contain some of the writer's best work,
and the two picaresque stories — Rinconete y Cortadillo and the
Coloquio de los perros — are superb examples of their kind, and
would alone entitle Cervantes to take rank with the greatest
masters of Spanish prose. In 161 4 he published the Viage del
Parnaso, a burlesque poem suggested by the Viaggio in Parnaso
(1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some
interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of con-
temporary poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but,
though it is Cervantes' most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has
seldom been reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten
but for an admirably humorous postscript in prose which is
worthy of the author at his best. In the preface to his Ocho
comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos (1615) he good-humouredly
admits that his dramatic works found no favour with managers,
and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the editor
advanced the fantastic theory that the comedias were deliberate
exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas
of the day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp dis-
tinction must be drawn between the eight set plays and the eight
interludes; with one or two exceptions, the comedias or set plays
are unsuccessful experiments in Lope de Vega's manner, while
the entremeses or interludes , particularly those in prose, are models
of spontaneous gaiety and ingenious wit.
In the preface to the Novelas exemplares Cervantes had
announced the speedy appearance of the sequel to Don Quixote
which he had vaguely promised at the end of the first part. He
was at work on the fifty-ninth chapter of his continuation when
he learned that he had been anticipated by Alonso Fernandez
de Aveilaneda of Tordesillas, whose Segundo tonto del ingenioso
766
CERVERA
hidalgo dan. Quixote de la Maricha was published at Tarragona
in 1 614. On the assumption that Fernandez de AveUaneda
is a pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the
king's confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes' old enemy,
Blanco de Paz, to his old friend, BartolomS Leonardo de Argen-
sola, to the three great dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de
Molina and Ruiz de Alarc6n, to Alonso Fernandez, to Juan Jos6
Marti, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada, and probably
to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly absurd —
for example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the
first part of Don Quixote was published — and all of them are
improbable conjectures; if AveUaneda be not the real name
of the author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is
not devoid of literary talent and robust humour, and possibly
he began it under the impression that Cervantes was no more
likely to finish Don Quixote than to finish the Galatea. He
should, however, have abandoned his project on reading the
announcement in the preface to the Novelas exemplares; what
he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an insolent
preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral
infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was
too intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its
own against the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his
intention of being first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes'
market. It is quite possible that Don Quixote might have been
left incomplete but for this insulting intrusion; Cervantes was
a leisurely writer and was, as he states, engaged on El Engano
a los ojos, Las Scmanas del Jardin and El Famoso Bernardo, none
of which have been preserved. AveUaneda forced him to
concentrate his attention on his masterpiece,, and the authentic
second part of Don Quixote appeared towards the end of 161 5.
No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the
Bachelor Carrasco, that "no second part was ever good." It
is true that the last fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified
denunciations of AveUaneda; but, apart from this, the second
part of Don Quixote is an improvement on the' first: The humour
is more subtle and mature; the style is of more even exceUence;
and the characters of the bachelor and of the physician, Pedro
Recio de Agtiero, are presented with a more vivid effect than:
any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes had
clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to " the
countless cudgeUings inflicted on Senor Don Quixote," and to
the irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text.
Don Quixote moves through the second part with unruffled
dignity; Sancho Panza loses something of his rustic cunning,
but he gains in wit, sense and manners. The original conception
is unchanged in essentials, but it is more logicaUy developed,
and there is a notable progress in construction. Cervantes
had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his
own creations better than at the outset; more completely
master of his craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering
confidence of a renowned artist bent on sustaining his reputation.
The first part of Don Quixote had been reprinted at Madrid in
1608; it had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 161 1, and
at Milan in 1610; it had been translated into English in 161 2
and into French in 16 14. Cervantes was celebrated in and out
of Spain, but his celebrity had not brought him wealth. The
members of the French special embassy, sent to Madrid in
February 161 5, under the Commandeur de SiUery, heard with
amazement that the author of the Galatea, the Novelas exemplares
and Don Quixote was " old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor."
But his trials were almost at an end. Though failing in health,
he worked assiduously at Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda,
which, as he had jocosely prophesied in the preface to the second
part of Don Quixote, would be " either the worst or the best
book ever written in our tongue." It is the most carefuUy
written of his prose works, and the least animated or attractive
of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are unmistakably
visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He was
attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 16 16, received the
sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication
of Persiles y Sigismunda to the count de Lemos — the most
moving and gallant of fareweUs. He died at Madrid in the CaUe
del Leon on the 23rd of April; he was borne from his house
" with his face uncovered," according to the rule of the Tertiaries
of St Francis, and on the 24th of April was buried in the church
attached to the convent of the Trinitarian nuns in the CaUe de
Cantarranas. There he rests — the story of his remains being
removed in 1633 to the CaUe del HumiUadero has no foundation
in fact — but the exact position of his grave is unknown. Early
in 161 7 Persiles y Sigismunda was published, and passed through
eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died
away, and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 17 19.
Cervantes' wife died without issue on the 31st of October 1626;
his natural daughter, who survived both the child of her first
marriage and her second husband, died on the 20th of September
1652, Cervantes is represented solely by his works. The
Novelas exemplares alone would give him the foremost place
among Spanish novelists; Don Quixote entitles him to rank
with the greatest writers of all times " children turn its leaves,
young people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise
it." It has outlived aU changes of literary taste, and is even
more popular to-day than it was three centuries ago.
Bibliography. — Leopold Rius, Bibliografia critica de las obras de
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (Madrid, 189M905, 3 vols.); Obras
completas (Madrid, 1 863-1 864, 12 vols.), edited by Juan Eugenio
Hartzenbusch ; Complete Works (Glasgow, 1 901-1906, 8 vols, in
progress), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly; Don Quijote (Madrid,
I 833-i839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemencfu; Don Quixote
(London, 1 899-1900, 2 vols.), edited by lames Fitzmaurice-Kelly
and John Ormsby; Don Quijote (Madrid, 1905^1906, 2 vols, in
progress), edited by Clemente.Cortejon; Rinconete y Cortadillo
(Sevilla, 1905), edited by Francisco Rodriguez Marin; Epistolad
Mateo Vdzauez (Madrid, 1905), edited by Efmilio] C[otarelo];
Julian Apraiz, Estudio histSrico-critico sobre las Novelas ejemp lares de
Cervantes (Madrid, 1901); Francisco A. de Icaza, Xas Novelas
ejemplares de Cervantes (Madrid, 1901); Francisco Rodriguez Marin,
El Loaysa de " El Celoso Extremeno " (Sevilla, 1901); Narciso Dfaz
de Escovar, Apuntes escenicos cervantinos (Madrid, 1905); Manuel
Jose Garcia, Estudio critico acerta del entremis " El Vizcaino fingido "
(Madrid, 1905) ; Alfred Morel-Fatio, VEspagne de Don Quichotte in
Etudes sur VEspagne (Paris, 1895, 2 m * serie) ; Julio Puyol y Alonso,
Estado social que refleja "El Quijote" (Madrid, 1905); James
Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Cervantes in England (London, 1905) ; Raymond
Foulche-Delbose, Ibtude sur "La tiafingida, tf in the Revue, hispanique
(Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306 ; Benedetto Croce, Due illustrasioni
at " Viage del Parnaso, in the Homenaje d Menindez yPelayo
(Madrid, 1899), v °l* >• PP« 161-193; Paul Groussac, Une £nigme
litteraire: le Don Quichotte d } AveUaneda (Paris, 1903); Alonso
Fernandez de AveUaneda, El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la
Mancha (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menendez y
Pelayo; Julio Cejador y Franca, La Lengua de Cervantes (Madrid,
1905, &c); Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, Vida de Miguel de
Cervantes Saavedra (Madrid, 1819); Crist6bal Perez Pastor, Docu-
mentos Cervantinos hasta ahora ineditos (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.) ;
Emilio Cotardo y Mori, Efemerides Cervantinos (Madrid, 1905)
Francisco Rodriguez Marin, Cervantes estudid en Sevilla, 1564-1565
(Seville, 1905). (J. F.-K.)
CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE (1839-1909),
Spanish admiral, was born at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of
February 1839. He showed an early inclination for the sea, and
his family sent him to the naval cadet school at the age of twelve.
As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the naval operations on the
coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1850-60. Then he was
for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and the
Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station
during the early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning
to Spain in 1873 to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists.
He distinguished himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near
Cadiz against the Federals in 1873. He won each step in his
promotion up to flag-rank through his steadiness and brilliant
conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses of the' Orders of
Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St Hermen-
gilde, besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation
for decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was
placed at the head of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he
resigned after a few months in order to become minister of
marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided over by Sagasta. He with-
drew from the cabinet when he found that his colleagues, from
political motives, declined to support him in making reforms and,
CESAREVICH— CESNOLA
767
on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates. When
in 1898 the Spanish- American War (q.v.) broke out, he was chosen
to command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers,
the " Maria Theresa," his flagship, " Oquendo," " Vizcaya,"
and ' ' Columbus, " and several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron
only started upon its reckless cruise across the ocean after its
gallant commander had repeatedly warned both the minister of
marine and the prime minister, Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz
and from the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, that the ships
were insufficiently provided with coal and ammunition. Some
of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance with
the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for
the landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated
in the defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite
of his energetic representations, Cervera received an order from
Madrid, dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It
meant certain destruction. The gallant squadron met forces
trebly superior to it, and was totally destroyed. The admiral,
three of his captains, and 1800 sailors and marines were taken
by the victors to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, U.S.A. After
the war, Cervera and his captains were tried before the supreme
naval and military court of the realm, which honourably
acquitted them all. In 1001 he became vice-admiral, in 1902
was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1003
was made life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of
April 1009.
CESAREVICH, or more properly Tsesarevich, the title of
the heir-apparent to the Russian throne. The full official title
is Nasliednik Tsesarevich, i.e. " heir of Caesar," and in Russia
the heir to the throne is commonly called simply Nasliednik, the
word Tsesarevich never being used alone. Tsarevich, a form now
much used in England, means simply any " king's son "; it is an
antiquated term now out of use in Russia, and was last borne
as heir to the throne by the unfortunate Alexius, son of Peter
the Great. The style of the wife of the tsesarevich is Tsesarevna.
The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket, founded in 1839,
was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander II.
of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year.
CESARI, GIUSEPPE, called II Cavaliere d' Arpino (born in
or about 1 568 and created a " Cavaliere di Cristo " by Pope
Clement VIII.), also named II Giuseppino, an Italian painter,
much encouraged at Rome and munificently rewarded. His
father had been a native of Arpino, but Giuseppe himself was
born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not less the
corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry; indeed,
another of the nicknames of Cesari is " II Marino de' Pittori "
(the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari's heads of
men and horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus
and Remus, &c), which occupied him at intervals during forty
years, are well coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His
perspective is faulty, his extremities monotonous, and his
chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640, at the age of seventy-
two, or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks as the head of
the " Idealists " of his period, as opposed to the " Naturalists,"
of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading champion,
— the so-called " idealism " consisting more in reckless facility,
and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature,
than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly
accorded. He was a man of touchy and irascible character, and
rose from penury to the height of opulence. His brother
Bernardino assisted in many of his works.
CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE (1 730-1 808), Italian poet, was
bom at Padua in 1 730, of a noble but impoverished family. At
the university of his native place his literary progress procured
for him at a very early age the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the
professorship of Greek and Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy
by the French, he gave his pen to their cause, received a pension,
and was made knight of the iron crown by Napoleon I., to whom,
in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and extravagantly
flattering poem called Pranea. Cesarotti is best known as the
translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given
to his version of the Iliad, for he has not scrupled to add, omit
and modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems,
he has, on the other hand, considerably improved in translation;
and the appearance of his version attracted much attention in
Italy and France, and raised up many imitators of the Ossianic
style. Cesarotti also produced a number of works in prose,
including a Course of Greek Literature, and essays On the Origin
and Progress of the Poetic Art, On the Sources of the Pleasure
derived from Tragedy, On the Philosophy of Language and On
the Philosophy of Taste, the last being a defence of his own
great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining
after novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms.
A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo» began to appear at
Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See
Memoirs, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and Un Filosofo delle lettere, by
Alemanni (Turin, 1894). .
CESJSNA (anc. Caesena), a town and episcopal see of Emilia,
Italy, in the province of Forli, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town
of Forli, on the line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above
sea-level. .Pop. (1005) 12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The
town is picturesquely situated at the foot of the slopes of the
Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval fortress (Rocca),
begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) probably, but
altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine marble
altars by theLombardi of Venice (or their school). The library,
built for Domenico Mala testa in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine
early Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with
the original desks to which the books are still chained* are
especially well preserved (see J. W. Clark, The Care of Books,
Cambridge, 1001 , p. 1 99) . In it are valuable MSS., many of which
were used by Aldus Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery
with a good " Presentation in the Temple " by Francesco
Francia. There are some fine palaces in the town. Three-
quarters of a mile south-east on the hill stands the handsome
church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with
carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the
main articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said
in classical authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via
Aemilia and as a fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses.
During the middle ages it was at first independent. In 1357
it was unsuccessfully defended by the wife of Francesco Ordekm,
lord of Forli, against the papal troops under Albornoz. In 1377
it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards Clement
VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta of Rimini
until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church.
Both Pius VI. (17 1 7) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at
Cesena. (T. As.)
CESNOLA* LUIGI PALMA DI (1832-1904), Italian-American
soldier and archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of
July 1832. Having served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars,
in i860 he went to New York, where he taught Italian and
French and founded a military school for officers. He took
part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry regiment,
and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner.
He was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the
Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier
of cavalry, and at the close of the war was breveted brigadier-
general. He was then appointed United States consul at
Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay in the island
he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery of a
large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by
the Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became
director in 1879. Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L.
Feuerdant, in an article in the New York Herald (August 1880),
upon the genuineness of his restorations, the matter was referred
to a special committee, which pronounced in his favour. 1 He is
the author of Cyprus, its ancient Cities, Tombs and Temples
(1877), an interesting book of travel and of considerable service
to the practical antiquary; and of a Descriptive Atlas of the
Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities (3 vols., 1884-6). He
died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a
1 For the Cesnola controversy see C. D. Cobham's Attempt at a
Bibliography of Cyprus (4th ed., 1900). See also article Cyprus.
768
CESPEDES— CETACEA
member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and
in 1897 he received a Congressional medal of honour for con-
spicuous military services.
His brother, Alessandro Palma di Cesnola, born in 1839,
conducted excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul)
and Salamis on behalf of the British government. The results
of these are described in Salaminia (1882).
CESPBDES (in ItaL Cedaspe), PABLO DE (1538-1608),
Spanish poet, painter, sculptor and architect, was born at
Cordova, and was educated at Alcali de Henares, where he
studied theology and Oriental languages. On leaving the
university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil and
friend of Federigo Zuccaro* under whose direction he studied
particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1 560,
while yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the
Inquisition at Valladolid on account of a letter which, found
among the papers of the archbishop of Toledo, had been written
by Cespedes during the preceding year, and in which he had
spoken with great freedom against the holy office and the in-
quisitor-general, Fernando de Valdes. Cesped.es remained in
Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have
treated the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he
contrived to bring the proceedings to an end; he returned,
however, to Spain a little before 1577, and in that year was
installed in a prebend of the cathedral at Cordova, where he
resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes has been called the
most savant of Spanish artists. According to his friend Francisco
Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for. the preservation of
all of Cespedes's verse that is extant, the school of Seville owes
to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He was
a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master
of colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the
advantage of early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de
Vera, Juan de Penalosa and Zambrano were among his pupils.
His best picture is a Last Supper at Cordova, but there are good
examples of his work at Seville and at Madrid. Cespedes was
■author of several opuscules in prose on subjects connected with
his profession. Of his poem on The Art of Painting enough was
preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the
whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and
it has been compared, not disadvantageously, with the Georgics.
It is written in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic
declamatory vein of Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether
so dull and lifeless as is most didactic verse. It contains a glow-
ing eulogy of Michelangelo, and some excellent advice to young
painters, insisting particularly on hard work and on the study
of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting in all
to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his
treatise Del arte de la pintura, in 1649.
CfiSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE (1585 ?-i6 3 8),
Spanish novelist, was born at Madrid about 1585. Nothing
positive is known of him before the publication of his celebrated
romance, the Poema trdgico del Espafiol Gerardo, y desengano
del amor lascvoo (1615-1617); there is evidence that he had
been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the 1st
of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but
the nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political
questions in the His tor ia apolog&ica en los sucesos del reyno de
Aragdn, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, anos de gi y Q2 (1622), having
led to the confiscation of the book, Cespedes took up his residence
at Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection
of short stories entitled Historias peregrinas y exemplares (1623),
the unfinished romance Variafortuna del soldado Pindar (1626),
and the first part of his Historia de Felipe IV. (1631), a fulsome
eulogy which was rewarded by the author's appointment as
official historiographer to the Spanish king. Cespedes died on
the 27 th of January 1638. His novels, though written in a
ponderous, affected style, display considerable imagination and
insight into character. The Poema trdgico has been utilized by
Fletcher in The Spanish Curate and in The Maid of the Mill.
The Historias peregrinas has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable
introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.
CESS (a shortened form of " assess "; the spelling is due to
a mistaken connexion with " census "), a tax; a term formerly
more particularly applied to local taxation, in which sense it
still is used in Ireland; otherwise it has been superseded by
" ra te. " In India it is applied, with the qualifying word prefixed,
to any taxation, such as " irrigation-cess " and the like, and in
Scotland to the land-tax.
CESSIO BONORUM (Latin for a " surrender of goods "), in
Roman law, a voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his
creditors. It did not amount to a discharge unless the property
ceded was sufficient for the purpose, but it secured the debtor
from personal arrest. The creditors sold the goods in satisfaction,
pro tanto y of their claims. The procedure of cessio bonorum
avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his after-acquired
property might be proceeded against, could not be deprived of
the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman
law of cessio bonorum were adopted in Scots law, and also in the
French legal system. (See further Bankruptcy.)
CESTI, MARC ANTONIO (1620 ?-i66 9 ?), Italian musical
composer, was born at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil
of Carissimi, and after holding a post somewhere in Florence as
maestro di cappetta entered the papal chapel in 1660. In 1666 he
became Vice-Kapellmeister at Vienna, and died at Venice in 1669.
Cesti is known principally as a composer of operas, the most
celebrated of which were La Dori (Venice, 1663) and // Porno
d' oro (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of chamber-
cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate
style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the
stage.
CESTIUS, LUCIUS, surnamed Pins, Latin rhetorician,
flourished during the reign of Augustus. He was a native of
Smyrna, a Greek by birth. According to Jerome, he was
teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 b. c. He must have been
living after a.d. 9, since we are told that he taunted the son of
Quintilius Varus with his father's defeat in the Teutoburgian
forest (Seneca, Controv. i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of
great ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he
left Asia, he was invited to dinner by Cicero's son, then governor
of the province. His host, being uncertain as to his identity,
asked a slave who Cestius was; and on receiving the answer,
" he is the man who said your father was illiterate," ordered
him to be flogged (Seneca, Suasoriae, vii. 13). As an orator
in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and was
worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him
so slavishly that he was nicknamed " my monkey " by his
teacher (Seneca, Controv. ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the
other hand, he was a failure. Although a Greek, he always
used Latin in his declamations, and, although he was sometimes
at a loss for Latin words, he never suffered from lack of ideas.
Numerous specimens of his declamations will be found in the
works of Seneca the rhetorician.
See the monograph De Lucio Cestio Pio, by F. G. Lindner (1858) ;
J. Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie f iii. 2 (1899);
Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Lit. (Eng. tr.), § 268, 6; M. Schanz,
Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, ii.
CESTUI, CESTUY, an Anglo-French word, meaning "that
person, 7 ' which appears in the legal phrases cestui que trust, use,
or vie. It is usually pronounced as " cetty." Cestui que trust
means literally " the person for whose benefit the trust " is
created. The cestui que trust is the person entitled to the equit-
able, as opposed to the legal, estate. Thus, if land be granted
unto, and to the use of A. in trust for B., B. is cestui que trust,
and A. trustee. The term, principally owing to its cumbersome-
ness, is being gradually superseded in modern law by that of
" beneficiary." Cestui que use (sometimes cestui a que use)
means " the person for whose benefit a use " is created (see
Trust). Cestui que vie is " the person for whose life " lands are
held by another (see Remainder).
CETACEA (from the Gr. jceros, a whale), the name of the
mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c.
From their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adapta-
tion to their purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded
CETACEA
769
as fishes, although they are true mammals, with warm blood,
and suckle their young.
The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped
body passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck,
and posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the
tail, which is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions
of skin supported by fibrous tissue, called " flukes," forming
a horizontal triangular propelling organ, notched behind in the
middle line. The head is generally large, in some cases attaining
more than one-third the entire length; and the mouth is wide,
and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The fore-limbs are reduced
to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous skin, showing no
external sign of division, and without trace of nails. There are
no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the
skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in
many species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of
the mouth which may persist through life or be present only
in the young state. Immediately beneath the skin is a thick
layer of fat, held together by a mesh of tissue, constituting
the " blubber/' which retains the heat of the body. In nearly
all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The eye is
small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The
external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a
short distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or
by a single crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.
The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being
filled with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short
and immobile, ai\d the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in
many species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The
odontoid process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone
is free, ie usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on
the form and function of the cervical vertebrae published in the (
Jenaische Zeitschrift for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the
shortening and soldering is most pronounced in species which, like
the right- whales, live entirely on minute organisms, to capture
which there is no necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly
we find that in these whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are
fused into an immovable solid mass, of which the compound
elements, with the exception of the first and second, are but little
thicker than plates. On the other hand, in the firmer-whales,
several of which live exclusively on fish, and thus reauire a certain
amount of mobility in the head and neck, we find all the cervical
vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate from one another.
Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white whale, or
beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the great com-
parative length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are com-
pletely free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure
is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk
with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in
the neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed
to feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require
mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On
the other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and
mackerel, which in their densely packed shoals must apparently
fall an easy prey with but little exertion on the part of their
captor, and: we accordingly find all the neck- vertebrae very short,
and at least six out of the seven coalesced into a solid immov-
able mass. None of the vertebrae are united to form a sacrum.
The lumbar and caudal vertebrae are numerous and large, and,
as their arches are not connected by articular processes (zygapo-
physes), they are capable of free motion in all directions. The caps,
or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral bodies are flattened
disks, not uniting until after the animal has attained its full dimen-
sions. There are largely developed chevron-bones on the under side
of the tail, the presence of which indicates the distinction between
caudal and lumbar vertebrae.
In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost
spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards
and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the
vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region;
and the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits.
The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or
less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae,
vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the
upper jaw or roof of the mouth.
There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the
scapula at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of
the limb are imperfect ; the flattened ends of the bones coming in
contact, with fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any
motion. The radius and ulna are distinct, and about equally de-
veloped, and much flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers.
There are four, or more commonly five, digits, and the number of
the phalanges of the second and third always exceeds the normal
number in mammals, sometimes considerably; they present the
exceptional character of having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis
is represented by a pair of small rod-like bones placed longitudinally,
suspended below and at some distance from the vertebral column
at the commencement of the tail. In some species, to the outer
surface of these are fixed other small bones or cartilages, the rudiments
of the hind-limb.
Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number^
In existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with
conical or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never pre-
ceded by milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent
(except in the foetal condition), and the palate is provided with
numerous transversely placed horny plates, forming the " whale-
bone." Salivary glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach
is complex, and the intestine simple, and only in some species
provided with a small caecum. The liver is little fissured, and
there is no gall-bladder. The blood- vascular system is complicated
by net-like expansions of both arteries and veins, or retia mirabilia.
The larynx is of peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the
epiglottis being elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation,
£*0
Fig. i.— A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish (Globicephalus melas) x J.
PMx, Premaxilla.
AS,
Alisphenoid.
Mx, Maxilla.
PS,
Presphenoid.
ME, Ossified portion of the mes-
ethmoid.
Pt,
Pterygoid.
ft
Posterior nares.
an, Nostrils.
Palatine.
Na, Nasal.
Vo,
Vomer.
IP, Inter-parietal.
s,
Symphysis of lower iaw.
Inferior dental canal.
Fr, Frontal.
id,
Pa, Parietal.
cp,
Coronoid process of lower jaw
SO, Supra-occipital.
cd,
Condyle.
ExO, Ex-occipital.
a,
Angle.
Stylo-hyal.
BO, Basi-occipital.
sh,
Sq, Squamosal.
bh,
Basi-hyal.
Per, Periotic.
th,
Thyro-hyal.
which projects into the posterior nares, and when embraced by the
soft palate forms a continuous passage between the nostrils and the
trachea, or wind-pipe, in a more perfect manner. The brain is
relatively large, round in form, with its surface divided into numerous
and complex convolutions. The kidneys are deeply lobulated ; the
testes are abdominal ; and there are no vesiculae seminales nor an
os penis. The uterus is bicornuate ; the placenta non-deciduate and
diffuse. The two teats are placed in depressions on each side of the
genital aperture. The ducts of the milk-glands are dilated during
suckling into large reservoirs, into which the milk collects, and from
which it is injected by the action of a muscle into the mouth of the
young animal, so that sucking under water is greatly facilitated.
Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins
and porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America
and Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their
life entirely in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless.
They have, however, to rise very frequently to the surface for
the purpose of respiration; and, in relation to the upward and
downward movement in the water thus necessitated, the principal
instrument of motion, the tail, is expanded horizontally. The
position of the nostril on the highest part of the head is important
for this mode of life, as it is the only part of the body the exposure
v. 25
77°
CETACEA
of which above the surface is absolutely necessary, Of numerous
erroneous ideas connected with natural history, few are so
widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes water
taken in at the mouth. But the " spouting," or " blowing," of
whales is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration,
which, taking place at longer intervals than land-animals, is
performed with a greater emphasis. The moment the animal
rises to the surface it forcibly expels from its lungs the air taken
in at the last inspiration, which is charged with vapour in con-
sequence of the respiratory changes. This rapidly condensing in
the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is often observed,
forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken for
water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the
ocean is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its
expiratory puff before the orifice has cleared the top of the water,
some of which may thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending
to complete the illusion. From photographs of spouting rorquals,
it appears that the height and volume of the " spout " of all the
species is much less than was supposed to be the case by the older
observers; even that of the huge " sulphur-bottom " (Bolaeno-
ptera sibbaldt) averaging only about 14 ft. in height, although it
may occasionally reach 20 ft.
As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans
for receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by
the practice of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged
in driving a shoal of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for
the purpose of frightening their intended victims. As regards the
possession of a voice by cetaceans, it is stated that one species,
the " buckelwal " of the Germans, utters during the breeding-
season a prolonged scream, comparable to the scream of a steam-
siren, and embracing the whole musical scale, from base to treble.
In respect of anatomical considerations, it is true that the external
ear is much reduced, the " pinna " being absent, and the tube
or " meatus " of very small calibre. On the other hand, the
internal auditory organs are developed on the plan of those of
ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications
(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone)
for intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are
received from the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident
that whales must hear when in the water. This inference is
confirmed by the comparatively small development of the other
sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is very small, and can be
of little use even at the comparatively small depths to which
whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of smell,
judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs,
must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs com-
parable to the lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently,
it would seem that when below the surface of the water they must
depend chiefly upon the sense of hearing. Probably this sense
is so highly developed as to enable the animals, in the midst of
the vibrations made by the screw-like movements of the tail, or
flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations) made by the
impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in the
case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water
the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is
difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the
semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound
coasts.
In the Christiania Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, vol.
xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the
body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely
imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a
matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living
cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale
and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a
pond in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of
procedure is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have,
accordingly, to rely on post-mortem observations. The layer of
blubber by which all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the
post-mortem refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than
tn most mammals, so that such observations have a much higher
value than might at first be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the
blood-temperature of a specimen of Sibbald's rorqual three days
after death still stood at 34 ° C. The various observations that
have been taken have afforded the following results in individual
cases: Sperm-whale, 40 C; Greenland right-whale, 38«8° C;
porpoise, 35-6° C; liver of a second individual, 37*8° C.; common
rorqual, 35-4° C. ; dolphin, 35-6° C. The average blood- temperature
of man is J7 C, ana that of other mammals 39 ° C. ; while that of
birds is 42 C. The record of 40 C. in the case of the sperm-whale
seems to indicate that at least some cetaceans have a relatively
high temperature.
With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all
the Cetacea are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of
some kind. One kind alone (Orca) eats other warm-blooded
animals, as seals, and even members of its own order, both large
and small. Many feed on fish, others on small floating crusta-
ceans, pteropods and jelly-fishes, while the principal staple of
the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes and squids. In
size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins scarcely
exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal of
all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are
exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species
exceed those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct
dinosaurian reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are
generally timid, inoffensive animals, active in their movements
and affectionate in their disposition towards one another,
especially the mother towards the young, of which there is
usually but one, or at most two at a time. They are generally
gregarious, swimming in herds or " schools," sometimes amount-
ing to many thousands in number; though some species are
met with either singly or in pairs.
Commercially these animals are of importance on account
of the oil yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone,
spermaceti and ambergris are still more valuable products
yielded by certain species. Within the last few years whalebone
has been sold in America for £2000 per ton, while it is also asserted
that £3000 per ton has been paid fof two and a quarter tons at
Aberdeen, although there seems to be some degree of doubt
attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the last
century, the price of this commodity was as low as £150 per ton,
but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to
£620 with the introduction of " crinoline " into ladies' costume,
and it has apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris,
which is very largely used in perfumery, is solely a product of
the sperm-whale, and appears to be a kind of biliary calculus.
It generally contains a number of the homy beaks of the cuttle-
fishes and squids upon which these whales chiefly feed. Its
market-price is subject to considerable variation, but from £3 to
£4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality. In
1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of
ambergris weighing 270 ft), which was sold in Paris for about
85s. per oz., or £18,360.
Whalebone Whales. — Existing Cetacea are divisible into two
sections, or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means
clearly apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales,
or Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although
there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished
with plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and
the nasal bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed
upwards and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not
over, the orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and
distinct from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic,
which is attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging
processes. The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two
halves of the lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends
meeting at an angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any
symphysis. All the ribs at their upper extremity articulate only
with the transverse processes of the vertebrae; their capitular
processes when present not articulating directly with the bodies of
the vertebrae. The sternum is composed of a single piece, and
articulates only with a single pair of ribs; and there are no ossified
sternal ribs. External openings of nostrils distinct from each other,
longitudinal. A short conical caecum.
When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute
teeth lying in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws.
They are best developed about the middle of foetal life, after which
they are absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth.
The whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth;
and consists of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and
four hundred in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare
interval along the middle line. The plates are placed transversely
to the long axis of the palate, with snort intervals between them.
Each plate or blade is somewhat triangular in form, with the base
CETACEA
771
attached to the palate and the apex hanging downwards. The outer
edge of the blade is hard and smooth, but the inner edge and apex
fray out into long bristly fibres, so that the roof of the whale's mouth
looks as if covered with hair, as described by Aristotle. At the inner
edge of each principal blade are two or three much smaller or sub-
sidiary blades. The principal blades are longest near the middle of
the series, and gradually diminish towards the front and back of the
mouth. The horny plates grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix,
which covers the palatal surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-
like processes, one of which penetrates the base of each blade.
Moreover, the free edges of these processes are covered with long
vascular thread-like papillae, one of which forms the central axis of
each of the hair-like fibres mainly composing the blade. A transverse
section of fresh whalebone shows that it is made up of numbers of
these soft vascular papillae, circular in outline, and surrounded by
concentrically arranged epidermic cells, the whole bound together
by other epidermic cells, that constitute the smooth (so-called
" enamel ") surface of the blade, which, disintegrating at the free
edge, allows the individual fibres to become loose and assume a
bair-like appearance.
Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous
membrane of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial
development. The blades are supported and bound together for a
certain distance from their base, by a mass of less hardened epi-
thelium, secreted by the surface of the palatal membrane or matrix
of the whalebone in the intervals of the plate-like processes. This is
the " gum " of the whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in
different species; in some it is almost jet black, in others slate colour,
horn colour, yellow, or even creamy- white. In some descriptions
the blades are variegated with longitudinal stripes of different hues.
It differs also greatly in other respects, being short, thick, coarse,
and stiff in some cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in
those species in which it has attained its fullest development. Its
function is to strain the water from the small marine molluscs,
crustaceans, or fish upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales
fill the immense mouth with water containing shoals of these small
creatures, and then, on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so
as to diminish the cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through
the narrow intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone
blades, and escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be
swallowed.
Although sometimes divided into two families, Balaenidae and
Balaenopteridae, whalebone-whales are best included in a single
family group under the former name. The typical members of this
family are the so-called right-whales, forming the genu? Balaena,
in which there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin ;
while the cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers
are short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the
whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while
the scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process.
This genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (B.
mysticetus) of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so
much valued in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by
having the head somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with
shorter whalebone and a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit
the temperate seas of both northern and southern hemispheres, and
have been divided into species in accordance with their geographical
distribution, such as B. btscayensis of the North Atlantic, B.japonica
of the North Pacific, B. australis of the South Atlantic, and B.
antipodarum and novae-zelandiae of the South Pacific; but the
differences between them are so small that they may probably be
regarded as races of a single species, the black whale (B. australis).
On the head these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known
to whalers as the " bonnet." This is a large horny excrescence,
worn into hollows like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock,
growing probably in the neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More
than one theory has been suggested to account for its presence.
One suggestion is that it indicates the descent of whales from rhino-
ceros-like mammals; another that this species of whale is in the
habit of rubbing against rocks in order to tree itself from barnacles,
and thus produces a kind of corn — although why on the nose alone
is not stated. Dr W. G. Ridewood, however, considers that the
structure is due to the fact that the horny layers which are produced
all over the skin are not shed on this particular spot.
The pigmy whale (Neobalaena marginata) represents a genus
agreeing with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flu tings,
and with the rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical
vertebrae are united, and there are only 4.3 vertebrae altogether.
The flippers are small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs
remarkably expanded and flattened; the scapula low and broad,
with completely developed acromion and coracoid processes. The
whalebone is long, slender, elastic and white. The species which
inhabits the South American, Australian and New Zealand seas is
the smallest of the whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in
length.
In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (Rachianectes
elaucus) of the Nortn Pacific, which combines the relatively small
head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin- whales, with
the smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the right-
whales. The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other
species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the first
two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony
shield. In the humpback- whale (Megaptera longimana or bodps)
the head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and
wide, and the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is
fluted so as to form an expansible pouch ; there is a low back-fin ;
and the flippers, which have four digits each, are extremely long,
equalling about one-fourth the total length of the animal. The
acromion and coracoid processes of the scapula are rudimentary.
See Humpback-Whale.
The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of
the shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and
are consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and im-
movable neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but
with a smaller head, and probably attains considerable speed owing
to the length of its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (Balaenoptera) „
which prey largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the
ocean greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long
and attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are
furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They
chiefly differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and
slender build, small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing
four digits, and the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low
and broad scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among
them are the most gigantic of all animals, B, sibbaldi, which attains
the length of 80 ft., and the small B. rostrata, which does not exceed
30. There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus,
represented by the two just mentioned, and by B. musculus and
B. borealis, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether
almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific
Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct
awaits future researches, although some of these have already
received distinct names. See Rorqual.
In the report on the zoology of the " Discovery " expedition,
published in 1907 by the British Museum, £. A. Wilson describes a
whale frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates
a new generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure
about 20 or 30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a
killer.
Toothed Whales. — The second suborder is represented by the
toothed whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and
teeth, generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single
pair, and occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike
that of the whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more
or less unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or
flattened plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming
any part of the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards
and backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent.
Hinder end of the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of
the orbital plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either in-
separable from the jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the
roof of the orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic,
which is usually only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament.
Two halves of the lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height
posteriorly, with a wide funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal,
and coming in contact in front by a flat surface of variable length,
but constituting a symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with
well-developed capitular processes, which articulate with the bodies
of the vertebrae. Sternum almost always composed of several pieces,
placed one behind the other, with which several pairs of rios are
connected by well-developed cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs.
External respiratory aperture single, the two nostrils uniting before
they reach the surface, usually in the form of a transverse sub-
crescentic valvular aperture, situated on the top of the head.
Flippers with five digits, though the first and fifth are usually little
developed. No caecum, except in Platanista.
The first family, Physeteridae, is typified by the sperm-whale,
and characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper
jaw; the lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in
number. Bones of the skull raised so as to form an elevated promin-
ence or crest behind the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced
backwards, meeting in the middle line, and not involuted to form
the outer wall of tnepost-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed
on their outer side. Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal
vertebrae, to which the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing
abruptly near the end of the series, and replaced by processes on the
body at a lower level, and serially homologous anteriorly with the
heads of the ribs, and posteriorly with the transverse processes of
the lumbar vertebrae. Costal cartilages not ossified.
The first group, or Physeterinae, includes the sperm-whale itself,
and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth,
which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being im-
perfectly divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by the
strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly
asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence
of the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.
In the sperm-whale ((Physeter macroeephalus) the upper teeth
are apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless,
being embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25
teeth en each side, stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex
772
CETACEA
until they are worn, without enamel. Upper surface of the skull
concave ; its posterior and lateral edges raised into a very high and
greatly compressed semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic
processes of jugal bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elon-
gated, broad at the base, and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower
Fig. 2. — Skull of Sperm- Whale (Physeter macrocepkalus).
jaw exceedingly long and narrow, the symphysis being more than
half the length. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas,
or first vertebra, free; all the other cervical vertebrae united
by their bodies and spines into a single mass. Eleventh pair of
ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third the length of the body;
very massive, high and truncated, and rather compressed in front;
owing its huge size and form mainly to the accumulation of a mass
of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the upper surface of the
skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single blow-hole is longi-
tudinal, slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper and
anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle
line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the
head, considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers
short, broad and truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low
protuberance. See Sperm-Whale.
In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (Coeia breviceps)
there may be a pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw,
while on each side of the lower jaw there are from 9 to 12
rather long, slender, pointed and curved teeth, with a coat-
ing of enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave, with
thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive and rounded
at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle not longer
than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base, and rapidly
tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the iugal rod-like.
Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length. Vertebrae:
C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the cervical ver-
tebrae united by their bodies and arches. The head is about one-
sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in front; the
mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout ; the blow-hole
in the middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of
the right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla.
Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak,
extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other
in the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so
massive that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital
notch distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Verte-
brae: C 7, D 9, L 10, Ca 10; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae
united. Upper surface of the head in front of the blowhole very
prominent and rounded, rising abruptly from above the small,
distinct snout. Two species are known. See Bottle-nose Whale.
The typical representative of the beaked whales is Ziphius cuvieri,
in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side
close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards
and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and
at the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral
margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards,
the right being considerably more developed than the left. The
conjoint nasals form a pronounced sy m metrical eminence at the top of
the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above, prominent
and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a notch
on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not distinct.
Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base to the
apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum raised
into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely
ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of
the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The
three anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.
In the numerous species of the allied genus Mesoplodon there is a
much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw,
Fig. 4. — Sowerby's Beaked Whale {Mesoplodon bidens).
Fig. 3. — Bottle- nose (Hyperoodon rostratus)
the coast of Scotland, 1882
crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in advance
of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the flippers are
bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This species
attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.
A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked
whales, and known as the Zifhiinae. In this group the lower teeth
are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely
two, pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male.
There is a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally tne mouth is produced
into a slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded
eminence formed by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front
of the blow-hole rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single,
crescentic and median, as in the Delphinidae. Flippers small, ovate,
with five digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal
fin situated considerably behind the middle of the back. Longi-
tudinal grooves on each side of the skin of the throat, diverging
posteriorly, and nearly meeting in front. In external characters
and habits the whales of this group closely resemble each other.
They appear to be almost exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and
occur either singly, in pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and
osteological characters they are easily separated into four genera.
In the first of these, Hyperoodon, or bottle-nose, there is a small
conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw,
concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the
premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex 'and
expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their
anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils;
the right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow
between the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave
variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex;
its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasion-
ally developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the
nostrils is as in Hyperoddon, except that the nasals are narrow and
more sunk between the upper ends of the premaxillae ; like those of
Hyperoodon, they are concave in the middle line in front and above.
No maxillary tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct.
Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its
entire length, and coalescing with the surrounding bones. Verte-
brae : C 7, D 10, L 10 or 1 1, Ca 19 or 20 ; total 46 to 48. Two
or three anterior cervicals united, the rest usually free.
Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different
members of this genus agree in their essential structure,
having a small and pointed enamel-covered crown, com-
posed of dentine, which, instead of surmounting a root of
the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid mass of osteo-
dentine, the continuous growth of which greatly alters the
From a specimen taken off form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances,
as in the case of M. layardi, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-
like teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over
the rostrum, and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one
species (M. grayi) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like
those of ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 10 in number, is present even in
the adults, on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but
embedded by their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets.
This, with the frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other
species of this genus, indicates that the beaked whales are derived
Fig. 5. — Skull of a Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon densirostris).
from ancestral forms with teeth of normal character in both jaws.
The species are distributed in both northern and southern hemi-
spheres, but most'frequent in the latter. Among them are M . bidens,
M. europaeus, M. densirostris, M. layardi, M. grayi and M. hectori;
but there is still much to be learned with regard to their characters
CETACEA
773
and distribution. This group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as
attested by the frequency with which the imperishable long, cylin-
drical rostrum of the skull, of more than ivory denseness, is found
among the rolled and waterworn animal remains which compose
the " Done-bed " at the base of the Red Crag of Suffolk.
Finally, in Arnoux's beaked whale (Beraraius arnouxi), of New
Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two moderate-
sized, compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the symphysis
of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the anterior
being the larger of the two and close to the front of the jaw. Upper
ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately elevated,
slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils. Nasals
broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the vertex
of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle line.
Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid
partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the
upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae:
Fig. 6. — The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (Platanista gangetica).
C 7, D 10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals
welded, the rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale
has the power of thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to
view when attacked.
In a family by themselves — the Platinistidae — are placed three
cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the
following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the
vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at
the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in
most mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal
bone is not distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow,
with numerous teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one
exceeding half its length. Externally the head is divided from the
body by a slightly constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and
truncated. Dorsal fin small or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are
fluviatile or estuarine. In the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin
{Platanista gangetica), the teeth number about \% on each side, are
set near together, are rather large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed
in the young, but in old animals acquire a large laterally com-
pressed base, which in the posterior part of the series becomes
irregularly divided into roots. As the conical enamel-covered crown
wears away, the teeth of the young and old animals have a totally
different appearance. The beak and tooth-bearing portion of the
lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of the two sides are almost
in contact. Maxillae supporting large, incurved, compressed bony
crests, which overarch the nostrils and base of the rostrum, and
almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very small and eyes
rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole longitudinal,
linear. Vertebrae : C 7, D 1 1 , L 8, Ca 25 ; total 51. A small caecum.
No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.
The second genus is represented by Inia geojfroyi, of the
Amazon, in which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each
Fig. 7.— River Plate Dolphin (Stenodelphis blainvillet).
jaw; those at the posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner
side of the base of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18;
total 41. Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad.
Sternum short and broad, and consisting of a single segment only.
Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long cylindrical rostrum externally
furnished with scattered, stout and crisp hairs. The third type is
Stenodelphis blainviUei, the River Plate dolphin, a small brown
species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60 pairs of teeth in each jaw,
furnished with a cingulum at the base of the crown. Jaws very long
and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca 19; total 41. Trans-
verse processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely broad. Sternum
elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal ribs attached.
Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole transverse.
In several respects this species connects the two preceding ones
with the Delphinidae (see Dolphin).
The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned
Delphinidae, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses
and: their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws ;
and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted
to form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the post-
palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate, never
exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not
distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal verte-
brae gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the
vertebrae without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly
continuous serially with the transverse processes of the lumbar
vertebrae. Antenor ribs attached to the
transverse process by the tubercle, and to
the body of the vertebra by the head; the
latter attachment lost in the posterior ribs.
Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is trans-
verse, crescentic, with the horns of the
crescent pointing forwards.
First on the long list is the narwhal,
Monodon monoceros, in which, apart from
some irregular rudimentary teeth, the denti-
tion is reduced to a single pair of teeth which
lie horizontally in the maxilla, and in the
female remain permanently concealed within
the socket, so that this sex is practically
toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the
right tooth usually remains similarly con-
cealed while the left is immensely developed,
attaining a length equal to more than half
that of the entire animal, projecting hori-
zontally from the head in the form of a
cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed
tusk, without enamel, and with the surface
marked by spiral grooves and ridges, running
in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7,
D 11, L 6, Ca 26; total 50. Cervical region
comparatively long, and all the vertebrae
distinct, or with irregular unions towards
the middle of the series, the atlas and axis
being usually free. Flipper small, short
and broad, with the second and third digits
nearly equal, the fourth slightly shorter.
No dorsal fin. See Narwhal.
Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale
(Delphinapierus leucas), of the Arctic seas,
in which, however, there are from eight to
ten pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying
the anterior three-fourths of the rostrum and
corresponding portion of the lower jaw,
rather small, conical, and pointed when
unworn, but usually become obliquely trun-
cated, separated by intervals considerably
wider than the diameter of the tooth, and
implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining
forwards especially in the upper jaw. Skull
rather narrow and elongated, depressed. Pre-
maxillae convex in front of the nostrils.
Rostrum about equal in length to the cranial
portion of the skull, triangular, broad at the
base, and gradually contracting towards the
apex, where it is somewhat curved down-
wards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23;
total 50. Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers
broad, short and rounded, all the digits being
tolerably well developed, except the first.
Anterior part of head rounded ; no distinct
snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in its
place. See Beluga.
In all the remaining genera of Delphinidae
the cervical region of the vertebral column is
very short, and the first two, and usually
more, of the vertebrae are firmly united.
The common porpoise (Phocaena communis,
or P. phocaena) is the typical representa-
tive of the first genus, in which the teeth
vary from {| to f|, are small, and occupy
nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with
compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated
from the root by a constricted neck.
Rostrum rather snorter than the cranium
proper, broad at the base and tapering to-
wards the apex. Premaxillae raised into
tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The
frontal bonesformasomewhat square elevated
protuberance in the middle line of the
skull behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Sym-
physis of lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30;
total 64. First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh
also, coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-
shaped, with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and
the fourth and fifth well developed, but snorter. Head short,
moderately rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the
middle of the back, triangular; its height considerably less than
the length of the base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with
one or more rows of conical horny tubercles.
(A-
Fig. 8. — Upper sur-
face of the Skull of
male Narwhal (Mono-
don monoceros), with
the whole of both
teeth exposed by re-
moval of the upper
wall of their alveolar
cavities.
774
The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the
Atlantic, seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never
resides there. There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which,
according to Dr O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with
the name of Phocaena relicta. This Black Sea porpoise is readily
distinguished from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile
of the head, which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the
muzzle to what represents the neck, has a marked prominence above
the angle of the mouth, followed by an equally marked depression.
The teeth are also different in form and number. The absence of
porpoises from the Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account
of the greater saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in
general ; his idea being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-
water members of the group, and therefore unsuited to withstand
an excessively saline medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the
CETACEA
Fig. 9. — Beluga or White- Whale (Delphinapterus leucas) . From a specimen
taken in the river St Lawrence and exhibited in London, 1877.
north shore of the Black Sea, the same writer has described an extinct
type of ancestral porpoise, under the name of Palaeo phocaena andrus-
sowi. Another species is the wholly black P. spimpennis, typically
from South America. Black is also the hue of the Indian porpoise
{Neo phocaena phocaenoides) , which wants a dorsal fin, and has
eighteen pairs of teeth rather larger than those of the ordinary
porpoise. (See Porpoise.)
Next comes the Indo-Malay genus Orcella, in which the \\ to \{,
small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and occupy
nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular, high.
Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull,
tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but somewhat
pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long, except
the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head globular
in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle of the
body. Two species, both of small size — 0. brevirostris, from the
Bay of Bengal, and 0, fluminalis, from the Irrawaddy river, from
300 to 900 m. from the sea.
In the grampus, or killer, Orca gladiator (or 0. orca) the teeth form
about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole
length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved
crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather
hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about
equal in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened
above, rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in
front of the nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and
expanding again towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11 -12,
L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or 52; bodies of the first and second and
sometimes the third cervical vertebrae united; the rest free.
Fig. 10. — The Grampus or Killer (Orca gladiator).
Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as broad as long, with all the
phalanges and metacarpals broader than long. General form of
body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin near the middle
of the back, very high and pointed. See Grampus.
The lesser killer or black killer, Pseudorca crassidens, has its g^
teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and corresponding
part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved and sharp-
pointed when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age. Skull
broad and depressed ; with the rostrum and cranial portions about
equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Pre-
maxillae concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of
the rostrum as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the
maxillae in the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11,
L 12-14, Ca 28-29; tota l 5 8 or 59- Bodies of the anterior five or
six cervical vertebrae united. length of the bodies of the lumbar
and anterior caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers
very long and narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having
as many as 12 or 13 phalanges, the third shorter (with
9 phalanges), the first, fourth and fifth very short. Fore part
of the head round, in consequence of the great development of a
cushion of fat, place on the rostrum of the skull in front of the
blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular, the length of its base
considerably exceeding its vertical height.
Next comes the ca'mg whale, or black-fish (Globicephalus melas),
with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental
characters generally like those of Orca, except that the roots of the
teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D io, L 9, Ca 24; total 50;
first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the
lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera
by being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2.
Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated
near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped.
Head in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the
snout truncated. See Ca'ing Whale.
Risso's dolphin, Grampus griseus, represents another genus,
characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small
number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side,
and confined to the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7,
D 12, L 19,, Ca 30; total 68. General external characters much
as in Globtcephalus, but the fore part of the head less rounded,
and the flippers less elongated. G. griseus is about 13 ft. long,
and remarkable for its great variability of colour. It has been
found, though rarely, in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean.
The common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) is the typical repre-
sentative of a large group of relatively small species, some of
which are wholly marine, while others are more or less completely
fluviatile. They are divided into a number of genera, such as ProdeU
phinus, Steno, Lagenorhynchus, Cephalorkynchus, Tur stops, &c, best
distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth,
the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate,
the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower
jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters
of these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned
below; and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these
dolphins are characterized by the following features. The teeth
are numerous in both jaws, and more than |J in number, occupying
nearly the whole length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, corneal,
pointed and slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and
pointed in front, usually considerably longer than the cranial portion
of the skull. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total
51 to 90. Flippers of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat
sickle-shaped, with the first digit rudimentary, the second longest,
third nearly equal, and the fourth and fifth extremely short. Ex-
ternally the head shows a distinct beak or pointed snout, marked
off from the antenasal fatty elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal
fin rather large, triangular or sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A
curiously marked brown and white species, perhaps referable to
Lagenorhynchus is found on the fringe of the Antarctic ice (see
report on the zoology of the " Discovery," published in 1907 by the
British Museum). See Dolphin.
Extinct Cetacea.
At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the whale-
bone-whales, not being even assured that they are derived from the
same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy,
however, that some of the fossil representatives of the
latter have nasal bones of a type recalling those of the
former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as are known occur
in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either referable to
existing genera, or to more or less nearly related extinct ones,
such as Plesiocetus, Herpetocetus and Cetotherium.
The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely
represented in a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological
series as the upper Cretaceous. Many of these present much
more generalized characters than their modern represen-
tatives, while others indicate apparently a transition towards
the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as will be
shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont
Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and Eng-
land are preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of
cetaceans, such as Physodon, Encetus, Dinoziphius, Hoplocetus,
Balaenodon and Scaldicetus, more or less nearly related to the sperm-
whale, but presenting several primitive characters. A complete
skull of a member of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Pata-
gonia, at first referred to Physodon, but subsequently to Scaldicetus,
Has a full series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw ; and it is prob-
able that the same was the case in other forms. This entails either
a modification of the definition of the Physeteridae as given above,
or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales.
In other cases, however, as in the Miocene Prophyseter and Placozi-
phius, the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had
already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicat-
ing the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned
Squalodon. The beaked whales, again, are believed to be inde-
pendently descended from the latter type, Berardius being traced
into the Miocene Mioziphius, Anoplonassa and Palaeoziphius, the
last of which shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the
complicated tooth-structure of the squalodonts.
Another line of descent from tne latter, apparently culmin-
ating in the modern Platanistidae, is represented by the family
CETHEGUS— CETTE
775
Eurhinodelphidae, typified by the European Miocene Eurhinodelphis,
but also including the contemporary Patagonian Argyrocetus and the
nearly allied European Cyrtodelphis. All these were very long-beaked
dolphins; and in Argyrocetus, at all events, the occipital condyles,
instead of being closely pressed to the skull, are as prominent as
in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones, instead of forming
mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed over the hind
part of the nasal chamber.
In the Miocene Squalodon, representing the family Squalodon-
tidae, the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and cheek-
teeth, the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots and
compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge ; generally
the dental formula has been given as i. |, c. \ , 4>. J, m. $, the single-
rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and those with
double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion that the
formula is better represented as *. |, c. J, p. ° r 9 , m. f; the teeth
reckoned as molars corresponding to those of the creodont Carnivora.
The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as due, not to the division
of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of the two roots of teeth
of the latter type. In Squalodon the nasal bones were of the modern
nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian Prosqualodon they
partially covered the nasal chamber.
At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts
and the Eocene zeuglodonts (Zeuglodontidae), which are regarded by
Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C. W. Andrews as the direct
forerunners of the modern-toothed whales, forming the sub-
order Archaeoceti. It is, however, right to mention that some
authorities refuse to admit the relation of the Archaeoceti to the
whales.
In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal
fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the
premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long
nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils
opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae
were free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus Zeuglodon
(which is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt)
is i, J, c. \, , p. 1 , in. |; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with com-
pressed pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely
serrated. In the Egyptian Zeuglodon osiris the number of the molars
is, however, reduced to |, while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have
become [single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable tran-
sitional form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small
Microzeuglodon caucasicus described by the present writer, from the
Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves,
remains discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a
practically complete transition, so far at least as dental characters
are concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont
Carnivora. In the earliest type, Protocetus, the skull is practically
that of a zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than
in some of the earliest representatives of the latter, although the
nostrils are placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but
the cheek-teeth are essentially those of a creodont, none of them
having acquired the serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglo-
donts; ana the hinder premolars and molars retaining the three
roots of the creodonts. In the somewhat later Proaeugfadon the
skull is likewise essentially of the zeuglodont type, although the
nostrils have shifted a little more backwards; as regards the cheek-
teeth, which have acquired serrated crowns, the premolars at any
rate retain the inner buttress supported by a distinct third root, so
that they are precisely intermediate between Protocetus and Zeuglo-
don. Yet another connecting form is Eocetus, a very large animal
from nearly the same horizon as Prozeuglodon ; its skull approaching
that of Zeuglodon as regards the backward position of the nostrils,
although the cheek-teeth are of the creodont type, having inner, or
third, roots. It is noteworthy that Zeuglodon apparently occurs in
the same beds as these intermediate types.
It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors
of the true Cetacea — and the probability that they are so is very
great — the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as
has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the
zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear
to be supported by recent discoveries.
Authorities.— The above article is based on that by Sir W. H.
Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also W. H. Flower,
41 On the Characters and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1883); F. W. True, 4t Review of the
Family Delphinidae," Proc. U. S. Museum, No. 36 (1889) ; R. Ly-
dekker, " Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia," Palaeontol. Argentina,
vol. ii. An. Mus. La Plata (1893); W. Dames, " Ober Zeuglodonten
aus Agypten," Palaontol. Abhandlungen, vol. i. (1894); F. E.
Beddard, A Book of Whales (London, 1900); O. Abel, " Unter-
suchungen uber die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener Beckens,"
Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien., vol. Ixviii. (1899); " Les Dauphins
longifostres du Bolenen," MSm. musee oVnist. not. belgique (1901
and 1902) ; " Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des Cetaceengebisses
und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden," Verkandl.
deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft (1905); E. Fraas, " Neue Zeuglodonten
aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokittam bei Cairo," Geol.
und palaontol Abhandl. ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C. W. Andrews,
" Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum "
(British Museum, I906>. (R. L.*)
CETHEGUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of
the Cornelian gens. Like the younger Cato its members
kept up the old Roman fashion of dispensing with the
tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, Ars Poetico, 50;
Lucan, Pkarsatia, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some
importance:—
(1) Marcus Cornelius CetheoT 7 ^, pontifex maximus and
curule aedile, 213 B.C. In 211, as praf#*i he had <****& <*
Apulia; later, he was sent to Sicily, where he proved a successful
administrator. In 209 he was censor, and in 204 consul. In
203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy, where, in conjuncu ,on # ^^
the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a hard-won vnT torv
over Mago, Hannibal's brother, in Insubrian territory, a A ?^
obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great
reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as " the
quintessence of persuasiveness " (suadae medulla). Horace (Ars
Poet. 50; Epistles, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use
of Latin words.
Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. n, xxx. 18.
(2) Gaius Cornelius Cethegus, the boldest and most
dangerous of Catiline's associates. Like many other youthful
profligates, he joined the conspiracy in the hope of getting his
debts cancelled. When Catiline left Rome in 63 B.C., after
Cicero's first speech, Cethegus remained behind as leader of the
conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself undertook to
murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered
by the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled
him to the chief consideration. The discovery of arms in
Cethegus's house, and of the letter which he had given to the
ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had been invited to co-
operate, led to his arrest. He was condemned to death, and
executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of
December. . !
Sallust, CatUina, 46-55; Cicero, In Cat. iii. 5-7; Appian, Bell.
Civ. ii. 2-5 ; see Catiline.
CFTINA, GUTIERRE DB (i5i8?-i572?), Spanish poet and
soldier, was born at Seville shortly before 1520. He served
under Charles V. in Italy and Germany, but retired from the
army in 1545 to settle in Seville;. Soon afterwards, however,
he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten years; he
appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned
to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A
follower of Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jeronimo
de Urrea and Baltavar del Alcazar, Cetina adopted the doctrines
of the Italian school and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote
an extensive series of poems in the newly introduced metres;
his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of form and sincerity of
sentiment, his other productions being in great part adaptations
from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons were
Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and
Alva's grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited
little by their protection. His works have been well edited by
Joaquin Hazanas y la Rua in two volumes published at Seville
(189S).
CETTE, a seaport of southern France in the department of
Herault, 18 m. S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway.
Pop. (1906) 32,659. After Marseilles it is the principal com-
mercial port on the south coast of France. The older part of
Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont St Clair (the
ancient Mons Setius), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated on a
tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the
lagoon of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty
stone buildings is bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette,
which leads from the lagoon of Thau to the Old Basin and the
outer harbour. Across the canal lie the newer quarters, which
chiefly occupy two islands separated from each other by a wet
dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime, parallel to
the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends
of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and
776
CETTIGNE— CETYWAYO
E.N.E. protects the entrance to the harbour, which is one of
the safest in France. The outer port and the Old Basin are
enclosed by a mole to the south and by a jetty to the east.
Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent basin which
communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the
harbour, including the canals, is in acres with a quayage
length of over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette
include tribunals of commerce and of maritime commerce,
councils of arbitration in commercial and fishing affairs, an
exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of
France and a large hospital. There are also a communal college,
a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry,
and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The
town is connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to
Cette, and with Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a
junction of the Southern and Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping
trade is carried on with South America, the chief ports of the
Mediterranean, and especially with Spain. The chief exports
are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins and soap; the
chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum, sulphur,
tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the
average annual value of imports was £3,720,000 (£4,980,000 in
years 1896-1900), of exports £1,427,000 (£1,237,000 in 1896-1900).
More than 400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny,
cod and other fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are
obtained from the lagoon of Thau. There are factories for the
pickling of sardines, for the manufacture of liqueurs and casks,
and for the treatment of sulphur, phosphates, and nitrate of
soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also have metallur-
gical works at Cette, and the establishments for making wine
give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created
in 1666 by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and
according to the plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17 th
century its development was aided by the opening of the Canal
du Midi.
CETTIGNE (Servian, Tsetinye; also written Cettinje, Tzetinje,
and Tsettinye), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain
deeply sunk in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height
of 2093 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The sur-
rounding country is bare and stony, with carefully cultivated
patches of rich red soil among the crevices of the rock. In
winter it is often so deeply covered with snow as to be well-nigh
inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is frequently flooded
by the waters of a small brook which becomes a torrent after
rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a walled
village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and
some unadorned public buildings. These include a church;
a fortified monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often
burned and rebuilt as to seem quite modern, and which is
visited by pilgrims to the tomb of Peter I. (1 782-1830); resi-
dences for the archimandrite and the vladika or metropolitan
of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates the
ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the
gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the
prince and his heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary
for priests and teachers, established by the tsar Alexander II.
(1855-1881), with a very successful girls' school founded and
endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a library and reading-room;
a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open space near
the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which
Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered
justice until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag
highway, regarded as a triumph of engineering, winds through
the mountain passes between Cettigne and the Austrian seaport
of Cattaro; and other good roads give access to the richest
parts of the interior. , There is, however, little trade, though
mineral waters are manufactured.
Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was
forced, towards the end of the 15th century, to withdraw from
Zhabliak, his former capital. It has often been taken and
sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been occupied by them
for long.
CETUS (" The Whale ")> in astronomy, a constellation of the
southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.)
and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be
the monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which
was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy catalogued 22 stars in this
constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and Hevelius, 45. The most
remarkable star of this constellation is o-(Mira) Ceti y a long-
period variable, discovered by the German astronomer Fabricius;
its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its period is 331
days. r-Ceti is an irregular variable, its extreme magnitudes
being 5 and 7; y-Ceti is a beautiful double star, consisting of a
yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6*8; v-Ceti
is also a double star. *. • /•***.. ♦- * -...;•
CETYWAYO ( ?-i884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest
son of King Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two
previous kings, Dingaan and Chaka. Cetywayo was a young
man when in 1840 his father was placed on the throne by the
aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal became
a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military
talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military
system, and chafed under his father's peaceful policy towards
his British and Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring
a younger son, Umbulazi, as his successor, Cetywayo made
war on his brother, whom he defeated and slew at a great battle
on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In the following
year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that Panda
should retire from the mangement of the affairs of the nation,
which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept
the title of king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the
Natal government, which afforded protection to two of his
brothers. The feeling of distrust was removed in 1861 by a
visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus Shepstone, secretary
for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to proclaim
Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were
then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years.
In 1872 Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August
1873, in the presence of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn
promises to live at peace with his neighbours and to govern his
people more humanely. These promises were not kept. Not
only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain (Cetywayo
returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when
remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and
Dingaan strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal
Boers as to the possession of the territory between the Buffalo
and Pongola rivers, and encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni)
in his struggle against the Boers. This feud with the Boers was
inherited by the British government on the annexation of the
Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo's attitude became menacing; he
allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and
seized natives within the Natal border. «
Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South
Africa in March 1877, found evidence which convinced him that
the Kaffir revolt of that year on the eastern border of Cape
Colony was part of a design or desire " for a general and simul-
taneous rising of Kaffirdom against white civilization "; and
the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the Zulus as
the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878
Frere sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding
him the territory he claimed from the Boers, required him to
make reparation for the outrages committed within the British
borders, to receive a British resident, to disband his regiments,
and to allow his young men to marry without the necessity
of having first " washed their spears." Cetywayo, who had
found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and
Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops,
on the nth of January 1879 to enforce the British demands.
The disaster of Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke's Drift
signalized the commencement of the campaign, but on the 4th
of July the Zulus were utterly routed at Ulundi. Cetywayo
became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of August. His
kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself
taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in
CEUTA— CEVENNES
777
August 1882. He remained in England less than a month,
during which time the government (the second Gladstone
administration) announced that they had decided upon his
restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration
proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even
there one of his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed
to retain the territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was
reinstalled on the 29th of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his
enemies, headed by Usibepu, attacked him within a week, and
after a struggle of nearly a year's duration he was defeated and
his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in the Native Reserve,
where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a quarter of a
century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in South
Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political
controversy in Great Britain.
His son Dinizulu afterwards attempted to become king, was
exiled (1889) to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and
granted the position of a chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu
was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being suspected of complicity
in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the previous
year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being
considerable friction between the colonial government and the
British government over the incident. He was eventually
brought to trial in November 1908 before a special court, his
defence (to the cost of which the British government contributed
£2000) being undertaken by Mr W. P. Schreiner. The trial was
not concluded until March 1909. The charge of high treason
was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring rebels
and was sentenced to four years' imprisonment.
The Life of Sir Batik Frere, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18
to 2i t contains much information concerning Cetywayo.
CEUTA (Arabic Sebta), a Spanish military and convict station
and seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35 54' N., 5 18'
W. Pop. about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory con-
nected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus. This pro-
montory marks the south-eastern end of the straits of Gibraltar,
which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have a width of 14 m.
The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the Montague
des Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest
is the Monte del Hacko, the ancient Abyla, one of the " Pillars
of Hercules," which faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the
sea. On the westernmost point — Almina, 476 ft. high — is a
lighthouse with a light visible for 23 m. Ceuta consists of two
quarters, the old town, covering the low ground of the isthmus,
and the modern town, built on the hills forming the north and
west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and new quarters
and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The public
buildings in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are
not striking: they include the cathedral (formerly a mosque),
the governor's palace, the town hall, barracks, and the convict
prison in the old convent of San Francisco. Ceuta has been
fortified seaward, the works being furnished with modern ar-
tillery intended to command the entrance to the Mediterranean.
Landward are three lines of defence, the inner line stretching
completely across the isthmus. These fortifications, which date
from the time of the Portuguese occupation, have been partly
modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of the
isthmus, dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of
between 3000 and 4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps
of military convicts. Of the rest of the population about 2000
are civilian convicts; and there are colonies of Jews, negroes
and Moors, the last including descendants of Moors transferred
to Ceuta from Oran when Spain abandoned that city in 1796.
Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony,
which was succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been
called Ad Septem Fr aires and also Exilissa or Lissa Civitas.
From the Romans the town passed to the Vandals and afterwards
to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian restoring its fortifications
in 535. In 618 the town, then known as Septan, fell into the
hands of the Visigoths. It was the last stronghold in North
Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that date (a.d.
711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in
revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of
Toledo, invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and
conquer Spain for Islam. By the Arabs the town was called
Cibta or Sebta, hence the Spanish form Ceuta, From the date
of its occupation by the Arabs the town had a stormy history,
being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and Spanish-Moorish
dynasties. It became nevertheless an important commercial
and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its trade in
ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place
in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In
141 5 the town was captured by the Portuguese under John I.,
among those taking part in the attack being Prince Henry
" the Navigator " and two of his brothers, who were knighted
on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated as a
Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the sub-
jugation of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned
to the Spanish crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town
has been several times unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors —
one siege, under Mulai Ismail, lasting twenty-six years (1694-
1720). In 1810, with the consent of Spain, it was occupied by
British troops under General Sir J. F. Fraser. The town was
restored to Spain by the British at the close of the Napoleonic
Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in
i860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased.
The military governor of the town also commands the troops in
the other Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil
purposes Ceuta is attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a
free port, but does little trade.
See de Prado, Recuerdos de Africa; historic de la plaza de Ceuta
{Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, The Land of the Moors
(London, 1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish
Morocco are cited. .-».,*** * w&.. ..
CEVA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo,
33 m. E. by rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 2703. In the middle ages it was a strong fortress
defending the confines of Piedmont towards Liguria, but the
fortifications on the rock above the town were demolished in
1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in 1796. Its
cheese (caseus cebanus) was famous in Roman times, but it does
not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road
between Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch
railway runs from Ceva through Garessio, with its marble
quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m. to the south through the
upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman times was under
Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Lot. v. (Berlin,
1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia
on the Ligurian coast. ,
CfiVENNES (Lat. Cebenna or Gebenna), a mountain range
of southern France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of
the central plateau and part of the watershed between the
Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. It consists of a narrow
ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty plateaus and
secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division of
the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends,
under the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and
Lyonnais, from the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Sa6ne)
in a southerly direction to the Col de Gier. The central C6vennes,
comprising the volcanic chain of Vivarais, incline south-east'
and extend as far as the Lozere group. The northern portion of
this chain forms the Boutieres range. Farther south it includes
the Gerbier des Jones (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mezenc (5755 ft.),
the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue
group. South of the Mont Lozere, where the Pic Finiels reaches
55 8 4 ft., lies that portion of the rangejto which the name Cevennes
is most strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the
departments of Lozere and Gard, stretches south to include the
Aigoual and Esperou groups. Under various local names (the
Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and Lacaune) and with
numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and then east
to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du
Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the
south the Cevennes separate the cold and barren tablelands
v. 2 .sa
77 8
CEYLON
known as the Causses from the sunny region of Languedoc,
where the olive, vine and mulberry flourish. Northwards the
contrast between the two slopes is less striking.
The Cevennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic
rocks which lies along the south-east border of the central
plateau of France. Concealed in part by later deposits, this
ancient mountain chain extends from Castelnaudary to the
neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks suddenly beneath the
Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the Rhone. It is
in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Ce* vennes proper that
the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All
the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous
are included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that
the gneiss and schist which form so much of the chain consist,
in part at least, of metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction
of the folds is about N. 6o° E., and the structure is complicated
by overthrusting on an extensive scale. The overthrust came
from the south-east, and the Palaeozoic beds were crushed and
crumpled against the ancient massif of the central plateau.
The principal folding took place at the close of the Carboniferous
period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old Hercynian
chain of Belgium, &c. The Permian and later beds lie uncon-
formably upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the
Montagne Noire and the CeVennes proper the folded belt is
buried beneath the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses.
Although the chain was completed in Palaeozoic times, a second
folding took place along its south-east margin at the close of
the Eocene period. The Secondary and Tertiary beds of the
Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau and were
frequently overfoided. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic
chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the
folding did not extend beyond its foot.
As the division between the basins of the Loire and the
Garonne to the west and those of the Sa6ne and Rhone to the
east, the CeVennes send many affluents to those rivers. In the
south the Orb, the H6rault and the Vidourle are independent
rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion; farther north, the Gard —
formed by the union of several streams named Gardon— the
Ceze and the ArdSche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais mountains
and the northern Cevennes approach the right banks of the
Rhone and Sa6ne closely, and on that side send their waters by
way of short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the
streams are tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of
Mont Mezenc. A short distance to the south on the same side
are the sources of the AUier and Lot. The waters of the north-
western slope of the southern C6vennes drain into the Tarn
either directly or by way of the Aveyron, which rises in the
outlying chain of the LeVezou, and, in the extreme south, the
Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the Mont
Loz£re.
In the Loz&re group and the southern C6vennes generally,
good pasturage is found, and huge flocks spend the summer
there. Silkworm-rearing and the cultivation of peaches, chest-
nuts and other fruits are also carried on. In the Vivarais
cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the Beaujolais excellent
wines are grown.
The chief historical event in the history of the CeVennes is the
revolt of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century
(see Camisards).
CEYLON, a large island and British colony in the Indian
Ocean, separated on the N. W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar
and Palk Strait. It lies between 5° 55' and o° 51' N. and between
79 41' and 8i° 54' E. Its extreme length from north to south
is 271 J m.; its greatest width is 137 J m.; and its area amounts
to 15,481 sq. m., or about five-sixths of that of Ireland. In its
general outline the island resembles a pear, the apex of which
points towards the north.
The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks,
rocks and shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with
c ^ tnti India by the island of Rameswaram and Adam's
Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching almost
across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and
the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying
depth and width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the
Manaar Passage, is only navigable by very small craft. The
other, called the Paumben Passage, lying between Rameswaram
and the mainland, has been deepened at considerable outlay,
and is used by large vessels in passing from the Malabar to the
Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing so
to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts,
which are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-
nut trees, which grow to the water's edge in great luxuriance,
and give the island a most picturesque appearance. Along these
shores there are numerous inlets and backwaters of the sea, some
of which are available as harbours for small native craft. The
east coast from Point de Galle to Trincomalee is of an entirely
opposite character, wanting the ample vegetation of the other,
and being at the same time of a bold precipitous character. The
largest ships may freely approach this side of the island, provided
they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks, whose localities,
however, are well known to navigators.
Seen from a distance at sea this " utmost Indian isle " of
the old geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The
remarkable elevation known as " Adam's Peak," the most
prominent, though not the loftiest, of the hilly ranges of the
interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst an assemblage
of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the navigator
when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid
the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the
waters of the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain
zone of the interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt
which extends inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.;
but on the north the whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya
to Batticaloa is an almost unbroken plain, containing magnificent
forests of great extent.
The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and
covers an area of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems
to have been exerted from south-west to north-east, and
although there is much confusion in many of the inter-
secting ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent
off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable
tendency to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to
north-west. Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system
radiate to short distances and speedily sink to the level of the
plain. Detached hills are rare; the most celebrated of these are
Mihintale (anc. Missiaka), which overlooks the sacred city of
Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter is the only example in
Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form so remarkable a
feature in the tableland of the Deccan — which, starting abruptly
from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are frequently
converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous path-
ways or by steps hewn in the solid rock.
For a long period Adam's Peak was supposed to be the highest
mountain in Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft.
above sea-level. This elevation is chiefly remarkable as the
resort of pilgrims from all parts of the East. The hollow in the
lofty rock that crowns the summit is said by the Brahmans to
be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha, by the
Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were
divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the
eunuch of Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered
by a handsome roof, and is guarded by the priests of a rich
monastery half-way up the mountain, who maintain a shrine on
the summit of the peak. The highest mountains in Ceylon are
Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude; Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and
Totapelakanda, 7746 ft.
The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure,
and along their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect
them in every direction, the slopes were formerly covered with
forests of gigantic and valuable trees, which, however, have
disappeared under the axe of the planter, who felled and burnt
the timber on all the finest slopes at an elevation of 2000 to 4500
ft., and converted the hillsides into highly cultivated coffee and
afterwards tea estates.
Moan'
CEYLON
779
The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at
an elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of
an alpine country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an
elevation of 7000 ft., is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but
they are difficult of access, and are but little known to Europeans.
The town of Kandy, in the Central Province, formerly the capital
of the native sovereigns of the interior, is situated 1727 ft. above
sea-level.
The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic
evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable
Rtvm. extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume.
The rains which usher in each monsoon or change of
season are indeed heavy, and during their fall swell the streams
to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when these cease the water-
courses fall back to their original state, and there are few of the
rivers which cannot generally be passed on horseback. The
largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m., draining
about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the
sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other
considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but
none of these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not
favourable for navigation, except near the sea, where they
expand into backwaters, which were used by the Dutch for the
construction of their system of canals all round the western and
southern coasts. Steamers ply between Colombo and Negombo
along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service on the
Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes
except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north
and east of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The
lakes which add to the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory,
Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala are artificial or partly so. Giant's
Tank is said to have an area of 6380 acres, and Minneri and
Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres.
The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east
coast of Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and
beauty by any haven in the world. The admiralty had a dock-
yard here which was closed in 1005.
Geology. — Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly
rising from the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in
marine shells, which occur in situations far above high-water
mark, and at some miles distance from the sea. A great portion
of the north of the island may be regarded as the joint production
of the coral polyps and the currents, which for the greater part
of the year set impetuously towards the south; coming laden
with alluvial matter collected along the coast of Coromandel,
and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they have
deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro;
and these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand
drifts, have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that
trend westward till they unite with the narrow causeway of
Adam's B ridge. Tertiary rocks are almost unknown. The great
geological feature of the island is the profusion of gneiss, over-
laid in many places in the interior by extensive beds of dolomitic
limestone. This formation appears to be of great thickness;
and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface of
the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on
granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent
have been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the
elevated lands of the interior in the Galle districts may be seen
copious deposits of disintegrated felspar, or kaolin, commonly
known as porcelain clay. At various elevations the gneiss may
be found intersected by veins of trap rock, upheaved whilst in a
state of fusion subsequent to the consolidation of the former.
In some localities on the seashore these veins assume the
character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated with
iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the
vicinity of Adam's Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite,
known in Ceylon as kabuk, sl product of disintegrated gneiss,
exists in vast quantities in many parts, and is quarried for
building purposes.
Climate. — The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from
those prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The
two distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds
which accompany them, the south-west and the north-east.
The former is very regular in its approach, and may be looked
for along the south-west coast between the 10th and 20th of
May; the latter reaches the north-east coast between the end
of October and the middle of November. There is a striking
contrast in the influence which the south-west monsoon exerts
on the one side of the island and on the other. The clouds are
driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western
and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there
in copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite
side of the island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and
north are sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not un-
frequently happens that different sides of the same mountain
present at the same moment the opposite extreme of droughts
and moisture. The influence of the north-east monsoon is more
general. The mountains which face the north-east are lower
and more remote from the sea than those on the south-west;
the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains simultaneously
on both sides of the island.
The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island
to the equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season.
The mean time of the rising of the sun's centre at Colombo on
February 1st is 6 h 23 m a.m., and of its setting 6 h 5 m p.m. On
August 1 5th its rising is at 5 h 45 m a.m., and its setting at 6 h 7 m p.m.
It is mid-day in Colombo when it is morning in England.
Colombo is situated in 70 50' 45* E., and the day is further
advanced there than at Greenwich by 5 h io™ 23 s .
Flora. — The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon
approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The
Rhizophoreae are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes
and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The
list comprises Aegiceras fragrans, Epithinia malayana, Thespesia
populnea, Feronia clephantum, Salvadora persica (the true mustard
tree of Scripture), Eugenia bracteata, Elaeodendron Roxburghii, Cassia
Fistula, Cassia Roxburghii, &c. The herbaceous plants of the low
country belong mostly to the natural orders Compositae f Leguminosae,
Rubiaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Euphorbiaceae.
Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a
height of 4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and
trees assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger *
and deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the not
low country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns,
Cyrtandreae, Compo sitae, Scitamtneae and Urticaceae. The dense
masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large
open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives patanas, and
of value to them as affording pasturage tor their cattle.
Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to
be met with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical
characteristics. The guelder rose, St John's wort, the Nepenthes
distillatoria or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups, sun-
dews, ladies' mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of Magno-
liaceae, Ranunculaceae, Elaeocarpeae, &c. The most beautiful
flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the rhododendron, which
in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It is met with in
great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated land above
Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There are
two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having its
leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side;
the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the loftiest
elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the under side,
and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft. round the
stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and vegetables have
been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat, oats and barley.
English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are grown success-
fully in the north of the island. The vines were introduced by the
Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual summer by exposing
the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial winter.
The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every
altitude from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They
vary much in their hardiness and durability, from the common
cashew-nut tree, which when felled decays in a month, to the ebony
and satinwood, which for many years resist the attacks of insects
and climate. Many of the woods are valuable for furniture, and
house and shipbuilding, and are capable of standing long exposure
to weather. The most beautiful woods adapted to furniture work
are the calamander, ebony, flowered satinwood, tamarind, nedun,
dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c; the sack-yielding tree
(Antiaris saccidora), for a long time confounded with the far-famed
upas tree of Java (Antiaris toxicaria) f grows in .the Kurunegala
district of the island. The Cocos nucifera, or coco-nut palm, is a
native of the island, and may justly be considered the most valuable
780
CEYLON
of its trees. It grows in vast abundance alone the entire sea-coast
of the west and south sides of the island, and furnishes almost all
that a Sinhalese villager requires. I ts fruit, when green, supplies food
and drink; when ripe, it yields oil. The juice of the unopened
flower gives him toddy and arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit
when woven makes him ropes, nets, matting. The nut-shells form
drinking-vessels, spoons, &c. The plaited leaves serve as plates and
dishes, and as thatch for his cottage. The dried leaves are used as
torches, the large leaf -stalks as garden fences. The trunk of the tree
sawn up is employed for every possible purpose, from knife-handles
to door-posts; hollowed out it forms a canoe or a coffin. There are
four kinds of this palm — the common, the king, the dwarf and the
Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca palms grow luxuriantly and
abundantly, the former in the northern, the latter in the western
and central districts. The one is valuable chiefly for its timber, of
which large quantities are exported to the Indian coasts; the other
supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst natives of the eastern
tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in the latter to India and
eastern ports is very considerable. Next in importance to the coco-
nut palm among the indigenous products of Ceylon is the cinnamon
plant, yielding the well-known spice of that name.
Fauna. — Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant,
which, though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent,
is nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its
strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater
or less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior.
Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds
and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect
these lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of
draught elephants, " kraals M or traps on a large scale are erected
in the forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured
they are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size,
but hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in
great numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed
in a half-tame state tor ploughing rice-fields and treading out the
corn. They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be main-
tained on the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find
support. Of deer, Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (A xis maculata) ,
the muntjac (Stylocerus muntjac), a red deer (the Sambur of India),
popularly called the Ceylon elk (Musa Aristotelis), and the small
musk (Moschus minima). There are five species of monkeys, one
the small rilawa (Macacus pileatus), and four known in Ceylon by
the name of " wandaru " (Presbytes ur sinus, P. Ther sites, P. cephalo-
pterus, P. Priamus), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris
{Loris gracilis), known as the "Ceylon sloth." Of the Cheiroptera
sixteen species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette
or flying fox {Pteropus Edwardsii). Of the Carnivora the only one
dangerous to man is the small black bear (Prochilus labiatus). The
tiger is not known in Ceylon, but the true panther (Felis pardus) is
common, as is the jackal (Canis aureus) and the mongoose or ich-
neumon (Herpestes viUicollis). Rats are numerous, as are the
squirrel and the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (Mus bandi-
cota), while the scaly ant-eater (Mams pentedactyla), locally known
by the Malay name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong
(Halicore dugong) is frequently seen on various points of the coast.
A game preservation society and the judicious action of government
have done much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer,
elephants, &c„ by establishing a close season. It is estimated that
there must be 5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence
to shoot or capture and an export royalty are now levied by govern-
ment.
Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many
of them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed
by the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are
small and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter
is a remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it
the name of the " devil-bird." The esculent swift, which furnishes
in its edible nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in
Ceylon. Crows of various species are numerous, and in the wilder
Earts pea-fowl are abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-
shers, sun-birds, several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the
golden oriole, parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are
at least a dozen species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (Gallus Lafayetti)
is distinct from the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in
wading and water birds — ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons
being frequently seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the
beach in long files, and on the deeper waters inland are found teal
and a countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds
familiar to European sportsmen there are partridge, quail and snipe
in abundance, and the woodcock has been seen.
The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species
have been enumerated — the ticpolonga (Daboia elegans), the cobra
di capello (Naja tritudians), the carawilla (Trigonocephalus hypnale),
and the Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus, which is so rare that it has
no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the " boa," or
" anaconda " of Eastern story (Python reticulatus) ; it is from
20 to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller
animals. Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large
fresh-water reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two
species (C. biporcatus and C. palustris). Of lizards the most note-
worthy are the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the
familiar geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by
which they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to
glass and ceilings.
Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of
great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion,
renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae ; and the white
ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at
once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate
is not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their
domed dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors,
and in a few hours destroy every vegetable substance within their
reach. Of all the insect pests that beset an unseasoned European
the most annoying are the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable
nuisance; they are exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin.
In the lower ranges of the hill country land leeches are found in
tormenting profusion. But insects and reptiles do not trouble Euro-
pean residents so much as in early years — at any rate in the towns,
while in the higher planting districts a there is almost complete
exemption from their unwelcome attentions. Bungalows are more
carefully built to resist white ants, drainage and cleanliness prevent
mosquitoes and ticks from multiplying, while snakes and leeches
avoid cultivated, occupied ground. j
Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a*
species of scomber (Cybium guttatum). Mackerel, dories, carp,
whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant.
Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish (Pristis
antiquorum) infests the eastern coast of the island, where it attains
a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes remarkable for
the brilliancy of their colouring; e.g. the Red Sea perch (Holocentrum
rubrum), of the deepest scarlet, and the great fire fish (Scorpaena
miles), of a brilliant red. Some are'purple, others yellow, and numbers
with scales of a lustrous green are called " parrots " by the natives;
of these one (Sfarus Hardtuickii) is called tne " flower parrot," from
its exquisite colouring — irregular bands of blue, crimson and purple,
green, yellow and grey, crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.
The pearl fishery, as indicated below, is of great importance.
Population. — The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive
of military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333,
showing an increase of 18*8% in the decade. The population of
Colombo was 158,228.
The population and area of the nine provinces was as follows: —
District.
Population.
Area in sq. m.
Western Province ....
Central Province ...
Northern Province ....
Southern Province ....
Eastern Province ....
North-Western Province
North Central Province .
Province of Uva
Province of Sabaragamuwa .
925,342
623,011
341,985
566,925
174,288
353,845
79,110
192,072
321,755
1,432
2,299}
3.363i
2,146}
4,036}
2,996f
4,002*
3,154}
1,901}
3,578,333
25,332
The table of nationality gives the principal groups as follows: —
Europeans 9,509
Burghers and Eurasians 23,539
Low-country Sinhalese 1,458,320
Kandyan Sinhalese 872,487
Tamils 953,535
Moors (Mahommedan) 228,706
Malays 11,963
Veddahs (Aborigines) 3,97 1
Altogether there are representatives of some seventy races in Ceylon.
The veddahs, who run wild in the woods, are the aborigines of the
island.
Language. — The language of nearly 70% of the population is
Sinhalese, which is nearly allied to Pali (9.0.); of tne remaining
30%, with the exception of Europeans, the language is Tamil. A
corrupt form of Portuguese is spoken by some natives of European
descent. The Veddahs, a small forest tribe, speak a distinct language,
and the Rodiyas, an outcast tribe, possess a large vocabulary of their
own. The Sinhalese possess several original poems of some merit,
and an extensive and most interesting senes of native chronicles, but
their most valuable literature is written in Pali, though the greater
portion of it has been translated into Sinhalese, and is best Known
to the people through these Sinhalese translations.
Religion. — The principal religions may be distributed as follows: —
Christians, 349,239; Buddhists, 2,141,404; Hindus, 826,826;
Mahommedans, 246,118. Of the Christians, 287,419 are Roman
Catholics, and 61,820 are Protestants of various denominations;
and of these Christians 319,001 are natives, and 30,238 Europeans.
The Mahommedans are the descendants of Arabs (locally termed
Moormen) and the Malays. The Tamils, both the inhabitants of the
island and the immigrants from India, are Hindus, with the exception
of 93,000 Christians. The Sinhalese, numbering 70% of the whole
CEYLON
781
population, are, with the exception of 180,000 Christians, Buddhists.
Ceylon may properly be called a Buddhist country, and it is here that
Buddhism is found almost in its pristine purity. Ceylon was con-
verted to Buddhism in the 3rd century B.C. by the mat Augustine
of Buddhism, Mahinda, son of the Indian king Asoka; and the ex-
tensive ruins throughout Ceylon, especially in the ancient cities of
Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, bear witness to the sacrifices
which kings and people joined in making to create lasting monu-
ments of their faith. The Buddhist temples in the Kandyan country
possess valuable lands, the greater portion of which is held by
hereditary tenants on the tenure of service. These lands were given
out with much care to provide for all that was necessary to maintain
the temple and its connected monastery. Some tenants had to do
the blacksmiths' work, others the carpenters', while another set of
tenants had to cultivate the land reserved for supplying the monas-
tery; others again had to attend at the festivals, and prepare
decorations, and carry lamps and banners. In course of time
difficulties arose; the English courts were averse to a system under
which the rent of lands was paid by hereditary service, and a com-
mission was issued by Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord
Rosmead) when governor, to deal with the whole question, to define
the services and to enable the tenants to commute these for a money
payment. The result of the inquiry was to show that the services,
except in a few instances, were not onerous, and that almost without
an exception the tenants were willing to continue the system. The
anomaly of an ecclesiastical establishment of Anglican and Presby-
terian chaplains with a bishop of Colombo paid out of the general
revenues has now been abolished in Ceylon, and only the bishop and
two or three incumbents remain on the list for life, or till they retire
on pension.
Education. — There has been a great advance in public instruction
since 1875, through the multiplication of vernacular, Anglo- ver-
nacular and English schools by government, by the different
Christian missions and by the Buadhists and Hindus who have
come forward to claim the government grant. The government has
also started a technical college, and an agricultural school has been
reorganized. An agricultural department, recommended by a
commission, should profit by the services of the entomologist,
mycologist and chemical analyst added by the governor to the staff
of the royal botanic gardens at Peradeniya. There are industrial
and reformatory schools, which are partially supported by govern-
ment. In spite of the great advance that has been made, however,
at the census of 190 1 no fewer than 2,790,235 of the total population
were entered as unable to read or write their own tongue. Of this
number 1,553,078 were females, showing a very unsatisfactory state
of things.
Agriculture. — The natural soils of Ceylon are composed of quartzose
gravel, felspathic clay and sand often of a pure white, blended with
So „ or overlaid by brown and red loams, resulting from the
decay of vegetable matter, or the disintegration of the
gneiss and hornblende formations. The whole of the great northern
extremity of the island consists of a sandy and calcareous admixture,
made to yield productive crops of grain, tobacco, cotton and vege-
tables by the careful industry of the Tamil population, who spare
no pains in irrigating and manuring their lands. Between the
northern districts and the elevated mountain ranges which overlook
the Bintenne and Uva countries are extensive plains of alluvial soil
washed down from the table-lands above, where once a teeming popu-
lation produced large quantities of grain. The remains of ancient
works of irrigation bear testimony to the bygone agriculture of these
extensive regions now covered by swamps or dense jungle.
The general character of the soil in the maritime provinces to the
east, south and west is sandy. Large tracts of quartzose sand spread
along the whole line of sea-coast, some of which, of a pure white, and
very deficient in vegetable matter, is admirably adapted to the
growth of the cinnamon plant. In the light sandy districts where
the soil is perfectly free, and contains a portion of vegetable and
mineral loam, the coco-nut palm flourishes in great luxuriance.
This is the case along the entire coast line from Kalpitiya to Point
de Galle, and farther eastward and northward to Matara, stretching
to a distance inland varying from 100 yds. to j m. From this light
sandy belt as far as the mountain-zone of the Kandyan country the
land is mainly composed of low hilly undulations of sandstone and
ferruginous clay, incapable of almost any cultivation, but intersected
in every direction with extensive valleys and wide plains of a more
generous soil, not highly fertile, but still capable, with a little
industry, of yielding ample crop of rice.
The soil of the central province, although frequently containing
great quantities of quartzose sand and ferruginous clay, is in many
of the more elevated districts of a fine loamy character. Sand
sufficiently vegetable and light for rice culture may be seen at all
elevations in the hill districts; but the fine chocolate and brown
loams overlying gneiss or limestone formations, so admirably adapted
for coffee cultivation, are only to be found on the steep sides or along
the base of mountain ranges at an elevation varying from 2000 to
4000 ft . Such land , well-timbered, contains in its elements the decom-
posed particles of the rocks above, blended with the decayed vegetable
matter of forests that have for centuries scattered beneath them
the germs of fertility. The quantity of really rich coffee land in these
districts is but small as compared with the extent of country — vast
tracts of open valleys consisting of an indifferent yellow tenacious
soil interspersed with many low ranges of quartz rock, but tea is a
much hardier plant than coffee, and grows on poorer soil.
Irrigation. — The native rulers covered the whole face of the
country with a network of irrigation reservoirs, by which Ceylon
was enabled in ancient times to be the great granary of southern
Asia. Wars, and the want of a strong hand to guide the agriculture
of the country, led to the decay of these ancient works, and large
tracts of land, which were formerly highly productive, became
swampy wastes or dense forests. The remains of some of the larger
irrigation works are amongst the most interesting of the memonals
of Ceylon's former greatness. Some of the artificial lakes were of
great size. Minneri, formed by damming across the valleys between
the low hills which surround it with an embankment 60 ft. wide at
the top, is at this day 20 m. in circumference. It has recently been
restored by government, and is capable of irrigating 15,000 acres;
while the Giant's Tank, which has also been restored, irrigates
20,000 acres. Another lake, with an embankment several mites in
length, the Kalawewa, was formed by damming back the waters of
the Kalaoya, but they have forced their way through the embank-
ment, and in the ancient bed of the lake, or tank, are now many small
villages. In connexion with these large tanks were numerous canals
and channels for supplying smaller tanks, or for irrigating large
tracts of fields. Throughout the district of Nuwarakalawiya every
village has its tank. The embankments have been formed with great
skill, and advantage has been taken to the utmost of the slightest
fall in the land ; but they in common with the larger works had been
allowed to fall into decay, and were being brought to destruction
by the evil practice of cutting them every year to irrigate the fields.
The work of restoring these embankments was undertaken by the
government, and 1 00 village tanks were repaired every year, besides
eighteen larger works. In 1900 a sum of five million rupees was set
apart for these larger undertakings.
Cultivation and Products. — The area of uncultivated land is little
over %\ million acres, whereas fully four times that amount is capable
of cultivation. A great deal is waste, besides lagoons, tanks, Sack-
waters, &c. Thick forest land does not cover more than 5000 sq. m.
Scrub, or chena, and patana grass cover a very great area. Tea,
cacao, cardamoms, cinchona, coffee and indiarubber are the products
cultivated by European and an increasing number of native planters
in the hill country and part of the low country of Ceylon. A great
change has been effected in the appearance of the country by the
introduction of the tea plant in place of the coffee plant, after the
total failure of the latter owing to disease. For some time coffee
had been the most important crop. In the old days it grew wild like
cinnamon, and was exported so far back as the time of the Portu-
guese, but was lightly esteemed as an article of European commerce,
as the berry was gathered unripe, was imperfectly cured and had
little flavour. In 1824 the governor, Sir E. Barnes, introduced coffee
cultivation on the West Indian plan; in 1834 the falling off of other
sources of supply drew general attention to Ceylon, and by 1841
the Ceylon output had become considerable, and grew steadily (with
an interval in 1847 due to a commercial crisis) till 1877 when 272,000
acres were under coffee cultivation, the total export amounting to
103,000,000 lb. Then owing to disease came a crisis, and a rapid
decline, and now only a few thousand acres are left. On the failure
of the coffee crops planters began extensively to grow the tea plant,
which had already been known in the island for several years. By
1882 over 20,000 acres had been planted with tea, but the export
that year was under 700,000 ft). Five years later the area planted
was 170,000 acres, while the export had risen to nearly 14,000,000 ft).
By 1892 there were 262,000 acres covered with tea, and 71,000,000 ft>
were that year exported. In 1807, 350,000 acres were planted, and
the export was 1 16,000,000 lb. By the beginning of the 20th century,
the total area cultivated with tea was not under 390,000 acres, while
the estimate of shipments was put at 146,000,000 lb annually.
Nearly every plantation has its factory, with the machinery necessary
to prepare the leaf as brought in from the bushes until it becomes
the tea of commerce. The total amount of capital now invested in
the tea industry in Ceylon cannot be less than £10,000,000. The
tea-planting industry more than anything else has raised Ceylon
from the depressed state to which it fell in 1882.
Before tea was proved a success, however, cinchona cultivation
was found a useful bridge from coffee to the Ceylon planter, who,
however, grew it so freely that in one year 15,000,000 lb bark was
shipped, bringing the price of quinine down from 1 6s. to is. 6d. an
ounce.
In a few places, where the rainfall is abundant, rice cultivation
is allowed to depend on the natural supply of water, but in most
parts the cultivation is not attempted unless there is secured before-
hand a certain and sufficient supply, by means of canals or reservoirs.
In the hill country every valley and open plain capable of tillage is
made to yield its crops of grain, and the steep sides of the hills are
cut into terraces, on which are seen waving patches of green rice
watered by mountain streams, which are conducted by means of
channels ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along
the face of acclivities, by earthen water-courses and bamboo aque-
ducts, so as to fertilize the fields below. These works bear witness to
the patience, industry and skill of the Kandyan villagers. In the
low country to the north and east and north-west of the hills,
7*2
CEYLON
irrigation works of a more expensive kind are necessary. In January
1892, the immemorial rent or tax on fields of paddy (rice in the husk)
was removed, but not the customs duty on imported rice. But even
with the advantage of protection to the extent of 10 % in the local
markets, there has been no extension of paddy cultivation; on the
contrary, the import of grain from India has grown larger year by
year. Through the multiplication of irrigation works and the
northern railway, rice culture may be sufficiently extended to save
some of the large imports (8,000,000 to 9,000,000 bushels annually)
now required from India.
Tobacco is extensively cultivated in various parts of the island,
and the growth of particular places, such as Dumbara and Uva,
is much prized for local consumption. The tobacco of export is
grown in the peninsula of Jaffna. The exports of this article in 1850
were 22,176 cwts., valued at £20,698. The cultivation of the plant
has not greatly increased of recent years, and is almost entirely in
the hands of natives in the northern and parts of the central Province.
Ceylon has been celebrated since the middle of the 14th century
for its cinnamon, and during the period of the Dutch occupation this
spice was the principal article of commerce; under their rule and
up to 1832 its cultivation was a government monopoly. With the
abolition of the monopoly the quantity exported increased, but the
value declined.
Unlike the coffee plant, the hardy tea plant grows from sea-level
to 7000 ft. altitude; but crown forest-lands above 5000 ft. are no
longer sold, so that a very large area on the highest mountain ranges
and plateaus is still under forest. Moreover, on the tea plantations
arboriculture is attended to in a way unknown in 1875; the Aus-
tralian eucalypts, acacias and grevilleas, Indian and Japanese
conifers, and other trees of different lands, are now freely planted for
ornament, for protection from wind, for firewood or tor timber.
A great advance has been made at Hakgalla and Nuwara Eliya, in
Upper Uva, and other high districts, in naturalizing English fruits
and vegetables. The calamander tree is nearly extinct, and ebony
and other fine cabinet woods are getting scarce; but the conser-
vation of forests after the Indian system has been taken in hand
under a director and trained officers, and much good has been done.
The cinnamon tree (wild in the jungles, cultivated as a shrub in
plantations) is almost the only one yielding a trade product which is
indigenous to the island. The coco-nut and nearly all other palms
have been introduced.
Among other agricultural products mention must be made of
cacao, the growth and export of which have steadily extended since
coffee failed. Important also is the spice or aromatic product of
cardamoms.
The culture of indiarubber was begun on low-country plantations,
and Ceylon rubber is of the best quality in the market. The area
of cultivation of the coco-nut palm has been greatly extended
since 1875 by natives as well as by Europeans. The products of this
palm that are exported, apart from those so extensively used in the
island itself, exceed in a good year £1,000,000 sterling in value.
Viticulture and cotton cultivation, as well as tobacco growing, are
being developed along the course of the new northern railway.
Taking the trade in the products mentioned as a whole, no country
can compete with the United Kingdom as a customer of Ceylon.
But there is a considerable trade in nearly all products with Germany
and America; in cardamoms with India; in cinnamon with Spain,
Italy, Belgium, Australia, Austria and France; and in one or other
of the products of the coco- nut palm (coco-nuts, coco-nut oil,
copra, desiccated coco-nut, poonac, coir) with Belgium, Russia,
France, Austria, Australia and Holland.
Pearl Fishery. — Pearl oysters are found in the Tambalagam bay,
near Trincomalee, but the great banks on which these oysters are
usually found lie near Arippu, off the northern part of the west coast
of Ceylon, at a distance of from 16 to 20 m. from the shore. They
extend for many miles north and south, varying considerably in their
size and productiveness. It is generally believed that the oyster
arrives at maturity in its seventh year, that the pearl is then of full
size and perfect lustre, and that if the oyster be not then secured it
will shortly die, and the pearl be lost. It is certain that from some
unexplained cause the oysters disappear from their known beds for
years together. The Dutch had no fishery from 1732 to 1746, and
it failed them again for twenty-seven years from 1768 to 1796.
The .fishery was again interrupted between 1820 and 1828, also from
1833 to 1854, from 1864 to 1873, and again from 1892 to 1900. The
fishery of 1903 was the first since 1891, and produced a revenue of
Rs.829.348, being the third largest on record. In 1797 and 1798
the government sold the privilege of fishing the oyster-beds for
£123,982 and £142,780 respectively. From that time the fishery
was conducted by the government itself until 1906, when it was
leased to the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries Company for twenty years at
a rent of £20,000 a year. Professor Herdman, F.R.S., was appointed
to inquire and report on the conservation and cultivation of the
Ceylon pearl-oyster, and visited Ceylon in January 1902. In
consequence of nis report, a marine laboratory for the culture of the
pearl oysters was established in Galle harbour under the care of
Mr Hornell.
Mineral Industries. — Commercially there are two established
mineral industries: — (1) that of digging for precious stones; and
(2) the much more important industry of digging for plumbago or
graphite, the one mineral of commercial importance found. Further
developments may result in the shipment of the exceptionally pure
iron ore found in different parts of Ceylon, though still no coal has
been found to be utilized with it. Several places, too — Ruanwella,
Rangalla, Rangbodde, &c. — indicate where gold was found in the
time of the Kandyan kings; and geologists might possibly indicate
a paying quartz reef, as in Mysore. Owing: to the greatly increased
demand in Europe and America, plumbago in 1890 more than doubled
in price, rising from £40 to £8o, and even £100 a ton for the
finest. Latterly there has been a considerable fall, but the permanent
demand is likely to continue keen in consequence mainly of the Ceylon
kind being the best for making crucibles. The trade with Great
Britain and the United States has slightly decreased, but there has
been a rapid expansion in the exports to Belgium and Holland,
Russia, Japan and Victoria; and the industry seems to be estab-
lished on a sound basis. One consequence of its development has been
to bring European and American capitalists and Cornish and Italian
miners into a field hitherto almost entirely worked by Sinhalese.
Though some of the mines were carried to a depth of 1000 ft., the
work was generally very primitive in character, and Western
methods of working are sure to lead to greater safety and economy.
Besides a royalty or customs duty of 5 rupees (about 6s. 8d.) per
ton on all plumbago exported, the government issue licenses at
moderate rates for the digging of plumbago on crown lands, a certain
share of the resulting mineralalso going to government. The plum-
bago industry, in all its departments of mining, carting, preparing,
packing and shipping, gives employment to fully 100,000 men and
women, still almost entirely Sinhalese. The wealthiest mine-owners,
too, are Sinhalese land-owners or merchants.
As regards gems, there are perhaps 500 gem pits or quarries worked
in the island during the dry season from November to Tune in the
Ratnapura, Rakwane and Matara districts. Some of these are on
a small scale; but altogether several thousands of Sinhalese find a
precarious existence in digging for gems. Rich finds of a valuable
ruby, sapphire, cat's-eye, amethyst, alexandrite or star stone, are
comparatively rare; it is only of the commoner gems, such as
moonstone, garnet, spinels, that a steady supply is obtained. The
cat's-eye in its finer qualities is peculiar to Ceylon, and is occasion-
ally in great demand, according to the fashion. The obstacle to the
investment of European capital in " gemming " has always been the
difficulty of preventing the native labourers in the pits — even if
Rractically naked — from concealing and stealing gems. A Chamber of
fines, with a suitable library, was established in Colombo duringi899.
Manufactures. — Little is done save in the preparation in factories
and stores, in Colombo or on the plantations, of the several products
exported. The manufacture of jewellery and preparation of precious
stones, and, among native women and children, of pillow lace, give
employment to several thousands. Iron and engineering works are
numerous in Colombo and in the planting districts. The Sinhalese
are skilful cabinetmakers and carpenters. The Moormen and Tamils
furnish good masons and builders.
Commerce. — There has been rapid development since 1882, and
the returns for 1903 showed a total value of 2i\ millions sterling.
The principal imports were articles of food and drink (chiefly rice
from India) manufactured metals (with specie), coal, cotton yarns
and piece goods from Manchester, machinery and millwork and
apparel. The Ceylon customs tariff for imports is one of 6J % ad
valorem, save in the case of intoxicating drinks, arms, ammunition,
opium, &c. The chief export is tea.
Roads.— -The policy of the Sinhalese rulers of the interior was to
exclude strangers from the hill country. Prior to the British occu-
pation of the Kandyan territory in 18 15, the only means of
access from one district to another was by footpaths through the
forests. The Portuguese do not appear to have attempted to
open up the country below the hills, and the Dutch confined them-
selves to the improvement of the inland water-communications.
The British government saw from the first the necessity of making
roads into the interior for military purposes, and, mors recently, for
developing the resources of the country. The credit of opening up
the country is due mainly to the governor, Sir Edward Barnes, by
whose direction the great military road from Colombo to Kandy
was made. Gradually all the military stations were connected by
broad tracks, which by degrees were bridged and converted into
food carriage roads. The governors Sir Henry Ward and Sir
lercules Robinson recognizee the importance of giving the coffee
planters every assistance in opening up the country, and the result
of their policy is that the whole of the hill country is now intersected
by a vast number of splendid roads, made at a cost of upwards of
£2000 per mile. In 1848 an ordinance was passed to levy from every
adult male in the colony (except Buddhist priests and British soldiers)
six days 1 labour on the roads, or an equivalent in money. The labour
and money obtained by this wise measure have enabled the local
authorities to connect the government highways by minor roads,
which bring every village of importance into communication with
the principal towns.
Railways. — After repeated vain attempts by successive governors
to connect Colombo with the interior by railways. Sir Charles
MacCarthy successfully set on foot a railway of 75 m. in length from
Colombo to Kandy. The railway mileage had developed to 563 m.
in 1908, including one of the finest mountain lines in the world--
CEYLON
7*3
over 160 m. long, rising to 6200 ft. above sea-level, and falling at the
terminus to 4000 ft. The towns of Kandy, Matale, Gampola, Nawa-
lapitiya, Hatton and Haputale (and practically Nuwara Eliya) in the
hills, are thus connected by rail, and in the low country the towns of
Kurunegala, Galle, Matara, Kalutara, &c. Most of the debt on the
railways (all government lines) is paid off, and the traffic receipts
now make up nearly one-third of the general revenue. An Indo
Ceylon railway to connect the Indian and Ceylon systems has been
the subject of separate reports and estimates by engineers serving
the Ceylon and Indian governments, who have pronounced the
work across the coral reef between Manaar and Rameswaram quite
feasible. A commission sat in 1903 to consider the gauge of an
Indo-Ceylon railway. Such a line promised to serve strategic as
well as commercial purposes, and to make Colombo more than ever
the port for southern India. The headquarters of the mail steamers
have been removed from Galle to Colombo, where the colonial
government have constructed a magnificent breakwater, and under-
taken other harbour works which have greatly augmented both
the external trade and the coasting trade of the island.
Government. — Ceylon is a crown colony, that is, a possession of the
British crown acquired by conquest or cession, the affairs of which
arc administered by a governor, who receives his appointment from
the crown, generally for a term of six years. He is assisted by an
executive and a legislative council. The executive council acts as
the cabinet of the governor, and consists of the attorney-general,
the three principal officers of the colony (namely, the colonial secre-
tary, the treasurer and the auditor-general), and the general in
command of the forces. The legislative council includes, besides
the governor as president and nine official members, eight unofficial
members — one for the Kandyan Sinhalese (or Highlanders) and one
for the " Moormen " having been added in 1890. The term of office
for the unofficial members is limited to five years, though the
governor may reappoint if he choose. The king's advocate, the
deputy-advocate, and the surveyor-general are now respectively
styled attorney-general, solicitor-general, and director of public
works. The civil service has been reconstituted into five classes,
not including the colonial secretary as a staff appointment, nor ten
cadets; these five classes number seventy officers. The district
judges can punish up to two years 1 imprisonment, and impose
fines up to Rs.1000. The police magistrates can pass sentences
up to six months' imprisonment, and impose fines of Rs.150. The
criminal law has since 1890 been codified on the model of the Indian
penal code ; criminal and civil procedure have also been the subject
of codification. There are twenty-three prisons in the island, mostly
small; but convict establishments in and near the capital take all
lone-sentence prisoners.
Banks and Currency. — Ceylon has agencies of the National Bank
of India, Bank of Madras, Mercantile Bank of India, Chartered Bank
of India, Australia and China, and of the Hong-kong and Shanghai
Bank, besides mercantile agencies of other banks, also a govern-
ment savings bank at Colombo, and post-office savings banks all
over the island. In 1884, on the failure of the Oriental Bank, the
notes in currency were guaranteed by government, and a government
note currency was started in supersession of bank notes. The coin
currency of Ceylon is in rupees and decimals of a rupee, the value
of the standard following that fixed for the Indian rupee, about
is. 4d. per rupee.
Finance. — With the disease of the coffee plant the general revenue
fell from Rs. 1,70,00,000 in 1877 to Rs. 1,20,00,000 in 1882, when
trade was in a very depressed state, and the general prosperity of
the island was seriously affected. Since then, however, the revenue
has steadily risen with the growing export of tea, cocoa-nut produce,
plumbago, &c, and in 1902 it reached a total of 28 millions of
rupees. (J. F. D.; C. L.)
History. — The island of Ceylon was known to the Greeks and
Romans under the name of Taprobane, and in later times Serendib,
Sirinduil and Zeylan have been employed to designate it by
writers of the Western and Eastern worlds. Serendib is a
corruptior of the Sanskrit Sinhaladvipa. Like most oriental
countries, Ceylon possesses a great mass of ancient records, in
which fact is so confused with fable that they are difficult to
distinguish. The labours of George Tumour (1 799-1843),
however, helped to dissipate much of this obscurity, and his
admirable edition (1836) of the Mahavamsa first made it possible
to trace the main lines of Sinhalese history.
The Sinhalese inscriptional records, to which George Tumour
first called attention, and which, through the activity of Sir
William Gregory in 1874, began to be accurately transcribed
and translated, extend from the 2nd century B.C. onwards.
Among the oldest inscriptions discovered are those on the rock
cells of the Vessagiri Vihara of Anuradhapura, cut in the old
Brahma-lipi character. The inscriptions show how powerful
was the Buddhist hierarchy which dominated the government
and national life. The royal decrees of successive rulers are
mainly concerned with the safeguarding of the rights of the
hierarchy, but a few contain references to executive acts of the
kings, as in a slab inscription of Kassapa V. (c. a.d. 929-939).
In an edict ascribed to Mahinda IV. (c. a.d. 975-991) reference
is made to the Sinhalese palladium, the famous tooth-relic of
Buddha, now enshrined at Kandy, and the decree confirms
tradition as to the identity of the fine stone temple, east of the
Thuparama at Anuradhapura, with the shrine in which the
tooth was first deposited when brought from Kalinga in the
reign of Kirti Sri Meghavarna (a.d. 304-324).
The earliest inhabitants of Ceylon were probably the ancestors
of the modern Veddahs, a small tribe of primitive hunters who
inhabit the eastern jungles; and the discovery of palaeolithic
stone implements buried in some of their caves points to the fact
that they represent a race which has been in the island for untold
ages. As to subsequent immigrations, the great Hindu epic,
the Ratnayana, tells the story of the conquest of part of the
island by the hero Rama and his followers, who took the capital
of its king Rawana. Whatever element of truth there may be
in this fable, it certainly represents no permanent occupation.
The authentic history of Ceylon, so far as it can be traced,
begins with the landing in 543 B.C. of Vijaya, the founder of the
Sinhalese dynasty, with a small band of Aryan-speaking followers
from the mainland of India. Vijaya married the daughter of a
native chief, with whose aid he proceeded to master the whole
island, which he parcelled out among his followers, some of whom
formed petty kingdoms. The Sinhalese introduced from the
mainland a comparatively high type of civilization, notably
agriculture. The earliest of the great irrigation tanks, near
Anuradhapura, was opened about 504 B.C. by the successor of
Vijaya; and about this time was established that system of
village communities which still obtains over a large part of Ceylon.
The island was converted to Buddhism at the beginning of
the 3rd century B.C. by the preaching of Mahinda, a son of the
great Buddhist emperor Asoka; a conversion that was followed
by an immense multiplication of daghobas, curious bell-shaped
reliquaries of solid stone, and of Buddhist monasteries. For
the rest, the history of ancient Ceylon is largely a monotonous
record of Malabar or Tamil invasions, conquests and usurpations.
Of these latter the first was in 237 B.C. when two officers in the
cavalry and fleet revolted, overthrew the Sinhalese ruler with
the aid of his own Tamil mercenaries, and reigned jointly, as
Sena I. and Guptika, until 215. The Sinhalese Asela then ruled
till 205, when he was overthrown by a Tamil from Tanjore,
Elala, who held the reins of power for 44 years. In 161 B.C.
Elala was defeated and slain by Dutegemunu, still remembered
as one of the great Sinhalese heroes of Ceylon. The ruins of the
great monastery, known as the Brazen Palace, at Anuradhapura,
remain a memorial of King Dutegemunu's splendour and religious
zeal. He died in 137 B.C., and thenceforth the history of Ceylon
is mainly that of further Tamil invasions, of the construction
of irrigation tanks, and of the immense development of the
Buddhist monastic system. A tragic episode in the royal family
in the 5th century a.d. is, however, worthy of notice as connected
with one of Ceylon's most interesting remains, the Sigiri rock
and tank (see SIgeri). In a.d. 477 King Datu Sen was murdered
by his son, who mounted the throne as Kasyapa I., and when
he was driven from the capital by the inhabitants, infuriated
by his crime, built himself a stronghold on the inaccessible
Sigiri rock, whence he ruled the country until in 495 he was
overthrown and slain by his brother Mugallana (495-513), who
at the time of his father's murder had escaped to India.
Towards the close of the 10th century Ceylon was invaded by
Rajaraja the Great, the Chola king, and after a series of pro-
tracted campaigns was annexed to his empire in 1005. The
island, did not, however, remain long under Tamil domination.
In 107 1 Vijaya Bahu succeeded in re-establishing the Sinhalese
dynasty, and for a while Ceylon was freed from foreign inter-
vention. The most notable of the successors of Vijaya Bahu,
and indeed of all the long line of Sinhalese rulers, was Parakrama
Bahu I. (1x55-1180), whose colossal statue still stands near
Polonnaruwa. He not only took advantage of the unaccustomed
7 8 4
CEYLON
tranquillity of the country to restore the irrigation tanks and
the monasteries, but he availed himself of a disputed succession
to the Pandya throne of Madura to turn the tables on his Tamil
enemies by invading India. According to the Mahavamsa his
generals met with immediate and unbroken success; according
to the more probable account preserved in a long Chola in-
scription at Arpakkam near Kanchi, they were, though at first
successful, ultimately driven out by a coalition of the southern
princes (V. A. Smith, Early History of India, ed. 1008, p. 411).
In any case, within thirty years of Parakrama Bahu's death
his work was undone; the Malabar invaders were once more
able to effect a settlement in the island, and the Sinhalese capital
was moved farther and farther south, till in 1410 it had become
established at Kotta, now a suburb of Colombo. In 1408 a new
misfortune had befallen the Sinhalese dynasty; in revenge for
an insult offered to a Chinese envoy, a Chinese army invaded
the island and carried away King Vijaya Bahu IV. into captivity.
For thirty years from this date the Sinhalese kings of Ceylon
were tributary to China.
When, in 1505, the Portuguese Francisco de Almeida landed
in Ceylon, he found the island divided into seven kingdoms.
Twelve years later the viceroy of Goa ordered the erection of a
fort at Colombo, for which permission was obtained from the
king of Kotta; and from this time until the advent of the Dutch
in the 17 th century the Portuguese endeavoured, amid perpetual
wars with the native kings, who were assisted by Arab and other
traders jealous of European rivalry, to establish their control
over the island. They ultimately succeeded so far as the coast
was concerned, though their dominion scarcely penetrated inland.
Materially their gain was but small, for the trade of Ceylon was
quite insignificant; but they had the spiritual satisfaction of
prosecuting a vigorous propaganda of Catholicism, St Francis
Xavier being the most notable of the missionaries who at this
time laboured in the island.
The fanatical zeal and the masterful attitude of the Portuguese
were a constant source of dissension with the native rulers, and
when the Dutch, under Admiral Spilberg, landed on the east
coast in 1602 and sought the alliance of the king of Kandy in
the interior of the island, every inducement was held out to them
to aid in expelling the Portuguese. Nothing seems to have come
of this until 1 638-1639, when a Dutch expedition attacked and
razed the Portuguese forts on the east coast. In the following
year they landed at Negombo, without however establishing
themselves in any strong post. In 1644 Negombo was captured
and fortified by the Dutch, while in 1656 they took Colombo,
and in 1658 they drove the Portuguese from Jaffna, their last
stronghold in Ceylon.
Pursuing a wiser policy than their predecessors, the Dutch
lost no opportunity of improving that portion of the country
which owned their supremacy, and of opening a trade with the
interior. More tolerant and less disposed to stand upon their
dignity than the Portuguese, they subordinated political to com-
mercial ends, flattered the native rulers by a show of deference,
and so far succeeded in their object as to render their trade
between the island and Holland a source of great profit. Many
new branches of industry were developed. Public works were
undertaken on a large scale, and education, if not universally
placed within the reach of the inhabitants of the maritime
provinces, was at least well cared for on a broad plan of govern-
ment supervision. That which they had so much improved by
policy, they were, however, unable to defend by force when the
British turned their arms against them. A century and a half
had wrought great changes in the physical and mental status
of the Dutch colonists. The territory which in 1658 they had
slowly gained by undaunted and obstinate bravery, they as
rapidly lost in 1796 by imbecility and cowardice.
The first intercourse of the English with Ceylon was as far
back as 1763, when an embassy was despatched from Madras
to the king of Kandy, without, however, leading to any result.
On the rupture between Great Britain and Holland in 1705, a
force was sent against the Dutch possessions in Ceylon, where
the opposition offered was so slight that by the following year
the whole of their forts were in the hands of the English
commander.
The abiding results of the occupation of Ceylon by the
Portuguese and Dutch is described by Sir Emerson Tennent
{Ceylon) as follows:
" The dominion of the Netherlands in Ceylon was nearly equal in
duration with that of Portugal, about 140 years; but the policies
of the two countries have left a very different impress on the char-
acter and institutions of the people amongst whom they lived. The
most important bequest left by the utilitarian genius of Holland is
the code of Roman Dutch law, which still prevails in the supreme
courts of justice, whilst the fanatical propagandiam of the Portu-
guese has reared for itself a monument in the abiding and expanding
influence of the Roman Catholic faith. This flourishes in every
hamlet and province where it was implanted by the Franciscans,
whilst the doctrines of the reformed church of Holland, never
preached beyond the walls of the fortresses, are already almost
forgotten throughout the island, with the exception of an expiring
community at Colombo. Already the language of the Dutch, which
they sought to extend by penal enactments, has ceased to bespoken
even by their direct descendants, whilst a corrupted Portuguese is
to the present day the vernacular of the lower classes in every town
of importance. As the practical and sordid government of the
Netherlands only recognized the interest of the native population
in so far as they were essential to uphold their trading monopolies,
their memory was recalled by no agreeable associations : whilst the
Portuguese, who, in spite of their cruelties, were identified with the
people by the bond of a common faith, excited a feeling of admiration
by the boldness of their conflicts with the Kandyans, and the
chivalrous though ineffectual defence of their beleaguered fortresses.
The Dutch and their proceedings have almost ceased to be remem-
bered by the lowland Sinhalese; but the chiefs of the south and
west perpetuate with pride the honorific title Don, accorded to them
by their first European conquerors, and still prefix to their ancient
patronymics the sonorous Christian names of the Portuguese."
The British forces by which the island had been conquered
were those of the East India Company, and Ceylon was therefore
at first placed under its jurisdiction and administered from
Madras. The introduction of the Madras revenue system, how-
ever, together with a host of Malabar collectors, led to much
discontent, which culminated in rebellion; and in 1798 the
colony was placed directly under the crown. By the treaty of
Amiens, in 1803, this situation was regularized, from the inter-
national point of view, by the formal cession to Great Britain
of the former Dutch possessions in the island. For a while the
British dominion was confined to the coast. The central tract
of hilly country, hedged in by impenetrable forests and pre-
cipitous mountain ranges, remained in possession of Sri Vikrama
Raja Sinha, the last of the Sinhalese dynasty, who showed
no signs of encouraging communication with his European
neighbours.
Minor differences led in 1803 to an invasion of the Kandyan
territory; but sickness, desertion and fatigue proved more
formidable adversaries to the British forces than the troops of
the Sinhalese monarch, and peace was eventually concluded upon
terms by no means favourable to the English. The cruelty and
oppression of the king now became so intolerable to his subjects
that disaffection spread rapidly amongst them. Punishments
of the most horrible kinds were inflicted, but failed to repress
the popular indignation; and in 181 5 the British, at the urgent
request of many of the Adigars and other native chiefs, proceeded
against the tyrant, who was captured near Kandy, and subse-
quently ended his days in exile. With him ended a long line of
sovereigns, whose pedigree may be traced through upwards of
two thousand years.
By a convention entered into with the Kandyan chiefs on the
2nd of March 181 5, the entire sovereignty of the island passed
into the hands of the British, who in return guaranteed to the
inhabitants civil and religious liberty. The religion of Buddha
was declared inviolable, and its rights, ministers and places of
worship were to be maintained and protected; the laws of the
country were to be preserved and administered according to
established forms; and the royal dues and revenues were to be
levied as before for the support of government.
With the exception of a serious outbreak in some parts of the
interior in 181 7, which lasted for upwards of a year, and of two
minor attempts at rebellion easily put down, in 1843 and 1848,
CHABAZITE— CHABOT
785
the political atmosphere of Ceylon has remained undisturbed
since the deportation of the last king of Randy.
Authorities. — Major Thomas Skinner, Fifty Years in Ceylon,
edited by his son, A. Skinner (London, 1891) ; Constance F. Gordon
dimming, Two Happy Years in Ceylon (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892) ;
H. W. Cave, The Ruined Cities of Ceylon (London, 1897), and The
Book of Ceylon (London, 1908); Sir Emerson Tennent, Ceylon
(2 vols. 4th ed., i860); J. Ferguson, Ceylon in 1903 (Colombo);
J. C. Willis, Ceylon (Colombo, IQ07). See also E. Muller, Ancient
Inscriptions in Ceylon, published: for the government (1883- 1884),
and the important archaeological survey in Epigraphia Zeylonica,
part i., 1904, ii., 1907, iii., 1907, by Don Martino de Silva Wickre-
masinghe, who in 1899 was appointed epigraphist to the Ceylon
government. Among other works on special subjects may be
mentioned H. Trimen, F.R.S., director of Ceylon Botanic Gardens,
Ceylon Flora, in 5 vols., completed by Sir Joseph Hooker; Captain
V. Legee, F.Z.S., History of the Birds of Ceylon (London, 1870);
Dr Copleston, bishop of Colombo, Buddhism, Primitive and Present,
in Magadha and in Ceylon (London, 1892); review by Sir West
Ridgeway, Administration of Ceylon, 1806-1903 ; Professor W. A.
Herdman, Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries, 1903-1904.
CHABAZITE, a mineral species belonging to the group of
zeolites. It occurs as white to flesh-red crystals which vary from
transparent to translucent and have a vitreous lustre. The
crystals are rhombohedral, and the predominating form is often
a rhombohedron (r) with interfacial angles of 85 14'; they
therefore closely resemble cubes in appearance, and the mineral
was in fact early (in 1772) described as a cubic zeolite. A
characteristic feature is the twinning, the crystals being fre-
quently interpenetration twins with the principal axis as twin-axis
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Twinned Crystals of Chabazite.
(figs. 1, 2). The appearance shown in fig. 1, with the corners
of small crystals in twinned position projecting from the faces
r of the main crystal, is especially characteristic of chabazite.
Such groups resemble the interpenetrating twinned cubes of
fluorspar, but the two minerals are readily distinguished by
their cleavage, fluorspar having a perfect octahedral cleavage
truncating the corners of the cube, whilst in chabazite there are
less distinct cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral (cube-like)
faces. Another type of twinned crystal is represented in fig. 2,
in which the predominating form is an obtuse hexagonal pyramid
(t) ; the faces of these flatter crystals are often rounded, giving
rise to lenticular shapes, hence the name phacolite (from (parts,
a lentil) for this variety of chabazite.
The hardness of chabazite is 4J, and the specific gravity
2-08-2-16. As first noticed by Sir David Brewster in 1830, the
crystals often exhibit anomalous optical characters: instead
of being uniaxial, a basal section may be divided into sharply-
defined biaxial sectors. Heating of the crystals is attended by
a loss of water and a change in their optical characters; it is
probable therefore that the anomalous optical characters are
dependent on the amount of water present.
Besides phacolite, mentioned above, other varieties of chabazite
are distinguished. Herschelite and seebachite are essentially
the same as phacolite. Haydenite is the name given to small
yellowish crystals, twinned on a rhombohedron plane r , from
Jones's Falls near Baltimore in Maryland. Acadialite is a
reddish chabazite from Nova Scotia (the old French name of
which is Acadie).
Chemically, chabazite is a complex hydrated calcium and
sodium silicate, with a small proportion of the sodium replaced by
potassium, and sometimes a small amount of the calcium replaced
by barium and strontium. The composition is however variable,
and is best expressed as an isomorphous mixture of the mole-
cules (Ca, Na2)Al2(Si04)s+4H*Oand (Ca,Na,)Al,(Si30 8 )i+8H,0,
which are analogous to the felspars. Most analyses correspond
with a formula midway between these extremes, namely,
(Ca,Na2)Al 2 (Si0 8 )4+6H 2 0.
Chabazite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal
cavities of basaltic rocks; occasionally it has been found in
gneisses and schists. Well-formed crystals are known from
many localities; for example, Kilmalcolm in Renfrewshire, the
Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and Oberstein in Germany.
Beautiful, clear glassy crystals of the phacolite (" seebachite ")
variety occur with phillipsite and radiating bundles of brown
calcite in cavities in compact basalt near Richmond, Melbourne,
Victoria. Small crystals have been observed lining the cavities
of fossil shells from Iceland, and in the recent deposits of the
hot springs of Plombieres and Bourbonne-les-Bains in France.
Gmelinite and levynite are other species of zeolites which may
be mentioned here, since they are closely related to chabazite,
and like it are rhombohedral and frequently twinned. Gmelinite
forms large flesh-red crystals usually of hexagonal habit, and
was early known as soda-chabazite, it having the composi-
tion of chabazite but with sodium predominating over
calcium (Na2,Ca)Al 2 (SiOs) 4 6H20. The formula of levynite is
CaAl,Si,Oi +5H 2 O. (L. J. S.)
CHABUS, a town of north-central France, in the department
of Yonne, on the left bank of the Serein, 14 m. £. by N. of Auxerre
by road. Pop. (1906) 2227. Its church of St Martin belongs
to the end of the 12th century. The town gives its name to a
well-known white wine produced in the neighbouring vineyards,
of which the most esteemed are Clos, Bouguerots, Moutonne,
Grenouille, Montmaires, Lys and Vaux-D6sirs. There are
manufactures of biscuits.
CHABOT, FRANCOIS (1757-1704), French revolutionist,
had been a Franciscan friar before the Revolution, and after the
civil constitution of the clergy continued to act as " constitu-
tional " priest, becoming grand vicar of Henri Gregoire, bishop
of Blois. Then he was elected to the Legislative Assembly,
sitting at the extreme left, and forming with C. Bazire and Merlin
de Thionville the l ' Cordelier trio. ' ' Re-elected to the Convention
he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and opposed the proposal
to prosecute the authors of the massacre of September, " because
among them there are heroes of Jemmapes." Some of his
sayings are well known, such as that Christ was the first " sans-
culotte" Compromised in the falsification of a decree suppressing
the India Company and in a plot to bribe certain members of
the Convention, especially Fabre d'Eglantine and C. Bazire, he
was arrested, brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal, and
was condemned and executed at the same time as the Dantonists,
who protested against being associated with such a " fripon"
CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE, known as Chabot de
l'Allier (1758-1810), French jurist and statesman, was pre-
sident of the tribunal of Montlucon when he was elected as
a deputy suppliant to the National Convention. A member of
the council of the Ancients, then of the Tribunate, he was
president of the latter when the peace of Amiens was signed.
He had a resolution adopted, tending to give Napoleon Bonaparte
the consulship for life; and in 1804 supported the proposal
to establish a hereditary monarchy. Napoleon named him
inspector-general of the law schools, then judge of the court of
cassation. He published various legal works, e.g. Tableau de la
legislation ancienne sur les successions et de la legislation nouveUe
Stabile par le code civil (Paris, 1804), and Questions transitoires
sur le code Napolion (Paris, 1809).
CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE, Seigneur de Brion, Count of
Charny and Buzancais (c. 1402-1543), admiral of France.
The Chabot family was one of the oldest and most powerful in
Poitou. Philippe was a cadet of the Jarnac branch. He was a
companion of Francis I. as a child, and on that king's accession
was loaded with honours and estates. After the battle of Pavia
he was made admiral of France and governor of Burgundy
(1526), and shared with Anne de Montmorency the direction of
affairs. He was at the height of his power in 1535, and
786
CHABRIAS— CHAD
commanded the army for the invasion of the states of the duke of
Savoy; but in the campaigns of 1536 and 1537 he was eclipsed
by Montmorency, and from that moment his influence began to
wane. He was accused by his enemies of peculation, and
condemned on the 10th of February 1541 to a fine of 1,500,000
livres, to banishment, and to the confiscation of his estates.
Through the good offices of Madam d'fitampes, however, he
obtained the king's pardon almost immediately (March 1541),
was reinstated in his posts, and regained his estates and even
his influence, while Montmorency in his turn was disgraced.
But his health was affected by these troubles, and he died soon
afterwards on the 1st of June 1543. His tomb in the Louvre,
by an unknown sculptor, is a fine example of French Renaissance
work. It was his nephew, Guy Chabot, seigneur de Jarnac,
who fought the famous duel with Francois de Vivonne, seigneur
de la Chataigneraie, in 1547, at the beginning of the reign of
Henry II.
The main authorities for Chabot's life are his MS. correspondence
in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, and contemporary memoirs.
See also E. de Barthelemy, " Chabot de Brion," in the Revue des
Questions historiques (vol. xx. 1876); Martineau, " L'Amiral Chabot,"
in the Positions des theses de l'£cole des Chartes (1883).
CHABRIAS (4th century B.C.), a celebrated Athenian general.
In 388 B.C. he defeated the Spartans at Aegina and commanded
the fleet sent to assist Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against the
Persians. In 378, when Athens entered into an alliance with
Thebes against Sparta, he defeated Agesilaus near Thebes. On
this occasion he invented a manoeuvre, which consisted in
receiving a charge on the left knee, with shields resting on the
ground and spears pointed against the enemy. In 376 he
gained a decisive victory over the Spartan fleet off Naxos, but,
when he might have destroyed the Spartan fleet, remembering
the fate of the generals at Arginusae, he delayed to pick up the
bodies of his dead. Later, when the Athenians changed sides
and joined the Spartans, he repulsed Epaminondas before the
walls of Corinth. In 366, together with Callistratus, he was
accused of treachery in advising the surrender of Oropus to the
Thebans. He was acquitted, and soon after he accepted a
command under Tachos, king of Egypt, who had revolted
against Persia. But on the outbreak of the Social War (357)
he joined Chares in the command of the Athenian fleet. He lost
his life in an attack on the island of Chios.
See Cornelius Nepos, Chabrias; Xenophon, Hellenica, v. 1-4;
Diod. Sic. xv. 29-34; and C. Rehdantz, Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae,
et Timothei (1845) ! art * Dblian League, section B, and authorities
there quoted.
CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL (1841-1894), French
composer, was born at Ambert, Pay de Dome, on the 18th of
January 1841. At first he only cultivated music as an amateur,
and it was not until 1879 that he threw up an administration
appointment in order to devote himself entirely to the art He
had two years previously written an opera bouffe entitled L'Htoile,
which was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens. In 1881 he was
appointed chorus-master of the concerts then recently established
by Lamoureux. In 1883 he composed the brilliant orchestral
rhapsody entitled Espana, the themes of which he had jotted
down when travelling in Spain. His opera Gwendoline was
brought out with considerable success at Brussels on the 10th
of April 1886, and was given later at the Paris Grand Op6ra.
The following year 1887, Le Roi malgre lui, an opera of a lighter
description, was produced in Paris at the Op6ra Comique, its
run being interrupted by the terrible Are by which this theatre
was destroyed. His last opera, Briseis, was left unfinished,
and performed in a fragmentary condition at the Paris Opera,
after the composer's death in Paris on the 13th of September
1894. Chabrier was also the author of a set of piano pieces
entitled Pieces pittoresques, Valses romantiques, for two pianos,
a fantasia for horn and piano, &c. His great admiration for
Wagner asserted itself in Gwendoline, a work which, in spite of
inequalities due to want of experience, is animated by a high
artistic ideal, is poetically conceived, and shows considerable
harmonic originality, besides a thorough mastery over the
treatment of the orchestra. The characteristics of Le Roi
malgri lui have been well summed up by M. Joncieres when he
alludes to " cette verve in6puisable, ces rythmes endiables, cette
exuberance de gaiet6 et de vigueur, a laquelle venait se joindre
la note melancolique et emue." Chabrier's premature death
prevented him from giving the full measure of his worth.
CHACMA, the Hottentot name of the Cape baboon, Papio
porcarius, a species inhabiting the mountains of South Africa
as far north as the Zambezi. Of the approximate size of an
English mastiff, this powerful baboon is blackish grey in colour
with a tinge of green due to the yellow rings on most of the hairs.
Unlike most of its tribe, it is a good climber; and where wooded
cliffs are not available, will take up its quarters in tall trees.
Chacmas frequently strip orchards and fruit-gardens, break
and devour ostrich eggs, and kill lambs and kids for the sake of
the milk in their stomachs.
CHACO, a territory of northern Argentina, part of a large
district known as the Gran Chaco, bounded N. by the territory
of Formosa, E. by Paraguay and Corrientes, S. by Santa F£,
and W. by Santiago del Estero and Salta. The Bermejo river
forms its northern boundary, and the Paraguay and Parana
rivers its eastern;" these rivers are its only means of communica-
tion. Pop. (1895) 10,422; (1904, est.) 13,937; area, 52,741 sq.
m. The northern part consists of a vast plain filled with number-
less lagoons; the southern part is slightly higher and is covered
with dense forests, occasionally broken by open grassy spaces.
Its forests contain many species of trees of great economic
value; among them is the quebracho , which is exported for the
tannin which it contains. The capital, Resistencia, with an
estimated population of 3500 in 1904, is situated on the Parana
river opposite the city of Corrientes. There is railway communi-
cation between Santa Fe and La Sabana, an insignificant timber-
cutting village on the southern frontier. In the territory there
are still several tribes of uncivilized Indians, who occasionally
raid the neighbouring settlements of Santa F6.
CHACONNE (Span, chacona), a slow dance, introduced into
Spain by the Moors, now obsolete. It resembles the Passa-
caglia. The word is used also of the music composed for this
dance — a slow stately movement in } time. Such a movement
was often introduced into a sonata, and formed the conventional
finale to an opera or ballet until the time of Gluck.
CHAD [Ceadda], SAINT (d. 672), brother of Cedd, whom he
succeeded as abbot at Lastingham, was consecrated bishop of
the Northumbrians by Wine, the West Saxon bishop, at the
request of Oswio in 664. On the return of Wilfrid from France,
where he had been sent to be consecrated to the same see, a
dispute of course arose, which was settled by Theodore in favour
of Wilfrid after three years had passed. Chad thereupon retired
to Lastingham, whence with the permission of Oswio he was
summoned by Wulfhereof Mercia to succeed his bishop Jaruman,
who died 667. Chad built a monastery at Barrow in Lincoln-
shire and fixed his see at Lichfield. He died after he had held
his bishopric in Mercia two and a half years, and was succeeded
by Wynfrith. Bede gives a beautiful character of Chad.
See Bede's Hist. Eccl. edited by C. Plummer, iii. 23, 24, 28; iv.
2, 3 (Oxford, 1896); Eddius, Vita Wilfridi, xiv., xv. edited by
J. Raine, Rolls Series (London, 1879).
CHAD, a lake of northern Central Africa lying between
12 50' and 14 10' N. and 13 and 15 E. The lake is situated
about 850 ft. above the sea in the borderland between the fertile
and wooded regions of the Sudan on the south and the arid
steppes which merge into the Sahara on the north. The area of
the lake is shrinking owing to the progressive desiccation of the
country, Saharan climate and conditions replacing those of the
Sudan. The drying-up process has been comparatively rapid
since the middle of the 19th century, a town which in 1850 was
on the southern margin of the lake being in 1905 over 20 m. from
it. On the west the shore is perfectly flat, so that a slight rise
in the water causes the inundation of a considerable area — a
fact not without its influence on the estimates made at varying
periods as to the size of the lake. Around the north-west and
north shores is a continuous chain of gently sloping sand-hills
covered with bush. This region abounds in big game and birds
CHADDERTON— CHADERTON
787
are plentiful. In the east, the country of Kanem, the desiccation
has been most marked. Along this coast is a continuous chain
of islands running from north-west to south-east. But what
were islands when viewed by Overweg in 1851, formed in 1903
part of the mainland and new islands had arisen in the lake.
They are generally low, being composed of sand and clay, and lie
from 5 to 20 m. from the shore, which throughout its eastern side
nowhere faces open water. The channels between the islands
do not exceed 2 m. in width. Two principal groups are dis-
tinguished, the Kuri archipelago in the south, and the Buduma
in the north. The inhabitants of the last-named islands were
noted pirates until reduced to order by the French. The coast-
line is, in general, undefined and marshy, and broken into numer-
ous bays and peninsulas. It is also, especially on the east,
lined by lagoons which communicate with the lake by intricate
channels. The lake is nowhere of great depth , and about midway
numerous mud-banks, marshes, islands and dense growths of
aqueous plants stretch across its surface. Another stretch
of marsh usually cuts off the northernmost part of the lake from
#•••"" "•••••• % IM of Ijf Greenwich
LAKE CHAD
cale, 1:3.1
Eg** J
Scale, !:3.3S<M>oo
Z „ MOei
? 5 'Q «r y y s» «p
» Op*mm*tv3tt>20f-t<
the central sections. The open water varies in depth from 3 ft.
in the north-west to over 20 in the south, where desiccation
is less apparent. Fed by the Shari (q.v.) and other rivers, the
lake has no outlet and its area varies according to the season.
The flood water brought down by the Shari in December and
January causes the lake to rise to a maximum of 24 ft., the
water spreading over low-lying ground, left dry again in May or
June. But after several seasons of heavy rainfall the waters
have remained for years beyond their low-water level. Never-
theless the secular shrinking goes on, the loss by evaporation and
percolation exceeding the amount of water received; whilst,
on the average, the rainfall is diminishing. In 1870 the lake
rose to an exceptional height, but since then, save in 1897, there
has been only the normal seasonal rise. The prevalent north-
east wind causes at times a heavy swell on the lake. Fish
abound in its waters, which are sweet, save at low-level, when
they become brackish. The lagoons are believed to act as
purifying pans in which the greater part of the salt in the water
is precipitated. In the south-west end of the lake the water is
yellow, caused by banks of clay; elsewhere it is clear.
The southern basin of Chad is described under the Shari,
which empties its waters into the lake about the middle of the
southern shore, forming a delta of considerable extent Beyond
the south-east corner of the lake is a depression known as the
Bahr-el-Ghazal (not to be confounded with the Nile affluent of
the same name). This depression is the termination of what is
in all probability the bed of one of the dried-up Saharan rivers.
Coming from the Tibesti highlands the Bahr-el-Ghazal has a
south-westerly trend to Lake Chad. Near the lake the valley
was formerly swampy, and at high-water the lake overflowed into
it. There was also at one time communication between the
Shari and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, so that the water of the first-
named stream reached Chad by way of the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
There is now neither inlet nor outlet to the lake in this direction,
the mouth of the Ghazal having become a fertile millet field.
There is still, however, a distinct current from the Shari delta
to the east end of the lake — known to the natives, like the de-
pression beyond, as the Bahr-el-Ghazal — indicative of the former
overflow outlet.
Besides the Shari, the only important stream entering Lake
Chad is the Waube or Yo (otherwise the Koma4ugu Yobe),
which rises near Kano, and flowing eastward enters the lake on its
western side 40 m. north of Kuka. In the rains the Waube
carries down a considerable body of water to the lake.
Lake Chad is supposed to have been known by report to
Ptolemy, and is identified by some writers with the Xura lake
of the middle ages. It was first seen by white men in 1823
when it was reached by way of Tripoli by the British expedition
under Dr Walter Oudney, R.N., the other members being Captain
Hugh Clapperton and Major (afterwards Lieut. -Colonel) Dixon
Denham. By them the lake was named Waterloo. In 1850
James Richardson, accompanied by Heinrich Barth and Adolf
Overweg, reached the lake, also via Tripoli, and Overweg was
the first European to navigate its waters (1851). The lake was
visited by Eduard Vogel (1855) and by Gustav Nachtigal (1870),
the last-named investigating its hydrography in some detail.
In 1890-1893 its shores were divided by treaty between Great
Britain, France and Germany. The first of these nations to
make good its footing in the region was France. A small steamer,
brought from the Congo by Emile Gen til, was in 1897 launched
on the Shari, and reaching the Chad, navigated the southern
part of the lake. Communication between Algeria and Lake Chad
by way of the Sahara was opened, after repeated failures, by the
French explorer F. Foureau in 1899- 1000. At the same time
a French officer, Lieut. Joalland, reached the lake from the
middle Niger, continuing his journey round the north end to
Kanem. A British force under Colonel T. L. N. Morland visited
the lake at the beginning of 1002, and in May of the same year
the Germans first reached it from Cameroon. In 1902-1903
French officers under Colonel Destenave made detailed surveys
of the south-eastern and eastern shores and the adjacent islands.
In 1003 Captain E. Lenfant, also a French officer, succeeded in
reaching the lake (which he circumnavigated) via the Benue,
proving the existence of water communication between the Shari
and the Niger. In 1005 Lieut. Boyd Alexander, a British
officer, further explored the lake, which then contained few
stretches of open water. The lake is bordered W. and S.W. by
Bornu, which is partly in the British protectorate of Nigeria
and partly in the German protectorate of Cameroon. Bagirmi
to the S.E. of the lake and Kanem to the N.E. are both French
possessions. The north and north-west shores also belong to
France. One of the ancient trade routes across the Sahara —
that from Tripoli to Kuka in Bornu — strikes the lake at its north-
west corner, but this has lost much of its former importance.
See the works of Denham, Clapperton, Barth and Nachtigal cited
in the biographical notices; Geog. Journal, vol. xxiv. (1904); Capt.
Tilho in La G&ovraphie (March 1906); Boyd Alexander, From the
Niger to the Nile, vol. i. (London, 1907); A. Chevalier, Mission
Chari-Lae Tchad 1902-1904 (Paris. 1908); E. Lenfant, La Grande
Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905) ; H. Freydenberg, Elude sur U Tchad
et le bassin du Chart (Paris, 1908).
CHADDERTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England,
within the parliamentary borough of Oldham (q.v.). Pop.
(1901) 24,892. Cotton and chemical works, and the coal-mines
of the neighbourhood, employ the large industrial population.
CHADERTOM, LAURENCE (?i$36-i64o), Puritan divine, was
born at Lees Hall, in the parish of Oldham, Lancashire, probably
in September 1536, being the second son of Edmund Chaderton,
788
CHAD WICK— CHAERONEIA
a gentleman of an ancient and wealthy family, and a zealous
Catholic. Under the tuition of Laurence Vaux, a priest, he
became an able scholar. In 1564 he entered Christ's College,
Cambridge, where, after a short time, he formally adopted the
reformed doctrines and was in consequence disinherited by his
father. In 1567 he was elected a fellow of his college, and
subsequently was chosen lecturer of St Clement's church,
Cambridge, where he preached to admiring audiences for many
years. He was a man of moderate views, though numbering
among his friends extremists like Cartwright and Perkins. So
great was his reputation that when Sir Walter Mildmay founded
Emmanuel College in 1584 he chose Chaderton for the first
master, and on his expressing some reluctance, declared that if
he would not accept the office the foundation should not go on.
In 1604 Chaderton was appointed one of the four divines for
managing the cause of the Puritans at the Hampton Court
conference; and he was also one of the translators of the Bible.
In 1578 he had taken the degree of B.D., and in 1613 he was
created D.D. At this period he made provision for twelve
fellows and above forty scholars in Emmanuel College. Fearing
that he might have a successor who held Arminian doctrines,
he resigned the mastership in favour of John Preston, but
survived him, and lived also to see the college presided over
successively by William Sancroft (or Sandcroft) and Richard
Holdsworth. He died on the 13 th of November 1640 at the age
of about 103, preserving his bodily and mental faculties to the end.
Chaderton published a sermon preached at St Paul's Cross about
1580, and a treatise of his On Justification was printed by Anthony
Thysius, professor of divinity at Leiden. Some other works by
him on theological subjects remain in manuscript.
CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN (1800-1800), English sanitary
reformer, was born at Longsight, near Manchester, on the 24th
of January 1800. Called to the bar without any independent
means, he sought to support himself by literary work, and his
essays in the Westminster Review (mainly on different methods
of applying scientific knowledge to the business of government)
introduced him to the notice of Jeremy Bentham, who engaged
him as a literary assistant and left him a handsome legacy. In
1832 he was employed by the royal commission appointed to
inquire into the operation of the poor laws, and in 1833 he was
made a full member of that body. In conjunction with Nassau
W. Senior he drafted the celebrated report of 1 834 which procured
the reform of the old poor law. His special contribution was the
institution of the union as the area of administration. He
favoured, however, a much more centralized system of admini-
stration than was adopted, and he never ceased to complain
that the reform of 1834 was fatally marred by the rejection of
his views, which contemplated the management of poor-law
relief by salaried officers controlled from a central board, the
boards of guardians acting merely as inspectors. In 1834
he was appointed secretary to the poor law commissioners.
Finding himself unable to administer in accordance with his
own views an act of which he was largely the author, his relations
with his official chiefs became much strained, and the disagree-
ment led, among other causes, to the dissolution of the poor law
commission in 1846. Chadwick's chief contribution to political
controversy was his constant advocacy of entrusting certain
departments of local affairs to trained and selected experts,
instead of to representatives elected on the principle of local
self-government. While still officially connected with the poor
law he had taken up the question of sanitation in conjunction
with Dr Southwood Smith, and their joint labours produced a
most salutary improvement in the public health. His report
on " The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population "
( 1 842) is a valuable historical document. He was a commissioner
of the Board of Health from its establishment in 1848 to its
abolition in 1854, when he retired upon a pension, and occupied
the remainder of his life in voluntary contributions to sanitary
and economical questions. He died at East Sheen, Surrey, on
the 6th of July 1890. He had been made K.C.B. in 1889.
See a volume on The Evils of Disunity in Central and Local Ad-
ministration . . . and the New Centralization for the People, by
Edwin Chadwick (1885) ; also The Health of Nations, a Review of the
Works of Edwin Chadwick, with a Biographical Introduction, by
Sir B. W. Richardson (1887).
CHAEREMON, Athenian dramatist of the first half of the
4th century B.C. He is generally considered a tragic poet.
Aristotle (Rhetoric, in. 12) says his works were intended for
reading, not for representation. According to Suidas, he was
also a comic poet, and the title of at least one of his plays (Achilles
Slayer of Ther sites) seems to indicate that it was a satyric drama.
His Centaurus is described by Aristotle (Poet. i. 12) as a rhapsody
in all kinds of metres. The fragments of Chaeremon are distin-
guished by correctness of form and facility of rhythm, but
marred by a florid and affected style reminiscent of Agathon.
He especially excelled in descriptions (irrelevantly introduced)
dealing with such subjects as flowers and female beauty. It is
not agreed whether he is the author of three epigrams in the
Greek Anthology (Palatine vii. 469, 720, 721) which bear
his name.
See H. Bartsch, De Chaeremone Poeta tragico (1843); fragments
in A. Nauck, Fragmenta Tragicorum Graecorum.
CHAEREMON, of Alexandria (1st century a.d.), Stoic philo-
sopher and grammarian. He was superintendent of the portion
of the Alexandrian library that was kept in the temple of
Serapis, and as custodian and expounder of the sacred books
(UpoypanndTevs, sacred scribe) belonged to the higher ranks of
the priesthood. In a.d. 49 he was summoned to Rome, with
Alexander of Aegae, to become tutor to the youthful Nero.
He was the author of a History of Egypt; of works on Comets,
Egyptian Astrology, and Hieroglyphics; and of a grammatical
treatise on Expletive Conjunctions (awdeafwlTrapaTrKripcjfxaTiKoi).
Chaeremon was the chief of the party which explained the
Egyptian religious system as a mere allegory of the worship of
nature. His books were not intended to represent the ideas of his
Egyptian contemporaries; their chief object was to give a
description of the sanctity and symbolical secrets of ancient
Egypt. He can hardly be identical with the Chaeremon who
accompanied (c. 26 B.C. ; Strabo xvii. p. 806) Aelius Gallus,
praefect of Egypt, on a journey into the interior of the country.
Fragments in C. Mtiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iii.
495-499-
CHAERONEIA, or Chaeronea, an ancient town of Boeotia,
said by some to be the Homeric Arne, situated about 7 m. W.
of Orchomenus. Until the 4th century B.C. it was a dependency
of Orchomenus, and at all times it played but a subordinate
part in Boeotian politics. Its importance lay in its strategic
position near the head of the defile which presents the last serious
obstacle to an invader in central Greece. Two great battles
were fought on this site in antiquity. In 338 B.C. Philip II.
and Alexander of Macedon were confronted by a confederate
host from central Greece and Peloponnese under the leadership
of Thebes and Athens, which here made the last stand on behalf
of Greek liberty. A hard-fought conflict, in which the Greek
infantry displayed admirable firmness, was decided in favour
of Philip through the superior organization of his army. In 86
B.C. the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla defeated the army of
Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, near Chaeroneia. The latter's
enormous numerical superiority was neutralized by Sulla's
judicious choice of ground and the steadiness of his legionaries;
the Asiatics after the failure of their attack were worn down and
almost annihilated. Chaeroneia is also notable as the birth-
place of Plutarch, who returned to his native town in old age,
and was held in honour by its citizens for many successive
generations. Pausanias (ix. 40) mentions the divine honours
accorded at Chaeroneia to the sceptre of Agamemnon, the work
of Hephaestus (cf. Iliad, ii. 101). The site of the town is partly
occupied by the village of Kapraena; the ancient citadel was
known as the Petrachus, and there is a theatre cut in the rock.
A colossal seated lion a little to the S.E. of the site marks the
grave of the Boeotians who fell fighting against Philip; this
lion was found broken to pieces; the tradition that it was blown
up by Odysseus Androutsos is incorrect (see Murray, Handbook
for Greece, ed. 5, 1884, p. 409). It has now been restored and
re-erected (1905).
CHAETOGNATHA— CHAETOPODA
789
Authorities. — Thucydides iv. 76; Diodorus xvi. 85-86; Plu-
tarch, Alexander, ch. 9; 5sitfa, chs. 16-19; Appian, Mithradatica,
lit
chs. 42-45; W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece (London, 1835),
ii. 112-117, 192-201 ; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887),
p. 292; J. Kromayer, Antike Schlachtfelder in Griechenland (Berlin,
1903), pp. 127-195; G. Sotiriades in Athen. Mitteil. 1903, pp. 301 ff.;
1905, p. 120; 1906, p. 396; 'E^j/i. 'ApxoioX., 1908, p. 65.
CHAETOGNATHA, the name given by R. Leuckhart to a small
group of transparent and for the most part pelagic organisms,
whose position in the animal kingdom is
a very isolated one. Only three genera,
Sagitta, Spadella and Krohnia, are recog-
nised, and the number of species is small.
Nevertheless these animals exist in ex-
traordinary quantities, so that at certain
seasons and under certain conditions the
surface of the sea seems almost stiff with
the incredible multitude of organisms
which pervade it. Rough seas, &c, cause
them to seek safety in dropping into
deeper water. Deep-sea forms also occur,
but in spite of this the group is essentially
pelagic.
As a rule the body is some 1 to 2 or 3 cm.
e j in length, though some species are larger, by
4 or s mm. in breadth, and it is shaped
.*t something like a torpedo with side flanges
*• and a slightly swollen, rounded head. It
2 can be divided into three regions — (i.) head,
/ (ii.) trunk, and (iii.) tail, separated from one
another by two transverse septa. The
almost spherical head is covered by a hood
which can be retracted; it bears upon its
j side a number of sickle-shaped, chitinous
r hooks and one or more short rows of low
*9 spines — both of these features are used in
characterizing the various species. A pair
of eyes lie dorsally and behind them is a
closed circlet, often pulled out into various
shapes, of modified epidermis, to which an
olfactory function has been attributed. The
interior of the head is filled up with masses
of muscle fibres which are mainly occupied
with moving the sickle-shaped hooks. The
trunk contains a spacious body-cavity filled
during the breeding season by the swollen
ovaries, and the same is true of the tail if
we substitute testes for ovaries.
The skin consists of a transparent cuticle
excreted by the underlying ectoderm, the
cells of which though usually one-layered
Spadella cephaloptera may ^ heaped up into several layers in
(Busch). the head; beneath this is a basement
St } Septa dividing membrane, and then a layer of longitudinal
body-cavity trans- musc i e fibres which are limited inside by a
L.v.r4
versely,
g*, Cerebral ganglia
layer of peritoneal cells. The muscles are
striated and arranged in four quadrants,
two dorso-lateral and two ventrolateral,
an arrangement which recalls that of the
Nematoda, whilst in their histology they
. . - - somewhat resemble the muscles of the
Nerve uniting cere- Oligochaeta. Along each side of the body
bral ganglia with stretches a horizontal fin and a similar
flange surrounds the tail. Into these fins,
which are largely cuticular and strengthened
by radiating bars, a single layer of ectoderm
cells projects.
The mouth, a longitudinal slit, opens on
. to the ventral surface of the head. It leads
/, Tactile hairsspnng- mto a straight alimentary canal whose walls
ll e^L j° m su " ace consist of a layer of ciliated cells ensheathed
Commissure unit-
ing this with ven-
tral ganglion (not
shown in fig.).
small ganglia on
head.
«r, Olfactory nerve.
d, Alimentary canal,
r, Olfactory organ.
te, Tentacle,
of body.
e t Ovary.
el, Oviduct.
ho, Testes.
sg, Vas deferens.
[fins.
in a thin layer of peritoneal cells. There is
no armature, and no glands, and the whole
tract can only be divided into an oesophagus
and an intestine. The latter runs with no
^ - twists or coils straight to the anus, which is
Y^- 1 caudal s i tU ated at the junction of the trunk with
$0, Seminal pouch, the tail. A median mesentery running dorso-
The eyes^ are indi- ventrally supports the alimentary canal and
is continued behind it into the tail, thus
dividing the body cavity into two lateral
halves.
There are no specialized circulatory,
respiratory or excretory organs.
The nervous system consists of a cerebral ganglion in the head,
cated as black dots
behind the cerebral
ganglia.
a conspicuous ventral ganglion in the trunk, and of lateral com-
missures uniting these ganglia on each side. The whole of this
?rstem has retained its pnmitive connexion with the ectoderm,
he cerebral ganglion also gives off a nerve on each side to a pair of
small ganglia, united by a median commissure, which have sunk
into and control the muscles of the head. As in other animals there
is a minute but extensive nervous plexus, which permeates the whole
body and takes its origin from the chief ganglia. In addition to the
eyes and the olfactory circle on the head scattered tactile papillae
are found on the ectoderm.
Chaetognatha are hermaphrodite. The ovaries are attached to
the side walls of the trunk region ; between them and the body wall
lie the two oviducts whose inner and anterior end is described as
closed, their outer ends opening one on each side of the anus, where
the trunk joins the tail. According to Miss N. M. Stevens the so-
called oviduct acts only as a " sperm-duct " or receptaculum seminis.
The spermatozoa enter it and pass through its walls and traverse a
minute duct formed of two accessory cells, and finally enter the
ripe ovum. Temporary oviducts are formed between the " sperm-
duct " and the germinal epithelium at each oviposition. A number
of ova ripen simultaneously. The two testes lie in the tail and are
formed by lateral proliferations of the living peritoneal cells. These
break off and, lying in the coelomic fluid, break up into spermatozoa.
They pass out through short vasa deferentia with internal ciliated
funnels, sometimes an enlargement on their course — the seminal
vesicles — and a minute external pore situated on the side of the tail.
With hardly an exception the transparent eggs are laid into the
sea and float on its surface. The development is direct and there is
no larval stage. The segmentation is complete; one side of the
hollow blastosphere invaginates and forms a gastrula. The blasto-
pore closes, a new mouth and a new anus subsequently arising.
The archenteron gives off two lateral pounchs ana thus becomes
trilobed. The middle lobe forms the alimentary canal; it closes
behind and opens to the exterior anteriorly and so makes the mouth.
The two lateral lobes contain the coelom ; each separates off in front
a segment which forms the head and presumably then divides again
to form anteriorly the trunk, and posteriorly the tail regions. An
interesting feature of the development of Chaetognaths is that,
as in some insects, the cells destined to form the reproductive organs
are differentiated at a very early period, being apparent even in the
gastrula stage.
The great bulk of the group is pelagic, as the transparent nature
of all their tissues indicates. They move by flexing their bodies.
Spadella cephalopiera is, however, littoral and oviposits on sea- weed,
and the " Valdivia " brought home a deep-sea species.
The three genera are differentiated as follows: —
Sagitta M. Slabber, with two pairs of lateral fins. This genus was
named as long ago as 1775.
Krohnia P. Langerhans, with one lateral fin on each side, extend-
ing on to the tail.
Spadella P. Langerhans, with a pair of lateral fins on the tail and
a thickened ectodermic ridge running back on each side from the
head to the anterior end of the fin.
The group is an isolated one and should probably be regarded as a
separate phylum. It has certain histological resemblances with
the Nematoda and certain primitive Annelids, but little stress must
be laid on these. The most that can be said is that the Chaetognaths
begin life with three segments, a feature they share with such widelv-
dinering groups as the Brachiopoda, the Echinoderma and the
Enteropneusta, and probably Vertebrata generally.
See O. Hertwig, Die Chaetognathen, eine Monographie (Jena,
1880); B. J. Grassi, Chetognathi: Flora u. Fauna d. Golfes von
Neapel (1883); S. Strodtman, Arch. Naturg. Iviii., 1892; N. M.
Stevens, Zool. Jahrb. Anal, xviii., 1903, and xxi., 1905. (A. E. S.)
CHAETOPODA (Gr. x<urt), hair, rote, foot), a zoological class,
including the majority of the Annelida (q.v.), and indeed, save
for the Echiuroidea (q.v.), co-extensive with that group as
usually accepted. They are divisible into the Haplodrili (q.v.)
or Archiannelida, the Polychaeta containing the marine worms,
the Oligochaeta or terrestrial and fresh-water annelids (see
Earthworm), the Hirudinea or leeches (see Leech), and a small
group of parasitic worms, the Myzostomida (q.v.).
The distinctive [characters of the class Chaetopoda as a whole
are partly embodied in the name. They possess (save for certain
Archiannelida, most Hirudinea, and other very rare exceptions)
setae or chaetae implanted in epidermal pits. The setae are
implanted metamerically in accordance with the metamerism
of the body, which consists of a prostomium followed by a number
of segments. The number of segments in an individual is fre-
quently more or less definite. The anterior end of body always
shows some " cephalization." The internal organs are largely
repeated metamerically, in correspondence with the external
metamerism. Thus the body cavity is divided into a sequence
of chambers by transverse septa; and even among the Hirudinea,
79©
CHAETOPODA
where this condition is usually not to be observed, there is
embryological evidence that the existing state of affairs is derived
from this. Commonly the nephridia are strictly paired a single
pair to each segment, while the branches of the blood vascular
system are similarly metameric. The alimentary canal is nearly
always a straight tube running from the mouth, which is sur-
rounded by the first segment of the body and overhung by the
prostomium, to the anus, which is then either surrounded by the last
segment of the body or opens dorsally a little way in front of this.
The Class as a Whole. — The Chaetopoda are with but few
exceptions (Myzostomida in part, Sternaspis) elongated worms,
flattened or, more usually, cylindrical, and bilaterally sym-
metrical. The body consists of a number of exactly similar
or closely similar segments, which are never fused and meta-
morphosed, as in the Arthropoda, to form specialized regions
of the body. It is, however, always possible to recognize a
head, which consists at least of the peristomial segment with a
forward projection of the same, the prostomium. A thorax also
is sometimes to be distinguished from an abdomen. Where
locomotive appendages (the parapodia of the Polychaeta) exist,
they are never jointed, as always in the Arthropoda; nor are
they modified anteriorly to form jaws, as in that group.
m The prostomium overhangs the mouth, and is often of considerable
size and, as a rule, quite distinct from the segment following, being
Fig. i . — A, side view of the head region of Nereis cultrifera ;
B, dorsal view of the same.
E> Eve. pl, Prostomial palp.
J£, Mouth. pp, Parapodium.
d.c, Dorsal cirrus. pr, Prostomium.
per, Peristomium, probably equal pr.t, Prostomial tentacle.
to two segments, t.s, Trunk segment.
per.c, Peristomial cirri. v.c t Ventral cirrus.
separated by an external groove, and containing, at least temporarily,
the brain, which always arises there. Its cavity also is at first
independent of the coelom though later invaded by the latter. In
any case the cavity of the prostomium is single, and not formed,
as is the cavity of the segments of the body, by paired coelomic
chambers. It has, however, been alleged that this cavity is formed
by a pair of mesoblastic somites (N. Kleinenberg), in which case there
is more reason for favouring the view that would assign an equality
between the prostomium and the (in that case) other segments of the
body. The peculiar prostomium of Tomopteris is described below.
The body wall of the Chaetopoda consists of a " der mo-muscular "
tube which is separated from the gut by the coelom and its peritoneal
walls, except in most leeches. A single layer of epidermic cells, some
of which are glandular, forms the outer layer. Rarely are these
ciliated, and then only in limited tracts. They secrete a cuticle
which never approaches in thickness the often calcified cuticle of
Arthropods. Below this is a circular, and below that again a longi-
tudinal, layer of muscle fibres. These muscles are not striated, as
they are in the Arthropoda.
Setae. — These chitinous, rod-like, rarely squat and then hook-like
structures are found in the majority of the Chaetopoda, being absent
only in certain Archiannelida, most leeches, and a very few Oligo-
chaeta. They exist in the Brachiopoda (which are probably not
unrelated to trie Chaetopoda), but otherwise are absolutely distinctive
of the Chaetopods. The setae are invariably formed each within
an epidermic cell, and they are sheathed in involutions of the epider-
mis. Their shape and size varies greatly and is often of use in
classification. The setae are organs of locomotion, though their
large size and occasionally jagged edges in some of the Polychaeta
suggest an aggressive function. They are disposed in two groups on
either side, corresponding in the Polychaeta to the parapodia;
the two bundles are commonly reduced among the earthworms to
two pairs of setae or even to a single seta. On the other hand, in
certain Polychaeta the bundles of setae are so extensive that they
nearly form a complete circle surrounding the body; and in the
Oligochaet genus Perichaeta ( — Pheretima), and some allies, there
is actually a complete circle of setae in each segment broken only by
minute gaps, one dorsal, the other ventral. :
Coelom. — The Chaetopoda are characterized by a spacious coelom,
which is divided into a series of chambers in accordance with the
general metamerism of the body. This is the typical arrangement,
which is exhibited in the majority of the Polychaeta and Oligo-
chaeta; in these the successive chambers of the coelom are separated
by the intersegmental septa, sheets of muscle fibres extending from
the body wall to the gut and thus forming partitions across the body.
The successive cavities are not, however, completely closed from
each other; there is some communication between adjoining seg-
ments, and the septa are sometimes deficient here and there. Thus
in the Chaetopoda the perivisceral cavity is coelomic; in this
respect the group contrasts with the Arthropoda and Molluscs,
where the perivisceral cavity is, mainly at least, part of the vascular
or haemal system, and agrees with the Vertebrata. The coelom is
lined throughout by cells, which upon the intestine become large
and loaded with excretory granules, and are known as chloragogen
cells. Several forms of cells float freely in the fluid of the coelom.
In another sense also the coelom is not a closed cavity, for it com-
municates in several ways with the external medium. Thus, among
the Oligochaeta there are often a series of dorsal pores, or a single
head pore, present also among the Polychaeta (in Ammockares).
In these ana other Chaetopods the coelom is also put into indirect
relations with the outside world by the nephridia and by the gonad
ducts. In these features, and in the fact that the gonads are local
proliferations of the coelomic epithelium, which have undergone no
further changes in the simpler forms, the coelom of this group shows
in a particularly clear fashion the general characters of the coelom
in the higher Metazoa. It has been indeed largely upon the con-
ditions characterizing the Chaetopoda that the conception of the
coelom in the Coelomocoela has been based.
Among the simpler Chaetopoda the coelom retains the character
of a series of paired chambers, showing the above relations to the
exterior and to the gonads. There are, however, further com-
plications in some forms. Especially are these to be seen in the
more modified Oligochaeta and in the much more modified Hirudinea.
In the Polychaeta, which are to be regarded as structurally simpler
forms than the two groups iust referred to, there is but little sub-
division of the coelom of the segments, indeed a tendency in the
reverse direction, owing to the suppression of septa. Among the
Oligochaeta the dorsal vessel in Dinodrilus and Megascoliaes is
enclosed in a separate coelomic chamber which may or may not
communicate with the main coelomic cavity. To this pericardial
coelom is frequently added a gonocoel enclosing the gonads and the
funnels of their ducts. This condition is more fully dealt with below
in the description of the Oligochaeta. The division and, indeed,
partial suppression of the coelom culminates in the leeches, which
in this, as in some other respects, are the most modified of Annelids.
Nervous System. — In all Chaetopods this system consists of
cerebral ganglia connected by a circumoesophageal commissure
with a ventral ganglionated cord. The plan of the central nervous
system is therefore that of the Arthropoda. Among the Archiannelida,
in Aeolosoma and some Polychactes, the whole central nervous system
remains imbedded in the epidermis. In others, it lies in the coelom,
often surrounded by a special and occasionally rather thick sheath.
The cerebral ganglia constitute an archicerebrum for the most part,
there being no evidence that, as in the Arthropoda, a movement
forward of post-oral ganglia has taken place. In the leeches, however,
there seems to be the commencement of the formation of a syn-
cerebrum. In the latter, the segmentally arranged ganglia are more
sharply marked off from the connectives than in other Chaetopods,
where nerve cells exist along the whole ventral chain, though more
numerous in segmentally disposed swellings.
Vascular System. — In addition to the coelom, another system of
fluid-holding spaces lies between the body wall and the gut in the
Chaetopoda. This is the vascular or haemal system (formerly and
unnecessarily termed pseudhaemal). With a few exceptions among
the Polychaeta the vascular system is always present among the
Chaetopoda, and always consists of a system of vessels with definite
walls, which rarely communicate with the coelom. It is in fact
typically a closed system. The larger trunks open into each other
either directly by cross branches, or a capillary system is formed.
There are no lacunar blood spaces with ill-defined or absent walls
except for a sinus surrounding the intestine, which is at least fre-
quently present. The principal trunks consist of a dorsal vessel
lying above the gut, and a ventral vessel below the gut but above the
nervous cord. These two vessels in the Oligochaeta are united in
the anterior region of the body by a smaller or greater number of
branches which surround the oesophagus and are, some of them at
least, contractile and in that case wider than the rest. The dorsal
vessel also communicates with the ventral vessel indirectly by the
intestinal sinus, which gives off branches to both the longitudinal
trunks, and by tegementary vessels and capillaries which supply the
skin and the nephridia. In the smaller and simpler forms the
capillary networks are much reduced, but the dorsal and ventral
vessels are usually present. The former, however, is frequently
CHAETOPODA
791
developed only in the anterior region of the body where it emerges
from the peri-intestinal blood sinus. On the other hand, additional
longitudinal trunks are sometimes developed, the chief one of which
is a supra-intestinal vessel lying below the dorsal vessel and closely
adherent to the walls of the oesophagus in which region it appears.
The capillaries sometimes (in many leeches and Oligochaeta) extend
into the epidermis itself. Usually they do not extend outwards of
the muscular layers of the body wall. The main trunks of the
vascular system often possess valves at the origin of branches which
regulate the direction of the blood flow. Among many Oligochaeta
the dorsal blood-vessel is partly or entirely a double tube, which is
a retention of a character shown by F. Vezhdovsk£ to exist in the
embryo of certain forms. The blood in the Chaetopoda consists
of a plasma in which float a few corpuscles. The plasma is coloured
red by haemoglobin: it is sometimes (in Sabella and a few other
Polychaeta) green, which tint is due to another respiratory pigment.
The plasma may be pink (Magelona) or yellow (Aphrodite) in which
cases the colour is owing to another pigment. In Aeohsoma it is
usually colourless. The vascular system is in the majority of
Chaetop )ds a closed system. It has been asserted (and denied) that
the cellular rod which is known as the " Heart-body " (Herzkorper),
and is to be found in the dorsal vessel of many Oligochaeta and
Polychaeta, is formed of cells which are continuous with the chlora-
gogen cells, thus implying the existence of apertures of communica-
tion with the coelom. The statement has been often made and
denied, but it now seems to have been placed on a firm basis (E. S.
Goodrich), that among the Hirudinea the coelom, which is largely
broken up into narrow tubes, may be confluent with the tubes of
the vascular system. This state of affairs has no antecedent im-
probability about it, since in the Vertebrata the coelom is unquestion-
ably confluent with the haemal system through the lymphatic
vessels. Finally, there are certain Polychaeta, e.g. the Capitellidae,
in which the vascular system has vanished altogether, leaving a
coelom containing haemoglobin-impregnated corpuscles. It has
been suggested (E. Ray Lankester) that this condition has been
arrived at through some such intermediate stage as that offered by
Polychaet Magelona. In this worm the ventral blood-vessel is so
swollen as to occupy nearly the whole of the available coelom.
Carry the process but a little farther and the coelom disappears and
its place is taken by a blood space or haemocoel. It has been held
that the condition shown in certain leeches tend to prove that the
coelom and haemocoel are primitively one series of spaces which
have been gradually differentiated. The facts of development,
however, prove their distinctness, though those same facts do not
speak clearly as to the true nature of the blood system. One view
of the origin of the latter (largely based upon observations upon the
development of Polygordius) sees in the blood system a persistent
blastocoel. F. Vezhdovsk^ has lately seen reasons for regarding
the blood system as originating entirely from the hypoblast by the
secretion of fluid, the blood, from particular intestinal cells and the
consequent formation of spaces through pressure, which become
lined with these cells.
Nephridia and Coelomoducts. — The name " Nephridium " was
originally given by Sir E. Ray Lankester to the members of a series
of tubes, proved in some cases to be excretory in nature, which
exist typically to the number of a single pair in most of the segments
of the Chaetopod body, and open each by a ciliated orifice into the
coelom on the one hand, and by a pore on to the exterior of the
body on the other. In its earlier conception, this view embraced
as homologous organs (so far as the present group is concerned) not
only the nephridia of Oligochaeta ana Hirudinea, which are obviously
closely similar, but the wide tubes with an intercellular lumen and
large funnels of certain Polychaeta, and (though with less assurance)
the gonad ducts in Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. The function of
nitrogenous excretion was not therefore a necessary part of the
view — though it may be pointed out that there are grounds for
believing that the gonad ducts are to some extent also organs of
excretion (see below). Later, the investigations of E. Meyer and
E. S. Goodrich, endorsed by Lankester, led to the opinion that under
the general morphological conception of " nephridium " were
included two distinct sets of organs, viz. nephridia and coelomo-
ducts. The former (represented by, e.g. the "segmental organs"
of Lumbricus) have been asserted to be " ultimately, though not
always, actually traceable to the ectoderm "; the latter (repre-
sented by, e.g. the oviduct of Lumbricus) are parts of the coelomic
wall itself, which have grown out to the exterior. The nephridia, in
fact, on this view, are ectodermic ingrowths, the coelomoducts coelomic
outgrowths. The cavity of the former has nothing to do with coelom.
The cavity of the latter is coelom.
The embryological facts upon which this view has been based,
however, have been differently interpreted. According to C. O.
Whitman the entire nephridial system (in the leech Clepsine) is
formed by the differentiation of a continuous epiblastic band on
each side. The exact opposite is maintained by R. S. Bergh (for
Lumbricus and Criodrilus), whose figures show a derivation of the
entire nephridium from mesoblast, and an absence of any connexion
between successive nephridia by any continuous band, epiblastic
or raesoblastic A midway position is taken up by Wilson, who
asserts the mesoblastic formation of the funnel, but also asserts
the presence of a continuous band of epiblast from which certainly
the terminal vesicle of the nephridium, and doubtfully the glandular
part of the tube is derived. Vezhdovsk^'s figures of Khynchelmis
agree with those of Bergh in showing the backward growth of the
nephridium from the funnel cell. There are thus substantial reasons
for believing that the nephridium grows backwards from a funnel
as does the coelomoduct. It is therefore by no means certain that
so profound a difference embryologically can be asserted to exist
between the excretory nephridia and the ducts leading from the
coelom to the exterior, which are usually associated with the ex-
trusion of the genital products among the Chaetopoda.
There are, however, anatomical and histological differences to be
seen at any rate at the extremes between the undoubted nephridia
of Goodrich, Meyer and Lankester, and the coelomoducts of the same
authors.
1. Nephridia. — Excretory organs which are undisputed nephridia
are practically universal among the Oligochaeta, Hirudinea and
Archiannelida, and occur in many Polychaeta. Their total absence
has been asserted definitely only in Paranais littoralis. Usually these
Fig. 2 (from
A, Diagram of the nephridium
of Nereis diversicolor.
B, Diagram of the nephridium of
Alctope, into which opens the
large genital funnel (coelo-
mostome).
C, Small portion of the nephri-
dium of Glycera siphono-
stoma, showing the canal cut
through, and the solenocytes
on the outer surface.
D, Optica] section of a branch of
Goodrich).
the nephridium of Nephthys
scolopendroides.
c.s, Cut surface.
est, Coelomostome.
/, Flagellum.
g.f, Genital funnel,
n, Neck of solenocyte.
n.c, Nephridial canal.
n.p t Nephridiopore.
nst t Nephridiostome.
wm, Nucleus of solenocyte.
j, Solenocytes.
/, Tube.
organs are present to the number of a single pair per somite, and are
commonly present in the majority of the segments of the body,
failing often among the Oligochaeta in a varying number of the
anterior segments. They are considerably reduced in number in
certain Polychaeta. Essentially, a nephridium is a tube, generally very
lone and much folded upon itself, composed of a string of cells placed
end to end in which the continuous lumen is excavated. Such cells
are termed " drain pipe " cells. Frequently the lumen is branched
and may form a complicated anastomosing network in these cells.
Externally, the nephridium opens by a straight part of the tube,
which is often very wide, and here the intracellular lumen becomes
intercellular. Rarely the nephridium does not communicate with
the coelom ; in such cases the nephridium ends in a single cell, like
the "flame cell " of a Platyhelminth worm, in which there is a lumen
blocked at the coelomic end by a tuft of fine cilia projecting into the
lumen. This is so with Aeotosoma (Vezhdovsk£). The condition
is interesting as a persistence of the conditions obtaining in the
provisional nephridia of e.g. Khynchelmis, which afterwards become
by an enlargement and opening up of the funnel the permanent
nephridia of the adult worm. In some Polychaets (e.g. Glycera,
see fig. 2) there are many of these flame cells to a single nephridium
which are specialized in form, and have been termed ' solenocytes "
(Goodrich). They are repeated in Polygordius, and are exactly
792
CHAETOPODA
to be compared with similarly-placed cells in the nephridia of
Amfhioxus.
More usually, and indeed in nearly every other case among the
Oligochaeta and Hirudinea, the coelomic aperture of the nephridium
consists of several cells, ciliated like the nephridium itself for a greater
or less extent, forming a funnel. The funnel varies greatly in size
and number of its component cells. There are so many differences
of detail that no line can be drawn between the one-celled funnel
of Aeolosoma and the extraordinarily large and folded funnel of the
posterior nephridia in the Oligochaete Thamnodrilus. In the last-
mentioned worm the funnels of the anterior nephridia are small and
but few celled; it is only the nephridia in and behind the 17th
segment of the body which are particularly large and with a sinuous
margin, which recall the funnels of the gonad ducts (i.e. coelomo-
ducts).
Among the Polychaeta the nephridium of Nereis (see fig. 2) is like
that of the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in that the coiled glandular
tube has an intracellular duct which is ciliated in the same way in
parts. The Polychaeta, however, present us with another form
of nephridium seen, for example, in Arenicola, where a large funnel
leads into a short and wide excretory tube whose lumen is inter-
cellular. In the young stages of this worm which have been in-
vestigated by W. B. Benham, the tube, though smaller, and with a
but little pronounced funnel, has still an intercellular duct. That
these organs in Polychaeta serve for the removal of the generative
products to the exterior is proved not only by the correspondence
in number to them of the gonads, but by actual observation of the
generative products in transit. This form of nephridia leads to the
shorter but essentially similar organs in the Polychaete Sternaspis,
and to those of the Echiuroidea (q.v.) and of the Gephyrea (q.v.).
Though the paired arrangement of the nephridia is the prevalent
one in the Chaetopoda, there are many examples, among the Oligo-
chaeta, of species and genera in which there are several, even many,
nephridia in each segment of the body, which may or may not be
connected among themselves, but have in any case separate orifices
on to the exterior.
2. Coelomoducts, — In this category are included (by Goodrich
and Lankester) the gonad ducts of the Oligochaeta, certain funnels
without any aperture to the exterior that have been detected in
Nereis, &c, funnels with wide and short ducts attached to nephridia
in other Polychaeta, gonad ducts in the Capitellidae, the gonad
ducts of the leeches. In all these cases we have a duct which has
a usually wide, always intercellular, lumen, generally, if not
always, ciliated, which opens directly into the coelom on the one
hand: and on to the exterior of the body on the other. These char-
acters are plain in all the cases cited, excepting only the leeches
which will be considered separately.
There is not a great deal of difference between most of these
structures and true nephridia. It is not clear, for example, to which
category it is necessary to refer the excretory organs of Arenicola,
or Polynoe. Both series of organs consist essentially of a ciliated
tube leading from the coelom to the exterior. Both series of organs
grow back centrifugally from the funnel. In both the cavity origin-
ally or immediately continuous with the coelom appears first in the
funnel and grows backwards. In some cases, e.g. oviducts of Oligo-
chaeta, sperm ducts of Phreoryctes, the coelomoducts occupy, like
the nephridia, two segments, the funnel opening into that in front
of the segment which carries the external pore. It is by no means
certain that a hard and fast line can be drawn between intra- and
intercellular lumina. Finally, in function there are some points of like-
ness. The gonad ducts of Lutnbricus, &c. , must perform one function
of nephridia ; they must convey to the exterior some of the coelomic
fluid with its disintegrated products of waste. There is no possi-
bility that sperm and ova can escape by these tubes not in company
with coelomic fluid. In the case of many Oligochaeta where there
is no vascular network surrounding the nephridium, this function
must be the chief one of those glands, the more elaborate process
of excretion taking place in the case of nephridia surrounded by a
rich plexus of blood capillaries. A consideration of the mode of
development and appearance of the coelomoducts that have thus
far been enumerated (with the possible exception of those of the
leeches) seems to show that there is a distinct though varying relation
between them and the nephridia. It has been shown that in Tubifex,
and some other aquatic Oligochaeta, the genital segments are at first
provided with nephridia, and that these disappear on the appearance
of the generative ducts, which are coelomoducts. In Lutnbricus
the connexion is a little closer; the funnel of the nephridium, in the
segments in which the funnels of the gonad ducts are to be developed,
persists and is continuous with the gonad duct funnels on their first
appearance. In the development of the Acanthodrilid earthworm
Octochaetus (F. E. Beddard) the funnels of the pronephridia disappear
except in the genital segments, where they seem to be actually
converted into the genital funnels. At the least there is no doubt
that the genital funnels are developed precisely where the nephridial
funnels formerly existed. If the genital funnels are not wholly or
fartly formed out of the nephridial funnels they have replaced them,
n the genital segments of Eudrilus the nephridia are present, but
the funnels have not been found though they are obvious in other
segments. Here also the genital funnels have either replaced or
been formed out of nephridial funnels. In Haplotaxis heterogyne
(W. B. Benham) the sperm ducts are hardly to be distinguished from
nephridia ; they are sinuous tubes with an intra-cellular duct. But
the funnel is large and thus differs from the funnels of the nephridia
in adjoining segments. Here again the nephridial funnel seems to
have been converted into or certainly replaced by a secondarily
developed funnel. This example is similar to cases among the Poly-
chaeta where a true nephridium is provided with a large funnel, a
coelomostome, according to the nomenclature of Lankester. The
whole organ, having, as is thought but not known, this double origin,
is termed a nephromixium. The various facts, however, seem to be
susceptible of another interpretation. It may be pointed out that
the several examples described recall a phenomenon which is not
uncommon and is well known to anatomists. That is the replace-
ment of an organ by, sometimes coupled with its partial conversion
into, a similar or slightly different organ performing the same or an
analogous function. Thus the postcaval vein of the higher verte-
brata is partly a new structure altogether, and is partly formed out
of the pre-existing posterior cardinals. The more complete replace-
ments, such as the nephridia of the genital segment of Tubifex by
a subsequently formed genital duct, may be compared with the
succession of the nesonephros to the pronephros in vertebrates, and
of the metanephros to the mesonephros in the higher vertebrates.
It might be well to term these structures, mostly serving as gonad
ducts, which have an undoubted resemblance to nephridia, and for
the most part an undoubted connexion with nephridia, " Nephro-
dinia," to distinguish them from another category of " ducts "
which are communications between the coelom and the exterior,
and which have no relation whatever to nephridia or to the organs
just discussed. For these latter, the term coelomoducts might
well be reserved. To this category belong certain sacs and pouches
in many, perhaps most, genera of the Oligochaeta family, Eudrilidae,
and possibly the gonad ducts in the Hirudinea. As an example of
the former it has been shown (Beddard) that a large median sac in
Lybiodrilus is at first freely open to the coelom, that it later becomes
shut off from the same, that it then acquires an external orifice, and,
finally, that it encloses the ovary or ovaries, between which and the
exterior a passage is thus effected. To this category will belong the
oviducts in Teleostean fishes and probably the gonad ducts in several
groups of invertebrates.
Polychaeta. — This group may be thus defined and the
definition contrasted and compared with those of the other
divisions of the Chaetopoda. Setae always present and often
very large, much varied in form and very numerous, borne by
the dorsal and ventral parapodia (when present). The pros-
tomium and the segments generally often bear processes sensory
and branchial. Eyes often present and comparatively com-
plicated in structure. Clitellum not present as a definite organ,
as in Oligochaeta. The anus is mostly terminal, and there are
no anterior and posterior suckers. Nervous system often
imbedded in the epidermis. Vascular system generally present
forming a closed system of tubes. Alimentary canal rarely
coiled, occasionally with glands which are simple caeca and
sometimes serve as air reservoirs; jaws often present and an
eversible pharynx. Nephridia sometimes of the type of those
of the Oligochaeta; in other cases short, wide tubes with a large
funnel serving also entirely or in part as gonad ducts. Fre-
quently reduced in number of pairs; rarely (CapUeUidae) more
than one pair per segment. Gonads not so restricted in position
as in Oligochaets, and often more abundant; the individuals
usually unisexual. No specialized system of spermathecae,
sperm reservoirs, and copulatory apparatus, as in Oligochaeta;
development generally through a larval form; reproduction by
budding also occurs. Marine (rarely fresh-water) in habit.
The Polychaeta contrast with the Oligochaeta by the great
variety of outward form and by the frequency of specialization
of different regions of the body. The head is always recognizable
and much more conspicuous than in other Chaetopoda. As in
the Oligochaeta the peristomial segment is often without setae;
but this character is not by any means so constant as in the
Oligochaeta. The prostomium bears often processes, both
dorsal and ventral, which in the SabeUids are split into the circle
of branchial plumes, which surround or nearly surround the
mouth in those tube-dwelling Annelids. Tomopteris is remark-
able for the fact that the hammer-shaped prostomium has paired
ventral processes each with a single seta. It is held, however,
that these are a pair of parapodia which have shifted forwards.
The presence of parapodia distinguish this from other groups
of Chaetopoda. Typically, the parapodium consists of two
processes of the body on each side, each of which bears a bundle
of setae; these two divisions of the " limb " are termed
CHAETOPODA
793
respectively notopodium and neuropodium. The notopodium may
be rudimentary or absent and the entire parapodium reduced to
the merest ridge or even completely unrepresented. Naturally,
it is among the free living forms that the parapodium is best
developed, and least developed among the tubicolous
Polychaeta. To each division of the parapodium
belongs typically a long tentacle, the cirrus, which
may be defective upon one or other of the noto-
podium or neuropodium, and may be developed into
an arborescent gill or into a flat scale-like process,
the elytron (in Polynoe, &c). There are other gills
} developed in addition to those which represent the
irri.
Setae. — The setae of the Polychaeta are disposed in
two bundles in many genera, but in only one bundle in
such forms as have no notopodium (e.g. Syllis). In
some genera the setae are in vertical rows, and in certain
Capitellidae these rows so
nearly meet that an arrange-
ment occurs reminiscent of
the continuous circle of setae
in the perichaetous Oligo-
chaeta. The setae vary much
in form and are often longer
and stronger than in the Oligo-
chaetes. Jointed setae and
very short nooks or " uncini "
(see fie. 3) are among the most
rkable
Fig. 3. — a, Bristle of Pionosyllis
Malmgreni; b, Hook of Terebella.
remarkable forms. Simple
bifid setae, such as those of
Oligochaetes, are also present
in certain forms.
Among the burrowing and
tubicolous forms it is not uncommon for the body to be distinguish-
able into two or more regions; a " thorax," for example, is sharply
marked off from an " abdomen " in the Sabellids. In these forms
the bundles of setae are either capilliform or uncinate, and the dorsal
setae of the thorax are like the ventral setae of the abdomen. It is
a remarkable and newly-ascertained fact that in regeneration (in
Potamilla) the thorax is not replaced by the growth of uninjured
thoracic segments ; but that the anterior segments of the abdomen
take on the same characters, the setae dropping out and being
replaced in accordance with the plan of the setae in the thorax of
uninjured worms. Among the Oligochaeta the sexually mature
worm is distinguished from the immature worm by the clitellum
and by the development of genital setae. Among the Polychaeta
the sexual worm is often more marked from the asexual form, so
much so that these latter have been placed in different species or
even genera. The alteration in form does not only affect structures
used in generation; but the form of the parapodia, &c, alter.
There are even dimorphic forms among the Syllias where the sexes
are, as in many Polychaets, separate.
Nephridia. — The nephridia of the Polychaeta have been generally
dealt with above in considering the nephridial system of the Chaeto-
poda as a whole. They contrast with those of the Oligochaeta and
Hirudinea by reason of their frequently close association with the
gonads, the same organ sometimes serving the two functions of
excretion and conveyance of the ova and spermatozoa out of the
body. On the hypothesis that such a form as Dinophilus (see
Haplodrili) has preserved the characters of the primitive Chaetopod
more nearly than any existing Polychaet or Oiigochaet, it is clear
that the nephridia in the Oligochaeta have preserved the original
features of those organs more nearly than most Polychaeta. Thus
Nereis among the latter worms, from the resemblance which its
excretory system bears to that of the Oligochaeta, may be made the
starting-point of a series. In this worm the paired nephridia exist
in most of the segments of the body, and their form (see ng. 2) is much
like that of the nephridia in the Enchytraeidae. The funnel, which
is not large, appears to open, as a rule at least, into the segment in
front of that which bears the external orifice. Quite independent
of these are certain large dorsally situate funnel-like folds of the
coelomic epithelium, ciliated, but of which no duct has been dis-
covered leading to the exterior. It is possible that we have here
gonad ducts distinct from nephridia which at the time of sexual
maturity do open on to the exterior.
In Polynoe the nephridia are short tubes with a slightly folded
funnel whose lumen is intercellular, and this intercellular lumen
is characteristic of the Polychaetes as contrasted with leeches and
Oligochaetes. Among the Terebelloidea there is a remarkable
differentiation of the nephridia into two series. One set lies in front
of the diaphragm, which is the most anterior and complete septum,
the rest having disappeared or being much less developed. The
anterior nephridia, of which there are one to three pairs, contrast
with the posterior series by their small funnels and large size, the
posterior nephridia having a large funnel followed by a short tube.
In Chaetosone setosa the anterior nephridia occupy five segments.
There is usually a gap between the two series, several segments being
without nephridia. It seems that the posterior nephridia are mainly
gonad ducts, and the gonads are developed in close association with
the funnels. The same arrangement is found in some other Poly-
chaetes; for instance, in SabeUaria there is a single pair of large
anterior nephridia, which open by a common pore, followed after an
interval by large-funnelled and short nephridia. This differentiation
is not, however, peculiar to the Polycnaetes; for in several Oligo-
chaetes the antenor nephridia are of large size, and opening as they
do into the buccal cavity clearly play a different function to those
which follow. In ThamnodrUus, as has been pointed out, there are
two series of nephridia which resemble those of the Terebelloidea
in the different sizes of their funnels. In Lanice conchilega the
posterior series of nephridia are connected by a thick longitudinal
duct, which seems to be seen in its most reduced form in Owenia,
where a duct on each side runs in the epidermis, being in parts a
groove, and receives one short tubular nephridium only and occupies
only one segment. This connexion of successive nephridia (in
Lanice) has its counterpart in AUolobophora, Lybioarilus, and
apparently in the Lumbnculids Teleuscolex and Styloscolex, among
the Oligochaeta. Among the Capitellidae, which in several respects
resemble the Oligochaeta, wide and short gonad ducts coexist in
the same segments with nephridia, the latter being narrower and
longer. It is noteworthy that in this family only among the Poly-
chaeta, the nephridia are not restricted to a single pair in each seg-
ment; so that the older view that the gonad ducts are meta-
morphosed nephridia is not at variance with the anatomical facts
which have been just stated.
Alimentary Canal. — The alimentary canal of Polychaetes is usually
a straight tube running from the anterior mouth to the posterior
anus. But in some forms, e.g. Sternaspis, the gut is coiled. In others,
again, e.g. Cobanzia, the anus is anterior and ventral. A gizzard is
present in a few forms. The buccal cavity is sometimes armed with
jaws. The oesophagus is provided often with caeca which in Syllids
and Hesionidae nave been found to contain air, and possibly therefore
perform the function of the fish's air-bladder. In other Polychaetes
one or more pairs of similar outgrowths are glandular. The intestine
is provided with numerous branched caeca in Aphrodite.
Reproduction. — As is the case with the Oligochaeta, the Poly-
chaeta furnish examples of species which multiply asexually by
budding. There is
a further resem-
blance between the
two orders of Chae-
topoda in that this
budding is not a
general pheno-
menon, but con-
fined to a few forms
only. Budding, in
fact, among the
Polychaetes is
limited to the
family Syllidae. In
the Oligochaetes
it is only the
families Aeoloso-
matidae and Nai-
didae that show
the same phenomenon* It has been men.
tioncd that in the Nereids a sexual form
occurs which differs structurally from the
asexual worms, and was originally placed in
a separate genus* Meter onereis ; hence the
name " Htteronereid " for the sexual worm.
In Syllis there is also a " Heterosyllid " form
in which the gonads are limited to a posterior
region of the body which is further marked
off from the anterior non-sexual segments
by the oak-like setae. In some Syllids this
posterior region separates off from the rest,
producing a new head; thus a process of
fission occurs which has been termed schizo-
gamy. A similar life history distinguishes
certain Sabellid worms, e.g. Filigrana. Among
the Syllids this simple state of affairs is
further complicated. In Autolytus there is,
to begin with, a conversion of the posterior
half of the body to form a sexual zooid. But
before thia separates off a number of other
^ n , zooicls are formed from a zone of budding
tiG. ^.--uasyenone w hi c h appears between the two first-formed
Ul \ individuals. Ultimately, a chain of sexual
Malmgren.; zooids is thus formedi A given stock only
produces zooids of one sex. In Myrianida there is a further
development of this process. The conversion of the posterior
end of the simple individual into a sexual region is dispensed
with ; but from a preanal budding segment a series of sexual buds
are produced. The well-known Syflid, discovered during the voyage
of the " Challenger," shows a modification of this form of budding.
Here, however, the buds are lateral, though produced from a budding
794
CHAETOPODA
zone, and they themselves produce other buds, so that a ramifying
colony is created.
Quite recently, another mode of budding has been described in
TrypanosyUis gemmipara, where a crowd of some fifty buds arising
symmetrically are produced at the tail end of the worm. In some
Syllids, such as PionosyUis gestans, the ova are attached to the body
Fig. 5. — A, Autolytus (after Mensch) with numerous buds. B,
Portion of a colony of Syllis ramosa (from M'Intosh). b.z, Budding
zone; p, anterior region of the parent worm; 1-5, buds.
of the parent in a regular line, and develop in situ; this process,
which has been attributed to budding, is an " external gestation,"
and occurs in a number of species.
As is very frequently the case with marine forms, as compared
with their fresh-water and terrestrial allies, the Polychaeta differ
from the Oligochaeta and Hirudinea in possessing a free living
Fig. 6. — A, Side view of the larva of Lopadorhynchus (from Kleinen-
berg), showing the' developing trunk region. B, Side view of the
trochophore larva of Eupomatus uncinatus (from Hatschek).
A, Anus.
E, Eye.
M, Mouth.
ap. Apical organ.
h, " Head kidney."
»", Intestine.
me, Mesoblast.
ms, Larval muscle.
0, Otocyst.
pp, Parapodium.
pr, Praeoral ciliated ring, or
prototroch.
larval form which is hatched at an early stage in development.
This larva is termed the Trochosphere larva, and typically (as it is
held) is an egg-shaped larva with two bands of cilia, one preoral and
one postoral, with an apical nervous plate surmounted by a tuft of
longer cilia, and with a simple bent alimentary canal, with lateral
mouth and posterior anus, between which and the ectoderm is a
spacious cavity (blastocoel) traversed by muscular strands and often
containing a larval kidney. The segmentation is of the mesoblast
to begin with, and appears later behind the mouth, the part anterior
to this becoming the prostomium of the adult. The chief modi-
fications of this form are seen in the Mitraria
larva of Ammochares with only the preoral band,
which is much folded and which has provisional
and long setae; the atrochous larva, where the
covering of cilia is uniform and not split into
bands; and the polytrochous larva where there
are several bands surrounding the body. There
are also other modifications.
Classification. — The older arrangement of the
Polychaeta into Errantia or free living and
Tubicola or tube-dwelling forms will hardly fit
the much increased knowledge of the group.
W. B. Benham's division into Phanerocephala
in which the prostomium is plain, and Cryto-
cephala in which the prostomium is hidden by
the peristomium adopted by Sedgwick, can only
be justified by the character used; for the Tere-
bellids, though phanerocephalous, have many
of the features of the Sabellids. It is perhaps
safer to subdivide the Order into 6 Suborders
(in the number of these following Benham, except
in combining the Sabelliformia and Hermelli-
formia). Of these 6, the two first to be con-
sidered are very plainly separable and represent
the extremes of Polychaete organization. (1)
Nereidiformia. — " Errant " Polychaetes with
well-marked prostomium possessing tentacles
and palps with evident and locomotor para-
podia, supported (with few exceptions) by strong
spines, the aciculi; muscular pharynx usually
armed with jaws; septa and nephridia regu-
larly metameric and similar throughout body;
free living and predaceous. (2) Cryptocephala.
— Tube-dwelling with body divided into thorax
and abdomen marked by the setae, which are
reversed in position in the neuropodium and
notopodium respectively in the two regions.
Parapodia hardly projecting; palps of pro-
somium forming branched gills; no pharynx or
eversible buccal region; no septa in thorax,
septa in abdomen regularly disposed. Nephridia
in two series; large, anterior nephridia followed
by small, short tubes in abdomen. The remain- p IG> ~ Nereis
ing groups are harder to define, with the exception peiagica. L. (After
of the (3) CapiteUiformia, which are mud-living Oersted.)
worms of an " oligochaetous " appearance, and
with some affinities to that order. The peristomium has no setae, and
the setae generally are hair-like or uncinate .often forming almost com-
plete rings. The genital ducts are limited to one segment (the 8th in
Capitella capitata), and there are genital setae on this and the next
Fig. 8. — Sabella vesiculosa, Mont.
(After Montagu.)
Fig. 9.
Arenicola marina, L.
segment. In other forms genital ducts and nephridia coexist in the
same segment. The nephridia are sometimes numerous in each seg-
ment. There is no blood system, and the coelomic corpuscles contain
CHAETOPODA
795
haemoglobin. (4) Terebelltformia. These worms are in some
respects like the Sabellids (Cryptocephala). The para podia, as in
the Capitellidae, are hardly developed. The buccal region is un-
armed and not eversible. The prostomium has many long filaments
which recall the gills of the Sabellids, &c. The nephridia are special-
ized into two series, as in the last-mentioned worms. (5) Spioni-
fortnia (including Chaetopterus, Spio, &c.) and (6) Scolecijormia
(Arenicola, Chloraema, Sternaspis) are the remaining groups. In
both, the nephridia are all alike; there are no jaws; the pro-
stomium rarely has processes. The body is often divisible into
regions.
Literature. — W. B. Benhara, " Polychaeta " in Cambridge
Natural History; E. Claparede, Annilides chitopodes du golfe de
Naples (1868 and 1870); E. Ehlers, Die Borstenwurmer (1868);
H. Eisig, Die Capitelhden (Naples Monographs), and development
of do. in Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel (1898); W. C. M'Intosh, if Chal-
lenger " Reports (1885); E. R. Lankester, Introductory Chapter in
A Treatise on Zoology, E. S. Goodrich, Quart. Journ. Mxc. Sci.
(1807-1900); E. Meyer, Mitth. d. zool. Stat. Neapel (1887, 1888), as
well as numerous other memoirs by the above and by T.T. Cunning-
ham, de St Joseph, A. Malaquin, A. Agassiz, A. T. Watson, Malm-
gren, Bobretsky and A. F. Marion, E. A. Andrews, L. C. Cosmovici,
R. Horst, W. Michaelsen, G. Gilson, F. Buchanan, H. Levinsen,
Joyeux-Laffuie, F. W. Gamble, &c.
Oligochaeta. — As contrasted with the other subdivisions
of the Chaetopoda, the Oligochaeta may be thus defined. Setae
c very rarely absent (genus
Achaeta) and as a rule not
so large or so numerous in
each segment as in the
Polychaeta, and different
in shape. Eyes rarely
present and then rudimen-
tary. Prostomium gener-
ally small, sometimes pro-
longed, but never bearing
tentacles or processes.
Appendages of body re-
duced to branchiae, present
only in four species, and
to the ventral copulatory
appendages of Alma and
Criodrilus. Clitellum
always present, extending
over two (many limicolous
forms) to forty-five seg-
ments {Alma). Segments
of body numerous and not
distinctive of species, being
irregular and not fixed in
numbers. In terrestrial
forms dorsal pores are usu-
ally present; in aquatic
forms a head pore only.
Anus nearly always ter-
minal, rarely dorsal, at a
little distance from end
of body. Suckers absent.
Nervous system rarely
(Aeolosoma) in continuity
with epidermis. Vascular
system always present,
forming a closed system,
more complicated in the
larger forms than in the
aquatic genera. Several
specially large contractile
trunks in the anterior segments uniting the dorsal and ventral
vessels. Nephridia generally paired, often very numerous in each
segment, in the form of long, much-coiled tubes with intracellular
lumen. Gonads limited in number of pairs, testes and ovaries
always present in the same individual. Special sacs developed
from the intersegmental septa lodge the developing ova and
sperm. Special gonad ducts always present. Male ducts often
open on to exterior through a terminal chamber which is
variously specialized, and sometimes with a penis.
Fig. 1 o.— Diagrams of various Earth-
worms, to illustrate external characters.
A, B, C, anterior segments from the
ventral surface ; D, hinder end of body
of Urochaeta.
A, Lumbricusig, 10, segments contain-
ing spermathecae, the orifices of
which are indicated ; 14, segment
bearing oviducal pores; 15, seg-
ment bearing male pores; 32, 37,
first and last segments of clitellu m.
B, Acanthodrilus: cp % orifices of sper-
mathecae; ?, oviducal pores;
C?, male pores; on 17th and 19th
segments are the apertures of the
atria.
C, Perickaeta: the sper ma thecal pores
are between segments 6 ana 7, 7
and 8, 8 and o, the oviducal pores
upon the 14th and the male pores
upon the 18th segment.
In all the figures the nephridial pores
are indicated by dots and the setae by
strokes.
Generative pores usually paired, sometimes single and median.
Spermathecae nearly always present. Alimentary canal straight,
often with appended glands of complicated or simpler structure;
no jaws. Eggs deposited in a cocoon after copulation. Develop-
ment direct. Reproduction by budding also occurs. Fresh-
water (rarely marine) and terrestrial.
The Oligochaeta show a greater variety of size than any other
group of the Chaetopoda. They range from a millimetre or
so (smaller species of Aeolosoma) to 6 ft. or even rather more
(Microchaeta rappi, &c.) in length.
Settle. — The setae, which are always absent from the peristomial
segment, are also sometimes absent from a greater number of the
s" /'/
Fig. 11. — Setae of Oligochaeta.
a, Penial seta of Perichaeta cey- d, Seta of Lumbricus.
lonica. e t Seta of Criodrilus.
b, Extremity of penial seta of /, 4, Setae of Bohemilla comata.
Acanthodrilus (after Horst). h,%, j, Setae of Psammoryctes bar-
c, Seta of Urochaeta (Perier). Saft«(/tojafterVezhdovsky).
anterior segments of the body, and have completely disappeared in
Achaeta earner anoi. When present they are either arranged in four
bundles of from one to ten or even more setae, or are disposed in con-
tinuous lines completely encircling each segment of the bodv. This
latter arrangement characterizes many genera of the family Mega-
scolicidae and one genus (Periscolex) of the Glossoscolicidae. It has
been shown (Bourne) that the " perichaetous " condition is prob-
ably secondary, inasmuch as in worms which are, when adult,
" perichaetous " the setae develop in pairs so that the embryo
passes through a stage in which it has tour bundles of setae, two
to each bundle, the prevalent condition in the group. Rarely there
is an irregular disposition of the setae which are not paired, though
the total number is eight to a segment (fig. 10), e.g. Pontoscolex.
The varying forms of the setae are illustrated in fig. 11.
Structure— The body wall consists of an epidermis which secretes
a delicate cuticle and is only ciliated in Aeolosoma^ and in that genus
only on the under surface of the prostomium. The epidermis con-
tains numerous groups of sense cells; beneath the epidermis there
is rarely (Kynotus) an extensive connective tissue dermis. Usually
the epidermis is immediately followed by the circular layer of muscles,
and this by the longitudinal coat. Beneath this again is a distinct
peritoneum lining the coelom, which appears to be wanting as a
special layer in some Polychaetes (Benham, Gilson). The muscular
layers are thinner in the aquatic forms, which possess only a single
row of longitudinal fibres, or (Enchytraeidae) two layers. In the
earthworms, on the other hand, this coat is thick and composed of
many layers.
The clitellum consists of a thickening of the epidermis, and is of
two forms among the Oligochaeta. In the aquatic genera the
epidermis comes to consist entirely of glandular cells, which are,
however, arranged in a single layer. In the earthworms, on the other
hand, the epidermis becomes specialized into several layers of cells,
all of which are glandular. It is therefore obviously much thicker
than the clitellum in the limicolous forms. The position of the
clitellum, which is universal in occurrence, varies much as does the
number of component segments. As a rule — to which, however,
there are exceptions — the clitellum consists of two or three segments
only in the small aquatic Oligochaeta, while in the terrestrial forms
it is as a general rule, to which again there are exceptions, a more
extensive, sometimes much more extensive, region.
In the Oligochaeta there is a closer correspondence between ex-
ternal metamerism and the divisions of the coelom than is apparent
in some Chaetopods. The external segments are usually definable
by the setae; and if the setae are absent, as in the anterior segments
79 6
CHAETOPODA
of several Geoscolicidae, the nephridiopores indicate the segments;
to each segment corresponds internally a chamber of the coelom
which is separated from adjacent segments by transverse septa, which
are only unrecognizable in the genus Aeolosoma and in the head
region of other Oligochaeta. In the latter case, the numerous bands
of muscle attaching the pharynx to the parietes have obliterated the
regular partition by means of septa.
Nephridia. — The nephridia in this group are invariably coiled tubes
with an intracellular lumen and nearly invariably open into the
coelom by a funnel. There are no renal organs with a wide inter-
cellular lumen, such as occur in the Polychaeta, nor is there ever any
permanent association between nephridia and ducts connected with
the evacuation of the generative products, such as occur in Alciope,
Saccocirrus, &c. In these points the Oligochaeta agree with the
Hirudinea. They also agree in the general structure of the nephridia.
It has been ascertained that the nephridia of Oligochaeta are preceded
in the embryo by a pair of delicate and sinuous tubes, also found in
the Hirudinea and Polychaeta, which are larval excretory organs.
It is not quite certain whether these are to be regarded as the remnant
of an earlier excretory system, replaced among the Oligochaeta by
the subsequently developed paired structures, or whether these
11 head kidneys are the first pair of nephridia precociously de-
veloped. The former view has been extensively held, and it is
supported by the fact that in Octochaetus the first segment of the
body has a pair of nephridia which is exactly like those which follow,
and, like them, persists. On the other hand, in most Oligochaeta the
first segment has in the adult no nephridium, and in the case of
Octochaetus the existence of a " head kidney " antedating the subse-
quently developed nephridia of the first and other segments has
neither been seen nor proved to be absent. In any case the nephridia
which occupy the segments of the body generally are first of all
represented by paired structures, the " pronephridia," in which the
funnel is composed of but one cell, which is flagellate. This stage
has at any rate been observed in Rhynchelmis and Lumbricus (m
its widest sense) by Vezhdovsk^. It is further noticeable that in
Rhynchelmis the covering of vesicular cells which clothes the drain-
pipe cells of the adult nephridium is cut off from the nephridial
cells themselves and is not a peritoneal layer surrounding the
nephridium. Thus the nephridia, in this case at least, are a part
of the coelom and are not shut off from it by a layer of peritoneum,
as are other organs which lie in it, e.g. the gut. A growth both of
the funnel, which becomes multicellular, and of the rest of the nephri-
dium produces the adult nephridia of the genera mentioned. The
Siired disposition of these organs is the prevalent one among the
ligochaeta, and occurs in all of twelve out of the thirteen families
into which the group is divided.
Among the Megascolicidae, however, which in number of genera
and species nearly equals the remaining families taken together,
another form of the excretory system occurs. In the genera Phere-
tima, Megascolex, Dichogaster, &c, each segment contains a large
number of nephridia, which, on account of the fact that they are
necessarily smaller than the paired nephridia of e.g. Lumbricus, have
been termed micronephridia, as opposed to meganephridia ; there is,
however, no essential difference in structure, though micronephridia
are not uncommonly (e.g. Megascolides, Octochaetus) unprovided
with funnels. It is disputed whether these micronephridia are or
are not connected together in each segment and from segment to
segment. In any case they have been shown in three genera to de-
velop by the growth and splitting into a series of original paired
pronephridia. A complex network, however, does occur in Zybio-
drilus and certain other Eudrilidae, where the paired nephridia
possess ducts leading to the exterior which ramify and anastomose
on the thickness of the body wall. The network is, however, of the
duct of the nephridium, possibly ectodermic in origin, and does not
affect the glandular tubes which remain undivided and with one
coelomic funnel each.
The Oligochaeta are the only Chaetopods in which undoubted
nephridia may possess a relationship with the alimentary canal.
Thus, in Octochaetus multiporus a large nephridium opens anteriorly
into the buccal cavity, and numerous nephridia in the same worm
evacuate their contents into the rectum. The anteriorly-opening
and usually very large nephridia are not uncommon, ana have
been termed " oeptonephridia."
Gonads and Gonad Ducts. — The Oligochaeta agree with the leeches
and differ from most Polychaeta in that they are hermaphrodite.
There is no exception to this generalization. The gonads are, more-
over, limited and fixed in numbers, and are practically invariably
attached to the intersegmental septa, usually to the front septum
of a segment, more rarely to the posterior septum. The prevalent
number of testes is one pair in the aquatic genera and two pairs in
earthworms. But there are exceptions; thus a species of Lampro-
drilus has four pairs of testes. The ovaries are more usually one
pair, but two are sometimes present. The segments occupied by
the gonads are fixed, and are for earthworms invariably X, XI, or one
of them for the testes, and XIII for the ovaries. The position
varies in the aquatic Oligochaeta. The Oligochaeta contrast with
ducts. These sacs contain the developing sperm cells or eggs, and
are with very few exceptions universal in the group. The testes
are more commonly thus involved than are the ovaries. It is indeed
only among the Eudrilidae that the enclosure of the ovaries in septal
sacs is at ail general. Recently the same thing has been recorded in
a few species of Pheretima (—Perichaeta), but details are as yet
wanting. We can thus speak in these worms of gonocoels, i.e.
coelomic cavities connected only with the generative system. These
cavities communicate with the exterior through the gonad ducts,
which have nothing to do with them, but whose coelomic funnels are
taken up by them in the course of their growth. There are, however,
in the Eudrilidae, as already mentioned, sacs envolving the ovaries
which bore their own way to the exterior, and thus may be termed
coelomoducts. These sacs are dealt with later under the description
of the spermathecae, which function they appear to perform. The
gonad ducts are male and female, and open opposite to or, rarely,
alongside of the gonads, whose products they convey to the exterior.
The oviducts are always short trumpet-shaped tubes and are some-
times reduced (Enchytraeidae) to merely the external orifices. It
is possible, however, that those oviducts belong to a separate morpho-
logical category, more comparable to the dorsal pores and to
abdominal pores in some fishes. The sperm ducts are usually longer
than the oviducts; but in Limicolae both series of tubes opening
by the funnel into one segment and on to the exterior in the following
segment. While the oviducts always open directly on to the ex-
terior, it is the rule for the sperm ducts to open on to the exterior
near to or through certain
terminal chambers, which
have been variously
termed atrium and pro-
state, or spermiducal
gland. The distal ex-
tremity of this apparatus
is sometimes eversible as
a penis. Associated with
these glands are frequently
to be found bundles or
pairs of long and variously
modified setae which are
termed penial setae.to dis-
tinguish them from other
setae sometimes but not
always associated with
rat her similar glands which
are found anteriorly to
these, and often in the
immediate neighbourhood
of the spermathecae; the
latter are spoken of as
genital setae.
Spermathecae. — These
structures appear to be
absolutely distinctive of
the Oligochaeta, unless
the sacs which contain
sperm and open in common
with the nephridia of Sac-
cocirrus (seeHAPLODRILl)
arc similar. Spermathecae
are generally present in
the Oligochaeta and are absent only in comparatively few genera and
species. Their position varies, but is constant for the species, and
they are rarely found behind the gonads. They are essentially
spherical, pear-shaped or oval sacs opening on to the exterior but
closed at the coelomic end. In a few Enchytraeidae and Lumbri-
culidae the spermathecae open at the distal extremity into the
oesophagus, which is a fact difficult of explanation. Among the
aquatic Oligochaeta and many earthworms (the families Lumbri-
cidae, Geoscolicidae and a few other genera) the spermathecae are
simple structures, as has been described. In the majority of the
Megascolicidae each sac is provided with one or more diverticula,
tubular or oval in form, of a slightly different histological character
in the lining epithelium, and in them is invariably lodged the sperm.
The spermathecae are usually paired structures, one pair to each
of the segments where they occur. In many Geoscolicidae, however,
and certain Lumbricidae and PerichaeHdae, there are several, even
a large number, of pairs of very small spermathecae to each of the
segments which contain them.
In the Eudrilidae there are spermathecae of different morpho-
logical value. In figs. 12 and 13 are shown the spermathecae of the
genera Hyperiodrilus and Heliodrilus, which are simple sacs ending
lindly as in other earthworms, but of which there is only one median
opening in the thirteenth segment or in the eleventh. In Heliodrilus
the blind extremity of the spermatheca is enclosed in a coelomic sac
which is in connexion with the sacs envolving the ovaries and ovi-
ducts. In Hyperiodrilus the whole spermatheca is thus included
in a corresponding sac, which is of great extent. In such other
genera of the family as have been examined, the true spermatheca
as entirely disappeared^ and the sac which contains it in Hyperio-
drilus alone remains. This sac has been already referred to as a
coelomoduct. Its orifice on to the exterior is formed by an involution
Fig. 12. — Female reproductive system
oiHeliodrilus. — XI-X IV.eleventh to four-
teenth segments, sperm, spermatheca;
sp. 0, its external orifice ; sp. sac, sperma-
thecal sac; ov, sac containing ovary;
r-o, egg sac; od, oviduct.
CHAETOPODA
797
(as it appears) of the epidermis, and that it performs the function
of a spermatheca is shown by its containing spermatozoa, or, in
Stuhlmannia, a spermatophore. In Polytoreutus, also, spermato*
phores have been found in these spermathecal sacs. We have thus
the replacement of a spermatheca, corresponding to those of the
remaining families of Oligochaeta, and derived, as is believed, from
the epidermis, by a structure performing the same function, but
derived from the mesoblastic tissues, and with a cavity which is
coelom.
Alimentary Canal. — The alimentary canal is always a straight tube,
and the anus, save in the genera Crtodrilus and Dero, is completely
terminal. A buccal cavity, a pharynx, an oesophagus and an
intestine are always distinguishable. Commonly among the terres-
trial forms there is a gizzard, or two gizzards, or a larger number,
in the oesophageal region. There is no armed protrusible pharynx,
such as exists in some other Chaetopods. This may be associated
with mud-eating habits ; but it is not wholly certain that this is the
case; for in Chaetogaster and Agriodrilus, which are predaceous
worms, there is no protrusible pharynx, though in the latter the
oesophagus is thickened through its extent with muscular fibres.
The oesophagus is often furnished with glandular diverticula, the
" glands of Morren," which are often of complex structure through
the folding of their walls. Among the purely aquatic families such
structures are very rare, and are represented by two caeca in the
genus Limnodriloides. It is a remarkable fact, not yet understood,
that in certain Enchytraeidae and Lumbriculidae the spermathecae
open into the oesophagus as well as on to the exterior. The only
comparable fact among other worms is the Laurer's canal or genito-
intestinal canal in the Trematoda. The intestine is usually in
the higher forms provided
with a typhlosole, in
which, in Pontoscolex, runs
a ciliated canal or canals
communicating with the
intestine. It is possible
that this represents the
syphon or supplementary
intestine of Capitellidae,
which has been shown to
develop as a graving of
the intestine ultimately
cut off from it. The in-
testine has a pair of caeca
or two or three pairs (but
all lie in one segment) in
the genus Pheretima and
in one species of Rhino-
drilus. In Typhoeus and
Megascolex there are com-
Fig. 15. — Female reproductive system plex glands appended to
of HypertodrUus.—Xlll, XIV, thirteenth the intestine,
and fourteenth segments. In Benhamia caecifera
sp, Spermatheca. ov, Ovary. and at least one other
sp', Spermathecal sac r.o, Egg sac. earthworm there are
involving the last. od, Oviduct, numerous caeca, one pair
to each segment.
Classification.— The classifications of Adolf Eduard, Grube and
Claparede separated into two subdivisions the aquatic and the terres-
trial forms. This scheme, opposed by many, has been reinstated by
Sedgwick. The chief difficulty in this scheme is offered by the
Moniligastridae, which in some degree combine the characters of
both the suborders, into neither of which will they fit accurately.
The following arrangement is a compromise : —
Group I. A phaneura.— This group is referred by A. Sedgwick to the
Archiannelida. It is, however, though doubtless near to the base
of the Oligochaetous series, most nearly allied in the reproductive
system to the Oligochaeta. It contains but one family, Aeolo-
somatidae. There are three pairs of spermathecae situated in seg-
ments 1 1 1-V, a testis in V and an ovary in VI . There are a clitellum
and sperm ducts which though like nephridia have a larger funnel
and a less complexly wound duct. This family consists of only one
well-known genus, Aeolosoma, which contains several species. They
are minute worms with coloured oil drops (green, olive green or
orange) contained in the epidermis. The nervous system is em-
bedded in the epidermis, and the pairs of ganglia are separated as
in Serpula, &c; each pair has a longish commissure between its
two ganglia. The intersegmental septa are absent save for the
division of the first segment. The large prostomium is ciliated
ventrally. The setae are either entirely capillary or there are in
addition some sigmoid setae even with bifid free extremities. This
genus also propagates asexuallv, like Ctenodrilus, which may possibly
belong to the same family. Asexual reproduction universal.
Group II. Limicolae.— With a few exceptions the Limicolae are,
33 t 5 e ° ame den °tes, aquatic in habit. They are small to moderate-
sized Oligochaeta, with a smaller number of segments than in the
Terncolae. The alimentary canal is simple and a gizzard or oeso-
phageal diverticula rarely developed. The vascular system is simple
with as a rule direct communication between dorsal and ventral
vessels in each segment. Nerve cord lies in coelom; brain in first
segment or prostomium in many forms. Clitellum generally only
OV
two or three segments and more anterior in position than in Terri-
colae. Nephridia always paired and without plexus of blood capil-
laries. Spermatheca rarely with diverticula ; sperm ducts as a rule
occupying two segments only, usually opening by means of an
atrium. Sperm sacs generally occupying a good many segments
and with simple interior undivided by a network of trabecular
Ova large and with much yolk. Asexual reproduction only in Naids.
Egg sacs as large or nearly so as sperm sacs. Testes and ovaries
always free. The following families constitute the group, viz.
Naididae, Enchytraeidae, Tubificidae, Lumbriculidae, Phreoryctidae,
Phreodrilidae, Alluroididae, the latter possibly not referable to this
group.
Group III. Moniligastres. — Moderate-sized to very large Oligo-
chaeta, terrestrial in habit, with the appearance of Terncolae.
Generative organs anterior in position as in Limicolae. Sperm
ducts and atria as in Limicolae; egg sacs large; body wall thick;
vascular system and nephridia as in Terricolae. Only one family,
Moniligastridae.
Group IV. Terricolae— Earthworms, rarely aquatic in habit.
Of small to very large size. Clitellum commonly extensive and
more posterior in position than in other groups. Vascular system
complicated without regular connexion between dorsal and ventral
vessels, except in anterior segments. Nephridia as a rule with
abundant vascular supply. Testes, and occasionally ovaries, en-
closed in sacs. Sperm sacs generally limited to one or two segments
with interior subdivided by trabeculae. Sperm ducts traverse several
segments on their way to exterior. They open in common with,
or near to, or, more rarely, into, glands which are not certainly
comparable to the atria of the Limicolae. Egg sacs minute and
functionless (?). Eggs minute with little yolk. Nephridia some-
times very numerous in each segment. Spermathecae often with
diverticula.
Earthworms are divided into the following families, viz. Mega-
scolicidae, Geoscoticidae, Eudrilidae, Lumbricidae.
As an appendix to the Oligochaeta, and possibly referable to that
group, though their systematic position cannot at present be deter-
mined with certainty, are to be placed the Bdcltodrilidae (Disco-
drilidae auct.), which are small parasites upon crayfish. These worms
lay cocoons like the Oligochaeta and leeches, and where they depart
from the structure of the Oligochaeta agree with that of leeches.
The body is composed of a small and limited number of segments
(not more than fourteen), and there is a sucker at each end of the
body. There are no setae and apparently only two pairs of nephridia,
of which the anterior pair open commonly by a common pore on the
third segment after the head, whose segments have not been accu-
rately enumerated. The intervening segments contain the genitalia,
which are on the Oligochaeta plan in that the gonads are independent
of their ducts and that there are special spermathecae, one pair.
The male ducts are either one pair or two pairs, which open by a
common and complicated efferent terminal apparatus furnished
with a protrusible penis. The ganglia are crowded at the posterior
end of the body as in leeches, and there is much tendency to the
obliteration of the coelom as in that group. PterodrUus and Cirro-
drilus bear a few, or circles of, external processes which may be
branchiae; Bdellodrilus and AstacobdeUa have none. The vascular
system is as in the lower Oligochaeta. There are two chitinous
jaws in the buccal cavity, a dorsal and a ventral, which are of
specially complicated structure in Cirrodrilus.
Literature. — F. E. Beddard, A Monograph of the Oligochaeta
(Oxford, 1895), also Quart. Journ. Micr. Set., 1886-1895, and Proc.
Zool. Soc, 1885-1906; W. B. Benham, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
1 886-1905; W. Michaelsen, "Oligochaeta" in Das Tierreich,
1900, and Mitth. Mus. (Hamburg, 1 890-1906) ; A. G. Bourne, Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sci., 1894; H. J. Moore, Journ. Morph., 1895; F.
Vezhdovsk£, System d. Oligochaeten (Prague, 1884), and Entwick-
lungsgeschichtliche Untersuchunqen; and numerous papers by the
above and by G. Eisen, E. Perner, D. Rosa, R. Horst, L. Cognetti,
U. Pierantoni, W. Baldwin Spencer, H. Ude, &c, and embryological
memoirs by R. S. Bergh, E. B. Wilson, N. Kleinenberg, &c.
Hirudinea. — The leeches are more particularly to be compared
with the Oligochaeta, and the following definition embraces the
main features in which they agree and disagree with that group.
Setae are only present in the genus Acanthobdella. Eyes are
present, but hardly so complex as in certain genera of Polychaetes.
The appendages of the body are reduced to branchiae, present
in certain forms. A clitellum is present. The segments of body
are few (not more than thirty-four) and fixed in number. The
anus is dorsal. One or two (anterior and posterior) suckers
always present. Nervous system always in coelom. Coelom
generally reduced to a system of tubes, sometimes communicating
with vascular system; in Acanthobdella and Ozobranchus a series
of metamerically arranged chambers as in Oligochaeta. Ne-
phridia always paired, rarely (Pontobdella) forming a network
communicating from segment to segment; lumen of nephridia
always intracellular, funnels pervious or impervious. Alimentary
79»
CHAETOPODA
canal sometimes with protrusible proboscis; never with gizzard
or oesophageal glands; intestine with caeca as a rule. Jaws
often present. Testes several pairs, rarely one pair, continuous
with sperm ducts; ovaries, one pair, continuous with oviducts;
generative pores single and median. No separate spermathecae
or septal chambers for the development of the ova and sperm.
Eggs deposited in a cocoon. Development direct. No asexual
generation. Fresh-water, marine and terrestrial. Parasitic
or carnivorous.
In external characters the Hirudinea are unmistakable and not
to be confused with other Annelids, except perhaps with the Bdello-
driUdae, which resemble them in certain particulars. The absence
of setae — save in Acanthobdella, where five of the anterior segments
possess each four pairs of setae with reserve setae placed close behind
them (fig. 14), and the presence of an anterior and posterior sucker,
produce a looping mode of progression similar to that of a Geometric!
larva. The absence of setae and the great secondary angulation
render the mapping of the segments a subject of some difficulty.
The most reliable test appears to be the nerve ganglia, which are
more distinct from the intervening connectives than in other
Annelids.
In the middle of the body, where the limits of the somites can be
checked by a comparison with the arrangement of the nephridia
and the gonads, and where the ganglia are quite distinct and separ-
ated by long connectives, each ganglion is seen to consist of six
masses of cells enclosed by capsules and to give off three nerves on
each side. This corre-
sponds to the usual pre-
sence (in the Rhyncho-
bdellidae) of three annuli
to each segment. An-
teriorly and posteriorly
separate ganglia have
fused. The brain con-
sists not only of a group
of six capsules corre-
sponding to the archi-
cerebrum of the Oligo-
chaeta, but of a further
mass of cells surrounding
and existing below the
alimentary canal, which
can be analysed into five
or six more separate gan-
glia. The whole mass lies
in the seventh or eighth
segment. At the pos-
terior end of the body
there are likewise seven
separate ganglia partially
fused to form a single
ganglionic mass, which
innervates the segments lying behind the anus and corre-
sponding to the posterior sucker. So that a leech in which only
twenty-seven segments are apparent by the enumeration of the
annuli, separate ganglia, nephridia, lines of sensillac upon the body,
really possesses an additional seven lying behind that which is
apparently the last of the series and crowded together into a minute
space. The annuli into which segments are externally divided are
so deeply incised as to render it impossible to distinguish, as cart be
readily done in the Oligochaeta as a rule, the limits of an annulus
from that of a true segment. As remarked, the prevalent number
of annuli to a segment is three in the RhynchobdeUidae. But in that
group (Cystobranchus) there may be as many as eight annuli. In
the Gnathobdellidae the prevailing number of annuli to a segment
is five; but here again the number is often increased, and Trocheta
has no less than eleven. The reason for this excessive angulation
has been seen in the limited number of segments (thirty-four) of
which the body is composed, which are laid down early and do not
increase. In the Oligochaeta, on the other hand, there is growth of
new segments. It is important to notice that the metamenc plan
of growth of Chaetopods is still preserved. m
The nephridia are like those of the Oligochaeta in general struc-
ture ; that is to say, they consist of drain-pipe cells which are placed
end to end and are perforated by their duct. The internal funnel
varies in the same way as in the Oligochaeta in the number of cells
which form it. In Clepsine {Glossiphonia) there are only three cells,
and in Nephelis five to eight cells. In Hirudo the funnel is not
pervious and is composed of a large number of cells. Externally,
the nephridium opens by a vesicle, as in many Oligochaetes whose
lumen is intercellular. In Pontobdella and BrancheUton the nephridia
form a network extending from segment to segment, but there is
only one pair of funnels in each segment. Slight differences in form
have been noted between nephridia of different segments; but the
Hirudinea do not show the marked differentiation that is to be seen
in some other Chaetopods; nor do the nephridia ever acquire any
relations to the alimentary canal.
Fig. 14. — Acanthobdella, from the ven-
tral surface, showing the five sets of setae
(Si to S*) and the replacing setae (Sr)
behind them. The three pairs of pig-
mented spots show the position of the
eyes on the dorsal surface. (After
Kovalevsky.)
Coelom. — The coelom of the Hirudinea differs in most genera from
that of the Oligochaeta and Polychaeta. The difference is that it is
broken up into a complex sinus system. The least modified type
is shown by AcanthobaeUa, a leech, parasitic upon fishes, in which
transverse sections (see figs. 15 and 16) show the gut, the nervous
system, &c, lying in a spacious chamber which is the coelom. This
coelom is lined by peritoneal cells and is divided into a series of
metameres by septa which correspond to the segmentation of the
indv
cl
Fig 15. — Section of Acanthobdella (after Kovalevsky),
t
cp,
g, Nerve cord.
m, Intestine.
mc, Circular muscle.
ml, Longitudinal muscle.
vd, Dorsal vessel.
vv, Ventral vessel.
c, Coelom.
c.cft, Coelomic epithelium (yellow-
cells).
Glandular cells.
Muscle cells of lateral line.
Pigment cells.
Ectoderm.
body, the arrangement being thus precisely like that of typical
Chaetopoda. Moreover, upon the intestine the coelomic cells are
modified into chloragogen cells. In Acanthobdella the testes are,
however, not contained in the general coelom, and the nephridia
lie in the septa. It is remarkable, in view of the spaciousness of the
coelom, that the funnels of the latter have not been seen. Ozo-
branchus possesses a coelom which is less typically chaetopodous
than that of Acanthobdella, but more so than in other leeches. There
is a spacious cavity surrounding the gut and containing also blood-
vessels, and to some extent the generative organs, and the nervous
cord. Furthermore, in the mid region of the body this coelom is
broken up by metamerically arranged septa, as in Acanthobdella.
These septa are, however, rather incomplete and are not fastened
to the gut; and, as in Acanthobdella, the nephridia are embedded
Fig. 16. — Section of Acanthobdella (after Kovalevsky). Identical
letters as in fig. 2; in addition, en, nerve cord; in, intestine; nf,
parts of nephridium ; on, external opening of nephridium ; ov, ova ;
t, testis.
in them. In addition to the median lacuna there are two lateral
lacunae, one upon each side. These regions of the coelom end at the
ends of the body and communicate with each other by means of a
branched system of coelomic sinuses, which are in places very fine
tubes. Neither in this genus nor in the last is there any communi-
cation between coelom and vascular system. In Clepsine (Glossi-
phonia) there is a further breaking up of the coelom. The median
lacuna no longer exists, but is represented by a dorsal and ventral
sinus. The former lodges the dorsal, the latter the ventral, blood-
vessel. The gut has no coelomic space surrounding it. A complex
CHAETOSOMATIDA—CHAFER
799
network places these sinuses and the lateral sinuses in communi-
cation. Here also the blood system has no communication with the
sinus system of the coelom. In Hirudo and the GnathobdeUidae
there is only one system of cavities which consist of four principal
longitudinal trunks, of which the two lateral are contractile, which
communicate with a network ramifying everywhere, even among
the cells of the epidermis. The network is partly formed out of
pigmented cells which are excavated and join to form tubes, the so-
called botryoidal tissue, not found among the RhynchobdeUidae at
all. It seems clear from the recent investigations of A. G. Bourne
and £. S. Goodrich that the vascular system and the coelom are in
communication (as in vertebrates by means of the lymph system).
On the other hand u it has been held that in these leeches there is no
vascular system at all and that the entire system of spaces is coelom.
In favour of regarding the vascular system as totally absent, is the
fact that the median coelomic channels contain no dorsal and
ventral vessel. In favour of seeing in the lateral trunks and their
branches a vascular system, is the contractility of the former, and
the fact of the intrusion of the latter into the epidermis, matched
among the Oligochaeta, where undoubted blood capillaries perforate
the epidermis. A further fact must be considered in deciding this
question, which is the discovery of ramifying coelomic tubes, ap-
proaching close to, but not entering, the epidermis in the Polychaete
Arenicola. These tubes are lined by flattened epithelium and often
contain blood capillaries; they communicate with the coelom and
are to be regarded as prolongation of it into the thickness of the
body wall.
Gonads and Gonad Ducts. — The gonads and their ducts in the
Hirudinea invariably form a closed system of cavities entirely shut
off from the coelom in which they lie. There is thus a broad resem-
blance to the Eudrilidae, to which group of Oligochaeta the Hiru-
dinea are further akin by reason of the invariably unpaired condition
of the generative apertures, and the existence of a copulatory
apparatus (both of which characters, however, are present occasion-
ally in other Oligochaeta).
The testes are more numerous than the ovaries, of which latter
there are never more than one pair. The testes vary in numbers of
pairs. Four (Ozobranchus) to six (Glossiphonia) or ten (Philaemon)
are common numbers. In Acanthobdella, however, the testes of each
side of the body have grown together to form a continuous band,
which extends in front of external pore. Each testis communicates
by means of an efferent duct with a common collecting duct of its
sideof the body, which opens on to the exterior by means of a pro-
trusible penis, and to which is sometimes appended a seminal vesicle.
The efferent ducts are ciliated, and there is a patch of cilia at the
point where they communicate with the cavity of each testis. The
ovaries are more extensive in some forms (e.g. Ozobranchus) than
in others, where they are small rounded bodies. The two ducts
continuous with the gonads open by a common vagina on to the
exterior behind the male pores. This " vagina " is sometimes of
exaggerated size. Thus, m Philaemon bungens (Lambert) it has
the form of a large sac, into which open by a single orifice the con-
joined oviducts. From this vagina arises a narrow duct leading to
the exterior. In Ozobranchus the structures in question are still
more complicated. The two long ovarian sacs communicate with
each other by a transverse bridge before uniting to form the terminal
canal. Into each ovarian sac behind the transverse junction opens
a slender tube, which is greatly coiled, and, in its turn, opens into
a spherical "spermathecal sac. From this an equally slender tube
proceeds, which joins its fellow of the opposite side, and the two form
a thick, walled tube, which opens on to the exterior within the bursa
copulatrix through which the penis protrudes. These two last-
mentioned types show features which can be, as it seems, matched
in the Eudrilidae.
The gonads develop (O. Burger) in coelomic spaces close to
nephridial funnels, which have, however, no relation to the gonad
ducts. The ovaries are solid bodies, of which the outer layer becomes
separated from the plug of cells lying within ; thus a cavity is formed
which is clearly coelom. This cavity and its walls becomes pro-
longed to form the oviducts. A stage exactly comparable to the
stage in the leeches, where the ovary is surrounded by a closed sac,
has been observed in Eudrilus. In this Annelid later the sac in
question joins its fellow, passing beneath the nerve cord exactly
as in the leech, and also grows out to reach the exterior. The sole
difference is therefore that in EudrUus the ovarian sac gives rise
to a tube which bifurcates, one branch meeting a corresponding
branch of the other ovary of the pair, while the second branch
reaches the exterior. In the leech tne two branches are fused into
one. We have here clearly a case of a true coelomoduct performing
the function of an oviduct in both leeches and Eudrilidae. The facts
just referred to suggest further comparisons between the Hirudinea
and Eudrilidae. The large sacs which have been termed vagina
are suggestive of the large coelomic spermathecae in Eudrilias, a
comparison which needs, however, embryological data, not at
present forthcoming, for its justification. It is at least clear that in
Ozobranchus this comparison is justifiable; but only probable, or
perhaps possible, in the case of PhUaemon. In the former, the duct,
leading from the ovarian sac, and swelling along its course into the
spherical sac, the " spermatheca," is highly suggestive of the oviduct
and receptaculum of the Eudrilidae.
The testes during development become hollowed out and are
prolonged into the vasa efferent ia. These ducts therefore have not
their exact counterparts in the Oligochaeta, unless we are to assume
that they collectively are represented by the seminal vesicles of
earthworms and the vasa deferentia. It is to be noted that the
Hirudinea differ from the Oligochaeta in that the male pore is in
advance of the gonads (except in Acanthobdella, which here, as in
so many points, approximates to the Oligochaeta), whereas in
Oligochaeta that pore is behind the gonads (again with an exception,
AUurus).
Classification. — The Hirudinea may be divided into three families : —
(i.) RhynchobdeUidae. — A protrusible proboscis exists, but there
are no jaws. The blood is colourless. Pontobdella, Glossiphonia, &c.
(ii.) GnathobdeUidae. — A proboscis absent, but jaws usually
present. Blood coloured red with haemoglobin. Hirudo, Nephelis,
(iii.) Acanthobdellidae. — Proboscis present, but short. Paired
setae of Oligochaetous pattern present in anterior segments. Blood
red . A canthobdella.
Literature.— A. O. Kovalevsky, Bull. Imp. Sci. (St Petersburg,
November 1896) (Acanthobdella); A. G. Bourne, Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sci., 1884; A. Oka, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., 1894; E. S. Good-
rich, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1899; W. E. Castle, Bull. Mus. Comfi.
Zool., 1900; A. M. Lambert, Proc. Roy. Soc. (Victoria, 1897) ; C. O.
Whitman, Journ. Morph., 1889 and 1891 ; O. Burger, Zeitschr. wiss.
Zool., 1902, and other memoirs by the above, and by St V. Apathy,
R. Blanchard, H. Bolsius, A. Dendy, R. S. Bergh, &c. (F. E. B.)
CHAETOSOMATIDA, a small group of minute, free-living,
aquatic organisms which are usually placed as an annex to
the Nematoda. Indeed Mechnikov, to
whom we owe much of our knowledge
of these forms, calls them " creeping
Nematoda." They are usually found
amongst seaweed in temperate seas, but
they are probably widely distributed;
some are fresh-water. The genus Chaeto-
soma, with the two species Ch. claparedii
and Ch. ophicephalum and the genus
THsticochaeta, have swollen heads. The
third genus Rhabdogaster has no such
distinct head, though the body may be
swollen anteriorly. The mouth is ter-
minal and anterior and surrounded by a
ring of spicules or a half-ring of hooks.
Scattered hairs cover the body. Just in
front of the anus there is in Chaetosoma
a double, and in Tristicochaela a triple
row of about fifteen stout cylindrical
projections upon which the animals
creep. The females are a little larger _?r°m Cambridge [Natural
than the males; in Ch. claparedii the by permution of Maanaluf &
former attain a length of 1*5 mm., the Co-F-
latter of 1 -12 mm. The mouth opens Mature female of
into an oesophagus which passes into an ( ^ tosom ^ claparedii,
intestine; this opens by a ventral anus *££.) ^o^ophagus;
situated a little in front of the posterior b t intestine; c, anus;
end. The testis is single, and its duct <*» ovary; e, genera-
opens with the anus, and is provided k^i 1 ** 6 ' ^ ventral
with a couple of spicules. The ovary is ** C8 '
double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral pore about
the middle of the body; in this region there is a second swelling
both in Chaetosoma and in Rhabdogaster. The last-named form
is in the female 0-36 mm. in length. In it the hairs are confined
to the dorsal middle line and the creeping setae are hooked, of
a finer structure than in Chaetosoma y and situated so far forward
that the vagina opens amongst them. Ch. ophicephalum has
been taken in the English Channel.
See E. Mechnikov, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xvu\, 1867, p. 537;
Panceri, Atti Ace. Napoli, vii., 1878, p. 7. (A. E. S.)
CHAFER, a word used in modern speech to distinguish the
beetles of the family Scarabaeidae, and more especially those
species which feed on leaves in the adult state. The word is
derived from the O. Eng. ceafor, and it is interesting to note
that the cognate Ger. K&fer is applied to beetles of all kinds.
For the characters of the Scarabaeidae see Coleoftera. This
family includes a large number of beetles, some of which feed on
8oo
CHAFF— CHAGRES
dung and others on vegetable tissues. The cockchafers and their
near allies belong to the subfamily Melolonthinae, and the
rose-chafers to the Cetoniinae; in both the beetles eat leaves, and
their grubs spend a long life underground devouring roots.
In Britain the Melolonthines that are usually noted as injurious
are the two species of cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris and M.
hippocastani), large heavy beetles with black pubescent pro-
thorax, brown elytra and an elongated pointed tail-process;
the summer-chafer (Rhizotrogus solstiHalis), a smaller pale
brown chafer; and the still smaller garden-chafer or " cocker-
bundy " (PhyUopertha horticola), which has a dark green pro-
thorax and brown elytra. Of the Cetoniines, the beautiful
metallic green rose-chafer, Cetonia aurata, sometimes causes
damage, especially in gardens. The larvae of the chafers are
heavy, soft-skinned grubs, with hard brown heads provided with
powerful mandibles, three pairs of well-developed legs, and a
swollen abdomen. As they grow, the larvae become strongly
flexed towards the ventral surface, and lie curled up in their
earthen cells, feeding on roots. The larval life lasts several
years, and in hard frosts the grubs go deep down away from the
surface. Pupation takes place in the autumn, and though the
perfect insect emerges from the cuticle very soon afterwards,
it remains in its underground cell for several months, not making
its way to the upper air until the ensuing summer. After pairing,
the female crawls down into the soil to lay her eggs. The grubs
of chafers, when turned up by the plough, are greedily devoured
by poultry, pigs and various wild birds. When the beetles
become so numerous as to call for destruction, they are usually
shaken off the trees where they rest on to sheets or tarred boards.
On the continent of Europe chafers are far more numerous than
in the United Kingdom, and the rural governments in France
give rewards for their destruction. D. Sharp states that in the
department of Seine-inferieure 867,173,000 cockchafers and
647,000,000 larvae were killed in the four years preceding 1870.
The anatomy of Melolontha is very fully described in a classical
memoir by H. E. Strauss-Durckheim (Paris, 1828). (G. H. C.)
CHAFF (from the A.S. ceaf, allied to the O. High Ger. cheva,
a husk or pod), the husks left after threshing grain, and also hay
and straw chopped fine as food for cattle; hence, figuratively,
the refuse or worthless part of anything. The colloquial use
of the word, to chaff, in the sense of to banter or to make fun of a
person, may be derived from this figurative sense, or from
" to chafe," meaning to vex or irritate.
CHAFF ARINAS, or Zaffarines, a group of islands belonging
to Spain off the north coast of Morocco, near the Algerian
frontier, 2} m. to the north of Cape del Agna. The largest of
these isles, Del Congreso, is rocky and hilly. It has a watch-
house on the coast nearest to Morocco. Isabella II., the central
island, contains several batteries, barracks and a penal convict
settlement. The Spanish government has undertaken the con-
struction of breakwaters to unite this island with the neighbouring
islet of El Rey , with a view to enclose a deep and already sheltered
anchorage. This roadstead affords a safe refuge for many large
vessels. The Chaffarinas, which are the Tres Insula* of the
Romans and the Zafrdn of the Arabs, were occupied by Spain
in 1848. The Spanish occupation anticipated by a few days a
French expedition sent from Oran to annex the islands to Algeria.
The population of the islands is under 1000.
CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA (1842- ), American general,
was born at Orwell, Ohio, on the 14th of April 1842. At the
outbreak of the Civil War he entered the United States cavalry
as a private, and he rose to commissioned rank in 1863,
becoming brevet captain in 1865. He remained in the army
after the war and took part with distinction in many Indian
campaigns. His promotion was, however, slow, and he was at
the age of fifty-six still a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. But in
1808, at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, he was made
brigadier-general and soon afterwardsmajor-generalof volunteers.
In the Cuban campaign he won particular distinction, and the
victory of the Americans in the action of El Caney was in large
measure due to his careful personal reconnaissances of the ground
to be attacked and to the endurance of his own brigade. After
reverting for a time to the rank of brigadier-general, he was made
a major-general U.S.V. again in 1000 and was appointed to
command the United States contingent in China. He took a
brilliant and successful part in the advance on Peking and the
relief of the Legations. In 1001 he became a major-general in
the regular army, and in 1001-1002 commanded the Division of
the Philippines. In 1 002-1003 he commanded the Department of
the East, and from 1004 to 1006 was chief of the general staff
of the army. In 1904 he received the rank of lieutenant-general
in the United States army, being the first enlisted man of the
regular army to attain this, the highest rank in the service.
He was retired at his own request on the 1st of February 1906,
after more than forty years' service.
CHAFFINCH (Fringilla coelebs), the common English name
of a bird belonging to the family FringiUidae (see Finch), and
distinguished, in the male sex, by the deep greyish blue of its
crown feathers, the yellowish green of its rump, the white of the
wing coverts, so disposed as to form two conspicuous bars, and
the reddish brown passing into vinous red of the throat and
breast. The female is drab, but shows the same white markings
as the male, and the young males resemble the females until
after the first autumn moult, when they gradually assume the
plumage of their sex. The chaffinch breeds early in the season,
and its song may often be heard in February. Its nest, which
is a model of neatness and symmetry, it builds on trees and bushes,
preferring such as are overgrown with moss and lichens. It is
chiefly composed of moss and wool, lined internally with grass,
wool, feathers, and whatever soft material the locality affords.
The outside consists of moss and lichens, and according to Selby,
" is always accordant with the particular colour of its situation."
When built in the neighbourhood of towns the nest is somewhat
slovenly and untidy, being often composed of bits of dirty straw,
pieces of paper and blackened moss; in one instance, near
Glasgow, the author of the Birds of the West of Scotland found
several postage-stamps thus employed. It lays four or five eggs
of a pale purplish buff, streaked and spotted with purplish red.
In spring the chaffinch is destructive to early flowers, and to
young radishes and turnips just as they appear above the surface;
in summer, however, it feeds principally on insects and their
larvae, while in autumn and winter its food consists of grain and
other seeds. On the continent of Europe the chaffinch is a
favourite song-bird, especially in Germany, where great attention
is paid to its training. • ]
CHAFING-DISH (from the O. Fr. chaufer, to make warm),
a kind of portable grate heated with charcoal, and used for
cooking or keeping food warm. In a light form, and heated
over a spirit lamp, it is also used for cooking various dainty
dishes at table. The employment of the chafing-dish for the
latter purpose has been largely restored in modern cookery.
CHAGOS, a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, belonging to
Britain, disposed in circular form round the Chagos bank, in
4° 44' to 7 39' S., and 70 55' to 72 52' E. The atolls on the
south and east side of the bank, which has a circumference of
about 270 m., have disappeared through subsidence; a few —
Egmont, Danger, Eagle, and Three Brothers — still remain on
the east side, but most of the population (about 700) is centred
on Diego Garcia, which lies on the south-east side, and is nearly
13 m. long by 6 m. wide. The lagoon, which is enclosed by two
coral barriers and accessible to the largest vessels on the north
side, forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world. The
group, which has a total land area of 76 sq. m., is dependent for
administrative purposes on Mauritius, and is regularly visited
by vessels from that colony. The only product is cocoa-nut oil,
of which about 106,000 gallons are annually exported. The
French occupied the islands in 179 1 from Mauritius, and the oil
industry (from which the group is sometimes called the Oil Islands)
came into the hands of French Creoles.
CHAGRES, a village of the Republic of Panama, on the
Atlantic coast of the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres
river, and about 8 m. W. of Colon. It has a harbour from 10 to
12 ft. deep, which is difficult to enter, however, on account of
bars at its mouth. The port was discovered by Columbus in
CHAIN— CHAIR
801
1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the Pacific
coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century.
With the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century
Chagres became the chief Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was
at the height of its importance during the great rush of gold-
hunters across the Isthmus to California in 1849 and the years
immediately following. With the completion of the Panama
railway in 1855, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and
Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence
of its former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the
river stands the castle of Lorenzo, which was destroyed by Sir
Henry Morgan when he captured the town in 1671, but
was rebuilt soon afterwards by the Spaniards. Chagres was
again captured in 1740 by British forces under Admiral Edward
Vernon.
CHAIN (through the O. Fr. chcdne, chane, &c, from Lat.
catena), a series of links of metal or other material so connected
together that the whole forms a flexible band or cord. Chains
are used for a variety of purposes, such as fastening, securing,
or connecting together two or more objects, supporting or lifting
weights, transmitting mechanical power, &c. ; or as an ornament
to serve as a collar, as a symbol of office or state, or as part of
the insignia of an order of knighthood; or as a device from
which to hang a jewelled or other pendant, a watch, &c. (see
Collar). Ornamental chains are made with a great variety of
links, but those intended for utilitarian purposes are mostly of
two types. In stud chains a stud or brace is inserted across each
link to prevent its sides from collapsing inwards under strain,
whereas in open link chains the links have no studs. The addition
of studs is reckoned to increase the load which the chain can
safely bear by 50%. Small chains of the open-link type are
to a great extent made by machinery. For larger sizes the
smith cuts off a length of iron rod of suitable diameter, forms it
while hot to the shape of the link by repeated blows of his hammer,
and welds together the two ends of the link, previously slipped
inside its fellow, by the aid of the same tool; in some cases the
bending is done in a mechanical press and the welding under a
power hammer (see also Cable) . Weldless chains are also made ;
in A. G. Stra them's process, for instance, cruciform steel bars
are pressed, while hot, into links, each without join and engaging
with its neighbours. Chains used for transmitting power are
known as pitch-chains; the chain of a bicycle (q.v.) is an example.
From the use of the chain as employed to bind or fetter a
prisoner or slave, comes the figurative application to anything
which serves as a constraining or restraining force; and from
its series of connected links, to any series of objects, events,
arguments, &c, connected by succession, logical sequence or
reasoning. Specific uses are for a measuring line in land-survey-
ing, consisting of 100 links, i.e. iron rods, 7*92 in. in length,
making 22 yds. in all, hence a lineal measure of that length;
and, as a nautical term, for the contrivance by which the lower
shrouds of a mast are extended and secured to the ship's
sides, consisting of dead-eyes, chain-plates, and chain-wale or
" channel."
CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chare, through O. Fr. chaere or chaiere,
from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. KaBkdpa, seat, cf. "cathedral";
the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English
with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chair e in French
is still used of a professorial or ecclesiastical " chair," or cathedra),
a movable seat, usually with four legs, for a single person, the
most varied and familiar article of domestic furniture. The
chair is of extreme antiquity, although for many centuries and
indeed for thousands of years it was an appanage of state and
dignity rather than an article of ordinary use. " The chair " is
still extensively used as the emblem of authority in the House
of Commons and in public meetings. It was not, in fact, until
the 1 6th century that it became common anywhere. The chest,
the bench and the stool were until then the ordinary seats of
everyday life, and the number of chairs which have survived
from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such ex-
amples are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge
of the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from
monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples
exist in the British Museum, in the Egyptian museum at Cairo,
and elsewhere. In ancient Egypt they appear to have been of
great richness and splendour. Fashioned of ebony and ivory,
or of carved and gilded wood, they were covered with costly
stuffs and supported upon representations of the legs of beasts
of the chase or the figures of captives. An arm-chair in fine
preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is
astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that " Empire "
style which followed Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. The
earliest monuments of Nineveh represent a chair without a back
but with tastefully carved legs ending in lions' claws or bulls'
hoofs; others are supported by figures in the nature of carya-
tides or by animals. The earliest known form of Greek chair,
going back to five or six centuries before Christ, had a back but
stood straight up, front and back. On the frieze of the Parthenon
Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned
legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of
beasts. The characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also
adorned with sphinxes; the curule chair was originally very
similar in form to the modern folding chair, but eventually
received a good deal of ornament.
The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down
from a remote antiquity is the reputed chair of St Peter in St
Peter's at Rome. The wooden portions are much decayed, but
it would appear to be Byzantine work of the 6th century, and
to be really an ancient sedia gestatoria. It has ivory carvings
representing the labours of Hercules. A few pieces of an earlier
oaken chair have been let in; the existing one, Gregorovius
says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the curule
chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not,
as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Bernini's bronze chair,
but is kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century.
Byzantium, like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of
chair, and in addition to lions' heads and winged figures of
Victory and dolphin-shaped arms used also the lyre-back which
has been made familiar by the pseudo-classical revival of the
end of the 1 8 th century. The chair of Maximian in the cathedral
of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle of the 6th century.
It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is carved in high
relief with figures of saints and scenes from the Gospels — the
Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into Egypt
and the baptism of Christ. The smaller spaces are filled with
carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament.
Another very ancient seat is the so-called "Chair of Dagobert" in
the Louvre. It is of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and
partially gilt; it is of the curule or faldstool type and supported
upon legs terminating in the heads and feet of animals. The
seat, which was probably of leather, has disappeared. Its attri-
bution depends entirely upon the statement of Suger, abbot of
St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms. Its
age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early
Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest
faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs
the famous abbots' chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might
readily be taken to pieces when their owners travelled. The
faldisterium in time acquired arms and a back, while retaining
its folding shape. The most famous, as well as the most ancient,
English chair is that made at the end of the 13th century for
Edward I., in which most subsequent monarchs have been
crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was
covered with gilded gesso which long since disappeared.
Passing from these historic examples we find the chair mono-
polized by the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively
late date. As the seat of authority it stood at the head of the
lord's table, on his dais, by the side of his bed. The seigneurial
chair, commoner in France and the Netherlands than in England,
is a very interesting type, approximating in many respects to
the episcopal or abbatial throne or stall. It early acquired a
very high back and sometimes had a canopy. Arms were in-
variable, and the lower part was closed in with panelled or
carved front and sides — the seat, indeed, was often hinged and
v. 26
802
CHAISE— CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF
sometimes closed with a key. That we are still said to sit " in "
an arm-chair and " on " other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of
the time when the lord or seigneur sat " in his chair." These
throne-like seats were always architectural in character, and as
Gothic feeling waned took the distinctive characteristics of
Renaissance work. It was owing in great measure to the Re-
naissance that the chair ceased to be an appanage of state, and
became the customary companion of whomsoever could afford
to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily
came into general use, and almost at once began to reflect the
fashions of the hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so
close an index to sumptuary changes. It has varied in size,
shape and sturdiness with the fashion not only of women's dress
but of men's also. Thus the chair which was not, even with its
arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the several reigns
of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became monstrous
when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced
coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so
threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a " conversation
chair" was devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit
with his face to the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded
over the front. The early chair almost invariably had arms, and
it was not until towards the close of the 16th century that the
smaller form grew common.
The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of
the 17th century were of oak without upholstery, and when it be-
came customary to cushion them, leather was sometimesemployed ;
subsequently velvet and silk were extensively used, and at a
later period cheaper and often more durable materials. Leather
was not infrequently used even for the costly and elaborate
chairs of the faldstool form — occasionally sheathed in thin plates
of silver — which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day,
indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials
for chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most
chairs until the middle of the 17th century was massiveness and
solidity. Being usually made of oak, they were of considerable
weight, and it was not until the introduction of the handsome
Louis XIII. chairs with cane backs and seats that either weight
or solidity was reduced. Although English furniture derives
so extensively from foreign and especially French and Italian
models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to
exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end
of the Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark
upon the British chair. The squat variety, with heavy and
sombre back, carved like a piece of panelling, gave place to a
taller, more slender, and more elegant form, in which the frame-
work only was carved, and attempts were made at ornament
in new directions. The stretcher especially offered opportunities
which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the Restoration.
From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen
the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate
scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament
connecting all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre.
The arms and legs of chairs of this period were scrolled, the
splats of the back often showing a rich arrangement of spirals
and scrolls. This most decorative of all types appears to have
been popularized in England by the cavaliers who had been in
exile with Charles II. and had become familiar with it in the
north-western parts of the European continent. During he
reign of William and Mary these charming forms degenerated
into something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid,
more or less fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet.
The more ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-pro-
portioned cane backs. From these forms was gradually developed
the Chippendale chair, with its elaborately interlaced back, its
graceful arms and square or cabriole legs, the latter terminating
in the claw and ball or the pad foot. Hepplewhite, Sheraton
and Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which, even in the
master hands of Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy.
The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere
comparatively slight. Chippendale and Hepplewhite between
them determined what appears to be the final form of the chair,
for since their time practically no new type has lasted, and in
its main characteristics the chair of the 20th century is the direct
derivative of that of the later 18th.
The 1 8th century was, indeed, the golden age of the chair,
especially in France and England, between which there was
considerable give and take of ideas. Even Diderot could not
refrain from writing of them in his Encyclopedic. The typical
Louis Seize chair, oval-backed and ample of seat, with descending
arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or some such
gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a
very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water
mark. The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes,
comfortable enough no doubt, but entirely destitute of inspira-
tion. English Empire chairs were often heavier and more sombre
than those of French design. Thenceforward the chair in all
countries ceased to attract the artist. The art nouveau school
has occasionally produced something of not unpleasing simplicity;
but more often its efforts have been frankly ugly or even
grotesque. There have been practically no novelties, with the
exception perhaps of the basket-chair and such like, which have
been made possible by modern command over material. So
much, indeed, is the present indebted to the past in this
matter that even the revolving chair, now so familiar in
offices, has a pedigree of something like four centuries (see also
Sedan-chair). (J. P.-B.)
CHAISE (the French for " chair," through a transference from
a " sedan-chair " to a wheeled vehicle) , a light two- or four-wheeled
carriage with a movable hood or " calash "; the " post-chaise "
was the fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th
centuries. It was closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses
and with the driver riding postillion.
CHAKRATA, a mountain cantonment in the Dehra Dun
district of the United Provinces of India, on the range of hills
overlooking the valleys of the Jumna and the Tons, at an
elevation of 7000 ft. It was founded in 1866 and first occupied
in April 1869.
CHALCEDON, more correctly Calchedon (mod. Kadikcui), an
ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost
directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari. It was a Megarian
colony founded on a site so obviously inferior to that which was
within view on the opposite shore, that it received from the
oracle the name of " the City of the Blind." In its early history
it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was taken by the satrap
Otanes, vacillated long between the Lacedaemonian and the
Athenian interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Romans
by Attalus III. of Pergamum (133 B.C.). It was partly destroyed
by Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in a.d. 451
was the seat of the Fourth General Council. It fell under the
repeated attacks of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after
having ravaged Byzantium, and furnished an encampment to
the Persians under Chosroes, c. 616-626. The Turks used it as
a quarry for building materials for Constantinople. The site
is now occupied by the village of Kadikeui (" Village of the
Judge "), which forms the tenth " cercle " of the municipality
of Constantinople. Pop. about 33,000, of whom 8000 are
Moslems. There is a large British colony with a church, and
also Greek and Armenian churches and schools, and a training
college for Roman Catholic Armenians. To the S. are the ruins
of Panteichion (mod. Pendik), where Belisarius is said to have
lived in retirement.
See J. von Hammer, Constantinopolis (Pesth, 1822); Murray's
Handbook for Constantinople (London, 1900).
CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OP, the fourth ecumenical council of
the Catholic Church, was held in 451, its occasion being the
Eutychian heresy and the notorious " Robber Synod " (see
Eutyches and Ephesus, Council op), which called forth
vigorous protests both in the East and in the West, and a loud
demand for a new general council, a demand that was ignored
by the Eutychian Theodosius II., but speedily granted by his
successor, Marcian, a " Flavianist." In response to the imperial
summons, five to six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the
Roman legates and two Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the
CHALCEDONY
803
8th of October 451. The bishop of Rome claimed for his legates
the right to preside, and insisted that any act that failed to receive
their approval would be invalid. The first session was tumultu-
ous; party feeling ran high, and scurrilous and vulgar epithets
were bandied to and fro. The acts of the Robber Synod were
examined; fraud, violence and coercion were charged against
it; its entire proceedings were annulled, and, at the third
session, its leader, Dioscurus, was deposed and degraded. The
emperor requested a declaration of the true faith; but the
sentiment of the council was opposed to a new symbol. It
contented itself with reaffirming the Nicene and Constantino-
politan creeds and the Ephesine formula of 431, and accepting,
only after examination, the Christological statement contained
in the Epistola Dogmatica of Leo I. (q.v.) to Flavianus. Thus
the council rejected both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, and
stood upon the doctrine that Christ had two natures, each
perfect in itself and each distinct from the other, yet perfectly
united in one person, who was at once both God and man. With
this statement, which was formally subscribed in the presence
of the emperor, the development of the Christological doctrine
was completed, but not in a manner to obviate further con-
troversy (see Monophysites and Monotheutes).
The remaining sessions, vii.-xvi., were occupied with matters
of discipline, complaints, claims, controversies and the like.
Canons were adopted, thirty according to the generally received
tradition, although the most ancient texts contain but twenty-
eight, and, as Hefele points out, the so-called twenty-ninth and
thirtieth are properly not canons, but repetitions of proposals
made in a previous session.
The most important enactments of the council of Chalcedon
were the following: (1) the approval of the canons of the first
three ecumenical councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-
Caesarea, Changra, Antioch and Laodicea; (2) forbidding trade,
secular pursuits and war to the clergy, bishops not even being
allowed to administer the property of their dioceses; (3) for-
bidding monks and nuns to marry or to return to the world;
likewise forbidding the establishment of a monastery in any
diocese without the consent of the bishop, or the disestablish-
ment of a monastery once consecrated; (4) punishing with
deposition an ordination or clerical appointment made for
money; forbidding " absolute ordination " (i.e. without assign-
ment to a particular charge), the translation of clerics except
for good cause, the enrolment of a cleric in two churches at once,
and the performance of sacerdotal functions outside of one's
diocese without letters ^of commendation from one's bishop;
(5) confirming the jurisdiction of bishops over all clerics, regular
and secular alike, and punishing with deposition any conspiracy
against episcopal authority; (6) establishing a gradation of
ecclesiastical tribunals, viz. bishop, provincial synod, exarch
of the diocese, patriarch of Constantinople (obviously the council
could not here have been legislating for the entire church);
forbidding clerics to be running to Constantinople with com-
plaints, without the consent of their respective bishops; (7)
confirming the possession of rural parishes to those who had
actually administered them for thirty years, providing for the
adjudication of conflicting claims, and guaranteeing the integrity
of metropolitan provinces; (8) confirming the third canon of
the second ecumenical council, which accorded to Constanti-
nople equal privileges (tea Tcp&fleia) with Rome, and the second
rank among the patriarchates, and, in addition, granting to
Constantinople patriarchal jurisdiction over Pontus, Asia and
Thrace.
The Roman legates, who were absent (designedly ? ) when this
famous twenty-eighth canon was adopted, protested against
it, but in vain, the imperial commissioners deciding in favour of
its regularity and validity. Leo I., although he recognized the
council as ecumenical and confirmed its doctrinal decrees, rejected
canon xxviii. on the ground that it contravened the sixth canon
of Nicaea and infringed the rights of Alexandria and Antioch.
In what proportion zeal for the ancient canons and the rights
of others, and jealous fear of encroachment upon his own juris-
diction, were mixed in the motives of Leo, it would be interesting
to know. The canon was universally received in the East, and
was expressly confirmed by the Quinisext Council, 692 (see
Constantinople, Councils of).
The emperor Martian approved the doctrinal decrees of the
council and enjoined silence in regard to theological questions.
Eutyches and Dioscurus and their followers were deposed and
banished. But harmony was not thus to be restored; hardly
had the council dissolved when the church was plunged into the
Monophysite controversy.
See Mansi vi. pp. 529-1102, vii. pp. 1-868; Hardouin ii. pp. 1-772;
Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 394-578 (English translation, iii. pp. 268-
464); also extended bibliographies in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
pddie, 3rd ed., s.v. " Eutyches " (by Loofs) and s.v. " Nestorianer "
(by Kessler). (T. F. C.)
CHALCEDONY, or Calcedony (sometimes called by old
writers cassidoine), a variety of native silica, often used as an
ornamental stone. The present application of the term is com-
paratively modern. The " chalcedonius " of Pliny was quite
a different mineral, being a green stone from the copper-mines
of Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, whence the name. There has been
some confusion between chalcedony and the ancient "carcedonia,"
a stone which seems to have been a carbuncle from Africa,
brought by way of Carthage (Kapxn&&v). Our chalcedony
was probably included by the ancients among the various kinds
of jasper and agate, especially the varieties termed " leucachates "
and " cerachates."
By modern mineralogists the name chalcedony is restricted
to those kinds of silica which occur not in distinct crystals like
ordinary quartz, but in concretionary, mammillated or stalac-
titic forms, which break with a fine splintery fracture, and
display a delicate fibrous structure. Chalcedony may be regarded
as a micro-crystalline form of quartz. It is rather softer and
less dense than crystallized quartz, its hardness being about
6-5 and its specific gravity 2-6, the difference being probably
due to the presence of a small amount of opaline silica between
the fibres. Chalcedony is a translucent substance of rather
waxy lustre, presenting great variety of colours, though usually
white, grey, yellow or brown. A rare blue chalcedony is some-
times polished under the name of " sapphirine " — a term applied
also to a distinct mineral (an aluminium-magnesium silicate)
from Greenland.
Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral in volcanic rocks,
representing usually the silica set free by the decomposition of
various silicates, and deposited in cracks, forming veins, or in
vesicular hollows, forming amygdales. Its occurrence gives the
name to Chalcedony Park, Arizona. It is found in the basalts
of N. Ireland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland: it is common in
the traps of the Deccan in India, and in volcanic rocks in Uruguay
and Brazil. Certain flat oval nodules from a decomposed lava
(augite-andesite) in Uruguay present a cavity lined with quartz
crystals and enclosing liquid (a weak saline solution), with a
movable air-bubble, whence they are called " enhydros " or
water-stones. Very fine examples of stalactitic chalcedony, in
whimsical forms, have been yielded by some of the Cornish
copper-mines. The surface of chalcedony is occasionally coated
with a delicate bluish bloom. A chalcedonic deposit in the form
of concentric rings, on fossils and fragments of limestone in S.
Devon, is known as " orbicular silica " or " beekite," having
been named after Dr Henry Beeke, dean of Bristol, who first
directed attention to such deposits. Certain pseudomorphs of
chalcedony after datolite, from Haytor in Devonshire, have
received the name of " haytorite." Optical examination of
many chalcedonic minerals by French mineralogists has shown
that they are aggregates of various fibrous crystalline bodies
differing from each other in certain optical characters, whence
they are distinguished as separate minerals under such names
as calcedonite,pseudocalcedonite,quartzine, lutecite andlussatite.
Many coloured and variegated chalcedonies are cut and polished
as ornamental stones, and are described under special headings.
Chalcedony has been in all ages the commonest of the stones used
by the gem-engraver.
See Agate, Bloodstone, Carnelian, Chrysoprase, Helio-
trope, Mocha Stone, Onyx, Sard and Sardonyx. (F. W. R.*)
804
CHALCIDICUM— CHALDAEA
CHALCIDICUM, in Roman architecture, the vestibule or
portico of a public building opening on to the forum; as in the
basilica of Eumactria at Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine
at Rome, where it was placed at one end.
CHALCIS, the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece,
situated on the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point.
The name is preserved from antiquity and is derived from the
Greek %*>#& (copper, bronze), though there is no trace of
any mines in the neighbourhood. Chalcis was peopled by an
Ionic stock which early developed great industrial and colonizing
activity. In the 8th and 7th centuries it founded thirty town-
ships on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and several important cities
in Sicily (q.v.). Its mineral produce, metal-work, purple and
pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but
were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth
and Samos. With the help of these allies Chaicis engaged the
rival league of its neighbour Eretria (q.v.) in the so-called
Lelantine War, by which it acquired the best agricultural district
of Euboea and became the chief city of the island. Early in the
6th century its prosperity was broken by a disastrous war with
the Athenians, who expelled the ruling aristocracy and settled
a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently became a mem-
ber of both the Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period
it gained inportance as a fortress by which the Macedonian
rulers controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus
III. of Syria (192) and Mithradates VI. of Pontus (SB) as a base
for invading Greece. Under Roman rule Chalcis retained a
measure of commercial prosperity; since the 6th century a.d.
it again served as a fortress for the protection of central Greece
against northern invaders. From 1209 it stood under Venetian
control; in 1470 it passed to the Ottomans, who made it the
seat of a pasha. In 1688 it was successfully held against a
strong Venetian attack. The modern town has about 10,000
inhabitants, and maintains a considerable export trade which
received an impetus from the establishment of railway connexion
with Athens and Peiraeus (1904). It is composed of two parts —
the old walled town towards the Euripus, called the Castro,
where the Jewish and Turkish families who have remained there
mostly dwell; and the more modern suburb that lies outside it,
which is chiefly occupied by the Greeks. A part of the walls of
the Castro and many of the houses within it were shaken down
by the earthquake of 1894; part has been demolished in the
widening of the Euripus. The most interesting object is the
church of St Paraskeve, which was once the chief church of the
Venetians; it dates from the Byzantine period, though many
of its architectural features are Western. There is also a Turkish
mosque, which is now used as a guard-house.
Authorities. — Strabo vii. fr. n, x. p. 447; Herodotus v. 77;
Thucydides i. is; Corpus Inset. Atlicarum, iv. (1) 27a, iv. (2) 10, iv.
(2) p. 22; W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece (London, 1835),
ii. 254-270; E. Curtius in Hermes, x. (1876), p. 220 sqq.; A. Holm,
Lange Fehde (Berlin, 1884); H. Dondortt, De Rebus Cnalcidensium
SGttttingen, 1869); for coinage, B. V. Head, Historia Numorum
Oxford, 1887), pp. 303-5; and art. Numismatics: Greek § Euboea.
CHALCONDYLES 1 (or Chalcocondylas), LAONICUS, the
only Athenian Byzantine writer. Hardly anything is known
of his life. He wrote a history, in ten books, of the period from
1 298-1463, describing the fall of the Greek empire and the rise
of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the centre of the narrative,
down to the conquest of the Venetians and Mathias, king of
Hungary, by Mahommed II. The capture of Constantinople
he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching im-
portance, although the comparison of it to the fall of Troy is
hardly appropriate. The work incidentally gives a quaint and
interesting sketch of the manners and civilization of England,
France and Germany, whose assistance the Greeks sought to
obtain against the Turks. Like that of other Byzantine writers,
Chalcondyles' chronology is defective, and his adherence to the
old Greek geographical nomenclature is a source of confusion.
For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain infor-
mation from his father, who was one of the most prominent
1 A shortened form of Chalcocondyles, from xoAiuk, copper, and
K6vdv\oi, knuckle.
men in Athens during the struggles between the Greek and
Frankish nobles. His model is Thucydides (according to Bekker,
Herodotus); his language is tolerably pure and correct, his
style simple and clear. The text, however, is in a very corrupt
state.
Edilio princeps, ed. J. B. Baumbach (1615); in Bonn Carpus
Scriptorum Hist. Byz. ed. I. Bekker (1843) ; Migne, Palrologia Grace*,
clix. There is a French translation by Blaise de Vigenere (15771
later ed. by Artus Thomas with valuable illustrations on Turkish
matters); see also F. Gregorovius, Gesckiehte der Stadt A then im
Mtttelalter, ii. (1889); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 66; C. Krum-
bacher, Gesckiehte der bvzantiniscken Litteratur (1897). There is a
biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother in Greek by An-
tonius Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter part
of the 16th century (see C. Hopf, Ckroniques greco-romams, 1873).
His brother, Demetrius Chalcondyles (1424-1511), was
born in Athens. In 1447 ne migrated to Italy, where Cardinal
Bessarion gave him his patronage. He became famous as a
teacher of Greek letters and the Platonic philosophy; in 1463
he was made professor at Padua, and in 1479 he was summoned
by Lorenzo de' Medici to Florence to fill the professorship
vacated by John Argyropoulos. In 1492 he removed to Milan,
where he died in 151 1. He was associated with Marsilius
Ficinus, Angelus Politianus, and Theodorus Gaza, in the revival
of letters in the western world. One of his pupils at Florence
was the famous John Reuchlin. Demetrius Chalcondyles
published the editio princeps of Homer, Isocrates, and Suidas,
and a Greek grammar (Erotemata) in the form of question and
answer.
See H. Hody, De Graecis illustrious (1742); C. Hopf, Ckroniques
grico-romanes (1873); E. Legrand, Bibliographic kcllenique, u
(1885).
CHALDAEA. The expressions "Chaldaea" and "CluUdaeans"
are frequently used in the Old Testament as equivalents for
" Babylonia " and " Babylonians." Chaldaea was really the
name of a country, used in two senses. It was first applied to
the extreme southern district, whose ancient capital was the
city of BU Yakin, the chief seat of the renowned Chaldaean
rebel Merodach-baladan, who harassed the Assyrian kings
Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not as yet possible to fix the
exact boundaries of the original home of the Chaldaeans, but
it may be regarded as having been the long stretch of alluvial
land situated at the then separate mouths of the Tigris and
Euphrates, which rivers now combine to flow into the Persian
Gulf in the waters of the majestic Shalt el % Arab*
The name " Chaldaea," however, soon came to have a more
extensive application. In the days of the Assyrian king Ramman-
nirari III. (812-783 B.C.), the term mat KaldU covered practically
all Babylonia. Furthermore, Merodach-baladan was called by
Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.) " king of the land of the Chaldaeans "
and " king of the land of Bit Yakin " after the old capital city,
but there is no satisfactory evidence that Merodach-baladan
had the right to the title " Babylonian." The racial distinction
between the Chaldaeans and the Babylonians proper seems to
have existed until a much later date, although it is almost
certain that the former were originally a Semitic people. That
they differed from the Arabs and Aramaeans is also seen from the
distinction made by Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) between the
Chaldaeans and these races. Later, during the period covering
the fall of Assyria and the rise of the Neo-Babylonian empire,
the term tnai KaldU was not only applied to all Babylonia,
but also embraced the territory of certain foreign nations who
were later included by Ezekiel (xxiii. 23) under the expression
"Chaldaeans."
As already indicated, the Chaldaeans were most probably
a Semitic people. It is likely that they first came from Arabia,
the supposed original home of the Semitic races, at a very early
date along the coast of the Persian Gulf and settled in the
neighbourhood of Ur (" Ur of the Chaldees," Gen. xi. 28), whence
they began a series of encroachments, partly by warfare and
partly by immigration, against the other Semitic Babylonians.
These aggressions after many centuries ended in the Chaldaean
supremacy of Nabopolassar and his successors (c. 626 ff.),
although there is no positive proof that Nabopolassar was
CHALDEE— CHALIER
805
purely Chaldaean in blood. The sudden rise of the later Baby-
lonian empire under Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabopolassar,
must have tended to produce so thorough an amalgamation of
the Chaldaeans and Babylonians, who had theretofore been
considered as two kindred branches of the same original Semite
stock, that in the course of time no perceptible differences
existed between them. A similar amalgamation, although in
this case of two peoples originally racially distinct, has taken
place in modern times between the Manchu Tatars and the
Chinese. It is quite evident, for example, from the Semitic
character of the Chaldaean king-names, that the language of
these Chaldaeans differed in no way from the ordinary Semitic
Babylonian idiom which was practically identical with that of
Assyria. Consequently, the term " Chaldaean " came quite
naturally to be used in later days as synonymous with " Baby-
lonian." When subsequently the Babylonian language went
out of use and Aramaic took its place, the latter tongue was
wrongly termed " Chaldee " by Jerome, because it was the only
language known to him used in Babylonia. This error was
followed until a very recent date by many scholars.
The derivation of the name " Chaldaean " is extremely
uncertain. Peter Jensen has conjectured with slight probability
that the Chaldaeans were Semitized Sumerians, i.e. a non-
Semitic tribe which by contact with Semitic influences had lost
its original character. There seems to be little or no evidence
to support such a view. Friedrich Debtzsch derived the name
" Chaldaean " = Kasdim from the non-Semitic Kassites who
held the supremacy over practically all Babylonia during an
extended period (c. 1 783-1 200 B.C.). This theory seems also
to be extremely improbable. It is much more likely that the
name " Chaldaean " is connected with the Semitic stem kasddu
(conquer), in which case Kaldi-KaSdi, with the well-known
interchange of / and $, would mean " conquerors." It is also
possible that KaSdu-Kaldu is connected with the proper name
Chesed, who is represented as having been the nephew of
Abraham (Gen. xxii. 22). There is no connexion whatever
between the Black Sea peoples called " Chaldaeans " by Xeno-
phon (Anab. vii. 25) and the Chaldaeans of Babylonia.
In Daniel, the term " Chaldaeans" is very commonly employed
with the meaning " astrologers, astronomers," which sense also
appears in the classical authors, notably in Herodotus, Strabo
and Diodorus. In Daniel i. 4, by the expression " tongue of
the Chaldaeans," the writer evidently meant the language in
which the celebrated Babylonian works on astrology and divina-
tion were composed. It is now known that the literary idiom
of the Babylonian wise men was the non-Semitic Sumerian;
but it is not probable that the kte author of Daniel (c. 168 B.C.)
was aware of this fact.
The word " Chaldaean " is used in Daniel in two senses. It is
applied as elsewhere in the Old Testament as a race-name to the
Babylonians (Dan. iii. 8, v. 30, ix. 1); but the expression is
used oftener, either as a name lor some special class of magicians,
or as a term for magicians in general (ix. 1). The transfer of the
name of the people to a special class is perhaps to be explained
in the following manner. As just shown, " Chaldaean " and
" Babylonian " had become in later times practically synonymous,
but the term " Chaldaean " had lived on in the secondary re-
stricted sense of " wise men." The early Kaldi had seized and
held from very ancient times the region of old Sumer, which
was the centre of the primitive non-Semitic culture. It seems
extremely probable that these Chaldaean Semites were so strongly
influenced by the foreign civilization as to adopt it eventually as
their own. Then, as the Chaldaeans soon became the dominant
people, the priestly caste *>f that region developed into a Chal-
daean institution. It is reasonable to conjecture that southern
Babylonia, the borne of the old culture, supplied Babylon and
other important cities with priests, who from their descent were
correctly called " Chaldaeans." This name in later times, owing
to the racial amalgamation of the Chaldaeans and Babylonians,
lost its former national force, and became, as it occurs in Daniel,
a distinctive appellation of the Babylonian priestly class. It is
possible, though not certain, that the occurrence of the word kalu
(priest) in Babylonian, which has no etymological connexion
with KcUdUy may have contributed paronomastically towards
the popular use of the term " Chaldaeans " for the Babylonian
Magi. (See also Astrology.)
Literature. — Delattre, Les Chaldiens iusqu'a la fond, de Vemp.
de Nebuch. (1889); Winckler, Untersucnungen zur allot* Gesch.
(1889), pp. 49 ff.; Gesch. Bab. u. Assyr. (1892), pp. in ff.; Prince,
Commentary on Daniel (1899), pp. 59-61; see also Babylonia and
Assyria and Sumer and Sumerian. (J. D. Pr.)
CHALDEE, a term sometimes applied to the Aramaic portions
of the biblical books of Ezra and Daniel or to the vernacular
paraphrases of the Old Testament (see Targum). The explana-
tion formerly adopted and embodied in the name Chaldee is
that the change took place in Babylon. That the so-called
Biblical Chaldee, in which considerable portions of the books of
Ezra and Daniel are written, was really the language of Babylon
was supposed to be clear from Dan. ii. 4, where the Chaldaeans
are said to have spoken to the king in Aramaic. But the cunei-
form inscriptions show that the language of the Chaldaeans was
Assyrian; and an examination of the very large part of the
Hebrew Old Testament written later than the exile proves con-
clusively that the substitution of Aramaic for Hebrew as the
vernacular of Palestine took place very gradually. Hence
scholars are now agreed that the term " Chaldee " is a misnomer,
and that the dialect so called is really the language of the South-
western Arameans, who were the immediate neighbours of the
Jews (W. Wright, Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages,
p. 16). (See Semitic Languages.)
CHALICE (through a central O. Fr. form of the Lat. calix,
calicis, cup), a drinking-vessel of the cup or goblet form, now only
used of the cup used in the celebration of the Eucharist (q.v.).
For the various forms which the " chalice " so used has taken,
see Drinking- Vessels and Plate. When, in the eucharistic
service, water is mixed with the wine, the " chalice " is known
as the " mixed chalice." This has been customary both in the
Eastern and Western Churches from early times. The Armenian
Church does not use the " mixed chalice." It was used in the
English Church before the Reformation. According to the
present law of the English Church, the mixing of the water with
wine is lawful, if this is not done as part of or during the services,
i.e. if it is not done ceremonially (Martin v. Mackonochie, 1868,
L.R. 2 P.C. 365; Read v. Bp. of Lincoln, 1892, A.C. 664).
CHALIER, JOSEPH (1747-1793), French Revolutionist. He
was destined by his family for the church, but entered business,
and became a partner in a firm at Lyons for which he travelled
in the Levant, in Italy, Spain and Portugal. He was in Paris in
1789, and entered into relations with Marat, Camille Desmoulins
and Robespierre. On his return to Lyons, Chalier was the first
to be named member of the municipal bureau. He organized
the national guard, applied the civil constitution of the clergy,
and regulated the finances of the city so as to tax the rich heavily
and spare the poor. Denounced to the Legislative Assembly
by the directory of the department of Rhone-et-Loire for having
made a nocturnal domiciliary perquisition, he was sent to the
bar of the Assembly, which approved of his conduct. In the
election for mayor of Lyons, in November 1792, he was defeated
by a Royalist. Then Chalier became the orator and leader of
the Jacobins of Lyons, and induced the other revolutionary clubs
and the commune of his city to arrest a great number of Royalists
in the night of the 5th and 6th of February 1793. The mayor,
supported by the national guard, opposed this project. Chalier
demanded of the Convention the establishment of a revolutionary
tribunal and the levy of a revolutionary army at Lyons. The
Convention refused, and the anti-revolutionary party, encouraged
by this refusal, took action. On the 29th and 30th of May 1793
the sections rose; the Jacobins were dispossessed of the muni-
cipality and Chalier arrested. On the 15th of July, in spite
of the order of the Convention, he was brought before the
criminal tribunal of the Rhone-et-Loire, condemned to death,
and guillotined the next day. The Terrorists paid a veritable
worship to his memory, as to a martyr of Liberty.
See N. Wahl, "fitude sur Chalier," in Revue historiaue, t. xxxiv.;
and Les Premieres Annies de la Revolution a Lyon (Paris, 1894).
8o6
CHALK
CHALK, the name given to any soft, pulverulent, pure white
limestone. The word is an old one, having its origin in the
Saxon cealc, and the hard form " kalk " is still in use amongst
the country folk of Lincolnshire. The German Kalk comprehends
all forms of limestone; therefore a special term, Kreide, is em-
ployed for chalk — French crate. From being used as a common
name, denoting a particular material, the word was subsequently
utilized by geologists as an appellation for the Chalk formation;
and so prominent was this formation in the eyes of the earlier
workers that it imposed its name upon a whole system of rocks,
the Cretaceous (Lat. creta, chalk), although this rock itself is by
no means generally characteristic of the system as a whole.
The Chalk formation, in addition to the typical chalk material
— creta scriptoria — comprises several variations; argillaceous
kinds — creta tnarga of Linnaeus — known locally as malm, marl,
chinch, &c; and harder, more stony kinds, called rag, freestone,
rock, hurlock or harrock in different districts. In certain parts
of the formation layers of nodular flints (q.v.) abound; in parts,
it is inclined to be sandy, or to contain grains of glauconite
which was originally confounded with another green mineral,
chlorite, hence the name " chloritic marl " applied to one of the
subdivisions of the chalk. In its purest form chalk consists of
from 95 to 99% of calcium carbonate (carbonate of lime); in
this condition it is composed of a mass of fine granular particles
held together by a somewhat feeble calcareous cement. The
particles are mostly the broken tests of foraminifera, along with
the debris of echinoderm and molluscan shells, and many minute
bodies, like coccoliths, of somewhat obscure nature.
The earliest attempts at subdivision of the Chalk formation
initiated by Wm. Phillips were based upon lithological characters,
and such a classification as " Upper Chalk with Flints," " Lower
Chalk without Flints," " Chalk marl or Grey chalk," was generally
in use in England until W. Whitaker established the following order
in 1865:—
Upper Chalk, with flints
( chalk rock
Lower Chalk -j chalk with few flints
, chalk without flints
1 Totternhoe stone
Chalk Marl
marl
In France, a similar system of classification was in vogue, the
subdivisions being craie blanche, craie tufan, crate chloritee, until
1843 when d'Orbigny proposed the term Senonien for the Upper
Chalk and Turonien for the Lower ; later he divided the Turonten,
giving the name Cinomanien to the lower portion. The subdivisions
of d'Orbigny were based upon the fossil contents and not upon the
lithological characters of the rocks. In 1876 Prof. Ch. Barrois
showed how d'Orbigny 's classification might be applied to the
British chalk rocks; and this scheme has been generally adopted
by geologists, although there is some divergence of opinion as to
the exact position of the base line of the Cenomanian.
The accompanying table shows the classification now adopted in
England, with the zonal fossils and the continental names of the
substages : —
N. France
Zonal fossils used in Britain.
Stages.
and
S.E. and
Belgium.
S. France.
rOstrea lunata (Norfolk)
Danian?
|
(Trimingham)
£ X
Belemnitella mucronata
J3 B
j3
A.^
Actinocamax quadratus
Upper Chalk
u v>
w
= Inoceramus lingua in Yorkshire
Senonian
bo **
c en
%
MartupOestestudinarium j #£E&
Craie blanche
nt-beari;
ACEOUS
c
s
(Micraster cor-anguinum
B.-j „ cor-testudinarium
c .
4
%2£
\Holaster planus, Chalk rock
Fli
Cret
Terebratulina gracilis
Middle Chalk
Turonian
j)
a*
Rhynchonella Cuvieri, Melbourne rock
Craie marneuse
k.
n artic
Lower Chalk.
Chalk Marl and
eg ^
to
•0
Cambridge Green-
■8 1
s
sand
>? *
$
Actinocamax flenus
Holaster subgtobosus, Totternhoe stone.
Cenomanian
«T
Craie glauconieuse
Schloenbachva varians.
2
Since Prof. Barrois introduced the zonal system of subdivision
(C. Evans had used a similar scheme six years earlier), our know*
ledge of the English chalk has been greatly increased by the work
of Jukes-Browne and William Hill, and particularly by the
laborious studies of Dr A. W. Rowe. Instead of employing the
mixed assemblage of animals indicated as zone fossils in the
table, A. de Grossouvre proposed a scheme for the north of
France based upon ammonite faunas alone, which he contended
would be of more general applicability (Recherches sur la Craie
Superieure, Paris, 1901).
The Upper Chalk has a maximum thickness in England of
about 1000 ft., but post-cretaceous erosion has removed much
of it in many districts. It is more constant in character, and
more typically chalky than the lower stages; flints are abundant,
and harder nodular beds are limited to the lower portions, where
some of the compact limestones are known as " chalk rock."
The thickness of the Middle Chalk varies from about 100 to 240 ft. ;
flints become scarcer in descending from the upper to the lower
portions. The whole is more compact than the upper stage,
and nodular layers are more frequent — the " chalk rock " of
Dorset and the Isle of Wight belong to this stage. At the base
is the hard " Melbourne rock." The thickness of the Lower
Chalk in England varies from 60 to 240 ft. This stage includes
part of the " white chalk without flints," the " chalk marl,"
and the " grey chalk." The Totternhoe stone is a hard freestone
found locally in this stage. The basement bed in Norfolk is a
pure limestone, but very frequently it is marly with grains of
sand and glauconite, and often contains phosphatic nodules;
this fades is equivalent to the " Cambridge Greensand " of
some districts and the " chloritic marl " of others. In Devonshire
the Lower Chalk has become thin sandy calcareous series.
The chalk can be traced in England from Flamborough Head
in Yorkshire, in a south-westerly direction, to the coast of Dorset;
and it not only underlies the whole of the S.E. corner, where it
is often obscured by Tertiary deposits, but it can be followed
across the Channel into northern France. Rocks of the same
age as the chalk are widespread (see Cretaceous System);'
but the variety of limestone properly called by this name is
almost confined to the Anglo-Parisian basin. Some chalk occurs
in the great Cretaceous deposits of Russia, and in Kansas, Iowa,
Nebraska and S. Dakota in the United States. Hard white
chalk occurs in Ireland in Antrim, and on the opposite shore of
Scotland in Mull and Morven.
Economic Products of the Chalk. — Common chalk has been
frequently used for rough building purposes, but the more
important building stones are " Beer stone," from Beer Head
in Devonshire, " Sutton stone " from a little north of Beer, and
the " Totternhoe stone." It is burned for lime, and when mixed
with some form of clay is used for the manufacture of cement;
I chalk marl has been used alone for this purpose. As a manure,
it has been much used as a dressing for
clayey land. Flints from the chalk are used
for road metal and concrete, and have been
employed in building as a facing for walls.
Phosphatic nodules for manure have been
worked from the chloritic marl and Cam-
bridge Greensand, and to some extent from
the Middle Chalk. The same material is
worked at Ciply in Belgium and Picardy in
France. Chalk is employed in the manu-
facture of carbonate of soda, in the prepara-
tion of carbon dioxide, and in many other
chemical processes; also for making paints,
crayons and tooth-powder. Whiting or
Spanish white, used to polish glass and
metal, is purified chalk prepared by triturat-
ing common chalk with a large quantity of
water, which is then decanted and allowed
to deposit the finely-divided particles it
holds in suspension.
Chalk Scenery. — Where exposed at the
surface, chalk produces rounded, smooth,
CHALKHILL— « CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION
807
grass-covered Mils as in the Downs of southern England and the
Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The hills are often inter-
sected by clean-cut dry valleys. It forms fine cliffs on the coast
of Kent, Yorkshire and Devonshire.
Chalk is employed medicinally as a very mild astringent either
alone or more usually with other astringents. It is more often
used, however, for a purely mechanical action, as in the prepara-
tion hydrargyrum cum creta. As an antacid its use has been
replaced by other drugs.
Black chalk or drawing slate is a soft carbonaceous schist,
which gives a black streak, so that it can be used for drawing or
writing. Brown chalk is a kind of umber. Red chalk or reddle
is an impure earthy variety of haematite. French chalk is a
soft variety of steatite, a hydrated magnesium silicate.
The most comprehensive account of the British chalk is contained
in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom,
"The Cretaceous Rocks of Britain," vol. ii. 1903, vol. iii. 1904
(with bibliography), by Tukes-Browne and Hill. See also " The
White Chalk of the English Coast," several papers in the Proceedings
of the Geologists' Association, London, (1) Kent and Sussex, xvi. 1900,
(2) Dorset, xvii., 1901, (3) Devon, xviii., 1903, (4) Yorkshire, xviii.,
1904. Q. A. H.)
CHALKHILL, JOHN (fl. 1600?), English poet. Two songs by
him are included in Izaak Walton's Compleat Angler, and in 1683
appeared " Thealma and Clearchus. A Pastoral History in
smooth and easie Verse. Written long since by John Chalkhfll,
Esq., an Acquaintant and Friend of Edmund Spencer " (1683),
with a preface written five years earlier by Walton. Another
poem, " Alcilia, Philoparthens Loving Follie " (1595, reprinted
in vol. x. of the Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare- Vereins), was
at one time attributed to him. Nothing further is known of the
poet, but a person of his name occurs as one of the coroners for
Middlesex in the later years of Queen Elizabeth's reign. Pro-
fessor Saintsbury, who included Thealma and Clearchus in vol. ii.
of his Minor Poets of the Caroline Period (Oxford, 1006), points out
a marked resemblance between his work and that of William
Chamberlayne.
CHALKING THE DOOR, a Scottish custom of landlord and
tenant law. In former days the law was that " a burgh officer, in
presence of witnesses, chalks the most patent door forty days
before Whit Sunday, having made out an execution of 'chalking,'
in which his name must be inserted, and which must be sub-
scribed by himself and two witnesses." This ceremony now
proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The
execution of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal
will be pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the
tenant may be ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days.
CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN (1818-
1894), French historian, was born in Paris on the 18th of March
1 818. His writings consist chiefly of popular works, which
enjoyed great success. The value of some of his books is en-
hanced by numerous illustrations, e.g. Histoire-musee de la
Revolution franchise, which appeared in 50 numbers in 1 841-1842
(3rd ed., in 72 numbers, 1857-1858); Histoire de la mode en
France; la toilette des femmes depuis Vfyoque gaUo-romaine
jusqu'd nos jours (1874, with 12 plates; new ed., 1880, with
21 coloured plates). His M&moires du peuple francaise (1865-
1873) and La France et les Franqais & travers les siecles (1882) at
least have the merit of being among the first books written on
the social history of France. In this sense Challamel was a
pioneer, of no great originality, it is true, but at any rate of
fairly wide information. He died on the 20th of October 1894.
CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND (1827-1896), French
statesman, was born at Avranches on the 19th of May 1827.
After passing through the £cole Normale Supeneure he became
professor of philosophy successively at Pau and at Limoges.
The coup d'&at of 185 1 caused his expulsion from France for his
republican opinions. He travelled on the continent, and in 1856
settled down as professor of French literature at the Polytechnic
of Zurich. The amnesty of 1 8 59 enabled him to return to France,
but a projected course of lectures on history and art was im-
mediately suppressed. He now supported himself by his pen, and
became a regular contributor to the reviews. On the fall of the
Second Empire in September 1870 the government of national
defence appointed him prefect of the department of the Rhone,
in which capacity he had to suppress the Communist rising at
Lyons. Resigning his post on the 5th of February 1 871, he was
in January 1872 elected to the National Assembly, and in 1876
to the Senate. He sat at first on the Extreme Left; but his
philosophic and critical temperament was not in harmony with
the recklessness of French radicalism, and his attitude towards
political questions underwent a steady modification, till the close
of his life saw him the foremost representative of moderate
republicanism. During Gambetta's lifetime, however, Challemel-
Lacour was one of his warmest supporters, and he was for a time
editor of Gambetta's organ, the Rtpublique franqaise. In 1879
he was appointed French ambassador at Bern, and in 1880
was transferred to London; but he lacked the suppleness and
command of temper necessary to a successful diplomatist. He
resigned in 1882, and in February 1883 became minister of foreign
affairs in the Jules Ferry cabinet, but retired in November
of the same year. In 1890 he was elected vice-president of the
Senate, and in 1893 succeeded Jules Ferry as its president. His
influence over that body was largely due to his clear and reasoned
eloquence, which placed him at the head of contemporary French
orators. In 1893 he also became a member of the French
Academy. He distinguished himself by the vigour with which he
upheld the Senate against the encroachments of the chamber, but
in 1895 failing health forced him to resign, and he died in Paris on
the 26th of October 1896. He published a translation of A.
Heinrich Ritter's Geschichte der Philosophic (1861); La Pkilo-
sophie individualiste; itude sur Guillaume de Humboldt (1864);
and an edition of the works of Madame d'fipinay (1869).
In 1897 appeared Joseph Reinach's edition of the (Euvres oratoires
de ChaUemel-Lacour.
CHALLENGE (O. Fr. chalonge, calenge, &c, from Lat. calumnia,
originally meaning trickery, from calvi, to deceive, hence a false
accusation, a " calumny "), originally a charge against a person
or a claim to anything, a defiance. The term is now particularly
used of an invitation to a trial of skill in any contest, or to a
trial by combat as a vindication of personal honour (see Duel),
and, in law, of the objection to the members of a jury allowed
in a civil action or in a criminal trial (see Jury).
"CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION. The scientific results of
several short expeditions between i860 and 1870 encouraged
the council of the Royal Society to approach the British govern-
ment, on the suggestion of Sir George Richards, hydrographer
to the admiralty, with a view to commissioning a vessel for
a prolonged cruise for oceanic exploration. The government
detailed H.M.S. " Challenger," a wooden corvette of 2306 tons,
for the purpose. Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares was
placed in command, with a naval crew; and a scientific staff
was selected by the society with Professor (afterwards Sir) C.
Wyville Thomson as director. The staff included Mr (afterwards
Sir) John Murray and Mr H. N. Moseley, biologists; Dr von
Willemoes-Suhm, Commander Tizard, and Mr J. Y. Buchanan,
chemist and geologist. A complete scheme of instructions was
drawn up by the society. The " Challenger " sailed from Ports-
mouth in December 1872. For nearly a year the work of the
expedition lay in the Atlantic, which was crossed several times.
Teneriffe, the Bermudas, the Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd
Islands, Bahia and Tristan da Cunha were successively visited,
and in October 1873 the ship reached Cape Town. Steering then
south-east and east she visited the various islands between 45
and 50 S., and reached Kerguelen Island in January 1874.
She next proceeded southward about the meridian of 8o° E.
She was the first steamship to cross the Antarctic circle, but
the attainment of a high southerly latitude was not an object of
the voyage, and early in March the ship left the south polar
regions and made for Melbourne. Extensive researches were
now made in the Pacific. The route led by New Zealand, the
Fiji Islands, Torres Strait, the Banda Sea, and the China Sea to
Hong Kong. The western Pacific was then explored northward
to Yokohama, after which the " Challenger " struck across the
ocean by Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso. She then coasted
8o8
CHALLONER— CHALMERS, G
southward, penetrated the Straits of Magellan, touched at
Montevideo, recrossed the Atlantic by Ascension and the Azores,
and reached Sheerness in May 1876. This voyage is without
parallel in the history of scientific research. The " Challenger "
Report was issued in fifty volumes (London, 1 880-1 895), mainly
under the direction of Sir John Murray, who succeeded Wyville
Thomson in this work in 1882. Specialists in every branch of
science assisted in its production. The zoological collections
alone formed the basis for the majority of the volumes; the
deep-tea soundings and samples of the deposits, the chemical
analysis of water samples, the meteorological, water-temperature,
magnetic, geological, and botanical observations were fully
worked out, and a summary of the scientific results, narrative
of the cruise and indices were also provided.
See also Lord G. Campbell, Log Letters from the " Challenger"
(1876); W.J.J. Spry, Cruise of H.M.S. "Challenger" (1876);
Sir C. Wyvitte Thomson, Voyage of the " Challenger," The Atlantic,
Preliminary Account of General Results (1877); J. J. Wild, At
Anchor; Narrative of Experiences afloat and ashore during the
Voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger " (1878) ; H. N. Moeeley, Notes by a
Naturalist on the " Challenger " (1879).
CHALLONER, RICHARD (1691-1781), English Roman
Catholic prelate, was born at Lewes, Sussex, on the 29th of
September 1691. After the death of his father, who was a rigid
Dissenter, his mother, left in poverty, lived with some Roman
Catholic families. Thus it came about that he was brought up
as a Roman Catholic, chiefly at the seat of Mr Holman at
Warkworth, Northamptonshire, where the Rev. John Gother,
a celebrated controversialist, officiated as chaplain. In 1704 he
was sent to the English College at Douai, where he was ordained
a priest in 17 16, took his degrees in divinity, and was appointed
professor in that faculty. In 1730 he was sent on the English
mission and stationed in London. The controversial treatises
which he published in rapid succession attracted much attention,
particularly his Catholic Christian Instructed (1737), which was
prefaced by a witty reply to Dr Conyers Middleton's Letters from
Rome , showing an Exact Conformity between Popery and Paganism.
Middleton is said to have been so irritated that he endeavoured
to put the penal laws in force against his antagonist, who
prudently withdrew from London. In 1 741 Challoner was raised
to the episcopal dignity at Hammersmith, and nominated co-
adjutor with right of succession to Bishop Benjamin Petre,
vicar-apostolic of the London district, whom he succeeded in
1758. He resided principally in London, but was obliged to
retire into the country during the " No Popery " riots of 1780.
He died on the 12th of January 1781, and was buried at Milton,
Berkshire. Bishop Challoner was the author of numerous con-
troversial and devotional works, which have been frequently
reprinted and translated into various languages. He compiled
the Garden of the Soul (1740 ?), which continues to be the most
popular manual of devotion among English-speaking Roman
Catholics, and he revised an edition of the Douai version of the
Scriptures ( 1 749-1 7 50) , correcting the language and orthography,
which in many places had become obsolete. Of his historical
works the most valuable is one which was intended to be a Roman
Catholic antidote to Foxe's well-known martyrology. It is
entitled Memoirs of Missionary Priests and other Catholicks of
both Sexes who suffered Death or Imprisonment in England on
account of their Religion, from the year 1577 till the end of
the reign of Charles II. (2 vols. 1741, frequently reprinted).
He also published anonymously, in 1745, the lives of English,
Scotch and Irish saints, under the title of Britannia Sancta, an
interesting work which has, however, been superseded by that of
Alban Butler.
For a complete list of his writings see J. Gillow's Bibl. Diet, of
Eng. Cath. 1. 452-458; Barnard, Life of R. Challoner (1784);
Flanagan, History of the Catholic Church in England (1857); there
is also a critical history of Challoner by Rev. £. Burton.
CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1759-1834), Scottish writer,
was born in Aberdeen on the 29th of March 1759. He was
educated as a doctor, but gave up this profession for journalism,
and he was for some time editor of the Morning Herald. Besides
editions of the works of Shakespeare, Beattie, Fielding, Johnson,
Warton, Pope, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, he published A General
Biographical Dictionary in 32 vols.(i8i2-i8i7); a Glossary to
Shakspeare (1797); an edition of Steevens's Shakespeare
(i8cp); and the British Essayists, beginning with the Taller and
ending with the Observer, with biographical and historical prefaces
and a general index. He died in London on the 19th of December
1834.
CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825), Scottish antiquarian and
political writer, was born at Fochabers, a village in the county of
Moray, in 1 742. His father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of
George Chalmers of Pittensear, a small estate in the parish of
Lhanbryde, now St Andrews-Lhanbryde, in the same county,
possessed by the main line of the family from about the beginning
of the 1 7th to the middle of the 18th century. After completing
the usual course at King's College, Aberdeen, young Chalmers
studied law in Edinburgh for several years. Two uncles on the
father's side having settled in America, he visited Maryland in
1763, with the view, it is said, of assisting to recover a tract of
land of some extent about which a dispute had arisen, and was in
this way induced to commence practice as a lawyer at Baltimore,
where for a time he met with much success. Having, however,
espoused the cause of the Royalist party on the breaking out of
the American War of Independence, he found it expedient to
abandon his professional prospects in the New World, and return
to his native country. For the losses he had sustained as a
colonist he received no compensation, and several years elapsed
before he obtained an appointment that placed him in a state of
comfort and independence.
In the meantime Chalmers applied himself with great diligence
and assiduity to the investigation of the history and establish-
ment of the English colonies in North America; and enjoying
free access to the state papers and other documents preserved
among what were then termed the plantation records, he became
possessed of much important information. His work entitled
Political Annals of the present United Colonies from their Settlement
to the Peace of 1763, 4to, London, 1780, was to have formed two
volumes; but the second, which should have contained the period
between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume,
however, is complete in itself, and traces the original settlement of
the different American colonies, and the progressive changes in
their constitutions and forms of government as affected by the
state of public affairs in the parent kingdom. Independently of
its value as being compiled from original documents, it bears
evidence of great research, and has been of essential benefit to
later writers. Continuing his researches, he next gave to the
world An Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Britain during
the Present and Four Preceding Reigns, London, z 782, which passed
through several editions. At length, in August 1786, Chalmers,
whose sufferings as a Royalist must have strongly recommended
him to the government of the day, was appointed chief clerk to
the committee of privy council on matters relating to trade, a
situation which he retained till his death in 1825, a period of
nearly forty years. As his official duties made no great demands
on his time, he had abundant leisure to devote to his favourite
studies, — the antiquities and topography of Scotland having
thenceforth special attractions for his busy pen.
Besides biographical sketches of Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan
Ramsay, Sir David Lyndsay, Churchyard and others, prefixed to
editions of their respective works, Chalmers wrote a life of
Thomas Paine, the author of the Rights of Man, which he pub-
lished under the assumed name of Francis Oldys, A.M., of the
University of Pennsylvania; and a life of Ruddiman, in which
considerable light is thrown on the state of literature in Scotland
during the earlier part of the last century. His life of Mary,
Queen of Scots, in two 4 to vols., was first published in 1 8 1 8. It is
founded on a MS. left by John Whitaker, the historian of Man-
chester; but Chalmers informs us that he found it necessary to
rewrite the whole. The history of that ill-fated queen occupied
much of his attention, and his last work, A Detection of the Love-
Letters lately attributed in Hugh CampbelTs work to Mary Queen of
Scots, is an exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some
fictitious letters said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell,
CHALMERS, G. P.— CHALMERS, T.
809
which had fallen into deserved oblivion. In 1797 appeared his
Apology for the Believers in the Shakespeare Papers which were
exhibited in Norfolk Street, followed by other tracts on the same
subject. These contributions to the literature of Shakespeare
are f uD of curious matter, but on the whole display a great waste of
erudition, in seeking to show that papers which had been proved
forgeries might nevertheless have been genuine. Chalmers also
took part in the Junius controversy, and in The Author of Junius
Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting
to Moral Demonstration, Lond. 181 7, 8vo, sought to fix the author-
ship of the celebrated letters on Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published
The Poetical Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first
collected; and in the same year he edited and presented as a con-
tribution to the Bannatyne Club Robene and Makyne and the
Testament ofCresseid, by Robert Henryson. His political writings
are equally numerous. Among them may be mentioned Collec-
tion of Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers, Lond.
1790, 2 vols. 8vo; Vindication of the Privileges of the People in
respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion, &c, Lond.
1796, 8vo, published anonymously; A Chronological Account of
Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till
1 810, Lond. 1 8 10, 8vo; Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various
points of English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies ;
Fisheries, and Commerce of Great Britain, Lond. 1814, 2 vols.
8vo; Comparative Views of the State of Great Britain before and
since the War, Lond. 181 7, 8vo.
But Chalmers's greatest work is his Caledonia, which, however,
he did not live to complete. The first volume appeared in 1807,
and is introductory to the others. It is divided into four books,
treating successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish
and the Scoto-Saxon periods, from 80 to 1306 a.d. In these we are
presented, in a condensed form, with an account of the people,
the language and the civil and ecclesiastical history, as well as
the agricultural and commercial state of Scotland during the
first thirteen centuries of our era. Unfortunately the chapters
on the Roman period are entirely marred by the author's having
accepted as genuine Bertram's forgery De Situ Britanniae;
but otherwise his opinions on controverted topics are worthy of
much respect, being founded on a laborious investigation of all
the original authorities that were accessible to him. The second
volume, published in 18 10, gives an account of the seven south-
eastern counties of Scotland — Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington,
Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Peebles and Selkirk — each of them being
treated of as regards name, situation and extent, natural objects,
antiquities, establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture,
manufactures and trade, and ecclesiastical history. In 1824,
after an interval of fourteen years, the third volume appeared,
giving, under the same headings, a description of the seven
south-western counties — Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigtown,
Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the preface to this
volume the author states that the materials for the history of
the central and northern counties were collected, and that he
expected the work would be completed in two years, but this
expectation was not destined to be realized. He had also been
engaged on a history of Scottish poetry and a history of printing
in Scotland. Each of them he thought likely to extend to two
large quarto volumes, and on both he expended an unusual
amount of enthusiasm and energy. He had also prepared for the
press an elaborate history of the life and reign of David I. In
his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James, son of
Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin.
George Chalmers died in London on the 31st of May 1825.
His valuable and extensive library he bequeathed to his nephew,
at whose death in 184 1 it was sold and dispersed. Chalmers was a
member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies of London, an
honorary member of the Antiquarian Society of Scotland, and
a member of other learned societies. In private life he was
undoubtedly an amiable man, although the dogmatic tone that
disfigures portions of his writings procured him many opponents.
Among his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the most
distinguished were Malone and Steevens, the Shakespeare editors;
Mathias, the author of the Pursuits of Literature, Dr Jamieson,
the Scottish lexicographer; Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving,
the biographer of the Scottish poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool.
But with all his failings in judgment Chalmers was a valuable
writer. He uniformly had recourse to original sources of in-
formation; and he is entitled to great praise for his patriotic
and self-sacrificing endeavours to illustrate the history, literature
and antiquities of his native country. (J. M'D.)
CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878), Scottish painter,
was born at Montrose, and studied at Edinburgh. His land-
scapes are now more valued than the portraits which formed his
earlier work. The best of these are " The End of the Harvest "
(1873), " Running Water " (1875), and " The Legend " (in the
National Gallery, Edinburgh). He became an associate (1867)
and a full member (187 1) of the Scottish Academy.
CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901), Scottish missionary to
New Guinea, was born at Ardrishaig in Argyll. After serving
in the Glasgow City Mission he passed through Cheshunt CoDege,
and, being accepted by the London Missionary Society, was
appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in 1866. Here the
natives gave him the well-known name " Tamate." After ten
years' service, especially in training native evangelists, he was
transferred to New Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but
sane missionary work, Chalmers did much to open up the island,
and, with his colleague W. G. Lawes, gave valuable aid in the
British annexation of the south-east coast of the island. On
the 8th of April 1901, in company with a brother missionary,
Oliver Tomkins, he was killed by cannibals at Goaribari Island.
R. L. Stevenson has left on record his high appreciation of
Chalmers's character and work.
Chalmers's Autobiography and Letters were edited by Richard
Lovett in 1902, who also wrote a popular life called Tamate.
CHALMERS, THOMAS (1 780-1847), Scottish divine, was born
at Anstruther in Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. At the
age of eleven he was entered as a student at St Andrews, where he
devoted himself almost exclusively to mathematics. In January
1799 he was licensed as a preacher of the Gospel by the St
Andrews presbytery. In May 1803, after attending further
courses of lectures in Edinburgh, and acting as assistant to the
professor of mathematics at St Andrews, he was ordained as
minister of Kilmany in Fifeshire, about 9 m. from the university
town, where he continued to lecture. His mathematical lectures
roused so much enthusiasm that they were discontinued by order
of the authorities, who disliked the disturbance of the university
routine which they involved. Chalmers then opened mathemati-
cal classes on his own account which attracted many students;
at the same time he delivered a course of lectures on chemistry,
and ministered to his parish at Kilmany. In 1805 he became a
candidate for the vacant professorship of mathematics at
Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1808 he published an
Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of National Resources, a
contribution to the discussion created by Bonaparte's commercial
policy. Domestic bereavements and a severe illness then turned
his thoughts in another direction. At his own request the article
on Christianity was assigned to him in Dr Brewster's Edinburgh
Encyclopaedia, and in studying the credentials of Christianity he
received a new impression of its contents. His journal and letters
show how he was led from a sustained effort to attain the morality
of the Gospel to a profound spiritual revolution. After this his
ministry was marked by a zeal which made it famous. The
separate publication of his article in the Edinburgh Encyclo-
paedia, and contributions to the Edinburgh Christian Instructor
and the Eclectic Review, enhanced his reputation as an author.
In 181 5 he became minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow, in
spite of determined opposition to him in the town council on the
ground of his evangelical teaching. From Glasgow his repute
as a preacher spread throughout the United Kingdom. A
series of sermons on the relation between the discoveries of
astronomy and the Christian revelation was published in January
181 7, and within a year nine editions and 20,000 copies were m
circulation. When he visited London Wilberforce wrote, ''all
the world is wild about Dr Chalmers." ...
In Glasgow Chalmers made one of his greatest contributions
v. 26 a
8io
CHALMERS, T.
to the life of his own time by his experiments in parochial organ-
ization. His parish contained about 11,000 persons, and of
these about one-third were unconnected with any church. He
diagnosed this evil as being due to the absence of personal influ-
ence, spiritual oversight, and the want of parochial organizations
which had not kept pace in the city, as they had done in rural
parishes, with the growing population. He declared that twenty
new churches, with parishes, should be erected in Glasgow, and
he set to work to revivify, remodel and extend the old parochial
economy of Scotland. The town council consented to build one
new church, attaching to it a parish of 10,000 persons, mostly
weavers, labourers and factory workers, and this church was
offered to Dr Chalmers that he might have a fair opportunity
of testing his system.
* In September 1819 he became minister of the church and
parish of St John, where of 2000 families more than Soo had no
connexion with any Christian church. He first addressed him-
self to providing schools for the children. Two school-houses
with four endowed teachers were established, where 700 children
were taught at the moderate fees of 2s. and 3s. per quarter.
Between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools were opened, where
more than 1000 children were taught the elements of secular and
religious education. The parish was divided into 25 districts
embracing from 60 to 100 families, over each of which an elder
and a deacon were placed, the former taking oversight of their
spiritual, the latter of their physical needs. Chalmers was the
mainspring of the whole system, not merely superintending the
visitation, but personally visiting all the families, and holding
evening meetings, when he addressed those whom he had visited.
This parochial machinery enabled him to make a singularly
successful experiment in dealing with the problem of poverty.
At this time there were not more than 20 parishes north of the
Forth and Clyde where there was a compulsory assessment for
the poor, but the English method of assessment was rapidly
spreading. Chalmers believed that compulsory assessment
ended by swelling*; the evil it was intended to mitigate, and that
relief should be raised and administered by voluntary means.
His critics replied that this was impossible in large cities. When
he undertook the management of the parish of St John's, the
poor of the parish cost the city £1400 per annum, and in four
years, by the adoption of his method, the pauper expenditure
was reduced to £280 per annum. The investigation of all new
applications for relief was committed to the deacon of the district,
and every effort was made to enable the poor to help themselves.
When once the system was in operation it was found that a
deacon, by spending an hour a week among the families com-
mitted to his charge, could keep himself acquainted with their
character and condition.
In 1823, after eight years of work at high pressure, he was glad
to accept the chair of moral philosophy at St Andrews, the
seventh academic offer made to him during his eight years in
Glasgow. In his lectures he excluded mental philosophy and
included the whole sphere of moral obligation, dealing with
man's duty to God and to his fellow-men in the light of Christian
teaching. Many of his lectures are printed in the first and
second volumes of his published works. In ethics he made con-
tributions to the science in regard to the place and functions of
volition and attention, the separate and underived character of
the moral sentiments, and the distinction between the virtues
of perfect and imperfect obligation. His lectures kindled the
religious spirit among his students, and led some of them to
devote themselves to missionary effort. In November 1828 he
was transferred to the chair of theology in Edinburgh. He then
introduced the practice of following the lecture with a viva voce
examination on what had been delivered. He also introduced
text-books, and came into stimulating contact with his people;
perhaps no one has ever succeeded as he did by the use of these
methods in communicating intellectual, moral and religious im-
pulse to so many students.
These academic years were prolific also in a literature of various
kinds. In 1826 he published a third volume of the Christian and
Civic Economy of Large Towns, a continuation of work begun
at St John's, Glasgow. In 1832 he published a Political Economy,
the chief purpose of which was to enforce the truth that the
right economic condition of the masses is dependent on their
right moral condition, that character is the parent of comfort,
not vice versa. In 1833 appeared a treatise on Tlte Adaptation of
External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man.
In 1834 Dr Chalmers was elected fellow of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, and in the same year he became corresponding
member of the Institute of France; in 1835 Oxford conferred on
him the degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he became leader of the
evangelical section of the Scottish Church in the General
Assembly. He was appointed chairman of a committee for
church extension, and in that capacity made a tour through
a large part of Scotland, addressing presbyteries and holding
public meetings. He also issued numerous appeals, with the
result that in 1841, when he resigned his office as convener of the
church extension committee, he was able to announce that in
seven years upwards of £300,000 had been contributed, and 220
new churches had been built. His efforts to induce the Whig
government to assist in this effort were unsuccessful.
In 1 84 1 the movement which ended in the Disruption was
rapidly culminating, and Dr Chalmers found himself at the
head of the party which stood for the principle that " no minister
shall be intruded into any parish contrary to the will of the
congregation " (see Free Church of Scotland). Cases of con-
flict between the church and the civil power arose in Auchter-
arder, Dunkeld and Marnoch; and when the courts made it
clear that the church, in their opinion, held its temporalities
on condition of rendering such obedience as the courts required,
the church appealed to the government for relief. In January
1843 the government put a final and peremptory negative on
the church's claims for spiritual independence. On the 18th of
May 1843 470 clergymen withdrew from the general assembly
and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland, with
Dr Chalmers as moderator. He had prepared a sustentation
fund scheme for the support of the seceding ministers, and this
was at once put into successful operation. On the 30th of May
1847, immediately after his return from the House of Commons,
where he had given evidence as to the refusal of sites for Free
Churches by Scottish landowners, he was found dead in bed.
Dr Chalmers' action throughout the Free Church controversy
was so consistent in its application of Christian principle and
so free from personal or party animus, that his writings are a
valuable source for argument and illustration on the question
of Establishment. " I have no veneration," he said to the
royal commissioners in St Andrews, before either the voluntary
or the non-intrusive controversies had arisen, " for the Church of
Scotland qua an establishment, but I have the utmost veneration
for it qua an instrument of Christian good. " He was transparent
in character, chivalrous, kindly, firm, eloquent and sagacious;
his purity of motive and unselfishness commanded absolute con-
fidence; he had originality and initiative in dealing with new and
difficult circumstances, and great aptitude for business details.
During a life of incessant activity Chalmers scarcely ever
allowed a day to pass without its modicum of composition;
at the most unseasonable times, and in the most unlikely places,
he would occupy himself with literary work. His writings
occupy more than 30 volumes. He would have stood higher as
an author had he written less, or had he indulged less in that
practice of reiteration into which he was constantly betrayed by
his anxiety to impress his ideas upon others. As a political
economist he was the first to unfold the connexion that subsists
between the degree of the fertility of the soil and the social
condition of a community, the rapid manner in which capital
is reproduced (see Mill's Political Economy, i. 94), and the
general doctrine of a limit to all the modes by which national
wealth may accumulate. He was the first also to advance that
argument in favour of religious establishments which meets
upon its own ground the doctrine of Adam Smith, that religion
like other things should be left to the operation of the natural
law of supply and demand. In the department of natural
theology and the Christian evidences he ably advocated that
CHALONER— CHAL0N-SUR-SA6NE
8ii
method of reconciling the Mosaic narrative with the indefinite
antiquity of the globe which William Buckland (1784-1856)
advanced in his Bridgewater Treatise, and which Dr Chalmers
had previously communicated to him. His refutation of Hume's
objection to the truth of miracles is perhaps his intellectual
chef-d'oeuvre. The distinction between the laws and dispositions
of matter, as between the ethics and objects of theology, he was
the first to indicate and enforce, and he laid great emphasis on
the superior authority as witnesses for the truth of Revelation of
the Scriptural as compared with the Extra-Scriptural writers, and
of the Christian as compared with the non-Christian testimonies.
In his Institutes of Theology, no material modification is attempted
on the doctrines of Calvinism, which he received with all simplicity
of faith as revealed in the Divine word, and defended as in
harmony with the most profound philosophy of human nature
and of the Divine providence.
For biographical details see Dr W. Hanna's Memoirs (Edinburgh,
4 vols., 1840-1852); there is a good short life by Mrs Oliphant
(1893). (W. Ha.;D. Mn.)
CHALONER, SIR THOMAS (1521-1565), English statesman
and poet, was the son of Roger Chaloner, mercer of London,
a descendant of the Denbighshire Chaloners. No details are
known of his youth except that he was educated at both Oxford
and Cambridge. In 1540 he went, as secretary to Sir Henry
Knyvett, to the court of Charles V., whom he accompanied in
his expedition against Algiers in 1541, and was wrecked on the
Barbary coast. In 1547 he joined in the expedition to Scotland,
and was knighted, after the battle of Musselburgh, by the
protector Somerset, whose patronage he enjoyed. In 1549 he
was a witness against Dr Bonner, bishop of London; in 1551
against Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester; in the spring
of the latter year he was sent as a commissioner to Scotland, and
again in March 1552. In 1 553 he went with Sir Nicholas Wotton
and Sir William Pickering on an embassy to France, but was
recalled by Queen Mary on her accession. In spite of his Pro-
testant views, Chaloner was still employed by the government,
going to Scotland in 1555-1556, and providing carriages for
troops in the war with France, 1 557-1 558. In 1558 he went as
Elizabeth's ambassador to the emperor Ferdinand at Cambrai,
from July 1559 to February 1559/60 he was ambassador to
King Philip at Brussels, and in 156 1 he went in the same capacity
to Spain. His letters are full of complaints of his treatment
there, but it was not till 1564, when in failing health, that he
was allowed to return home. He died at his house in Clerkenwell
on the 14th of October 1565. He acquired during his years of
service three estates, Guisborough in Yorkshire, Steeple Claydon
in Buckinghamshire, and St Bees in Cumberland. He married
(1) Joan, widow of Sir Thomas Leigh; and (2) Etheldreda,daughter
of Edward Frodsham, of Elton, Cheshire, by whom he had one
son, Sir Thomas Chaloner (1 56 1-161 5) , the naturalist. Chaloner
was the intimate of most of the learned men of his day, and with
Lord Burghley he had a life-long friendship. Throughout his
busy official life he occupied himself with literature, his Latin
verses and his pastoral poems being much admired by his con-
temporaries. Chaloner's " Howe the Lorde Mowbray . . . was
. . . banyshed the Realme," printed in the 1 559 edition of William
Baldwin's Mirror for Magistrates (repr. in vol. ii. pt. 1 of Joseph
Haslewood's edition of 181 5), has sometimes been attributed
to Thomas Churchyard. His most important work, De Rep.
Anglorum instauranda libri decern, written while he was in Spain,
was first published by William Malim (1579, 3 pts.), with compli-
mentary Latin verses in praise of the author by Burghley and
others. Chaloner's epigrams and epitaphs were also added to
the volume, as well as In laudem Henrici octavi . . . carmen
Panegericum, first printed in 1560. Amongst his other works
are The praise offolie, Moriae encomium ... by Erasmus . . .
Englished by Sir Thomas Chaloner, Knight (1549, ed. Janet E.
Ashbee, 1001); A book of the Office of Servantes (1543), translated
from Gilbert Cognatus; and An komilie of Saint John Chrysostome
. . . Englished by T. C. (1544).
See " The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St Bees," by William
Jackson, in Transactions of the Cumberland Assoc, for ike Advance-
ment of Literature and Science, pt. vi. pp. 47-74, 1 880-1 881.
CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, a town of north-eastern France,
capital of the department of Marne, 107 m. E. of Paris on the
main line of the Eastern railway to Nancy, and 25 m. S.S.E. of
Reims. Pop. (1906) 22,424. Chalons is situated in a wide level
plain principally on the right bank of the Marne, its suburb of
Marne, which contains the railway stations of the Eastern and Est-
£tat railways, lying on the left bank. The town proper is bordered
on the west by the lateral canal of the Marne, across which lies
a strip of ground separating it from the river itself. Chalons
is traversed by branches of the canal and by small streams, and
its streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, but it is
surrounded by ample avenues and promenades, the park known
as the Jard, in the south-western quarter, being especially
attractive. Huge barracks lie to the north and east. There are
several interesting churches in the town. The cathedral of St
fitienne dates chiefly from the 13th century, but its west facade
is in the classical style and belongs to the 17 th century. There
are stained-glass windows of the 13 th century in the north
transept. Notre-Dame, of the 12 th and 13 th centuries, is con-
spicuous for its four Romanesque towers, two flanking the apse;
the other two, surmounted by tall lead spires, flanking the
principal facade. The churches of St. Alpin, St Jean and St
Loup date from various periods between the nth and the 17th
centuries. The h6tel-de-ville (1771), facing which stands a
monument to President Carnot; the prefecture (1 759-1 764), once
the residence of the intendants of Champagne; the college, once
a Jesuit establishment; and a training college which occupies
the Augustinian abbey of Toussaints (16th and 17th centuries),
are noteworthy civil buildings. The houses of Chalons are
generally ill-built of timber and plaster, or rough-cast, but some
old mansions, dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, remain.
The church of Ste Pudentienne, on the left bank of the river, is a
well-known place of pilgrimage. The town is the seat of a bishop
and a prefect, and headquarters of the VI. army corps; it has
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a museum, a library,
training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a communal
college and an important technical school The principal industry
is brewing, which is carried on in the suburb of Marne. Galleries
of immense length, hewn in a limestone hill and served by lines
of railway, are used as store-houses for beer. The preparation
of champagne, the manufacture of boots and shoes, brushes,
wire-goods and wall-paper also occupy many hands. There is
trade in cereals.
Chalons-sur-Marne occupies the site of the chief town of the
Catalauni, and some portion of the plains which lie between it
and Troyes was the scene of the defeat of Attila in the conflict
of 451. In the 10th and following centuries it attained great
prosperity as a kind of independent state under the supremacy
of its bishops, who were ecclesiastical peers of France. In 1214
the militia of Chalons served at the battle of Bou vines; and in
the 15th century the citizens maintained their honour by twice
(1430 and 1434) repulsing the English from their walls. In the
1 6th century the town sided with Henry IV., king of France,
who in 1589 transferred thither the parlement of Paris, which
shortly afterwards burnt the bulls of Gregory XIV. and Clement
VIII. In 1856 Napoleon III. established a large camp, known
as the Camp of Chalons, about 16 m. north of the town by the
railway to Reims. It was situated in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Grand Mourmelon and Petit Mourmelon, and occupied
an area of nearly 30,000 acres. The " Army of Chalons," formed
by Marshal MacMahon in the camp after the first reverses of the
French in 1870, marched thence to the Meuse, was surrounded
by the Germans at Sedan, and forced to capitulate. The camp
is still a training-centre for troops.
About 5 m. E. of Chalons is L'Epine, where there is a beautiful
pilgrimage church (15th and 16th centuries, with modern restora-
tion) with a richly-sculptured portal. In the interior there is
a fine choir-screen, an organ of the 16th century, and an ancient
and much-venerated statue of the Virgin.
CHAL0N-SUR-SA6nE, a town of east-central France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Sadne-et-Loire,
8l2
CHALUKYA— CHALYBITE
8 1 m. N. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1006)
26,538. It is a well-built town, with fine quays, situated in an
extensive plain on the right bank of the Sa6ne at its junction
with the Canal du Centre. A handsome stone bridge of the 15th
century, decorated in the 18th century with obelisks, connects
it with the suburb of St Laurent on an island in the river. The
principal building is the church of St Vincent, once the cathedral.
It dates mainly from the 12th to the 15th centuries, but the
facade is modern and unpleasing. The old bishop's palace is
a building of the 15th century. The church of St Pierre, with
two lofty steeples, dates from the late 1 7 th century. Chalon pre-
serves remains of its ancient ramparts and a number of old houses.
The administrative buildings are modern. An obelisk was erected
in 1730 to commemorate the opening of the canal. There is a
statue of J. N. Niepce, a native of the town. Chalon is the seat
of a sub-prefect and a court of assizes, and there are tribunals
of first instance and commerce, a branch of the Bank of France,
a chamber of commerce, communal colleges for boys and girls,
a school of drawing, a public library and a museum. Chalon
ranks next to Le Creusot among the manufacturing towns of
Burgundy; its position at the junction of the Canal du Centre
and the Sa6ne, and as a railway centre for Lyons, Paris, Dole,
Lons-le-Saunier and Roanne, brings it a large transit trade. The
founding and working of copper and iron is its main industry;
the large engineering works of Petit-Creusot, a branch of those
of Le Creusot, construct bridges, tug-boats and torpedo-boats;
distilleries, glass-works, chemical works, straw-hat manufactories,
oil-works, tile-works and sugar refineries also occupy many
hands. Wine, grain, iron, leather and timber are among the
many products for which the town is an entrepdt. About 2 m.
east of Chalon is St Marcel (named after the saint who in the
2nd century preached Christianity at Chalon) , which has a church
of the 1 2th century, once belonging to a famous abbey.
Chalon-sur-Sadne is identified with the ancient Cabillonum,
originally an important town of the Aedui. It was chosen in
the 6th century by Gontram, king of Burgundy, as his capital;
and it continued till the 10th to pay for its importance by being
frequently sacked. The bishopric, founded in the 4 th century, was
suppressed at the Revolution. In feudal times Chalon was the
capital of a countship. In 1 23 7 it was given in exchange for other
fiefs in the Jura by Jean le Sage, whose descendants neverthe-
less retained the title. Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy, the other
party to the exchange, gave the citizens a communal charter
in 1256. In its modern history the most important event was
the resistance offered to a division of the Austrian army in
1814.
CHALUKYA, the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled
in the Deccan from a.d. 550 to 750, and again from 973 to 1190.
The Chalukyas themselves claimed to be Rajputs from the north
who imposed their rule on the Dra vidian inhabitants of the
Deccan tableland, and there is some evidence for connecting
them with the Chapas, a branch of the foreign Gurjaras. The
dynasty 'was founded by a chief named Pulakesin I., who
mastered the town of Vatapi (now Badami, in the Bijapur
district) about 550. His sons extended their principality east
and west; but the founder of the Chalukya greatness was his
grandson Pulakesin II., who succeeded in 608 and proceeded
to extend his rule at the expense of his neighbours. In 609 he
established as his viceroy in Vengi his brother Kubja Vishnu-
vardhana, who in 615 declared his independence and established
the dynasty of Eastern Chalukyas, which lasted till 1070. In
620 Pulakesin defeated Harsha (q.v.), the powerful overlord of
northern India, and established the Nerbudda as the boundary
between the South and North. He also defeated in turn the
Chola, Pandya and Kerala kings, and by 630 was beyond
dispute the most powerful sovereign in the Deccan. In 642,
however, his capital was taken and he himself killed by the
Pallava king Narasimhavarman. In 65 5 the Chalukya power was
restored by Pulakesin's son Vikramaditya I.; but the struggle
with the Pallavas continued until, in 740, Vikramaditya II.
destroyed the Pallava capital. In 750 Vikramaditya's son,
Kirtivarman Chalukya, was overthrown by the Rashtrakutas.
In 973, Taila or Tailapa II. (d. 995), a scion of the royal
Chalukya race, succeeded in overthrowing the Rashtrakuta
king Kakka II., and in recovering all the ancient territory of
the Chalukyas with the exception of Gujarat. He was the founder
of the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani. About a.d.
1000 a formidable invasion by the Chola king Rajaraja the
Great was defeated, and in 1052 Somesvara I., or Ahamavalla
(d. 1068), the founder of Kalyani, defeated and slew the Chola
Rajadhiraja. The reign of Vikramaditya VI., or Vikramanka,
which lasted from 1076 to n 26, formed another period of
Chalukya greatness. Vikramanka's exploits against the Hoysala
kings and others, celebrated by the poet Bilhana, were held to
justify him in establishing a new era dating from his accession.
With his death, however, the Chalukya power began to decline.
In 1 1 56 the commander-in-chief Bijjala (or Vijjana) Kalachurya
revolted, and he and his sons held the kingdom till 1183. In
this year Somesvara IV. Chalukya recovered part of his patri-
mony, only to succumb, about 1 190, to the Yadavas of Devagiri
and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra. Henceforth the Chalukya
rajas ranked only as petty chiefs.
See J. F. Fleet, Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts; Prof. R. G.
Bhandarker, " Early History of the Deccan," in the Bombay
Gazetteer (1896), vol. i. part ii.; Vincent A. Smith, Early Hist, of
India (Oxford, 1908), pp. 382 ff.
CHALYBAUS, HEINRICH MORITZ (1796-1862), German
philosopher, was born at Pfaffroda in Saxony. For some years
he taught at Dresden, and won a high reputation by his lectures
on the history of philosophy in Germany. In 1839 he became
professor in Kiel University, where, with the exception of one
brief interval, when he was expelled with several colleagues
because of his German sympathies, he remained till his death.
His first published work, Historische Entwickelung der spekula-
tiven Philosophic von Kant bis Hegel (1837, 5th ed. i860), which
still ranks among the best expositions of modern German thought,
has been twice translated into English, by A. Tulk (London,
1854), and by A. Edersheim (Edinburgh, 1854). His chief works
are Entwurf eines Systems der Wissenschaftslehre (Kiel, 1846)
and System der spekulativen Ethik (2 vols., 1850). He opposed
both the extreme realism of Herbart and what he regarded as
the one-sided idealism of Hegel, and endeavoured to find a mean
between them, to discover the ideal or formal principle which
unfolds itself in the real or material world presented to it.
His Wissenschaftslehre, accordingly, divides itself into (1)
Principlehrc, or theory of the one principle; (2) Vermittelungs-
lehre, or theory of the means by which this principle realizes
itself ; and (3 ) Teleologie. The most noticeable point is the position
assigned by Chalybaus to the " World Ether," which is defined
as the infinite in time and space, and which, he thinks, must
be posited as necessarily coexisting with the Infinite Spirit or
God. The fundamental principle of the System der Ethik is
carried out with great strength of thought, and with an unusually
complete command of ethical material.
See J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philos. ii. 781-786;
K. Prantl, in AUgetn. deutsch. Biog.
CHALYBITE, a mineral species consisting of iron carbonate
(FeCOs) and forming an important ore of iron. It was early
known as spathose iron, spathic iron or steel ore. F. S. Beudant
in 1832 gave the name side rose (from al&npos, iron), which was
modified by W. Haidinger in 1845 to siderite. Chalybite (from
X&Xu^, x a ^ v P° 5 t L*t« chalybs, steel) is of slightly later date,
having been given by E. F. Glocker in 1847. The name siderite
is in common use, but it is open to objection since it had earlier
been applied to several other species, and is also now used as a
group name for meteoric irons. Chalybite crystallizes in the
rhombohedral system and is isomorphous with calcite; like this
it possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the primitive
rhombohedron, the angles between which are 73 o'. Crystals
are usually rhombohedral in habit, and the primitive rhombo-
hedron r {1 00) is a common form, the faces being often curved
as represented in the figure. Acute rhombohedra in combination
with the basal pinacoid are also frequent, giving crystals of
octahedral aspect. The mineral often occurs in cleavable
CHAMBA— CHAMBERLAIN, J.
813
Crystal of Chalybite.
masses with a coarse or fine granular texture; also in botryoidal
or globular (sphaerosiderite) and oolitic forms. When compact
and mixed with much day and sand it constitutes the well-
known clay ironstone. Chalybite is usually yellowish-grey or
brown in colour; it is translucent and has a vitreous lustre.
Hardness 3}; sp. gr. 3-8. The double refraction («— €=0-241)
is stronger than that of calcite. When pure it contains 48*2%
of iron, but this is often partly
replaced isomorphously by man-
ganese, magnesium or calcium: the
varieties known as oligon-spar or
oligonite, sideroplesite and sidero-
dote contain these elements respec-
tively in large amount. These
varieties form a passage to ankerite
(q.v.) and mesitite, and all are
referred to loosely as brown-spar.
Chalybite is a common ganguc mineral in metalliferous veins,
and well-crystallized specimens are found with ores of copper,
lead, tin, &c, in Cornwall, the Harz, Saxony and many other
places. It also occurs alone as large masses in veins and beds
in rocks of various kinds. The clay ironstone so extensively
worked as an ore of iron occurs as nodules and beds in the Coal
Measures of England and the United States, and the oolitic iron
ore of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire forms beds in the Lias.
The mineral is occasionally found as concretionary masses
(sphaerosiderite) in cavities in basic igneous rocks such as
dolerite. (L. J. S.)
CHAMBA, a native state of India, within the Punjab, amid
the Himalayas, and lying on the southern border of Kashmir.
It has an area of 3216 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 127,834. The sana-
torium of Dalhousie, though within the state, is attached to the
district of Gurdaspur. Chamba is entirely mountainous; in
the east and north, and in the centre, are snowy ranges. The
valleys in the west and south are fertile. The chief rivers are the
Chandra and Ravi. The country Is much in favour with sports-
men. The principal crops are rice, maize and millet. Mineral
ores of various kinds are known, but unworked. Trade is
chiefly in forest produce. The capital of the state is Chamba
(pop. 6000), situated above the gorge of the Ravi. External
communications are entirely by road. The state was founded
in the 6th century, and, though sometimes nominally subject
to Kashmir and afterwards tributary to the Mogul empire,
always practically maintained its independence. Its chronicles
are preserved in a series of inscriptions, mostly engraved on
copper. It first came under British influence in 1846, when it
was declared independent of Kashmir. The line of the rajas of
Chamba was founded in the 6th century a.d. by Marut, of
an ancient family of Rajputs. In 1904 Bhuri Singh, K.C.S.I.,
CLE., an enlightened and capable ruler, succeeded.
CHAMBAL, a river of India, one of the principal tributaries
of the Jumna. Rising amid the summits of the Vindhya
mountains in Malwa, it flows north, and after being joined by
the Chambla and Sipra, passes through the gorges of the Mokan-
darra hills. After receiving the waters of the Kali-Sind, Parbati
and Banas, its principal confluents, the Chambal becomes a
great river, enters the British district of Etawah, and joins
the Jumna 40 m. below Etawah town, its total length being
650 m.
CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836- ), British statesman,
third son of Joseph Chamberlain, master of the Cordwainers'
Company, was born at Camberwell Grove, London, on the 8th
of July 1836. His father was a well-to-do man of business, a
Unitarian in religion and a Liberal in politics. Young Chamber-
lain was educated at Canonbury from 1845 to 1850, and at
University College school, London, from 1850 to 1852. After
two years in his father's office in London, he was sent to Birming-
ham to join his cousin Joseph Nettlefold in a screw business in
which his father had an interest; and by degrees, largely owing
to his own intelligent management, this business became very
successful. Nettlefold & Chamberlain employed new methods
of attracting customers, and judiciously amalgamated rival
Arms with their own so as to reduce competition, with the result
that in 1874, after twenty-two years of commercial life, Mr
Chamberlain was able to retire with an ample fortune. Mean-
while he had in 186 1 married his first wife, Miss Harriet Kenrick
(she died in 1863) , and had gradually come to take an increasingly
important part in the municipal and political life of Birmingham.
He was a constant speaker at the Birmingham and Edgbaston
Debating Society; and when in 1868 the Birmingham Liberal
Association was reorganized, he became one of its leading
members. In 1869 he was elected chairman of the executive
council of the new National Education League, the outcome
of Mr George Dixon's movement for promoting the education
of the children of the lower classes by paying their school fees,
and agitating for more accommodation and a better national
system. In the same year he was elected a member of the town
council, and married his second wife — a cousin of his first —
Miss Florence Kenrick (d. 1875).
In 1870 he was elected a member of the first school board for
Birmingham; and for the next six years, and especially after
1873, when he became leader of a majority and chairman, he
actively championed the Nonconformist opposition to denomina-
tionalism. He was then regarded as a Republican — the term
signifying rather that he held advanced Radical opinions, which
were construed by average men in the light of the current
political developments in France, than that he really favoured
Republican institutions. His programme was " free Church,
free land, free schools, free labour." At the general election of
1874 he stood as a parliamentary candidate for Sheffield, but
without success. Between 1869 and 1873 he was a prominent
advocate in the Birmingham town council of the gospel of
municipal reform preached by Mr Dawson, Dr Dale and Mr
Bunce (of the Birmingham Post); and in 1873 his party obtained
a majority, and he was elected mayor, an office he retained until
June 1876. As mayor he had to receive the prince and princess
of Wales on their visit in June 1874, an occasion which excited
some curiosity because of his reputation as a Republican; but
those who looked for an exhibition of bad taste were disappointed,
and the behaviour of the Radical mayor satisfied the require-
ments alike of The Times and of Punch.
The period of his mayoralty was one of historic importance
in the growth of modern Birmingham. New municipal buildings
were erected, Highgate Park was opened as a place of recreation,
the free library and art gallery were developed. But the great
work carried through by Mr Chamberlain for Birmingham was
the municipalization of the supply of gas and water, and the
improvement scheme by which slums were cleared away and
forty acres laid out in new streets and open spaces. The pros-
perity of modern Birmingham dates from 1875 and 1876, when
these admirably administered reforms were initiated, and by
his share in them Mr Chamberlain became not only one of its
most popular citizens but also a man of mark outside. An orator
of a business-like, straightforward type, cool and hard-hitting,
his spare figure, incisive features and single eye-glass soon made
him a favourite subject for the caricaturist; and in later life
his aggressive personality, and the peculiarly irritating effect it
had on his opponents, made his actions and speeches the object
of more controversy than was the lot of any other politician of
his time. His hobby for orchid-growing at his house " Highbury "
near Birmingham also became famous. In private life his loyalty
to his friends, and his " genius for friendship " (as John Morley
said) made a curious contrast to his capacity for arousing the
bitterest political hostility. It may be added here that the
interest taken by him in Birmingham remained undiminished
during his life, and he was largely instrumental in starting the
Birmingham University (1900), of which he became chancellor.
His connexion with Birmingham University was indeed peculiarly
appropriate to his character as a man of business; but in
spite of his representing a departure among men of the front
rank in politics from the " Eton and Oxford " type, his general
culture sometimes surprised those who did not know him.
In later life Oxford and Cambridge gave him their doctors'
degrees; and in 1897 he was made lord rector of Glasgow
8 14
CHAMBERLAIN, J.
University (delivering an address on " Patriotism " at his
installation).
In 1876 Mr Dixon resigned his seat in parliament, and Mr
Chamberlain was returned for Birmingham in his place unopposed,
as John B right's colleague. He made his maiden speech in the
House of Commons on the 4th of August 1876, on Lord San don's
Education Bill. At this period, too, he paid much attention
to the question of licensing reform, and in 1876 he examined the
Gothenburg system in Sweden, and advocated a solution of the
problem in England on similar lines. During 1877 the new
federation of Liberal Associations which became known as the
" Caucus " was started under Mr Chamberlain's influence in
Birmingham — its secretary, Mr Schnadhorst, quickly making
himself felt as a wire-puller of exceptional ability; and the new
organization had a remarkable effect in putting life into the
Liberal party, which since Mr Gladstone's retirement in 1874
had been much in need of a stimulus. When the general election
came in 1880, Mr Schnadhorst 's powers were demonstrated in
the successes won under his auspices. The Liberal party numbered
349, against 243 Conservatives and 60 Irish Nationalists; and
the Radical section of the Liberal party, led by Mr Chamberlain
and Sir Charles Dilke, was recognized by Mr Gladstone by his
inclusion of the former in his cabinet as president of the Board
of Trade, and the appointment of the latter as under secretary for
foreign affairs. In his new capacity Mr Chamberlain was re-
sponsible for carrying such important measures as the Bank-
ruptcy Act 1883, and the Patents Act. Another bill which he
had much at heart, on merchant shipping, had to be abandoned,
and a royal commission substituted, but the subsequent legis-
lation in 1888-1894 owed much to his efforts. The Franchise
Act of 1884 was also one in which he took a leading part as a
champion of the opinions of the labouring class. At this time
he took the current advanced Radical views of both Irish and
foreign policy, hating " coercion," disliking the occupation of
Egypt, and prominently defending the Transvaal settlement after
Majuba. Both before and after the defeat of Mr Gladstone's
government on the Budget in June 1885, he associated himself
with what was known as the " Unauthorized Programme," i.e.
free education, small holdings, graduated taxation and local
government. In June 1885 he made a speech at Birmingham,
treating the reforms just mentioned as the " ransom " that
property must pay to society for the security it enjoys — for
which Lord Iddesleigh called him " Jack Cade "; and he
continually urged the Liberal party to take up these Radical
measures. At the general election of November 1885 Mr
Chamberlain was returned for West Birmingham. The Liberal
strength generally was, however, reduced to 335 members,
though the Radical section held their own; and the Irish vote
became necessary to Mr Gladstone if he was to command a
majority. In December it was stated that Mr Gladstone in-
tended to propose Home Rule for Ireland, and in January Lord
Salisbury's ministry was defeated on the Address, on an amend-
ment moved by Mr Chamberlain's Birmingham henchman,
Mr Jesse Collings (b. 183 1), embodying the " three acres and a
cow " of the Radical programme. Unlike Lord Harrington (after-
wards duke of Devonshire) and other Liberals, who declined to
join Mr Gladstone in view of the altered attitude he was adopting
towards Ireland, Mr Chamberlain entered the cabinet as presi-
dent of the Local Government Board (with Mr Jesse Collings
as parliamentary secretary), but on the 15th of March 1886 he
resigned, explaining in the House of Commons (8th April) that,
while he had always been in favour of the largest possible ex-
tension of local government to Ireland consistently with the
integrity of the empire and the supremacy of parliament, and
had therefore joined Mr Gladstone when he believed that this
was what was intended, he was unable to consider that the
scheme communicated by Mr Gladstone to his colleagues main-
tained those limitations. At the same time he was not irreconcil-
able, and he invited Mr Gladstone even then to modify his bill
so as to remove the objections made to it. This indecisive
attitude did not last long, and the split in the party rapidly
widened. At Birmingham Mr Chamberlain was supported by
the " Two Thousand," but deserted by the " Caucus " and Mr
Schnadhorst. In May the Radicals who followed Mr Bright
and Mr Chamberlain, and the Whigs who took their cue from
Lord Harrington, decided to vote against the second reading
of the Home Rule Bill, instead of allowing it to be taken and
then pressing for modifications in committee, and on 7th June
the bill was defeated by 343 to 313, 94 Liberal Unionists — as
they were generally called — voting against the government.
Mr Chamberlain was the object of the bitterest attacks from the
Gladstonians for his share in this result; he was stigmatized as
" Judas," and open war was proclaimed by the Home Rulers
against the " dissentient Liberals " — the description used by Mr
Gladstone. The general election, however, returned to parlia-
ment 316 Conservatives, 78 Liberal Unionists, and only 276
Gladstonians and Nationalists, Birmingham returning seven
Unionist members. When the House met in August, it was
decided by the Liberal Unionists, under Lord Harrington's
leadership, that their policy henceforth was essentially to combine
with the Tories to keep Mr Gladstone out. The old Liberal feeling
still prevailing among them was too strong, however, for their
leaders to take office in a coalition ministry. It was enough for
them to be able to tie down the Conservative government to such
measures as were not offensive to Liberal Unionist principles.
It still seemed possible, moreover, that the Gladstonians might
be brought to modify their Home Rule proposals, and in January
1887 a Round Table conference (suggested by Mr Chamberlain)
was held between Mr Chamberlain, Sir G. Trevelyan, Sir William
Harcourt, Mr Morley and Lord Herschell. But no rapproche-
ment was effected, and reconciliation became daily more and
more difficult. The influence of Liberal Unionist views upon
the domestic legislation of the government was steadily bring-
ing about a more complete union in the Unionist party, and
destroying the old lines of political cleavage. Before 1892 Mr
Chamberlain had the satisfaction of seeing Lord Salisbury's
ministry pass such important acts, from a progressive point of
view, as those dealing with Coal Mines Regulation, Allotments,
County Councils, Housing of the Working Classes, Free Educa-
tion and Agricultural Holdings, besides Irish legislation like the
Ashbourne Act, the Land Act of 1891, and the Light Railways
and Congested Districts Acts. In October 1887 Mr Chamberlain,
Sir L. Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper were selected by
the government as British plenipotentiaries to discuss with the
United States the Canadian fisheries dispute, and a treaty was
arranged by them at Washington on the 15th of February 1888.
The Senate refused to ratify it; but a protocol provided for a
modus vivendi pending ratification, giving American fishing vessels
similar advantages to those contemplated in the treaty; and on
the whole Mr Chamberlain's mission to America was accepted
as a successful one in maintaining satisfactory relations with the
United States. He returned to England in March 1888, and was
presented with the freedom of the borough of Birmingham. The
visit also resulted, in November 1888, in his marriage with his
third wife, Miss Endicott, daughter of the United States secretary
of war in President Cleveland's first administration.
At the general election of 1892 Mr Chamberlain was again
returned, with an increased majority, for West Birmingham;
but the Unionist party as a whole came back with only 315
members against 355 Home Rulers. In August Lord Salisbury's
ministry was defeated; and on the 13th of February 1893 Mr
Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which was
eventually read a third time on the 1st of September. During
the eighty-two days' discussion in the House of Commons Mr
Chamberlain was the life and soul of the opposition, and his
criticisms had a vital influence upon the attitude of the country
when the House of Lords summarily threw out the bill. His
chief contribution to the discussions during the later stages of
the Gladstone and Rosebery ministries was in connexion with
Mr Asquith's abortive Employers' Liability Bill, when he fore-
shadowed the method of dealing with this question afterwards
carried out in the Compensation Act of 1897. Outside parliament
he was busy formulating proposals for old age pensions, which
had a prominent place in the Unionist programme of 1895. In
CHAMBERLAIN, J.
815
that year, on the defeat of Lord Rosebery, the union of the
Unionists was sealed by the inclusion of the Liberal Unionist
leaders in Lord Salisbury's ministry; and Mr Chamberlain
became secretary of state for the colonies. There had been much
speculation as to what his post would be, and his nomination
to the colonial office, then considered one of secondary rank,
excited some surprise; but Mr Chamberlain himself realized
how important that department had become. He carried with
him into the ministry his close Birmingham municipal associates,
Mr Jesse Collings (as under secretary of the home office), and Mr
J. Powell- Williams (1 840-1904) as financial secretary to the war
office. Mr Chamberlain's influence in the Unionist cabinet was
soon visible in the Workmen's Compensation Act and other
measures. This act, though in Sir Matthew White Ridley's charge
as home secretary, was universally and rightly associated with
Mr Chamberlain; and its passage, in the face of much interested
opposition from highly-placed, old-fashioned conservatives and
capitalists on both sides, was principally due to his determined
advocacy. Another " social " measure of less importance, which
formed part of the Chamberlain programme, was the Small
Houses Acquisition Act of 1899; but the problem of old age
pensions was less easily solved. This subject had been handed
over in 1893 to a royal commission, and further discussed by a
select committee in 1899 and a departmental committee in 1900,
but both of these threw cold water on the schemes laid before
them — a result which, galling enough to one who had made so
much play with the question in the country, offered welcome
material to his opponents for electioneering recrimination, as
year by year went by between 1895 and 1900 and nothing re-
suited from all the confident talk on the subject in which Mr
Chamberlain had indulged when out of office. Eventually it
was the Liberal and not the Unionist party that carried an Old
Age Pensions scheme through parliament, during the 1908
session, when Mr Chamberlain was hors de combat.
From January 1806 (the date of the Jameson Raid) onwards
South Africa demanded the chief attention of the colonial
secretary (see South Africa, and for details Transvaal). In
his negotiations with President Kruger one masterful tempera-
ment was pitted against another. Mr Chamberlain had a very
difficult part to play, in a situation dominated by suspicion on
both sides, and while he firmly insisted on the rights of Great
Britain and of British subjects in the Transvaal, he was the
continual object of Radical criticism at home. Never * has a
statesman's personality been more bitterly associated by his
political opponents with the developments they deplored.
Attempts were even made to ascribe financial motives to Mr
Chamberlain's actions, and the political atmosphere was thick
with suspicion and scandal. The report of the Commons com-
mittee (July 1897) definitely acquitted both Mr Chamberlain
and the colonial office of any privity in the Jameson Raid, but
Mr Chamberlain's detractors continued to assert the contrary.
Opposition hostility reached such a pitch that in 1899 there was
hardly an act of the cabinet during the negotiations with Presi-
dent Kruger which was not attributed to the personal malignity
and unscrupulousness of the colonial secretary. The elections of
1000 (when he was again returned, unopposed, for West Birming-
ham) turned upon the individuality of a single minister more
than any since the days of Mr Gladstone's ascendancy, and Mr
Chamberlain, never conspicuous for inclination to turn his other
cheek to the smiter,was not slow to return the blows with interest.
Apart from South Africa, his most important work at this time
was the successful passing of the Australian Commonwealth Act
(1000), in which both tact and firmness were needed to settle
certain differences between the imperial government and the
colonial delegates.
Mr Chamberlain's tenure of the office of colonial secretary
between 1895 and 1900 must always be regarded as a turning-
point in the history of the relations between the British colonies
and the mother country. His accession to office was marked by
speeches breathing a new spirit of imperial consolidation, em-
bodied either in suggestions for commercial union or in more
immediately practicable proposals for improving the " imperial
estate "; and at the Diamond Jubilee of 1897 the visits of the
colonial premiers to London emphasized and confirmed the new
policy, the fruits of which were afterwards seen in the cordial
support given by the colonies in the Boer War. Even in what
Mr Chamberlain called his " Radical days " he had never
supported the " Manchester " view of the value of a colonial
empire; and during the Gladstone ministry of 1882-1885 Mr
Bright had remarked that the junior member for Birmingham
was the only Jingo in the cabinet — meaning, no doubt, that
he objected to the policy of laissez-faire and the timidity of what
was afterwards known as " Little Englandism." While he was
still under Mr Gladstone's influence these opinions were kept in
subordination; but Mr Chamberlain was always an imperial
federationist, and from 1887 onwards he constantly gave ex-
pression to his views on the desirability of drawing the different
parts of the empire closer together for purposes of defence and
commerce. In 1895 the time for the realization of these views
had come; and Mr Chamberlain's speeches, previously remark-
able chiefly for debating power and directness of argument,
were now dominated by a newnote of constructive statesmanship,
basing itself on the economic necessities of a world-wide empire.
Not the least of the anxieties of the colonial office during this
period was the situation in the West Indies, where the cane-
sugar industry was being steadily undermined by the European
bounties given to exports of continental beet; and though the
government restricted themselves to attempts at removing the
bounties by negotiation and to measures for palliating the worst
effects in the West Indies, Mr Chamberlain made no secret of his
repudiation of the Cobden Club view that retaliation would be
contrary to the doctrines of free trade, and he did his utmost
to educate public opinion at home into understanding that the
responsibilities of the mother country are not merely to be con-
strued according to the selfish interests of a nation of consumers.
As regards foreign affairs, Mr Chamberlain more than once (and
particularly at Leicester on 30th November 1899) indicated his
leanings towards a closer understanding between the British
empire, the United States and Germany, — a suggestion which
did not save him from an extravagant outburst of German
hostility during the Boer War. The unusually outspoken and
pointed expression, however, of his disinclination to submit to
Muscovite duplicity or to " pin-pricks " or " unmannerliness "
from France was criticized on the score of discretion by a wider
circle than that of his political adversaries.
During the progress of the Boer War from 1899 to 1002, Mr
Chamberlain, as the statesman who had represented the cabinet
in the negotiations which led to it, remained the object of constant
attacks from his Radical opponents — the " little Englanders "
and " Pro-Boers," as he called them — and he was supported by
the Imperialist and Unionist party with at least equal ardour.
But as colonial secretary, except in so far as his consistent
support of Lord Milner and his enthusiastic encouragement of
colonial assistance were concerned, he naturally played only a
subordinate part during the carrying out of the military opera-
tions. Among domestic statesmen he was felt, however, to be the
backbone of the party in power. He was the hero of the one
side, just as he was the bugbear of the other. On the 13th of
February 1002 he was presented with an address in a gold casket
by the city corporation, and entertained at luncheon at the
Mansion House, an honour not unconnected with the strong
feeling recently aroused by his firm reply (at Birmingham,
January n) to some remarks made by Count von Biilow, the
German chancellor, in the Reichstag (January 8), reflecting the
offensive allegations current in Germany against the conduct
of the army in South Africa. Mr Chamberlain's speech, in answer
to what had been intended as a contemptuous rebuke, was uni-
versally applauded. His own imperialism was intensified by the
way in which England's difficulties resulted in calling forth
colonial assistance and so cementing the bonds of empire. The
domestic crisis, and the sharp cleavage between parties at home,
had driven the bent of his mind and policy further and further
away from the purely municipal and national ideals which he
had followed so keenly before he became colonial minister. The
8i6
CHAMBERLAIN, J.
problems of empire engrossed him, and a new enthusiasm for
imperial projects arose in the Unionist party under his inspira-
tion. No English statesman probably has ever been, at different
times in his career, so able an advocate of absolutely contra-
dictory policies, and his opponents were not slow to taunt him
with quotations from his earlier speeches. As the war drew to
its end, new plans for imperial consolidation were maturing in
his brain. Subsidiary points of utility, such as the formation of
the London and Liverpool schools of tropical medicine from 1899
onwards, were taken up by him with characteristic vigour.
But the next step was to prove a critical one indeed for the
loyalty of the party which had so far been unanimous in his
favour.
The settlement after the war was full of difficulties, financial
and others, in South Africa. When Mr Arthur Balfour succeeded
Lord Salisbury as prime minister in July 1002, Mr Chamberlain
agreed to serve loyally under him, and the friendship between
the two leaders was indeed one of the most marked features of the
political situation. In November 1002 it was arranged that Mr
Chamberlain should go out to South Africa, and it was hoped,
not without reason, that his personality would effect more good
than any ordinary official negotiations. At the time the best
results appeared to be secured. He went from place to place in
South Africa (December 26-February 25); arranged with the
leading Transvaal financiers that in return for support from the
British government in raising a Transvaal loan they would
guarantee a large proportion of a Transvaal debt of £30,000,000,
which should repay the British treasury so much of the cost of
the war; and when he returned in March 1003, satisfaction was
general in the country over the success of his mission. But
meantime two things had happened. He had looked at the
empire from the colonial point of view, in a way only possible
in a colonial atmosphere; and at home some of his colleagues
had gone a long way, behind the scenes, to destroy one of the
very factors on which the question of a practical scheme for
imperial commercial federation seemed to hinge. In the budget
of 1902 a duty of a shilling a quarter on imported corn had been
reintroduced. This small tax was regarded as only a registration
duty. Even by free-trade ministers like Gladstone it had been
left up to 1869 untouched, and its removal by Robert Lowe
(Lord Sherbrooke) had since then been widely regarded as a
piece of economic pedantry. Its reimposition, officially sup-
ported for the sake of necessary revenue in war-time, and
cordially welcomed by the Unionist party, had justified itself,
as they contended, in spite of the criticisms of the Opposition
(who raised the cry of the " dear loaf "), by proving during the
year to have had no general or direct effect on the price of bread.
And the more advanced Imperialists, as well as the more old-
fashioned protectionists (like Mr Chaplin) who formed an integral
body of the Conservative party, had looked forward to this
tax being converted into a differential one between foreign and
colonial corn, so as to introduce a scheme of colonial preference
and commercial consolidation between the colonies and the
mother country. In South Africa — as in any other British
colony, since all of them were accustomed to tariffs of a protec-
tionist nature, and the idea of a preference (already started by
Canada) was fairly popular — Mr Chamberlain had found this
view well established. The agitation in England against the
tax had now blown over. The Unionist rank and file were
committed to its support, — many even advocating its increase
to two shillings at least. But Mr Ritchie, the chancellor of the
exchequer, having a surplus in prospect and taxation to take off,
carried the cabinet in favour of again remitting this tax on corn.
Mr Chamberlain himself had proposed only to take it off as
regards colonial, and not foreign corn, — thus inaugurating a
preferential system. But a majority of the cabinet supported
Mr Ritchie. The remission of this tax, after all the conviction
with which its restoration had been supported a year before,
was very difficult for the party itself to stomach, and on any
ground it was a distasteful act, loyally as the party followed
their leaders. But to those who had looked to it as providing
a lever for a gradual change in the established fiscal system,
the volte-face was a bitter blow, and at once there began, though
not at first openly, a split between the more rigid free-traders —
advocates of cheap food and free imports — and those who
desired to use the opportunities of a tariff, of however moderate
a kind, for attaining national and imperial and not merely
revenue advantages. This idea, which had for some time been
floating in Mr Chamberlain's mind (see especially his speech
at Birmingham of May 16, 1002), now took full possession of it.
For the moment he remained in the cabinet, but the seed of
dissension was sown. The first public intimation of his views
was given in a speech to his constituents at Birmingham (May 15,
1903), when he outlined a plan for raising more money by a
rearranged tariff, partly to obtain a preferential system for the
empire and partly to produce funds for social reform at home.
On May 28th in the House of Commons he spoke on the same
subject, and declared " if you are to give a preference to the
colonies, you must put a tax on food." Considered in the light
of after events, this putting the necessity of food-taxes in the
forefront was decidedly injudicious; but imperialist conviction
and enthusiasm were more conspicuous than electioneering tact
in the launching of Mr Chamberlain's new scheme.
The movement grew quickly, its supporters including a
number of the cleverest younger politicians and journalists in
the Unionist party. The idea of tariff reform — to broaden the
basis of taxation, to introduce a preference, and to stimulate
home industries and increase employment — took firm root;
and the political economists of the party — Prof. W. Cunningham,
Prof. W. Ashley and Prof. W. A. S. Hewins, in particular —
brought effective criticism to bear on the one-sided " free trade "
in vogue. The first demand was for inquiry. The country was
still bearing an income-tax of elevenpence in the pound; it
appeared that the old sources of revenue were inadequate; and
meanwhile the statistics of trade, it was argued, showed that
the English free-import system hampered English trade while
providing the foreigner with a free market. Mr Chamberlain
and his supporters argued that since 1870 certain other countries
(Germany and the United States), with protective tariffs, had
increased their trade in much larger proportion, while English
trade had only been maintained by the increased business done
with British colonies. A scientific inquiry into the facts was
needed. By the Opposition, who now found themselves the
defenders of conservatism in the established fiscal policy of the
country, this whole argument was scouted; but for a time the
demand merely for inquiry, and the production of figures, gave
no sufficient occasion for dissension among Unionists, even when,
like Sir M. Hicks Beach, they were convinced free-importers
on purely economic grounds; and Mr Balfour (q.v.), as premier,
managed to hold his colleagues and party together by taking the
line that particular opinions on economic subjects should not
be made a test of party loyalty. The Board of Trade was set
to work to produce fiscal Blue-books, and hum-drum politicians
who had never shown any genius for figures suddenly blossomed
out into arithmeticians of the deepest dye. The Tariff Reform
League was founded in order to further Mr Chamberlain's
policy, holding its inaugural meeting on July 21st; and it
began to take an active part in issuing leaflets and in work at
by-elections. Discussion proceeded hotly on the merits of a
preferential tariff, and on August 15th a manifesto appeared
against it signed by fourteen professors or lecturers on political
economy, including Mr Leonard Courtney, Professor Edgeworth,
Professor Marshall, Professor Bastable, Professor Smart,
Professor J. S. Nicholson, Professor Gonner, Mr Bowley, Mr E.
Caiman and Mr L. R. Phelps, — men of admitted competence,
yet, after all, of no higher authority than the economists support-
ing Mr Chamberlain, such as Dr Cunningham and Professor
Ashley.
Meanwhile, the death of Lord Salisbury (August 22) removed
a weighty figure from the councils of the Unionist party. The
cabinet met several times at the beginning of September, and
the question of their attitude towards the fiscal problem became
acute. The public had its first intimation of impending events
in the appearance on September 16th of Mr Balfour's Economic
CHAMBERLAIN, J.
817
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Notes on Insular Free Trade, which had been previously cir-
culated as a cabinet memorandum. The next day appeared
the Board of Trade Fiscal Blue-book. And on the 18th the
resignations were announced, not only of the more rigid free-
traders in the cabinet, Mr Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton,
but also of Mr Chamberlain. Letters in cordial terms were
published, which had passed between Mr Chamberlain(September
9) and Mr Balfour (September 16). Mr Chamberlain pointed
out that he was committed to a preferential scheme involving
new duties on food, and could not remain in the government
without prejudice while it was excluded from the party pro-
gramme; remaining loyal to Mr Balfour and his general objects,
he could best promote this course from outside, and he suggested
that the government might confine its policy to the " assertion
of our freedom in the case of all commercial relations with
foreign countries." Mr Balfour, while reluctantly admitting
the necessity of Mr Chamberlain's taking a freer hand, expressed
his agreement in the desirability of a closer fiscal union with the
colonies, but questioned the immediate practicability of any
scheme; he was willing to adopt fiscal reform so far as it covered
retaliatory duties, but thought that the exclusion of taxation
of food from the party programme was in existing circumstances
necessary, so long as public opinion was not ripe. At the same
time he welcomed the fact that Mr Chamberlain's son, Mr
Austen Chamberlain, was ready to remain a member of the
government. Mr Austen Chamberlain (b. 1863) accordingly
became the new chancellor of the exchequer; he was already
in the cabinet as postmaster-general, having previously made
his mark as civil lord of the admiralty (1895-1900), and financial
secretary to the treasury (1 900-1 902).
From the turning-point of Mr Chamberlain's resignation, it is
not necessary here to follow in detail the discussions and dis-
sensions in the party as a whole in its relations with the prime
minister (see Balfour, A. J.). It is sufficient to say that while
Mr Balfour's sympathetic " send off " appeared to indicate his
inclination towards Mr Chamberlain's programme, if only further
support could be gained for it, his endeavour to keep the party
together, and the violent opposition which gathered against
Mr Chamberlain's scheme, combined to make his real attitude
during the next two years decidedly obscure, both sections of the
party — free-traders and tariff reformers — being induced from
time to time to regard him as on their side. The tariff reform
movement itself was now, however, outside the purely official
programme, and Mr Chamberlain (backed by a majority of the
Unionist members) threw himself with impetuous ardour into a
crusade on its behalf, while at the same time supporting Mr
Balfour in parliament, and leaving it to him to decide as to the
policy of going to the country when the time should be ripe.
In his own words, he went in front of the Unionist army as a
pioneer, and if his army was attacked he would go back to it; in
no conceivable circumstances would he allow himself to be put in
any sort of competition, direct or indirect, with Mr Balfour, his
friend and leader, whom he meant to follow (October 6).
On October 6th he opened his campaign with a speech at
Glasgow. Analysing the trade statistics as between 1872 and
1902, he insisted that British progress involved a relative decline
compared with that of protectionist foreign countries like Ger-
many and the United States; Great Britain exported less and
less of manufactured goods, and imported more and more; the
exports to foreign countries had decreased, and it was only the
increased exports to the colonies that maintained the British
position. This was the outcome of the working of a one-sided
free-trade system. Now was the time, and it might soon be lost,
for consolidating British trade relations with the colonies.
If the mother country and her daughter states did not draw
closer, they would inevitably drift apart. A further increase of
£26,000,000 a year in the trade with the colonies might be
obtained by a preferential tariff, and this meant additional
employment at home for 166,000 workmen, or subsistence for a
population of a far larger number. His positive proposals were:
(1) no tax on raw materials; (2) a small tax on food other than
colonial, e.g. two shillings a quarter on foreign corn but excepting
maize, and 5% on meat and dairy produce excluding bacon; (3)
a 10 % general tariff on imported manufactured goods. To meet
any increased cost of living, he proposed to reduce the duties on
tea, sugar and other articles of general consumption, and he
estimated that his scheme would in no case increase a working-
man's expenditure, and in most cases would reduce it. " The
colonies," he said, " are prepared to meet us; in return for a very
moderate preference, they will give us a substantial advantage
in their markets." This speech, delivered with characteristic
vigour and Imperialistic enthusiasm, was the type of others
which followed in quick succession during the year. At Gree-
nock next day he emphasized the necessity of retaliating against
foreign tariffs — " I never like being hit without striking back."
The practice of " dumping " must be fairly met; if foreign goods
were brought into England to undersell British manufacturers,
either the Fair Wages Clause and the Factory Acts and the Com-
pensation Act would have to be repealed, or the workmen would
have to take lower wages, or lose their work. " Agriculture has
been practically destroyed, sugar has gone, silk has gone, iron is
threatened, wool is threatened, cotton will go! How long are
you going to stand it?" On October 20th he spoke at New-
castle, on the 21st at Tynemouth, on the 27th at Liverpool,
insisting that free-trade had never been a working-class measure
and that it could not be reconciled with trade-unioflism; on
November 4th at Birmingham, on the 20th at Cardiff, on the
21st at Newport, and on December 16th at Leeds. In all these
speeches he managed to point his argument by application to
local industries. In the Leeds speech he announced that, with a
view to drawing up a scientific model tariff, a non-political
commission of representative experts would be appointed under
the auspices of the Tariff Reform League to take evidence from
every trade; it included many heads of businesses, and Mr Charles
Booth, the eminent student of social and industrial London, with
Sir Robert Herbert as chairman, and Professor W. A. S. Hewins
as secretary. The name of " Tariff Commission," given to this
voluntary and unofficial body, was a good deal criticized, but
though flouted by the political free-traders it set to work in
earnest, and accumulated a mass of evidence as to the real facts
of trade, which promised to be invaluable to economic inquirers.
On January 18th, 1904, Mr Chamberlain ended his series of
speeches by a great meeting at the Guildhall, in the city of
London, the key-note being his exhortation to his audience to
" think imperially."
All this activity on Mr Chamberlain's part represented a great
physical and intellectual feat on the part of a man now sixty-
seven years of age; but his bodily vigour and comparatively
youthful appearance were essential features of his personality.
Nothing like this campaign had been known in the political world
since Mr Gladstone's Midlothian days; and it produced a great
public impression, stirring up both supporters and opponents.
Free-trade unionists like Lord Goschen and Lord Hugh Cecil, and
the Liberal leaders — for whom Mr Asquith became the principal
spokesman, though Lord Rosebery's criticisms also had consider-
able weight — found new matter in Mr Chamberlain's speeches
for their contention that any radical change in the traditional
English fiscal policy, established now for sixty years, would only
result in evil. The broad fact remained that while Mr Chamber-
lain's activity gathered round him the bulk of the Unionist
members and an enthusiastic band of economic sympathizers,
the country as a whole remained apathetic and unconvinced.
One reason was the intellectual difficulty of the subject and the
double-faced character of all arguments from statistics, which
were either incomprehensible or disputable; another was the
fact that substantially this was a political movement, and that
tariff reform was, after all, only one in a complexity of political
issues, most of which during this period were being interpreted
by the electorate in a sense hostile to the Unionist party. Mr
Chamberlain had relied on his personal influence, which from
1895 to 1902 had been supreme; but his own resignation, and the
course of events, had since 1903 made his personality less authori-
tative, and new interests — such as the opposition to the Educa-
tion Act, to the heavy taxation, and to Chinese labour in the
8i8
CHAMBERLAIN, J.
Transvaal, and indignation over the revelations concerned with
the war — were monopolizing attention, to the weakening of his
hold on the public. The revival in trade, and the production of
new statistics which appeared to stultify Mr Chamberlain's
prophecies of progressive decline, enabled the free-trade
champions to reassure their audiences as to the very foundation
of his case, and to represent the whole tariff reform movement as
no less unnecessary than risky. Moreover, the split in the
Unionist party brought the united Liberal party in full force into
the field, and at last the country began to think that the danger
of Irish Home Rule was practically over, and that a Liberal
majority might be returned to power in safety, with the prospect
of providing an alternative government which would assure
commercial repose (Lord Rosebery's phrase), relief from extra-
vagant expenditure, and — as the working-classes were led to
believe — a certain amount of labour legislation which the Tory
leaders would never propose. On the other hand the colonies
took a great interest in the new movement, though without
putting any such pressure on the home public as Mr Chamberlain
might have expected. At the opening of 1004 he was officially
invited by Mr Deakin, the prime minister of the Commonwealth,
to pay a visit to Australia, in order to expound his scheme,
being promised an enthusiastic welcome " as the harbinger of
commercial reciprocity between the mother country and her
colonies. " Mr Chamberlain, however, declined; his work at
home was too pressing.
From the end of Mr Chamberlain's series of expository speeches
on his scheme of tariff reform, onwards during the various fiscal
debates and discussions of 1904, it is unnecessary to follow
events in detail. The scheme was now before the country, and
Mr Chamberlain was anxious to take its verdict Time was not
on his side at his age, and if he had to be beaten at one election
he was anxious to get rid of the other issues which would encumber
the popular vote, and to press on to a second when he would
be on the attacking side. But he would make no move which
would embarrass Mr Balfour in parliament, and adhered to his
promise of loyalty. The result was a long drawn out interval,
while the government held on and its supporters became more
embittered over their differences. Mr Chamberlain needed a rest,
and was away in Italy and Egypt from March to May, and again
in November. He made three important speeches at Welbeck
(August 4), at Luton (October 5), and at Limehouse (December
15), but he had nothing substantial to add to his case, and
the party situation continued in all its embarrassments. Mr
Balfour's introduction of his promise (at Edinburgh on October 3)
to convene an imperial conference after the general election if the
Unionists came back to power, in order to discuss a scheme for
fiscal union, represented an academic rather than a practical
advance, since the by-elections showed that the Unionists were
certain to be defeated. The one important new development
concerned the Liberal-Unionist organization. In January some
correspondence was published between Mr Chamberlain and
the duke of Devonshire, dating from the previous October, as
to difficulties arising from the central Liberal- Unionist organiza-
tion subsidizing local associations which had adopted the pro-
gramme of tariff reform. The duke objected to this departure
from neutrality, and suggested that it was becoming " impossible
with any advantage to maintain under existing circumstances
the existence of the Liberal-Unionist organization." Mr Chamber-
lain retorted that this was a matter for a general meeting of
delegates to decide; if the duke was outvoted he might resign
his presidency; for his own part he was prepared to allow the
local associations to be subsidized impartially, so long as they
supported the government, but he was not prepared for the
violent disruption, which the duke apparently contemplated,
of an association so necessary to the success of the Unionist
cause. The duke was in a difficult position as president of the
organization, since most of the local associations supported
Mr Chamberlain, and he replied that the differences between
them were vital, and he would not be responsible for dividing
the association into sections, but would rather resign. Mr
Chamberlain then called a general meeting on his own responsi-
bility in February, when a new constitution was proposed;
and in May, at the annual meeting of the Liberal-Unionist council,
the free-food Unionists, being in a minority, retired, and the
association was reorganized under Mr Chamberlain's auspices,
Lord Lansdowne and Lord Selborne (both of them cabinet
ministers) becoming vice-presidents. On July 14th the recon-
stituted Liberal-Unionist organization held a great demonstration
in the Albert Hall, and Mr Chamberlain's success in ousting
the duke of Devonshire and the other free-trade members of
the old Liberal-Unionist party, and imposing his own fiscal
policy upon the Liberal-Unionist caucus, was now complete.
During the spring and summer of 1005 Mr Chamberlain's
more active supporters were in favour of forcing a dissolution
by leaving the government in a minority, but he himself preferred
to leave matters to take their course, so long as the prime minister
was content to be publicly identified with the policy of eventually
fighting on tariff reform lines. Speaking at the Albert Hall in
July Mr Chamberlain pushed somewhat further than before
his " embrace " of Mr Balfour; and in the autumn, when foreign
affairs no longer dominated the attention of the government,
the crisis rapidly came to a head. In reply to Mr Balfour's
appeal for the sinking of differences (Newcastle, November 14),
Mr Chamberlain insisted at Bristol (November 21) on the adop-
tion of his fiscal policy; and Mr Balfour resigned on December 4,
on the ground that he no longer retained the confidence of the
party. At the crushing Unionist defeat in the general election
which followed in January 1006, Mr Chamberlain was triumph-
antly returned for West Birmingham, and all the divisions of
Birmingham returned Chamberlainite members. Amid the wreck
of the party — Mr Balfour and several of his colleagues themselves
losing their seats — he had the consolation of knowing that the
tariff reformers won the only conspicuous successes of the election.
But he had no desire to set himself up as leader in Mr Balfour's
place, and after private negotiations with the ex-prime minister,
a common platform was arranged between them, on which
Mr Balfour, for whom a seat was found in the City of London,
should continue to lead the remnant of the party. The formula
was given in a letter from Mr Balfour of February 14th (see
Balpour, A. J.) which admitted the necessity of making fiscal
reform the first plank in the Unionist platform, and accepted a
general tariff on manufactured goods and a small duty on foreign
corn as " not in principle objectionable."
It may be left to future historians to attempt a considered
judgment on the English tariff reform movement, and on Mr
Chamberlain's responsibility for the Unionist dtb&cle of 1006.
But while his enemies taunted him with having twice wrecked his
party — first the Radical party under Mr Gladstone, and secondly
the Unionist party under Mr Balfour — no well-informed critic
doubted his sincerity, or failed to recognize that in leaving the
cabinet and embarking on his fiscal campaign he showed real
devotion to an idea. In championing the cause of imperial
fiscal union, by means involving the abandonment of a system
of taxation which had become part of British orthodoxy, he
followed the guidance of a profound conviction that the stability
of the empire and the very existence of the hegemony of the
United Kingdom depended upon the conversion of public
opinion to a revision of the current economic doctrine. There
were doubtless miscalculations at the outset as to the resistance
to be encountered. But from the purely party point of view
he was entitled to say that he followed the path of loyalty to
Mr Balfour which he had marked out from the moment of his
resignation, and that he persistently refused to be put in com-
petition with him as leader. Even in the absence of the new issue,
defeat was foredoomed for Mr Balfour's administration by the
ordinary course of political events; and it might fairly be claimed
that " Chinese slavery," " passive resistance," and labour
irritation at the Taff Vale judgment (see Trade Unions) were
mainly responsible for the Unionist collapse. Time alone would
show whether the system of free imports could be permanently
reconciled with British imperial policy or commercial prosperity.
It remained the fact that Mr Chamberlain staked an already
established position on his refusal to compromise with his
CHAMBERLAIN, J. L.— CHAMBERLAIN
819
convictions on a question which appeared to him of vital and
immediate importance.
Mr Chamberlain's own activity in the political field was cut
short in the middle of the session of 1906 by a serious attack of
gout, which was at first minimized by his friends, but which,
it was gradually discovered, had completely crippled him.
Though encouragement was given to the idea that he might
return to the House of Commons, where he continued to retain
his seat for Birmingham, he was quite incapacitated for any
public work; and this invalid condition was protracted through-
out 1907, 1008 and 1909. But he remained in the background as
the inspirer and adviser of the Tariff Reformers. The cause
made continuous headway at by-elections, and though the general
election of January 19 10 gave the Unionists no majority it saw
them returned in much increased strength, which was chiefly
due to the support obtained for tariff reform principles. Mr
Chamberlain himself was returned unopposed for West Birming-
ham again. (H. Ch.)
CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828- ), Ameri-
can soldier and educationalist, was born at Brewer, Maine,
on the 8th of September 1828. He graduated at Bowdoin College
in 1852, and at the Bangor Theological Seminary in 1855, and
was successively tutor in logic and natural theology (1855-1856),
professor of rhetoric and oratory (1856-1861), and professor
of modern languages (1 861-186 5), at Bowdoin. In 1862 he
entered the Federal army as lieutenant-colonel of the 20th
Maine Infantry. His military career was marked by great
personal bravery and energy and intrepidity as a leader. He
was six times wounded, and participated in all the important
battles in the East from Antietam onwards, including Fredericks-
burg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, the Wilderness, Cold Harbor,
Petersburg and Five Forks. For his conduct at Petersburg,
where he was severely wounded, he was promoted to be brigadier-
general of volunteers. He was breveted major-general of
volunteers on the 29th of March 1865, and led the Federal
advance in the final operations against General R. E. Lee.
In 1893 he received a Congressional medal of honour " for daring
heroism and great tenacity in holding his position on the Little
Round Top and carrying the advance position on the Great
Round Top at the Battle of Gettysburg." After the war he was
again professor of rhetoric and oratory at Bowdoin in 1865-1866,
and in 1867-1870 was governor of Maine, having been elected
as a Republican. From 187 1 to 1883 he was president of Bowdoin
College, and during 1874-1879 was professor of mental and moral
philosophy also. Appointed in 1880 by Alonzo Garcelon, the
retiring governor, to protect the property and institutions of the
state until a new governor should be duly qualified, and acting
as major-general of the state militia, Chamberlain did much to
avert possible civil war, at a time of great political excitement
and bitter partisan feeling. (See Maine: History.) In 1883-
1885 he was a lecturer on political science and public law at
Bowdoin, and in 1900 became surveyor of customs for the district
of Portland, Maine. He published Maine, Her Place in History
(1877), and edited Universities and Their Sons (6 vols., 1898).
CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES (1820-1002),
British field marshal, was the third son of Sir Henry Chamberlain,
first baronet, consul-general and charge" d'affaires in Brazil, and
was born at Rio on the 10th of January 1820. He entered the
Indian army in 1837, served as a subaltern in the first Afghan
War (1839-42), and was wounded on six occasions. He was
attached to the Governor-General's Bodyguard at the battle
of Maharajpur, in the Gwalior campaign of 1843, was appointed
military secretary to the governor of Bombay in 1846, and
honorary aide-de-camp to the governor-general of India in 1847.
He served on the staff throughout the Punjab campaign of 1848-
49, and was given a brevet majority. In 1850 he was appointed
commandant of the Punjab military police, and in 1852 military
secretary to the Punjab government. Promoted lieut-colonel in
1854, he was given the command of the Punjab Frontier Force
with rank of brigadier-general, and commanded in several
expeditions against the frontier tribes. In the Indian Mutiny
he succeeded Colonel Chester as adjutant-general of the Indian
army, and distinguished himself at the siege of Delhi, where he
was severely wounded. He was rewarded with a brevet-
colonelcy, the appointment of A.D.C. to the queen, and the C.B.
He was reappointed to the command of the Punjab Frontier
Force in 1858, and commanded in the Umbeyla campaign (1863),
in which he was severely wounded. He was now made major-
general for distinguished service and a K.C.B. He was made
K.C.S.I. in 1866, lieut.-general in 1872, G.C.S.I. in 1873, G.C.B.
in 1875, and general in 1877. From 1876 to 1881 he was com-
mander-in-chief of the Madras army, and in 1878 was sent on
a mission to the amir of Afghanistan, whose refusal to allow
him to enter the country precipitated the second Afghan War.
He was for some time acting military member of the council of
the governor-general of India. He retired in 1886, was made
a field marshal in 1900, and died on the 18th of February 1902.
An excellent biography by G. W. Forrest appeared in 1909.
CHAMBERLAIN (O. Fr. chamberlain, chamberlenc, Mod. Fr.
chambellan, from O. H. Ger. Chamarling, Chamarlinc, whence
also the Med. Lat. cambellanus, earner lingus, camerlengus; Ital.
camerlingo; Span, camerlengo, compounded of 0. H. Ger.
Chamara, Kamara [Lat. camera, " chamber "], and the Ger.
suffix -ling), etymologically, and also to a large extent historically,
an officer charged with the superintendence of domestic affairs.
Such were the chamberlains of monasteries or cathedrals, who
had charge of the finances, gave notice of chapter meetings, and
provided the materials necessary for the various services. In
these cases, as in that of the apostolic chamberlain of the Roman
see, the title was borrowed from the usage of the courts of the
western secular princes. A royal chamberlain is now a court
official whose function is in general to attend on the person of
the sovereign and to regulate the etiquette of the palace. He is
the representative of the medieval camberlanus, cambellanus,
or cubicularius, whose office was modelled on that of the prae-
fectus sacri cubiculi or cubicularius of the Roman emperors. But
at the outset there was another class of chamberlains, the
camerarii, i.e. high officials charged with the administration of
the royal treasury (camera). The earner arius of the Carolingian
emperors was the equivalent of the hordere or thesaurarius
(treasurer) of the Anglo-Saxon kings; he develops into the
Erzkttmmerer (arckicamerarius) of the Holy Roman Empire,
an office held by the margraves of Brandenburg, and the grand
chambrier of France, who held his chamberie as a fief. Similarly
in England after the Norman conquest the hordere becomes the
chamberlain. This office was of great importance. Before the
Conquest he had been, with the marshal, the principal officer of
the king's court; and under the Norman sovereigns his functions
were manifold. As he had charge of the administration of the
royal household, his office was of financial importance, for a
portion of the royal revenue was paid, not into the exchequer, but
in camera regis. In course of time the office became hereditary
and titular, but the complexities of the duties necessitated a
division of the work, and the office was split up into three: the
hereditary and sinecure office of tnagister camerarius or lord
great chamberlain (see Lord Great Chamberlain), the more
important domestic office of camerarius regis, king's chamberlain
or lord chamberlain (see Lord Chamberlain), and the chamber-
lains (camerarii) of the exchequer, two in number, who were
originally representatives of the chamberlain at the exchequer,
and afterwards in conjunction with the treasurer presided over
that department. In 1826 the last of these officials died, when
by an act passed forty-four years earlier they disappeared.
In France the office of grand chambrier was early overshadowed
by the chamberlains (cubicularii, cambeUani, but sometimes
also camerarii), officials in close personal attendance on the king,
men at first of low rank, but of great and ever-increasing in-
fluence. As the office of grand chambrier, held by great feudal
nobles seldom at court, became more and more honorary, the
chamberlains grew in power, in numbers and in rank, until,
in the 13th century, one of them emerges as a great officer
of state, the chambellan de France or grand chambellan (also
tnagister cambeUanorum, mestre chamberlenc), who at times shares
with the grand chambrier the reyenues derived from certain
822
CHAMBERSBURG— CHAMBORD, COMTE DE
other matters not of sufficient importance to be dealt with in
court. It is a matter of doubt at what period the practice of
exercising jurisdiction " in chambers " commenced in England;
there is no statutory sanction before 182 1, though the custom
can be traced back to the 1 7th century. An act of 182 1 provided
for sittings in chambers between terms, and an act of 1822
empowered the sovereign to call upon the judges by warrant to
sit in chambers on as many days in vacation as should seem fit,
while the Law Terms Act 1830 defined the jurisdiction to be
exercised at chambers. The Judges' Chambers Act 1867 was
the first act, however, to lay down proper regulations for chamber
work, and the Judicature Act 1873 preserved that jurisdiction
and gave power to increase it as might be directed or authorized
by rules of court to be thereafter made. (See Chancery;
King's Bench, Court of.)
CHAMBERSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Franklin
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of Conoco-
cheague Creek and Falling Spring, 52 m. S.W. of Harrisburg.
Pop. (1890) 7863; (1900) 8864, of whom 769 were negroes;
(19 10) 11,800. It is served by the Cumberland Valley and
the Western Maryland railways, and is connected by electric
lines with Greencastle, Waynesboro, Caledonia, a beautiful park
in the Pennsylvania timber reservation, on South Mountain,
12 m. east of Chambersburg, and Pen Mar, a summer resort,
on South Mountain, near the boundary line between Pennsyl-
vania and Maryland. Chambersburg is built on an elevated
site in the broad and fertile Cumberland Valley, and commands
a fine view of the distant hills and dales. The borough is the
seat of Chambersburg Academy, a preparatory school; Perm
Hall, a school for girls; and Wilson College, a Presbyterian
institution for women, opened in 1870. The Wilson College
campus, the former estate of Col. A. K. McClure (18 28-1909),
a well-known journalist, was laid out by Donald G. Mitchell
(" Ik Marvel "), who was an enthusiastic landscape gardener.
The shops of the Cumberland Valley railway are at Chambersburg,
and among the borough's manufactures are milling machinery,
boilers, engines, hydraulic presses, steam-hammers, engineering
and bridge supplies, hosiery, shoes, gloves, furniture, flour,
paper, leather, carriages and agricultural implements; the
total value of its factory product in 1905 was $1,085,185. The
waterworks and the electric-lighting plant are owned and
operated by the municipality. A settlement was founded here
in 1730 by Benjamin Chambers, in whose honour the borough
was named, and who, immediately after General Edward
Braddock's defeat in 1755, built a stone fort and surrounded it
with a stockade for the protection of the community from the
Indians. Chambersburg was laid out in 1764 and was incor-
porated as a borough in 1803. On the 30th of July 1864 Cham-
bersburg was occupied by a Confederate cavalry force under
General McCausland (acting under General Jubal A. Early's
orders), who, upon the refusal of the citizens to pay $100,000
for immunity, burned a large part of the borough.
CHAMB&RY, a city of France, capital of the department of
Savoie, pleasantly situated in a fertile district, between two
hills, on the rivers Leysse and Albane, 79 m. by rail S.S.W.
of Geneva. Pop. (1906) town, 16,852; commune, 23,027. The
town is irregularly built, and has only two good streets — the
Place Saint-LSger and the Rue de Boigne, the latter being named
after General Benolt Boigne (1741-1830), who left a fortune
of 3,400,000 francs (accumulated in India) to the town. The
principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 14th and
15th centuries; the H6tel-Dieu, founded in 1647; the castle,
a modern building serving as the prefecture, and preserving
only a great square tower belonging to the original structure:
the palace of justice, the theatre, the barracks, and the covered
market, which dates from 1863. Several of the squares are
adorned with fountains; the old ramparts of the city, destroyed
during the French Revolution, have been converted into public
walks; and various promenades and gardens have been con-
structed. Chamb6ry is the seat of an archbishop (raised to that
dignity from a bishopric in 181 7) and of a superior tribunal.
It has also a Jesuit college, a royal academical society, a society
of agriculture and commerce, a public library with 60,000 volumes,
a museum (antiquities and paintings), a botanic garden, and
many charitable institutions. It manufactures silk-gauze, lace,
leather and hats, and has a considerable trade in liqueurs, wine,
lead, copper and other articles. Overlooking the town on the
north is the Rocher de Lemenc, which derives its name from the
Lemincutn of the Romans; and in the vicinity is Les Charmettes,
for some time (1 736-1 740) the residence of Rousseau.
The origin of Chambery is unknown, but its lords are mentioned
for the first time in 1029. In 1232 it was sold to the count of
Savoy, Thomas I., who bestowed several important privileges on
the inhabitants. As capital of the duchy of Savoy, it has passed
through numerous political vicissitudes. Between 1 536 and 1 7 13
it was several times occupied by the French; in 1742 it was
captured by a Franco-Spanish army; and in 1792 it was occupied
by the Republican forces, and became the capital of the depart-
ment of Mont Blanc. Restored to the house of Savoy by the
treaties of Vienna and Paris, it was again surrendered to France
in i860. Among the famous men whom it has given to France,
the most important are Vaugelas (1 585-1650), Saint-Real (1630-
1692), and the brothers Joseph (1754-1821) and Xavier (1763-
1852) de Maistre.
CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE
DIEUDONNfi, Comte de (1820-1883), the "King Henry V." of the
French legitimists, was born in Paris on the 29th of September
1820. His father was the due de B erry , the elder son of the comte
d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.); his mother was the princess
Caroline Ferdinande Louise of Naples. Born seven months after
the assassination of his father, he was hailed as the " enfant du
miracle," and was made the subject of one of Lamartine's most
famous poems. He was created due de Bordeaux, and in 182 1,
as the result of a subscription organized by the government,
received the chateau of Chambord. He was educated by tutors
inspired by detestation of the French Revolution and its prin-
ciples, and from the due de Damas in particular imbibed those
ideas of divine right and of devotion to the Church to which
he always remained true. After the revolution of July, Charles
X. vainly endeavoured to save the Bourbon cause by abdicating
in his favour and proclaiming him king under the title of Henry V.
(August 2, 1830). The comte de Chambord accompanied his
grandfather into exile, and resided successively at Holyrood,
Prague, and Gorz. In 1841, during an extensive tour through
Europe, he broke his leg — an accident that resulted in permanent
lameness. The death of his grandfather, Charles X., in 1836,
and of his uncle, the due d'Angoul&me, in 1844, left him the last
male representative of the elder branch of the Bourbon family;
and his marriage with the archduchess Maria Theresa, eldest
daughter of the duke of Modena (November 7, 1846), remained
without issue. The title to the throne thus passed to the comte
de Paris, as representative of the Orleans branch of the house of
Bourbon, and the history of the comte de Chambord's life is
largely an account of the efforts made to unite the Royalist party
by effecting a reconciliation between the two princes. Though he
continued to hold an informal court, both on his travels and at
his castle of Frohsdorf , near Vienna, yet he allowed the revolution
of 1848 and the coup d'&at of 1851 to pass without any decisive
assertion of his claims. It was the Italian war of 1859, with its
menace to the pope's independence, that roused him at last to
activity. He declared himself ready " to pay with his blood for
the triumph of a cause which was that of France, the Church,
and God himself." Making common cause with the Church, the
Royalists now began an active campaign against the Empire.
On the 9th of December 1866 he addressed a manifesto to General
Saint-Priest, in which he declared the cause of the pope to be that
of society and liberty, and held out promises of retrenchment,
civil and religious liberty, " and above all honesty." Again, on
the 4th of September 1870, after the fall of the Empire, he invited
Frenchmen to accept a government " whose basis was right and
whose principle was honesty," and promised to drive the enemy
from French soil. These vague phrases, offered as a panacea to a
nation fighting for its life, showed conclusively his want of all
political genius; they had as little effect on tie French as his
CHAMBORD— CHAMELEON
823
protest against the bombardment of Paris had on the Germans.
Yet fortune favoured him. The elections placed the Republican
party in a minority in the National Assembly; the abrogation of
the law of exile against the royal family permitted him to return
to his castle of Chambord; and it was thence that on the 5th of
July 187 1 he issued a proclamation, in which for the first time he
publicly posed as king, and declared that he would never abandon
the white standard of the Bourbons, " the flag of Henry IV.,
Francis I., and Joan of Arc," for the tricolour of the Revolution.
He again quitted France, and answered the attempts to make
him renounce his claims in favour of the comte de Paris by the
declaration (January 25, 1872) that he would never abdicate.
In the following month he held a great gathering of his adherents
at Antwerp, which was the cause of serious disturbances. A
constitutional programme, signed by some 280 members of the
National Assembly, was presented for his acceptance, but without
result. The fall of Thiers in May 1873, however, offered an oppor-
tunity to the Royalists by which they hastened to profit. The
comte de Paris and the prince de Joinville journeyed to Frohsdorf ,
and were formally reconciled with the head of the family (August
5). The Royalists were united, the premier (the due de Broglie)
an open adherent, thepresident (MacMahon)a benevolent neutral.
MM. Lucien Brun and Chesnelong were sent to interview the
comte de Chambord at Salzburg, and obtain the definite assur-
ances that alone were wanting. They returned with the news
that he accepted the principles of the French Revolution and the
tricolour flag. But a letter to Chesnelong, dated Salzburg, 27th
of October, declared that he had been misunderstood: he would
give no guarantees; he would not inaugurate his reign by an act
of weakness, nor become " le roi legitime de la Revolution."
" Je suis le pilote nScessaire," he added, " le seul capable de
conduire le navire au port, parce que j'ai mission et autorite pour
cela." This outspoken adherence to the principle of divine right
did credit to his honesty, but it cost him the crown. The due de
Broglie carried the septennate, and the Republic steadily estab-
lished itself in popular favour. A last effort was made in the
National Assembly in June 1874 by the due de la Rochefoucauld-
Bisaccia, who formally moved the restoration of the monarchy.
The comte de Chambord on the 2nd of July issued a fresh mani-
festo, which added nothing to his former declarations. The
motion was rejected by 272 to 79, and on the 25th of February
187 5 the Assembly definitely adopted the Republic as the national
form of government. From this time the comte de Chambord,
though continuing to publish letters on political affairs, made no
further effort to regain the throne. He died at Frohsdorf on the
24th of August 1883.
See Manifestos et programmes politiques de M. le comte de Cham-
bord, 1848-1873 (1873), and Correstoondance de la famille royale et
principalement de Mgr. le comte de Chambord avec le comte de BouilU
(1884). Of the enormous literature relating to him, mention may
be made of Henri V et la monarchic traditionnette (187 1), Le Comte de
Chambord UudU dans ses voyages et sa correspondence (1880), and
Henri de France, by H. de Pene (1885). (H. Sy.)
CHAMBORD* a village of central France, in the department
of Loir-et-Cher, on the left bank of the Cosson, 10 m. E. by N.
of Blois by road. The village stands in the park of Chambord,
which is enclosed by a wall 21 m. in circumference. The cele-
brated chateau (see Architecture: Renaissance Architecture
in France) forms a parallelogram flanked at the angles by
round towers and enclosing a square block of buildings, the
facade of which forms the centre of the main front . The profusion
of turrets, pinnacles, and dormer windows which decorates the
roof of this, the chief portion of the chateau, constitutes the main
feature of the exterior, while in the interior are a well-preserved
chapel of the 16th century and a famous double staircase, the
construction of which permits two people to ascend and descend
respectively without seeing one another. There are 440 apart-
ments, containing pictures of the 17th century and souvenirs
of the comte de Chambord. The chateau was originally a hunting-
box of the counts of Blois, the rebuilding of which was begun
by Francis I. in 1526, and completed under Henry II. It was
the residence of several succeeding monarchs, and under Louis
XIV. considerable alterations were made. In the same reign
Moliere performed Monsieur de Pourceaugnac and Le Bourgeois
gentUhomme for the first time in the theatre. Stanislaus, king
of Poland, lived at Chambord, which was bestowed by his son-in-
law, Louis XV., upon Marshal Saxe. It was given by Napoleon
to Marshal Berthier, from whose widow it was purchased by
subscription in 1821, and presented to the due de Bordeaux,
the representative of the older branch of the Bourbons, who
assumed from it the title of comte de Chambord. On his death
in 1883 it came by bequest into the possession of the family of
Parma.
CHAMBRE ARDENTE (Fr. " burning chamber "), the term
for an extraordinary court of justice in France, mainly held for
the trials of heretics. The name is perhaps an allusion to the
fact that the proceedings took place in a room from which all
daylight was excluded, the only illumination being from torches,
or there may be a reference to the severity of the sentences in
ardente, suggesting the burning of the prisoners at the stake.
These courts were originated by the Cardinal of Lorraine, the
first of them meeting in 1535 under Francis I. The Chambre
Ardente co-operated with an inquisitorial tribunal also established
by Francis I., the duty of which was to discover cases of heresy
and hand them over for final judgment to the Chambre Ardente.
The reign of Henry II. of France was particularly infamous for
the cruelties perpetrated by this court on the Huguenots. The
marquise de Brinvilliers (q.v.) and her associates were tried
in the Chambre Ardente in 1680. The court was abolished in
1682.
See N. Weiss, La Chambre Ardente (Paris, 1889), and F. Ravaisson,
Archives de la Bastille (Paris, 1866-1884, 16 vols.).
CHAMELEON, the common name of one of the three suborders
of Lacertilia or lizards. The chief genus is Chamaeleon, containing
most of the fifty to sixty species of the whole group, and with
the most extensive range,
all through Africa and
Madagascar into Arabia,
southern India and Ceylon.
The Indian species is Ch.
cat car at us\ the dwarf
chameleon of South Africa
is Ch. pumilus\ the giant of
the whole tribe, reaching a
total length of 2 ft., is
Ch. parsoni of Madagascar.
The commonest species in
the trade is Ch. vulgaris of North Africa, introduced into
southern Andalusia. A few queer genera, with much stunted
tail, e.g. Rhampholeon, in tropical Africa and Brookesia in
Madagascar are the most aberrant. The common chameleon is
the most typical. The head is raised into a pyramidal crest far
beyond the occiput, there is no outer ear, nor a drum-cavity.
The limbs are very long and slender, and the digits form stout
grasping bundles; on the hand the first three form an inner
bundle, opposed to the remaining two; on the foot the inner
bundle is formed by the first and second toe, the outer by the
other three toes. The tail is prehensile, by being rolled down-
wards; it is not brittle and cannot be renewed. The eyeballs are
large, but the lids are united into one concentric fold, leaving only
the small pupil visible. The right and left eyes are incessantly
moved separately from each other and literally in every direction,
up and down, forwards and straight backwards, producing the
most terrible squinting. Chameleons alone of all reptiles can
focus their eyes upon one spot, and conformably they alone
possess a retinal macula centralis, or spot of acutest, binocular
vision. The tongue has attained an extraordinary development.
It is club-shaped, covered with a sticky secretion, and based
upon a very narrow root, which is composed of extremely elastic
fibres and telescoped over the much elongated, style-shaped,
copular piece of the hyoid. The whole apparatus is kept in
a contracted state like a spring in a tube. When the spring
is released, so to speak, by filling the apparatus with blood and
by the play of the hyoid muscles, the heavy thick end shoots out
upon the insect prey and is withdrawn by its own elasticity.
Left Forefoot of Chamaeleon
o'shaughenesii, outer view.
824
CHAMFER— CHAMFORT
The whole act is like a flash. An ordinary chameleon can shoot
a fly at the distance of fully 6 in., and it can manage even a big
sphinx moth.
Another remarkable feature is their changing of colour. This
proverbial power is greatly exaggerated. They cannot assume
in succession all the colours of the rainbow, nor are the changes
quick. The common chameleon may be said to be greenish grey,
changing to grass-green or to dull black, with or without maroon
red, or brown, lateral series of patches. At night the same
specimen assumes as a rule a more or less uniform pale straw-
colour. After it has been watched for several months, when all
its possibilities seem exhausted, it will probably surprise us by
a totally new combination, for instance, a black garb with many
small yellow specks, or green with many black specks. Pure
red and blue are not in the register of this species, but they are
rather the rule upon the dark green ground colour of the South
African dwarf chameleon. The changes are partly under control
of the will, partly complicated reflex actions, intentionally
adaptive to the physical and psychical surroundings. The
mechanism is as follows. The cutis contains several kinds of
specialized cells in many layers, each filled with minute granules
of guanine. The upper cells are the smallest, most densely
filled with crystals, and cause the white colour by diffusion
of direct light; near the Malpighian layer the cells are charged
with yellow oil drops; the deeper cells are the largest, tinged
light brown, and acting as a turbid medium they cause a blue
colour, which, owing to the superimposed yellow drops, reaches
our eye as green; provided always that there is an effective
screen at the back, and this is formed by large chromatophores
which lie at the bottom and send their black pigment half-way
up, or on to the top of the layers of guanine and oil containing
cells. When all the pigment is shifted towards the surface, as
near the epidermis as possible, the creature looks black; when
the black pigment is withdrawn into the basal portions of the
chromatophores the skin appears yellow.
The lungs are very capacious, and end in several narrow
blind sacs which extend far down into the body cavity, so that
not only the chest but the whole body can be blown up. This
happens when the animals hiss and fight, as they often do. But
when they know themselves discovered, they make themselves
as thin as possible by compressing the chest and belly vertically
by means of their peculiarly elongated ribs. The whole body
is then put into such a position that it presents only its narrow
edge to the enemy, and with the branch of the tree or shrub
interposed. They are absolutely arboreal, but they hibernate
in the ground.
The usual mode of propagation is by eggs, which are oval,
numerous, provided with a calcareous shell, and buried in humus,
whence they are hatched about four months later. But a few
species, e.g. the dwarf chameleon, are viviparous.
Chameleons are insectivorous. They prefer locusts, grass-
hoppers and lepidoptera, but are also fond of flies and mealwoims.
They are notoriously difficult to keep in good health. They
want not only warmth, but sunshine, and they must have water,
which they lick up in drops from the edges of wet leaves whenever
they have a chance. The silliness of the fable that they live on
air is shown by the fact that they usually die in an absolutely
emaciated and parched condition after three or four months'
starvation. (H. F. G.)
In astronomy, " Chamaeleon " is a constellation situated near
the south pole and surrounded by the constellations of Octans,
Mensa, Piscis volans, Carina (Nauta), Musca and Apus. In
chemistry, " chameleon mineral " is a name applied to the green mass
which is obtained when pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) is Fused with
nitre, since a solution in water assumes a purple tint on exposure to
the air; this change is due to the oxidation of the manganate, which
is first formed, to a permanganate.
CHAMFER, Champfer or Chaumser (Fr. chanfrein; possibly
from Lat. cantos, corner, andfrangere, to break), an architectural
term; when the edge or arris of any work is cut off at an angle
of 45 in a small degree, it is said to be " chamfered," while it
would be " canted " if on a large scale. The chamfer is much
used in medieval work, and is sometimes plain, sometimes
hollowed out and sometimes moulded. Chamfers are sometimes
" stopped " by a bead or some moulding, but when cut short by
a slope they are generally known as " stop chamfer."
CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS (1741-1794),
French man of letters, was born at a little village near Clermont
in Auvergne in 1 741 . He was, according to a baptismal certificate
found among his papers, the son of a grocer named Nicolas. A
journey to Paris resulted in the boy's obtaining a bursary at the
College des Grassins. He worked hard, although he wrote later
in one of his most contemptuous epigrams — " Ce que fat appris
je ne le sais plus; le peu que je sais je Vai divine*." His college
career ended, Chamfort assumed the dress of a petit abb€. " Cest
un costume , et non point un Stat," he said; and to the principal
of his college who promised him a benefice, he replied that he
would never be a priest, inasmuch as he preferred honour to
honours — "faime Vhonneur et non les konneurs" About this
time he assumed the name of Chamfort.
For some time he contrived to exist by teaching and as a
booksellers' hack. His good looks and ready wit, however, soon
brought him into notice; but though endowed with immense
strength — " Hercule sous la figure d'Adonis," Madame de Craon
called him — he lived so hard that he was glad of the chance of
doing a " cure " at Spa when the Belgian minister in Paris,
M. van Eyck, took him with him to Germany in 1 761. On his
return to Paris he produced a comedy, La Jeune Indienne (1764),
which was performed with some success, and this was followed
by a series of " epistles " in verse, essays and odes. It was not,
however, until 1769, when he won the prize of the French
Academy for his filoge on Molidre, that his literary reputation
was established.
Meanwhile he had lived from hand to mouth, mainly on the
hospitality of people who were only too glad to give him board
and lodging in exchange for the pleasure of the conversation
for which he was famous. Thus Madame HelvStius entertained
him at SeVres for some years. In 1770 another comedy, Le
Marchand de Smyrne, brought him still further into notice, and
he seemed on the road to fortune, when he was suddenly smitten
with a horrible disease. His distress was relieved by the generosity
of a friend, who made over to him a pension of 1 200 livres charged
on the Mercure de France. With this assistance he was able to
go to the baths of Contrexeville and to spend some time in the
country, where he wrote an £loge on La Fontaine which won the
prize of the Academy of Marseilles (1774). In 1775, while taking
the waters at Bareges, he met the duchesse de Grammont, sister
of Choiseul, through whose influence he was introduced at court.
In 1776 his poor tragedy, Mustapha et Zeangir, was played at
Fontainebleau before Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette; the
king gave him a further pension of 1200 livres, and the prince de
Conde* made him his secretary. But he was a Bohemian naturally
and by habit, the restraints of the court irked him, and with
increasing years he was growing misanthropical. After a year
he resigned his post in the prince's household and retired into
solitude at Auteuil. There, comparing the authors of old with
the men of his own time, he uttered the famous mot that proclaims
the superiority of the dead over the living as companions; and
there too he presently fell in love. The lady, attached to the
household of the duchesse du Maine, was forty-eight years old,
but clever, amusing, a woman of the world; and Chamfort
married her. They left Auteuil, and went to Vaucouleurs,
where in six months Madame Chamfort died. Chamfort lived in
Holland for a time with M. de Narbonne, and returning to Paris
received in 1781 the place at the Academy left vacant by the
death of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye, the author of the Diction-
naire des antiquiUs franchises. In 1784, through the influence
of Calonne, he became secretary to the king's sister, Madame
Elizabeth, and in 1 786 he received a pension of 2000 livres from the
royal treasury. He was thus once more attached to the court,
and made himself friends in spite of the reach and tendency of
his unalterable irony; but he quitted it for ever after an un-
fortunate and mysterious love affair, and was received into the
house of M. de Vaudreuil. Here in 1 783 he had met Mirabeau, with
whom he remained to the last on terms of intimate friendship,
CHAMIER— CHAMISSO
825
whom he assisted with money and influence, and one at least
of whose speeches — that on the Academies — he wrote.
The outbreak of the Revolution made a profound change in
the relations of Chamfort's life. Theoretically he had long been
a republican, and he now threw himself into the new movement
with almost fanatical ardour, devoting all his small fortune to
the revolutionary propaganda. His old friends of the court he
forgot. "Those who pass the river of revolutions," he said,
" have passed the river of oblivion." Until the 31st of August
1791 he. was secretary of the Jacobin club; he became a street
orator and entered the Bastille among the first of the storming
party. He worked for the Mercure de France, collaborated with
Ginguene in the FeuiUe vittageoise, and drew up for Talleyrand
his Adresse au peuple francflis.
With the reign of Marat and Robespierre, however, his un-
compromising Jacobinism grew critical, and with the fall of the
Girondins his political life came to an end. But he could not
restrain the tongue that had made him famous; he no more
spared the Convention than he had spared the court. His
notorious republicanism failed to excuse the sarcasms he lavished
on the new order of things, and denounced by an assistant in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, to a share in the direction of which
he had been appointed by Roland, he was taken to the Made-
lonnettes. Released for a moment, he was threatened again
with arrest; but he had determined to prefer death to a repetition
of the moral and physical restraint to which he had been sub-
jected. He attempted suicide with pistol and with poniard;
and, horribly hacked and shattered, dictated to those who came
to arrest him the well-known declaration — " M oi, Sebastien-Roch-
Nicolos Chamfort, declare avoir voulu tnourir en homme libre plutdt
que d'Ure reconduct en esclave dans une maison d'arrU " — which
he signed in a firm hand and in his own blood. He did not die
at once, but lingered on until the 13th of April 1794 in charge
of a gendarme, for whose wardship he paid a crown a day. To
the Abb6 Sieyes Chamfort had given fortune in the title of a
pamphlet (" Qu'est-ce que le Tiers-£lat? Tout, Qu'a-t-il?
Rien "), and to Sieyes did Chamfort retail his supreme sarcasm,
the famous " Je m'en vats enfin de ce monde ou ilfaut que le cosur
se brise ou se bronze" The maker of constitutions followed the
dead wit to the grave.
The writings of Chamfort, which include comedies, political
articles, literary criticisms, portraits, letters, and verses, are
colourless and uninteresting in the extreme. As a talker, how-
ever, he was of extraordinary force. His Maximes et Pensees,
highly praised by John Stuart Mill, are, after those of La Roche-
foucauld, the most brilliant and suggestive sayings that have
been given to the modern world. The aphorisms of Chamfort,
less systematic and psychologically less important than those of
La Rochefoucauld, are as significant in their violence and
iconoclastic spirit of the period of storm and preparation that
gave them birth as the Reflexions in their exquisite restraint and
elaborate subtlety are characteristic of the tranquil elegance of
their epoch; and they have the advantage in richness of colour,
in picturesqueness of phrase, in passion, in audacity. Sainte-
Beuve compares them to " well-minted coins that retain their
value," and to keen arrows that " arrivent brusquement et siffient
encore"
An edition of his works — CEuvres completes de Nicolas Chamfort —
was published at Paris in five volumes in 1 824-1825. Selections —
CEuvres de Chamfort — in one volume, appeared in 1852, with a bio-
graphical and critical preface by Arsene Houssaye, reprinted from
the Revue des deux mondes; and CEuvres choisies (2 vols.), with a
preface and notes by M. de Lescure (1879). See also Sainte-Beuve,
Causeries du Lundi.
CHAMIER, FREDERICK (1 796-1870), English novelist, was
the son of an Anglo-Indian official. In 1809 he entered the navy,
and was in active service until 1827. He retired in 1833, and
was promoted to be captain in 1856. On his retirement he
settled near Waltham Abbey, and wrote several nautical novels
on the lines popularized by Marryat, that had considerable
success. Thesewere The Life oj a Sailor (1832), Ben Brace(i8$6),
The Arethusa (1837), Jack Adams (1838), Tom Bowling (1841)
and Jack Malcolm f s Log (1846). He wrote a number of other
books, and edited and brought down to 1827 Jameses Naval
History (1837)'
CHAMILLART MICHEL (1652-1721), French statesman,
minister of Louis XIV., was born at Paris of a family of the
noblesse of recent elevation. Following the usual career of a
statesman of his time he became in turn councillor of the parte-
ment of Paris (1676), master of requests (1686), and intendant
of the generality of Rouen (January 1689). Affable, of polished
manners, modest and honest, Chamillart won the confidence of
Madame de Main tenon and pleased the king. In 1690 he was
made intendant of finances, and on the 5th oi September 1699
the king appointed him controller-general of nuances, to which
he added on the following 7 th of January the ministry of war.
From the first Chamillart's position was a difficult one. The
deficit amounted to more than 53 million lxvres, and the credit
of the state was almost exhausted. He lacked the great in-
telligence and energy necessary for the situation* and was unable
to moderate the king's warlike tastes, or to inaugurate economic
reforms. He could only employ the usual expedients of the
time — the immoderate sale of offices, the debasement of the
coinage (five times in six years), reduction of the rate of interest
on state debts, and increased taxation. He attempted to force
into circulation a kind of paper money, billets de monnaie, but
with disastrous results owing to the state of credit. He studied
Vauban's project for the royal tithe and Boisguillebert's pro-
position for the taille, but did not adopt them. In October 1706
he showed the king that the debts immediately due amounted
to 288 millions, and that the deficit already foreseen for 1707
was 160 millions. In October 1707 he saw with consternation
that the revenue for 1708 was already entirely eaten up by
anticipation, so that neither money nor credit remained for 1708.
In these conditions Chamillart, who had often complained of
the overwhelming burden he was carrying, and who had already
wished to retire in 1706, resigned his office of controller-general.
Public opinion attributed to him the ruin of the country, though
he had tried in 1700 to improve the condition of commerce by
the creation of a council of commerce. As secretary of state
for war he had to place in the field the army for the War of the
Spanish Succession, and to reorganize it three times, after the
great defeats of 1704, 1706 and 1708. With an empty treasury
he succeeded only in part, and he frankly warned the king that
the enemy would soon be able to dictate the terms of peace.
He was reproached with having secured the command of the
army which besieged Turin (1 706) for his son-in-law, the incapable
due de la Feuillade. Madame de Maintenon even became hostile
to him, and he abandoned his position on the 10th of June 1709,
retiring to his estates. He died on the 14th of April 1721.
Chamillart's papers have been published by G. Esnault, Michel
Chamillart, controleur gineral et secretaire d'&tat de la guerre, eorre~
spondance et papier s inedits (2 vols., Paris, 188 s) ; and by A. de Bois-
hsle in vol. 2 of his Correspondance des controleur s gSneraux (1883).
See D'Auvigny, Vies des hommes iUustres (1739), tome vi. pp. 288-402 ;
E. Moret, Quinze annees du rlgne de Louis XIV (Paris, 1851) ; and
the new edition of the Mhnoires de St~Simon, by A. de Boishsle.
CHAMINADE, C&CILE (1861- ), French musical composer,
was born at Paris on the 8th of August 1861. She studied in
Paris, her musical talent being shown at the age of eight by the
writing of some church music which attracted Bizet's attention;
and at eighteen she came out in public as a pianist. Her own
compositions, both songs (in large numbers) and instrumental
pieces, were soon produced in profusion : melodious and interest-
ing, and often charming, they became very popular, without
being entitled to rank with the greater style of music. Both
in Paris and in England Mile Chaminade and her works became
well known at the principal concerts. In 1908 she visited
America and was warmly welcomed.
CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON [Louis Charles Adelaide de]
(1 781-1838), German poet and botanist, was born at the ch&teau
of Boncourt in Champagne, France, the ancestral seat of his
family, on the 30th of January 1781. Driven from France by
the Revolution, his parents settled in Berlin, where in 1796
young Chamisso obtained the post of page-in-waiting to the
queen, and in 1 798 entered a Prussian infantry regiment as ensign.
826
CHAMKANNI— CHAMOIS
His family were shortly afterwards permitted to return to France ;
he, however, remained behind and continued his career in the
army. He had but little education, but now sought dis-
traction from the soulless routine of the Prussian military service
in assiduous study. In collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense,
he founded in 1803 the Berliner Musenalmanach, in which his
first verses appeared. The enterprise was a failure, and, in-
terrupted by the war, it came to an end in 1806. It brought
him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities
of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet. He
had become lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 accompanied his
regiment to Hameln, where he shared in the humiliations follow-
ing the treasonable capitulation of that fortress in the ensuing
year. Placed on parole he went to France, where he found that
both his parents were dead; and, returning to Berlin in the
autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from the service
early in the following year. Homeless and without a profession,
disillusioned and despondent, he lived in Berlin until 1810, when,
through the services of an old friend of the family, he was offered
a professorship at the lycie at Napoleonville in La Vendue. He
set out to take up the post, but drawn into the charmed circle
of Madame de Stael, followed her in her exile to Coppet in
Switzerland, where, devoting himself to botanical research, he
remained nearly two years. In 181 2 he returned to Berlin,
where he continued his scientific studies. In the summer of the
eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative Peter Schlemihl,
the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of all his
works, has been translated into most European languages
(English by W. Howitt). It was written partly to divert his
own thoughts and partly to amuse the children of his friend
Hitzig. In 18 x 5 Chamisso was appointed botanist to the Russian
ship " Rurik," which Otto von Kotzebue (son of August von
Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the world.
His diary of the expedition ( Tagebuch, 182 1) affords some interest-
ing glimpses of England and English life. On his return in 1818
he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and
was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1820
he married. Chamisso's travels and scientific researches re-
strained for a while the full development of his poetical talent,
and it was not until his forty-eighth year that he turned again
to literature. In 18 29, in collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and
from 1832 in conjunction with Franz von Gaudy, he brought
out the Deutsche Musenalmanach, in which his later poems were
mainly published. He died on the 21st of August 1838.
As a scientist Chamisso has not left much mark, although his
Bemerkungen und Ansichten, published in an incomplete form
in O. von Kotzebue's Entdeckungsreise (Weimar, 182 1) and more
completely in Chamisso's Gesammelte Werke (1836), and the
botanical work, Vbersicht der nutzbarsten und schtidlichsten
Gew&chse in Norddeutschland (1829) are esteemed for their
careful treatment of the subjects with which they deal. As
a poet Chamisso's reputation stands high, Frauen Liebe und
Leben (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems, which was set to music
by Schumann, being particularly famous. Noteworthy are
also Schloss Boncourt and Solas y Gomez. In estimating his
success as a writer, it should not be forgotten that he was cut
off from his native speech and from his natural current of
thought and feeling. He often deals with gloomy and some-
times with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in his
lighter and gayer proudctions there is an undertone of sadness
or of satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions
he displays a fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with
true feeling a tale of love or vengeance. Die Lowenbraut may
be taken as a sample of his weird and powerful simplicity; and
Vergeltung is remarkable for a pitiless precision of treatment.
The first collected edition of Chamisso's works was edited by T. E.
Hitzig, 6 vols. (1836); 6th edition (1874); there are also excellent
editions by M. Koch (1883) and O. F. VValzel (1892). On Chamisso's
life see J. E. Hitzig, '* Leben und Briefe von Adelbert von Chamisso "
(in the Gesammelte Werke) ; K. Fulda, Chamisso und seine Zeit (1881} ;
G. Hofmeister, Adelbert von Chamisso (1884); and, for the scientific
side of Chamisso's life, E. du Bois- Raymond, Adelbert von Chamisso
als Naturforscher (1889).
CHAMKANNI, a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of
the North- West Province of India. They inhabit the western
part of the Kurmana Valley in the Orakzai portion of Tirah,
but are supposed to be a distinct race. They took part in the
frontier risings of 1897, and during the Tirah expedition of
that year a brigade under General Gaselee was sent to punish
them.
CHAMOIS, the Franco-Swiss name of an Alpine ruminant
known in the German cantons as Gemse, and to naturalists as
Rupicapra tragus or R. rupicapra tragus. It is the only species
of its genus, and typifies a subfamily, Rupicaprinae, of hollow-
horned ruminants in some degree intermediate between antelopes
and goats (see Antelope). About equal in height to a roebuck,
and with a short black tail, the chamois is readily distinguishable
from all other ruminants by its vertical, backwardly-hooked,
black horns, which are common to males and females, although
smaller in the latter. Apart from black and white face-markings,
and the black tail and dorsal stripe, the prevailing colour of the
Alpine chamois is chestnut brown in summer, but lighter and
greyer in winter. In the Pyrenees the species is represented by a
small race locally known as the izard; a very brightly-coloured
form, R. t. picta, inhabits the Apennines; the Carpathian
chamois is very dark-coloured, and the one from the Caucasus
is the representative of yet another race. A thick under-fur is
developed in the winter-coat, as in all other ruminants dwelling
at high altitudes. Chamois are gregarious, living in herds of 15
or 20, and feeding generally in the morning or evening. The old
males, however, live alone except in the rutting season, which
occurs in October, when they join the herds, driving off the
younger bucks, and engaging in fierce contests with each other,
that often end fatally for one at least of the combatants. The
period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath
the shelter generally of a projecting rock, produces one and
sometimes two young. In summer they ascend to the limits of
perpetual snow, being only exceeded in the loftiness of their
haunts by the ibex; and during that season they show their "
intolerance of heat by choosing such browsing-grounds as have
a northern exposure. In winter they descend to the wooded
districts that immediately succeed the region of glaciers, and it
is there only they can be successfully hunted. Chamois are
exceedingly shy; and their senses, especially those of sight and
smell, very acute. The herd never feeds without having a
sentinel posted on some prominence to give notice of the approach
of danger; which is done by stamping on the ground with the
forefeet, and uttering a shrill whistling note, thus putting the
entire herd on the alert. No sooner is the object of alarm scented
or seen than each one seeks safety in the most inaccessible
situations, which are often reached by a series of astounding
leaps over crevasses, up the faces of seemingly perpendicular
rocks, or down the sides of equally precipitous chasms. The
chamois will not hesitate, it is said, thus to leap down 20 or even
30 ft., and this it effects with apparent ease by throwing itself
forward diagonally and striking its feet several times in its
descent against the face of the rock. Chamois-shooting is most
successfully pursued when a number of hunters form a circle
round a favourite feeding ground, which they gradually narrow;
the animals, scenting the hunters to windward, fly in the oppo-
site direction, only to encounter those coming from leeward.
Chamois-hunting, in spite of, or perhaps owing to the great
danger attending it, has always been a favourite pursuit among
the hardy mountaineers of Switzerland and Tirol, as well as of
the amateur sportsmen of all countries, with the result that the
animal is now comparatively rare in many districts where it was
formerly common. Chamois feed in summer on mountain-herbs
and flowers, and in winter chiefly on the young shoots and buds
of fir and pine trees. They are particularly fond of salt, and
in the Alps sandstone rocks containing a saline impregnation
are often met with hollowed by the constant licking of these
creatures. The skin of the chamois is very soft; made into
leather it was the original shammy, which is now made, however,
from the skins of many other animals. The flesh is prized as
venison. (R. L.*)
CHAMOMILE— CHAMPAGNE
827
CHAMOMILE, or Camomile Flowers, the flares antkemidis
of the British Pharmacopoeia, the flower-heads of Anthemis
nobilis (Nat. Ord. Compositae), a herb indigenous to England
and western Europe. It is cultivated for medicinal purposes
in Surrey, at several places in Saxony, and in France and
Belgium, — that grown in England being much more valuable
than any of the foreign chamomiles brought into the market.
In the wild plant the florets of the ray are ligulate and white,
and contain pistils only, those of the disk being tubular and
yellow; but under cultivation the whole of the florets tend to
become ligulate and white, in which state the flower-heads are
said to be double. The flower-heads have a warm aromatic
odour, which is characteristic of the entire plant, and a very
bitter taste. In addition to a bitter extractive principle, they
yield about 2% of a volatile liquid, which on its first extraction
is of a pale blue colour, but becomes a yellowish brown on
exposure to light. It has the characteristic odour of the flowers,
and consists of a mixture of butyl and amyl angelates and
valerates. Angelate of potassium has been obtained by treatment
of the oil with caustic potash, and angelic acid may be isolated
from this by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. Chamomile
is used in medicine in the form of its volatile oil, of which the
dose is i-3 minims. There is an official extract which is never
used. like all volatile oils the drug is a stomachic and carmi-
native. In large doses the infusion is a simple emetic.
Wild chamomile is Matricaria ChamomiUa, a weed common
in waste and cultivated ground especially in the southern counties
of England. It has somewhat the appearance of true chamomile,
but a fainter scent.
CHAMONIX, a mountain valley in south-east France, its chief
village, of the same name, being the capital of a canton of the
arrondissement of Bonneville in the department of Haute-
Savoie. The valley runs from N.E. to S.W., and is watered by
the Arve, which rises in the Mer de Glace. On the S.E. towers
the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, and on the N.W.the less lofty,
but rugged chain of the Brevent and of the Aiguilles Rouges.
Near the head of the valley is the village of Argentine (4101
ft.), which is connected with Switzerland by " char " (light
carriage) roads over the T6te Noire and past Salvan, and by a
mule path over the Col de Balme, which joins the T6te Noire
route near Trient and then crosses by a " char " road the Col de la
Forclaz to Martigny in the Rhone valley. The principal village,
Chamonix (3416 ft.), is 6 m. below Argentine by electric railway
(which continues via Finhaut to Martigny) and is visited annually
by a host of tourists, as it is the best starting-point for the
exploration of the glaciers of the Mont Blanc chain, as well as
for the ascent of Mont Blanc itself. It is connected with Geneva
by a railway (55 m.). In 1906 the population of the village was
806, of the commune 3482.
The valley is first heard of about 1091 , when it was granted by
the count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St
Michel de la Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century
established a priory therein. But in 1 786 the inhabitants bought
their freedom from the canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory
had been transferred in 1 519. In 1 530 the inhabitants obtained
from the count of the Genevois the privilege of holding two fairs
a year, while the valley was often visited by the civil officials and
by the bishops of Geneva (first recorded visit in 141 1, while
St Francis de Sales came thither in 1606). But travellers for
pleasure were long rare. The first party to publish (1744) an
account of their visit was that of Dr R. Pococke, Mr W. Windham
and other Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741.
In 1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760
H. B. de Saussure, and rather later Bourrit.
See J. A. Bonnefoy and A. Perrin, Le Prieurt de Chamonix (2 vols.,
Chamfery, 1879 and 1883); A - Perrin, Histoire de la vallee et du
prieurS de Chamonix (Chamtery, 1887); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld,
Carte de la chatne du Mont Blanc (1896; new ed., 1905); L. Kurz,
Climbers 1 Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc (London, 1892); also
works referred to under Blanc, Mont. (W. A. B. C.)
CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province of the kingdom of France,
bounded N. by Li6ge and Luxemburg; E. by Lorraine; S. by
Burgundy; and W. by Picardy and Isle de France. It now
forms the departments of Ardennes, Marne, Aube and Haute
Marne, with part of Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne and Meuse.
Its name — in Latin Campania, " country of plains " — is derived
from the immense plains near Reims, Chalons and Troyes. It
was constituted towards the end of the middle ages by joining
to the countship of Champagne the ecclesiastical duchies of
Reims and Langres, together with the ecclesiastical countship of
Chalons. Documents of the 12th and 13th centuries make it
possible to determine the territorial configuration of the countship
of Champagne with greater accuracy than in the case of any other
fief of the crown of France. Formed at random by the acquisi-
tions of the counts of the houses of Vermandois and Bk>is,
Champagne reckoned among its dependencies, from 1152 to 1234,
the countship of Blois and Chartres, of which Touraine was a fief,
the countship of Sancerre, and various scattered fiefs in the
Bourbonnais and in Burgundy. Officially called the "countship of
Champagne and Brie " since 1217, this state was formed by the
union of the countships of Troyes and Meaux, to which the greater
part of the districts embraced in the country known, since the
beginning of the middle ages, by the name of Champagne and Brie
came in course of time to be attached. Placed under the authority
of a single count in 960, the countships of Troyes and Meaux
were not again separated after 1125. For the counts of Troyes
before the nth century see Troves. We confine ourselves here
to the counts of Champagne of the house of Blois.
About 1020 Eudes or Odo I. (Odo II., count of Blois) became
count of Champagne. He disputed the kingdom of Burgundy
with the emperor Conrad, and died in 1037, in a battle near Bar-
le-Duc. In 1037 he was succeeded by his younger son, Stephen
II. About 1050 Odo II., son of Stephen II., became count.
This prince, guilty of murder, found refuge in Normandy, where
he received the castle of Aumale. He took part in 1066 in the
conquest of England, and became earl of Holderness. About
1063 Theobald (Thibaud) I., count of Blois and Meaux, eldest son
of Odo I., became count of Champagne. In 1077 he seized the
countships of Vitry and Bar-sur-Aube, left vacant by Simon of
Valois, who had retired to a monastery. In 1089 Odo III. , second
son of Theobald II., became count, and was succeeded about
1093 by his younger brother, Hugh, who became a templar in
1 1 2 5 , and gave up the countship to his suzerain, the count of Blois.
In 1 1 25 the countship of Champagne passed to Theobald II. the
Great, already count of Blois and Meaux, and one of the most
powerful French barons of his time. He was related to the royal
house of England, and incurred the displeasure of the king of
France, who in 1142 invaded Champagne and burnt the town
of Vitry. After Theobald the Great the countship of Blois ceased
to be the dominant fief of his house and became the appanage
of a younger branch. In n 52 Henry the Liberal, eldest son of
Theobald II., became count of Champagne; he married Mary,
daughter of Louis VII. of France, and went to the crusade in 1 1 78.
He was taken prisoner by the Turks, recovered his liberty through
the good offices of the emperor of the East, and died a few days
after his return to Champagne. In 1 18 1 his eldest son, Henry II.,
succeeded him under the tutelage of Mary of France. In 1 190
he went to the Holy Land, and became king of Jerusalem in 1 192
by his marriage with Isabelle, widow of the marquis of Mont-
f errat . He died in 1 1 97 in his town of Acre from the results of an
accident. In 1197 Theobald III., younger son of Henry I., be-
came count, and was succeeded in 1 201 by Theobald IV., " le
Chansonnier " (the singer), who was the son of Theobald III. and
Blanche of Navarre, and was born some days after the death of
his father. From 1201 to 1222 he remained under the tutelage
of his mother, who governed Champagne with great sagacity.
The reign of this prince was singularly eventful. The two
daughters of count Henry II. successively claimed the countship,
so that Theobald had to combat the claims of Philippa, wife of
Erard of Brienne, seigneur of Rameru, from 12 16 to 1222, and
those of Alix, queen dowager of Cyprus, in 1233 and 1234. In
1 226 he followed king Louis VII. to the siege of Avignon, and after
the death of that monarch played .a prominent part during the
reign of St Louis. At first leagued with the malcontent barons,
he allowed himself to be gained over by the queen-mother, and
828
CHAMPAGNY— CHAMPARAN
thus came into collision with his old allies. He became king of
Navarre in 1234 by the death of his maternal uncle, Sancho VII.
but by the onerous treaty which he concluded in that year with
the queen of Cyprus he was compelled to cede to the king, in return
for a large sum of money, the overlordship of the countships of
Blois, Chartres and Sancerre, and the viscounty of Chateaudun.
In 1 239 and 1240 he took part in an expedition to the Holy Land,
probably accompanied St Louis in 1242 in the campaign of
Saintonge against the English, and died on the 14th of July 1254
at Pampeluna. If the author of the Grandes ckroniques de
France can be believed, Theobald IV. conceived a passion for
Queen Blanche, the mother of St Louis, — a passion which she
returned, and which explains the changes in his policy; but this
opinion apparently must be relegated to the category of historical
fables. The witty and courtly songs he composed place him in
the front rank of the poets of that class, in which he showed
somewhat more originality than his rivals. In 1 2 54 Theobald V.
the Young, eldest son of Theobald IV. and, like his father, king
of Navarre, became count of Champagne. He married Isabelle of
France, daughter of St Louis, and followed his father-in-law to
Tunis to the crusade, dying on his return. In 1270 he was
succeeded by Henry III. the Fat, king of Navarre. Henry was
succeeded in 1274 by his only daughter, Joan of Navarre, under
the tutelage of her mother, Blanche of Artois, and afterwards of
Edmund, earl of Lancaster, her mother's second husband. In
1284 she married the heir-presumptive to the throne of France,
Philip the Fair, to whom she brought the countship of Champagne
as well as the kingdom of Navarre. She became queen of France
in 1285, and died on the 4th of April 1305, when her eldest son
by King Philip, Louis Hutin, became count of Champagne. He
was the last independent count of the province, which became
attached to the French crown on his accession to the throne of
France in 13 14.
The celebrated fairs of Champagne, which flourished in the 1 2th
and 13 th centuries, were attended by merchants from all parts
of civilized Europe. They were six in number: two at Troyes,
two at Provins, one at Lagny-sur-Marne, and one at Bar-sur-
Aube. They formed a kind of continuous market, divided into
six periods, and passed in turn from Lagny to Bar, from Bar to
Provins, from Provins to Troyes, from Troyes to Provins and
from Provins to Troyes, to complete the year. It was, in fact,
a perpetual fair, which had at once unity and variety, offering to
the different parts of the countship the means of selling succes-
sively the special productions of their soil or their industry, and of
procuring in exchange riches and comforts. These fairs had
special legislation; and special magistrates, called " masters of
the fairs," had control of the police.
For the wine " champagne " see Wine.
Authorities. — H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Histoire des dues et des
comics de Champagne (1 859-1 866); A. Longnon, Documents relatifs
au comtS de Champagne et de Brie (1001 seq.; vol. i. with map); F.
Bourquelot, Etudes sur lesf aires de Champagne (1865). (A. Lo.)
CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTS NOMP&RE DE (1756-1834),
French politician, was born at Roanne, and entered the navy in
1774. He fought through the war in America and resigned in
1787. Elected deputy by the noblesse of Forex to the states-
general in 1789, he went over to the third estate on the 21st of
June and collaborated in the work of the Constituent Assembly,
especially occupying himself with the reorganization of the navy.
A political career seems to have attracted him little; he remained
in private life from 1791 to 1799, when Napoleon named him
member of the council of state. From July 1801 to August 1804
he was ambassador of France at Vienna, and directed with great
intelligence the incessant negotiations between the two courts.
In August 1804 Napoleon made him minister of the interior, and
in this position, which he held for three years, he proved an
administrator of the first order. In addition to the ordinary
charges of his office, he had to direct the recruitment of the army,
organize the industrial exhibition of 1808, and to complete the
public works undertaken in Paris and throughout France. He
was devoted to Napoleon, on whom he lavished adulation in his
speeches. In August 1807 the emperor chose him to succeed
Talleyrand as minister for foreign affairs. He directed the
annexation of the Papal States in April 1808, worked to secure the
abdication of Charles IV. of Spain in May 1808, negotiated the
peace of Vienna (1809) and the marriage of Napoleon. In April
181 1 a quarrel with the emperor led to his retirement, and he
obtained the sinecure office of intendant general of the crown.
In 1814, after the abdication, the empress sent him on a fruitless
mission to the emperor of Austria. Then he went over to the
Bourbons. During the Hundred Days he again joined Napoleon.
This led to his exclusion by Louis XVIII., but in 1819 he re-
covered his dignity of peer. He died in Paris in 1834. He had
three sons who became men of distinction. Francois (1804-
1882) was a well-known author, who was made a member of the
French Academy in 1869. His great work was a history of the
Roman empire, in three parts, (1) Les Censors (1841-1843, 4 vols.),
(2) Les Antonins (1863, 3 vols.), (3) Les Ctsars du III* siecle
(1870, 3 vols.). Napoleon (1806-1872) published a TraiU de la
police municipale in 4 volumes (1844-1861), and was a deputy in
the Corps Legislatif from 1852 to 1870. Jerome Paul (1800-
1886) was also deputy in the Corps Legislatif from 1853 to 1870,
and was made honorary chamberlain in 1859. He worked at the
official publication of the correspondence of Napoleon I. -
CHAMPAIGN, a city of Champaign county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
about 125 m. S. by W. of Chicago, on the head-waters of the
Vermilion river. Pop. (1800) 5839; (1900) 0008, of whom 973
were foreign-born; (1906, est.) 11,054. It is served by the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Wabash, and
the Illinois Central railways (the last having repair shops here),
and by the Illinois (electric) Traction System from Danville,
Illinois, to St Louis, Missouri. In 1906 the city covered 3 • 5 sq. m. ;
it is situated in a rich agricultural region, and has small manu-
facturing interests. Immediately east of Champaign is the city
of Urbana, the county-seat of Champaign county, served by the
Wabash and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
railways, with repair shops of the latter. In 1 890 the population
of Urbana was 351 1; in 1000, 5728, of whom 300 were foreign-
born. Partly in Urbana and partly in Champaign is the Uni-
versity of Illinois (see Illinois); immediately south of its
campus is the 400-acre farm of the university. Each city has a
public library, and in Champaign are the Burnham Athenaeum,
the Burnham hospital, the Garwood home for old ladies, and
several parks, all gifts of former citizens. Champaign was
founded in 1855, incorporated as a city in i860, and re-chartered
in 1883. Urbana secured a city charter in 1855.
CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE (1602-1674), Belgian painter
of the French school, was born at Brussels of a poor family. He
was a pupil of J. Fouquieres; and, going to Paris in 162 1, was
employed by N. Du Chesne to paint along with Nicholas Poussin
in the palace of the Luxembourg. His best works are to be
found at Vincennes, and in the church of the Carmelites at Paris,
where is his celebrated Crucifix, a signal perspective success, on
one of the vaultings. After the death of Du Chesne, Philippe
became first painter to the queen of France, and ultimately
rector of the Academy of Paris. As his age advanced and his
health failed, he retired to Port Royal, where he had a daughter
cloistered as a nun , of whom (along with Catherine Agnes Arnauld)
he painted a celebrated picture, now in the Louvre, highly remark-
able for its solid unaffected truth. This, indeed, is the general
character of his work, — grave reality, without special elevation or
depth of character, or charm of warm or stately colour. He pro-
duced an immense number of paintings, religious and other
subjects as well as portraits, dispersed over various parts of
France, and now over the galleries of Europe. Philippe was a
good man, indefatigable, earnest and scrupulously religious.
He died on the 12th of August 1674.
CHAMPARAN, or Chumparun, a district of British India,
in the Patna division of Bengal, occupying the north-west
corner of Behar, between the two rivers Gandak and Baghmati
and the Nepal hills. It has an area of 3531 sq. m. In 1001 the
population was 1,790,463, showing a decrease of 4% in the
decade. A broad grass-covered road or embankment defines the
Nepal frontier, except where rivers or streams form a natural
CHAMPEAUX— CHAMPIONNET
829
boundary. The district is a vast level except in the N. and N. W. ,
where it undulates, and gradually assumes a rugged appearance
as it approaches the mountains and forests of Nepal. Wide
uncultivated tracts cover its north-western corner; the southern
and western parts are carefully cultivated, and teem with an
active agricultural population. The principal rivers are the
Gandak, navigable all the year round, the Buri Gandak, Panch
Nadi, Lalbagia, Koja and Teur. Old beds of rivers intersect
Champaran in every direction, and one of these forms a chain
of lakes which occupy an area of 139 sq. m. in the centre of the
district. Champaran, with the rest of Bengal and Behar, was
acquired by the British in 1765. Up to 1866 it remained a
subdivision of Saran. In that year it was separated and formed
into a separate district. The administrative headquarters are
at Motihari (population, 13,730); Bettia is the centre of a very
large estate; Segauli, still a small military station, was the
scene of a massacre during the Mutiny. Champaran was the
chief seat of indigo planting in Behar before the decline of that
industry. There are about 40 saltpetre refineries. The district
suffered severely from drought in 1866 and 1874, and again in
1897. In the last year a small government canal was opened,
and a canal from the Gandak has also been constructed. The
district is traversed almost throughout its length to Bettia by
the Tirhoot state railway. A considerable trade is conducted
with Nepal.
CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF [Gulielmus Campellensis]
(c. 1070-1121), French philosopher and theologian was born
at Champeaux near Melun. After studying under Anselm of
Laon and Roscellinus, he taught in the school of the cathedral
of Notre Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103. Among
his pupils was Abelard. In 1108 he retired into the abbey of
St Victor, where he resumed his lectures. He afterwards
became bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne, and took part in the
dispute concerning investitures as a supporter of Calixtus II.,
whom he represented at the conference of Mousson. His only
printed works are a fragment on the Eucharist (inserted by
Jean Mabillon in his edition of the works of St Bernard), and
the Mar alia Abbreviate and De Origine Animae (in E. Martene's
Thesaurus nevus Anecdotorum, 1717, vol. 5). In the last of these
he maintains that children who die unbaptized must be lost,
the pure soul being denied by the grossness of the body, and
declares that God's will is not to be questioned. He upholds
the theory of Creatianism (that a soul is specially created for
each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien has discovered a
number of fragments by him, among which the most important
is the De Essentia Dei et de Substantia Dei; a Liber Sententiarum,
consisting of discussions on ethics and Scriptural interpretation,
is also ascribed to Champeaux. He is reputed the founder of
Realism. For his views and his controversy with Abelard, see
Scholasticism and Abelard.
See Victor Cousin, introduction to his Outrages inSdits d'Abilard
(1836), and Fragments four servir a Vkistoire de la philosophic (1865) ;
G. A. Patru, Wilhelmt Campellensis de natura et de origine rerum
placita (1847); E. Michaud, Guillaume de Champeaux et les icoles
de Paris au XII* sitde (2nd ed. t 1868); " William of Champeaux
and his Times " in Christian Observer, lxxii. 843 ; B. Haureau, De
la philosophic scolastique (Paris, 1850); Opuscula in J. P. Migne's
Patrologia, clxiii.
CHAMPERTY, or Champarty (Lat. campi partitio, O. Fr.
champ parti), in English law, a bargain between a plaintiff or
defendant in a cause and another person, to divide the land
(campum partirt) or other matter sued for, if they prevail, in
consideration of that person carrying on or defending the suit
at his own expense. It is a misdemeanour punishable by fine
or imprisonment. It differs only from maintenance (q.v.), in
that the recompense for the service which has been given is
always part of the matter in suit, or some profit growing out of
it. So an agreement by a solicitor not to charge costs on
condition of retaining for himself a share of the sums recovered
would be illegal and void. It is not, however, champerty to
charge the subject-matter of a suit in order to obtain the means
of prosecuting it.
See Fifth Report of the Criminal Law Commissioners, pp. 34-9.
CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus,
a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights;
cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and K&mpfer, fighter), in the judicial
combats of the middle ages the substitute for a party to the suit
disabled from bearing arms or specially exempt from the duty
to do so (see Wager). Hence the word has come to be applied
to any one who " champions," or contends on behalf of, any
person or cause. In the laws of the Lombards (lib. ii. tit. 56
§§ 38, 39)1 those who by reason of youth, age or infirmity could
not bear arms were allowed to nominate champions, and the
same provision was made in the case of women (lib. i. tit.
3 § 6, tit. 16, §2). This was practically the rule laid down in all
subsequent legislation on the subject. Thus the Assize of
Jerusalem (cap. 39) says: " These are the people who may defend
themselves through champions; a woman, a sick man, a man
who has passed the age of sixty, &c." The clergy, too, whether
as individuals or corporations, were represented by champions;
in the case of bishops and abbots this function was part of the
duties of the advocatus (see Advocate). Du Cange gives
instances of mercenary champions {campiones conductitii) , who
were regarded as " infamous persons " and sometimes, in case
of defeat, were condemned to lose hand or foot. Sometimes
championships were " serjeanties," i.e. rendered service to lords,
churches or cities in consideration of the grant of certain fiefs, or
for annual money payments, the champion doing homage to the
person or corporation represented by him {campiones homagii).
The office of " king's champion " (campio regis) is peculiar
to England. The function of the king's champion, when the
ceremonial of the coronation was carried out in its completeness,
was to ride, clad in complete armour, on his right the high
constable, on his left the earl marshal, into Westminster Hall
during the coronation banquet, and challenge to single combat
any who should dispute the king's right to reign. The challenge
was thrice repeated by the herald, at the entrance to the hall,
in the centre, and at the foot of the dais. On picking up his
gauntlet for the third time the champion was pledged by the
king in a gilt-covered cup, which was then presented to him as
his fee by the king. If he had had occasion to fight, and was
victorious, his fee would have been the armour he wore and the
horse he rode, the second best in the royal stables; but no such
occasion has ever arisen. This picturesque ceremonial was last
performed at the coronation of George IV. The office of king's
champion is of great antiquity, and its origins are involved in
great obscurity. It is said to have been held under William the
Conqueror by Robert or Roger Marmion, whose ancestors had
been hereditary champions in Normandy. The first authentic
record, however is a charter of Henry I., signed by Robert
Marmion (Robertus de Bajucis campio regis). Of the actual
exercise of the office the earliest record dates from the coronation
of Richard II. On this occasion the champion, Sir John Dymoke,
appeared at the door of the Abbey immediately after the corona-
tion mass, but was peremptorily told to go away and return
later; moreover, in his bill presented to the court of claims, he
stated that the champion was to ride in the procession before
the service, and make his challenge to all the world. This seems
to show that the ceremony, as might be expected, was originally
performed before the king's coronation, when it would have had
some significance. The office of king's champion is hereditary,
and is now held by the family of Dymoke (q.v.).
See Du Cange, Glossarium t s.v. " Campio " ; L. G. Wickham Legg,
English Coronation Records (Westminster, 1901); J. H. T. Perkins,
The Coronation Book (London, 1902).
CHAMPIONNET, JEAN tiTIBNNE (1762-1800), French
general, enlisted in the army at an early age and served in the
great siege of Gibraltar. When the Revolution broke out he
took a prominent part in the movement, and was elected by the
men of a battalion to command them. In May 1793 he was
charged with the suppression of the disturbances in the Jura,
which he quelled without bloodshed. Under Pichegru he took
part in the Rhine campaign of that year as a brigade commander,
and at Weissenburg and in the Palatinate won the warm com-
mendation of Lazare Hoche. At Fleurus his stubborn fighting
830
CHAMPLAIN, S. DE— CHAMPLAIN
in the centre of the field contributed greatly to Jourdan's victory.
In the subsequent campaigns he commanded the left wing of the
French armies on the Rhine between Neuwied and Diisseldorf ,
and took a great part in all the successful and unsuccessful
expeditions to the Lahn and the Main. In 1798 Championnet
was named commander-in-chief of the " army of Rome " which
was protecting the infant Roman republic against the Neapolitan
court and the British fleet. Nominally 32,000 strong, the army
scarcely numbered 8000 effectives, with a bare fifteen cartridges
per man. The Austrian general Mack had a tenfold superiority
in numbers, but Championnet so well held his own that he ended
by capturing Naples itself and there setting up the Parthenopean
Republic. But his intense earnestness and intolerance of
opposition soon embroiled him with the civilians, and the
general was recalled in disgrace. The following year, however,
saw him again in the field as commander-in-chief of the " army
of the Alps." This, too, was at first a mere paper force, but after
three months' hard work it was able to take the field. The
campaign which followed was uniformly unsuccessful, and,
worn out by the unequal struggle, Championnet died at Antibes
on the 9th of January 1800. In 1848 a statue was erected in his
honour at Valence.
See A. R. C. de St Albin, Championnet, ou Us Campapies de
Holland*, de Rome el de Naples (Paris, i860).
CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567-1635), French explorer,
colonial pioneer and first governor of French Canada, was born
at Brouage, a small French port on the Bay of Biscay, in 1567.
His father was a sea captain, and the boy was early skilled in
seamanship and navigation. He entered the army of Henry IV.,
and served in Brittany under Jean d'Aumont, Francois de St
Luc and Charles de Brissac. When the army of the League
was disbanded he accompanied his uncle, who had charge of the
ships in which the Spanish allies were conveyed home, and on
reaching Cadiz secured (1599) the command of one of the vessels
about to make an expedition to the West Indies. He was gone
over two years, visiting all the principal ports and pushing
inland from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. The MS. account
of his adventures, Bref Discours des Chases plus remarqudbles
que Samuel Champlain de Brouage a recognues aux Indes Occi-
denlales, is in the library at Dieppe. It was not published in
French until 1870, although an English translation was printed
by the Hakluyt Society in 1859. It contains a suggestion of a
Panama Canal, " by which the voyage to the South Sea would
be shortened by more than 1500 leagues." In 1603 Champlain
made his first voyage to Canada, being sent out by Aymar de
Clermont, seigneur de Chastes, on whom the king had bestowed
a patent. Champlain at once established friendly relations
with the Indians and explored the St Lawrence to the rapids
above Montreal. On his return he published an interesting
and historically valuable little book, Des sauvages, ou voyage de
Samuel Champlain de Brouage fait en la France Nouvelle. During
his absence de Chastes had died, and his privileges and fur trade
monopolies were conferred upon Pierre de Guast, sieur de Monts
(1560-1611). With him, in 1604, Champlain was engaged in
exploring the coast as far south as Cape Cod, in seeking a site
for a new settlement, and in making surveys and charts. They
first settled on an island near the mouth of the St Croix river,
and then at Port Royal — now Annapolis, N.S.
Meanwhile the Basques and Bretons, asserting that they were
being ruined by de Monts' privileges, got his patent revoked,
and Champlain returned with the discouraged colonists to Europe.
When, however, in modified form, the patent was re-granted to
his patron Champlain induced him to abandon Acadia and
establish a settlement on the St Lawrence, of the commercial
advantages of which, perhaps even as a western route to China
and Japan, he soon convinced him. Champlain was placed in
command of one of the two vessels sent out. He was to explore
and colonize, while the other vessel traded, to pay for the ex-
pedition. Champlain fixed on the site of Quebec and founded
the first white settlement there in July 1608, giving it its present
name. In the spring he joined a war party of Algonquins and
Hurons, discovered the great lake that bears his name, and, near
the present Ticonderoga, took with his arquebus an important
part in the victory which his savage friends obtained over the
Iroquois. The Iroquois naturally turned first to the Dutch and
then to the English for allies. " Thus did new France rush into
collision with the redoubted warriors of the Five Nations. Here
was the beginning, and in some measure doubtless the cause, of
a long suite of murderous conflicts, bearing havoc and flame to
generations yet unborn " (Parkman). Champlain returned to
France and again related to Henry IV. — who had previously
learned his worth and had pensioned him — his exciting adventures.
De Monts failed to secure a renewal of his patent, but resolved
to proceed without it. Champlain was again (161 1) in Canada,
fighting for and against the Indians and establishing a trading
post at Mont Royal (see Montreal). He was the third white
man to descend, and the second to descend successfully, the
Lachine Rapids. De Monts, now governor of Paris, was too busy
to occupy himself in the waning fortunes of the colony, and left
them entirely to his associate. An influential protector was
needed; and Champlain prevailed upon Charles de Bourbon,
comte de Soissons, to interest himself to obtain from the king
the appointment of lieutenant-general in New France. The
comte de Soissons died almost immediately, and was succeeded
in the office by Henri de Bourbon, prince de Cond6, and he, like
his predecessors and successors, retained Champlain as lieutenant-
governor. " In Champlain alone was the life of New France.
By instinct and temperament he was more impelled to the
adventurous toils of exploration than to the duller task of
building colonies. The profits of trade had value in his eyes only
as means to these ends, and settlements were important chiefly
as a base of discovery. Two great objects eclipsed all others,
— to find a route to the Indies, and to bring the heathen tribes
into the embraces of the Church, since, while he cared little for
their bodies, his solicitude for their souls knew no bounds"
(Parkman).
In 1613 Champlain again crossed the Atlantic and endeavoured
to confirm Nicolas de Vignau's alleged discovery of a short route
to the ocean by the Ottawa river, a great lake at its source, and
another river flowing north therefrom. That year he got as
far as Allumette Island in the Ottawa, but two years later, with
a " Great War Party " of Indians, he crossed Lake Nipissing
and the eastern ends of Lakes Huron and Ontario, and made a
fierce but unsuccessful attack on an Onondaga fortified town
a few miles south of Lake Oneida. This was the end of his
wanderings. He now devoted himself to the growth and
strengthening of Quebec. Every year he went to France with
this end in view. He was one of the hundred associates of the
Company of New France, created by Richelieu to reform abuses
and take over all his country's interests in the new world. These
ill-defended possessions England now prepared to seize. Three
ships were sent out under letters of marque commanded by
David, Lewis and Thomas Kirke, and Quebec, already on the
verge of starvation, was compelled to surrender ( 1629) . Champ-
lain was taken to England a prisoner, but when Canada was
restored to the French he returned (1633) to his post, where he
died on the 25th of December 1635. He had married in 1610,
Helene Boulle, then but twelve years old. She did not leave
France for Canada, however, until ten years later. After his
death she became a nun.
Champlain 's complete works in 6 vols, were published under the
patronage of the university of Laval in 1870. There is a careful
translation of Champlain' s Voyages, by Professor and Mrs E. G.
Bourne in the " Trailmaker " series edited by Prof. T. B. McMaster.
See F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New world (1865); J.
Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac (1894); N. E. Dionne, Champlain
(1905). (N. E. D.)
CHAMPLAIN* a lake lying between the states of New York
and Vermont, U.S.A., and penetrating for a few miles into
Canada. It extends about 130 m. from N. to S., varies from
i m. to 1 m. in width for 40 m. from its S. terminus, and then
widens until it reaches a maximum width of about n m. near
Ausable Point. Its area is about 500 sq. m. Its surface is 96
ft. above the sea. In the north part it is generally from 200 to
300 ft. deep; opposite Emu»x. N.V.. near its middle, the depth
CHAMPMESLE— CHAMPOLLION
831
increases to 400 ft.; but farther south it is much less; through-
out the greater part of the lake there is a depth of water of more
than 100 ft. Since the lake is caused by the ponding of water
in a broad irregular valley, the shore line is nearly everywhere
much broken, and in the northern portion are several islands,
both large and small, most of which belong to Vermont. These
islands divide the lake's northern end into two large arms
which extend into Canada. From the western arm the Richelieu
river flows out, carrying the water of Champlain to the St
Lawrence. The waters abound in salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon
and other fish, and are navigated from end to end by large
steamboats and vessels of considerable tonnage. The lake
was formerly the seat of extensive traffic, especially in lumber,
but navigation has greatly decreased; the tonnage entering and
clearing at the lake was twice as great in the early '70's as it
was thirty years later. The principal ports are Burlington, Vt.,
and Plattsburg, N. Y. Lake Champlain lies in a valley from 1 to
30 m. wide, between the Green Mountains on the east and the
Adirondack Mountains on the west, and the scenery is most
picturesque. On the east side is a rather gradual ascent for 20 m.
or more from shore to summit, while on the west side the ascent
is by a succession of hills, in some places from the water's edge.
North of Crown Point low mountains rise 1000 to 1600 ft. above
the lake,and behind these are the higher peaks of the Adirondacks,
reaching an elevation of more than 5000 ft. Lake George is
a tributary on the south, several small streams flow in from each
side; the Champlain Canal, 63 m. in length, connects the lake
with the Hudson river; and through the Richelieu it has a
natural outlet to the north into the St Lawrence.
Lake Champlain was named from Samuel de Champlain, who
discovered it in July 1609. The valley is a natural pathway
between the United States and Canada, and during the various
wars which the English have waged in America it had great
strategic importance. In 173 1 the French built a fort at Crown
Point; in 1756, another at Ticonderoga; and both were import-
ant strategic points in the French and Indian War as well as in
the American War of Independence. On the nth of October
1776, the first battle between an American and a British fleet,
the battle of Valcour Island, was fought on the lake. Benedict
Arnold, the American commander, with a decidedly inferior
force, withstood the British under Thomas Pringle for about
seven hours, and then during the night escaped through the
enemy's line. Although overtaken the next day he again, after
a fight of a few hours, made a successful retreat.
At the beginning of the War of 181 2 the American naval
force on the lake, though very small, was superior to that of the
British, but on the 3rd of June 1813 the British captured two
American sloops in the narrow channel at the northern end and
gained supremacy. Both sides now began to build and equip
vessels for a decisive contest; by May 1814 the Americans
had regained supremacy, and four months later a British land
force of 11,000 men under Sir George Prevost (1 767-1816) and a
naval force of 16 vessels of about 2402 tons with 937 men and
92 guns under Captain George Downie (d. 181 4) confronted an
American land force of 1500 men under Brigadier-General
Alexander Macomb (1782-1841), strongly entrenched at Platts-
burg, and an American naval force (anchored in Plattsburg Bay)
of 14 vessels of about 2244 tons with 882 men and 86 guns under
Commodore Thomas Macdonough (1 783-1825). In the open
lake the British naval force should have been the superior, but
at anchor in the bay the Americans had a decided advantage.
Expecting the British land force to drive the American fleet
from its anchorage, Captain Downie, on the nth of September
1814, began the battle of Lake Champlain. It had continued
only fifteen minutes when he was killed; the land force failed
to co-operate, and after a severe fight at close range for 2 J hours,
during which the British lost about 300 men, the Americans 200
and the vessels of both sides were greatly shattered, the British
retreated both by land and by water, abandoning their plan of
invading New York.
See C. E. Peet, " Glacial and Post-Glacial History of the Hudson
and Champlain Valleys," in vol. xii. of the Journal of Geology
(Chicago, 1904) ; P. S. Palmer, History of Lake Champlain (Albany,
1866) ; and Capt. A. T. Mahan, Sea Power in its Relations to the War
of 1812 (2 vols., Boston, 1905).
CHAMPMESL& MARIE (1642-1698), French actress, was
born in Rouen of a good family. Her father's name was Desmares.
She made her first appearance on the stage at Rouen with
Charles Chevillet (164 5-1 701), who called himself sieur de
ChampmeslS, and they were married in 1666. By 1669 they
were playing in Paris at the Theatre du Maxais, her first appear-
ance there being as Venus in Boyer's FUe de Venus. The next
year, as Hermione in Racine's Andromaque, she had a great
success at the H6tel de Bourgogne. Her intimacy with Racine
dates from then. Some of his finest tragedies were written for
her, but her repertoire was not confined to them, and many an
indifferent play — like Thomas Corneille's Ariane and CottUe
d' Essex — owed its success to " her natural manner of acting,
and her pathetic rendering of the hapless heroine." Phedre
was the climax of her triumphs, and when she and her husband
deserted the Hdtel de Bourgogne (see BJsjart ad fin.), it was
selected to open the Comedie Francaise on the 26th of August
1680. Here, with Mme Guerin as the leading comedy actress,
she played the great tragic love parts for more than thirty years,
dying on the 15th of May 1698. La Fontaine dedicated to her
his novel BelphSgor, and Boileau immortalized her in verse.
Her husband distinguished himself both as actor and playwright,
and his Parisien (1682) gave Mme Guerin one of her greatest
successes.
Her brother, the actor Nicolas Desmares (c. 1650-1714),
began as a member of a subsidized company at Copenhagen, but
by her influence he came to Paris and was received in 1685
sans dSbul — the first time such an honour had been accorded —
at the Comldie Francaise, where he became famous for peasant
parts. His daughter, to whom Christian V. and his queen stood
sponsors, Christine Antoinette Charlotte Desmares (1682-
1753)) was a fine actress in both tragedy and soubrette parts.
She made her d6but at the Comddie Francaise in 1699, in La
Grange Chancers Oreste et Pylade, and was at once received as
soci&aire. She retired in 1 721.
CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS (1700-1832), French
Egyptologist, called le Jeune to distinguish him from Cham-
pollion-Figeac (q>v.), his elder brother, was born at Figeac, in the
department of Lot, on the 23rd of December 1790. He was
educated by his brother, and was then appointed government
pupil at the Lyceum, which had recently been founded. His
first work (1804) was an attempt to show by means of their
names that the giants of the Bible and of Greek mythology were
personifications of natural phenomena. At the age of sixteen
(1807) he read before the academy of Grenoble a paper in which
he maintained that the Coptic was the ancient language of
Egypt. He soon after removed to Paris, where he enjoyed the
friendship of Langles, De Sacy and Millin. In 1809 he was
made professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and there
published his earlier works. Champollion's first decipherment
of hieroglyphics dates from 1 82 1 . In 1 824 he was sent by Charles
X. to visit the collections of Egyptian antiquities in the museums
of Turin, Leghorn, Rome and Naples; and on his return he
was appointed director of the Egyptian museum at the Louvre.
In 1828 he was commissioned to undertake the conduct of a
scientific expedition to Egypt in company with Rosellini, who
had received a similar appointment from Leopold II., grand
duke of Tuscany. He remained there about a year. In March
1 83 1 he received the chair of Egyptian antiquities, which had
been created specially for him, in the College de France. He
was engaged with Rosellini in publishing the results of Egyptian
researches at the expense of the Tuscan and French governments,
when he was seized with a paralytic disorder, and died at Paris
in 1832. Champollion, whose claims were hotly disputed for
many years after his death, is now universally acknowledged
to have been the founder of Egyptology.
He wrote L 9 £gypte sous les Pharaons (2 vols. 8vo, 1814); Sur
rScriture hieratique (1821); Sur I'ecriture d&motique; PrScis du sys-
&me hieroglyphtque t &c. (1824); PanthSon Sgyptien, ou collection
des personnages mythologiques de Vancienne Egypte (incomplete);
832
CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC— CHANCELLOR
Monumens de VAgypte etdela Nubie considiris par rapport d I'histoire,
la religion, dfc; Gratnmaire i^yptienne (18J6), and Dictionnaire
Sgyptienne (1841), edited by his brother; Analyse mithodique du
texte dhnotique de Rosette; Apercy, des risultats historiques de la
dScouverte de V alphabet hiSroglyphique (1827) ; MSmoires sur les si&tes
employe's par les £gyptiens dans Uurs trois systentes graf>hiques a la
notation des principals divisions du temps; Lettres ecrttes d'Egypte
et de Nubie (18.53) ; and also several letters on Egyptian subjects,
addressed at different periods to the due de Blacas and others.
See H. Hartleben, Cnampollion, sein Leben und sein Werk (2 vols.,
1906); also Egypt: Language and Writing (ad init.).
CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH (1778-1867),
French archaeologist, elder brother of Jean Francois Cham-
pollion, was born at Figeac in the department of Lot, on the
5th of October 1 7 78. He became professor of Greek and librarian
at Grenoble, but was compelled to retire in 1816 on account of
the part he had taken during the Hundred Days. He afterwards
became keeper of manuscripts at the Bibliotheque Nationale in
Paris, and professor of palaeography at the ficole des Chartes.
In 1849 he became librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau.
He edited several of his brother's works, and was also author of
original works on philological and historical subjects, among
which may be mentioned Nouvelles recherches sur les patois ou
idiomes vulgaires de la France (1809), Annates de Lagides (18 19)
and Chartes latines sur papyrus du VI* siecle de Vere chrUienne.
His son Ami (181 2-1894) became his father's assistant at the
Bibliotheque Nationale, and besides a number of works on
historical subjects wrote a biographical and bibliographical study
of his family in Les Deux ChampoUion (Grenoble, 1887).
CHANCE (through the O. Fr. ck&ance, from the Late Lat.
cadentia, things happening, from coder e, to fall out, happen;
cf. " case "), an accident or event, a phenomenon which has no
apparent or discoverable cause; hence an event which has not
been expected, a piece of good or bad fortune. From the popular
idea that anything of which no assignable cause is known has
therefore no cause, chance (Gr. rirxyi) was regarded as having a
substantial objective existence, being itself the source of such
uncaused phenomena. For the philosophic theories relating to
this subject see Accidentalism.
" Chance," in the theory of probability, is used in two ways.
In the stricter, or mathematical usage, it is synonymous with
probability; i.e. if a particular event may occur in n ways in an
aggregate of p events, then the " chance " of the particular event
occurring is given by the fraction n/p. In the second usage, the
" chance" is regarded as the ratio of the number of ways which
a particular event may occur to the number of ways in which it
may not occur; mathematically expressed, this chance is
nl(p-ri) (see Probability) . In the English law relating to gaming
and wagering a distinction is drawn between games of chance
and games of skill (see Gaming and Wagering).
CHANCEL (through O. Fr. from Lat. plur. cancetti, dim. of
cancer, grating, lattice, probably connected with an Indo-
European root Kar-, to bend; cf. circus, curve, &c), in the
earliest and strictest sense that part of a church near the altar
occupied by the deacons and sub-deacons assisting the officiating
priest, this space having originally been separated from the rest
of the church by cancelli or lattice work. The word cancelli is
used in classical Latin of a screen, bar or the like, set to mark
off an enclosed space in a building or in an open place. It is
thus used of the bar in a court of justice (Cicero, Verres y ii. 3 seq.).
It is particularly used of the lattice or screen in the ancient
basilica, which separated the bema f or raised tribunal, from the
rest of the building. The use of the name in ecclesiastical
buildings is thus natural, for the altar stood in the place occupied
by the bema in the apse of the basilica. From the screen the
term was early transferred to the space inter canceUos, i.e. the
locus altaris cancdlis septus. This railed-off space is now gener-
ally known among Roman Catholics as the " sanctuary," the
word chancel being little used. In the Church of England,
however, the word chancel survived the Reformation, and is
applied, both in the ecclesiastical and the architectural sense,
to that part of the church occupied by the principal altar or
communion table and by the clergy and singers officiating at the
chief services; it thus includes presbytery, chancel proper and
choir (q.v.), and in this sense, in the case of cathedrals and
other large churches, is often used synonymously with choir.
In this more inclusive sense the early basilican churches had no
chancels, which were a comparatively late development; the
cancelli, e.g. of such a church as San Clemente at Rome are
equivalent not to the " chancel screen " of a medieval church
but to the " altar rails " that divide off the sanctuary. In
churches of the type that grew to its perfection in the middle
ages the chancels are clearly differentiated from the nave by
structural features: by the raising of the floor level, by the
presence of a " chancel arch," and by a chancel or rood screen
(see Rood). The chancel screen might be no more than a low
barrier, some 4 ft. high, or a light structure of wood or wrought
iron; sometimes, however, they were massive stone screens,
which in certain cases were continued on either side between the
piers of the choir and (on the European continent) round the
east end of the sanctuary, as in the cathedrals of Paris, Bourges,
Limoges, Amiens and Chartres. These screens served the
purpose, in collegiate and conventual churches, of cutting off
the space reserved for the services conducted for and by the
members of the chapter or community. For popular services a
second high altar was usually set up to the west of the screen,
as formerly at Westminster Abbey. In parish churches the
screen was set, partly to differentiate the space occupied by the
clergy from that reserved for the laity, partly to support the
representation of the crucifixion known as the Rood. In these
churches, too, the chancel is very usually structurally differenti-
ated by being narrower and, sometimes, less high than the nave.
In the Church of England, the duty of repairing the chancel
falls upon the parson by custom, while the repair of the body
of the church falls on the parishioners. In particular cases,
as in certain London churches, the parishioners also have to
repair the chancel. Where there are both a rector and a vicar
the repairs are shared between them, and this is also the case
where the rector is a lay impropriator. By the rubric of the
English Prayer Book " the chancels shall remain as they have
done in times past," i.e. distinguished from the body of the
church by some partition sufficient to separate the two without
interfering with the view of the congregation. At the Reforma-
tion, and for some time after, this distinction was regarded by
the dominant Puritan party as a mark of sacerdotalism, and
services were commonly said in other parts of the church, the
chancels being closed and disused. The rubric, however, directs
that " ' Morning and Evening Prayer ' shall be used in the
accustomed place in the church, chapel or chancel, except it
shall be otherwise determined by the Ordinary." Chancel screens,
with or without gates, are lawful, but chancellors of dioceses
have refused to grant a faculty to erect gates, as unnecessary or
inexpedient.
CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr.
chancelier, Lat. cancellarius) , an official title used by most of the
peoples whose civilization has arisen directly or indirectly out of
the Roman empire. At different times and in different countries
it has stood and stands for very various duties, and has been, and
is, borne by officers of various degrees of dignity. The original
chancellors were the canceUarii of Roman courts of justice,
ushers who sat at the cancelli or lattice work screens of a
" basilica " or law court, which separated the judge and counsel
from the audience (see Chancel). In the later Eastern empire
the canceUarii were promoted at first to notarial duties. The
barbarian kingdoms which arose on the ruin of the empire in the
West copied more or less intelligently the Roman model in all
their judicial and financial administration. Under the Frankish
kings of the Merovingian dynasty the canceUarii were sub-
ordinates of the great officer of state called the referendarius,
who was the predecessor of the more modern chancellor. The
office became established under the form archi<anceUarius, or
chief of the canceUarii. Stubbs says that the Carolingian
chancellor was the royal notary and the arch-chancellor keeper
of the royal seal. His functions would naturally be discharged
by a cleric in times when book learning was mainly confined to
the clergy. From the reign of Louis the Pious the post was held
CHANCELLOR
833
by a bishop. By an equally natural process he became the chief
secretary of the king and of the queen,whoalso had her chancellor.
Such an office possessed an obvious capacity for developing on
the judicial as well as the administrative side. Appeals and
petitions of aggrieved persons would pass through the chancellor's
hands, as well as the political correspondence of the king. Nor
was the king the only man who had need of a chancellor. Great
officers and corporations also had occasion to employ an agent to
do secretarial, notarial and judicial work for them, and called
him by the convenient name of chancellor. The history of the
office in its many adaptations to public and private service is the
history of its development on judicial, administrative, political,
secretarial and notarial lines.
The model of the Carolingian court was followed by the
medieval states of Western Europe. In England the office of
chancellor dates back to the reign of Edward the Con-
cettor in" * essor > * ne te**- English king to use the Norman practice
England, of sealing instead of signing documents; and from the
Norman Conquest onwards the succession of chancellors
is continuous. The chancellor was originally, and long continued
to be, an ecclesiastic, who combined the functions of the most
dignified of the royal chaplains, the king's secretary in secular
matters, and keeper of the royal seal. From the first, then,
though at the outset overshadowed by that of the justiciar, the
office of chancellor was one of great influence and importance.
As chaplain the chancellor was keeper of the king's conscience;
as secretary he enjoyed the royal confidence in secular affairs;
as keeper of the seal he was necessary to all formal expressions
of the royal will. By him and his staff of chaplains the whole
secretarial work of the royal household was conducted, the
accounts were kept under the justiciar and treasurer, writs were
drawn up and sealed, and the royal correspondence was carried on.
He was, in fact, as Stubbs puts it, a sort of secretary of state for
all departments. " This is he," wrote John of Salisbury (d.
1 1 80), " who cancels (cancellat) the evil laws of the realm, and
makes equitable (aequo) the commands of a pious prince," a
curious anticipation of the chancellor's later equitable jurisdic-
tion. Under Henry II., indeed, the chancellor was already
largely employed in judicial work, either in attendance on the
king or in provincial visitations; though the peculiar jurisdic-
tion of the chancery was of later growth. By this time, however,
the chancellor was " great alike in Curia and Exchequer "; he
was secundus a rege t i.e. took precedence immediately after the
justiciar, and nothing was done either in the Curia or the ex-
chequer without his consent. So great was his office that William
FitzStephen, the biographer of Becket, tells us that it was not
purchasable (emenda non est), a statement which requires modi-
fication, since it was in fact more than once sold under Henry I.,
Stephen, Richard and John (Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. pp. 384-497 ;
Gneist, Const. Hist, of England, p. 219), an evil precedent which
was, however, not long followed.
The judicial duties of the chancellor grew out of the fact that
all petitions addressed to the king passed through his hands.
The number and variety of these became so great that in 1 280,
under Edward I., an ordinance was issued directing the chancellor
and the justices to deal with the greater number of them; those
which involved the use of the great seal being specially referred
to the chancellor. The chancellor and justices were to determine
which of them were "so great, and of grace, that the chancellor
and others would not despatch them without the king," and these
the chancellor and other chief ministers were to carry in person to
the king (Stubbs ii. 263, note, and p. 268). At this period the
chancellor, though employed in equity, had ministerial functions
only; but when, in the reign of Edward III., the chancellor
ceased to follow the court, his tribunal acquired a more definite
character, and petitions for grace and favour began to be ad-
dressed primarily to him, instead of being merely examined and
passed on by him to the king; and in the twenty-second year of
this reign matters which were of grace were definitely committed
to the chancellor for decision. This is the starting-point of
the equitable jurisdiction of the chancellor, whence developed
that immense body of rules, supplementing the deficiencies or
modifying the harshness of the common law, which is known
as Equity (q.v.).
The position of the chancellor as speaker or prolocutor of the
House of Lords dates from the time when the ministers of the
royal Curia formed ex officio a part of the commune The
concilium and parliament. The chancellor originally chancellor
attended with the other officials, and he continued to ^en*!?*
attend ex officio after they had ceased to do so. If he
chanced to be a bishop, he was summoned regularly qua bishop;
otherwise he attended without summons. When not a peer the
chancellor had no place in parliament except as chancellor, and
the act of 31 Henry VIII. cap. 10 (1539) laid down that, if not
a peer, he had " no interest to give any assent or dissent in
the House." Yet Sir Robert Bourchier (d. 1349), the first lay
chancellor, had protested in 1341 against the first statute of 15
Edward III. (on trial by peers, &c), on the ground that it had not
received his assent and was contrary to the laws of the realm.
From the time, however, of William, Lord Cowper (first lord
high chancellor of Great Britain in 1705, created Baron Cowper
in 1706), all chancellors have been made peers on their elevation
to the woolsack. Sometimes the custody of the great seal has
been transferred from the chancellor to a special official, the lord
keeper of the great seal (see Lord Keeper); this was notably
the case under Queen Elizabeth (cf. the French garde des sceaux,
below). Sometimes it is put into commission, being affixed by
lords commissioners of the great seal. By the Catholic Emancipa-
tion Act of 1829 it was enacted that none of these offices could
be held by a Roman Catholic (see further under Lord High
Chancellor) . The office of lord chancellor of Ireland, and that
of chancellor of Scotland (who ceased to be appointed after the
Act of Union of 1707) followed the same lines of development.
The title of chancellor, without the predicates " high " or
" lord," is also applied in the United Kingdom to a number of
other officials and functionaries of varying rank and
importance. Of these the most important is the f^° or
chancellor of the exchequer, an office which originated exchequer.
in the separation of the chancery from the exchequer
in the reign of Henry III. (1 216-1272). His duties consisted
originally in the custody and employment of the seal of the
exchequer, in the keeping of a counter-roll to check the roll kept
by the treasurer, and in the discharge of certain judicial functions
in the exchequer of account. So long as the treasury board was
in active working, the chancellorship of the exchequer was an
office of small importance, and even during a great part of the
19th century was not necessarily a cabinet office, unless held in
conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury. At the present
time the chancellor of the exchequer is minister of finance, and
therefore always of cabinet rank (see Exchequer).
The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster is the representative
of the crown in the management of its lands and the control
of its courts in the duchy of Lancaster, the property
of which is scattered over several counties. These
Chancellor
of the
lands and privileges, though their inheritance has dochy.
always been vested in the king and his heirs, have
always been kept distinct from the hereditary revenues of the
sovereign, whose palatine rights as duke of Lancaster were
distinct from his rights as king. The Judicature Act of 1873 left
only the chancery court of the duchy, but the chancellor can
appoint and dismiss the county court judges within the limits
of the duchy; he is responsible also for the land revenues of
the duchy, which are the private property of the sovereign,
and keeps the seal of the duchy. His appointment is by letters
patent, and his salary is derived from the revenue of the duchy.
As the judicial and estate work is done by subordinate officials,
the office is practically a sinecure and is usually given to a minister
whose assistance is necessary to a government, but who for one
reason or another cannot undertake the duties of an important
department. John Bright described him as the maid-of-all-work
of the cabinet.
The chancellor of a diocese is the official who presides over
the bishop's court and exercises jurisdiction in his name.
This use of the word is comparatively modern, and, though
v. 27
834
CHANCELLOR
chan'
cetton*
employed in acts of parliament, is not mentioned in the com-
mission, having apparently been adopted on the analogy of the
Bcchgh like title in the state. The chancellor was originally
*sdcal the keeper of the archbishop or bishop's seals; but
the office, as now understood, includes two other
offices distinguished in the commission by the titles
of vicar-general and official principal (see Ecclesiastical
Jurisdiction). The chancellor of a diocese must be distin-
guished from the chancellor of a cathedral, whose office is the
same as that of the ancient scholastic™ (see Cathedral).
The chancellor of an order of knighthood discharges notarial
duties and keeps the seal. The chancellor of a university is
an official of medieval origin. The appointment was
Ac* mic, Qrigjnajjy ma d e by the popes, and the office from the
first was one of great dignity and originally of great
power. The chancellor was, as he remains, the head of the
university; he had the general superintendence of its studies
and of its discipline, could make and unmake laws, try and
punish offences, appoint to professorial chairs and admit students
to the various degrees (see Du Cange, s. " CanceUarii Aca-
demlarum ")• In England the chancellorship of the universities
is now a more or less ornamental office and is conferred on noble-
men or statesmen of distinction, whose principal function is to
look after the general interests of the university, especially
in its relations with the government. The chancellor is repre-
sented in the university by a vice-chancellor, who performs the
administrative and judicial functions of the office. In the United
States the heads of certain educational establishments have
the title of chancellor. In Scotland the foreman of a jury is
called its chancellor. In the United States the chancellors are
judges of the chancery courts of the states, e.g. Delaware and
New Jersey, where these courts are still maintained as distinct
from the courts of common law. In other states, e. g. New York
since 1847, the title has been abolished, and there is no federal
chancellor.
In diplomacy generally the chancellor of an embassy or
legation is an official attached to the suite of an ambassador or
minister. He performs the functions of a secretary, archivist,
notary and the like, and is at the head of the chancery, or
chancellery (Fr. chanceUerie), of the mission. The functions
of this office are the transcribing and registering of official
despatches and other documents, and generally the transaction
of all the minor business, e.g. marriages, passports and the like,
connected with the duties of a diplomatic agent towards his
nationals in a foreign country. The dignified connotation of the
title chancellor has given to this office a prestige which in itself
it does not deserve; and " chancery " or " chancellery " is
commonly used as though it were synonymous with embassy,
while diplomatic style is sometimes called style de chanceUerie,
though as a matter of fact the chanceries have nothing to do
with it.
France. — The country in which the office of chancellor followed
most closely the same lines as in England is France. He had
become a great officer under the Carolingians, and he grew still
greater under the Capetian sovereigns. The great chancellor,
summits canceUarius or archi-canceUarius, was a dignitary who
had indeed little real power. The post was commonly filled by
the archbishop of Reims, or the bishop of Paris. The cancellarius,
who formed part of the royal court and administration, was
officially known as the sub-cancellarius in relation to the summus
canceUarius, but as proto-cancellarius in regard to his subordinate
cancellarii. He was a very great officer, an ecclesiastic who was
the chief of the king's chaplains or king's clerks, who administered
all ecclesiastical affairs; he had judicial powers, and from the
1 2th century had the general control of foreign affairs. The
chancellor in fact became so great that the Capetian kings, who
did not forget the mayor of the palace, grew afraid of him.
Few of the early ecclesiastical chancellors failed to come into
collision with the king, or parted with him on good terms.
Philip Augustus suspended the chancellorship throughout the
whole of his reign, and appointed a keeper of the seals {garde
des sceaux). The office was revived under Louis VIII., but the
ecclesiastical chancellorship was finally suppressed in 1227.
The king of the 13th century employed only keepers of die seal.
Under the reign of Philip IV. le Bel lay chancellors were first
appointed. From the reign of Charles V. to that of Louis XI. the
French chancelier was elected by the royal council. In the 16th
century he became irremovable, a distinction more honourable
than effective, for though the king could not dismiss him from
office he could, and on some occasions did, deprive him of the
right to exercise his functions, and entrusted them to a keeper of
the seal. The chancelier from the 13th century downwards was
the head of the law, and performed the duties which are now
entrusted to the minister of justice. His office was abolished
when in 1790 the whole judicial system of France was swept
away by the Revolution. The smaller chancelier s of the provincial
parlements and royal courts disappeared at the same time. But
when Napoleon was organizing the empire he created an arch-
chancellor, an office which was imitated rather from the En-
Kanzler of the Holy Roman Empire than from the old French
chancelier. At the Restoration the office of chancellor of France
was restored, the chancellor being president of the House of
Peers, but it was finally abolished at the revolution of 1848.
The administration of the Legion of Honour is presided over by
a grand chancelier, who is a grand cross of the order, and who
advises the head of the state in matters concerning the affairs
of the order. The title of chancelier continues also to be used
in France for the large class of officials who discharge notarial
duties in some public offices, in embassies and consulates. They
draw up diplomas and prepare all formal documents, and have
charge of the registration and preservation of the archives.
Spain. — In Spain the office of chancellor, canciUer, was intro-
duced by Alphonso VII. (11 26-1 15 7), who adopted it from the
court of his cousins of the Capetian dynasty of France. The
canciller did not in Spain go beyond being the king's notary.
The chancellor of the privy seal, canciller del sello de la puridad
(literally the secret seal), was the king's secretary, and sealed
all papers other than diplomas and charters. The office was
abolished in 1496, and its functions were transferred to the royal
secretaries. The cancelario was the chancellor of a university.
The canciUer succeeded the maesescuela or scholasHcus of a church
or monastery. CanciUer mayor de Costilla is an honorary title
of the archbishops of Toledo. The gran canciUer de las Indias,
high chancellor of the Indies, held the seal used for the American
dominions of Spain, and presided at the council in the absence
of the president. The office disappeared with the loss of Spain's
empire in America.
Italy, Germany, 6*c. — In central and northern Europe, and in
Italy, the office had different fortunes. In southern Italy, where
Naples and Sicily were feudally organized, the chancellors of
the Norman kings, who followed Anglo-Norman precedents very
closely, and, at least in Sicily, employed Englishmen, were such
officers as were known in the West. The similarity is somewhat
concealed by the fact that these sovereigns also adopted names
and offices from the imperial court at Constantinople. Their
chancellor was officially known as Protonotary and Logothete,
and their example was followed by the German princes of the
Hohenstaufen family, who acquired the kingdoms of Naples and
Sicily. The papal or apostolic chancery is dealt with in the
article on the Curia Romana (q.v.). It may be pointed out here,
however, that the close connexion of the papacy with the Holy
Roman Empire is illustrated by the fact that the archbishop
of Cologne, who by right of his see was the emperor's arch-
chancellor (ErZ'Kansler) for Italy, was confirmed as papal arch-
chancellor by a bull of Leo IX. in 1052. The origin and duration
of this connexion are, however, obscure; it appears to have
ceased before 1187. The last record of a papal chancellor in
the middle ages dates from 121 2, from which time onward, for
reasons much disputed, the head of the papal chancery bore
the title vice-chancellor (Hinschius i. 439), until the office of
chancellor was restored by the constitution Sapientius of Pius X.
in 1008.
The title of arch-chancellor (Erz-Kanzler) was borne by three
great ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire.
CHANCELLORSVILLE— CHANCERY
835
The archbishop of Mainz was arch-chancellor for Germany.
The archbishop of Cologne held the dignity for Italy, and the
archbishop of Trier for Gaul and the kingdom of Aries. The
second and third of these dignities became purely formal with
the decline of the Empire in the 13th century. But the arch-
chancellorship of Germany remained to some extent a reality
till the Empire was finally dissolved in 1 806. The office continued
to be attached to the archbishopric of Mainz, which was an
electorate. Karl von Dalberg, the last holder of the office, and
the first prince primate of the Confederation of the Rhine,
continued to act in show at least as chancellor of that body,
and was after a fashion the predecessor of the Bundes Kanzler,
or chancellor of the North German Confederation. The duties
imposed on the imperial chancery by the very complicated
constitution of the Empire were, however, discharged by a vice-
chancellor who was attached to the court of the emperor. The
abbot of Fulda was chancellor to the empress.
The house of Austria in their hereditary dominions, and in
those of their possessions which they treated as hereditary,
even where the sovereignty was in theory elective, made a large
and peculiar use of the title chancellor. The officers so called
were of course distinct from the arch-chancellor and vice-
chancellor of the Empire, although the imperial crown became
in practice hereditary in the house of Habsburg. In the family
states their administration was, to use a phrase familiar to the
French, " polysynodic." As it was when fully developed, and
as it remained until the March revolution of 1848, it was
conducted through boards presided over by a chancellor. There
were three aulic chancellorships for the internal affairs of their
dominions, " a united aulic chancellorship for all parts of the
empire (i.e. of Austria, not the Holy Roman) not belonging to
Hungary or Transylvania, and a separate chancellorship for
each of those last-mentioned provinces " (Hartig, Genesis of
the Revolution in Austria) . There were also a house, a court, and
a state chancellor for the business of the imperial household
and foreign affairs, who were not, however, the presidents of a
board. These " aulic " (i.e. court) officers were in fact secretaries
of the sovereign, and administrative or political rather than
judicial in character, though the boards over which they presided
controlled judicial as well as administrative affairs. In the case of
such statesmen as Kaunitz and Metternich, who were house,
court, and state chancellors as well as " united aulic " chancellors,
the combination of offices made them in practice prime ministers,
or rather lieutenants-general, of the sovereign. The system
was subject to modifications, and in the end it broke down
under its own complications. We are not dealing here with
the confusing history of the Austrian administration, and these
details are only quoted to show how it happened that in Austria
the title chancellor came to mean a political officer and minister.
There is obviously a vast difference between such an official
as Kaunitz, who as house, court, and state chancellor was
minister of foreign affairs, and as " united aulic " chancellor had a
general superiority over the whole machinery of government, and
the lord high chancellor in England, the chancelier in France, or
the canciller mayor in Castile, though the title was the same. The
development of the office in Austria must be understood in order
to explain the position and functions of the imperial chancellor
(Reichs Kanzler) of the modern German empire. Although the
present empire is sometimes rhetorically and absurdly spoken of
as a revival of the medieval Empire, it is in reality an adaptation
of the Austrian empire, which was a continuation under a new
name of the hereditary Habsburg monarchy. The Reichs Kanzler
is the immediate successor of the Bundes Kanzler, or chancellor
of the North German Confederation (Bund). But the Bundes
Kanzler, who bore no sort of resemblance except in mere
name to the Erz-Kanzler of the old Empire, was in a position
not perhaps actually like that of Prince Kaunitz, but capable of
becoming much the same thing. When the German empire was
established in 187 1 Prince Bismarck, who was Bundes Kanzler
and became Reichs Kanzler, took care that his position should
be as like as possible to that of Prince Kaunitz or Prince Metter-
nich. The constitution of the German empire is separately
dealt with, but it may be pointed out here that the Reichs
Kanzler is the federal minister of the empire, the chief of the
federal officials, and a great political officer, who directs the
foreign affairs, and superintends the internal affairs, of the
empire.
In these German states the title of chancellor is also given as
in France to government and diplomatic officials who do notarial
duties and have charge of archives. The title of chancellor has
naturally been widely used in the German and Scandinavian
states, and in Russia since the reign of Peter the Great. It has
there as elsewhere wavered between being a political and a
judicial office. Frederick the Great of Prussia created a Gross
Kanzler for judicial duties in 1746. But there was in Prussia
a state chancellorship on the Austrian model. It was allowed
to lapse on the death of Hardenberg in 1822. The Prussian
chancellor after his time was one of the four court ministries
(Hof&mter) of the Prussian monarchy.
Authorities. — Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. "Cancellarius";
W. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of England (1874-1878); Rudolph Gneist,
Hist, of the English Constitution (feng. trans., London, 1891);
L. O. Pike, Const. Hist, of the House of Lords (London, 1894);
Sir William R. Anson, The Law and Custom of the Constitution,
vol. ii. part i. (Oxford, 1907); A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions
franchises (Paris, 1892") ; K. F. Stumpf , Die Reichs Kanzler (5 vols.,
Innsbruck, 1865-1873); G. Seeliger, Erzkanzler und Reichskanz-
leien (ib. 1889); p - Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin, 1869); Sir R. J.
Phillimore, Eccles. Law (London, 1895); P. Pradier-Foder6, Cours
de droit diplomatique, ii. 542 (Paris, 1899).
CHANCELLORSVILLE, a village of Spottsylvania county,
Virginia, U.S.A., situated almost midway between Washington
and Richmond. It was the central point of one of the greatest
battles of the Civil War, fought on the 2nd and 3rd of May 1863,
between the Union Army of the Potomac under Major- General
Hooker, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under
General Lee. (See American Civil War, and Wilderness.)
General " Stonewall " Jackson was mortally wounded in this
battle.
CHANCE-MEDLEY (from the A.-Fr. chance-medlie, a mixed
chance, and not from chaude-medlte, a hot affray), an accident
of a mixed character, an old term in English law for a form of
homicide arising out of a sudden affray or quarrel. The homicide
has not the characteristic of " malice prepense " which would
raise the death to murder, nor the completely accidental nature
which would reduce it to homicide by misadventure. It was
practically identical, therefore, with manslaughter.
CHANCERY, in English law, the court of the lord chancellor
of England, consolidated in 1873 along with the other superior
courts in the Supreme Court of Judicature. Its origin is noticed
under the head of Chancellor.
It has been customary to say that the court of chancery
consists of two distinct tribunals — one a court of common law,
the other a court of equity. From the former have issued all
the original writs passing under the great seal, all commissions
of sewers, lunacy, and the like — some of these writs being origin-
ally kept in a hanaper or hamper (whence the " hanaper office "),
and others in a little sack or bag (whence the " petty-bag office ") .
The court had likewise power to hold pleas upon scire facias (q.v.)
for repeal of letters patent, &c. " So little," says Blackstone,
" is commonly done on the common law side of the court that
I have met with no traces of any writ of error being actually
brought since the fourteenth year of Queen Elizabeth."
The equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was
founded on the supposed superiority of conscience and equity
over the strict law. The appearance of equity in England is in
harmony with the general course of legal history in progressive
societies. What is remarkable is that, instead of being incor-
porated with or superseding the common law, it gave rise to a
wholly independent set of tribunals. The English dislike of the
civil law, and the tendency to follow precedent which has never
ceased to characterize English lawyers, account for this un-
fortunate separation. The claims of equity in its earlier stages
are well expressed in the little treatise called Doctor and Student,
published in the reign of Henry VIII.:— " Conscience never
resisteth the law nor addeth to it, but only when the law is
8 3 6
CHANCERY
directly in itself against the law of God, or law of reason." So also
King James, speaking in the Star Chamber, says: " Where the
rigour of the law in many cases will undo a subject, then the
chancery tempers the law with equity, and so mixes mercy with
justice, as it preserves a man from destruction.'' This theory
of the essential opposition between law and equity, and of the
natural superiority of the latter, remained long after equity had
ceased to found itself on natural justice, and had become as
fixed and rigid as the common law itself. The jealousy of the
common lawyers came to a head in the time of Lord EUesmere,
when Coke disputed the right of the chancery to give relief
against a judgment of the court of queen's bench obtained
by gross fraud and imposition. James I., after consultation,
decided in favour of the court of equity. The substitution of
lay for clerical chancellors is regarded by G. Spence (Equitable
Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, 2 vols., 1846^- 1849) as having
at first been unfortunate, inasmuch as the laymen were ignorant
of the principles on which their predecessors had acted. Lord
Nottingham(i62i-i682) is usually credited with the first attempt
to reduce the decisions of the court to order, and his work was
continued by Lord Hardwicke (1690-1764). By the time of
Lord Elton equity had become fixed, and the judges, like their
brethren in the common law courts, strictly followed the pre-
cedents. Henceforward chancery and common law courts have
exhibited the anomaly of two co-ordinate sets of tribunals,
empowered to deal with the same matters, and compelled to
proceed in many cases on wholly different principles. The court
of chancery could in most cases prevent a person from taking
advantage of a common law right, not approved of by its own
system. But if a suitor chose to go to a court of common law,
he might claim such unjust rights, and it required the special
intervention of the court of equity to prevent his enforcing them.
In many cases also a special application had to be made to
chancery for facilities which were absolutely necessary to the
successful conduct of a case at common law. Another source of
difficulty and annoyance was the uncertainty in many cases
whether the chancery or common law courts were the proper
tribunal, so that a suitor often found at the close of an expensive
and protracted suit that he had mistaken his court and must go
elsewhere for relief. Attempts more or less successful were made to
lessen those evils by giving the powers to both sets of courts; but
down to the consolidation effected by the Judicature Act, the
English judicial system justified the sarcasm of Lord Westbury,
that one tribunal was set up to do injustice and another to stop it.
The equitable jurisdiction of chancery was commonly divided
into exclusive, concurrent and auxiliary. Chancery had exclusive
jurisdiction when there were no forms of action by which relief
could be obtained at law, in respect of rights which ought to be
enforced. Trusts were the most conspicuous example of this
class. It also included the rights of married women, infants
and lunatics. Chancery had concurrent jurisdiction when the
common law did not give adequate relief, e.g. in cases of fraud,
accident, mistake, specific performance of contracts, &c. It had
auxiliary jurisdiction when the administrative machinery of the
law courts was unable to procure the necessary evidence.
The Judicature Act 1873 enacted (§ 24) that in every civil
cause or matter commenced in the High Court of Justice, law
and equity should be administered by the High Court of Justice
and the court of appeal respectively, according to the rules therein
contained, which provide for giving effect in all cases to "equit-
able rights and other matters of equity." The 25th section
declared the law hereafter to be administered in England on
certain points, and ordained that " generally in all matters not
hereinbefore particularly mentioned in which there is any con-
flict or variance between the rules of equity and the rules of
the common law with reference to the same matter, the rules
of equity shall prevail." The 34th section specifically assigned
to the chancery division the following causes and matters: —
The administration of the estates of deceased persons; the
dissolution of partnerships, or the taking of partnership, or
other accounts; the redemption or foreclosure of mortgages;
the raising of portions, or other charges on land; the sale
and distribution of the proceeds of property subject to any
lien or charge; the execution of trusts, charitable or private;
the rectification, or setting aside, or cancellation of deeds or
other written instruments; the specific performance of contracts
between vendors and purchasers of real estates, including con-
tracts for leases; the partition or sale of real estates; the ward-
ship of infants and the care of infants' estates.
The chancery.di vision originally consisted of the lord chancellor
as president and the master of the rolls, and the three vice-
chancellors. The master of the rolls was also a member of the
court of appeal, but Sir George Jessel, who held that office when
the new system came into force, regularly sat as a judge of
first instance until 1881, when, by the act of that year (sec. 2),
the master of the rolls became a member of the court of appeal
only, and provision was made for the appointment of a judge
to supply the vacancy thus occasioned (sec. 3). Sir James Bacon
(1798-1895) was the last survivor of the vice-chancellors. He
retained his seat on the bench until the year 1886, when he
retired after more than seventeen years' judicial service. For
some reason the solicitors, when they had the choice, preferred
to bring their actions in the chancery division. The practice
introduced by the Judicature Act of trying actions with oral
evidence instead of affidavits, and the comparative inexperience
of the chancery judges and counsel in that mode of trial, tended
to lengthen the time required for the disposal of the business.
Demand was consequently made for more judges in the chancery
division. By an act of 1877 the appointment of an additional
judge in that division was authorized, and Sir Edward Fry
(afterwards better known as a lord justice) was appointed.
In August 1899 the crown consented to the appointment of a
new judge of the High Court in the chancery division on an
address from both Houses of Parliament, pursuant to the 87th
section of the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The chancery
division, therefore, consists of the lord chancellor and six puisne
judges. The latter are styled and addressed in the same manner
as was customary in the old common law courts. 1 Formerly
there were only four judges of this division (being the successors
of the master of the rolls and the three vice-chancellors) to whom
chambers were attached. The fifth judge heard only causes
with witnesses transferred to him from the overflowing of the
lists of his four brethren. In each set of chambers there were
three chief clerks, with a staff of assistant clerks under them.
The chief clerks had no original jurisdiction, but heard applica-
tions only on behalf of the judge to whose chambers they belonged,
and theoretically every suitor had the right to have his applica-
tion heard by the judge himself in chambers. But the appoint-
ment of a sixth judge enabled the lord chancellor to carry out
a reform recommended by a departmental committee which
reported in 1885. The great difficulty in the chancery division
always was to secure the continuous hearing of actions with
witnesses, as nearly one-half of the judge's time was taken up
with cases adjourned to him from chambers and other adminis-
trative business and non-witness actions and motions. The in-
terruption of a witness action for two or three days, particularly
in a country case, occasioned great expense, and had other
inconveniences. It was a simple remedy to link the judges in
pairs with one list of causes and one set of chambers assigned to
each pair. This reform was effected by the alteration of a few
words in certain rules of court. There are, therefore, only three
sets of chambers, each containing four chief clerks, or, as they
are now styled, masters of the Supreme Court, and one of the
linked judges, by arrangement between themselves, continuously
tries the witness actions in their common list, while the other
attends in chambers, and also hears the motions, petitions,
adjourned summonses and non-witness cases.
Although styled masters it does not appear that the chief
1 The comte de Francjueville comments on the misuse of the title
11 Lord " in addressing judges as another anomaly which only adds to
the confusion, but perhaps unnecessarily. According to Foss (vol.
viii. p. 200) it was only in the 18th century that the judges began to
be addressed by the title of "Your Lordship." In the Year Books (he
adds) they are constantly addressed by the title of " Sir." ,<Q * V
vous voyez bien," &c.
'Sir,
CHANDA— CHANDERNAGORE
837
clerks have any larger or different jurisdiction than they had
before. They are still the representatives of and responsible
to the judges to whom the chambers are attached. The judge
may either hear an application in chambers, or may direct any
matter which he thinks of sufficient importance to be argued
before him in court, or a party may move in court to discharge
an order made in chambers with a view to an appeal, but this is
not required if the judge certifies that the matter was sufficiently
discussed before him in chambers.
Under the existing rules of court many orders can now be
made on summons in chambers which used formerly to require
a suit or petition in court (see Order LV. as to foreclosure,
administration, payment out of money in court and generally).
The judge is also enabled to decide any particular question arising
in the administration of the estate of a deceased person or execu-
tion of the trusts of a settlement without directing administration
of the whole estate or execution of the trusts generally by the
court (Order LV. rule 10), and where an application for accounts
is made by a dissatisfied beneficiary or creditor to order the
accounts to be delivered out of court, and the application to
stand over till it can be seen what questions (if any) arise upon
the accounts requiring the intervention of the court (Order LV.
2, 100). Delay and consequent worry and expense are thus
saved to the parties, and, at the same time, a great deal of routine
administration is got rid of and a larger portion of the judicial
term can be devoted to hearing actions and deciding any question
of importance in court. The work of the chambers staff of the
judges has probably been increased; but, on the other hand,
it has been lightened by the removal of the winding-up business.
The chancery division has also inherited from the court of
chancery a staff of registrars and taxing masters.
In the United States " chancery " is generally used as the
synonym of " equity." Chancery practice is practice in cases
of equity. Chancery courts are equity courts (see Equity).
For the diplomatic sense of chancery (chancellery) see Chan-
cellor.
CHANDA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur
division of the Central Provinces. In 1901 the town had a
population of 17,803. It is situated at the junction of the Virai
and Jharpat rivers. It was the capital of the Gond kingdom
of Chanda, which was established on the ruins of a Hindu state
in the nth or 12th century, and survived until 1751 (see Gond-
wana). The town is still surrounded by a stone wall 5} m. in
circuit. It has several old temples and tombs, and the district
at large is rich in remains of antiquity. There are manufactures
of cotton, silk, brass-ware and leather slippers, and a considerable
local trade.
The District of Chanda has an area of 10, 1 56 sq. m. Except-
ing in the extreme west, hills are thickly dotted over the country,
sometimes in detached ranges, occasionally in isolated peaks
rising sheer out from the plain. Towards the east they increase
in height, and form a broad tableland, at places 2000 ft. above
sea-level. The Wainganga river flows through the district from
north to south, meeting the Wardha river at Seoni, where their
streams unite to form the Pranhita. Chanda is thickly studded
with fine tanks, or rather artificial lakes, formed by closing the
outlets of small valleys, or by throwing a dam across tracts
intersected by streams. The broad clear sheets of water thus
created are often very picturesque in their surroundings of wood
and rock. The chief architectural objects of interest are the
cave temples at Bhandak, Winjbasani, Dewala and Ghugus;
a rock temple in the bed of the Wardha river below Ballalpur;
the ancient temples at Markandi, Ambgaon and elsewhere;
the forts of Wairagarh and Ballalpur; and the old walls of the
city of Chanda, its system of waterworks, and the tombs of the
Gond kings. In 1001 the population was 601,533, showing a
decrease of 15% in the decade. The principal crops are rice,
millet, pulse, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. The district contains
the coalfield of Warora, which was worked by government till
1906, when it was closed. Other fields are known, and iron ores
also occur. The district suffered severely from famine in 1000,
when in April the number of persons relieved rose to 00,000.
CHANDAUSI, a town of British India, in the Moradabad
district of the United Provinces, 26 m. south of Moradabad.
Pop. (1001) 25,711. It is an important station on the Oudh &
Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for Aligarh. Its chief
exports are of cotton, hemp, sugar and stone. There is a factory
for pressing cotton.
CHAND BARDAI (fl. c. 1200), Hindu poet, was a native of
Lahore, but lived at the court of Prithwi Raja (Prithiraj), the
last Hindu sovereign of Delhi. His Prithiraj Rasau, a poem of
some 100,000 stanzas, chronicling his master's deeds and the
contemporary history of his part of India, is valuable not only
as historical material but as the earliest monument of the Western
Hindi language, and the first of the long series of bardic
chronicles for which Rajputana is celebrated. It is written in
ballad form, and portions of it are still sung by itinerant bards
throughout north-western India and Rajputana.
See Lieut .-Col. James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'kan
(2 vols., London, 1820-1832 ; repub. by Lalit Mohan Auddy , 2 vols.
tb. f 1804-1895), where good translations are given.
CHANDELIER, a frame of metal, wood, crystal, glass or china,
pendent from roof or ceiling for the purpose of holding lights.
The word is French, but the appliance has lost its original
significance of a candle-holder, the chandelier being now chiefly
used for gas and electric lighting. Clusters of hanging lights
were in use as early as the 14th century, and appear originally
to have been almost invariably of wood. They were, however,
so speedily ruined by grease that metal was gradually sub-
sisted, and fine and comparatively early examples in beaten
iron, brass, copper and even silver are still extant. Throughout
the 17 th century the hanging candle-holder of brass or bronze
was common throughout northern Europe, as innumerable
pictures and engravings testify. In the great periods of the art
of decoration in France many magnificent chandeliers were
made by Boulle, and at a later date by Gouthtere and Thomire
and others among the extraordinarily clever fondeurs-ciseleurs
of the second half of the 18th century. The chandelier in rock
crystal and its imitations had come in at least a hundred years
before their day, and continued in favour to the middle of the
19th century, or even somewhat later. It reached at last the
most extreme elaboration of banality, with ropes of pendants
and hanging faceted drops often called lustres. When many
lights were burning in one of these chandeliers an effect of
splendour was produced that was not out of place in a ballroom,
but the ordinary household varieties were extremely ugly and
inartistic. The more purely domestic chandelier usually carries
from two to six lights. The rapidly growing use of electricity
as an illuminating medium and the preference for smaller clusters
of lights have, however, pushed into the background an appli-
ance which had grown extremely commonplace in design, and
had become out of character with modern ideas of household
decoration.
CHANDERNAGORE, or Chandarnagar, a French settlement
in India, with a small adjoining territory, situated on the right
bank of the river Hugh, 20 m. above Calcutta, in 22 51' 40" N.
and 88° 24' 50" E. Area 3 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 25,000. Chander-
nagore has played an important part in the European history of
Bengal. It became a permanent French settlement in 1688, but
did not rise to any importance till the time of Dupleix, during
whose administration more than two thousand brick houses were
erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade was carried
on. In 1757 Chandernagore was bombarded by an English fleet
under Admiral Watson and captured; the fortifications and
houses were afterwards demolished. On peace being established
the town was restored to the French in 1763. When hostilities
afterwards broke out in 1794, it was again taken possession of by
the English, and was held by them till 1816, when it was a second
time given up to the French; it has ever since remained in their
possession. All the former commercial grandeur of Chander-
nagore has now passed away, and at present it is little more
than a quiet suburb of Calcutta, without any external trade. The
European town is situated at the bottom of a beautiful reach of
the Hugli, with clean wide thoroughfares, and many elegant
838 CHANDLER— CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF
residences along the river-bank. The authorities of Chanderna-
gore are subject to the jurisdiction of the governor-general of
Pondicherry, to whom is confided the general government of
all the French possessions in India.
CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM (1828-1889), English scholar,
was born in London on the 31st of January 1828. In 1848 he
entered Pembroke College, Oxford, where he was elected fellow
in 1853. In 1867 he succeeded H. L. Mansel as Waynflete pro-
fessor of moral and metaphysical philosophy, and in 1884 was
appointed curator of the Bodleian library. He died by his own
hand in Oxford on the 16th of May 1889. He was chiefly known
as an Aristotelian scholar, and his knowledge of the Greek com-
mentators on Aristotle was profound. He collected a vast amount
of material for an edition of the fragments of his favourite author,
but on the appearance of Valentine Rose's work in 1886 he
abandoned the idea. Two works on the bibliography of Aristotle,
A Catalogue of Editions of Aristotle 7 s Nicomachean Ethics and of
Works illustrative of them printed in the 15th century (1868), and
A Chronological Index to Editions of Aristotle's Nicomachean
Ethics t and of Works illustrative of them from the Origin of Printing
to 17 qq ( 1878) , are of great value. Chandler's collection of works
on Aristotelian literature is now in the library of Pembroke
College. His Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation (1862,
ed. min. 1877) is the standard work in English.
CHANDLER, RICHARD (1738-1810), British antiquary, was
born in 1738 at Elson in Hampshire, and educated at Winchester
and at Queen's and Magdalen Colleges, Oxford. His first work
consisted of fragments from the minor Greek poets, with notes
(Elegiaca Graeca, 1759); and in 1763 he published a fine edition
of the Arundelian marbles, Marmora Oxoniensia, with a Latin
translation, and a number of suggestions for supplying thelacunae.
He was sent by the Dilettanti Society with Nicholas Revett,
an architect, and Pars, a painter, to explore the antiquities of
Ionia and Greece (1 763-1 766); and the result of their work was
the two magnificent folios of Ionian antiquities published in 1769.
He subsequently held several church preferments, including the
rectory of Tylehurst, in Berkshire, where he died on the 9th of
February 18 10. Other works by Chandler were Inscriptiones
Antiquae pleraeque nondum editae (Oxford, 1774); Travels in
Asia Minor (1775); Travels in Greece (1776); History of Ilium
(1803), in which he asserted the accuracy of Homer's geography.
His Life of Bishop Waynflete, lord high chancellor to Henry VI.,
appeared in 181 1.
A complete edition (with notes by Revett) of the Travels in Asia
Minor and Greece was published by R. Churton (Oxford, 1825), with
an " Account of the Author."
CHANDLER, SAMUEL (1693-17 66), English Nonconformist
divine, was born in 1693 at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his
father was a minister. He was sent to school at Gloucester,
where he began a lifelong friendship with Bishop Butler and
Archbishop Seeker; and he afterwards studied at Leiden. His
talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of the
Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and was made D.D. of Edin-
burgh and Glasgow. He also received offers of high preferment in
the Church of England. These he refused, remaining to the end
of his life in the position of a Presbyterian minister. He was
moderately Calvinistic in his views and leaned towards Arianism.
He took a leading part in the deist controversies of the time, and
discussed with some of the bishops the possibility of an act of
comprehension. From 1 7 16 to 1 7 26 he preached at Peckham, and
for forty years he was pastor of a meeting-house in Old Jewry.
During two or three years, having fallen into pecuniary distress
through the failure of the South Sea scheme, he kept a book-shop
in the Poultry. On the death of George II. in 1760 Chandler
published a sermon in which he compared that king to King David.
This view was attacked in a pamphlet entitled The History of the
Man after God's own Heart, in which the author complained of the
parallel as an insult to the late king, and, following Pierre Bayle,
exhibited King David as an example of perfidy, lust and cruelty.
Chandler condescended to reply first in a review of the tract
(1762) and then in A Critical History of the Life of David, which is
perhaps the best of his productions. This work was just com-
pleted when he died, on the 8th of May 1766. He left 4 vols, of
sermons (1768), and a paraphrase of the Epistles to the Galatians
and Ephesians (1777), several works on the evidences of Christi-
anity, and various pamphlets against Roman Catholicism.
CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH (1813-1879), American politician,
was born at Bedford, New Hampshire, on the 10th of December
1813. In 1833 he removed to Detroit, Michigan, where he became
a prosperous dry-goods merchant. He took a prominent part as
a Whig in politics (serving as mayor in 18 51), and, impelled by
his strong anti-slavery views, actively furthered the work of
the " Underground Railroad," of which Detroit was one of the
principal " transfer " points. He was one of the organizers in
Michigan of the Republican party, and in 1857 succeeded Lewis
Cass in the United States Senate, serving until 1875, and at once
taking his stand with the most radical opponents of slavery
extension. When the Civil War became inevitable[he endeavoured
to impress upon the North the necessity of taking extraordinary
measures for the preservation of the Union. After the fall of
Fort Sumter he advocated the enlistment of 500,000 instead of
75,000 men for a long instead of a short term, and the vigorous
enforcement of confiscation measures. In July 1862 he made a
bitter attack in the Senate on General George B. McClellan,
charging him with incompetency and lack of " nerve." Through-
out the war he allied himself with the most radical of the Re-
publican faction in opposition to President Lincoln's policy, and
subsequently became one of the bitterest opponents of President
Johnson's plan of reconstruction. From October 1875 to March
1877 he was secretary of the interior in the cabinet of President
Grant, succeeding Columbus Delano (1809-1896). In 1876, as
chairman of the national republican committee, he managed
the campaign of Hayes against Tilden. In February 1879 he was
re-elected to the Senate to succeed Isaac P. Christiancy (1812-
1890), and soon afterwards, in a speech concerning Mexican
War pensions, bitterly denounced Jefferson Davis. He died at
Chicago, Illinois, on the 1st of November 1879. By his extra-
ordinary force of character he exercised a wide personal influence
during his lifetime, but failed to stamp his personality upon any
measure or policy of lasting importance.
CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF. The English tide of
Chandos began as a barony in 1554, and was continued in the
family of Brydges (becoming a dukedom in 17 19) till 1789. In
1822 the dukedom was revived in connexion with that of
Buckingham.
John Brydges, 1st Baron Chandos (c. 1490-1557), a son of
Sir Giles Brydges, or Bruges (d. 151 1), was a prominent figure
at the English court during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI.
and Mary. He took part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir
Thomas Wyat in 1554, and as lieutenant of the Tower of London
during the earlier part of Mary's reign, had the custody, not only
of Lady Jane Grey and of Wyat, but for a short time of the
princess Elizabeth. He was created Baron Chandos of Sudeley
in 1554, one of his ancestors, Alice, being a grand-daughter of
Sir Thomas Chandos (d. 1375), an ^ he died in March 1557. The
three succeeding barons, direct descendants of the 1st baron,
were all members of parliament and persons of some importance.
Grey, 5th Baron Chandos (c. 1 580-1621), lord-lieutenant of
Gloucestershire, was called the " king of the Cotswolds," owing
to his generosity and his magnificent style of living at his
residence, Sudeley Castle. He has been regarded by Horace
Walpole and others as the author of some essays, Horae Sub-
secivae. His elder son George, 6th Baron Chandos (1620-1655),
was a supporter of Charles I. during his struggle with Parliament,
and distinguished himself at the first battle of Newbury in 1643.
He had six daughters but no sons, and after the death of his
brother William in 1676 the barony came to a kinsman, Sir
James Brydges, Bart. (1642-1714), who was English ambassador
to Constantinople from 1680 to 1685.
James Brydges, 1st duke of Chandos (1673-1744), son and
heir of the last-named, had been member of parliament for
Hereford from 1698 to 17 14, and, three days after his father's
death, was created Viscount Wilton and earl of Carnarvon.
For eight years, from 1705 to 1713, during the War of the Spanish
CHANDOS, SIR J.— CHANG-CHOW
839
Succession, he was paymaster-general of the forces abroad,
and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 17 19 he was
created marquess of Carnarvon and duke of Chandos. The duke
is chiefly remembered on account of his connexion with Handel
and with Pope. He built a magnificent house at Canons near
Edgware in Middlesex, and is said to have contemplated the
construction of a private road between this place and his un-
finished house in Cavendish Square, London. For over two
years Handel, employed by Chandos, lived at Canons, where
he composed his oratorio Esther. Pope, who in his Moral Essays
(Epistle to the Earl of Burlington) doubtless described Canons
under the guise of "Timon's Villa," referred to the duke in the
line, "Thus gracious Chandos is belov'd at sight"; but Swift,
less complimentary, called him " a great compiler with every
court." The poet was caricatured by Hogarth for his supposed
servility to the duke. Chandos, who was lord-lieutenant of the
counties of Hereford and Radnor, and chancellor of the university
of St Andrews, became involved in financial difficulties, and after
his death on the 9th of August 1744 Canons was pulled down.
He was succeeded by his son Henry, 2nd duke (170&-1771), and
grandson James, 3rd duke (1731-1789). On the death of the
latter without sons in September 1789 all his titles, except
that of Baron Kinloss, became extinct, although a claimant
arose for the barony of Chandos of Sudeley. The 3rd duke's only
daughter, Anna Elizabeth, who became Baroness Kinloss on
her father's death, was married in 1796 to Richard Grenville,
afterwards marquess of Buckingham; and in 1822 this nobleman
was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos (see Buckingham,
Dukes of).
See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887-1898); and J. R-
Robinson, The Princely Chandos, i.e. the 1st duke (1893).
CHANDOS, SIR JOHN (?-i37<>), one of the most celebrated
English commanders of the 14th century. He is found at the
siege of Cambrai in 1337, and at the battle of Crecy in 1346.
At the battle of Poitiers, in 1356, it was he who decided the
day and saved the life of the Black Prince. For these services
Edward III. made him a knight of the Garter, gave him the lands
of the viscount of Saint Sauveur in Cotentin, and appointed
him his lieutenant in France and vice-chamberlain of the royal
household. In 1362 he was made constable of Aquitaine, and
won the victories of Auray (1364) and Navaret in Spain (1367)
over Duguesclin. He was seneschal of Poitou in 1369, and was
mortally wounded at the bridge of Lussac near Poitiers on the
31st of December. He died on the following day, the 1st of
January 1370.
See Benjamin Fillon, " John Chandos, Connetable d* Aquitaine
et Senechal de Poitou," in the Revue des provinces de Vouest (1855).
CHANDRAOUPTA MAURYA (reigned 321-296 B.C.), known
to the Greeks as Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire
and first paramount ruler of India, was the son of a king of
Magadha by a woman of humble origin, whose caste he took,
and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the origin of that of
Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was driven into
exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the
course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and,
according to Plutarch (Alexander p , cap. 62), encouraged him to
invade the Ganges kingdom by enlarging on the extreme un-
popularity of the reigning monarch. During his exile he collected
a large force of the warlike clans of the north-west frontier, and
on the death of Alexander attacked the Macedonian garrisons
and conquered the Punjab. He next attacked Magadha, de-
throned and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of
his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The
great army acquired from his predecessor he increased until it
reached the total of 30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000
infantry; and with this huge force he overran all northern India,
establishing his empire from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of
Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the Indus, but was
defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating peace
(303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther extended
in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving
his empire to his son Bindusura.
An excellent account of the court and administrative system
of Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megas-
thenes, who came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly
after 303. The government was, of course, autocratic and even
tyrannous, but it was organized on an elaborate system, army
and civil service being administered by a series of boards, while
the cities were governed by municipal commissioners responsible
for public order and the upkeep of public works. Chandra-
gupta himself is described as living in barbaric splendour,
appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or to go
on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of
assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same
room.
See J. W. MacCrindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthenes
and Arrian (Calcutta, 1877); V. A. Smith, Early Hist, of India
(Oxford, 1908) ; also the articles India: History, and Inscriptions:
Indian.
CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE TlrfODULE (1793-1877),
French general, was born at Autun on the 26th of April 1793.
Educated at St Cyr, he served for a short time in the bodyguard
of Louis XVIII., and entered the line as a lieutenant in January
1 81 5. He achieved distinction in the Spanish campaign of 1823,
and became captain in 1825. In 1830 he entered the Royal
Guard and was sent to Africa, where he took part in the Mascara
expedition. Promoted commandant in 1835, he distinguished
himself under Marshal Clausel in the campaign against Ahmed
Pasha, bey of Constantine, and became lieutenant-colonel in
1837. The part he took in the expedition of Portes-de-Fer
gained him a colonelcy, and his success against the Hajutas and
Kabyles, the cross of the Legion of Honour. Three more years
of brilliant service in Africa won for him the rank of marSchal
de camp in 1840, and of lieutenant-general in 1843. In 1847 he
held the Algiers divisional command. He visited France early
in 1848, assisted the provisional government to establish order,
and returned to Africa in May to succeed General Cavaignac in
the government of Algeria. He was speedily recalled on his
election to the general assembly for the department of the Seine,
and received the command of the National Guard of Paris, to
which was added soon afterwards that of the troops in Paris,
altogether nearly 100,000 men. He held a high place and
exercised great influence in the complicated politics of the next
two years. In 1849 he received the grand cross of the Legion
of Honour. An avowed enemy of republican institutions, he
held a unique position in upholding the power of the president;
but in January 185 1 he opposed Louis Napoleon's policy, was
in consequence deprived of his double command, and at the
coup d'etat in December was arrested and sent to Mazas, until
his banishment from France by the decree of the 9th of January
1852. He returned to France after the general amnesty, and
resided in his estate in the department of Sa6ne-et-Loire. In
1870 he held no command, but was present with the headquarters,
and afterwards with Bazaine in Metz. He was employed on an
unsuccessful mission to Prince Frederick Charles, commanding
the German army which besieged Metz, and on the capitulation
became a prisoner of war. At the armistice he returned to Paris,
and in 187 1 was elected to the National Assembly by four depart-
ments, and sat for the Somme. He took an active part in politics,
defended the conduct of Marshal Bazaine, and served on the
committee which elaborated the monarchical constitution. When
the comte de Chambord refused the compromise, he moved
the resolution to extend the executive power for ten years to
Marshal MacMahon. He was elected a life senator in 1875. He
died in Paris on the 14th of February 1877.
CHANG-CHOW, a town of China, in the province of Fu-kien,
on a branch of the Lung Kiang, 35 m. W. of Amoy. It is
surrounded by a wall 4J m. in circumference, which, however,
includes a good deal of open ground. The streets are paved with
granite, but are very dirty. The river is crossed by a curious
bridge, 800 ft. long, constructed of wooden planks supported on
twenty-five piles of stones about 30 ft. apart. The city is a cen tre
of the silk-trade, and carries on an extensive commerce in different
directions. Brick-works and sugar-factories are among its chief
840
CHANG-CHUN— CHANNEL ISLANDS
industrial establishments. Its population is estimated at about
1,000,000.
CHANG CHUN, KIU (1149-1227), Chinese Taoist sage and
traveller, was born in 1148. In 12 19 he was invited by Jenghiz
Khan, founder of the Mongol empire and greatest of Asiatic
conquerors, to visit him. Jenghiz' letter of invitation, dated the
15th of May 12 19 (by present reckoning), has been preserved,
and is among the curiosities of history; here the terrible warrior
appears as a meek disciple of wisdom, modest and simple,
almost Socratic in his self-examination, alive to many of the
deepest truths of life and government. Chang Chun obeyed this
summons; and leaving his home in Shantung (February 1220)
journeyed first to Peking. Learning that Jenghiz had gone far
west upon fresh conquests, the sage stayed the winter in Peking.
In February 1221 he started again and crossed eastern Mongolia
to the camp of Jenghiz' brother Ujughen, near Lake Bor or Buyur
in the upper basin of the Kerulun-Amur. Thence he travelled
south-westward up the Kerulun, crossed the Karakorum region
in north-central Mongolia, and so came to the Chinese Altai,
probably passing near the present Uliassutai. After traversing
the Altai he visited Bishbalig, answering to the modern Urumtsi,
and moved along the north side of the Tian Shan range to lake
Sairam, Almalig (or Kulja), and the rich valley of the Hi. We
then trace him to the Chu, over this river to Talas and the
Tashkent region, and over the Jaxartes (or Syr Daria) to Samar-
kand, where he halted for some months. Finally, through the
" Iron Gates " of Termit, over the Oxus, and by way of Balkh
and northern Afghanistan, Chang Chun reached Jenghiz' camp
near the Hindu Kush. Returning home he followed much the
same course as on his outward route : certain deviations, however,
occur, such as a visit to Kuku-khoto. He was back in Peking
by the end of January 1224. From the narrative of his ex-
pedition (the Si yu ki, written by his pupil and companion Li
Chi Chang) we derive some of the most faithful and vivid pictures
ever drawn of nature and man between the Great Wall of China
and Kabul, between the Aral and the Yellow Sea: we may
particularly notice the sketches of the Mongols, and of the
people of Samarkand and its neighbourhood; the account of
the fertility and products of the latter region, as of the Ili valley,
at or near Almalig-Kulja; and the description of various great
mountain ranges, peaks and denies, such as the Chinese Altai,
the Tian Shan, Mt Bogdo-ola (?), and the Iron Gates of Termit.
There is, moreover, a noteworthy reference to a land apparently
identical with the uppermost valley of the Yenisei. After his
return Chang Chun lived at Peking till his death on the 23rd of
July 1227. By order of Jenghiz some of the former imperial
garden grounds were made over to him, for the foundation of a
Taoist monastery.
See E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic
Sources, vol. i. pp. 35-108, where a complete translation of the
narrative is given, with a valuable commentary; C. R. Beazley
Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 539. (C. R. B.)
CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium,
cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from
the root which appears in the Gr. KajnrTew, to bend), properly
the substitution of one thing for another, hence any alteration
or variation, so applied to the moon's passing from one phase to
another. The use of the word for a place of commercial business
has usually been taken to be a shortened form of Exchange (q.v.)
and so is often written 'Change. The New English Dictionary
points out that " change " appears earlier than " exchange "
in this sense. " Change " is particularly used of coins of lower
denomination given in substitution for those of larger denomina-
tion or for a note, cheque, &c, and also for the balance of a sum
paid larger than that which is due. A further application is that
in bell-ringing, of the variations in order in which a peal of bells
may be rung. The term usually excludes the ringing of the bells
according to the diatonic scale in which they are hung (see Bell).
It is from a combination of these two meanings that the thieves'
slang phrase " ringing the changes " arises; it denotes the
various methods by which wrong change may be given or
extracted, or counterfeit coin passed.
CHANGELING, the term used of a child substituted or changed
for another, especially in the case of substitutions popularly
supposed to be through fairy agency. There was formerly a
widespread superstition that infants were sometimes stolen
from their cradles by the fairies. Any specially peevish or weakly
baby was regarded as a changeling, the word coming at last to
be almost synonymous with imbecility. It was thought that
the elves could only effect the exchange before christening, and
in the highlands of Scotland babies were strictly watched till
then. Strype states that in his time midwives had to take an
oath binding themselves to be no party to the theft or exchange
of babies. The belief is referred to by Shakespeare, Spenser
and other authors. Pennant, writing in 1796, says: " In this
very century a poor cottager, who lived near the spot, had a
child who grew uncommonly peevish; the parents attributed
this to the fairies and imagined it was a changeling. They took
the child, put it in a cradle, and left it all night beneath the
" Fairy Oak " in hopes that the tylwydd teg or fairy family
would restore their own before morning. When morning came
they found the child perfectly quiet, so went away with it, quite
confirmed in their belief " (Tour in Scotland, 1796, p. 257).
See W. Wirt Sikes, British Goblins (1880).
CHANGOS, a tribe of South American Indians who appear
to have originally inhabited the Peruvian coast A few of them
still live on the coast of Atacama, northern Chile. They are a
dwarfish race, never exceeding 5 ft. in height. Their sole occupa-
tion is fishing, and in former times they used boats of inflated
sealskins, lived in sealskin huts, and slept on heaps of dried
seaweed. They are a hospitable and friendly people, and never
resisted the whites.
CHANGRA, or Kanghabi (anc. Gangra; called also till the
time of Caracalla, Germamcopolis, after the emperor Claudius),
the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Kastamuni
vilayet, Asia Minor, situated in a rich, well-watered valley;
altitude 2500 ft. The ground is impregnated with salt, and
the town is unhealthy. Pop. (1894) 15,632, of whom 1086 are
Christians (Cuinet). Gangra, the capital of the Paphlagonian
kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor, was taken
into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 B.C.
The earlier town, the name of which signified " she-goat," was
built on the hill behind the modern city, on which are the ruins
of a late fortress; while the Roman city occupied the site of the
modern. In Christian times Gangra was the metropolitan see
of Paphlagonia. In the 4th century the town was the scene of
an important ecclesiastical synod.
Synod of Gangra. — Conjectures as to the date of this synod
vary from 341 to 376. Ail that can be affirmed with certainty
is that it was held about the middle of the 4th century. The
synodal letter states that twenty-one bishops assembled to take
action concerning Eustathius (of Sebaste?) and his followers,
who contemned marriage, disparaged the offices of the church,
held conventicles of their own, wore a peculiar dress, denounced
riches, and affected especial sanctity. The synod condemned
the Eustathian practices, declaring however, with remarkable
moderation, that it was not virginity that was condemned, but
the dishonouring of marriage; not poverty, but the disparage-
ment of honest and benevolent wealth; not asceticism, but
spiritual pride; not individual piety, but dishonouring the
house of God. The twenty canons of Gangra were declared
ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451.
See Mansi ii. pp. 1095- 1 122; Hardouin i. pp. 530-540; Hefele
2nd ed., i. pp. 777 sqq. (English trans, ii. pp. 325 sqq-).
CHANNEL ISLANDS (French ties Normandes), a group of
islands in the English Channel, belonging (except the IlesChausey)
to Great Britain. (For map, see England, Section VI.) They
lie between 48 50' and 49 45' N., and i° 50' and 2 45' W.,
along the French coast of Co ten tin (department of Manche),
at a distance of 4 to 40 m. from it, within the great rectangular
bay of which the northward horn is Cape La Hague. The greater
part of this bay is shallow, and the currents among the numerous
groups of islands and rocks are often dangerous to navigation.
1 The nearest point of the English coast to the Channel Islands
CHANNEL ISLANDS
841
is Portland Bill, a little over 50 m. north of the northernmost
outlier of the islands. The total land area of the islands is about
75 sq. m. (48,083 acres), and the population in 1001 was 95,618.
The principal individual islands are four:— -Jersey (area 45
sq. m., pop. 52,576), Guernsey (area 24-5 sq. m., pop. 40,446),
Alderney (area 3-06 sq. m., pop. 2062), and Sark (area nearly
2 sq. m., pop. 504). Each of these islands is treated in a separate
article. The chief town and port of Jersey is St Helier, and of
Guernsey St Peter Port; a small town on Alderney is called
St Anne. Regular communication by steamer with Guernsey
and Jersey is provided on alternate days from Southampton and
Weymouth, by steamers of the London & South-Westem and
Great Western railway companies of England. Railway com-
munications within the islands are confined to Jersey. Regular
steamship communications are kept up from certain French
ports, and locally between the larger islands. In summer the
islands, especially Jersey, Guernsey and Sark, are visited by
numerous tourists, both from England and from France.
The islands fall physically into four divisions. The northern-
most, lying due west of Cape La Hague, and separated therefrom
by the narrow Race of Alderney, includes that island, Burhou
and Ortach, and numerous other islets west of it, and west again
the notorious Casquets, and angry group of jagged rocks, on the
largest of which is a powerful lighthouse. Doubtful tradition
places here the wreck of the "White Ship," in which William,
son of Henry I., perished in 11 20; in 1744 the "Victory," a
British man-of-war, struck on one of the rocks, and among
calamities of modern times the wreck of the" Stella," a passenger
vessel, in 1899, may be recalled. The second division of islands
is also the most westerly; it includes Guernsey with a few islets
to the west, and to the east, Sark, Herm, Jethou (inhabited
islands) and others. The strait between Guernsey and Herm
is called Little Russel, and that between Herm and Sark Great
Russel. Sark is famous ior its splendid cliffs and caves, while
Herm possesses the remarkable phenomenon of a shell-beach, or
shore, half-a-mile in length, formed wholly of small shells,
which accumulate in a tidal eddy formed at the north of the
island. To the south-east of these, across the channel called La
D6route, lies Jersey, forming, with a few attendant islets, of
which the Ecrehou to the north-east are the chief, the third
division. The fourth and southernmost division falls into two
main subdivisions. The Minquiers, the more western, are a
collection of abrupt rocks, the largest of which, Maltresse He,
affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. Then eastern sub-
division, the Des Chausey, lies about 9 m. west by north of
Granville (to which commune they belong) on the French coast,
and belongs to France. These rocks are close set, low and
curiously regular in form. On Grande He, the only permanently
inhabited island (pop. 100), some farming is carried on, and
several of the islets are temporarily inhabited by fishermen.
There is also a little granite-quarrying, and seaweed-burning
employs many.
None of the islands is mountainous, and the fine scenery for
which they are famous is almost wholly coastal. In this respect
each main island has certain distinctive characteristics. Bold
cliffs are found on the south of Alderney; in Guernsey they
alternate with lovely bays; Sark is specially noted for its
magnificent sea-caves, while the coast scenery of Jersey is on
the whole more gentle than the rest.
Geology. — Geologically, the Channel Islands are closely related
to the neighbouring mainland of Normandy. With a few exceptions,
to be noted later, all the rocks are of pre-Cambrian, perhaps in part of
Archean age. They consist of massive granites, gneisses, diorites,
porphyrites, schists and phyllites, all of which are traversed by
dykes and veins. In Jersey we find in the north-west corner a
granitic tract extending from Grosnez to St Mary and St John,
beyond which it passes into a small granulitic paten. South of the
granites is a schistose area, by St Ouen and St Lawrence, and reach-
ing to St Aubin's Bay. Granitic masses again appear round St Bre-
lade's Bay. The eastern half of the island is largely occupied by
porphyrites and similar rocks (hornstone porphyry) with rnyolites
and devitrified obsidians; some of the latter contain large spheru-
lites with a diameter of as much as 2A in. ; these are well exposed in
Bouley Bay; a complex igneous ana intrusive series of rocks lies
around St Helier. In the north-east corner of the island a con-
glomerate, possibly of Cambrian age, occurs between Bouley Bay
and St Catherine's Bay. Tracts of blown-sand cover the ground
for some distance north of St Clement's Bay and again east of
St Ouen's Bay. In the sea off the latter bay a submerged forest
occurs. The northern half of Guernsey is mainly dioritic, the
southern half, below St Peter, is occupied by gneisses. Several
patches of granite and granulitc fringe the western coast, the largest
of these is a hornblende granite round Rocquaine Bay. Horn-
blende gneiss from St Sampson and quartz diorite from Capelles,
Corvee and elsewhere are transported to England for road metal.
Sark is composed almost wholly of hornblende-schists and gneisses
with hornblendic granite at the north end of the island, in Little
Sark and in the middle of Brechou. Dykes of diabase and diorite
are abundant. Alderney consists mainly of hornblende granite and
granulite, which are covered on the east by two areas of sandstone
which may be of Cambrian age. An enstatite-augite-diorite is sent
from Alderney for road-making. Besides the submerged forest on
the coast of Jersey already mentioned, there are similar occurrences
near St Peter Port and St Sampson's harbour, and in Vazon Bay
in Guernsey. Raised beaches are to be seen at several points in the
islands.
Climate. — The climate is mild and very pleasant. In Jersey
the mean temperature for twenty years is found to be — in January
(the coldest month) 42-1° F., in August (the hottest) 63 , mean
annual 51*7°. In Guernsey the figures are, for January 42-5°,
for August 59-7°, mean annual 49-5°. The mean annual rainfall
for twenty-five years in Jersey is 34-21 in., and in Guernsey 38-64
in. The average amount of sunshine in Jersey is considerably
greater than in the most favoured spots on the south coast of
England; and in Guernsey it is only a little less than in Jersey.
Snow and frost are rare, and the seasons of spring and autumn
are protracted. Thick sea-fogs are not uncommon, especially
in May and June.
Flora and Fauna. — The flora of the islands is remarkably rich,
considering their extent, nearly 2000 different species of plants
having been counted throughout the group. Of timber properly
speaking there is little, but the evergreen oak, the elm and the
beech are abundant. Wheat is the principal grain in cultivation;
but far more ground is taken up with turnips and potatoes,
mangold, parsnip and carrot. The tomato ripens as in France,
and the Chinese yam has been successfully grown. There is a
curious cabbage, chiefly cultivated in Jersey, which shoots up
into a long woody stalk from 10 to 15 ft. in height, fit for walking-
sticks or palisades. Grapes and peaches come to perfection in
greenhouses without artificial heat; and not only apples and
pears but oranges and figs can be reared in the open air. The
arbutus ripens its fruit, and the camellia clothes itself with
blossom, as in more southern climates; the fuchsia reaches a
height of 15 or 20 ft., and the magnolia attains the dimensions
of a tree. Of the flowers, both indigenous and exotic, that
abound throughout the islands, it is sufficient to mention the
Guernsey lily with its rich red petals, which is supposed to have
been brought from Japan.
The number of the species of the mammalia is little over
twenty, and several of these have been introduced by man.
There is a special breed of horned cattle, and each island has its
own variety, which is carefully kept from all intermixture. The
animals are small and delicate, and marked by a peculiar yellow
colour round the eyes and within the ears. The red deer was once
indigenous, and the black rat is still common in Alderney, Sark
and Herm. The list of birds includes nearly 200 species, nearly
100 of which are permanent inhabitants of the islands. There
are few localities in the northern seas which are visited by a
greater variety of fish, and the coasts abound in Crustacea,
shell-fish and zoophytes.
Government. — For the purposes of government the Channel
Islands (excluding the French Chauseys) are divided into two
divisions: — (1) Jersey, and (2) the bailiwick of Guernsey, which
includes Alderney, Sark, Herm and Jethou with the island of
Guernsey. The constitutions of each division are peculiar and
broadly similar, but differing in certain important details; they
may therefore be considered together for the sake of comparison.
Until 1854 governors were appointed by the crown; now a
separate military lieutenant-governor is appointed for each
division on the recommendation of the war office after consulta-
tion with the home office. The other crown officials are the
v. 27 a
8 4 2
CHANNEL ISLANDS
bailiff (bailli) or chief magistrate, the procureur du roi, represent-
ing the attorney-general, and the avocat du roi, or in Guernsey
the contrdle, representing the solicitor-general. In Jersey the
vicomte is also appointed by the crown, in the position of a high
sheriff (and coroner); but his counterpart in Guernsey, the
prevdt, is not so appointed. The bailiff in each island is president
of the royal court, which is composed of twelve jurats, elected for
life, in Jersey by the ratepayers of each parish, in Guernsey by
the Elective States, a body which also elects the prevdt, who,
with the jurats, serves upon it. The rest of the body is made up
of the rectors of the parishes, the doutaines, or elected parish
councils (" dozens," from the original number of their members)
of the town parish of St Peter Port, the four cantons, and the
county parishes, and certain other officials. The royal court
administers justice (but in Jersey there is a trial by jury for
criminal cases), and in Guernsey can pass temporary ordinances
subject to no higher body. It also puts forward projets de lot
for the approval of the Deliberative States. Alderney and Sark
have a separate legal existence with courts dependent on the
royal court of Guernsey. In both Jersey and Guernsey the chief
administrative body is the Deliberative States. The Jersey States
is composed of the lieutenant-governor (who has a veto on the
deliberation of any question, but no vote), the bailiff, jurats,
parish rectors, parish constables and deputies, the procureur
and avocat, with right to speak but no vote, and the vicomte,
with right of attendance only. Besides the veto of the lieutenant-
governor, the bailiff has the power to dissent from any measure,
in which case it is referred to the privy council. In Guernsey the
States consists of the bailiff, jurats, eight out of ten rectors, the
procureur and deputies; while the lieutenant-governor is always
invited and may speak if he attends. By both States local
administration is carried on (largely through committees); and
relations with the British parliament are maintained through the
privy council. Acts of parliament are transmitted to the islands
by an order in council to be registered in the rolls of the royal
court, and are not considered to be binding until this is done;
moreover, registration may be held over pending discussion by
the States if any act is considered to menace the privileges of
the islands. The right of the crown to legislate by order in council
is held to be similarly limited. In cases of encroachment on
property, a remarkable form of appeal of very ancient origin
called Clameur de Haro survives (see Ha&o, Clameur de). The
islands are in the diocese of Winchester, and there is a dean
in both Jersey and Guernsey, who is also rector of a parish.
These peculiar constitutions are of local development, the
history of which is obscure. The bailiff was originally assisted
in his judicial work by itinerant justices; their place was later
taken by the elected jurats; later still the practice of summoning
the States to assist in the passing of ordinances was established
by the bailiff and jurats, and at last the States claimed the
absolute right of being consulted. This was confirmed to them
in 1771.
It is characteristic of these islands that there should be
compulsory service in the militia. In Jersey and Alderney every
man between the ages of sixteen and forty-five is liable, but in
Jersey after ten years' service militiamen are transferred to the
reserve. In Guernsey the age limit is from sixteen to thirty-
three, and the obligation is extended to all who are British
subjects, and draw income from a profession practised in the
island. Garrisons of regular troops are maintained in all three
islands. Taxation is light in the islands, and pauperism is
practically unknown.
In 1904 the revenue of Jersey was £70,191, and its expenditure
£69,658; the revenue of Guernsey was £79,334, and the expenditure
£43,385. The public debt in the respective islands was £322,070
and £195,794. In Jersey the annual revenues from crown rights
(principally seigneurial dues, houses and lands and tithes) amount
to about £2700, and about £360 is remitted to the paymaster-general.
In Guernsey these revenues, in which the principal item is fines on
transference of property (trciziemes or fees), amount to about £4500,
and about £1000 is remitted. In Alderney the revenues (chiefly from
harbour dues) amount to about £1400.
In Jersey the English gold and silver coinage are current, but there
is a local copper coinage and local one-pound notes are issued.
Guernsey has also such notes, and its copper coinage consists of
pence, halfpence, two-double and one-double (one-eighth of a penny)
gieces. A Guernsey pound is taken as equal to 24 francs, and
English and French currency pass equally throughout the islands.
Industry. — The old Norman system of land-tenure has sur-
vived, and the land is parcelled out among a great number of
small proprietors; holdings ranging from 5 to 25 acres as a rule.
The results of this arrangement seem to be favourable in the
extreme. Every corner of the ground is carefully and intelli-
gently cultivated, and a considerable proportion is allotted to
market-gardening. The cottages are neat and comfortable,
the hedges well-trimmed, and the roads kept in excellent repair.
There is a considerable export trade in agricultural produce and
stock, including vegetables and fruit, in fish (the fisheries
forming an important industry) and in stone. There is no
manufacture of importance. The inhabitants share in common
the right of collecting and burning seaweed (called vraic) for
manure. The cutting of the weed (vrakking) became a cere-
monial occasion, taking place at times fixed by the government,
and connected with popular festivities.
Language. — The language spoken in ordinary life by the
inhabitants of the islands is in great measure the same as the old
Norman French. The use of the patois has decreased naturally
in modern times. Modern French is the official language, used
in the courts and states, and English is taught in the parochial
schools, and is familiar practically to all. The several islands
have each its own dialect, differing from that of the others
in vocabulary and idiom; differences are also observable in
different localities within the same island, as between the north
and the south of Guernsey. None of the dialects has received
much literary cultivation, though Jersey is proud of being the
birthplace of one of the principal Norman poets, Wace, who
flourished in the 12 th century.
History. — The original ethnology and pre-Christian history
of the Channel Islands are largely matters of conjecture and
debate. Of early inhabitants abundant proof is afforded by the
numerous megalithic monuments — cromlechs, kistvaens and
maenhirs — still extant. But little trace has been left of Roman
occupation, and such remains as have been discovered are mainly
of the portable description that affords little proof of actual
settlement, though there may have been an unimportant garrison
here. The constant recurrence of the names of saints in the
place-names of the islands, and the fact that pre-Christian names
do not occur, leads to the inference that before Christianity was
introduced the population was very scanty. It may be con-
sidered to have consisted originally of Bretons (Celts), and to
have received successively a slight admixture of Romans and
Legionaries, Saxons and perhaps Jutes and Vandals. Chris-
tianity may have been introduced in the 5th century. Guernsey
is said to have been visited in the 6th century by St Sampson of
Dol (whose name is given to a small town and harbour in the
island), St Marcou or Marculfus and St Magloire, a friend and
fellow-evangelist of St Sampson, who founded monasteries at
Sark and at Jersey, and died in Jersey in 57 5. Another evangelist
of this period was St Helerius, whose name is borne by the chief
town of Jersey, St Helier. In his life it is stated that the popula-
tion of the island when he reached it was only 30. In 933 the
islands were made over to William, duke of Normandy (d. 943),
and after the Norman conquest of England their allegiance shifted
between the English crown and the Norman coronet according to
the vicissitudes of war and policy. During the purely Norman
period they had been enriched with numerous ecclesiastical
buildings, some of which are still extant, as the chapel of Rozel
in Jersey.
In the reign of John of England the future of the islands was
decided by their attachment to the English crown, in spite of the
separation of the duchy of Normandy. To John it has been usual
to ascribe a document, at one time regarded by the islanders as
their Magna Carta; but modern criticism leaves little doubt
that it is not genuine. An unauthenticated " copy " of uncertain
origin alone has been discovered, and there is little proof of
there ever having been an original. The reign of Edward I. was
CHANNING
843
full of disturbance; and in 1279 Jersey and Guernsey received
from the king, by letters patent, a public seal as a remedy for the
dangers and losses which they had incurred by lack of such a
certificate. Edward II. found it necessary to instruct his
collectors not to treat the islanders as foreigners: his successor,
Edward III., fully confirmed their privileges, immunities and
customs in 1341 ; and his charter was recognized by Richard II.
in 1378. In 1343 there was a descent of the French on Guernsey;
the governor was defeated, and Castle Cornet besieged. In 1372
there was another attack on Guernsey, and in 1374 and 1404 the
French descended on Jersey. None of these attempts, however,
resulted in permanent settlement. Henry V. confiscated the
alien priories which had kept up the same connexion with Nor-
mandy as before the conquest, and conferred them along with the
regalities of the islands on his brother, the duke of Bedford.
During the Wars of the Roses, Queen Margaret, the consort of
Henry VI., made an agreement with Pierre de BrezS, comte de
Maulevrier, the seneschal of Normandy, that if he afforded
assistance to the king he should hold the islands independently
of the crown. A force was accordingly sent to take possession of
Mont Orgueil. It was captured and a small part of the island
subjugated, and here Maulevrier remained as governor from 1460
to 1465; but the rest held out under Sir Philip de Carteret,
seigneur of St Ouen, and in 1467 the vice-admiral of England,
Sir Richard Harliston, recaptured the castle and brought the
foreign occupation to an end. In 148 2-1483 Pope Sixtus IV., at
the instance of King Edward IV., issued a bull of anathema
against all who molested the islands; it was formally registered
in Brittany in 1484, and in France in i486; and in this way the
islands acquired the right of neutrality, which they retained till
1689. In the same reign (Edward IV.) Sark was taken by the
French, and only recovered in the reign of Mary, by the strategy
(according to tradition) of landing from a vessel a coffin nomin-
ally containing a body for burial, but in reality filled with arms.
By a charter of 1494, the duties of the governors of Jersey were
defined and their power restricted; and the educational interests
of the island were furthered at the same time by the foundation
of two grammar schools. The religious establishments in the
islands were dissolved, as in England, in the reign of Henry VIII.
The Reformation was heartily welcomed in the islands. The
English liturgy was translated into French for their use. In the
reign of Mary there was much religious persecution ; and in that of
Elizabeth Roman Catholics were maltreated in their turn. In
1568 the islands were attached to the see of Winchester, being
finally separated from that of Coutances, with which they had
long been connected, with short intervals in the reign of John,
when they had belonged the see of Exeter, and that of Henry
VI., when they had belonged to Salisbury.
The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted
under the influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestant-
ism on the continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and
St Peter Port by Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James
enacted that the whole of the islands " should quietly enjoy
their said liberty." During his reign, however, disputes arose.
An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey, and in 16 19
David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of
canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church
of England was accepted after considerable modification by the
people of his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained
their Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of
Protestantism had got on the minds of the people even in Jersey
abundant proof is afforded by the general character of the worship
at the present day.
In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian
Guernsey supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there
were at first parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de
Carteret, lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean
Bandinel and Michael Lempriere, a leader of the people, headed
the parliamentary party. They received a commission for the
apprehension of Carteret, who established himself in Elizabeth
Castle; but after some fighting had taken place he died in the
castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey Sir Peter Osborne,
the governor, was defying the whole island and maintaining
himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor, Leonard
Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de
Carteret's death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding
Mont Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip's nephew, arrived
from St Malo to support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and
LempriSre presently fled to England. George Carteret estab-
lished himself as lieutenant-governor and bailiff. Bandinel was
imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in trying to
escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince
of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and
remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to
France, but returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by
George Carteret, and at Elizabeth Castle he signed the declara-
tion of his claims to the throne on the 29th of October. In 1651,
when Charles had fled to France again after the battle of
Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared at Jersey.
The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their governor
now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the 15th of
December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle;
and at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been
steadily held by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable
terms of surrender were granted. Both islands had suffered
severely from the struggle, and the people of Guernsey, appealing
to Cromwell on the ground of their support of his cause, com-
plained that two-thirds of the land was out of cultivation, and
that they had lost " their ships, their traffic and their trading."
After the Restoration there was considerable improvement, and
in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of wool for the
manufacture of stockings — 4000 tods 1 of wool being annually
allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to
Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted
after the Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to
be governed independently till 1825.
By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was
abolished in 1689, and during the war between England and
France (1778-1783) there were two unsuccessful attacks on
Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second, under Baron de Rullecourt,
being famous for the victory over the invaders due to the bravery
of the young Major Peirson, who fell when the French were on the
point of surrender. During the revolutionary period in France
the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th century
various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-
house system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands
throve on smuggling and privateering down to 1800.
Authorities. — Hey 1 in, Relation of two Journeys (1656); P.Falle,
Account of the Island of Jersey (1694; notes, &c, by E. Durell,
Jersey, 1837); J- Duncan, Htstory of Guernsey (London, 1841);
r. le Geyt, Sur Us constitutions, Us Ms et Us usages de cette iU [ Jersey],
ed. R. P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-18^7); F. B. Tupper, Chronicles of
CasUe Cornet, Guernsey (2nd ed. London, 1851), and History of
Guernsey and its Bailiwick (Guernsey, 1854); S. E. Hoskins,
Charles II. in the Channel Islands (London, 1854), and other works;
Delacroix, Jersey, ses antiquiUs, Gfc. (Jersey, 1859); T. le Cerf,
Varchipel des lies Normandes (Paris, 1863) ; G. Dupont, Le Cotentin
et ses ties (Caen, 1 870-1885); J. P. E. Havet, Les Cours royales des
IUs Normandes (Paris, 1878) ; E. Pegot-Ogier, Histoire des Ties de
la Manche (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, GSologie de Jersey (Paris and
Jersey, 1886); D. T. Ansted and R. G. Latham, Channel Islands
(1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E. T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the principal
general work of reference; Sir E. MacCuIloch, Guernsey Folklore,
ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903) ; E. F. Carey, Channel Islands
(London, 1904).
CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842), American
divine and philanthropist, was born in Newport, Rhode Island,
on the 7th of April 1780. His maternal grandfather was William
Ellery, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; his mother,
Lucy Ellery, was a remarkable woman; and his father, William
Channing, was a prominent lawyerin Newport. Channing had as
a child a refined delicacy of feature and temperament, and seemed
to have inherited from his father simple and elegant tastes,
sweetness of temper, and warmth of affection, and from his
mother that strong moral discernment and straightforward
rectitude of purpose and action which formed so striking a feature
1 A tod generally equalled 28 Tb.
844
CHANNING
of his character. From his earliest years he delighted in the
beauty of the scenery of Newport, and always highly estimated
its influence upon his spiritual character. His father was a strict
Calvinist, and Dr Samuel Hopkins, one of the leaders of the old
school Calvinists, was a frequent guest in his father's house.
He was, even as a child, he himself says, "quite a theologian,
and would chop logic with his elders according to the fashion of
that controversial time. " He prepared for college in New London
under the care of his uncle, the Rev. Henry Channing, and in
1794, about a year after the death of his father, entered Harvard
College. Before leaving New London he came under religious
influences to which he traced the beginning of his spiritual life.
In his college vacations he taught at Lancaster, Massachusetts,
and in term time he stinted himself in food that he might need
less exercise and so save time for study, — an experiment which
undermined his health, producing acute dyspepsia. From his
college course he thought that he got little good, and said " when
I was in college, only three books that I read were of any moment
to me: . . . Ferguson on Civil Society, . . . Hutcheson's
Moral Philosophy, and Price's Dissertations. Price saved me
from Locke's philosophy."
After graduating in 1798, he lived at Richmond, Virginia, as
tutor in the family of David Meade Randolph, United States
marshal for Virginia. Here he renewed his ascetic habits and
spent much time in theological study, his mind being greatly
disturbed in regard to Trinitarian teachings in general and
especially prayer to Jesus. He returned to Newport in 1800
" a thin and pallid invalid," spent a year and a half there, and
in 1802 went to Cambridge as regent (or general proctor) in
Harvard; in the autumn of 1802 he began to preach, having
been approved by the Cambridge Association. On the 1st of
June 1803, having refused the more advantageous pastorate of
Brattle Street church, he was ordained pastor of the Federal
Street Congregational church in Boston. At this time it seems
certain that his theological views were not fixed, and in 1808,
when he preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev. John
Codman (1 782-1847), he still applied the title " Divine Master "
to Jesus Christ, and used such expressions as " shed for souls " of
the blood of Jesus, and " the Son of God himself left the abodes
of glory and expired a victim of the cross." But his sermon
preached in 1819 at Baltimore at the ordination of the Rev.
Jared Sparks was in effect a powerful attack on Trinitarianism,
and was followed in 1 819 by an article in The Christian Disciple,
" Objections to Unitarian Christianity Considered," and in 1820
by another, " The Moral Argument against Calvinism " — an
excellent evidence of the moral (rather than the intellectual)
character of Unitarian protest. In 18 14 he had married a rich
cousin, Ruth Gibbs, but refused to make use of the income from
her property on the ground that clergymen were so commonly
accused of marrying for money.
He was now entering on his public career. Even in 1810, in a
Fast Day sermon, he warned his congregation of Bonaparte's
ambition; two years later he deplored " this country taking part
with the oppressor against that nation which has alone arrested
his proud career of victory "; in 1814 he preached a thanks-
giving sermon for the overthrow of Napoleon; and in 18 16 he
preached a sermon on war which led to the organization of the
Massachusetts Peace Society. His sermon on " Religion, a
Social Principle," helped to procure the omission from the state
constitution of the third article of Part I., which made compulsory
a tax for the support of religious worship. In 1821 he delivered
the Dudleian lecture on the " Evidences of Revealed Religion "
at Harvard, of whose corporation he had been a member since
1813; he had received its degree of S.T.D. in 1820. In August
1 82 1 he undertook a journey to Europe, in the course of which
he met in England many distinguished men of letters, especially
Wordsworth and Coleridge. Both of these poets greatly in-
fluenced him personally and by their writings, and he prophesied
that the Lake poets would be one of the greatest forces in a
coming spiritual reform. Coleridge wrote of him, " He has the
love of wisdom and the wisdom of love."
On his return to America in August 1823, Dr Channing resumed
his duties as pastor, but with a more decided attention than
before to literature and public affairs, especially after receiving
as colleague, in 1824, the Rev. Ezra Stiles Gannett. In 1830,
because of his wife's bad health, Channing went to the West
Indies. Negro slavery, as he saw it there, and as he had seen it
in Richmond, more than thirty years before, so strongly im-
pressed him that he began to write his book Slavery (1835).
In this he insists that " not what is profitable, but what is right "
is " the first question to be proposed by a rational being "; that
slavery ought to be discussed " with a deep feeling of responsi-
bility, and so done as not to put in jeopardy the peace of the slave-
holding states "; that " man cannot be justly held and used as
property "; that the tendency of slavery is morally, intellectu-
ally, and domestically, bad; that emancipation, however,
should not be forced on slave-holders by governmental inter-
ference, but by an enlightened public conscience in the South
(and in the North), if for no other reason, because " slavery
should be succeeded by a friendly relation between master and
slave; and to produce this the latter must see in the former his
benefactor and deliverer." He declined to identify himself
with the Abolitionists, whose motto was " Immediate Emancipa-
tion " and whose passionate agitation he thought unsuited to
the work they were attempting. The moderation and temperance
of his presentation of the anti-slavery cause naturally resulted in
some misunderstanding and misstatement of his position, such as
is to be found in Mrs Chapman's Appendix to the Autobiography
of Harriet Martineau, where Channing is represented as actually
using his influence on behalf of slavery. In 1837 he published
Thoughts on the Evils of a Spirit of Conquest, and on Slavery: A
Letter on the Annexation of Texas to the United States, addressed
to Henry Clay, and arguing tnat the Texan revolt from Mexican
rule was largely the work of land-speculators, and of those who
resolved " to throw Texas open to slave-holders and slaves ";
that the results of annexation must be war with Mexico, embroil-
ing the United States with England and other European powers,
and at home the extension and perpetuation of slavery, not alone
in Texas but in other territories which the United States, once
started at conquest, would force into the Union. But he still
objected to political agitation by the Abolitionists, preferring
" unremitting appeals to the reason and conscience," and, even
after the prominent part he took in the meeting in Faneuil Hall,
called to protest against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, he
wrote to The Liberator, counselling the Abolitionists to " disavow
this resort to force by Mr Lovejoy." Channing's pamphlet
Emancipation (1840) dealt with the success of emancipation
in the West Indies, as related in Joseph John. Gurney's Familiar
Letters to Henry Clay of Kentucky, u escribing a Winter in the
West Indies (1840), and added his own advice " that we should
each of us bear our conscientious testimony against slavery,"
and that the Free States " abstain as rigidly from the use of
political power against Slavery in the States where it is estab-
lished, as from exercising it against Slavery in foreign com-
munities," and should free themselves " from any obligation
to use the powers of the national or state governments in any
manner whatever for the support of slavery." In 1842 he pub-
lished The Duty of the Free States, or Remarks Suggested by the
Case of the Creole, a careful analysis of the letter of complaint from
the American to the British government, and a defence of the
position taken by the British government. On the 1st of August
1842 he delivered at Lenox, Massachusetts, an address celebrat-
ing the anniversary of emancipation in the British West Indies.
Two months later, on the 2nd of October 1842, he died at
Bennington, Vermont.
Physically Channing was short and slight; his eyes were un-
naturally large; his voice wonderfully clear, and like his face,
filled with devotional spirit. He was not a great pastor, and
lacked social tact, so that there were not many people who
became his near friends; but by the few who knew him well,
he was almost worshipped. As a preacher Channing was often
criticised for his failure to deal with the practical everyday
duties of life. But his sermons are remarkable for their rare
simplicity and gracefulness of style as well as for the thought
CHANSONS DE GESTE
845
that they express. The first open defence of Unitarians was
not based on doctrinal differences but on the peculiar nature
of the attack on them made in June 181 5 by the conservatives
in the columns of The Panoplist, where it was stated that Uni-
tarians were " operating only in secret, . . . guilty of hypocritical
concealment of their sentiments." His chief objection to the
doctrine of the Trinity (as stated in his sermon at the ordination
of the Rev. Jared Sparks) was that it was no longer used philo-
sophically, as showing God's relation to the triple nature of
man, but that it had lapsed into mere Tritheism. To the name
" Unitarian " Charming objected strongly, thinking " unity "
as abstract a word as " trinity " and as little expressing the
close fatherly relation of God to man. It is to be noted that
he strongly objected to the growth of " Unitarian orthodoxy "
and its increasing narrowness. His views as to the divinity
of Jesus were based on phrases in the Gospels which to his mind
established Christ's admission of inferiority to God the Father, —
for example, " Knoweth no man, neither the Son, but the
Father "; at the same time he regarded Christ as " the sinless
and spotless son of God, distinguished from all men by that
infinite peculiarity — freedom from moral evil." He believed
in the pre-existence of Jesus, and that it differed from the pre-
existence of other souls in that Jesus was actually conscious
of such pre-existence, and he reckoned him one with God the
Father in the sense of spiritual union (and not metaphysical
mystery) in the same way that Jesus bade his disciples "Be ye
one, even as I am one." Bunsen called him " the prophet in the
United States for the presence of God in mankind." Channing
believed in historic Christianity and in the story of the resurrec-
tion, " a fact which comes to me with a certainty I find in few
ancient histories." He also believed in the miracles of the
Gospels, but held that the Scriptures were not inspired, but
merely records of inspiration, and so saw the possibility of error
in the construction put upon miracles by the ignorant disciples.
But in only a few instances did he refuse full credence of the
plain gospel narrative of miracles. He held, however, that the
miracles were facts and not " evidences " of Christianity, and
he considered that belief in them followed and did not lead up to
belief in Christianity. His character was absolutely averse from
controversy of any sort, and in controversies into which he was
forced he was free from any theological odium and continually
displayed the greatest breadth and catholicity of view. The
differences in New England churches he considered were
largely verbal, and he said that " would Trinitarians tell us what
they mean, their system would generally be found little else
than a mystical form of the Unitarian doctrine."
His opposition to Calvinism was so great that even in 181 2
he declared " existence a curse " if Calvinism be true. Possibly
his boldest and most elaborate defence of Unitarianism was
his sermon on Unitarianism most favourable to Piety, preached in
1826, criticizing as it did the doctrine of atonement by the
sacrifice of an " infinite substitute "; and the Election Sermon
of 1830 was his greatest plea for spiritual and intellectual
freedom.
Channing's reputation as an author was probably based
largely on his publication in The Christian Examiner of Remarks
on the Character and Writings of John Milton (1826), Remarks on
the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte (1827-1828), and
an Essay on the Character and Writings of FSnelon (1829). An
Essay on Self -Culture (1838) was an address introducing the
Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston September 1838. Chan-
ning was an intimate friend of Horace Mann, and his views on
the education of children are stated, by no less an authority
than Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, to have anticipated those of
Froebel. His Complete Works have appeared in various editions
(5 vols., Boston, 1841; 2 vols., London, 1865; 1 vol., New
York, 1875).
Among members of his family may be mentioned his two
nephews William Henry (1810-1884), son of his brother Francis
Dana, and William Ellery, commonly known as Ellery (1818-
1901), son of his brother Walter, a Boston physician (1 786-1876).
The former, whose daughter married Sir Edwin Arnold, the
English poet, became a Unitarian pastor, for some time in
America, and also in England, where he died; he was deeply
interested in Christian Socialism, and was a constant writer,
translating Jouffroy's Ethics (1840), and assisting in editing the
Memoirs of Margaret Fuller (1852); and he wrote the biography
of his uncle (see O. B. Frothingham's Memoir, 1886). Ellery
Channing married Margaret Fuller's sister (1842), and besides
critical essays and poems published an intimate sketch of
Thoreau in 1873.
See the Memoir by William Henry Channing (3 vols., London,
i8d8; republished in one volume, New York, 1880); Elizabeth
Palmer Peabody, Reminiscences of the Rev, William Ellery Channing,
D.D. (Boston, 1880), intimate but inexact; John White Chadwick,
William Ellery Channing, Minister of Religion (Boston, 1903) ; and
William M. Salter, " Channing as a Social Reformer" (Unitarian
Review, March 1888). (R. We.)
CHANSONS DE GESTE, the name given to the epic chronicles
which take so prominent a place in the literature of France from
the nth to the 15th century. Gaston Paris defined a chanson
de geste as a song the subject of which is a series of historical
facts or gesta. These facts form the centre around which are
grouped sets of poems, called cycles, and hence the two terms
have in modern criticism become synonymous for the epic
family to which the hero of the particular group or cycle belongs.
The earliest chansons de geste were founded on the fusion of the
Teutonic spirit, under a Roman form, into the new Christian
and French civilization. It seems probable that as early as the
9th century epic poems began to be chanted by the itinerant
minstrels who are known as jongleurs. It is conjectured that
in a baseLatin fragment of the 10th century we possess a transla-
tion of aj>oem on the siege of Girona. Gaston Paris dates from
this lost epic the open expression of what he calls " the epic
fermentation" of France. But the earliest existing chanson
de geste is also by far the noblest and most famous, the Chanson
de Roland; the conjectural date of the composition of this poem
has been placed between the years 1066 and 1095. That the
author, as has been supposed, was one of the conquerors of
England, it is perhaps rash to assert, but undoubtedly the poem
was composed before the First Crusade, and the writer lived at
or near the sanctuary of Mont Saint-Michel. The Chanson de
Roland stands at the head of modern French literature, and its
solidity and grandeur give a dignity to the whole class of poetry
of which it is the earliest and by far the noblest example. But
it is in the crowd of looser and later poems, less fully character-
ized, less steeped in the individuality of their authors, that we
can best study the form of the typical chanson de geste. These
epics sprang from the soil of France; they were national and
historical; their anonymous writers composed them spon-
taneously, to a common model, with little regard to the artificial
niceties of style. The earlier examples, which succeed the
Roland, are unlike that great work in having no plan, no system
of composition. They are improvisations jwhich wander on at
their own pace, whither accident may carry them. This mass of
medieval literature is monotonous, primitive and superficial.
As L6on Gautier has said, in the rudimentary psychology of
the chansons de geste, man is either entirely good or entirely
bad. There are no fine shades, no observation of character.
The language in which these poems are composed is extremely
simple, without elaboration, without ornament. Everything
is sacrificed to the telling of a story by a narrator of little skill,
who helps himself along by means of a picturesque, but almost
childish fancy, and a primitive sentiment of rhythm. Two great
merits, however, all the best of these poems possess, force and
lucidity; and they celebrate, what they did much to create, that
unselfish elevation of temper which we call the spirit of chivalry.
Perhaps the most important cycle of chansons de geste was
that which was collected around the name of Charlemagne, and
was known as the Geste du roi. A group of this cycle dealt with
the history of the mother of the emperor, and with Charlemagne
himself down to the coming of Roland. To this group belong
Bertha Greatfoot and Aspremont, both of the 12th century, and
a variety of chansons dealing with the childhood of Charlemagne
and of Ogier the Dane. A second group deals with the struggle
846
CHANT— CHANTARELLE
of Charlemagne with his rebellious vassals. This is what has
been defined as the Feudal Epic; it includes Girars de Viane
and Ogier the Dane, both of the 13th century, or the end of the
1 2 th. A third group follows Charlemagne and his peers to the
East. It is in the principal of these poems, The Pilgrimage to
Jerusalem, that Alexandrine verse first makes its appearance in
French literature. This must belong to the beginning of the
1 2th century. A fourth group, antecedent to the Spanish war,
is of the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th;
i t includes A iquin, Fierabras and Otinel. The fifth class discusses
the war in Spain, and it is to this that Roland belongs; there are
different minor epics dealing with the events of Roncevaux, and
independent chansons of Gut de Bourgogne, Gaidon and Ansels
de Carthage. The Geste du Roi comprises a sixth and last group,
proceeding with events up to the death of Charlemagne; this
contains Huon de Bordeaux and a vast number of poems of
minor originality and importance.
Another cycle is that of Duke William Shortnose, La Geste de
GuUlaume. This includes the very early and interesting De-
parture of the Aimeri Children, A lis cans and Rainoart. It is
thought that this cycle, which used to be called the Geste de
Garin de Monglane, is less artificial than the others; it deals
with the heroes of the South who remained faithful in their
vassalage to the throne. The poems belonging to this cycle are
extremely numerous, and some of them are among the earliest
which survive. These chansons find their direct opposites in
those which form the great cycle of La Geste de Doon de Mayence,
sometimes called " la faulse geste," because it deals with the
feats of the traitors, of the rebellious family of Ganelon. This
is the geste of the Northmen, always hostile to the Carlovingian
dynasty. It comprises some of the most famous of the chansons,
in particular P arise la duchesse and The Four Sons of Aymon.
Several of its sections are the production of a known poet,
Raimbert of Paris. From this triple division of the main body
of the chansons de geste into La Geste du Roi, La Geste de GuU-
laume and La Geste de Doon, are excluded certain poems of minor
importance, — some provincial, such as Amis and A miles and
Garin, some dealing with the Crusades, such as Antioche 9 and
some which are not connected with any existing cycle, such as
Ciperis de Vignevaux; most of this last category, however, are
works of the decadence.
The analysis which is here sketched is founded on the latest
theories of Leon Gautier, who has given the labour of a lifetime
to the investigation of this subject. The wealth of material is
baffling to the ordinary student; of the medieval chansons de
geste many hundreds of thousands of lines have been preserved.
The habit of composing became in the 14th century, as has been
said, no longer an art but a monomania. Needless to add that
a very large proportion of the surviving poems have never yet
been published. All the best of the early chansons de geste are
written in ten-syllable verse, divided into stanzas or laisses of
different length, united by a single assonance. Rhyme came
in with the 13th century, and had the effect in languid bards of
weakening the narrative; the sing-song of it led at last to the
abandonment of verse in favour of plain historical prose. The
general character of the chansons de geste, especially of those
of the 1 2th century, is hard, coarse, inflexible, like the march
of rough men stiffened by coats of mail. There is no art and
little grace, but a magnificent display of force. These poems
enshrine the self-sufficiency of a young and powerful people;
they are full of Gallic pride, they breathe the spirit of an in-
domitable warlike energy. All their figures belong to the same
social order of things, and all illustrate the same fighting
aristocracy. The moving principle is that of chivalry, and what
is presented is, invariably, the spectacle of the processional life
of a medieval soldier. The age described is a disturbed one;
the feudal anarchy of Europe is united, for a moment, in defend-
ing western civilization against the inroads of Asia, against " the
yellow peril." But it is a time of transition in Europe also, and
Charlemagne, the immortal but enfeebled emperor, whose beard
is whiter than lilies, represents an old order of things against
which the rude barons of the North are perpetually in successful
revolt. The loud cry of the dying Ronald, as E. Quinet said,
rings through the whole poetical literature of medieval France;
it is the voice of the individuality of the great vassal, who, in
the decay of the empire, stands alone with himself and with
his sword.
Authorities. — Leon Gautier, Les £popSes francaises (4 vols.,
1 878-1 894); Gaston Paris, La Literature frangaise au moyen Age
(1890); Paul Meyer, Recherches stir VkbopU frangaise (1867);
G. Paris, Histoire poStique de C ' ' * ^ l
Quatre FilsAimon, &c. (1879).
, Histoire poStique de Charlemagne (1865); A. Longnon, Les
CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. cantare, to
sing; an old form is " chaunt "), a song or melody, particularly
one sung according to the rules of church service-books. For
an account of the chant or cantus firmus of the Roman Church
see Plain-song. In the English church " chants " are the tunes
set to the unmetrical verses of the psalms and canticles. The
chant consisted of an " intonation " followed by a reciting note
of indefinite length; a " mediation " closed the first part of the
verse, leading to a second reciting note; a " termination " closed
the second part of the verse. In the English chant the " intona-
tion " disappeared. Chants are " single," if written for one
verse only, " double," if for two. " Quadruple " chants for four
verses have also been written.
CHANTABUN, or Chantabtjri, the principal town of the
Siamese province of the same name, on the E. side of the Gulf
of Siam, in 102 6' E., 12 38' N. Pop. about 5000. The town
lies about 12 m. from the sea on a river which is navigable for
boats and inside the bar of which there is good anchorage for
light-draft vessels. The trade is chiefly in rubies and sapphires
from the mines of the Krat and Pailin districts, and in pepper,
of which about 500 tons are exported annually. Cardamoms
and rosewood are also exported. In 1005 Chantabun was made
the headquarters of a high commissioner with jurisdiction ex-
tending over the coast districts from the Nam Wen on the East
to Cape Liant on the West, which were thus united to form a
provincial division (Monton). In 1893 Chantabun was occupied
by a French force of four hundred men, a step taken by France
as a guarantee for the execution by Siam of undertakings entered
into by the treaty of that year. The occupation, which was
merely military and did not affect the civil government, lasted
until January 1005, when, in accordance with the provisions of
the Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, the garrison of occupation
was withdrawn. Chantabun has been since the 17th century,
and still is, a stronghold of the Roman Catholic missionaries,
and the Christian element amongst the population is greater
here than anywhere else in Siam.
CHANTADA, a town of north-western Spain,, in the province
of Lugo, on the left bank of the Rio de Chantada, a small right-
hand tributary of the river Mifio, and on the main road from
Orerse, 18 m. S. by W., to Lugo, 28 m. N. by E. Pop. (1000)
1 5,003. Chantada is the chief town of the fertile region between
the Mifio and the heights of El Faro, which mark the western
border of the province. Despite the lack of railway communica-
tion, it has a thriving trade in grain, flax, hemp, and dairy
produce.
CHANTAGE (a Fr. word from chanter, to sing, slang for a
criminal making an avowal under examination), a demand for
money backed by the threat of scandalous revelations, the
French equivalent of " blackmail."
CHANTARELLE, an edible fungus, known botanically as
Cantharellus cibarius, found in woods in summer. It is golden
yellow, somewhat inversely conical in shape and about 2 in.
broad and high. The cap is flattened above with a central
depression and a thick lobed irregular margin. Running down
into the stem from the cap are a number of shallow thick gills.
The substance of the fungus is dry and opaque with a peculiar
smell suggesting ripe apricots or plums. The flesh is whitish
tinged with yellow. The chantarelle is sold in the markets on
the continent of Europe, where it forms a regular article of food,
but seems little known in Britain though often plentiful in the
New Forest and elsewhere. Before being cooked they should be
allowed to dry, and then thrown into boiling water. They may
CHANTAVOINE—CHANTREY
847
then be stewed in butter or oil, or cut up small and stewed with
meat. No fungus requires more careful preparation.
See M. C. Cooke, British Edible Fungi, (1891), pp. 104-105.
CHANTAVOINE, HENRI (1850- ), French man of letters,
was born at Montpellier on the 6th of August 1850, and was
educated at the £cole Normale Superieure. After teaching in
the provinces he moved, in 1876, to the Lycee Charlemagne in
Paris, and subsequently became professor of rhetoric at the
Lycee Henri IV. and tnaitre de conferences at the ficole Normale
at Sevres. He was associated with the NouveUe Revue from its
foundation in 1879, and he joined the Journal des dtbats in 1884.
His poems include Primes sinceres (1877), Satires contemporaines
(1881), Ad memoriam (1884), Ah fil des jours (1889).
CHANTILLY, a town of northern France, in the department of
Oise, 25 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to St Quentin.
Pop. (1906) 4632. It is finely situated to the north of the forest
of Chantilly and on the left bank of the river Nonette, and is one
of the favourite Parisian resorts. Its name was long associated
with the manufacture, which has now to a great extent decayed,
of lace and blonde; it is still more celebrated for its chateau and
its park (laid out originally by A. Le N6tre in the second half of
the 17th century), and as the scene of the great annual races of
the French Jockey Club. The chateau consists of the palace
built from 1876 to 1885 and of an older portion adjoining it
known as the chatelet. The old castle must have been in existence
in the 13th century, and in the reign of Charles VI. the lordship
belonged to Pierre d'Orgemont, chancellor of France. In 1484
it passed to the house of Montmorency, and in 1632 from
that family to the house of Conde*. Louis II., prince de Cond6,
surnamed the Great, was specially attached to the place, and did
a great deal to enhance its beauty and splendour. Here he
enjoyed the society of La Bruyere, Racine, Molidre, La Fontaine,
Boileau, and other great men of his time; and here his steward
Vatel killed himself in despair, because of a hitch in the prepara-
tions for the reception of Louis XIV. The stables close to the
racecourse were built from 17 19 to 1735 by Louis-Henri, duke
of Bourbon. Of the two splendid mansions existing at that period
known as the grand chateau and the chatelet, the former was
destroyed about the time of the Revolution, but the latter,
built for Anne de Montmorency by Jean Bullant, still remains
as one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in
France. The chateau d'Enghien, facing the entrance to the
grand chateau, was built in 1 7 70 as a guest-house. On the death
in 1830 of the duke of Bourbon, the last representative of the
house of Cond6, the estate passed into the hands of Henri, due
d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. In 1852 the house of
Orleans was declared incapable of possessing property in France,
and Chantilly was accordingly sold by auction. Purchased by
the English bankers, Coutts & Co., it passed back into the hands
of the due d'Aumale in 1872. By him a magnificent palace,
including a fine chapel in the Renaissance style, was erected on
the foundations of the ancient grand chateau and in the style
of the chatelet. It is quadrilateral in shape, consisting of four
unequal sides flanked by towers and built round a courtyard.
The whole group of buildings as well as the pleasure-ground
behind them, known as the Parterre de la Voliere, is surrounded
by fosses supplied with water from the Nonette. On the terrace
in front of the chateau there is a bronze statue of the constable
Anne de Montmorency. The due d'Aumale installed in the
chatelet a valuable library, specially rich in incunabula and 16th
century editions of classic authors, and a collection of the paint-
ings of the great masters, besides many other objects of art.
By a public act in 1886 he gave the park and chateau with its
superb collections to the Institute of France in trust for the
nation, reserving to himself only a life interest; and when he
died in 1897 the Institute acquired full possession.
CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT (1782-1841), English
sculptor, was born on the 7 th of April 1782 at Norton near
Sheffield, where his father, a carpenter, cultivated a small farm.
His father died when he was eight years of age; and his mother
having married again, his profession was left to be chosen by his
friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the point of being
apprenticed to a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen some
wood-carving in a shop-window, he requested to be made a carver
instead, and was accordingly placed with a Mr Ramsey, wood-
carver in Sheffield. In this situation he became acquainted with
Raphael Smith, a distinguished draftsman in crayon, who gave
him lessons in painting; and Chantrey, eager to commence his
course as an artist, procured the cancelling of his indentures, and
went to try his fortune in Dublin and Edinburgh, and finally
(1802) in London. Here he first obtained employment as an
assistant wood-carver, but at the same time devoted himself
to portrait-painting, bust-sculpture, and modelling in clay. He
exhibited pictures at the Academy for some years from 1804,
but from 1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture.
The sculptor Nollekens showed particular zeal in recognizing
his merits. In 1807 he married his cousin, Miss Wale, who had
some property of her own. His first imaginative work in sculpture
was the model of the head of Satan, which was exhibited at the
Royal Academy in 1808. He afterwards executed for Greenwich
hospital four colossal busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe,
Vincent and Nelson; and so rapidly did his reputation spread
that the next bust which he executed, that of Home Tooke,
procured him commissions to the extent of £12,000. From this
period he was almost uninterruptedly engaged in professional
labour. In 18 19 he visited Italy, and became acquainted with
the most distinguished sculptors of Florence and Rome. He was
chosen an associate (1815) and afterwards a member (1818)
of the Royal Academy, received the degree of M.A. from
Cambridge, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and in 1835
was knighted. He died after an illness of only two hours'
duration on the 25th of November 1841, having for some years
suffered from disease of the heart, and was buried in a tomb
constructed by himself in the church of his native village.
The works of Chantrey are extremely numerous. The principal
are the statues of Washington in the State-house at Boston,
U.S.A.; of George III. in the Guildhall, London; of George IV.
at Brighton; of Pitt in Hanover Square, London; of James
Watt in Westminster Abbey and in Glasgow; of Roscoe and
Canning in Liverpool; of Dalton in Manchester; of Lord
President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh, &c. Of his eques-
trian statues the most famous are those of Sir Thomas Munro
in Calcutta, and the duke of Wellington in front of the London
Exchange. But the finest of Chantrey's works are his busts,
and his delineations of children. The figures of two children
asleep in each other's arms, which form a monumental design in
Lichfield cathedral, have always been lauded for beauty, sim-
plicity and grace. So is also the statue of the girlish Lady Louisa
Russell, represented as standing on tiptoe and fondling a dove
in her bosom. Both these works appear, in design, to have
owed something to Stothard; for Chantrey knew his own
scantiness of ideal invention or composition, and on system
sought aid from others for such attempts. In busts, his leading
excellence is facility — a ready unconstrained air of life, a prompt
vivacity of ordinary expression. Allan Cunningham and Weekes
were his chief assistants, and were indeed the active executants
of many works that pass under Chantrey's name. Chantrey
was a man of warm and genial temperament, and is said to have
borne a noticeable though commonplace resemblance to the
usual portraits of Shakespeare.
Chantrey Bequest. — By the will dated the 31st of December
1840, Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary
personal estate after the decease or on the second marriage of his
widow (less certain specified annuities and bequests) in trust for
the president and trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event
of the dissolution of the Royal Academy, to such society as might
take its place), the income to be devoted to the encouragement of
British fine art in painting and sculpture only, by " the purchase
of works of fine art of the highest merit . . . that can be obtained."
The funds might be allowed to accumulate for not more than five
years; works by British or foreign artists, dead or living, might be
acquired, so long as such works were entirely executed within the
shores of Great Britain, the artists having been in residence there
during such execution and completion. The prices to be paid
848
CHANT ROYAL
were to be " liberal/' and no sympathy for an artist or his family
was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which
were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No
commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished
before purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of
the works, in the confident expectation that as the intention of
the testator was to form and establish a " public collection of
British Fine Art in Painting and Sculpture," the government or
the country would provide a suitable gallery for their display;
and an annual sum of £300 and £50 was to be paid to the president
of the Royal Academy and the secretary respectively, for the
discharge of their duties in carrying out the provisions of the
will.
Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund
became available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures.
The capital sum available amounted to £105,000 in 3 % Consols,
which (since reduced to 2}%) produces an available annual
income varying from £2500 to £2100. Galleries in the Victoria
and Albert Museum at South Kensington were at first adopted
as the depository of the works acquired, until in 1898 the Royal
Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the govern-
ment, for the transference of the collection to the National
Gallery of British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry
Tate at Millbank. It was agreed that the " Tate Gallery " should
be its future home, and that " no power of selection or elimination
is claimed on behalf of the trustees and director of the National
Gallery " (Treasury Letter, 18054-98, 7th December 1898) in
respect of the pictures and sculptures which were then to be
handed over and which should, from time to time, be sent to
augment the collection. Inasmuch as it was felt that the pro-
vision that all works must be complete to be eligible for purchase
militated against the most advantageous disposition of the fund
in respect of sculpture, in the case of wax models or plaster casts
before being converted into marble or bronze, it was sought in
the action of Sir F. Leighton v. Hughes (tried by Mr Justice
North, judgment May 7th, 1888, and in the court of appeal,
before the master of the rolls, Lord Justice Cotton, and Lord
Justice Fry, judgment June 4th, 1889 — the master of the rolls
dissenting) to allow of sculptors being commissioned to complete
in bronze or marble a work executed in wax or plaster, such
" completion " being more or less a mechanical process. The
attempt, however, was abortive.
A growing discontent with the interpretation put by the
Royal Academy upon the terms of the will as shown in the works
acquired began to find expression more than usually forcible and
livery in the press during the year 1003, and a debate raised in the
House of Lords by the earl of Lytton led to the appointment of a
select committee of the House of Lords, which sat from June to
August 1904. The committee consisted of the earls of Carlisle,
Lytton, and Crewe, and Lords Windsor, Ribblesdale, Newton,
and Killanin, and the witnesses represented the Royal Academy
and representative art institutions and art critics. The report
(ordered to be printed on the 8th of August 1904) made certain
recommendations with a view to the prevention of certain former
errors of administration held to have been sustained, but dis-
missed other charges against the Academy. In reply thereto a
memorandum was issued by the Royal Academy (February
1905, ordered to be printed on the 7th of August 1905 — Paper
166) disagreeing with certain recommendations, but allowing
others, either intact or in a modified form.
Up to 1905 inclusive 203 works had been bought — all except
two from living painters — at a cost of nearly £68,000. Of these,
175 were in oil-colours, 12 in water-colours, and 16 sculptures
(10 in bronze and 6 marble).
See The Administration of the Chantrey Bequest, by D. S. MacColl
(i6mo, London, iqoi), a highly controversial publication by the
leading assailant of tne Royal Academy ; Chantrey and His Bequest,
by Arthur Fish, a complete illustrated record of the purchases, &c.
(London, 1904) ; The Royal Academy, its Uses and Abuses, by H. J.
Laidlay (London, 1808), controversial; Report from the Select Com-
mittee of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust; together with the
Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix
(Wyman& Sons, 1904), and Index (separate publication, 1904).
CHANT ROYAL, one of the fixed forms of verse invented by
the ingenuity of the poets of medieval France. It is composed
of five strophes, identical in arrangement, of eleven verses each,
and of an envoi of five verses. All the strophes are written on the
five rhymes exhibited in the first strophe, the entire poem,
therefore, consisting of sixty lines in the course of which five
rhymes are repeated. It has been conjectured that the chant
royal is an extended ballade, or rather a ballade conceived upon a
larger scale; but which form preceded the other appears to be
uncertain. On this point Henri de Croi, who wrote about these
forms of verse in his A rt et science de rhHorique (1493), throws no
light. He dwells, however, on the great dignity of what he calls
the " Champt Royal," and says that those who defy with success
the ardour of its rules deserve crowns and garlands for their
pains, fitienne Pasquier (1529-1615) points out the fact that the
Chant Royal, by its length and the rigidity of its structure, is
better fitted than the ballade for solemn and pompous themes.
In Old French, the most admired chants royal are those of Clement
Marot; his Chant royal chrestien, with its refrain
" Sant6 au corps, et Paradis a Time,"
was celebrated. Theodore de Banville defines the chant royal as
essentially belonging to ages of faith, when its subjects could be
either the exploits of a hero of royal race or the processional
splendours of religion. La Fontaine was the latest of the French
poets to attempt the chant royal, until it was resuscitated in
modern times.
This species of poem was unknown in English medieval litera-
ture and was only introduced into Great Britain in the last
quarter of the 19th century. The earliest chant royal in English
was that published by Edmund Gosse in 1877; it is here
given to exemplify the structure and rhyme-arrangement of the
form: —
The Praise of Dionysus
" Behold, above the mountains there is light,
A streak of gold, a line of gathering fire,
And the dim East hath suddenly grown bright
With pale aerial flame, that drives up higher
The lurid mists which all the night long were
Breasting the dark ravines and coverts bare;
Behold, behold 1 the granite gates unclose,
And down the vales a lyric people flows,
Who dance to music, and in dancing fling
Their frantic robes to every wind that blows,
And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.
Nearer they press, and nearer still in sight,
Still dancing blithely in a seemly choir;
Tossing on nigh the symbol of tneir rite,
The cone-tipp d thyrsus of a god's desire;
Nearer they come, tall damsels flushed and fair.
With ivy circling their abundant hair,
Onward, with even pace, in stately rows,
With eye that flashesj and with cheek that glows,
And all the while their tribute-songs they bring,
And newer glories of the past disclose
And deathless praises to the Vine-Gwl sing.
The pure luxuriance of their limbs is white,
And flashes clearer as they draw the nigher,
Bathed in an air of infinite delight,
Smooth without wound of thorn, or fleck of mire,
Borne up by song as by a trumpet's blare,
Leading the van to conquest, on they fare,
Fearless and bold, whoever comes or goes,
These shining cohorts of Bacchantes close,
Shouting and shouting till the mountains ring,
And forests grim forget their ancient woes,
And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.
And youths there are for whom full many a night
Brought dreams of bliss, vague dreams that haunt and tire,
Who rose in their own ecstasy bedight,
And wandered forth through many a scourging briar,
And waited shivering in the icy air,
And wrapped the leopard-skin about them there,
Knowing tor all the bitter air that froze,
The time must come, that every poet knows,
When he shall rise and feel himself a king,
And follow, follow where the ivy grows,
And deathless praises to the VineJGod sing.
CHANTRY— CHAPBOOK
849
But oh! within the heart of this great flight,
Whose ivory arms hold up the golden lyre?
What form is this of more than mortal height?
What matchless beauty, what inspired ire?
The brindled panthers know the prize they bear,
And harmonize their steps with tender care;
Bent to the morning, like a living rose,
The immortal splendour of his face he shows;
And, where he glances, leaf and flower and wing
Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose,
And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing.
Envoi.
Prince of the flute and ivy, all thy foes
Record the bounty that thy grace oestows,
But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling,
And with no frigid lips our songs compose,
And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing. 11
In the middle ages the chant royal was largely used for the
praise of the Virgin Mary. Eustache Deschamps (1340-1410)
distinguishes these Marian chants royaux, which were called
" serventois," by the absence of an envoi. These poems are first
mentioned by Rutebeuf, a trouvere of the 13th century. The
chant royal is practically unknown outside French and English
literature. (E. G.)
CHANTRY (Fr. chanter ie, from chanter, to sing; Med. Lat. can-
tuaria), a small chapel built out from a church, endowed in pre-
Reformation times for the express purpose of maintaining priests
for the chanting of masses for the soul of the founder or of some one
named by him. It generally contained the tomb of the founder,
and, as the officiates or mass-priest was often unconnected with
the parochial clergy, had an entrance from the outside. The
word passed through graduations of meaning. Its first sense was
singing or chanting. Then it meant the endowment funds, next
the priests, and then the church or chapel itself.
CHANUTE, a city of Neosho county, Kansas, U.S.A., 1 m.
from the Neosho river, and about 120 m. S.S.W. of Kansas city.
Pop. (1800) 2826; (1900) 4208, of whom 210 were foreign-born
and 171 were negroes; (1 910 census) 9272. Chanute is served
by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the Missouri, Kansas
& Texas railways, the former having large repair shops. The
city is in the Kansas-Oklahoma oil and gas field, and is
surrounded by a fine farming and dairying region, in which
special attention is given to the raising of small fruit; oil, gas,
cement rock and brick shale are found in the vicinity. Among
the city's manufactures are refined oil, Portland cement, vitrified
brick and tile, glass, asphalt, ice, cigars, drilling machinery, and
flour. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks,
a natural gas plant, and an electric lighting plant. Four towns
— New Chicago, Tioga, Chicago Junction and Alliance — were
started here about the same time (1870). In 1872 they were
consolidated, and the present name was adopted in honour of
Octave Chanute (b. 1832), the civil engineer and aeronautist
(see Flight and Flying), then the engineer of the Lawrence,
Leavenworth & Galveston railway (now part of the Atchison
system). Chanute was incorporated as a city of the third class
in 1873, and its charter was revised in 1888. Natural gas and
oil were found here in 1899, and Chanute became one of the
leaders of the Kansas independent refineries in their contest
with the Standard Oil Company.
CHANZY, ANTOINE EUO&NE ALFRED (1823-1883), French
general, was born at Nouart (Ardennes) on the 18th of March
1823. The son of a cavalry officer, he was educated at the naval
school at Brest, but enlisted in the artillery, and, subsequently
passing through St Cyr, was commissioned in the Zouaves in
1843. He saw a good deal of fighting in Algeria, and was pro-
moted lieutenant in 1848, and captain in 1851. He became
chef de bataiUon in 1856, and served in the Lombardy campaign
of 1859, being present at Magenta and Solferino. He took part
in the Syrian campaign of 1860-61 as a lieutenant-colonel; and
as colonel commanded the 48th regiment at Rome in 1864.
He returned to Algeria as general of brigade, assisted to quell
the Arab insurrection, and commanded the subdivisions of Bel
Abbes and Tlemcen in 1868. Although he had acquired a good
professional reputation, he was in bad odour at the war office
on account of suspected contributions to the press, and at the
outbreak of the Franco-German War he was curtly refused a
brigade command. After the revolution, however, the govern-
ment of national defence called him from Algeria, made him
a general of division, and gave him command of the XVI. corps
of the army of the Loire. (For the operations of the Orleans
campaign which followed, see Franco-German War.) The
Loire army won the greatest success of the French during the
whole war at Coulmiers, and followed this up with another
victorious action at Patay; in both engagements General
Chanzy's corps took the most brilliant part. After the second
battle of Orleans and the separation of the two wings of the
French army, Chanzy was appointed to command that in the
west, designated the second army of the Loire. His enemies,
the grand duke of Mecklenburg, Prince Frederick Charles, and
General von der Tann, all regarded Chanzy as their most for-
midable opponent. He displayed conspicuous moral courage
and constancy, not less than technical skill, in the fighting from
Beaugency to the Loire, in his retreat to Le Mans, and in
retiring to Laval behind the Mayenne. As Gambetta was
the soul, Chanzy was the strong right arm of French resistance
to the invader. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of
Honour, and was elected to the National Assembly. At the
outbreak of the Commune, Chanzy, then at Paris, fell into the
hands of the insurgents, by whom he was forced to give his
parole not to serve against them. It was said that he would
otherwise have been appointed instead of MacMahon to command
the army of Versailles. A ransom of £40,000 was also paid by
the government for him. In 1872 he became a member of the
committee of defence and commander of the VII. army corps,
and in 1873 was appointed governor of Algeria, where he re-
mained for six years. In 1875 he was elected a life senator, in
1878 received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and in
1879, without his consent, was nominated for the presidency of
the republic, receiving a third of the total votes. For two years
he was ambassador at St Petersburg, during which time he
received many tokens of respect, not only from the Russians,
but also from the German emperor, William I., and Prince
Bismarck. He died suddenly, while commanding the VI. army
corps (stationed nearest to the German frontier), at Chalons-sur-
Marne, on the 4th of January 1883, only a few days after Gam-
betta, and his remains received a state funeral. He was the
author of La Deuxieme ArmSe de la Loire (1872). Statues of
General Chanzy have been erected at Nouart and Le Mans.
CHAOS, in the Hesiodic theogony, the infinite empty space,
which existed before all things (Theog. 116, 123). It is not,
however, a mere abstraction, being filled with clouds and dark-
ness; from it proceed Erebus and Nyx (Night), whose children
are Aether (upper air) and Hemera (Day). In the Orphic
cosmogony the origin of all goes back to Chronos, the personi-
fication of time, who produces Aether and Chaos. In the Aristo-
phanic parody (Birds, 691) the winged Eros in conjunction with
gloomy Chaos brings forth the race of birds. The later Roman
conception (Ovid, Metam. i. 7) makes Chaos the original
undigested, amorphous mass, into which the architect of the
world introduces order and harmony, and from which individual
forms are created. In the created world (cosmos, order of the
universe) the word has various meanings: — the universe;
the space between heaven and earth; the under-world and its
ruler. Metaphorically it is used for the immeasurable darkness,
eternity, and the infinite generally. In modern usage " chaos "
denotes a state of disorder and confusion.
CHAPBOOK (from the O. Eng. chap, to buy and sell), the
comparatively modern name applied by booksellers and biblio-
philes to the little stitched tracts written for the common people
and formerly circulated in England, Scotland and the American
colonies by itinerant dealers or chapmen, consisting chiefly of
vulgarized versions of popular stories, such as Tom Thumb,
Jack the Giant Killer, Mother Shipton, and Reynard the Fox —
travels, biographies and religious treatises. Few of the older
chapbooks exist. Samuel Pepys collected some of the best and
had them bound into small quarto volumes, which he called
850
CHAPE— CHAPELAIN
Vulgaria; also four volumes of a smaller size, which he lettered
Penny Witticisms, Penny Merriments, Penny Compliments and
Penny Godlinesses. The early chapbooks were the direct
descendants of the black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde. It
was in France that the printing-press first began to supply
reading for the common people. At the end of the 15th century
there was a large popular literature of farces, tales in verse and
prose, satires, almanacs, &c, stitched together so as to contain
a few leaves, and circulated by itinerant booksellers, known as
colporteurs. Most early English chapbooks are adaptations or
translations of these French originals, and were introduced into
England early in the 16th century. The chapbooks of the 17 th
century present us with valuable illustrations of the manners
of the time; one of the best known is that containing the story
of Dick Whittington. Others wh?ch had a great vogue are Jack
the Giant Killer, Little Red Riding Hood, and Mother Shipton.
Those of the 18th century are far inferior in every way, both as
regards the literature and the printing; and unfortunately it
is these which form the bulk of what is now known to us in
collections as chapbooks. They have never exercised any great
influence in England nor received much attention, owing no
doubt to their poor literary character. In France, on the other
hand, their French equivalents have been the object of close and
systematic study, and VHistoke des livres populaires ou de la
littSraturedu colporlage by Charles Nisard (1854) goes deeply into
the subject. Amongst English books may be mentioned Notices
of Fugitive Tracts and Chapbooks, by J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps
(1849); Chapbooks of the 18th Century, by John Ash ton (1882),
and some reprints by the Villon Society in 1885. The word " chap-
book " has not been noticed earlier than 1824, when Dibdin, the
celebrated bibliographer, described a workas being " a chapbook,
printed in rather a neat black-letter."
GHAPE (from the Fr. chape, a hood, cope or sheath), a cover
or metal plate, such as the cap upon the needle in the compass,
also the transverse guard of a sword which protects the hand.
From the original meaning comes the use of the word as a support
or catch to attach one thing to another, as the hook on a belt
to which the sword is fastened. The word is also used for the tip
of a fox's brush.
CHAPEL, a place of religious worship, 1 a name properly applied
to that of a Christian religious body, but sometimes to any small
temple of pagan worship (Lat. sacellum). The word is derived
through the O. Fr. chapele, modern chapeUe, from the Late Lat.
capelle or cappella, diminutive of cappa, a cape, particularly that
of a monk. This word was transferred to any sanctuary con-
taining relics, in the early history of the Frankish Church,
because the cloak of St Martin, cappa brevior Sancti Martini,
one of the most sacred relics of the Frankish kings, was carried
in a sanctuary or shrine wherever the king went, and oaths were
taken on it (see Ducange, Glossarium, s.v. CapeUa). Such a
sanctuary was served by a priest, who was hence called capellanus,
from which is derived the English " chaplain " (q.v.). The strict
application of the word to a sanctuary containing relics was
extended to embrace any place of worship other than a church,
and it was synonymous, therefore, with " oratory " (oratorium),
especially one attached to a palace or to a private dwelling-house.
The celebrated Sainte Chapelle in Paris, attached to what is now
the Palais de Justice, well illustrates the early and proper mean-
ing of the word. It was built (consecration, 1 248) by St Louis
of France to contain the relic of the Crown of Thorns, ransomed
by the king from the Venetians, who held it in pawn from the
Latin emperor of the East, John of Brienne, lately dead. The
chapel served as the sanctuary of the relic lodged in the
upper chapel, and the whole building was attached as the place
of worship to the king's palace. This, the primary meaning,
survives in the chapels usually placed in the aisles of cathedrals
and large churches. They were originally built either to contain
relics of a particular saint to whom they were dedicated, or
the tomb of a particular family.
1 The only other English sense is that of a printer's workshop, or
the body of compositors in it, who are presided over by a " father
of the chapel."
In the Church of England the word is applied to a private
place of worship, attached either to the palaces of the sovereign,
" chapels royal," or to the residence of a private person, to a
college, school, prison, workhouse, &c. Further, the word has
particular legal applications, though in each case the building
might be and often is styled a church. These are places of
worship supplementary to a parish church, and may be either
" chapels of ease," to ease or relieve the mother-church and serve
those parishioners who may live far away, " parochial chapels,"
the " churches " of ancient divisions of a very large and widely
scattered parish, or " district chapels," those of a district of a
parish divided under the various church building acts. A " free
chapel " is one founded by the king and by his authority, and
visited by him and not by the bishop. A "proprietary chapel "
is one that belongs to a private person. They are anomalies
to the English ecclesiastical law, have no parish rights, and can
be converted to other than religious purposes, but a clergyman
may be licensed to perform duty in such a place of worship. In
the early and middle part of the 19th century such proprietary
chapels were common, but they have practically ceased to exist.
" Chapel " was early and still is in England the general name of
places of worship other than those of the established Church,
but the application of " church " to all places of worship without
distinction of sect is becoming more and more common. The
word " chapel " was in this restricted sense first applied to places
of worship belonging to the Roman Church in England, and was
thus restricted to those attached to foreign embassies, or to those
of the consorts of Charles I. and II. and James II., who were
members of that church. The word is still frequently the general
term for Roman Catholic churches in Great Britain and always
so in Ireland. The use of " chapel " as a common term for all
Nonconformist places of worship was general through most of the
19th century, so that " church and chapel " was the usual phrase
to mark the distinction between members of the established
Church and those of Nonconformist bodies. Here the widened
use of " church " noticed above has been especially marked.
Most of the recent buildings for worship erected by Noncon-
formist bodies will be found to be styled Wesleyan, Congrega-
tional, &c, churches. It would appear that while the word
" chapel " was not infrequent in the early history of Noncon-
formity, " meeting-house " was the more usual term.
From the architectural point of view the addition of chapels
to a cathedral or large church assumes some historical importance
in consequence of the changes it involved in the plan. It was
the introduction of the apsidal chapels in the churches of France
which eventually led to the chevet or cluster of eastern chapels
in many of the great cathedrals, and also sometimes to the
extension of the transept so as to include additional apsidal
chapels on the east side. In France, and to a certain extent in
Italy, the multiplication of chapels led to their being placed on
the north and south side of the aisles, and in some cases, as at
Albi in France, to the suppression of the aisles and the instalment
of the chapels in their place. The chapels of the colleges at
Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes of large dimensions and
architecturally of great importance, that of Christ Church being
actually the cathedral of Oxford ; among others may be mentioned
the chapel of Merton College, and the new chapel of Exeter
College, both in Oxford, and the chapel of King's College,
Cambridge, which is roofed over with perhaps the finest fan-vault
in England. (See Vault, Plate II., fig. 19.)
CHAPELAIN, JEAN (1 595-1674), French poet and man of
letters, the son of a notary, was born in Paris on the 4th of
December 1595. His father destined him for his own profession;
but his mother, who had known Ronsard, had determined
otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to qualify himself
for literature, learning, under Nicolas Bourbon, Greek and Latin,
and teaching himself Italian and Spanish. Having finished his
studies, he was engaged for a while in teaching Spanish to a
young nobleman. He was then appointed tutor to the two sons
of a M. de la Trousse, grand provost of France. Attached for
the next seventeen years to the family of this gentleman, the
administration of whose fortune was wholly in his hands, he
CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH— CHAPLAIN
851
seems to have published nothing during this period, yet to have
acquired a great reputation as a probability. His first work
given to the public was a preface for the Adone of Marini, who
printed and published that notorious poem at Paris. This was
followed by an excellent translation of Mateo Aleman's novel,
Guzman de Alfarache, and by four extremely indifferent odes,
one of them addressed to Richelieu. The credit of introducing
the law of the dramatic unities into French literature has been
claimed for many writers, and especially for the Abb6 d'Aubignac,
whose Pratique du thidtre appeared in 1657. The theory had
of course been enunciated in the Art poitique of J. C. Scaliger
in 1 56 1, and subsequently by other writers, but there is no doubt
that it was the action of Chapelain that transferred it from the
region of theory to that of actual practice. In a conversation
with Richelieu in about 1632, reported by the abb6 d'Olivet,
Chapelain maintained that it was indispensable to maintain the
unities of time, place and action, and it is explicitly stated that
the doctrine was new to the cardinal and to the poets who were
in his pay. French classical drama thus owes the riveting of its
fetters to Chapelain. Rewarded with a pension of a thousand
crowns, and from the first an active member of the newly-
constituted Academy, Chapelain drew up the plan of the grammar
and dictionary the compilation of which was to be a principal
function of the young institution, and at Richelieu's command
drew up the Sentiments de V Academic sur le Cid. In 1656 he
published, in a magnificent form, the first twelve cantos of his
celebrated epic La Pucelle, 1 on which he had been engaged during
twenty years. Six editions of the poem were disposed of in
eighteen months. But this was the end of the poetic reputation
of Chapelain, " the legist of Parnassus. " Later the slashing
satire of Boileau (in this case fairly master of his subject) did
its work, and Chapelain (" Le plus grand poete Francois qu' ait
jamais SU et du plus solide jugement" as he is called in Colbert's
list) took his place among the failures of modern art.
Chapelain's reputation as a critic survived this catastrophe,
and in 1663 he was employed by Colbert to draw up an account
of contemporary men of letters, destined to guide the king in
his distribution of pensions. In this pamphlet, as in his letters,
he shows to far greater advantage than in his unfortunate epic.
His prose is incomparably better than his verse; his criticisms
are remarkable for their justice and generosity; his erudition
and kindliness of heart are everywhere apparent; the royal
attention is directed alike towards the author's firmest friends
and bitterest enemies. To him young Racine was indebted
not only for kindly and seasonable counsel, but also for that
pension of six hundred livres which was so useful to him. The
catholicity of his taste is shown by his De la lecture des vieux
lomans (pr. 1870), in which he praises the chansons de geste,
forgotten by his generation. Chapelain refused many honours,
and his disinterestedness in this and other cases makes it necessary
to receive with caution the stories of Manage and Tallemant des
Reaux, who assert that he was in his old age a miser, and that
a considerable fortune was found hoarded in his apartments
when he died on the 22nd of February 1674.
There is a very favourable estimate of Chapelain's merits as a
critic in George Saintsbury's History of Criticism, ii. 256-261.
An analysis of La Pucelle is given in pp. 23-79 of Robert Southey's
Joan of Arc. See also Les Lettres de Jean Chapelain (ed. P. Tanuzey
de Larroque, 1880- 1882); Lettres inidites . . . a P. D. Huet (1658-
1673, ed. by L. G. Pellissier, 1894) ; J u lien Duchesne, Les Poemes
Spiques du X VII' Steele (1870) ; the abb6 A. Fabre, Les Ennemis de
Chapelain (1888), Chapelain et nos deux premieres Academies (1890) ;
and A. Muehlan, Jean Chapelain (1893).
CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH, a market town in the High Peak
parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 20 m. S.E. of
Manchester, on the London & North-Western and Midland
railways. Pop. (1001) 4626. It lies in an upland valley of the
Peak district, the hills of which rise above 1200 ft. in its im-
mediate vicinity. There are paper-works and ironworks, and
1 The last twelve cantos of La Pucelle were edited (1882) from the
MS. with corrections and a preface in the author's autograph, in the
BibliotKeque Nationale, by H. Herluison. Another edition, by E. de
Molenes (2 vols.), was published in 1892.
brewing is carried on. The foundation of the church of St
Thomas of Canterbury is attributed to the foresters of the royal
forest or frith of the Peak early in the 13th century; and from
this the town took name. After the defeat of the Scottish forces
at Preston by Cromwell in 1648, it is said that 1500 prisoners
were confined in the church at Chapel-en-le-Frith.
CHAPEL HILL, a town of Orange county, North Carolina,
U.S.A., about 28 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 1017; (1900)
1099. It is served by a branch of the Southern railway, connect-
ing at University, 10 m. distant, with the Greensboro & Goldsboro
division. The town is best known as the seat of the University
of North Carolina (see North Carolina) , whose campus contains
48 acres. There are cotton and knitting mills and lumber interests
of some importance. Chapel Hill was settled late in the 18th
century, and was first incorporated in 185 1.
CHAPELLE ARDENTE (Fr. " burning chapel "), the chapel
or room in which the corpse of a sovereign or other exalted
personage lies in state pending the funeral service. The name is
in allusion to the many candles which are lighted round the
catafalque. This custom is first chronicled as occurring at the
obsequies of Dagobert I. (602-038).
CHAPERON, originally a cap or hood (Fr. chape) worn by
nobles and knights of the Garter in full dress, and after the 16th
century by middle-aged ladies. The modern use of the word is
of a married or elderly lady (cf . " duenna ") escorting or protect-
ing a young and unmarried girl in public places and in society.
CHAPLAIN, strictly one who conducts service in a chapel
(q.v.), i.e. a priest or minister without parochial charge who is
attached for special duties to a sovereign or his representatives
(ambassadors, judges, &c), to bishops, to the establishments of
nobles, &c, to institutions (e.g. parliament, congress, colleges,
schools, workhouses, cemeteries), or to the army and the navy.
In some cases a parish priest is also appointed to a chaplaincy,
but in so far as he is a chaplain he has no parochial duties. Thus
a bishop of the English Church appoints examining chaplains
who conduct the examination of candidates for holy orders;
such officials generally hold ordinary benefices also. The British
sovereign has 36 " Chaplains in Ordinary," who perform service
at St James's in rotation, as well as " Honorary Chaplains "
and " Chaplains of the Household." There are also royal chap-
lains in Scotland and Ireland. The Scottish chaplains in ordinary
are on the same basis as those in England, but the Irish chaplains
are attached to the household of the lord-lieutenant. The Indian
civil service appoints a number of clergymen of the Church of
England and the Church of Scotland. These clergymen are
known as Chaplains, and are subject to the same conditions as
other civil servants, being eligible for a retiring pension after 23
years of service. Chaplains are also appointed under the foreign
office to embassies, legations, consulates, &c.
Workhouse chaplains are appointed by overseers and guardians
on the direction of the Local Government Board, to which alone
such chaplains are responsible. Prison chaplains are appointed
by the home secretary.
In the British army there are two kinds of chaplains, permanent
and occasional. The former, described as Chaplains to the Forces,
hold commissions, serving throughout the empire except in
India: they include a Chaplain-General who ranks as a major-
general, and four classes of subordinate chaplains who rank
respectively as colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors and captains.
There are about 100 in all. Special chaplains (Acting Chaplains
for Temporary Service) may be appointed by a secretary of state
under the Army Chaplains Act of 1868 to perform religious
service for the army in particular districts. The permanent
chaplains may be Church of England, Roman Catholic, or
Presbyterian; Wesleyans (if they prefer not to accept com-
missions) may be appointed Acting Chaplains. The Church of
England chaplains report to the chaplain-general, while other
chaplains report to the War Office direct. In the navy, chaplains
are likewise appointed but do not hold official rank. They must
have a special ecclesiastical licence from the archbishop of
Canterbury. In 1 909 a Chaplains' Department of the Territorial
Force was formed; there is no denominational restriction.
8 5 2
CHAPLIN— CHAPMAN, G.
In the armies and navies of all Christian countries chaplains
are officially appointed, with the single exception of France,
where the office was abolished on the separation of Church and
State. In the army of the United States of America chaplains
are originally appointed by the president, and subsequently are
under the authority of the secretary of war, who receives recom-
mendations as regards transfer from department commanders.
By act of Congress, approved in April 1904, the establishment of
chaplains was fixed at 57 (15 with the rank of major), 12 for the
artillery corps and 1 each for the cavalry and infantry regiments.
There is no distinction of sect. In the U.S. navy the chaplains
are 24 in number, of whom 13 rank as lieutenants, 7 as com-
manders, 4 as captains.
In the armies of Roman Catholic countries there are elaborate
regulations. Where the chaplains are numerous a chaplain-
major is generally appointed, but in the absence of special sanction
from the pope such officer has no spiritual jurisdiction. Moreover,
chaplains must be approved by the ordinary of the locality. In
Austria there are Roman Catholic, Greek Church, Jewish and
Mahommedan chaplains. The Roman Catholic chaplains are
classed as parish priests, curates and assistants, and are subject
to an army Vicar Apostolic. In war, at an army headquarters
there are a " field-rabbi," a " military imam," an evangelical
minister, as well as the Roman Catholic hierarchy. By a decree
of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda (May 15, 1906), the
archbishop of Westminster is the ecclesiastical superior of all
commissioned Roman Catholic chaplains in the British army and
navy, and he is empowered to negotiate with the civil authorities
concerning appointments.
In Germany, owing to the fact that there are different religions
in the different states, there is no uniform system. In Prussia
there are two Feldprobste (who are directly under the war
minister), one Lutheran, one Roman Catholic. The latter is a
titular bishop, and has sole spiritual authority over soldiers.
There are also army corps and divisional chaplains of both
faiths. Bavaria and Saxony, both Roman Catholic states, have
no special spiritual hierarchy; in Bavaria, the archbishop of
Munich and Freysing is ex officio bishop of the army.
The origin of the office of capellanus or cappeUanus in the
medieval church is generally traced (see Du Cange, Gloss, med.
et infim. Latin.) to the appointment of persons to watch over
the sacred cloak (cappa or capella) of St Martin of Tours, which
was preserved as a relic by the French monarchs. In time of war
this cloak was carried with the army in the field, and was kept
in a tent which itself came to be known as a cappella or capella.
It is also suggested that the capella was simply the tent or canopy
which the French kings erected over the altar in the field for the
worship of the soldiers. However this may be, the name capel-
lanus was generally applied to those who were in charge of sacred
relics: such officials were also known as custodes, martyr arii,
cubiculariL Thus we hear of a custos palalinae capellae who was
in charge of the palace chapel relics, and guarded them in the
field; the chief of these custodes was sometimes called the archi-
capellanus. From the care of sacred relics preserved in royal
chapels, &c. (sacella or capellae) , the office of capellanus naturally
extended its scope until it covered practically that of the modern
court chaplain, and was officially recognized by the Church.
These clerics became the confessors in royal and noble houses,
and were generally chosen from among bishops and other high
dignitaries. The arch-chaplain not only received jurisdiction
within the royal household, but represented the authority of the
monarch in religious matters, and also acquired more general
powers. In France the arch-chaplain was grand-almoner, and
both in France and in the Holy Roman Empire was also high
chancellor of the realm. The office was abolished in France at the
Revolution in 1789, revived by Pius IX. in 1857, and again
abolished on the fall of the Second Empire.
The Roman Catholic Church also recognizes a class of beneficed
chaplains, supported out of " pious foundations " for the specific
duty of saying, or arranging for, certain masses, or taking part in
certain services. These chaplains are classified as follows: —
Ecclesiastical, if the foundation has been recognized officially
as a benefice; Lay, if this recognition has not been obtained;
Mercenary, if the person who has been entrusted with the duty
of performing or procuring the desired celebration is a layman
(such persons also are sometimes called " Lay Chaplains ") ;
Collative, if it is provided that a bishop shall collate or confer the
right to act upon the accepted candidate, who otherwise could
not be recognized as an ecclesiastical chaplain. There are
elaborate regulations governing the appointment and conduct
of these chaplains.
Other classes of chaplains are: — (1) Parochial or Auxiliary
Chaplains, appointed either by a parish priest (under a provision
authorized by the Council of Trent) or by a bishop to take over
certain specified duties which he is unable to perform; (2)
Chaplains of Convents, appointed by a bishop: these must be
men of mature age, should not be regulars unless secular priests
cannot be obtained, and are not generally to be appointed for
life; (3) Pontifical Chaplains, some of whom (known as Private
Chaplains) assist the pontiff in the celebration of Mass; others
attached directly to the pope are honorary private chaplains
who occasionally assist the private chaplains, private clerics of
the chapel, common chaplains and supernumerary chaplains.
The common chaplains were instituted by Alexander VII.,
and in 1907 were definitely allowed the title " Monsignore " by
Pius X.
CHAPLIN, HENRY (1841- ), English statesman, second
son of the Rev. Henry Chaplin, of Blankney, Lincolnshire, was
educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered
parliament in 1868 as Conservative member for Mid-Lincolnshire.
He represented this constituency (which under the Redistribution
Act of 1885 became the Sleaford division) till 1906, when he was
defeated, but in 1907 returned to the House of Commons as
member for Wimbledon at a by-election. In 1876 he married a
daughter of the 3rd duke of Sutherland, but lost his wife in
1 88 1. Outside the House of Commons he was a familiar figure
on the Turf, winning the Derby with Hermit in 1867; and in
politics from the first the " Squire of Blankney " took an active
interest in agricultural questions, as a popular and typical
representative of the English "country gentleman" class.
Having filled the office of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
in Lord Salisbury's short ministry of 1885-1886, he became
president of the new Board of Agriculture in 1889, with a seat
in the cabinet, and retained this post till 1892. In the Conserva-
tive cabinet of 1 895-1900 he was president of the Local Govern-
ment Board, and was responsible for the Agricultural Rates Act
of 1896; but he was not included in the ministry after its
reconstruction in 1900. Mr Chaplin had always been an advocate
of protectionism, being in this respect the most prominent
inheritor of the views of Lord George Bentinck; and when in
1903 the Tariff Reform movement began under Mr Chamber-
lain's leadership, he gave it his enthusiastic support, becoming a
member of the Tariff Commission and one of the most strenuous
advocates in the country of the new doctrines in opposition
to free trade.
CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1 559-1634), English poet and
dramatist, was born near Hitchin. The inscription on the
portrait which forms the frontispiece of The Whole Works of
Homer states that he was then (16 16) fifty-seven years of age.
Anthony a Wood (Athen. Oxon. ii. 575) says that about 1574 he
was sent to the university, " but whether first to this of Oxon, or
that of Cambridge, is to me unknown; sure I am that he
spent some time in Oxon, where he was observed to be most
excellent in the Latin and Greek tongues, but not in logic or
philosophy." Chapman's first extant play, The Blind Beggar
of Alexandria, was produced in 1596, and two years later Francis
Meres mentions him in Palladis Tamia among the " best for
tragedie " and the " best for comedie." Of his life between
leaving the university and settling in London there is no account.
It has been suggested, from the detailed knowledge displayed
in The Shadow of Night of an incident in Sir Francis Vere's
campaign, that he saw service in the Netherlands. There are
frequent entries with regard to Chapman in Henslowe's diary for
the years 1 598-1 599, but his dramatic activity slackened during
CHAPMAN, G.
853
the following years, when his attention was chiefly occupied by his
Homer. In 1604 he was imprisoned with John Marston for his
share in Eastward Ho, in which offence was given to the Scottish
party at court. Ben Jonson voluntarily joined the two, who
were soon released. Chapman seems to have enjoyed favour
at court, where he had a patron in Prince Henry, but in 1605
Jonson and he were for a short time in prison again for " a play."
Beaumont, the French ambassador in London, in a despatch of
the 5 th of April 1608, writes that he had obtained the prohibition
of a performance of Biron in which the queen of France was
represented as giving Mademoiselle de Verneuil a box on the
ears. He adds that three of the actors were imprisoned, but that
the chief culprit, the author, had escaped (Raumer, Briefe aus
Paris, 1 83 1, ii. 276). Among Chapman's patrons was Robert
Carr, earl of Somerset, to whom he remained faithful after his
disgrace. Chapman enjoyed the friendship and admiration of
his great contemporaries. John Webster in the preface to The
White Devil praised " his full and heightened style," and Ben
Jonson told Drummond of Hawthornden that Fletcher and Chap-
man " were loved of him." These friendly relations appear to
have been interrupted later, for there is extant in the Ashmole
MSS. an " Invective written by Mr George Chapman against
Mr Ben Jonson." Chapman died in the parish of St Giles
in the Fields, and was buried on the 12th of May 1634 in the
churchyard. A monument to his memory was erected by Inigo
Jones. (M. Br.)
Chapman, his first biographer is careful to let us know, " was
a person of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate,
qualities rarely meeting in a poet "; he had also certain other
merits at least as necessary to the exercise of that profession.
He had a singular force and solidity of thought, an admirable
ardour of ambitious devotion to the service of poetry, a deep and
burning sense at once of the duty implied and of the dignity
inherent in his office; a vigour, opulence, and loftiness of phrase,
remarkable even in that age of spiritual strength, wealth and
exaltation of thought and style; a robust eloquence, touched
not unfrequently with flashes of fancy, and kindled at times
into heat of imagination. The main fault of his style is one more
commonly found in the prose than in the verse of his time, —
a quaint and florid obscurity, rigid with elaborate rhetoric and
tortuous with labyrinthine illustration; not dark only to the
rapid reader through closeness and subtlety of thought, like
Donne, whose miscalled obscurity is so often " all glorious
within," but thick and slab as a witch's gruel with forced and
barbarous eccentricities of articulation. As his language in the
higher forms of comedy is always pure and clear, and sometimes
exquisite in the simplicity of its earnest and natural grace, the
stiffness and density of his more ambitious style may perhaps
be attributed to some pernicious theory or conceit of the dignity
proper to a moral and philosophic poet. Nevertheless, many of
the gnomic passages in his tragedies and allegoric poems are of
singular weight and beauty; the best of these, indeed, would not
discredit the fame of the very greatest poets for sublimity of
equal thought and expression: witness the lines chosen by
Shelley as the motto for a poem, and fit to have been chosen as
the motto for his life.
The romantic and sometimes barbaric grandeur of Chapman's
Homer remains attested by the praise of Keats, of Coleridge
and of Lamb; it is written at a pitch of strenuous and laborious
exaltation, which never flags or breaks down, but never flies
with the ease and smoothness of an eagle native to Homeric
air. From his occasional poems an expert and careful hand
might easily gather a noble anthology of excerpts, chiefly
gnomic or meditative, allegoric or descriptive. The most
notable examples of his tragic work are comprised in the series
of plays taken, and adapted sometimes with singular licence,
from the *-ecords of such part of French history as lies between
the reign of Francis I. and the reign of Henry IV., ranging in date
of subject from the trial and death of Admiral Chabot to the
treason and execution of Marshal Biron. The two plays bearing
as epigraph the name of that famous soldier and conspirator are
a storehouse of lofty thought and splendid verse, with scarcely
a flash or sparkle of dramatic action. The one play of Chapman's
whose popularity on the stage survived the Restoration is
Bussy d'Ambois (d'Amboise), — a tragedy not lacking in violence
of action or emotion, and abounding even more in sweet and sub-
lime interludes than in crabbed and bombastic passages. His
rarest jewels of thought and verse detachable from the context
lie embedded in the tragedy of Caesar and Pompey, whence the
finest of them were first extracted by the unerring and unequalled
critical genius of Charles Lamb. In most of his tragedies the
lofty and labouring spirit of Chapman may be said rather to
shine fitfully through parts than steadily to pervade the whole;
they show nobly altogether as they stand, but even better by
help of excerpts and selections. But the excellence of his best
comedies can only be appreciated by a student who reads them
fairly and fearlessly through, and, having made some small
deductions on the score of occasional pedantry and occasional
indecency, finds in All Fools, Monsieur d'Olive, The Gentleman
Usher, and The Widow's Tears a wealth and vigour of humorous
invention, a tender and earnest grace of romantic poetry, which
may atone alike for these passing blemishes and for the lack of
such clear-cut perfection of character and such dramatic pro-
gression of interest as we find only in the yet higher poets of the
English heroic age.
So much it may suffice to say of Chapman as an original
poet, one who held of no man and acknowledged no master, but
from the birth of Marlowe well-nigh to the death of Jonson held
on his own hard and haughty way of austere and sublime ambi-
tion, not without kindly and graceful inclination of his high
grey head to salute such younger and still nobler compeers as
Jonson and Fletcher. With Shakespeare we should never have
guessed that he had come at all in contact, had not the keen
intelligence of William Minto divined or rather discerned him
to be the rival poet referred to in Shakespeare's sonnets with a
grave note of passionate satire, hitherto as enigmatic as almost
all questions connected with those divine and dangerous poems.
This conjecture Professor Minto fortified by such apt collocation
and confrontation of passages that we may now reasonably accept
it as an ascertained and memorable fact.
The objections which a just and adequate judgment may
bring against Chapman's master-work, his translation of Homer,
may be summed up in three epithets: it is romantic, laborious,
Elizabethan. The qualities implied by these epithets are the
reverse of those which should distinguish a translator of Homer;
but setting this apart, and considering the poems as in the main
original works, the superstructure of a romantic poet on the
submerged foundations of Greek verse, no praise can be too
warm or high for the power, the freshness, the indefatigable
strength and inextinguishable fire which animate this exalted
work, and secure for all time that shall take cognizance of English
poetry an honoured place in its highest annals for the memory
of Chapman. (A. C. S.)
Chapman's works include : — S*iA wkt&s : The Shadow of Night:
Containing two Poeticall Hymnes . . . (1594), the second of which
deals with Sir Francis Vere's campaign in the Netherlands; Ovid's
Banquet of Sence. A Coronet for his Mistresse Philosoj>hie; and
His Amorous Zodiacke with a translation of a Latine coppie, written
by a Fryer, Anno Dom. 1400 (i595» 2nd ed. 1639), a collection of
poems frequently quoted from in England's Parnassus (1600) ; " De
Guiana, carmen epicum," a poem prefixed to Lawrence Keymis's
A Relation of the second voyage to Guiana (1596) ; Hero and Leander.
Begun by Christopher Mar he; and finished by George Chapman
(1598); The Blinde begger of Alexandria, most pleasantly discoursing
his variable humours . . . (acted 1596, printed 1598), a popular
comedy; A Pleasant Comedy entiiuXed An Hunter ous dayes tdyrth
(identified by Mr Fleay with the " Comodey of Umero ' noted by
Henslowe on the nth of May 1597; printed 1599); Al Fooles, A
Comedy (paid for by Henslowe on the 2nd of July 1590, its original
name being " The World runs on wheels " ; printed 1605) ; The Gentle-
man Usher (c. 1601, pr. 1606), a comedy; Monsieur d'Olive (1604,
pr. 1606), one of his most amusing and successful comedies; East-
ward Hoe (1605), written in conjunction with Ben Jonson and
John Marston, an exc ellent comedy of city life; Bussy d'Ambois, 1 A
1 Chapman's source in this piece remains undetermined. It cannot
be the Historia sui temporis of Jacques de Thorn, for the 4th volume
of his work, which relates the story, was not published until 1609
(see Koeppel, p. 14).
8 54
CHAPMAN— CHAPTAL
Tragedie (1604, pr. 1607, 1608, 1616, 1641, &c.). the scene of which
is laid in the court of Henry III. ; The Revenge of Bussy aVAmbois.
A Tragedie (pr. 1613, but probably written much earlier); The
Conspiracie, And Tragedie of Charles Duke of Byron, Marshall of
France... in two Mays (1607 and 1608; pr. 1608 and 1625);
May-Day, A witty Comedie (pr. 161 1; but probably acted as early
as 1601); The widdowes Teares. A Comedie (pr. 161 2; produced
perhaps as early as 1605) ; Caesar and Pompey: A Roman Tragedy,
declaring their warres. Out of whose events is evicted this Proposition.
Only a rust man is a freeman (pr. 163 1), written, says Chapman in
the dedication, " long since," but never staged.
The Tragedy of Alphonsus Emperour of Germany (see the edition
by Dr Karl Elye; Leipzig, 1867) and Revenge for Honour (1654) l
both bear Chapman's name on the title-page, Dut his authorship has
been disputed. In The Ball (lie. 1632; pr. 1639), a comedy, and
The Tragedie of Chabot Admirall of France (lie. 1635; pr. 1639) he
collaborated with James Shirley. The memorable Masque of the two
Honourable Houses or Inns of Court; the Middle Temple and Lyn-
colris Inne, was performed at court in 1613 in honour ofthe marriage
of the Princess Elizabeth.
The Whole Works of Homer: Prince of Poets, In his Iliads and
Odysseys . . . appeared in 1616, and about 1624 he added The Crowne
of all Homers works Batrachomyomachia or the BattaUe of Frogs and
Misc. His Hymns and Epigrams. But the whole works had been
already published by instalments. Seaven Bookes of the Iliad es of
Homer had appeared in 1598, Achilles Shield in the same year,
books i.-xii. about 1609; in 161 1 The Iliads of Homer, Prince of
Poets . . . ; and in 1614 Twenty-four Bookes of Homer's Odisses
were entered at Stationers' Hall. In 1609 he addressed to Prince
Henry Enthymiae Raptus; or the Teares of Peace, and on the death
of his patron he contributed An Epicede, or Funerall Song (1612).
A paraphrase of Petrarchs Seven PenitenttaU Psalms (161 2), a poem
in honour of the marriage of Robert Can*, earl of Somerset, and
Frances, the divorced countess of Essex, indiscreetly entitled
Andromeda Liber ata . . . (1614), a translation of The ueorgicks of
Hesiod (161 8), Pro Vere Autumni Lachrymae (1622), in honour of
Sir Horatio Were, A justification of a Strange Action of Nero . . . also
. . . the fifth Satyr e of Juvenail (1629), and Eugenia . . . (1614),
an elegy on Sir William Russell, complete the list of his separately
published works.
Chapman's Homer was edited in 1857 by the Rev. Richard Hooper ;
and a reprint of his dramatic works appeared in 1873. The standard
edition of Chapman is the Works, edited by R. H. Shepherd (1874-
1875), tne third volume of which contains an " Essay on the Poetical
and Dramatic works of George Chapman," by Mr Swinburne.jprinted
separately in 1875. The selection of his plays (1895) for the Mermaid
Series is edited by Mr W. L. Phelps. For the sources of the plays
see Emil Koeppel, " Anellen Studien zu den Dramen George Chap-
man's, Philip Massinger's und John Ford's " in Quellen und For-
schungen zur Sprach und Kulturgeschichte (vol. 82, Strassburg, 1897).
The suggestion of W. Minto (see Characteristics of the English Poets,
1885) that Chapman was the " rival poet " of Shakespeare's sonnets
is amplified in Mr A. Acheson's Shakespeare and the Rival Pott 1903).
Much satire in Chapman's introduction is there applied to Shake-
speare. For other criticisms of his translation of Homer see Matthew
Arnold, Lectures on translating Homer (1861), and Dr A. Lohff,
George Chapman's Ilias-Vbersetzung (Berlin, 1903). (M. Br.)
CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. dap, and Mid. Eng. cheap, to barter,
cf. " Cheapside " in London, and Ger. Kaufmann), one who buys
or sells, a trader or dealer, especially an itinerant pedlar. The
word " chap," now a slang term, meant originally a customer.
CHAPONE, HESTER (1727-1801), English essayist, daughter
of Thomas Mulso, a country gentleman, was born at Twywell,
Northamptonshire, on the 27th of October 1727. She was a
precocious child, and at the age of nine wrote a romance
entitled The Loves of Amoret and Melissa, Hecky Mulso,
as she was familiarly called, developed a beautiful voice, which
earned her the name of " the linnet." While on a visit to
Canterbury she made the acquaintance of the learned Mrs
Elizabeth Carter, and soon became one of the admirers of the
novelist Samuel Richardson. She was one of the little court
of women who gathered at North End, Fulham; and in Miss
Susannah Highmore's sketch of the novelist reading Sir Charles
Grandison to his friends Miss Mulso is the central figure. She
corresponded with Richardson on " filial obedience " in letters
as long as his own, signing herself his " ever obliged and affec-
tionate child." She admired, however, with discrimination,
and in the words of her biographer (Posthumous Works, 1807,
p. 9) " her letters show with what dignity, tempered with proper
humility, she could maintain her own well-grounded opinion."
In 1760 Miss Mulso, with her father's reluctant consent, married
1 This play appears to have been issued in 1653 with the title
The Parracide, or Revenge for Honour as the work of fienry Glathorne.
the attorney, John Chapone, who had been befriended by
Richardson. Her husband died within a year of her marriage.
Mrs Chapone remained in London visiting various friends.
She had already made small contributions to various periodicals
when she published, in 1772, her best known work, Letters on
the Improvement of the Mind. This book brought her numerous
requests from distinguished persons to undertake the education
of their children. She died on the 25th of December 1801.
See The Posthumous Works of Mrs Chapone, containing her corre-
spondence with Mr Richardson; a series of letters to Mrs Elizabeth
Carter . . . together with an account of her life and character drawn
up by her own family (1807).
CHAPPE, CLAUDE (1763-1805), French engineer, was born
at Brulon (Sarthe) in 1763. He was the inventor of an optical
telegraph which was widely used in France until it was super-
seded by the electric telegraph. His device consisted of an
upright post, on the top of which was fastened a transverse bar,
while at the ends of the latter two smaller arms moved on pivots.
The position of these bars represented words or letters; and by
means of machines placed at intervals such that each was
distinctly visible from the next, messages could be conveyed
through 50 leagues in a quarter of an hour. The machine was
adopted by the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and in the follow-
ing year Chappe was appointed ingtnieur-tSl&graphe; but the
originality of his invention was so much questioned that he
was seized with melancholia and (it is said) committed suicide
at Paris in 1805.
Hi3 elder brother, Ignace Urbain Jean Chappe (1 760-1829),
took part in the invention of the telegraph, and with a younger
brother, Pierre Francois, from 1805 to 1823 was administrator
of the telegraphs, a post which was also held by two other
brothers, Rene and Abraham, from 1823 to 1830. Ignace was
the author of a Histoire de la UUgraphie (1824). An uncle, Jean
Chappe d'Auteroche (1 728-1769), was an astronomer who
observed two transits of Venus, one in Siberia in 1761, and the
other in 1769 in California, where he died.
CHAPPELL, WILLIAM (1800-1888), English writer on music,
a member of the London musical firm of Chappell & Co., was born
on the 20th of November 1809, eldest son of Samuel Chappell (d.
1834), who founded the business. William Chappell is particu-
larly noteworthy for his starting the Musical Antiquarian
Society in 1840, and his publication of the standard work Popular
Music of the Olden Time (1855-1859) — an expansion of a collec-
tion of " national English airs " made by him in 1838-1840.
The modern revival of interest in English folk-songs owes much
to this work, which has since been re-edited by Professor H. E.
Wooidridge (1893). W. Chappell died on the 20th of August
1 888. His brother, Thomas Patey Chappell (d. 1 902) , meanwhile
had largely extended the publishing business, and had started
(1859) the Monday and Saturday Popular Concerts at St James's
Hall, which were successfully managed by a younger brother,
S. Arthur Chappell, till they came to an end towards the close
of the century.
CHAPRA, or Chupra, a town of British India, the adminis-
trative headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left
bank of the river Gogra, just above its confluence with the
Ganges; with a railway station on the Bengal & North-Western
line towards Oudh. Pop. (1001) 45,901, showing a decrease of
21% in the decade. There are a government high school, a
German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by
a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in
indigo and saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as
well as by rail.
CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE, Comte de Chante-
loxjp (1756-183 2), French chemist and statesman, was born at
Nogaret, Lozdre, on the 4th of June 1756. The son of an
apothecary, he studied chemistry at Montpellier, obtaining his
doctor's diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In 1781
the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him
at the school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught the
doctrines of Lavoisier. The capital he acquired by the death
of a wealthy uncle he employed in the establishment of chemical
CHAPTER— CHAR-A-BANC
855
works for the manufacture of the mineral acids, alum, white-lead,
soda and other substances. His labours in the cause of applied
science were at length recognized by the French government,
which presented him with letters of nobility, and the cordon of
the order of Saint Michel. During the Revolution a publication
by Chaptal, entitled Dialogue entre un Montagnard et un Girondin ,
caused him to be arrested; but being speedily set at liberty
through the intermission of his friends, he undertook, in 1793,
the management of the saltpetre works at Grenelle. In the
following year he went to Montpellier, where he remained till
1797, when he returned to Paris. After the coup d'ttat of the 18th
of Brumaire (November 9, 1 799) he was made a councillor of state
by the First Consul, and succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as minister
of the interior, in which capacity he established a chemical
manufactory near Paris, a school of arts, and a society of indus-
tries; he also reorganized the hospitals, introduced the metrical
system of weights and measures, and otherwise greatly
encouraged the arts and sciences. A misunderstanding between
him and Napoleon (who conferred upon him the title of comte de
Chanteloup) occasioned Chaptal's retirement from office in 1804;
but before the end of that year he was again received into favour
by the emperor, who bestowed on him the grand cross of the
Legion of Honour, and made him treasurer to the conservative
senate. On Napoleon's return from Elba, Chaptal was made
director-general of commerce and manufactures and a minister
of state. He was obliged after the downfall of the emperor to
withdraw into* private life; and his name was removed from the
list of the peers of France until 1819. In 1816, however, he was
nominated a member of the Academy of Sciences by Louis XVIII.
Chaptal was especially a popularizer of science, attempting to
apply to industry and agriculture the discoveries of chemistry.
In this way he contributed largely to the development of modern
industry. He died at Paris on the 30th of July 1832.
His literary works exhibit both vigour and perspicuity of style;
he wrote, in addition to various articles, especially in the Annates
de ehimie, Elhnens de chintie (3 vols., 1790; new ed., 1 796-1 803);
TraitS du salpetre et des goudrons (1796); Tableau des principaux
sels terreux (1798); Essai sur le perfectionnement des arts chimtques
en France (1800); Art de faire, de gouverner, et de perfectionner Us
vins (1 vol., 1801; new ed., 18 19); Traite thSorique et pratique sur
la culture de la vigne, &c. (2 vols., 1801; new ed., 181 1); Essai sur
le blanchiment (1801) ; La Chintie appliquee aux arts (4 vols., 1806) ;
Art de la teinture du coton en rouge (1807); Art du teinturier et du
dSgraisseur (1800); De V Industrie francatse (2 vols., 18 19); Chimie
appliquSe d V agriculture (2 vols., 1823; new ed., 1829).
CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in
architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat.
capiteUum, diminutive of caput, head), a principal division or
section of a book, and so applied to acts of parliament, as forming
" chapters " or divisions of the legislation of a session of parlia-
ment. The name " chapter " is given to the permanent body
of the canons of a cathedral or collegiate church, presided over,
in the English Church, by the dean, and in the Roman communion
by the provost or the dean, and also to the body of the members
of a religious order. This may be a " conventual " chapter of
the monks of a particular monastery, " provincial " of the
members of the order in a province, or " general " of the whole
order. This ecclesiastical use of the word arose from the custom
of reading a chapter of Scripture, or a head (capitulum) of the
regula, to the assembled canons or monks. The transference
from the reading to the assembly itself, and to the members
constituting it, was easy, through such phrases as convenire
ad capitulum. The title " chapter " is similarly used of the
assembled body of knights of a military or other order. (See
also C anon ; Cathedral; Dean).
CHAPTER-HOUSE (Lat. capitolium, Ital. capitolo, Fr. chapitre,
Ger. Kapitelhaus), the chamber in which the chapter or heads
of the monastic bodies (see Abbey and Cathedral) assembled
to transact business. They are of various forms; some are
oblong apartments, as Canterbury, Exeter, Chester, Gloucester,
&c; some octagonal, as Salisbury, Westminster, Wells, Lincoln,
York, &c. That at Lincoln has ten sides, and that at Worcester
is circular; most are vaulted internally and polygonal externally,
and some, as Salisbury, Wells, Lincoln, Worcester, &c, depend
on a single slight vaulting shaft for the support of the massive
vaulting. They are often provided with a vestibule, as at West-
minster, Lincoln, Salisbury and are almost exclusively English.
CHAPU, formerly an important maritime town of China, in
the province of Cheh-kiang, 50 m. N.W. of Chen-hai, situated
in one of the richest and best cultivated districts in the country.
It is the port of Hang-chow, with which it has good canal com-
munication, and it was formerly the only Chinese port trading
with Japan. The town has a circuit of about 5 m. exclusive of
the suburbs that lie along the beach; and the Tatar quarter is
separated from the rest by a wall. It was captured and much
injured by the British force in 1842, but was abandoned im-
mediately after the engagement. The sea around it has now
silted up, though in the middle of the 19th century it was
accessible to the light-draught ships of the British fleet.
CHAR (Salvelinus) , a fish of the family Salmonidae, represented
in Europe, Asia and North America. The best known and most
widely distributed species, the one represented in British and
Irish lakes, is S. alpinus, a graceful and delicious fish, covered
with very minute scales and usually dark olive, bluish or purplish
black above, with or without round orange or red spots, pinkish
white or yellowish pink to scarlet or claret red below. When the
char go to sea, they assume a more silvery coloration, similarjx>
that of the salmon and sea trout; the red spots become very
indistinct and the lower parts are almost white. The very young
are also silvery on the sides and white below, and bear 11 to 15
bars, or parr-marks, on the side. This fish varies much according
to localities; and the difference in colour, together with a few
points of doubtful constancy, have given rise to the establishment
of a great number of untenable so-called species, as many as
seven having been ascribed to the British and Irish fauna, viz.
S. alpinus, nivalis, killinensis, willoughbyi, perisii, colii and grayi,
the last from Lough Melvin, Ireland, being the most distinct.
S. alpinus varies much in size according to the waters it inhabits,
remaining dwarfed in some English lakes, and growing to 2 ft.
or more in other localities. In other parts of Europe, also, various
local forms have been distinguished, such as the " omble
chevalier " of the lakes of Switzerland and Savoy (5. umbla), the
" Sibling " of the lakes of South Germany and Austria (S. sal-
velinus), the " kullmund " of Norway (S. carbanarius), &c,
while the North American 5. parkei, alipes, stagnalis, arcturus,
areolus, oquassa and marsUmi may also be regarded as varieties.
Taken in this wide sense, S. alpinus has a very extensive distribu-
tion. In central Europe, in the British islands and in the greater
part of Scandinavia it is confined to mountain lakes, but farther
to the north,in both the Old World and the New,it lives in the sea
and ascends rivers to spawn. In Lapland, Iceland, Greenland
and other parts of the arctic regions, it ranks among the com-
monest fishes. The extreme northern point at which char
have been obtained is 82 34' N. (Victoria lake and Floeberg
Beach, Arctic America). It reaches an altitude of 2600 ft. in the
Alps and 6000 ft. in the Carpathians.
The American brook char, S. fontinalis, is a close ally of S.
alpinus, differing from it in having fewer and shorter gill-rakers,
a rather stouter body, the back more or less barred or marbled
with dark olive or black, and the dorsal and caudal fins mottled
or barred with black. Many local varieties of colour have been
distinguished. Sea-run individuals are often nearly plain bright
silvery. It is a small species, growing to about 1 8 in. abundant in
all clear, cold streams of North America, east of the Mississippi,
northward to Labrador. The fish has been introduced into other
parts of the United States, and also into Europe.
Another member of the same section of Salmonidae is the Great
Lake char of North America, S. namaycush, one of the largest
salmonids, said to attain a weight of 100 lb. The body is very
elongate and covered with extremely small scales. The colour
varies from grey to black, with numerous round pale spots,
which may be tinged with reddish; the dorsal and caudal fins
reticulate with darker. This fish inhabits the Great Lakes
regions and neighbouring parts of North America.
CHAR-A-BANC (Fr. for " benched carriage "), a large form of
wagonette-like vehicle for passengers, but with benched seats
8 S 6
CHARACTER— CHARCOT
arranged in rows, looking forward, commonly used for large
parties, whether as public conveyances or for excursions.
CHARACTER (Gr. xap<**^P> from xapArra"' to scratch), a
distinctive mark (spelt " caracter " up to the 16th century, with
other variants) ; so applied to symbols of notation or letters of
the alphabet; more figuratively, the distinguishing traits of
anything, and particularly the moral and mental qualities of an
individual human being, the sum of those qualities which dis-
tinguish him as a personality. From the latter usage "a
character " becomes almost identical with " reputation "; and
in the sense of " giving a servant a character," the word involves
a written testimonial. For the law relating to servants' char-
acters see Master and Servant. A further development
is the use of " character " to mean an " odd or eccentric person ";
or of a " character actor," to mean an actor who plays a highly-
coloured strange part. The word is also used as the name of a
form of literature, consisting of short descriptions of types of
character. Well-known examples of such " characters " are
those of Theophrastus and La BruySre, and in English, of Joseph
Hall (i 574-1 656) and Sir Thomas Overbury.
CHARADE, a kind of riddle, probably invented in France
during the 18th century, in which a word of two or more syllables
is divined by guessing and combining into one word (the answer)
the different syllables, each of which is described, as an inde-
pendent word, by the giver of the charade. Charades may be
either in prose or verse. Of poetic charades those by W. Mack-
worth Praed are well known and excellent examples, while the
following specimens in prose may suffice as illustrations. " My
first, with the most rooted antipathy to a Frenchman, prides
himself, whenever they meet, upon sticking close to his jacket;
my second has many virtues, nor is its least that it gives its name
to my first; my whole may I never catch!" "My first is
company; my second shuns company; my third collects com-
pany; and my whole amuses company." The solutions are
Tar-tar and Co-nuvrdrum. The most popular form of this
amusement is the acted charade, in which the meaning of the
different syllables is acted out on the stage, the audience being
left to guess each syllable and thus, combining the meaning of
all the syllables, the whole word. A brilliant example of the
acted charade is described in Thackeray's Vanity Fair.
CHARCOAL, the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon
obtained by removing the volatile constituents of animal and
vegetable substances; wood gives origin to wood-charcoal;
sugar to sugar-charcoal; bone to bone-charcoal (which, however,
mainly consists of calcium phosphate) ; while coal gives " coke "
and " gas-carbon." The first part of the word charcoal is of
obscure origin. The independent use of " char," meaning to
scorch, to reduce to carbon, is comparatively recent, and must
have been taken from " charcoal," which is quite early. The
New English Dictionary gives as the earliest instance of " char "
a quotation dated 1679. Similarly the word " chark " or " chak,"
meaning the same as " char," is also late, and is probably due
to a wrong division of the word " charcoal," or, as it was often
spelled in the 16th and 17th centuries, " charkole " and " charke-
coal." No suggestions for an origin of " char " are satisfactory.
It may be a use of the word " chare," which appears in " char-
woman," the American " chore "; in all these words it means
" turn," a turn of work, a job, and " charcoal " would have to
mean " turned coal," i.e. wood changed or turned to coal, a
somewhat forced derivation, for which there is no authority.
Another suggestion is that it is connected with " chirk " or
" chark," an old word meaning " to make a grating noise."
Wood-charcoal. — In districts where there is an abundance of
wood, as in the forests of France, Austria and Sweden, the
operation of charcoal-burning is of the crudest description. The
method, which dates back to a very remote period, generally
consists in piling billets of wood on their ends so as to form a
conical pile, openings being left at the bottom to admit air, with
a central shaft to serve as a flue. The whole is covered with turf
of moistened soil. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue,
and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The success of
the operation — both as to the intrinsic value of the product and
its amount — depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under
average conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by
volume, or 25 parts by weight, of charcoal. The modern process
of carbonizing wood — either in small pieces or as sawdust — in
cast iron retorts is extensively practised where wood is scarce,
and also by reason of the recovery of valuable by-products
(wood spirit, pyroligneous acid, wood-tar), which the process
permits. The question of the temperature of the carbonization
is important; according to J. Percy, wood becomes brown at
22o°C., a deep brown-black after some time at 280 , and an easily
powdered mass at 310 . Charcoal made at 300 is brown, soft
and friable, and readily inflames at 380°; made at higher
temperatures it is hard and brittle, and does not fire until heated
to about 700 . One of the most important applications of wood-
charcoal is as a constituent of gunpowder (q.v.). It is also used
in metallurgical operations as a reducing agent, but its application
has been diminished by the introduction of coke, anthracite
smalls, &c. A limited quantity is made up into the form of
drawing crayons ; but the greatest amount is used as a fuel. * >,
The porosity of wood-charcoal explains why it floats on the
surface of water, although it is actually denser, its specific gravity
being about 1-5. The porosity also explains the property of
absorbing gases and vapours; at ordinary temperatures ammonia
and cyanogen are most readily taken up; and Sir James Dewar
has utilized this property for the preparation of high vacua at
low temperatures. This character is commercially applied in
the use cf wood-charcoal as a disinfectant. The fetid gases
produced by the putrefaction and waste of organic matter enter
into the pores of the charcoal, and there meet with the oxygen
previously absorbed from the atmosphere; oxidation ensues,
and the noxious effluvia are decomposed. Generally, however,
the action is a purely mechanical one, the gases being only
absorbed. Its pharmacological action depends on the same
property; it absorbs the gases of the stomach and intestines
(hence its use in cases of flatulence), and also liquids and solids.
Wood-charcoal has also the power of removing colouring matters
from solutions, but this property is possessed in a much higher
degree by animal-charcoal.
Animal-charcoal or bone black is the carbonaceous residue
obtained by the dry distillation of bones; it contains only about
10% of carbon, the remainder being calcium and magnesium
phosphates (80%) and other inorganic material originally present
in the bones. It is generally manufactured from the residues
obtained in the glue (q.v.) and gelatin (q.v.) industries. Its
decolorizing power was applied in 181 2 by Derosne to the
clarification of the syrups obtained in sugar-refining; but its
use in this direction has now greatly diminished, owing to the
introduction of more active and easily managed reagents. It is
still used to some extent in laboratory practice. The decoloriz-
ing power is not permanent, becoming lost after using for some
time; it may be revived, however, by washing and reheating.
Lampblack or soot is the familiar product of the incomplete
combustion of oils, pitch, resins, tallow, &c. It is generally
prepared by burning pitch residues (see Coal-tar) and condensing
the product. Thus obtained it is always oily, and, before using
as a pigment, it must be purified by ignition in closed crucibles
(see Carbon).
CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN (1825-1893), French physician,
was born in Paris on the 29th of November 1825. In 1853 he
graduated as M.D. of Paris University, and three years later was
appointed physician of the Central Hospital Bureau. In i860
he became professor of pathological anatomy in the medical
faculty of Paris, and in 1862 began that famous connexion with
the SalpStriere which lasted to the end of his life. He was elected
to the Academy of Medicine in 1873, an< * ten years afterwards
became a member of the Institute. His death occurred suddenly
on the 1 6th of August 1893 at Morvan, where he had gone for a
holiday. Charcot, who was a good linguist and well acquainted
with the literature of his own as well as of other countries, excelled
as a clinical observer aid a pathologist. His work at the
SalpStri&re exerted a great influence on the development of the
science of neurology, and his classical Leqqns sur les maladies du
CHARD— CHARENTE
857
systhme nerveux, the first series of which was published in
1873, represents an enormous advance in the knowledge and
discrimination of nervous diseases. He also devoted much
attention to the study of obscure morbid conditions like
hysteria, especially in relation to hypnotism (q.v.) ; indeed, it is
in connexion with his investigation into the phenomena and
results of the latter that his name is popularly known. In addition
to his labours on neurological and even physiological problems
he made many contributions to other branches of medicine, his
published works dealing, among other topics, with liver and
kidney diseases, gout and pulmonary phthisis. As a teacher
he was remarkably successful, and always commanded an
enthusiastic band of followers.
CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT (1847-1807), British
soldier, was born at Boxhill, near Plymouth, on the 21st of
December 1847, and in 1868 entered the Royal Engineers. In
1878 Lieutenant Chard was ordered to South Africa to take
part in the Zulu War, and was stationed at the small post of
Rorke's Drift to protect the bridges across the Buffalo river,
and some sick men and stores. Here, with Lieutenant Gonville
Bromhead (1856-1801) and eighty men of the 2nd 24th Foot,
he heard, on the 22nd of January 1879, of the disaster of Isandhl-
wana from some fugitives who had escaped the slaughter.
Believing that the victorious Zulus would attempt to cross into
Natal, they prepared, hastily, to hold the Drift until help
should come. They barricaded and loopholed the old church
and hospital, and improvised defences from wagons, mealie
sacks and bags of Indian corn. Early in the afternoon they were
attacked by more than 3000 Zulus, who, after hours of desperate
hand-to-hand fighting, carried the outer defences, an inner low
wall of biscuit boxes, and the hospital, room by room. The
garrison then retired to the stone kraal, and repulsed attack
after attack through the night. The next morning relieving
forces appeared, and the enemy retired. The spirited defence
of Rorke's Drift saved Natal from a Zulu invasion, and Chard's
and Bromhead's gallantry was rewarded with the V.C. and
immediate promotion to the rank of captain and brevet-major.
On Chard's return to England he became a popular hero. From
1 893-1 896 he commanded the Royal Engineers at Singapore,
and was made a colonel in 1897. He died the same year at
Hatch-Beauchamp, near Taunton, on the 1st of November.
CHARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Southern
parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 142J m. W.
by S. of London by the London & South Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 4437. It stands on high ground within 1 m. of the
Devonshire border. Its cruciform parish church of St Mary
the Virgin is Perpendicular of the 15th century. A fine east
window is preserved. The manufactures include linen, lace,
woollens, brassware and ironware. Chard is governed by a
mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 444 acres.
Chard (Cerdre, Cherdre, Cherde) was commercial in origin,
being a trade centre near the Roman road to the west. There
are two Roman villas in the parish. There was a British camp
at Neroche in the neighbourhood. The bishop of Bath held
Chard in 1086, and his successor granted in 1234 the first charter
which made Chard a free borough, each burgage paying a rent
of 1 2d. Trade in hides was forbidden to non-burgesses. This
charter was confirmed in 1253, 1280 and 1285. Chard is said
to have been incorporated by Elizabeth, as the corporation seal
dates from 1570, but no Elizabethan charter can be found.
It was incorporated by grant of Charles I. in 1642, and Charles
II. gave a charter in 1683. Chard was a mesne borough, the
first overlord being Bishop Joceline, whose successors held it
(with a brief interval from 1545 to 1552) until 1801, when it was
sold to Earl Poulett. Parliamentary representation began in
1312, and was lost in 1328. A market on Monday and fair on the
25th of July were granted in 1253, and confirmed in 1642 and
1683, when two more fair days were added (November 2 and
May 3), the market being changed to Tuesday. The market day
is now Monday, fairs being held on the first Wednesday in May,
August and November, for corn and cattle only, their medieval
importance as centres of the cloth trade having departed.
CHARD IN, JEAN SIMEON (1609-17 7 9), French genre painter,
was born in Paris, and studied under Pierre Jacques Cazes
(1 676-1 754), the historical painter, and Noel Nicolas Coypei.
He became famous for his stiil-life pictures and domestic
interiors, which are well represented at the Louvre, and for
figure-painting, as in his Le BtotfdiciU (1740).
CHARD IN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713), French traveller, was
born at Paris in 1643. His father, a wealthy jeweller, gave him
an excellent education, and trained him in his own art; but
instead of settling down in the ordinary routine of the craft,
he set out in company with a Lyons merchant named Raisin
in 1665 for Persia and India, partly on business and partly to
gratify his own inclination. After a highly successful journey,
during which he had received the patronage of Shah Abbas II.
of Persia, he returned to France in 1670, and there published
in the following year Ricit du Couronnement du roi de Perse
Solitnan III. Finding, however, that his Protestant profession
cut him off from all hope of honours or advancement in his
native country, he set out again for Persia in August 167 1.
This second journey was much more adventurous than the first,
as instead of going directly to his destination, he passed by
Smyrna, Constantinople, the Crimea, Caucasia, Mingrelia and
Georgia, and did not reach Ispahan till June 1673. After four
years spent in researches throughout Persia, he again visited
India, and returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope in
1677. The persecution of Protestants in France led him, in
1 681, to settle in London, where he was appointed jeweller to
the court, and received from Charles II. the honour of knighthood.
In 1683 he was sent to Holland as representative of the English
East India Company; and in 1686 he published the first part
of his great narrative— The Travels of Sir John Chardin into
Persia and the East Indies, &c. (London). Sir John died in
London in 17 13, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where
his monument bears the inscription Nomen sibi fecit eundo.
It was not till 171 1 that the complete account of Chardin's travels
appeared, under the title of Journal du voyage du chevalier Chardin,
at Amsterdam. The Persian portion is to be found in vol. ii. of
Harris's Collection, and extracts are reprinted by Pinkerton in vol. ix.
The best complete reprint is by Langles (Paris, 181 1). Sir John
Chardin's narrative has received the highest pratee from the most
competent authorities for its fulness, comprehensiveness and fidelity ;
and it furnished Montesquieu, Rousseau, Gibbon and Helvetius
with most important material.
CHARENTE, an inland department of south-western France,
comprehending the ancient province of Angoumois, and incon-
siderable portions of Saintonge, Poitou, Marche, Limousin and
P6rigord. It is bounded N. by the departments of Deux-Sevres
and Vienne, E. by those of Vienne and Dordogne, S. by Dordogne
and W. by Charente-Inf6rieure. Area 2305 sq. m. Pop. (1006)
35i»733- The department, though it contains no high altitudes,
is for the most part of a hilly nature. The highest points, many
of which exceed 1000 ft., are found in the Confolentais, the
granite region of the extreme north-east, known also as the
Terres Froides. In the Terres Chaudes, under which name
the remainder of the department is included, the levels vary
in general between 300 and 650 ft., except in the western plains
— the Pays-Bas and Champagne — where they range from 40 to
300 ft. A large part of Charente is thickly wooded, the principal
forests lying in its northern districts. The department, as its
p me indicates, belongs mainly to the basin of the river Charente
(area of basin 3860 sq. m.; length of river 225 m.), the chief
affluents of which, within its borders, are the Tardoire, the
Touvre and the Ne. The Confolentais is watered by the Vienne,
a tributary of the Loire, while the arrondissement of Barbezieux
in the south-west belongs almost wholly to the basin of the
Gironde.
The climate is temperate but moist, the rainfall being highest
in the north-east. Agriculturally, Charente is prosperous. More
than half its surface is arable land, on the greater part of which
cereals are grown. The potato is an important crop. The
vine is predominant in the region of Champagne, the wine
produced being chiefly distilled into the famous brandy to which
the town of Cognac gives its name. The best pasture is found
8 5 8
CHARENTE-INFERIEURE— CHARES
in the Confolentais, where horned cattle are largely reared.
The chief fruits are chestnuts, walnuts and cider-apples. The
poultry raised in the neighbourhood of Barbezieux is highly
esteemed. Charente has numerous stone quarries, and there
are peat workings and beds of clay which supply brick and
tile-works and earthenware manufactories. Among the other
industries, paper-making, which has its chief centre at AngoulSme,
is foremost. The most important metallurgical establishment
is the large foundry of naval guns at Ruelle. Flour-mills and
leather-works are numerous. There are also many minor
industries subsidiary to paper-making and brandy-distilling,
and Angoulfime manufactures gunpowder and confectionery.
Coal, salt and timber are prominent imports. Exports include
paper, brandy, stone and agricultural products. The depart-
ment is served chiefly by the Orleans and Ouest-£tat railways,
and the Charente is navigable below Angouleme. Charente is
divided into the five arrondissements of Angouleme, Cognac,
Ruffec, Barbezieux and Confolens (29 cantons, 426 communes).
It belongs to the region of the XII. army corps, to the province
of the archbishop of Bordeaux, and to the acad€mie (educational
division) of Poitiers. Its court of appeal is at Bordeaux.
Angouleme (the capital), Cognac, Confolens, Jarnac and La
Rochefoucauld (q.v.) are the more noteworthy places in the de-
partment. Barbezieux and Ruffec, capitals of arrondissements
and agricultural centres, are otherwise of little importance. The
department abounds in churches of Romanesque architecture,
of which those of Bassac, St Amant-de-Boixe (portions of which
are Gothic in style), Plassac and Gensac-la-Palhie may be
mentioned. There are remains of a Gothic abbey church at
La Couronne, and Roman remains at St Cybardeaux, Brossac
and Chassenon (where there are ruins of the GaDo-Roman town
of Cassino magus).
CHARENTE-INFfiRIEURE, a maritime department of south-
western France, comprehending the old provinces of Saintonge
and Aunis, and a small portion of Poitou, and including the
islands of R6, Oteron, Aix and Madame. Area, 2791 sq. m.
Pop. (1006) 453,793. It is bounded N. by Vend6e, N.E. by
Deux-Sevres, E. by Charente, S.E. by Dordogne, S.W. by
Gironde and the estuary of the Gironde, and W. by the Bay of
Biscay. Plains and low hills occupy the interior; the coast is
flat and marshy, as are the islands (R6, Aix, Oleron) which lie
opposite to it. The department takes its name from the river
Charente, which traverses it during the last 61 m. of its course
and drains the central region. Its chief tributaries are on the
right the Boutonne, on the left the Seugne. The climate is
temperate and, except along the coast, healthy. There are
several sheltered bays on the coast, and several good harbours,
the chief of which are La Rochelle, Rochefort and Tonnay-
Charente, the two latter some distance up the Charente. Royan
on the north shore of the Gironde is an important watering-place
much frequented for its bathing.
The majority of the inhabitants of Charente-Inf6rieure live
by agriculture. The chief products of the arable land are wheat,
oats, maize, barley and the potato. Horse and cattle-raising is
carried on and dairying is prosperous. A considerable quantity
of wine, most of which is distilled into brandy, is produced.
The department has a few peat- workings, and produces freestone,
lime and cement; the salt-marshes of the coast are important
sources of mineral wealth. Glass, pottery, bricks and earthen-
ware are prominent industrial products. Ship-building, brandy-
distilling, iron-founding and machine construction are also
carried on. Oysters and mussels are bred in the neighbourhood
of La Rochelle and Marennes, and there are numerous fishing
ports along the coast.
The railways traversing the department belong to the
Ouest-fitat system, except one section of the Paris-Bordeaux
line belonging to the Orl6ans Company. The facilities of the
department for internal communication are greatly increased
by the number of navigable streams which water it. The
Charente, the Sevre Niortaise, the Boutonne, the Seudre and
the Gironde furnish 142 m. of navigable waterway, to which
must be added the 56 m. covered by the canals of the coast.
There are 6 arrondissements (40 cantons, 481 communes), cog-
nominal with the towns of La Rochelle, Rochefort, Marennes,
Saintes, Jonzac and St Jean d'Angely— La Rochelle being
the chief town of the department. The department forms the
diocese of La Rochelle, and is attached to the 18th military
region, and in educational matters to the academie of Poitiers.
Its court of appeal is at Poitiers.
La Rochelle, St Jean d\Ang61y, Rochefort and Saintes (q.v.) are
the principal towns. Surgeres and Aulnay possess fine specimens
of the numerous Romanesque churches. Pons has a graceful
chateau of the 15th and 16th centuries, beside which there rises
a fine keep of the 12th century.
CHARENTON-LE-PONT, a town of northern France in the
department of Seine, situated on the right bank of the Marne, at
its confluence with the Seine, 1 m. S.E. of the fortifications of
Paris, of which it is a suburb. Pop. (1906) 18,034. It derives
the distinctive part of its name from the stone bridge of ten
arches which crosses the Marne and unites the town with Alfort-
ville, well known for its veterinary school founded in 1766. It
has always been regarded as a point of great importance for the
defence of the capital, and has frequently been the scene of
sanguinary conflicts. The fort of Charenton on the left bank
of the Marne is one of the older forts of the Paris defence. In the
1 6th and 17th centuries Charenton was the scene of the ecclesi-
astical councils of the Protestant party, which had its principal
church in the town. At St Maurice adjoining Charenton is the
famous Hospice de Charenton, a lunatic asylum, the foundation
of which dates from 1641 . Till the time of the Revolution it was
used as a general hospital, and even as a prison, but from 1802
onwards it was specially appropriated to the treatment of lunacy.
St Maurice has two other national establishments, one for the
victims of accidents in Paris (asile national Vacassy), the other
for convalescent working-men (asile national de Vincennes).
Charenton has a port on the Canal de St Maurice, beside the
Marne, and carries on boat-building and the manufacture of
tiles and porcelain.
CHARES, Athenian general, is first heard of in 366 B.C. as
assisting the Phliasians, who had been attacked by Argos and
Sicyon. In 361 he visited Corcyra, where he helped the
oligarchs to expel the democrats, a policy which led to the
subsequent defection of the island from Athens. In 357, Chares
was appointed to the command in the Social War, together with
Chabrias, after whose death before Chios he was associated with
Iphicrates and Timotheus (for the naval battle in the Hellespont,
see Timotheus). Chares, having successfully thrown the blame
for the defeat on his colleagues, was left sole commander, but
receiving no supplies from Athens, took upon himself to join the
revolted satrap Artabazus. A complaint from the Persian king,
who threatened to send three hundred ships to the assistance of
the confederates, led to the conclusion of peace (355) between
Athens and her revolted allies, and the recall of Chares . In 349, he
was sent to the assistance of Olynthus (q.v.) against Philip II. of
Macedon, but returned without having effected anything; in the
following year, when he reached Olynthus, he found it already
in the hands of Philip. In 340 he was appointed to the command
of a force sent to aid Byzantium against Philip, but the inhabit-
ants, remembering his former plunderings and extortions, refused
to receive him. In 338 he was defeated by Philip at Amphissa,
and was one of the commanders at the disastrous battle of
Chaeroneia. Lysicles, one of his colleagues, was condemned
to death, while Chares does not seem to have been even accused.
After the conquest of Thebes by Alexander (335), Chares is said
to have been one of the Athenian orators and generals whose
surrender was demanded. Two years later he was living at
Sigeum, for Arrian (Anabasis i. 12) states that he went from there
to pay his respects to Alexander. In 332 he entered the service
of Darius and took over the command of a Persian force in
Mytilene, but capitulated on the approach of a Macedonian fleet
on condition of being allowed to retire unmolested. He is last
heard of at Taenarum, and is supposed to have died at Sigeum.
Although boastful and vain-glorious, Chares was not lacking in
personal courage, and was «mon«r **- * * **»»*nian generals
CHARES— CHARING CROSS
859
of his time. At the best, however, he was " hardly more than an
ordinary leader of mercenaries " (A. Holm). He openly boasted
of his profligacy, was exceedingly avaricious, and his bad faith
became proverbial.
Diod. Sic. xv. 75, 95, xvi. 7, 21 , 22, 85-88; Plutarch, Phocion, 14;
Theopompus, ap. Athenaeum, xii. p. 552; A. Sch&fer, Demosthenes
und seine Zeit (1885); A. Holm, History of Greece (Eng. trans.,
1896), vol. iii.
CHARES, of Lindus in Rhodes, a noted sculptor, who fashioned
for the Rhodians a colossal bronze statue of the sun-god, the cost
of which was defrayed by selling the warlike engines left behind
by Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he abandoned the siege of the
city in 303 B.C. (Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 41). The colossus was
seventy cubits (105 ft.) in height; and its fingers were larger than
many statues. The notion that the legs were planted apart, so
that ships could sail between them, is absurd. The statue was
thrown down by an earthquake after 56 years; but the remains
lay for ages on the spot.
CHARES, of Mytilene, a Greek belonging to the suite of
Alexander the Great. He was appointed court-marshal or
introducer of strangers to the king, an office borrowed from the
Persian court. He wrote a history of Alexander in ten books,
dealing mainly with the private life of the king. The fragments
are chiefly preserved in Athenaeus.
See Scriptores Rerum Alexandri (pp. 1 14- 120) in the Didot edition
of Arrian.
CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to
load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo "), a load; from this, its
primary meaning, also seen in the word " charger," a large dish,
come the uses of the word for the powder and shot to load a fire-
arm, the accumulation of electricity in a battery, the necessary
quantity of dynamite or other explosive in blasting, and a device
borne on an escutcheon in heraldry. " Charge " can thus mean
a burden, and so a care or duty laid upon one, as in " to be in
charge " of another. With a transference to that which lays such
a duty on another, " charge " is used of the instructions given by
a judge to a jury, or by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. In
the special sense of a pecuniary burden the word is used of the
price of goods, of an encumbrance on property, and of the
expenses of running a business. Further uses of the word are of
the violent, rushing attack of cavalry, or of a bull or elephant, or
football player; hence " charger " is a horse ridden in a charge,
or more loosely a horse ridden by an officer, whether of infantry
or cavalry.
CHARGti D'AFFAIRES (Fr. for " in charge of business "), the
title of two classes of diplomatic agents. (1) Charge's d'affaires
(ministres chargis d'affaires), who were placed by the reglement
of the congress of Vienna in the 4th class of diplomatic agents,
are heads of permanent missions accredited to countries to which,
for some reason, it is not possible or not desirable to send agents
of a higher rank. They are distinguished from these latter by the
fact that their credentials are addressed by the minister for
foreign affairs of the state which they are to represent to the
minister for foreign affairs of the receiving state. Though still
occasionally accredited, ministers of this class are now rare.
They have precedence over the other class of charges d'affaires.
(2) Charges d'affaires per interim, or charges des affaires, are those
who are presented as such, either verbally or in writing, by heads
of missions of the first, second or third rank to the minister for
foreign affairs of the state to which they are accredited, when
they leave their post temporarily, or pending the arrival of their
successor. It is usual to appoint a counsellor or secretary of
legation charge d'affaires. Some governments are accustomed
to give the title of minister to such charge's d'affaires, which
ranks them with the other heads of legation. Essentially
charge's d'affaires do not differ from ambassadors, envoys or
ministers resident. They represent their nation, and enjoy the
same privileges and immunities as other diplomatic agents
(see Diplomacy).
CHARGING ORDER, in English law, an order obtained from
a court or judge by a judgment creditor under the Judgment
Acts 1838 and 1840, by which the property of the judgment
debtor in any stocks or funds stands charged with the payment
of the amount for which judgment shall have been recovered,
with interest. A charging order can only be obtained in respect
of an ascertained sum, but this would include a sum ordered to be
paid at a future date. An order can be made on stock standing
in the name of a trustee in trust for the judgment debtor, or on
cash in court to the credit of the judgment debtor, but not on
stock held by a debtor as a trustee. The application for a charg-
ing order is usually made by motion to a divisional court, though
it may be made to a judge. The effect of the order is not that of
a contract to pay the debt, but merely of an instrument of charge
on the shares, signed by the debtor. An interval of six months
must elapse before any proceedings are taken to enforce the
charge, but, if necessary, a stop order on the fund and the divi-
dends payable by the debtor can be obtained by the creditor
to protect his interest A solicitor employed to prosecute any
suit, matter or proceeding in any court, is entitled, on declaration
of the court, to a charge for his costs upon the property recovered
or preserved in such suit or proceeding. (See Rides of the
Supreme Court, o. xux.)
CHARIBERT (d. 567), king of the Franks, was the son of
Clotaire I. On Clotaire's death in 561 his estates were divided
between his sons, Charibert receiving Paris as his capital,
together with Rouen, Tours, Poitiers, Limoges, Bordeaux and
Toulouse. Besides his wife, Ingoberga, he had unions with
Merofleda, a wool-carder's daughter, and Theodogilda, the
daughter of a neatherd. He was one of the most dissolute of
the Merovingian kings, his early death in 567 being brought on
by his excesses. (C. Pp.)
CHARIDEMUS, of Oreus in Euboea, Greek mercenary leader.
About 367 B.C. he fought under the Athenian general Iphicrates
againstAmphipolis. BeingorderedbylphicratestotaketheAmphi-
politan hostages to Athens, he allowed them to return to their own
people, and joined Cotys, king of Thrace, against Athens. Soon
afterwards he fell into the hands of the Athenians and accepted
the offer of Timotheus to re-enter their service. Having been
dismissed by Timotheus (362) he joined the revolted satraps
Memnon and Mentor in Asia, but soon lost their confidence, and
was obliged to seek the protection of the Athenians. Finding,
however, that he had nothing to fear from the Persians, he again
joined Cotys, on whose murder he was appointed guardian to his
youthful son Cersobleptes. In 357, on the arrival of Chares with
considerable forces, the Chersonese was restored to Athens. The
supporters of Charidemus represented this as due to his efforts,
and, in spite of the opposition of Demosthenes, he was honoured
with a golden crown and the franchise of the city. It was further
resolved that his person should be inviolable. In 351 he com-
manded the Athenian forces in the Chersonese against Philip II.
of Macedon, and in 349 he superseded Chares as commander in
the Olynthian War. He achieved little success, but made him-
self detested by his insolence and profligacy, and was in turn
replaced by Chares. After Chaeroneia the war party would
have entrusted Charidemus 1 with the command against Philip,
but the peace party secured the appointment of Phocion. He
was one of those whose surrender was demanded by Alexander
after the destruction of Thebes, but escaped with banishment.
He fled to Darius HI., who received him with distinction. But,
having expressed his dissatisfaction with the preparations made
by the king just before the battle of Issus (333), he was put to
death.
See Diod. Sic. xvii. 30; Plutarch, Phocion, 16, 17; Arrian,
Anabasis, i. 10; Quintus Curtius iii. 2; Demosthenes, Contra
Aristocratem; A. Schaier, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (1885).
CHARING CROSS, the locality about the west end of the
Strand and the north end of Whitehall, on the south-east side
of Trafalgar Square, London, England. It falls within the
bounds of the city of Westminster. Here Edward I. erected
the last of the series of crosses to the memory of his queen,
Eleanor (d. 1290). It stood near the present entrance to Charing
1 According to some authorities, thic is a second Charidemus, the
first disappearing from history after being superseded by Chares in
the Olynthian war.
86o
CHARIOT— CHARITY AND CHARITIES
Cross station of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway, in the
courtyard of which a fine modern cross has been erected within
a few feet of the exact site. A popular derivation of the name
connected it with Edward's " dear queen " (ckere reine), and a
village of Cherringe or Charing grew up here later, but the true
origin of the name is not known. There is a village of Charing
in Kent, and the name is connected by some with that of a
Saxon family, Cerring.
CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char , a
car), in antiquity, a conveyance (Gr. &ppa, Lat. currus) used in
battle, for the chase, in public processions and in games. The
Greek chariot had two wheels, and was made to be drawn by two
horses; if a third or, more commonly, two reserve horses were
added, they were attached on each side of the main pair by a
single trace fastened to the front of the chariot, as may be seen
on two prize vases in the British Museum from the Panathenaic
games at Athens. On the monuments there is no other sign of
traces, from the want of which wheeling round must have been
difficult. Immediately on the axle (6£<ap, axis), without springs
of any kind, rested the basket or body (8l4>pos) of the chariot,
which consisted of a floor to stand on, and a semicircular guard
round the front about half the height of the driver. It was
entirely open at the back, so that the combatant might readily
leap to the ground and up again as was necessary. There was no
seat, and generally only room for the combatant and his charioteer
to stand in. The pole (/to/ads, temo) was probably attached to the
middle of the axle, though it appears to spring from the front
of the basket; at the end of the pole was the yoke (f vydv, jugum),
which consisted of two small saddles fitting the necks of the horses,
and fastened by broad bands round the chest. Besides this the
harness of each horse consisted of a bridle and a pair of reins,
mostly the same as in use now, made of leather and ornamented
with studs of ivory or metal. The reins were passed through
rings attached to the collar bands or yoke, and were long enough
to be tied round the waist of the charioteer in case of his having
to defend himself. The wheels and body of the chariot were
usually of wood, strengthened in places with bronze or iron; the
wheels had from four to eight spokes and tires of bronze or iron.
This description applies generally to the chariots of all the nations
of antiquity; the differences consisted chiefly in the mountings.
The chariots of the Egyptians and Assyrians, with whom the
bow was the principal arm of attack, were richly mounted with
quivers full of arrows, while those of the Greeks, whose character-
istic weapon was the spear, were plain except as regards mere
decoration. Among the Persians, again, and more remarkably
among the ancient Britons, there was a class of chariot having
the wheels mounted with sharp, sickle-shaped blades, which cut
to pieces whatever came in their way. This was probably an
invention of the Persians; Cyrus the younger employed these
chariots in large numbers. Among the Greeks and Romans, on
the other hand, the chariot had passed out of use in war before
historical times, and was retained only for races in the public
games, or for processions, without undergoing any alteration
apparently, its form continuing to correspond with the descrip-
tion of Homer, though it was lighter in build, having to carry
only the charioteer. On two Panathenaic prize vases in the
British Museum are figures of racing bigae, in which, contrary
to the description given above, the driver is seated with his feet
resting on a board hanging down in front close to the legs of his
horses. The biga itself consists of a seat resting on the axle, with
a rail at each side to protect the driver from the wheels. The
chariot was unsuited to the uneven soil of Greece and Italy, and
it is not improbable that these nations had brought it with them
as part of their original habits from their former seats in the
East. In the remains of Egyptian and Assyrian art there are
numerous representations of chariots, from which it may be
seen with what richness they were sometimes ornamented. The
" iron " chariots in use among the Jews appear to have been
chariots strengthened or plated with metal, and no doubt were
of the form above described, which prevailed generally among
the other ancient nations. (See also Carriage.)
The chief authorities are J. C. Ginzrot, Die Wagen und Fahrwerke
der Griechen und R&mer (1817) ; C. F. Grashof, Vber das Fuhrwerk
bet Homer und Hesiod (1846) ; W. Leaf in Journal of Hellenic Studies,
v.; E. Buchholz, Die homerischen Realien (1871-1885); W. Helbig,
Das homerische Epos aus den DenkmcUern erlautert (1884), and
the article " Currus "in Daremberg and Saglio, Diclionnaire des
AntiquitSs.
CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER, Latin grammarian,
flourished about the middle of the 4th century a.d. He was
probably an African by birth, summoned to Constantinople to
take the place of Euanthius, a learned commentator on Terence.
The Ars Grammatica of Charisius, in five books, addressed to his
son (not a Roman, as the preface shows), has come down to us
in a mutilated condition, the beginning of the first, part of the
fourth, and the greater part of the fifth book having been lost.
The work, which is merely a compilation, is valuable as contain-
ing excerpts from the earlier writers on grammar, who are in
many cases mentioned by name — Q. Remmius Palaemon, C.
Julius Romanus, Cominianus.
The best edition is by H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, i. (1857) ; see
also article by G. Gdtz in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddte, iii. 2
(1899); Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.),
§ 419, 1. 2; Fronde, in Jahr.f. Philol. t 18 Suppl. (1892), 567-672.
CHARITON, of Aphrodisias in Caria, the author of a Greek
romance entitled The Loves of Chaereas and Cattirrhoe, probably
flourished in the 4th century a.d. The action of the story,
which is to a certain extent historical, takes place during the time
of the Peloponnesian War. Opinions differ as to the merits of the
romance, which is an imitation of Xenophon of Ephesus and
Heliodorus.
Editions by J. P. D'Orville (1783), G. A. Hirschig (1856) and
R. Hercher (1859); there is an (anonymous) English translation
(1764) ; see also E. Rohde, Der griechiscne Roman (1900).
CHARITY AND CHARITIES. The word " charity," or love,
represents the principle of the good life. It stands for a mood
or habit of mind and an endeavour. From it, as a habit of mind,
springs the social and personal endeavour which in the widest
sense we may call charity. The two correspond. Where the
habit of mind has not been gained, the endeavour fluctuates
and is relatively purposeless. In so far as it has been gained,
the endeavour is founded on an intelligent scrutiny of social
conditions and guided by a definite purpose. In the one case
it is realized that some social theory must be found by us. if
our action is to be right and consistent; in the other case no
need of such a theory is felt. This article is based on the assump-
tion that there are principles in charity or charitable work, and
that these can be ascertained by a study of the development
of social conditions, and their relation to prevalent social aims
and religious or philosophic conceptions. It is assumed also
that the charity of the religious life, if rightly understood, cannot
be inconsistent with that of the social life.
Perhaps some closer definition of charity is necessary. The words
that signify goodwill towards the community and its members are
primarily words expressive of the affections of family life in the
relations existing between parents, and between parent and child.
As will be seen, the analogies underlying such phrases as " God the
Father," " children of God," " brethren," have played a great part
in the development of charitable thought in pre-Christian as well
as in Christian days. The germ, if we may say so, of the words
<£tXfa, d-y&m), amor, love; amicitia, friendship, is the sexual or the
parental relation. With the realization of the larger life in man the
meaning of the word expands. Caritas, or charity, strikes another
note — high price, and thus dearness. It is charity, indeed, expressed
in mercantile metaphor; and it would seem that it was associated
in thought with the word x£p"> which has also a commercial mean-
ing, but signifies as well favour, gratitude, grace, kindness. Partly
thus, perhaps, it assumed and suggested a nobler conception; and
sometimes, as, for instance, in English ecclesiastical documents, it
was spelt charitas. 'Ay Amy, which in the Authorized Version of the
Bible is translated charity, was used by St Paul as a translation of
the Hebrew word hesed, which in the Old Testament is in the same
version translated " mercy " — as in Hosea vi. 6, " I desired mercy,
and not sacrifice." This word represents the charity of kind-
ness and goodness, as distinguished from almsgiving. Almsgiving,
sedaqah, is translated by the word iXerjuoaivr) in the Septuagint, and
in the Authorized Version by the word " righteousness." It repre-
sents the deed or the gift which is due — done or made, not spon-
taneously, but under a sense of religious obligation. In the earlier
Christian period the word almsgiving has this meaning, and was in
that sense applied to a wide range of actions and contracts, from
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
8t>
a gift to a beggar at a church door to a grant and a tenure of land.
It also, in the word almoner, represented the fulfilment of the
religious obligation with the aid of an agent or delegate. The words
charity or love (caritas or &y&Tnj), on the other hand, without losing
the tone with which the thought of parental or family love inspires
them, assume a higher meaning. In religious thought they imply
an ideal life, as represented by such expressions as " love (agape)
of God." ( This on the one side; and on the other an ideal social
relation, in such words as " love of man." Thus in the word
" charity " religious and social associations meet ; and thus regarded
the word means a disciplined and habitual mood in which the mind
is considerate of the welfare of others individually and generally,
and devises what is for their real good, and in which the intelligence
and the will strive to fulfil the mind's purpose. Charity thus has
no necessary relation to relief or alms. To give a lecture, or to nurse
a sick man who is not in want or " poor, may be equally a deed
of charity; though in fact charity concerns itself largely with the
classes usually called " the poor," and with problems of distress and
relief. Relief, however, is not an essential part of charity or charit-
able work. It is one of many means at its disposal. If the world
were so poor that no one could make a gift, or so wealthy that no one
needed it, charity — the charity of life and of deeds — would remain.
The history of charity is a history of many social and religious
theories, influences and endeavours, that have left their mark
alike upon the popular and the cultivated thought of the present
day. The inconsistencies of charitable effort and argument
may thus in part be accounted for. To understand the problem
of charity we have therefore (i) to consider the stages of charit-
able thought — the primitive, pagan, Greek and Roman, Jewish
and Christian elements, that make up the modern consciousness
in regard to charity, and also the growth of the habit of " charity "
as representing a gradually educated social instinct. (2) We
have also to consider in their relation to charity the results of
recent investigations of the conditions of social life. (3) At
each stage we have to note the corresponding stage of practical
administration in public relief and private effort — for the division
between public or " poor-law " relief and charity which prevails
in England is, comparatively speaking, a novelty, and, generally
speaking, the work of charity can hardly be appreciated or
understood if it be considered without reference to public
relief. (4) As to the present day, we have to consider practical
suggestions in regard to such subjects as charity and economic
thought, charity organization, friendly visiting and almonership,
co-operation with the poor-law. charity and thrift, parochial
management, hospitals and medical relief, exceptional distress
and the " unemployed," the utilization of endowments and their
supervision, and their adaptation to new needs and emergencies.
(5) We have also throughout to consider charitable help in
relation to classes of dependants, who appear early in the history
of the question — widows and orphans, the sick and the aged,
vagrants and wayfarers.
First in the series come the charities of the family and of
hospitality; then the wider charities of religion, the charities
of the community, and of individual donors and of mutual help.
These gradually assumed importance in communities which
consisted originally of self-supporting classes, within which
widows and orphans, for instance, would be rather provided for,
in accordance with recognized class obligations, than relieved.
Then come habitual almsgiving, the charitable endowment, and
the modern charitable institution and association. But through-
out the test of progress or decadence appears to be the condition
of the family. The family is the source, the home and the
hearthstone of charity. It has been created but slowly, and
there is naturally a constant tendency to break away from its
obligations and to ignore and depreciate its utility. Yet the
family, as we now have it, is itself the outcome of infinite thought
working through social instinct, and has at each stage of its
development indicated a general advance. To it, therefore,
constant reference must be made.
Part I. — Primitive Charity
The study of early communities has brought to light the history
of the development of the family. " Marriage in its lowest
phases is by no means a matter of affection or companionship ";
and only very slowly has the position of both parents been
recognized as implying different but correlative responsibilities
towards their child. Only very slowly, also, has the morality
necessary to the making of the family been won. Charity at
earlier stages is hardly recognized as a virtue, nor infanticide
as an evil. Hospitality — the beginning of a larger social life —
is non-existent. The self-support of the community is secured
by marriage, and when relations fail marriage becomes a pro-
vision against poverty. Then by the tribal system is created
another safeguard against want. But apart also from these
methods of maintenance, at a very early stage there is charitable
relief. The festivals of the solstices and equinoxes, and of
the seasons, are the occasions for sacrifice and relief; and, as
Christmas customs prove, the instinct to give help or alms at
such festival periods still remains. Charity is concerned prim-
arily with certain elemental forces of social life: the relation
between these primitive instincts and impulses that still influence
charity should not, therefore, be overlooked. The basis of
social life is also the basis of charitable thought and action.
The savage is the civilized man in the rough. " The lowest races
have," Lord Avebury writes, " no institution of marriage." Many
have no word for " dear " or " beloved." The child belongs to the
tribe rather than to the parent. In these circumstances a problem
of charity such as the following may arise: — "Am I to starve, while
my sister has children whom she can sell ? " a question asked of
Burton by a negro. From the point of view of the tribe, an able-
bodied man would be more valuable than dependent children, and
the relationship of the larger family of brothers and sisters would
be a truer claim to help than that of mother and child. Subsequently
the child is recognized as related, not to the father, but to the
mother, and there is " a kind of bond which lasts for life between
mother and child, although the father is a stranger to it." Slowly
only is the relative position of both parents, with different but cor-
relative responsibilities, recognized. The first two steps of charity
have then been made: the social value of the bond between the
mother, and then between the father, and the child has been recog-
nized. Until this point is reached the morality necessary to the
making of the family is wanting, and for a long time afterwards it
is hardly won. The virtue of chastity — the condition precedent to
the higher family life — is unrecognized. Indeed, the set of such
religious thought as there may be is against it. Abstract conceptions,
even in the nobler races, are lacking. The religion of life is vaguely
struggling with its animality, and that which it at last learns to rule
it at first worships. In these circumstances there is little charity
for the child and little for the stranger. " There is," Dr Schwein-
f urth wrote in his Heart of Africa, an utter want of wholesome
intercourse between race and race. For any member of a tribe that
speaks one dialect to cross the borders of a tribe that speaks another
is to make a venture at the hazard of his life." The religious obliga-
tions that fostered and sanctified family life among the Greeks and
Romans and lews are unknown. Much later in development comes
charity for the child, with the abhorrence of infanticide — against
which the Jewish-Christian charity of 2000 years ago uttered its
most vigorous protests. If the child belonged primarily to the tribe
or state, its maintenance or destruction was a common concern.
This motive influenced the Greeks, who are historically nearer the
earlier forms of social life than ourselves. For the common good they
exposed the deformed child ; but also " where there were too many,
for in our state population has a limit," as Aristotle says, " the babe
or unborn child was destroyed." And so, to lighten their own
responsibilities, parents were wont to do in the slow years of the
degradation of the Roman empire, though the interest of the state
then required a contrary policy. The transition to our present
feeling of responsibility for child-life has been very gradual and
uncertain, through the middle ages and even till the 18th century.
Strictly it may be said that all penitentiaries and other similar
institutions are concrete protests on behalf of a better family life.
The movement for the care of children in the 18th century naturally
and instinctively allied itself with the penitentiary movement. The
want of regard for child-life, when the rearing of children becomes
a source of economic pressure, suggests why in earlier stages of
civilization all that charitable apparatus which we now think neces-
sary for the assistance of children is wanting, even if the need, so far
as it does arise, is not adequately met by the recognized obligations
of the clan-family or brotherhood.
In the case of barbarous races charity and self-support may be
considered from some other points of view. Self-support is secured
in two ways — by marriage and by slavery. " For a man or woman
to be unmarried after the age of thirty is unheard of " (T. H. Lewin,
Wild Races of South-East India). On the other hand, if any one is
without a father, mother or other relative, and destitute of the
necessaries of life, he may sell himself and become a slave. Thus
slavery becomes a provision for poverty when relations fail. The
clan-family may serve the same purpose. David Livingstone de-
scribes the formation of the clan-family among the Bakuena. * ' Each
man, by virtue of paternity, is chief of his own children. They build
huts round his. . . . Near the centre of each circle of huts is a spot
862
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
called a 4 kotla,' with a fireplace; here they work, eat, &c. A poor
man attaches himself to the ' kotla ' of a rich one, and is considered
a child of the latter." Thus the clan-family is also a poor-relief
association.
Studies in folklore bring to light many relations between the
charity of the old world and that of our own day.
In regard to the charity of the early community, we may take
the 8th century B.C. as the point of departure. The Odyssey
(about 800 B.C.) and Hesiod (about 700 B.C.) are
^f"* r roughly parallel with Amos (816-775), and represent
muBlty. two streams of thought that meet in the early Christian
period. The period covered by the Odyssey seems to
merge into that of Hesiod. We take the former first, dealing
with the clan-family and the phratry, which are together the
self-maintaining unit of society, with the general relief of the
poor, with hospitality, and with vagrancy. In Hesiod we find
the customary law of charity in the earlier community definitely
stated, and also indications of the normal methods of neighbourly
help which were in force in country districts. First of the family
and brotherhood, or phratry. The family (Od. viii. 582) included
alike the wife's father and the daughter's husband. It was thus
a clanlike family. Out of this was developed the phratry or
brotherhood, in which were included alike noble families, peasants
and craftsmen, united by a common worship and responsibilities
and a common customary law (themis). Zeus, the god of social
life, was worshipped by the phratry. He was the father of the
law (themis). He was god of host and guest. Society was thus
based on law, the brotherhood and the family. The irresponsible
man, the man worthy of no respect or consideration, was one
who belonged to no brotherhood, was subject to no customary
law, and had no hearth or family. The phratry was, and became
afterwards still more, "a natural gild." Outside the self-
sustaining phratry was the stranger, including the wayfarer and
the vagrant; and partly merged in these classes was the beggar,
the recognized recipient of the alms of the community. To
change one's abode and to travel was assumed to be a cause of
reproach (//. ix. 648). The " land-louper " was naturally sus-
pected. On the other hand, a stranger's first thought in a new
country was whether the inhabitants were wild or social (8Ucum),
hospitable and God-fearing (Od. xiii. 201). Hospitality thus
became the first public charity; Zeus sent all strangers and
beggars, and it was against all law (dkpis) to slight them. Out
of this feeling — a kind of glorified almsgiving — grew up the
system of hospitality in Greek states and also in the Roman
world. The host greeted the stranger (or the suppliant). An
oath of friendship was taken by the stranger, who was then
received with the greeting, Welcome (xatpe), and water was
provided for ablution, and food and shelter. In the larger
house there was a guests' table. In the hut he shared the peasant's
meal. The custom bound alike the rich and the poor. Chi parting
presents were given, usually food for the onward journey,
sometimes costly gifts. The obligation was mutual, that the
host should give hospitality, and that the guest should not abuse
it. From early times tallies were exchanged between them as
evidence of this formal relationship, which each could claim
again of the other by the production of the token. And further,
the relationship on either side became hereditary. Thus indi-
viduals and families and tribes remained linked in friendship
and in the interchange of hospitalities.
Under the same patronage of Zeus and the same laws of
hospitality were vagrants and beggars. The vagrant and loafer
are sketched in the Odyssey — the vagrant who lies glibly that he
may get entertainment, and the loafer who prefers begging to
work on a farm. These and the winter idlers, whom Hesiod
pictures — a group known to modern life — prefer at that season
to spend their time in the warmth of the village smithy, or at a
house of common resort (hbrxv) — a common lodging-house,
we might say — where they would pass the night. Apparently,
as in modern times, the vagrants had organized their own system
of entertainment, and, supported by the public, were a class for
whom it was worth while to cater. The local or public beggars
formed a still more definite class. Their begging was a recognized
means of maintenance; it was a part of the method of poor
relief. Thus of Penelope it was said that, if Odysseus' tale were
true, she would give him better clothes, and then he might beg
his bread throughout the country-side. Feasts, too, and alms-
giving were nearly allied, and feasts have always been one resource
for the relief of the poor. Thus naturally the beggars frequented
feasts, and were apparently a recognized and yet inevitable
nuisance. They wore, as part of their dress, scrips or wallets
in which they carried away the food they received, as later
Roman clients carried away portions of food in baskets (sporttda)
from their patron's dinner. Odysseus, when he dresses up as a
beggar, puts on a wallet as part of his costume. Thus we find
a system of voluntary relief in force based on a recognition of the
duty of almsgiving as complete and peremptory as that which we
shall notice later among the Jews and the early Christians. We
are concerned with country districts, and not with towns, and,
as social conditions that are similar produce similar methods
of administration, so we find here a general plan of relief similar
to that which was in vogue in Scotland till the Scottish Poor Law
Act of 1845.
In Hesiod the fundamental conceptions of charity are more
clearly expressed. He has, if not his ten, at least his four
commandments, for disobedience to which Zeus will punish the
offender. They are: Thou shalt do no evil to suppliant or guest;
thou shalt not dishonour any woman of the family; thou shalt
not sin against the orphan; thou shalt not be unkind to aged
parents.
The laws of social life are thus duty to one's guest and duty to
one's family ; and chastity has its true place in that relation, as the
later Greeks, who so often quote Hesiod (cf . the so-called Economics
of Aristotle), fully realized. Also the family charities due to the
orphan, whose lot is deplored in the Iliad (xxii. 490), and to the aged
are now clearly enunciated. But there is also in Hesiod the duty to
one's neighbour, not according to the " perfection " of " Cristes
lore," but according to a law of honourable reciprocity in act and
intent. " Love him who loves thee, and cleave to him who cleaveth
to thee : to him who would have given, give; to him who would not
have given, give not." The groundwork of Hesiod 's charity outside
the family is neighbourly help (such as formed no small part of old
Scottish charity in the country districts) ; and he put his argument
thus : Competition, which is a kind of strife, " lies in the roots of the
world and in men." a It is good, and rouses the idle " handless " man
to work. On one side are social duty (thai) and work, done briskly
at the right season of the year, which brings a full barn. On the other
side are unthrift and hunger, and relief with the disgrace of begging;
and the relief, when the family can do no more, must comefrom
neighbours, to whose house the beggar has to eo with his wife and
children to ask for victual. Once they may be helped, or twice,
and then they will be refused. It is better, Hesiod tells his brother,
to work and so pay off his debts and avoid hunger (see Erga, 391,
&c, and elsewhere). Here indeed is a problem of to-day as it
appeared to an early Greek. The alternatives before the idler — so
far as his own community is concerned — are labour with neighbourly
help to a limited extent, or hunger. \
Hesiod was a farmer in Boeotia. Some 530 years afterwards a
pupil of Aristotle thus describes the district and its community of
farmers. " They are," he says, " well to do, but simple in tneir
way of life. They practise justice, good faith, and hospitality.
To needy townsmen and vagabonds they give freely of their sub-
stance; for meanness and covetousness are unknown to them."
The charitable method of Homeric and Hesiodic days still continued.
Part II. — Charity among the Greeks
Society in a Greek state was divided into two parts, citizens
and slaves. The citizens required leisure for education, war
and government. The slaves were their ministers
and servants to enable them to secure this leisure, ^rt^'***
We have therefore to consider, on the one hand, the
position of the family and the clan-family, and the maintenance
of the citizen from public funds and by public and private
charities; and on the other hand the condition of the slaves,
and the relation between slavery and charity.
The slaves formed the larger part of the population. The
census of Attica, made between 317 and 307 B.C., gives their
numbers at 400,000 out of a population of about 500,000; and
even if this be considered excessive, the proportion of slaves
to citizens would certainly be very large. The citizens with their
wives and children formed some 12% of the community. Thus,
apart from the resident aliens, returned in the census at 10,000,
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
8<v
and their wives and children, we have two divisions of society:
the citizens, with their own organization of relief and charities;
and the slaves, permanently maintained by reason of their
dependence on individual members of the civic class. Thus,
there is no poverty but that of the poor citizens. Poverty is
limited to them. The slaves — that is to say, the bulk of the
labouring population — are provided for.
From times relatively near to Hesiod's we may trace the growth
and influence of the clan-family as the centre of customary
charity within the community, the gradual increase of a class of
poor either outside the dan-family or eventually independent
of it, and the development of a new organization of relief in-
troduced by the state to meet newer demands. We picture the
early state as a group of families, each of which tends to form
in time a separate group or clan. At each expansion from the
family to the clan the members of the clan retain rights and have
to fulfil duties which are the same as, or similar to, those which
prevailed in the family. Thus, in Attica the clan-families
(genos) and the brotherhoods (phrairia) were " the only basis of
legal rights and obligations over and above the natural family."
The clan-family was " a natural guild," consisting of rich and
poor members — the well-born or noble and the craftsman alike.
Originally it would seem that the land was divided among the
families of the clan by lot and was inalienable. Thus with the
family was combined the means of supporting the family. On
the other hand, every youth was registered in his phratry, and
the phratry remained till the reforms of Cleisthenes (509 B.C.)
a political, and even after that time a social, organization of
importance.
First, as to the family — the mother and wife, and the father.
Already before the age of Plato and Xenophon (450-3 5° B -C.)
we find that the family has suffered a slow decline. The wife,
according to later Greek usage, was married as a child, hardly
educated, and confined to the house, except at some festival or
funeral. But with the decline came criticism and a nobler
conception of family life. " First, then, come laws regarding
the wife," writes the author of the so-called Economics of Aris-
totle, and the law, " thou shalt do no wrong; for, if we do no
wrong, we shall not be wronged." This is the " common law,"
as the Pythagoreans say, " and it implies that we must not wrong
the wife in the least, but treat her with the reverence due to a
suppliant, or one taken from the altar." The sanctity of marriage
is thus placed among the " commandments " of Hesiod, beside
the duty towards the stranger and the orphan. These and other
references to the Pythagoreans suggest that they, possibly in
common with other mystics, preached the higher religion of
marriage and social life, and thus inspired a deeper social feeling,
which eventually allied itself with the Christian movement.
Next, as to parents and children: the son was under an obliga-
tion to support his father, subject, after Solon's time, to the
condition that he had taught him a trade; and after Solon's
time the father had no claim for support from an illegitimate
son. " The possession of children," it was said (Arist. Econ.),
" is not by nature for the public good only, but also for private
advantage. For what the strong may gain by their toil for the
weak, the weak in their old age receive from the strong . .- . Thus
is the nature of each, the man and the woman, prearranged by the
Divine Being for a life in common." Honour to parents is " the
first and greatest and oldest of all debts " (Plato, Laws, 717).
The child has to care for the parent in his old age. " Nemesis,
the minister of justice ($(07), is appointed to watch over all these
things." And " if a man fail to adorn the sepulchre of his dead
parents, the magistrates take note of it and inquire " (Xen.
Mem. ii. 14). The heightened conception of marriage implies
a fuller interpretation of the mutual relations of parent and child
as well; both become sacred.
Then as to orphans. Before Solon's time (594 B.C.) theproperty
of any member of the clan-family who died without children
went to the clan; and after his time, when citizens were permitted
to leave their property by will, the property of an intestate fell
to the clan. This arrangement carried with it corresponding
duties. Through the clan-family provision was made for orphans.
Any member of the clan had the legal right to claim an orphan
member in marriage; and. if the nearest agnate did not marry
her, he had to give her a dowry proportionate to the amount of
his own property. Later, there is evidence of a growing sense of
responsibility in regard to orphans. Hippodamus (about 443
B.C.), in his scheme of the perfected state (Arist. Pol. 1268),
suggested that there should be public magistrates to deal with
the affairs of orphans (and strangers); and Plato, his contempor-
ary, writes of the duty of the state and of the guardian towards
them very fully. Orphans, he proposes (Laws, 927), should be
placed under the care of public guardians. " Men should have
a fear of the loneliness of orphans . . . and of the souls of the
departed, who by nature take a special care of their own children.
... A man should love the unfortunate orphan (boy or girl)
of whom he is guardian as if he were his own child; he should
be as careful and diligent in the management of the orphan's
property as of his own — or even more careful still."
To relieve the poverty of citizens and to preserve the citizen-
hood were objects of public policy and of charity. In Crete and
Sparta the citizens were wholly supported out of the public
resources. In Attica the system was different. The citizens
were aided in various ways, in which, as often happens, legal
or official and voluntary or private methods worked on parallel
lines. The means were (1) legal enactment for release of debts;
(2) emigration; (3) the supply of corn; (4) poor relief for the
infirm, and relief for the children of those fallen in war; (5)
emoluments; (6) voluntary public service, separate gifts and
liberality; (7) loan societies.
(1) In 594 B.c. the labouring class in Attica were overwhelmed
with debts and mortgages, ana their persons pledged as security.
Only by a sharp reform was it possible to preserve them from
slavery. This Solon effected. He annulled their obligations,
abolished the pledge of the person, and gave the labourers the
franchise (but see under Solon). Besides the. laws above men-
tioned, he gave power to the Areopagus to inauire from what sources
each man obtained the necessaries of life, ana to punish those who
did not work. His action and that of his successor^ Peisistratus
(560 B.C.), suggest that the class of poor (iropoi) was. increasing,
and that by the efforts of these two men the social decline of the
people was avoided or at least postponed. Peisistratus lent the poor
money that they might maintain themselves in husbandry. He wished,
it is said (Arist. Atk. Pol. zvi.), to enable them to earn a moderate
living, that they might be occupied with their own affairs, instead
of spending their time in the city or neglecting their work in order
to visit it. As rent for their land they paid a tenth of the produce.
(2) Akin to this policy was that of emigration. Athenians, selected
in some instances from the two lowest political classes, emigrated,
though still retaining their rights of citizenship. In 570-565 B.C.
Salamis was annexed and divided into lots and settled, and later
Pericles settled more than 2750 citizens in the Chersonese and else-
where — practically a considerable section of the whole body of
citizens. " By this means," says Plutarch, " he relieved the state
of numerous idle agitators and assisted the necessitous." In other
states this expedient was frequently adopted.
(3) A third method was the supply of corn at reduced rates — a
method similar to that adopted, as we shall see, at Rome, Constan-
tinople and elsewhere. The maintenance of the mass of the people
depended on the corn fleets. There were public granaries, where
large stores were laid up at the public expense. A portion of all
cargoes of corn was retained at Athens and in other ways importa-
tion was promoted. Exportation was forbidden. Public donations
and distributions of corn were frequent, and in times of scarcity rich
citizens made large contributions with that object. The distributions
were made to adult citizens of eighteen years 01 age and upwards
whose names were on the registers.
(4) In addition to this there was a system of public relief for those
who were unable to earn a livelihood on account of bodily defects
and infirmities. The qualification was a property test. The pro-
perty of the applicant had to be shown to be of a value of not more
than three minae (say £12). Socrates, it may be noted, adopts the
same method of estimating his comparative poverty (Xen. Econ. 2.
6), saying that his goods would realize about five minae (or about
twenty guineas). The senate examined the case, and the ecclesia
awarded the bounty, which amounted to 1 or 2 obols a day, rather
more than ijd. or 3d. — out-door relief, as we might say, amounting
at most to about is. od. a week. There was also a fund for the
maintenance of the children of those who had fallen in war, up to the
age of eighteen.
(5) But the main source of support was the receipt of emoluments
for various public services. This was not relief, though it produced
in the course of time the effect of relief. It was rather the Athenian
method of supporting a governing class of citizens.
864
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
The inner political history of Athens is the history of the extension
of the franchise to the lower classes of citizens, with the privileges
of holding office and receiving emoluments. In early times, either
by Solon (q.v.) or previously, the citizens were classified on the
basis of property. The rich retained the franchise and the right
of holding office; the middle classes obtained the franchise; the
fourth or lowest class gained neither. By the reforms of Cleis-
thenes (509 B.C.) the clan-family and the phratry were set aside for
the deme or parish, a geographical division superseding the social.
Finally, about 478 B.C., when all had acquired the franchise, the
right to hold office also was obtained by the third class. These
changes coincided with a period of economic progress. The rate of
interest was high, usually 12%; and in trading and bottomry the
returns were much higher. A small capital at this interest soon
produced comparative wealth; and simultaneously prices were
falling. Then came the reaction. " After the Peloponnesian war "
(432-404 B.C.), writes Professor Jebb, " the wealth of the country
ceased to grow, as population had ceased to grow about 50 years
sooner. The rich went on accumulating: the poor, having no means
of enriching themselves by enterprise, were for the most part occu-
pied in watching for some chance of snatching a larger share of the
stationary total. ' Thus the poorer classes in a time of prosperity
had won the power which they were able to turn to their own account
afterwards. A period of economic pressure followed, coupled with a
decline in the population; no return to the land was feasible, nor
was emigration; the people had become town-folk inadaptable to
new uses ; decreasing vitality and energy were marked by a new
temper, the " pauper " temper, unsettled, idle and grasping, and
political power was utilized to obtain relief. The relief was forth-
coming, but it was of no avail to stop the general decline. The state,
it might almost be said, in giving scope to the assertion of the spirit
of dependence, had ruined the self-regarding energy on which both
family and state alike depended. The emoluments were diverse.
The number of citizens was not large ; the functions in which citizens
could take part were numerous; and when payment was forth-
coming the poorer citizens pressed in to exercise their rights (cf.
Arist. Pol. 1293 a). All Athenian citizens could attend the public
assembly or ecclesia. Probably the attendance at it varied from
a few hundred to 5000 persons. In 395 B.C. the payment for attend-
ance was fixed at 3 obols, or little more than 4$d. a day — for the
system of payment had probably been introduced a few years before
(but see Ecclesia and refs.). A juror or dicast would receive
the same sum for attendance, and the courts or juries often consisted
of 500 persons. If the estimate (Bockh, Public Economy of Athens,
Eng. trans, pp. 109, 117) holds good that in the age of Demosthenes
(384-323 B.C.) the member of a poor family of four free persons could
live (including rent) on about 3*3d. or between 2 and 3 obols a day,
the pay of the citizen attending the assembly or the court would at
least cover the expenses of subsistence. On the other hand, it would
be less than the pay of a day labourer, which was probably about
4 obols or 6d. a day. In any case many citizens — they numbered
in all about 20,000 — in return for their participation in political
duties would receive considerable pecuniary assistance. Attending
a great public festival also, the citizen would receive 2 obols or 3d.
a day during the festival days; and there were besides frequent
gublic sacrifices, with the meal or feast which accompanied them,
ut besides this there were confiscations of private property, which
produced a surplus revenue divisible among the poorer citizens.
(Some hold that there were confiscations in other Greek states, but
not in Athens.) In these circumstances it is not to be wondered
that men like Isocrates should regret that the influence of the
Areopagus, the old court of morals and justice in Athens, had dis-
appeared, for it " maintained a sort of censorial police over the lives
and habits of the citizens; and it professed to enforce a tutelary
and paternal discipline, beyond that which the strict letter of the
law could mark out, over the indolent, the prodigal, the undutiful,
and the deserters of old rite and custom."
(6) In addition to public emoluments and relief there was much
private liberality and charity. Many expensive public services
were undertaken honorarily by the citizens under a kind of civic
compulsion. Thus in a trial about 425 B.C. (Lysias, Or. 19. 57) a
citizen submitted evidence that his father expended more than
£2000 during his life in paving the expenses of choruses at festivals,
fitting out seven triremes for the navy, and meeting levies of income
tax to meet emergencies. Besides this he had helped poor citizens
by portioning their daughters and sisters, had ransomed some, and
paid the funeral expenses of others (cf . for other instances Plutarch's
Cimon, Theophrastus, Eth. t and Xen. Econ.).
(7) There were also mutual help societies (fpanot). Those for
relief would appear to have been loan societies (cf. Theoph. Eth.) t
one of whose members would beat up contributions to help a friend,
who would afterwards repay the advance.
The criticisms of Aristotle (38^-32 1 b.c) suggest the direction
to which he looked for reform. He (Pol. 1320 a) passes a very un-
favourable judgment on the distribution of public money to the
poorer citizens. The demagogues (he does not speak of Athens
particularly) distributed the surplus revenues to the poor, who
received them all at the same time; and then they were in want
again. It was only, he argued, like pouring water through a sieve.
It were better to see to it that the greater number were not so entirely
destitute, for the depravity of a democratic government was due to
this. The problem was to contrive how plenty (e&ropZa, not poverty,
iiTopla) should become permanent. His proposals are adequate aid
and voluntary charity. Public relief should, he urges, be given in
large amounts so as to help people to acquire small farms or start
in business, and the well-to-do (riJxopot) should in the meantime
subscribe to pay the poor for their attendance at the public assem-
blies. (This proves, indeed, how the payments had become poor
relief.) He mentions also how the Carthaginian notables divided
the destitute amongst them and gave them the means of setting
to work, and the Tarentines (wwd touvpt*) shared their property
with the poor. (The Rhodians also may be mentioned (Strabo xiv.
c. 652), amongst whom the well-to-do undertook the relief of the
poor voluntarily.) The later word for charitable distribution was
a sharing (kolvwU, Ep. Rom. xv. 26), which would seem to indicate
that after Aristotle's time popular thought had turned in that
direction. But the chief service rendered by Aristotle — a service
which covered indeed the whole ground of social progress — was to
show that unless the purpose of civil and social life was carefully
considered and clearly realized by those who desired to improve its
conditions, no change for the better could result from individual
or associated action.
Two forms of charity have still to be mentioned: charity
to the stranger and to the sick. It will be convenient to consider
both in relation to the whole classical period.
With the growth of towns the administration of hospitality
was elaborated. i
(1) There, was hospitality between members of families bound
by the rites of host and guest. The guest received as a right only
shelter and fire. Usually he dined with the host the first f be
day, and if afterwards he was fed provisions were supplied gtnutger.
to him. There were large guest-cnambers ({art?) or small
guest-houses, completely isolated on the right or left of the principal
house; and here the guest was lodged. (2) There were also, e.g. at
Hierapolis (Sir W. M. Ramsay's Phrygia, ii. 07), brotherhoods
of hospitality (£b«t r«c^pct<u, bearers of the sign), which made
hospitality a duty, and had a common chest and Apollo as their
tutelary god. (3; There were inns or resting-places (Karay&yia)
for strangers at temples (Thuc. iii. 68; Plato, Laws, 953 a) and
places of resort (Xferxq) at or near the temples for the entertain-
ment of strangers — for instance, at a temple of Asclepius at Epi-
dauni8 (Pausanias ii. 174); and Pausanias argues that they were
common throughout the country. Probably also at the temples
hospitable provision was made for strangers. The evidence at
present is not perhaps sufficiently complete, but, so far as it goes,
it tends to the conclusion that in pre-Christian times hospitality
was provided to passers-by and strangers in the temple buildings,
as later it was furnished in the monasteries and churches. (4) There
were also in towns houses for strangers (t&&v) provided at the
public cost. This was so at Megara; and in Crete strangers had a
place at the public meals and a dormitory. Xenophon suggested
that it would be profitable for the Athenian state to establish inns
for traders (Karaybyi* 5iy/i6<ria) 'at Athens. Thus, apart from the
official hospitality of the proxenus or " consul," who had charge of
the affairs of foreigners, and the hospitality which was shown to
Sjrsons of distinction by states or private individuals, there was in
reece a large provision for strangers, wayfarers and vagrants based
on the charitable sentiment of hospitality. Among the Romans
similar customs of private and public hospitality prevailed; and
throughout the empire the older system was altered, probably very
slowly. In Christian times (cf . Ramsay above) Pagan temples were
(about a.d. 408) utilized for other purposes, including that of hos-
pitality to strangers.
Round the temples, at first probably village temples, the
organization of medical relief grew up. Primitive medicine is
connected with dreams, worship, and liturgical jteskk,
" pollution," punishment and penitence, and an
experimental practice. Finally, systematic observation and
science (with no knowledge of chemistry and little of physiology)
assert themselves, and a secular administration is created by
the side of the older religious organization.
Sickness among primitive races is conceived to be a material
substance to be extracted, or an evil spirit to be driven away by
incantation. Religion and medicine are thus at the beginning
almost one and the same thing. In Anatolia, in the groups ot
villages (cf. Ramsay as above, i. 101) under the theocratic govern-
ment of a central Up6v or temple, the god Men Karou was the
physician and saviour (<t«t^p and vd>?<ai>) of his people. Priests,
prophets and physicians were his ministers. He punished wrong-
doing by diseases which he taught the penitent to cure. So else-
where pollution, physical or moral, was chastened by disease and
loss of property or children, and further ills were avoided by sacrifice
and expiation and public warning. In the temple and out of this
phase of thought grew up schools of medicine, in whose practice
dreams and religious ritual retained a place. The newer gods,
Asclepius and Apollo, succeeded the older local divinities; and
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
865
the " sons " of Asclepius became a profession, and the temple with
its adjacent buildings a kind of hospital. There were many temples
of Asclepius in Greece and elsewhere, placed generally in high and
salubrious positions. After ablution the patient offered sacrifices,
repeating himself the words of the hymn that was chanted. Then,
when night came on, he slept in the temple. In the early dawn he
was to dream " the heavenly dream " which would suggest his cure ;
but if he did not dream, relations and others — officials at the temple
— might dream for him. At dawn the priests or sons of Asclepius
came into the temple and visited the sick, so that, in a kind of
drama, where reality and appearance seemed to meet, the patients
believed that they saw the god himself. The next morning the
prescription and treatment were settled. At hand in the inn or
guest-chambers of the temple the patient could remain, sleeping
again in the temple, if necessary, and carrying out the required
regimen. In the temple were votive tablets of cases, popular and
awe-inspiring, and records and prescriptions, which later found
their way into the medical works of Galen and others. At the
temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus was an inn (Karay&yiov) with
four courts and colonnades, and in all 160 rooms. (Cf. Pausanias
ii. 171; and Report, Archaeol. in Greece, R. C. Bosanquet, 1899,
1900.)
At three centres more particularly, Rhodes, Cnidos and Cos,
were the medical schools of the Asclepiads. If one may judge
from an inscription at Athens, priests of Asclepius attended the
poor gratuitously. And years afterwards, in the nth century,
when there was a revival of medicine, we find (Daremberg, La
MSdecine: histoire et doctrines) at Salerno the Christian priest as
doctor, a simple and less palatable pharmacy for the poor than
for the rich, and gratuitous medical relief.
Besides the temple schools and hospitals there was a secular
organization of medical aid and relief. States appointed trained
medical men as physicians, and provided for them medical
establishments (iarpeta, " large houses with large doors full of
light ") for the reception of the sick, and for operations there
were provided beds, instruments, medicines, &c. At these places
also pupils were taught. A lower degree of medical establishment
was to be found at the barbers' shops. Out-patients were seen
at the iatreia. They were also visited at home. There were
doctors' assistants and slave doctors. The latter, apparently,
attended only slaves (Plato, Laws, 720); they do " a great
service to the master of the house, who in this manner is relieved
of the care of his slaves." It was a precept of Hippocrates that
if a physician came to a town where there were sick poor, he
should make it his first duty to attend to them; and the state
physician attended gratuitously any one who applied to him.
There were also travelling physicians going rounds to heal
children and the poor. These methods continued, probably all
of them, to Christian times.
It has been argued that medical practice was introduced into
Italy by the Greeks. But the evidence seems to show that there
was a quite independent Latin tradition and school of medicine
(Ren6 Brian, " Medecine dans le Latium et a Rome," Rev.
Archiol., 1885). In Rome there were consulting-rooms and
dispensaries, and houses in which the sick were received.
Hospitals are mentioned by Roman writers in the 1st century
a.d. There were infirmaries — detached buildings — for sick
slaves; and in Rome, as at Athens, there were slaves skilled in
medicine. In Rome also for each regio there was a chief physician
who attended to the poorer people.
Slavery was so large a factor in pre-Christian and early
Christian society that a word should be said on its relation
sttnrmyt to charity. Indirectly it was a cause of poverty
and social degradation. Thus in the case of Athens,
with the achievement of maritime supremacy the number of
slaves increased greatly. Manual arts were despised as un-
becoming to a citizen, and the slaves carried on the larger part
of the agricultural and industrial work of the community; and
for a time — until after the Peloponnesian War (404 B.C.) —
slavery was an economic success. But by degrees the slave, it
would seem, dispossessed the citizen and rendered him unfit
for competition. The position of the free artisan thus became
akin to that of the slave (Arist. Pol. 1260 a, &c), and slavery
became the industrial method of the country. Though Greeks,
Romans, Jews and Christians spent money in ransoming
individual slaves and also enfranchised many, no general abolition
of slavery was possible. At last through economic changes the
new status of cohni, who paid as rent part of the produce of the
land they tilled, superseded the status of slavery (cf. above;
the system turned to account by Peisistratus). But this result
was only achieved much later, when a new society was being
created, when the slaves from the slave prisons (ergastula) of
Italy joined its invaders, and the slave-owner or master, as one
may suppose, unable any longer to work the gangs, let them
become cohni.
In Greece the feeling towards the slave became constantly
more humane. Real slavery, Aristotle said, was a cast of mind,
not a condition of life. The slave was not to be ordered about,
but to be commanded and persuaded like a child. The master
was under the strongest obligation to promote his welfare. In
Rome, on the other hand, slavery continued to the end a massive,
brutal, industrial force — a standing danger to the state. But
alike in Greece and Rome the influence of slavery on the family
was pernicious. The pompous array of domestic slaves, the
transfer of motherly duties to slave nurses, the loss of that
homely education which for most people comes only from the
practical details of life — all this in later Greece and Italy, and
far into Christian times, prevented that permanent invigoration
and reform of family life which Jewish and Christian influences
might otherwise have produced.
Part III.— Charity in Roman Times
The words that suggest most clearly the Roman attitude
towards what we call charity are liber alitas, beneficentia and
pietas. The two former are almost synonymous (Cicero, De
Offic. i. 7, 14). Liberality lays stress on the mood — that of the
liber f the freeborn, and so in a sense the independent and superior ;
beneficence on the deed and its purpose (Seneca, De Benef. vi. 10) .
The conditions laid down by Cicero, following Panaetius the Stoic
(185-112 B.C.) are three: not to do harm to him whom one would
benefit, not to exceed one's means, and to have regard to merit.
The character of the person whom we would benefit should be
considered, his feelings towards us, the interest of the community,
our social relations in life, and services rendered in the past.
The utility of the deed or gift graded according to social relation-
ship and estimated largely from the point of view of ultimate
advantage to the doer or donor seems to predominate in the
general thought of the book, though (cf. Aristotle, Eth. viii. 3)
the idea culminates in the completeness of friendship where " all
things are in common." Pietos has the religious note which the
other words lack, loving dutifulness to gods and home and
country. Not " piety " only but " pity " derive from it: thus
it comes near to our " charity." Both books, the De Officii*
and the De Beneficiis, represent a Roman and Stoical revision
of the problem of charity and, as in Stoicism generally, there
seems to be a half-conscious attempt to feel the way to a new
social standpoint from this side.
As from the point of view of charity the well-being of the
community depends upon the vigour of the deep-laid elemental
life within it, so in passing to Roman times we consider
the family first The Roman family was unique in its Sou*!*
completeness, and by some of its conditions the world
has long been bound. The father alone had independent authority
(sui juris) t and so long as he lived all who were under his power —
his wife, his sons, and their wives and children, and his unmarried
daughters — could not acquire any property of their own. Failing
father or husband, the unmarried daughters were placed under
the guardianship of the nearest male members of the family.
Thus the family, in the narrower sense in which we commonly
use the word, as meaning descendants of a common father or
grandfather, was, as it were, a single point of growth in a larger
organism, the gens, which consisted of all those who shared a
common ancestry.
The wife, though in law the property of her husband, held a
position of honour and influence higher than that of the Greek
wife, at least in historic times. She seems to come nearer to the
ideal of Xenophon : " the good wife should be the mistress of every-
thing within the house." A house of his own and the blessing
of children appeared to the Roman citizen as the end and essence
v. 28
866
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
of life " (Mommsen, Hist Rome). The obligation of the father to
the sons was strongly felt. The family, past, present and future,
was conceived as one and indivisible. Each succeeding generation
had a right to the care of its predecessor in mind, body and estate.
The training of the sons was distinctly a home and not a school
training. Brought up by the father and constantly at his side, they
learnt spontaneously the habits and traditions of the family. The
home was their school. By their father they were introduced into
fmblic life, and though still remaining under his power during his
ifetime, they became citizens, and their relation to the state was
direct. The nation was a nation of yeomen. Only agriculture and
warfare were considered honourable employments. The father and
sons worked outdoors on the farm, employing little or no slave
labour; the wife and daughters indoors at spinning and weaving.
The drudgery of the household was done by domestic slaves. The
father was the working head of a toiling household. Their chief
eods were the same as those of early Greece — Zeus- Dio vis and
Hestia- Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and home. Out of this
solid, compact family Roman society was built, and so long as the
family was strong attachment to the service of the state was intense.
The res publica, the common weal, the phrase and the thought, meet
one at every turn; and never were citizens more patient and
tenacious combatants on their country's behalf. The men were
soldiers in an unpaid militia and were constantly engaged in wars
with the rivals of Rome, leaving home and family tor their cam-
paigns and returning to them in the winter. With a hardness and
closeness inconsistent with — indeed, opposed to — the charitable
spirit, they combined the strength of character and sense of justice
without which charity becomes sentimental and unsocial. In the
development of the family, and thus, indirectly, in the development
of charity, they stand for settled obligation and unrelenting duty.
Under the protection of the head of the family " in dependent
freedom " lived the clients. They were in a middle position
between the freemen and the slaves. The relation between
patron and client lasted for several generations; and there were
many clients. Their number increased as state after state was
conquered, and they formed the plebs, in Rome the plebs urbana,
the lower orders of the city.
In relation to our subject the important factors are the family,
the plebs and slavery.
Two processes were at work from an early date, before the first
agrarian law (486 B.C.): the impoverishment of the plebs and
the increase of slavery. The former led to the annona civica, or
the free supply of corn to the citizens, and to the sportula or the
organized food-supply for poor clients, and ultimately to the
alitnentarii pueri, the maintenance of children of citizens by
voluntary and imperial bounty. The latter (slavery) was the
standing witness that, as self-support was undermined, the task
of relief became hopeless, and the impoverished citizen, as the
generations passed, became in turn dependant, beggar, pauper
and slave.
The great patrician families — " an oligarchy of warriors and
slaveholders " — did not themselves engage in trade, but, entering
on large speculations, employed as their agents their clients,
libertini or freedmen, and, later, their slaves. The constant
wars, for which the soldiers of a local militia were eventually
retained in permanent service, broke up the yeomanry and very
greatly reduced their number. Whole families of citizens be-
came impoverished, and their lands were in consequence sold to
the large patrician families, members of which had acquired
lucrative posts, or prospered in their speculations, and assumed
possession of the larger part of the land, the ager publicus,
acquired by the state through conquest. The city had always
been the centre of the patrician families, the patron of the trading
libertini and other dependants. To it now flocked as well the
metoeci, the resident aliens from the conquered states, and the
poorer citizens, landless and unable for social reasons to turn to
trade. There was thus in Rome a growing multitude of aliens,
dispossessed yeomen and dependent clients. Simultaneously
slavery increased very largely after the second Punic War
(202 B.C.). Every conquest brought slaves into the market, for
whom ready purchasers were found. The slaves took the place
of the freemen upon the old family estates, and the free country
people became extinct. Husbandry gave place to shepherding.
The estates were thrown into large domains (latifundia), managed
by bailiffs and worked by slaves, often fettered or bound by
chains, lodged in cells in houses of labour (ergastula), and some*
times cared for when ill in infirmaries (valetudinaria). In Crete
The
and Sparta the slaves toiled that the mass of citizens might have
means and leisure. In Rome the slave class was organized for
private and not for common ends. In Athens the citizens were
paid for their services; at Rome no offices were paid. Thus
the citizen at Rome was, one might almost say, forced into a
dependence on the public corn, for as the large properties
swallowed up the smaller, and the slave dispossessed the citizen,
a population grew up unfit for rural toil, disinclined to live by
methods that pride considered sordid, unstable and pleasure-
loving, and yet a serious political factor, as dependent on the
rich for their enjoyments as they were on their patrons or the
prefect of the corn in the city for their food.
It is estimated, from extremely difficult and uncertain data, that
the population of Rome in the time of Augustus was about 1,200,000
or 1,500,000. At that time the plebs urbana numbered 320,000. If
this be multiplied by three, to give a low average of dependants,
wives and children, this section of the population would number
960,000. The remainder of the 1,500,000, 540,000, would consist of
{a) slaves, and (b) those, the comparatively few, who would be
members of the great clan-families (gentes). Proportionately to
Attica this seems to allow too small a population of slaves. But
however this be, we may picture the population of Rome as consist-
ing chiefly of a few patrician families ministered to by a very large
number of slaves, and a populace of needy citizens, in whose ranks it
was profitable for an outsider to find a place in order that he might
participate in the advantages of state maintenance.
In Rome the clan-family became the dominant political factor.
As in England and elsewhere in the middle ages, and even in
later times, the family, in these circumstances, assumes
an influence which is out of harmony with the common
good. The social advantage of the family lies in its tjricm!*
self-maintenance, its home charities, and its moral
and educational force, but if its separate interests are made
supreme, it becomes uncharitable and unsocial. In Rome this
was the line of development. The stronger clan-families crushed
the weaker, and became the " oligarchy of warriors and slave-
holders." In the same spirit they possessed themselves of
the ager publicus. The land obtained by the Romans by right
of conquest was public. It belonged to the state, and to a yeo-
man state it was the most valuable acquisition. At first part of
it was sold and part was distributed to citizens without property
and destitute (cf . Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus) . At a very early date,
however, the patrician families acquired possession of much of
it and held it at a low rental, and thus the natural outlet for a
conquering farmer race was monopolized by one class, the richer
clan-families. This injustice was in part remedied by the
establishment of colonies, in which the emigrant citizens received
sufficient portions of land. But these colonies were comparatively
few, and after each conquest the rich families made large pur-
chases, while the smaller proprietors, whose services as soldiers
were constantly required, were unable to attend to their lands
or to retain possession of them. To prevent this (367 B.C.)
the Licinian law was passed, by which ownership in land was
limited to 500 juget a, about 312 acres. This law was ignored,
however, and more than two centuries later the evil, the double
evil of the dispossession of the citizen farmer and of slavery,
reached a crisis. The slave war broke out (134 B.C.) and (133 B.C.)
Tiberius Gracchus made his attempt to re-endow the Roman
citizens with the lands which they had acquired by conquest.
He undertook what was essentially a charitable or philanthropic
movement, which was set on foot too late. He had passed through
Tuscany, and seen with resentment and pity the deserted
country where the foreign slaves and barbarians were now
the only shepherds and cultivators. He had been brought up
under the influence of Greek Stoical thought, with which, almost
in spite of itself, there was always associated an element of pity.
The problem which he desired to solve, though larger in scale,
was essentially the same as that with which Solon and Peisis-
tratus had dealt successfully. At bottom the issue lay between
private property, considered as the basis of family life for the
great bulk of the community, with personal independence, and
pauperism, with the annona or slavery. In 133 B.C. Tiberius
Gracchus became tribune. To expand society on the lines of
private property, he proposed the enforcement of " the Licinian
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
867
Rogations "; the rich were to give up all beyond their rightful
312 acres, and the remainder was to be distributed amongst
the poor. The measure was carried by the use of arbitrary
powers, and followed by the death of Tiberius at the hands of
the patricians, the dominant clan-families. In 132 B.C. Caius
Gracchus took up his brother's quarrel, and adopting, it would
seem, a large scheme of political and social reform, proposed
measures for emigration and for relief. The former failed; the
latter apparently were acceptable to all parties, and continued
in force long after C. Gracchushadbeenslain(i2iB.c). Already,
at times, there had been sales of corn at cheap prices. Now, by
the lex frumentaria he gave the citizens — those who had the
Roman franchise — the right to purchase corn every month from
the public stores at rather more than half-price, 6} asses or about
3.3d. the peck. This, the fatal alternative, was accepted, and
henceforth there was no possibility of a reversion to better social
conditions.
The provisioning of Rome was, like that of Athens, a public
service. There were public granaries (267 B.C.), and there was
a quaestor to supervise the transit of the corn from Sicily and,
later, from Spain and Africa, and an elaborate administration
for collecting and conveying it. The lex frumentaria of Caius was
followed by the lex Octavia, restricting the monthly sale to citizens
settled in Rome, and to 5 modii (ij bushels). According to
Polybius, the amount required for the maintenance of a slave
was 5 modii a month, and of a soldier 4. Hence the allowance,
if continued at this rate, was practically a maintenance. The
lex Clodia (58 B.C.) made the corn gratuitous to the plebs
urbana.
Julius Caesar (5 B.C.) found the number of recipients to be 320,000,
and reduced them to 150,000. In Augustus's time they rose to
200,000. There seems, however, to be some confusion as to the
numbers. From the Ancyranum Monumentum it appears that the
plebs urbana who received Augustus's dole of 60 denarii (37s. 6d.)
m his eighth consulship numbered 320,000. And (Suet. Goes. 41)
it seems likely that in Caesar's time the lists of the recipients were
settled by lot; further, probably only those whose property was
worth less than 400,000 sesterces (£3541) were placed on the lists.
It is probable, therefore, that 320,000 represents a maximum,
reduced for purposes of administration to a smaller number (a) by
a property test, and (b) by some kind of scrutiny. The names of
those certified to receive the corn were exposed on bronze tablets.
They were then called aerarii. They had tickets (tesserae) for pur-
poses of identification, and they received the corn or bread in the
time of the republic at the temple of Ceres, and afterwards at steps
in the several (14.) regions or wards of Rome. Hence the bread was
called panis gradilis. In the middle of the 2nd century there were
state bakeries, and wheaten loaves were baked for the people perhaps
two or three times a week. In Aurelian's time (a.d. 270) the flour
was of the best, and the weight of the loaf (one uncia) was doubled.
To the gifts of bread were added pork, oil and possibly wine;
clothes also — white tunics with long sleeves — were distributed.
In the period after Constantine (cf. Theod\ Code, xiv. 15) three
classes received the bread — the palace people (palatini), soldiers
(militares) t and the populace (popidares). No distribution was per-
mitted except at the steps. Each class had its own steps in the
several wards. The bread at one step could not be transferred to
another step. Each class had its own supply. There were arrange-
ments for the exchange of stale loaves. Against misappropriation
there were (law of Valentinian and Valens) severe penalties. If a
public prosecutor (actor), a collector of the revenue (procurator), or
the slave of a senator obtained bread with the cognizance of the
clerk, or by bribery, the slave, if his master was not a party to the
offence, had to serve in the state bakehouse in chains. If the master
were involved, his house was confiscated. If others who had not the
right obtained the bread, they and their property were placed at
the service of the bakery (pistrini exercitio subjugari). If they were
poor (pauperes) they were enslaved, and the delinquent client was
to be put to death.
The right to relief was dependent on the right of citizenship.
Hence it became hereditary and passed from father to son.
It was thus in the nature of a continuous endowed charity, like the
well-known family charity of Smith, for instance, in which a
large property was left to the testator's descendants, of whom
it was said that as a result no Smith of that family could fail to be
poor. But the annona civica was an endowed charity, affecting
not a single family, but the whole population. Later, when
Constantinople was founded, the right to relief was attached to
new houses as a premium on building operations. Thus it
belonged not to persons only, but also to houses, and became a
species of " immovable " property, passing to the purchaser of
the house or property, as would the adscript slaves. The bread
followed the house (aedes sequantur annonae) . If, on the transfer
of a house, bread claims were lost owing to the absence of
claimants, they were transferred to the treasury (fisci virions
vindicentur). But the savage law of Valentinian, referred to
above, shows to what lengths such a system was pushed. Early
in its history the annona civica attracted many to Rome in the
hope of living there without working. For the 400 years since
the lex Clodia was enacted constant injury had been done by it,
and now (a.d. 364) people had to be kept off the civic bounty as
if they were birds of prey, and the very poor man (pauperrimus),
who had no civic title to the food, if he obtained it by fraud,
was enslaved. Thus, in spite of the abundant state relief, there
had grown up a class of the very poor, the Gentiles of the state,
who were outside the sphere of its ministrations. The annona
civica was introduced not only into Constantinople, but also
into Alexandria, with baleful results, and into Antioch. When
Constantinople was founded the corn-ships of Africa sailed there
instead of to Rome. On charitable relief, as we shall see, the
annona has had a long-continued and fatal influence.
1. If the government considers itself responsible for provisioning
the people it must fix the price of necessaries, and to meet distress
or popular clamour it will lower the price. It becomes thus a large
relief society for the supply of corn. In a time of distress, when the
corn laws were a matter of moment in England, a similar system was
adopted in the well-known Speenhamland scale (1795), by which a
larger or lesser allowance was given to a family according to its size
and the prevailing price of corn. A maintenance was thus provided
for the able-bodied and their families, at least in part, without any
equivalent in labour; though in England labour was demanded of
the applicant, and work was done more or less perfunctorily. In
amount the Roman dole seems to have been equivalent to the
allowance provided for a slave, but the citizen received it without
having to do any labour task. He received it as a statutory right.
There could hardly be a more effective method for degrading his
manhood and denaturalizing his family. He was also a voter, and
the alms appealed to his weakness and indolence; and the fear of
displeasing him and losing his vote kept him, socially, master of the
situation, to his own ruin. If in England now relief were given to
able-bodied persons who retained their votes, this evil would also
attach to it.
2. The system obliged the hard-working to maintain the idlers,
while it continually increased their number. The needy teacher
stages
The freeman had become a slave — " stupid and drowsy, to whom
days of ease had become habitual, the games, the circus, the theatre,
dice, eating-houses and brothels." Here are all the marks of a
degraded pauperism.
3. The system led the way to an ever more extensive slavery.
The man who could not live on his dole and other scrapings had the
alternative of becoming a slave. " Better have a good master than
live so distressfully "; and " If I were free I should live at my own
risk; now I live at youre," are the expressions suggestive of the
natural temptations of slavery in these conditions. The escaped
slaves returned to " their manger." The annona did not prevent
destitution. It was a half-way house to slavery.
4. The effect on agriculture, and proportionally on commerce
generally, was ruinous. The largest corn-market, Rome, was with-
drawn from the trade — the market to which all the necessaries of
life would naturally have gravitated ; and the supply of corn was
placed in the hands of producers at a few centres where it could be
trown most cheaply— -Sicily, Spain and Africa. The Italian farmer
ad to turn his attention to other produce — the cultivation of the
olive and the vine, and cattle and pig rearing. The greater the ex-
tension of the system the more impossible was the regeneration of
Rome. The Roman citizen might well say that he was out of
work, for, so far as the land was concerned, the means of obtaining
a living were placed out of his reach. While not yet unfitted for
the country by life in the town, he at least could not " return to the
land."
5. The method was the outcome of distress and political hopeless-
ness. Yet the rich also adopted it in distributing their private
largess. Cicero (De Off. ii. 16) writes as though he recognized its
evil; but though he expresses his disapprobation of the popular
shows upon which the aediles spent large sums, he argues that some-
thing must be done " if the people demand it, and if good men,
though they do not wish it, assent to it." Thus in a guarded manner
he approves a distribution of food — a free breakfast in the streets
of Rome. One bad result of the annona was that it encouraged a
special and ruinous form of charitable munificence.
868
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
The sportula was a form of charity corresponding to the annona
civica. Charity and poor relief run on parallel lines, and when
the one is administered without discrimination, little
$portai*. discrimination will usually be exercised in the other.
It was the charity of the patron of the chiefs of the
clan-families to their clients. Between them it was natural that
a relation, partly hospitable, partly charitable, should grow up.
The clients who attended the patron at his house were invited
to dine at his table. The patron, as Juvenal describes him,
dined luxuriously and in solitary grandeur, while the guests put
up with what they could get; or, as was usual under the empire,
instead of the dinner (coena recta) a present of food was given at
the outer vestibule of the house to clients who brought with them
baskets (sportula) to carry off their food, or even charcoal stoves
to keep it warm. There was endless trickery. The patron (or
almoner who acted for him) tried to identify the applicant,
fearing lest he might get the dole under a false name; and at each
mansion was kept a list of persons, male and female, entitled to
receive the allowance. " Tlie pilferer grabs the dole " (sportulatn
furunculus capiat) was a proverb. The sportula was a charity
sufficiently important for state regulation. Nero (a.d. 54)
reduced it to a payment in money (100 quadr antes, about is.).
Domitian (a.d. 81) restored the custom of giving food. Subse-
quently both practices — gifts in money and in food — appear to
have been continued.
In these conditions the Roman family steadily decayed. Its
"old discipline" was neglected; and Tacitus (a.d. 75), in his
dialogue on Oratory, wrote (c. xxviii.) what might be called its
epitaph. Of the general decline the laws of Caesar and Augustus
to encourage marriage and to reward the parents of large families
are sufficient evidence.
The destruction of the working-class family must have been
finally achieved by the imperial control of the collegia.
In old Rome there were corporations of craftsmen for common
worship, and for the maintenance of the traditions of the craft.
n0 These corporations were ruined by slave labour, and
collegia becoming secret societies, in the time of Augustus were
vmniMm * suppressed. Subsequently they were reorganized, and
gave scope for much friendliness. They often existed in connexion
with some great house, whose chief was their patron and whose
household gods they worshipped. The gilds of the poor, or rather
of the lower orders (collegia tenuiorum), consisted of artisans and
others, and slaves also, who paid monthly contributions to a common
fund to meet the expenses of worship, common meals, and funerals.
They were not in Italy, it would seem (J. P. Waltzing, Etudes histor.
sur tes corporations professionnelles chez les Remains, i. 145, 300),
though they may have been in Asia Minor and elsewhere, societies
for mutual help generally. They were chiefly funeral benefit societies.
Under Severus (a.d. 192) the collegia were extended and more
closely organized as industrial bodies. They were protected and
controlled, as in England in the 15th century the municipalities
affected the cause of the craft gilds and ended by controlling them.
Industrial disorder was thus prevented; the government were able
to provide the supplies required in Rome and the large cities with
less risk and uncertainty; and the workmen employed in trade,
especially the carrying trade, became almost slaves. In the 2nd
century, and until the invasions, there were three groups of collegia:
(1) those engaged in various state manufactures; (2) those engaged
in the provision trade; and (3) the free trades, which gradually
lapsed into a kind of slavery, ft the members of these gilds fled they
were brought back by force. Parents had to keep to the trade to
which they belonged; their children had to succeed them in it.
A slave caste indeed had been formed of the once free workmen.
As a charitable protest against the destruction of children,
in the midst of a broken family life, and increasing dependence
PueriMiu an( * P° vertv > a special institution was founded (to use
meatMriL tnc Scottish word) for the " alimentation " of the
children of citizens, at first by voluntary charity and
afterwards by imperial bounty.
Nerva and Trajan adopted the plan. Pliny (Ep< vii. 18) refers
to it. There was a desire to give more lasting and certain help
than an allotment of food to parents. A list of children, whose
names were on the relief tables at Rome, was accordingly drawn
up, and a special service for their maintenance established. Two
instances are recorded in inscriptions — one at Veleia, one at Bene-
ventum. The emperor lent money for the purpose at a low per-
centage — 2 J or 5 % as against the usual 10 or 12. At Veleia his loan
amounted to 1,044,000 sesterces— -about £8156, and 51 of the local
landed proprietors mortgaged land, valued at 13 or 14 million
sesterces, as security for the debt. The interest on the emperor's
money at 5 % was paid into the municipal treasury, and out of it the
children were relieved. The figures seem small; at Veleia 300
children were assisted, of whom 36 were girls. The annual interest
at 5 % amounted to nearly £408, which divided among 300 gives
about 27s. a head. The figures suggest that the money servedas a
charitable supplementation of the citizens' relief in direct aid of
the children. Apparently the scheme was widely adopted. Curators
of high position were the patrons; procurators acted as inspectors
over large areas; and quaestores alimentarii undertook the local
management. Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138), and Marcus Aurelius
(a.d. 160), and subsequently Severus (a.d. 192) established these
bursaries for children in the names of their wives. In the 3rd century
the system fell into disorder. There were large arrears of payments,
and in the military anarchy that ensued it came to an end. It is of
special interest, as indicating a new feeling of responsibility towards
children akin to the humane Stoicism of the Antonines, and an
attempt to found, apart from temples or collegia, what was in the
nature of a public endowed charity.
Part IV. — Jewish and Christian Charity
With Christianity two elements came into fusion, the Jewish
and the Greco-Roman. To trace this fusion and its results it is
necessary to describe the Jewish system of charity, and to com-
pare it with that of the early Christian church, to note the theory
of love or friendship in Aristotle as representing Greek thought,
and of charity in St Paul as representing Christian thought, and
to mark the Roman influences which moulded the administration
of Ambrose and Gregory and Western Christianity generally.
In the early history of the Hebrews we find the family, dan-
family and tribe. With the Exodus (probably about 1390 B.C.)
comes the law of Moses (cf . Kittel, Hist, of the Hebrews,
Eng. trans, i. 244), the central and permanent element chmrity.
of Jewish thought. We may compare it to the
" commandments " of Hesiod. There is the recognition of the
family and its obligations: " Honour thy father and mother ";
and honour included help and support. There is also the law
essential to family unity: " Thou shalt not commit adultery ";
and as to property there is imposed the regulation of desire:
" Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house." Maimonides
(A.D.1135), true to the old conception of the family (x. 16), calls
the support of adult children, " after one is exempt from support-
ing them," and the support of a father or mother by a child,
" great acts of charity; since kindred are entitled to the first
consideration. ' ' To relief of the stranger the Decalogue makes no
reference, but in the Hebraic laws it is constantly pressed; and
the Levitical law (xix. 18) goes further. It first applies a new
standard to social life: " Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thy-
self." This thought is the outcome of a deep ethical fervour —
the element which the Jews brought into the work of charity.
In Judges and Joshua, the " Homeric " books of the Old Testa-
ment, the Hebrews appear as a passionately fierce and cruel
people. Subsequently against their oppression of the poor the
prophets protested with a vehemence as great as the evil was
intense; and their denunciations remained part of the national
literature, a standing argument that life without charity is
nothing worth. Thus schooled and afterwards tutored into
discipline by the tribulation of the exile (587 B.C.), they turned
their fierceness into a zeal, which, as their literature shows, was
as fervent in ethics as it was in religion and ceremonial. In the
services at the synagogues, which supplemented and afterwards
took the place of the Temple, the Commandments were constantly
repeated and the Law and the Prophets read; and as the Jews
of the Dispersion increased in number, and especially after the
destruction of Jerusalem, the synagogues became centres of social
and charitable co-operation. Thus rightly would a Jewish rabbi
say, " On three things the world is stayed: on the Thorah (or
the law), and on worship, and on the bestowal of kindness."
Also there was on the charitable side an indefinite power of
expansion. Rigid in its ceremonial, there it was free. Within
the nation, as the Prophets, and after the exile, as the Psalms
show, there was the hope of a universal religion, and with it of a
universally recognized charity. St Paul accentuated the pro-
hibitive side of the law and protested against it; but, even while
he was so doing, stimulated by the Jewish discipline, he was
moving unfettered towards new conceptions of charity and life —
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
869
charity as the central word of the Christian life, and life as a
participation in a higher existence — the " body of Christ."
To mark the line of development, we could compare — 1. The
family among the Jews and in the early Christian church;
2. The sources of relief and the tithe, the treatment of the poor
and their aid, and the assistance of special classes of poor; 3.
The care of strangers; and, lastly, we would consider the
theory of almsgiving, friendship or love, and charity.
1. As elsewhere, property is the basis of the family. Wife and
children are the property of the father. But the wife is held
in high respect. In the post-exilian period the virtuous wife
is represented as laborious as a Roman matron, a " lady bounti-
ful" to the poor, and to her husband wife and friend alike.
Monogamy without concubinage is now the rule — is taken for
granted as right. There is no " exposure of children." The
slaves are kindly treated, as servants rather than slaves — though
in Roman times and afterwards the Jews were great slave-
traders. The household is not allowed to eat the bread of
idleness. " Six days," it was said, " must [not mayest] thou
work." " Labour, if poor; but find work, if rich." " Whoever
does not teach his son business or work, teaches him robbery."
In Job xxxi., a chapter which has been called " an inventory of
late Old Testament morality," we find the family life developed
side by side with the life of charity. In turn are mentioned the
relief of the widow, the fatherless and the stranger — the classifi-
cation of dependents in the Christian church ; and the whole
chapter is a justification of the homely charities of a good family.
" The Jewish religion, more especially in the old and orthodox
form, is essentially a family religion " (C. G. Montefiore, Religion
of Ancient Hebrews).
In the early documents of the Church the fifth commandment
is made the basis of family life (cf. Eph. vi. 1; A post. Const.
ii. 32, iv. 11 — if we take the first six books of the A post. Const.
as a composite production before a.d. 300, representing Judaeo-
Christian or Eastern church thought). But two points are
prominent. Duties are insisted on as reciprocal (cf. especially
St Paul's Epistles), as, e.g. between husband and wife, parent
and child, master and servant. Charity is mutual; the family
is a circle of reciprocal duties and charities. This implies a
principle of the greatest importance in relation to the social
utility of charity. Further reference will be made to it later.
Next the " thou shalt love thy neighbour "' is translated from
its position as one among many sayings to the chief place as a
rule of life. In the Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles
(Jewish-Christian, c. 90-120 a.d.) the first commandment in " the
way of life " is adapted from St Matthew's Gospel thus: " First,
thou shalt love God who made thee; secondly, thy neighbour
as thyself; and all things whatsoever thou wouldst not have
done to thee, neither do thou to another." A principle is thus
applied which touches all social relations in which the " self "
can be made the standard of judgment. Of this also later. To
touch on other points of comparison: the earlier documents
seem to ring with a reiterated cry for a purer family life (cf . the
second, the negative, group of commandments in the Didache,
and the judgment of the apocalyptic writings, such as the
Revelations of Peter, &c); and, sharing the Jewish feeling, the
riper conscience of the Christian community formulates and
accepts the injunction to preserve infant life at every stage.
It advocates, indeed, the Jewish purity of family life with a
missionary fervour, and it makes of it a condition of church
membership. The Jewish rule of labour is enforced (A p. Const.
ii. 63). If a stranger settle (Didache, xii. 3) among the brother-
hood, " let him work and eat." And the father (Constit. iv. 1 1)
is to teach the children " such trades as are agreeable and
suitable to their need." And the charities to the widow, the
fatherless, are organized on Jewish lines.
2. The sources of relief among the Jews were the three gifts of
corn: (1) the corners of the field (cf. Lev. xix. &c), amounting
to a sixtieth part of it; (2) the gleanings, a definite minimum
dropped in the process of reaping (Maimonides, Laws of the
Hebrews relating to the Poor, iv. 1); (3) corn overlooked and
left behind. So it was with the grapes and with all crops that
were harvested, as opposed, e.g. to figs, that were gathered from
time to time. These gifts were divisible three times in the day,
so as to suit the convenience of the poor (Maim. ii. 17), and the
poor had a right to them. They are indeed a poor-rate paid in
kind such as in early times would naturally spring up among an
agricultural people. Another gift " out of the seed of the
earth," is the tithe. In the post-exilian period the septenniad
was in force. Each year a fiftieth part of the produce (Maim,
vi. 2, and Deut. xviii. 4) was given to the priest (the class which
in the Jewish state was supported by the community). Of the
remainder one-tenth went to the Levite, and one-tenth in three
years of the septennium was retained for pilgrimage to Jerusalem,
in two given to the poor. In the seventh year " all things were
in common." Supplementing these gifts were alms to all who
asked; " and he who gave less than a tenth of his means was a
man of evil eye " (Maim. vii. 5). All were to give alms, even
the poor themselves who were in receipt of relief. Refusal
might be punished with stripes at the hand of the Sanhedrim.
At the Temple alms for distribution to the worthy poor were
placed by worshippers in the cell of silence; and it is said that
in Palestine at meal times the table was open to all comers. As
the synagogues extended, and possibly after the fall of Jerusalem
(a.d. 70) , the collections of alms was further systematized. There
were two collections. In each city alms of the box or chest
(kupha) were collected for the poor of the city on each Sabbath
eve (later, monthly or thrice a year), and distributed in money
or food for seven days. Two collected, three distributed. Three
others gathered and distributed daily alms Of the basket
(tamchui). These were for strangers and wayfarers — casual
relief " for the poor of the whole world." In the Jewish syna-
gogue community from early times the president (parnass) and
treasurer were elected annually with seven heads of the con-
gregation (see Abraham's Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 54),
and sometimes special officers for the care of the poor. A staff
of almoners was thus forthcoming. In addition to these collec-
tions were the pruta given to the poor before prayers (Maim. x.
15), and moneys gathered to help particular cases (cf. Jewish
Life, p. 322) by circular letter. There were also gifts at marriages
and funerals; and fines imposed for breach of the communal
ordinances were reserved for the poor. The distinctive feature
of the Jewish charity was the belief that " the poor would not
cease out of the land," and that therefore on charitable grounds
a permanent provision should be made for them — a poor-rate, in
fact, subject to stripes and distraint, if necessary (Maim. vii. 10;
and generally cf. articles on " Alms " and " Charity " in the
Jewish Encyclopaedia).
If we compare this with the early church we find the following
sources of relief: (1) The Eucharistic offerings, some consumed at
the time, some carried home, some reserved for the absent (see
Hatch, Early Church, p. ao). The ministration, like the Eucharist,
was connected with the love feast, and was at first daily (Acts ii.
42, vi. 1, and the Didache). (2) Freewill offerings and first-fruits
and voluntary tithes (Aj>. Con. ii. 25) brought to the bishop and
used for the poor — orphans, widows, the afflicted and strangers
in distress, and for the clergy, deaconesses, &c. (3) Collections
in churches on Sundays and week-days, alms-boxes and gifts to
the poor by worshippers as they entered church; also collections
for special purposes (cf. for Christians at Jerusalem). Apart from
" the corners," &c, the sources of relief in the Christian and Jewish
churches are the same. The separate Jewish tithe for the poor,
which (Maim. vi. 11, 13) might be used in part by the donor as
personal charity, disappears. A voluntary tithe remains, in part
used for the poor. We do not hear of stripes and distraint, but in
both bodies there is a penitential system and excommunication
(cf. Jewish Life, p. 52), and in both a settlement of disputes within
the body (Clem. Horn. iii. 67). In both, too, there is the abundant
alms provided in the belief of the permanence of poverty and the duty
of giving to all who ask. As to administration in the early church
(Acts vi. 3), we find seven deacons, the number of the local Jewish
council; and later there were in Rome seven ecclesiastical relief
districts, each in charge of a deacon. The deacon acted as the
minister of the bishop (Ep. Clem, to Jam. xii.), reporting to him
and giving as he dictated (Ap ; Con. ii. 30, 31). He at first combined
disciplinary powers with charitable. The presbyters also (Polycarp,
Ad Phil. 6, a.d. 69-155), forming (Hatch, p. 69) a kind of bishop's
council, visited the sick, &c. The bishop was president and treasurer.
The bishop was thus the trustee of the ooor. By reason of the
churches' care of orphans, responsibilities of trusteeship also
870
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
devolved on him. The temples were in pagan times depositories of
money. Probably the churches were also.
3. Great stress is laid by the Jews on the duty of gentleness
to the poor (Maim. x. 5). The woman was to have first attention
(Maim. vi. 13). If the applicant was hungry he was to be fed,
and then examined to learn whether he was a deceiver (Maim,
vii. 6)1 Assistance was to be given according to the want —
clothes, household things, a wife or a husband — and according
to the poor man's station in life. For widows and orphans the
" gleanings " were left. Both are the recognized objects of
charity (Maim. x. 16, 1 7) . " The poor and the orphan were to be
employed in domestic affairs in preference to servants." The
dower was a constant form of help. The ransoming of slaves
took precedence of relief to the poor. The highest degree of
alms-deed (Maim. x. 7) was " to yield support to him who is
cast down, either by means of gifts, or by loan, or by commerce,
or by procuring for him traffic with others. Thus his hand
beoometh strengthened, exempt from the necessity of soliciting
succour from any created being."
If we compare the Christian methods we find but slight
difference. The absoluteness of " Give to him that asketh "
is in the Didache checked by the " Woe to him that receives:
for if any receives having need, he shall be guiltless, but he that
has no need shall give account, . . . and coming into distress
... he shall not come out thence till he hath paid the last
farthing." It is the duty of the bishop to know who is most
worthy of assistance (Ap. Con. ii. 3, 4); and " if any one is in
want by gluttony, drunkenness, or idleness, he does not deserve
assistance, or to be esteemed a member of the church." The
widow assumes the position not only of a recipient of alms, but
a church worker. Some were a private charge, some were
maintained by the church. The recognized " widow " was
maintained: she was to be sixty years of age (cf. 1 Tim. v. 9 and
Ap. Con. ill. 1), and was sometimes tempted to become a bedes-
woman and gossipy pauper, if one may judge from the texts.
Remarriage was not approved. Orphans were provided for by
members of the churches. The virgins formed another class, as,
contrary to the earlier feeling, marriage came to be held a state
of lesser sanctity. They too seem to have been also, in part at
least, church workers. Thus round the churches grew up new
groups of recognized dependents; but the older theory of charity
was broad and practical — akin to that of Maimonides. " Love
all your brethren, performing to orphans the part of parents, to
widows that of husbands, affording them sustenance with all
kindliness, arranging marriages for those who are in their prime,
and for those who are without a profession the means of necessary
support through employment: giving work to the artificer and
alms to the incapable " (Ep. Clem, to James viii.).
4. The Jews in pre-Christian and Talmudic times supported
the stranger or wayfarer by the distribution of food (tamchut) ;
the strangers were lodged in private houses, and there were inns
provided at which no money was taken (cf. Jewish Life, p. 314).
Subsequently, besides these methods, special societies were
formed "for the entertainment of the resident poor and of
strangers." There were commendatory letters also. These con-
ditions prevailed in the Christian church also. The Xenodocheion,
coming by direct succession alike from Jewish and Greek pre-
cedents, was the first form of Christian hospital both for strangers
and for members of the Christian churches. In the Christian
community the endowment charity comes into existence in the
4th century, among the Jews not till the 13th. The charities
of the synagogue without separate societies sufficed.
We may now compare the conceptions of Jews and Christians
on charity with those of the Greeks. There are two chief ex-
0r»«Jt, ponents of the diverse views — Aristotle and St Paul;
Jewish for to simplify the issues we refer to them only.
Mod Thoughts such as Aristotle's, recast by the Stoic
^^J" Panaetius (185-n 2 B.C.), and used by Cicero in his De
° 1 *^ Officii*, became in the hands of St Ambrose arguments
for the direction of the clergy in the founding of the medieval
church; and in the 13th century Aristotle reasserts his influence
through such leaders of medieval thought as St Thomas Aquinas.
St Paul's chapters on charity, not fully appreciated and under-
stood, one is inclined to think, have perhaps more than any other
words prevented an absolute lapse into the materialism of alms-
giving. After him we think of St Francis, the greatest of a group
of men who, seeking reality in life, revived charity; but to the
theory of charity it might almost be said that since Aristotle and
St Paul nothing has been added until we come to the economic
and moral issues which Dr Chalmers explained and illustrated.
The problem turns on the conception (1) of purpose, (2) of the
self, and (3) of charity, love or friendship as an active force in
social life. To the Greek, or at least to Greek philosophic
thought, purpose was the measure of goodness. To have no
purpose was, so far as the particular act was concerned, to be
simply irrational; and the less definite the purpose the more
irrational the act. This conception of purpose was the touch-
stone of family and social life, and of the civic life also. In no
sphere could goodness be irrational. To say that it was without
purpose was to say that it was without reality. So far as the
actor was concerned, the main purpose of right action was the
good of the soul (4 /v Xv)j *&& by the soul was meant the better
self, " the ruling part " acting in harmony with every faculty
and function of the man. With faculties constantly trained and
developed, a higher life was gradually developed in the soul.
We are thus, it might be said, what we become. The gates of
the higher life are within us. The issue is whether we will open
them and pass in.
Consistent with this is the social purpose. Love or friendship
is not conceived by Aristotle except in relation to social life.
Society is baaed on an interchange of services. This interchange
in one series of acts we call justice; in another friendship or
love. A man cannot be just unless he has acquired a certain
character or habit of mind;1 and hence no just man will act
without knowledge, previous deliberation and definite purpose.
So also will a friend fulfil these conditions in his acts of love or
friendship. In the love existing between good men there is
continuance and equality of service; but in the case of bene-
factor and benefited, in deeds of charity, in fact, there is no such
equality. The satisfaction is on one side but often not on the
other. (The dilemma is one that is pressed, though not satisfac-
torily, in Cicero and Seneca.) The reason for this will be found,
Aristotle suggests, in the feeling of satisfaction which men
experience in action. We realize ourselves in our deeds — throw
ourselves into them, as people say; and this is happiness.
What we make we like: it is part of us. On the other hand,
in the person benefited there may be no corresponding action,
and in so far as there is not, there is no exchange of service or the
contentment that arises from it. The " self " of the recipient
is not drawn out. On the contrary, he may be made worse,
and feel the uneasiness and discontent that result from this.
In truth, to complete Aristotle's argument, the good deed on one
side, as it represents the best self of the benefactor, should on the
other side draw out the best self of the person benefited. And
where there is not ultimately this result, there is not effective
friendship or charity, and consequently there is no personal or
social satisfaction. The point may be pushed somewhat further.
In recent developments of charitable work the term " friendly
visitor " is applied to persons who endeavour to help families
in distress on the lines of associated charity. It represents the
work of charity in one definite light. So far as the relation is
mutual, it cannot at the outset be said to exist. The charitable
friend wishes to befriend another; but at first there may be no
reciprocal feeling of friendship on the other's part — indeed,
such a feeling may never be created. The effort to reciprocate
kindness by becoming what the friend desires may be too painful
to make. Or the two may be on different planes, one not really
befriending, but giving without intelligence, the other not really
endeavouring to change his nature, but receiving help solely
with a view to immediate advantage. The would-be befriender
may begin " despairing of no man," expecting nothing in return;
but if, in fact, there is never any kind of return, the friendship
actually fails of its purpose, and the " friend's " satisfaction is
lost, except in that he may " have loved much." In any case,
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
871
according to this theory friendship, love and charity represent
the mood from which spring social acts, the value of which will
depend on the knowledge, deliberation and purpose with which
they are done, and accordingly as they acquire value on this
account will they give lasting satisfaction to both parties.
St Paul's position is different. He seems at first sight to ignore
the state and social life. He lays stress on motive force rather
than on purpose. He speaks as an outsider to the state, though
technically a citizen. His mind assumes towards it the external
Judaic position, as though he belonged to a society of settlers
Ordpotxot). Also, as he expects the millennium, social life and
its needs are not uppermost in his thoughts. He considers charity
in relation to a community of fellow-believers — drawn together
in congregations. His theory springs from this social base, though
it over-arches life itself. He is intent on creating a spiritual
association. He conceives of the spirit (pvcvua) as " an imma-
terial personality." It transcends the soul tyvxti)* and is the
Christ life, the ideal and spiritual life. Christians participate
in it, and they thus become part of " the body of Christ,"
which exists by virtue of love — love akin to the ideal life, bybwri.
The word represents the love that is instinct with reverence,
and not love (4t\ia) which may have in it some quality of passion.
This love is the life of " the body of Christ." Therefore no act
done without it is a living act — but, on the contrary, must be
dead — an act in which no part of the ideal life is blended. On the
individual act or the purpose no stress is laid. It is assumed that
love, because it is of this intense and exalted type, will find the
true purpose in the particular act. And, when the expectation of
the millennium passed away, the theory of this ideal charity
remained as a motive force available for whatever new conditions,
spiritual or social, might arise. Nevertheless, no sooner does this
charity touch social conditions, than the necessity asserts itself
of submitting to the limitations which knowledge, deliberation
and purpose impose. This view had been depreciated or ignored
by Christians, who have been content to rely upon the strength
of their motives, or perhaps have not realized what the Greeks
understood, that society was a natural organism (Arist. Pol.
1253A), which develops, fails or prospers in accordance with
definite laws. Hence endless failure in spite of some success.
For love, whether we idealize it as 6.y&mf or consider it a social
instinct as 0tX£a, cannot be love at all unless it quickens the
intelligence as much as it animates the will. It cannot, except
by some confusion of thought, be held to justify the indulgence
of emotion irrespective of moral and social results. Yet, though
this fatal error may have dominated thought for a long time, it
is hardly possible to attribute it to St Paul's theory of charity
when the very practical nature of Judaism and early Christianity
is considered. In his view the misunderstanding could not arise.
And to create a world or " body " of men and women linked to-
gether by love, even though it be outside the normal life of the
community, was to create a new form of religious organization,
and to achieve for it (so far as it was achieved) what, mutatis
mutandis y Aristotle held to be the indispensable condition of
social life, friendship (<t>Oda), lt the greatest good of states,"
for " Socrates and all the world declare," he wrote, that " the
unity of the state " is " created by friendship " (Arist. Pol. ii.
1262 b).
It should, however, be considered to what extent charity in the
Christian church was devoid of social purpose. (1) The Jewish con-
ceptions of charity passed, one might almost say, in their complete-
ness into the Christian church. Prayer, the petition and the purging
of the mind, fasting, the humiliation of the body, and alms, as part of
the same discipline, the submissive renunciation of possessions — all
these formed part of the discipline that was to create the religious
mood. Alms henceforth become a definite part of the religious
discipline and service. Humility and poverty hereafter appear as
yoked virtues, and many problems of charity are raised in regard to
them. The non-Christian no less than the Christian world appreciated
more and more the need of self-discipline (&aicri<ru); and it seems
as though in the first two centuries a.d. those who may have thought
of reinvigorating society searched for the remedy rather in the
preaching and practice of temperance than in the application of
ideas that were the outcome of the observation of social or economic
conditions. Having no object of this kind as its mark, almsgiving
took the place of charity, and, as Christianity triumphed, the family
life, instead of reviving, continued to decay, while tjie virtues of
the discipline of the body, considered apart from social life, became
an end in themselves, and it was desired rather to annihilate instinct
than to control it. Possibly this was a necessary phase in a move-
ment of progress, but however that be, charity, as St Paul understood
it, had in it no part. (2) But the evil went farther. Jewish religious
philosophy is not elaborated as a consistent whole by any one writer.
It is rather a miscellany of maxims ; and again and again, as in much
religious thought, side issues assume the principal place. The
direct effect of the charitable act, or almsgiving, is ignored. Many
thoughts and motives are blended. The Jews spoke of the poor
as the means of the rich man's salvation. St Chrysostom empha-
sizes this: " If there were no poor, the greater part of your sins
would not be removed: they are the healers of your wounds'*
(Horn, xiv., Timothy, &c, St Cyprian on works and alms). Alms
are the medicine of sin. And the same thought is worked into the
penitential system. Augustine speaks of " penance such as fasting,
almsgiving and prayer Tor breaches of the Decalogue " (Reichel,
Manual of Canon Law, p. 23) ; and many other references might be
cited. " Pecuniary penances (lb. 154), in so far as they were re-
laxations of, or substitutes for, bodily penances, were permitted
because of the greater good thereby accruing to others ' (and in
this case they were — a.d. 1284 — legally enforceable under English
statute law). The penitential system takes for granted that the
almsgiving is good for others and puts a premium on it, even though in
fact it were done, not with any definite object, but really for the
good of the penitent. Thus almsgiving becomes detached from
charity on the one side and from social good on the other. Still further
is it vulgarized by another confusion of thought. It is considered
that the alms are paid to the credit of the giver, and are realized
as such by him in the after- world ; or even that by alms present
prosperity may be obtained, or at least evil accident avoided. Thus
motives were blended, as indeed they now are, with the result that
the gift assumed a greater importance than the charity, by which
alone the gift should have been sanctified, and its actual effect
was habitually overlooked or treated as only partially relevant.
(3) The Christian maxim of "loving(d7£*-ij) one's neighbour as one's
self " sets a standard of charity. Its relations are idealized accord-
ing as the " self " is understood; and thus the good self becomes
the measure of charity. In this sense, the nobler the self the com-
pleter the charity; and the charity of the best men, men who
love and understand their neighbours best, having regard to their
chief good, is the best, the most effectual charity. Further, if in
what we consider " best " we give but a lesser place to social purpose
or even allow it no place at all, our "self" will have no sufficient
social aim and our charity little or no social result. For this " self*"
however, religion has substituted not St Paul's conception of the
spirit (icvevua), but a soul, conceived as endowed with a substantial
nature, able to enjoy and suffer quasi-material rewards and punish-
ments in the after-life; and in so far as the safeguard of this soul
by good deeds or almsgiving has become a paramount object, the
purpose of charitable action has been translated from the actual
world to another sphere. Thus, as we have seen, the aid of the poor
has been considered not an object in itself, but as a means by which
the almsgiver effects his own ulterior purpose and " makes God his
debtor." The problem thus handled raises the question of reward
and also of punishment. Properly, from the point of view of charity,
both are excluded. We may indeed act from a complexity of
motives and expect a complexity of rewards, and undoubtedly a
good act does refresh the " self," and may as a result, though not as
a reward, win approval. But in reality reward, if the word be used
at all, is according to purpose ; and the only reward of a deed Hes
in the fulfilment of its purpose. In the theory of almsgiving which
we are discussing, however, act and reward are on different planes.
The reward is on that of a future life ; the act related to a distressed
person here and now. The interest in the act on the doer's part lies
in its post-mortal consequences to himself, and not either wholly
or chiefly in the act itself. Nor, as the interest ends with the act
— the giving — can the intelligence be quickened by it. The
questions "How? by whom? with what object? on what plan?
with what result?" receive no detailed consideration at all. Twp
general results follow. In so far as it is thus practised, almsgiving
is out of sympathy with social progress. It is indeed alien to it.
Next also the self-contained, self-sustained poverty that will have
no relief and does without it, is outside the range of its thought and
understanding. On the other hand, this almsgiving is equally in-
capable of influencing the weak and the vicious; and those who are
suffering from illness or trouble it has not the width of vision to
understand nor the moral energy to support so that they shall not
fall out of the ranks of the self-supporting. It believes that " the
poor " will not cease out of the land. And indeed, however great
might be the economic progress of the people, it is not likely that
the poor will cease, if the alms given in this spirit be large enough in
amount to affect social conditions seriously one way or the other.
When we measure the effects of charity, this inheritance of
divided thought and inconsistent counsels must be given its full
weight.
The sub-apostolic church was a congregation, like a synagogue,
the centre of a system of voluntary and personal relief, connected
872
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
with the congregational meals (or Ayiarai) and the Eucharist,
and under the supervision of no single officer or bishop. Out
of this was developed a system of relief controlled by
a bishop, who was assisted chiefly by deacons or
presbyters, while the AybTcu, consisting of offerings
laid before the altar, still remained. Subsequently
the meal was separated from the sacrament, and
became a dole of food, or poor people's meal — e.g. in
St Augustine's time in western Africa — and it was not allowed
to be served in churches (a.d. 391). As religious asceticism
became dominant, the sacrament was taken fasting; it appeared
unseemly that men and women should meet together for such
purposes, and the &y6nrcu fell out of repute. Simultaneously
it would seem that the parish (irapouda) became from a con-
gregational settlement a geographical area.
The organization of relief at Rome illustrates both a type of
administration and a transition. St Gregory's reforms (a.d. 590)
largely developed it. The first factor in the transition was the
church fund of the second period of Christianity, about a.d. 150
to after 208 (Tertullian, Apol. 39). It served as a friendly fund,
was supported by voluntary gifts, and was used to succour and
to bury the poor, to help destitute and orphaned children,
old household slaves and those who suffered for the faith. This
fund is quite different from the collegia tenuiorum or funeratica
of the Romans, which were societies to which the members paid
stipulated sums at stated periods, for funeral benefits or for com-
mon meals (J. P. Waltzing, Corporations professionnelles chez
les Romains, i. 313). It represents the charitable centre round
which the parochial system developed. That system was
adopted probably about the middle of the 3rd century, but in
Rome the diaconate probably remained centralized. At the
end of the 4th century Pope Anastasius had founded deaconries
in Rome, and endowed them largely " to meet the frequent
demands of the diaconate." Gregory two hundred years later
reorganized the system. He divided the fourteen old " regions "
into seven ecclesiastical districts and thirty " titles " (or parishes) .
The parishes were under the charge of sixty-six priests; the
districts were eleemosynary divisions. Each was placed under
Xhe charge of a deacon, not (Greg. Ep. xi. and xxviii.) under the
priests (presbyteri titularii) . Over the deacons was an archdeacon.
It was the duty of the deacons to care for the poor, widows,
orphans, wards, and old people of their several districts. They
inquired in regard to those who were relieved, and drew up under
the guidance of the bishop the register of poor (matricula).
Only these received regular relief. In each district was an
hospital or office for alms, of which the deacon had charge,
assisted by a steward (or oeconomus). Here food was given and
meals were taken, the sick and poor were maintained, and orphan
or foundling children lodged. The churches of Rome and of
other large towns possessed considerable estates, " the patrimony
of the patron saints," and to Rome belonged estates in Sicily
which had not been ravaged by the invaders, and they continued
to pay to it their tenth of corn, as they had done since Sicily
was conquered. Four times a year (Milman, Lat. Christ, ii. 117)
the shares of the (1) clergy and papal officers, (2) churches and
monasteries, and (3) " hospitals, deaconries and ecclesiastical
wards for the poor," were calculated in money and distributed;
and the first day in every month St Gregory distributed to the
poor in kind corn, wine, cheese, vegetables, bacon, meal, fish
and oil. The sick and infirm were superintended by persons
appointed to inspect every street. Before the pope sat down to his
own meal a portion was separated and sent out to the hungry at
his door. The Roman plebs had thus become the poor of Christ
(pauperes Christi), and under that title were being fed by civica
annona and sportula as their ancestors had been; and the deacon-
ries had superseded the " regions " and the " steps " from which
the corn had been distributed. The hospitium was now part of a
common organization of relief, and the sick were visited according
to Jewish and early Christian precedent. How far kindly Romans
visited the sick of their day we do not know. Alms and the
annona were now, it would seem, administered concurrently;
and there was a system of poor relief independent of the churches
and their alms (unless these, organized, as in Scottish towns,
on the ancient ecclesiastical lines, were paid wholly or in part to a
central diaconate fund) . Much had changed, but in much Roman
thought still prevailed.
On lines similar to these the organization of poor relief in the
middle ages was developed. In the provinces in the later empire
the senate or ordo decurionum were responsible for the public
provisioning of the towns (Fustel de Coulanges, La Gauleromaine,
p. 251), and no doubt the care of the poor would thus in some
measure devolve on them in times of scarcity or distress. On
the religious side, on the other hand, the churches would probably
be constant centres of almsgiving and relief; and then, further,
when the Roman municipal system had decayed, each citizen
(as in Charlemagne's time, 742-814) was required to support his
own dependants — a step suggestive of much after-history.
The change in sentiment and method could hardly be more
strongly marked than bv a comparison of " the Teaching " with
St Ambrose's (334*397) " Duties of the Clergy " (De Offictis Mini-
strorum). For the old instinctive obedience to a command there is
now an endeavour to find a reasoned basis for charitable action.
Pauperism is recognized. " Never was the greed of beggars greater
than it is now. . . . They want to empty the purses of the poor,
to deprive them of the means of support. Not content with a little,
they ask for more. . . . With lies about their lives they ask for
further sums of money." " A method in giving is necessary." But
in the suggestions made there is little consistency. Liberality is
urged as a means of gaining the love of the people; a new and a
false issue is thus raised. The relief is neither to be " too freely given
to those who are unsuitable, nor too sparingly bestowed upon the
needy." Everywhere there is a doctrine of the mean reflected
through Cicero's De Officiis, the doctrine insufficiently stated, as
though it were a mean of quantity, and not that rightly tempered
mean which is the harmony of opposing moods. The poor are not
to be sent away empty. Those rejected by the church are not to
be left to the ' outer darkness " of an earlier Christianity. They
must be supplied if they are in want. The methodic giver is " hard
towards none, but is free towards all." Consequently none are
refused, and no account is taken of the regeneration that may spring
up in a man from the effort towards self-help which refusal may
originate. Thus after all it appears that method means no more
than this — to give sometimes more, sometimes less, to all needy
people. In the small congregational church of early Christianity,
each member of which was admitted on the conditions of strictest
discipline, the common alms of the faithful could hardly have done
much harm within the body, even though outside they created and
kept alive a horde of vagrant alms-seekers and pretenders. Now
in this department at least the church had become the state, and
discipline and a close knowledge of one's fellow-Christians no longer
safeguarded the alms. From Cicero is borrowed the thought of
" active help," which " is often grander and more noble," but the
thought is not worked out. From the social side the problem is not
understood or even stated, and hence no principle 01 charity or of
charitable administration is brought to light in the investigation.
Still there are rudiments of the economics of charity in the praise of
Joseph, who made the people buy the corn, for otherwise " they
would have given up cultivating the soil; for he who has the use
of what is another's often neglects his own." Perhaps, as St Augus-
tine inspired the theology of the middle ages, we may say that St
Ambrose, in the mingled motives, indefiniteness, and kindliness of this
book, stands for the charity of the middle ages, except in so far as
the movement which culminated in the brotherhood of St Francis
awakened the intelligence of the world to wider issues.
In Constantinople the pauperism seems to have been extreme.
The corn supplies of Africa were diverted there in great part
when it became the capital of the empire. This must have
left to Rome a larger scope for the development of the civic-
religious administration of relief. St Chrysostom's sermons give
no impression of the rise of any new administrative force, alike
sagacious and dominant. The appeal to give alms is constant,
but the positive counsel on charitable work is nil. The people
had the annona civica, and imperial gifts, corn, allowances
(solaria) from the treasury granted for the poor and needy,
and an annual gift of 50 gold pounds (rather more than £1400)
for funerals. Besides these there were many institutions, and
the begging and the almsgiving at the church doors. " The land
could not support the lazy and valiant beggars." There were
public works provided for them; if they refused to work on
them they were to be driven away. The sick might visit the
capital, but must be registered and sent back (a.d. 382); the
sturdy beggar was condemned to slavery. So little did alms
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
»73
effect. And in the East manastitisin seems to have produced
no firmness of purpose such as led to the organization of the
church and of charitable relief under St Gregory.
Another movement of the Byzantine period was the establish-
ment of the endowed charity. The Jewish synagogue long served
as a place for the reception of strangers— a religious {cw^oxctov.
Probably the strangers referred to in " the Teaching" were so
entertained. The table of the bishop and a room in his house
served as the guest-chamber, for which afterwards a separate
building was instituted. In the East the Jewish charitable
inn first appears, and there took place the earliest extension of
institutions. There was probably a demand for an elaboration
of institutions as social changes made themselves felt in the
churches. We have seen this in the case of the by bun). Similar
changes would affect other branches of charitable work. The
hospital (hospitalium, fyvoboxeiov) is defined as a " house of
God in which strangers who lack hospitality are received"
(Suicerus, Thesaur.), a home separated from the church; and
round the church, out of the primitive iepofoxtvov of early
Christian times and the entertainment of strangers at the houses
of members of the community, would grow up other similar
charities. In a.d. 321 licence was given by Constantine to leave
property to the Church. The churches were thus placed in the
same position as pagan temples, and though subsequently
Valentinian (a.d. 379) withdrew the permission on account
of the shameless legacy-hunting of the clergy, in that period
much must have been done to endow church and charitable
institutions. In the same period grew to its height the passion
for monasticism. This affected the parish and the endowed
charity alike. Under its influence the deacon as an almoner
tends to disappear, except where, as in Rome, there is an elabor-
ate system of relief. Nor does it seem that deaconesses, widows,
and virgins continued to occupy their old position as church
workers and alms-receivers. Naturally when marriage was
considered " in itself an evil, perhaps to be tolerated, but still
degrading to human nature/ 1 and (a.d. 385) the marriage of
the clergy was prohibited, men, except those in charge of parishes,
and women would join regular monastic bodies; the deacon,
as almoner, would disappear, and the " widows " and virgins
would become nuns. Thus there would grow up a large body
of men and women living segregated in institutions, and forming
a leisured class able to superintend institutional charities. And
now two new officers appear, the eleemosynarius or almoner
and the oeconamus or steward (already an assistant treasurer
to the bishop), who superintend and distribute the alms and
manage the property of the institution. (In the first six books
of the Apost. Constit., a.d. 300, these officers are not mentioned.)
In these circumstances the hospitium or hospital (frvibv, Karayb-
yvov) assumes a new character. It becomes in St Basil's hands
(a.d. 330-379) a resort not only for those who " visit it from
time to time as they pass by, but also for those who need some
treatment in illness." And round St Basil at Caesarea there
springs up a colony of institutions. Four kinds principally are
mentioned in the Theodosian code: (1) the guest-houses (%tvo-
&>X«ta) ; (2) the poor-houses (irrwxeia), where the poor (mendict)
were housed and maintained (the tt.wx^lw was a general term
also applied to all houses for the poor, the aged, orphans and
sick); (3) there were orphanages (6p<^awrpo^€ta) for orphans
and wards; and (4) there were houses for infant children (jSpe^o-
Tpo<f>ela). Thus a large number of endowed charities had grown
up. This new movement it is necessary to consider in connexion
with the law relating to religious property and bequests, in its
bearing on the rule of the monasteries, and in its effect on the
family.
The sacred property (res sacra) of Roman law consisted of things
dedicated to the gods by the pontiff with the approval of the civil
authority, in turn, the people, the senate and the emperor. Things
so consecrated were inalienable. Apart from this in the empire,
the municipalities as they grew up were considered "juristic persons "
who were entitled to receive and hold property. In a similar position
were authorized collegia, amongst which were the mutual aid societies
referred to above. Christians associated in these societies would
leave legacies to them. Thus (W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics
of Phrygia, I. i. 1 19) an inscription mentions a bequest (possibly by
a Christian) to the council (avvtopiov) of the presidents of the dyers
in purple for a ceremonial, on the condition that, if the ceremony
be neglected, the legacy shall become the property of the gild for
the care of nurslings; and in the same way a bequest is left in Rome
(Orelli 4420) for a memorial sacrifice, on the condition that, if it be
not performed, double the cost be paid to the treasury of the corn-
supply (fisco statianis annonae). No unauthorized collegia could
receive a legacy. " The law recognized no freedom of association."
Nor could any private individual create a foundation with separate
property of its own. Property could only be left to an authorized
juristic person, being a municipality or a collegium. But as the
problem of poverty was considered from a broader standpoint, there
was a desire to deal with it in a more permanent manner than by
the annona civica. The pueri alimentarii (see above) were considered
to hold their property as part of the fiscus or property of the state".
Pliny (Ep. vii. 18), seeking a method of endowment, transferred
property in land to the steward of public property, and then took
it back again subject to a permanent charge for the aid of children
of freemen. By the law of Constantine and subsequent laws no
such devices were necessary. Widows or deaconesses, or virgins
dedicated to God, or nuns (a.d. 455), could leave bequests to at
church or memorial church (martyrum), or to a priest or a monk, or
to the poor in any shape or form, in writing or without it. Later
(a.d. 475) donations of every kind, " to the person of any martyr,
or apostle, or prophet, or the holy angels," for building an oratory
were made valid, even if the building were promised only and not
begun; and the same rule applied to infirmaries (voeom/uta) and
poor-houses (tto>x««) — the bishop or steward being competent
to appear as plaintiff in such cases. Later, again (a.d. 528), contri-
butions of 50 solidi (say about £19, ios.) to a church, hostel ({cuo-
fox&ov), &c, were made legal, though not registered; while larger
sums, if registered, were also legalized. So (a.d. 529^ property
might be given for " churches, hostels, poor-houses, infant and
orphan homes, and homes for the aged, or any such community "
(consortium), even though not registered, and such property was
free from taxation. The next year (5Jo) it was enacted that pre-
scription even for 100 years die! not alienate church and charitable
property. The broadest interpretation was allowed. If by will
a share of an estate was left " to Christ our Lord," the church of the
city or other locality might receive it as heir; " let these, the law
says, belong to the holy churches, so that they may become the
alimony of the poor." It was sufficient to leave property to the poor
(Corpus Juris Civilis, ed. Krueger, 1877, "• 2 & m ^ e bequest was
legal. It went to the legal representative of the poor — the church.
Charitable property was thus church property. The word " alms"
covered both. It was given to pious uses, and as a kind of public
institution " shared that corporate capacity which belonged to all
ecclesiastical institutions by virtue of a general rule of law." On
a pia causa it was not necessary to confer a juristic personality.
Other laws preserved or regulated alienation (a.d. 477, a.d. 530),
and checked negligence or fraud in management. The clergy had
thus become the owners of large properties, with the coloni and
slaves upon the estates and the allowances of civic corn (annona
civica) ; and (a.d. 357) it was stipulated that whatever they acquired
by thrift or trading should be used for the service of the poor and
needy, though what they acquired from the labour of their slaves
in the labour houses (ergastula) or inns (tabernae) might be considered
a profit of religion (religionis lucrum).
Thus grew up the system of endowed charities, which with
certain modifications continued throughout the middle ages,
and, though it assumed different forms in connexion with gilds
and municipalities, in England it still retains, partially at least,
its relation to the church. It remained the system of institutional
relief parallel to the more personal almsgiving of the parish.
Monasticism, in acting on men of strong character, endowed
them with a double strength of will, and to men like St Gregory
it seemed to give back with administrative power the relentless
firmness of the Roman. In the East it produced the turbulent
soldiery of the church, in the West its missionaries; and each
mission-monastery was a centre of relief. But whatever the
services monasticism rendered, it can hardly be said to have
furthered true charity from the social standpoint, though out of
regard to some of its institutional work we may to a certain degree
qualify this judgment. The movement was almost of necessity
in large measure anti-parochial, and thus out of sympathy with
the charities of the parish, where personal relations with the poor
at their homes count for mest.
The good and evil of it may be weighed. Monasticism working
through St Augustine helped the world to realize the mood of love
as the real or eternal life. Of the natural life of the world and its
responsibilities, through which that mood would have borne its
completest fruit, it took but little heed, except in so far as, by
creating a class possessed of leisure, it created able scholars, lawyers
V. 28 a
?74
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
aad administrators, and disciplined the will of strong men. It had
no power to stay the social evils of the day. Unlike the friars, at
then- best the monks were a class apart, not a class mixed up with
the people. So were their charities. The belief in poverty as a
fixed condition — irretrievable and ever to be alleviated without
any regard to science or observation, subjected charity to a per-
petual stagnation. Charity requires belief m growth, in the sharing
of life, in the utility and nobility of what is done here and now for
the hereafter of this present world. Monasticism had no thought
of this. It was based on a belief in the evil of matter; and from
that root could spring no social charity. Economic difficulties also
fostered monasticism. Gold was appreciated in value, and neces-
saries were expensive, and the cost of maintaining a family was great.
It was an economy to force a son or a brother into the church. The
population was decreasing; and in spite of church feeling Marjorian
(a.d. 461) had to forbid women from taking the veil before forty, and
to require the remarriage of widows, subject to a large forfeit of
property (Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, ii. 420). Monasticism
was inconsistent with the social good. As to the family— like the
moderns who depreciate thrift and are careless of the life of the
family, the monks, believing that marriage was a lower form of
morality, if not indeed, as would at times appear, hardly moral at
all, could feel but little enthusiasm for what is socially a chief source
of health to the community and a well-spring of spontaneous charit-
able feeling. By the sacerdotal-monastic movement the moralizing
force of Christianity was denaturalized. Among the secular clergy
the falsity of the position as between men and women revealed
itself in relations which being unhallowed and unrecognized became
also degrading. But worse than all, it pushed charity from its
pivot. For this no monasteries or institutions, no domination of
religious belief, could atone. The church that with so fine an in-
tensity of purpose had fostered chastity and marriage was betraying
its trust. It was out of touch with the primal unit of social life, the
.child-school of dawning habits and the loving economy of the home.
It produced no treatise on economy in the older Greek sense of the
word. The home and its associations no longer retained their pre-
eminence. In the extreme advocacy of the celibate state, the
honourable development of the married life and its duties were
depreciated and sometimes, one would think, quite forgotten.
We may ask, then, What were the results of charity at the
close of the period which ends with St Gregory and the founding of
the medieval church? — for if the charity is reflected in the social
good the results should be manifest. Economic and social
conditions were adverse. With lessened trade the middle class
was decaying (Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the
Western Empire, p. 204) and a selfish aristocracy rising up. Muni-
cipal responsibility had been taxed to extinction. The public
service was corrupt. The rich evaded taxation, the poor were
oppressed by it. There were laws upon laws, endeavours to
underpin the framework of a decaying society. Society was
bankrupt of skill — and the skill of a generation has a close bearing
on its charitable administration. While hospitals increased,
medicine was unprogressive. There were miserable years of
famine and pestilence, and constant wars. The care of the
poorer classes, and ultimately of the people, was the charge of the
church. The church strengthened the feeling of kindness for
those in want, widows, orphans and the sick. It lessened the
degradation of the "actresses," and, co-operating with Stoic
opinion, abolished the slaughter of the gladiatorial shows. It
created a popular " dogmatic system and moral discipline/'
which paganism failed to do; but it produced no prophet of
charity, such as enlarged the moral imagination of the Jews.
It ransomed slaves, as did paganism also, but it did not abolish
slavery. Large economic causes produced that great reform.
The serf attached to the soil took the place of the slave. The
almsgiving of the church by degrees took the place of annona and
sportida, and it may have created pauperism. But dependence on
almsgiving was at least an advance on dependence founded on a
civic and hereditary right to relief. As the colonus stood higher
than the slave, so did the pauper, socially at any rate, free to
support himself, exceed the colonus. Bad economic conditions
and traditions, and a bad system of almsgiving, might enthral
him. But the way, at least, was open; and thus it became
possible that charity, working in alliance with good economic
traditions, should in the end accomplish the self-support of society,
the independence of the whole people.
Part V. — Medieval Charity and its Development
It remains to trace the history of thought and administration
in relation to (1) the development of charitable responsibility in
the parish, and the use of tithe and church property for poor
relief; and (2) the revision of the theory of charity, with which
are associated the names of St Augustine (354-430), St Benedict
(480-542), St Bernard (1091-1153), St Francis (1 182-1226), and
St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). (3) There follows, in reference
chiefly to England, a sketch of the dependence of the poor under
feudalism, the charities of the parish, the monastery and the
hospital — the medieval system of endowed charity; the rise of
gild and municipal charities; the decadence at the close of the
1 5th century, and the statutory endeavours to cope with economic
difficulties which, in the 16th century, led to the establishment of
statutory serfdom and the poor-laws, New elements affect the
problem of charity in the 17th and 18th centuries; but it is not
too much to say that almost all these headings represent phases
of thought or institutions which in later forms are interwoven
with the charitable thought and endeavours of the present day.
Naturally, two methods of relief have usually been prominent :
relief administered locally, chiefly to residents in their own
homes, and relief administered in an institution. At The pariah
the time of Charlemagne (742-814) the system of «atf
relief was parochial, consisting principally of assistance Jf^f"* 1 *
at the home. After that time, except probably in
England, the institutional method appears to have predominated,
and the monastery or hospital in one form or another gradually
encroached on the parish.
The system of parochial charity was the outcome, apparently,
of three conditions: the position and influence of the bishop, the
eleemosynary nature of the church funds, and the need of some
responsible organization of relief. It resulted in what might almost
be called an ecclesiastical poor-law. The affairs of a local church
or congregation were superintended by a bishop. To deal with the
outlying districts he detached priests for religious work and, as in
Rome and (774) Strassburg, deacons also for the administration
of relief. Originally all the income of the church or congregation
was paid into one fund only, of which the bishop had charge, and
this fund was available primarily for charitable purposes. Church
property was the patrimony of the poor. In the 4th century (IV.
Council of Carthage, 398) the names of the clergy were entered on
a list (motricula or canon), as were also the names of the poor, and
both received from the church their daily portion (cf. Ratzinger,
Geschichte der kirchlichen Armenpflep, p. 117). There were no
expenses for building. Before the reign of Constantine (306) very
few churches were built (Ratzinger, p. 120). Thus the early church
as has been said, was chiefly a charitable society. By degrees the
property of the church was very largely increased by gifts and
bequests, and in the West before St Gregory's time the division
of it for four separate purposes — the support of the bishop, of the
clergy, and of the poor, and for church buildings— still further
promoted decentralization. Apart from any speciafgifts, there was
thus created a separate fund for almsgiving, supervised by the bishop,
consisting of a fourth of the church property, the oblations (mostly
used for the poor), and the tithe, which at first was used for the
poor solely. The organization of the church was gradually extended.
The church once established in the chief city of a district would
become in turn the mother church of other neighbourhoods, and the
bishop or priest of the mother church would come to exercise super-
vision over them and their parishes.
In France, which may serve as a good illustration, in the 4th cen-
tury (Ratzinger, p. 181) the civic organization was utilized for a
further change. The Roman provinces were divided into large
areas, doitates, and these were adopted by the church as bishop* s
parishes or, as we should call them, dioceses; and the chief city
became the cathedral city. The bishop thus became responsible
in Charlemagne's time both for his own parish — that of the mother
church — and for the supervision of the parishes in the civitas, and
so for the sick and needy of the diocese generally. He had to take
charge of the poor in his own parish personally, keep the list of the
poor, and houses for the homeless. The other parishes were at first,
or in some measure, supported from his funds, but they acquired
by degrees tithe and property of their own and were endowed by
Charlemagne, who gave one or more manses or lots of land (a.
Fustel de Coulanges, Hist, des institutions poliHoues de Vancienne
France, p. 360) for the support of each parish priest. The priests
were required to relieve their own poor so that they should not stray
into other cities (II. Counc. Tours, 567), and to provide food and
lodging for strangers. The method was indeed elaborated and
became, like the Jewish, that contradiction in terms — a compulsory
system of charitable relief. The payment of tithe was enforced by
Charlemagne, and it became a legal due (Counc. Frankfort, 794;
Arelat. 794). At the same time two other conditions were enforced.
Each person (unusquisgue fidelium nostrorum or omnes cixes) was
to keep his own family, i.e. all dependent on him — all, that is, upon
his freehold estate {allodium), and no one was to presume to give
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
875
relief to able-bodied beggars unless they were set to work (Charlem.
Capii. v. 10). Thus we find here the germ of a poor-law system.
As in the times of the annona civica, slavery, feudalism, or statutory
serfdom, the burthen of the maintenance of the poor fell only in
part on charity. Only those who could not be maintained as
members of some "family" were properly entitled to relief, and
in these circumstances the officially recognized clients of the church
consisted of the gradually decreasing number of free poor and those
who were tenants of church lands.
Since 817 there has been no universally binding decision of the
church respecting the care of the poor (Ratzinger, p. 236). So lone
ago did laicization begin in charity. In the wars and confusion of
the 9th and 10th centuries the poorer freemen lapsed still further
into slavery, or became coloni or bond servants; and later they
passed under the feudal rule. Thus the church's duty to relieve them
became the masters' obligation to maintain them. Simultaneously
the activity of the clergy, regular and secular alike, dwindled. They
were exhorted to increase their alms. The revenues and property
of " the poor " were largely turned to private or partly ecclesiastical
purposes, or secularized. Legacies went wholly to the clergy, but
only the tithe of the produce of their own lands was used for relief;
and of the general titne, only a third or fourth part was so applied.
Eventually to a large extent, but more elsewhere than in England
(Ratzinger, pp. 246, 269), the tithe itself was appropriated by nobles
or even by the monasteries; and thus during and after the 10th
century a new organization of charity was created on non-parochial
methods of relief. Alms, with prayer and fasting, had always been
connected with penance. But the character of the penitential
system had altered. By the 7th century private penance had super-
seded the public and congregational penance of the earlier church
(Diet. Christian Antiquities, art. " Penitence "). To the penalties
of exclusion from the sacraments or from the services of the church
or from its communion was coupled, with other penitential discipline,
an elaborate penitential system, in which about the 7th century the
redemption of sin by the " sacrifice " of property, payments of
money fines, &c, was introduced. (Cf. for instance Cone. Elberti: —
Labbeus i. 969 (a.d. 305), with Cone. Bercrhamstedense, Wilkins,
Cone. p. 60 (a.d. 696), and the Penitential (p. 115) and Canons
(a.d. 960), p. 236.) The same sin committed by an overseer (prae-
positus paganus) was compensated by a fine of 100 solidi; in the
case of a colonus by a fine of 50. So amongst the ways of penitence
were entered in the above-mentioned Canons, to erect a church, and
if means allowed, add to it land . . . to repair the public roads . . .
" to distribute," to help poor widows, orphans and strangers, redeem
slaves, fast, &c. — a combination of ".good deeds " which suggests a line
of thought such as ultimately found expression in the definition of
charities in the Charitable Uses Act of Queen Elizabeth. The con-
fessor, too, was " spiritualis medicus" and much that from the point
of view of counsel would now be the work of charity would in his
hands be dealt with in that capacity. For lesser sins (cf . Bede (673-
735), Horn. 34, quoted by Ratzinger) the penalty was prayer, fasting
and alms; for tne greater sins — murder, adultery and idolatry — to
give up all. Thus while half -converted barbarians were kept in
moral subjection by material penances, the church was enriched
by their gifts; and these tended to support the monastic and
institutional methods which were in favour, and to which, on the
revival of religious earnestness in the nth century, the world looked
for the reform of social life. , . k ,
To understand medieval charity it is necessary to return
to St Augustine. According to him, the motive of man in his
Medhvmi legitimate effort to assert himself in life was love or
revision of desire (amor or cupido). "All impulses were only
^fcbZttv evomt * ons °* ^ s typical characteristic " (Harnack,
• rt v* History f Dogma (trans.), v. iii.); and this was so
alike in the spiritual and the sensuous life. Happiness thus
depended on desire; and desire in turn depended on the
regulation of the will; but the will was regulated only by grace.
God was the spiritualis substantia; and freedom was the identity
of the will with the omnipotent unchanging nature. This
highest Being was " holiness working on the will in the form of
omnipotent love." This love was grace — " grace imparting itself
in love." Love (caritas — charity) is identified with justice; and
the will, the goodwill, is love. The identity of the will with the
will of God was attained by communion with Him. The after-
life consummated by sight this communion, which was here
reached only by faith. Such a method of thought was entirely
introspective, and it turned the mind " wholly to hope, asceticism
and the contemplation of God in worship." "Where St Augus-
tine indulges in the exposition of practical piety he has no theory
at all of Christ's work." To charity on that side he added
nothing. In the 1 1 th century there was a revival of piety, which
had amongst its objects the restoration of discipline in the
monasteries and a monastic training for the secular clergy.
To this Augustinian thought led the way. " Christianity was
asceticism and the city of God " (Harnack vi. 6) . A new religious
feeling took possession of the general mind, a regard and adora-
tion of the actual, the historic Christ. Of this St Bernard was
the expositor. " Beside the sacramental Christ the image of the
historical took its place, — majesty in humility, innocence in
penal suffering, life in death." The spiritual and the sensuous
were intermingled . Dogmatic formulae fell into the background .
The picture of the historic Christ led to the realization of the
Christ according to the spirit (/card wtdfui). Thus St Bernard
carried forward Augustinian thought; and the historic Christ
became the " sinless man, approved by suffering, to whom the
divine grace, by which He lives, has lent such power that His
image takes shape in other men and incites them to corresponding
humility and love."
Humility and poverty represented the conditions under
which alone this spirit could be realized; and the poverty must
be spiritual, and therefore self-imposed (" wilful," as it was
afterwards called). This led to practical results. Poverty was
not a social state, but a spiritual; and consequently the poor
generally were not the pauperes Christi, but those who, like the
monks, had taken vows of poverty. From these premisses
followed later the doctrine that gifts to the church were not
gifts to the poor, as once they had been, but to the religious
bodies. The church was not the church of the poor, but of the
poor in spirit. But the immediate effect was the belief for a time" ,
apparently almost universal, that the salvation of society would
come from the monastic orders. By their aid, backed by the
general opinion, the secular clergy were brought back to celibacy
and the monasteries newly disciplined. But charity could not
thus regain its touch of life and become the means of raising
the standard of social duty.
Next, one amongst many who were stirred by a kindred
inspiration, St Francis turned back to actual life and gave a new
reality to religious idealism. For him the poor were once again
the pauperes Christi. To follow Christ was to adopt the life of
" evangelical poverty," and this was to live among the poor the
life of a poor man. The follower was to work with his hands (as
the poor clergy of the early church had done and the clergy of
the early English church were exhorted to do) ; he was to receive
no money; he was to earn the actual necessaries of life, though
what he could not earn he might beg. To ask for this was a right ,
so long as he~was bringing a better life into the world. All in
excess of this he gave to the poor. He would possess no property,
buildings or endowments, nor was his order to do so. The fulness
of his life was in the complete realization of it now, without the
cares of property and without any fear of the future. Having a
definite aim and mission, he was ready to accept the want that
might come upon him, and his life was a discipline to enable him
to suffer it if it came. To him humility was the soul making
itself fit to love; and poverty was humility expanded from a
mood to a life, a life not guarded by seclusion, but spent amongst
those who were actually poor. The object of life was to console
the poor — those outside all monasteries and institutions — the
poor as they lived and worked. The movement was practically
a lay movement, and its force consisted in its simplicity and
directness. Book learning was disparaged: life was to be the
teacher. The brothers thus became observant and practical,
and afterwards indeed learned, and their learning had the same
characteristics. Their power lay in their practical sagacity,
in their treatment of life, outside the cloister and the hospital,
at first hand. They knew the people because they settled
amongst them, living just as they did. This was their method
of charity.
The inspiration that drew St Francis to this method was
the contemplation of the life of Christ. But it was more than
this. The Christ was to him, as to St Bernard, an ideal, whose
nature passed into that of the contemplating and adoring
beholder, so that, as he said, " having lost its individuality, of
itself the creature could no longer act." He had no impulse
but the Christ impulse. He was changed. His identity was
merged in that of Christ. And with this came the conception of a
876
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
gracious and finely ordered charity, moving like the natural
world in a constant harmonious development towards a definite
end. ^ The mysticism was intense, but it was practical because it
was intense. In that lay the strength of the movement of the
true Franciscans, and in those orders that, whether called
heretical or not, followed them — Lollards and others. Religion
thus became a personal and original possession. It became
individual. It was inspired by a social endeavour, and for the
world at large it made of charity a new thing.
St Thomas Aquinas took up St Bernard's position. Re-
nunciation of property, voluntary poverty, was in his view
also a necessary means of reaching the perfect life; and the
feeling that was akin to this renunciation and prompted it was
charity. " All perfection of the Christian life was to be attained
according to charity," and charity united us to God.
• In the system elaborated by St Thomas Aquinas two lines of
thought are wrought into a Kind of harmony. The one stands
ior Aristotle and nature, the other for Christian tradition and
theology. We have thus a duplicate theory of thought and action
throughout, both rational ana theologic virtues, and a duplicate
faatitude or state of happiness correspondent to each. On the one
hand it is argued that the good act is an act which, in relation to
its object, wholly serves its purpose; and thus the measure of good-
ness (Prima Secundae Summae Theolog. Q. xviii. 2) is the proportion
between action and effect. On the other hand, the act has to satisfy
the twofold law, human reason and eternal reason. From the point
of view of the former the cardinal factor is desire, which, made pro-
portionate to an end, is love {amor) ; and, seeking the good of others,
it loses its quality of concupiscence and becomes friendly love (amor
amicitiae). But this rational love {amor) and charity (caritas), the
theologic virtue, may meet. All virtue or goodness is a degree of
love (amor), if by virtue we mean the cardinal virtues and refer to the
rule of reason only. But there are also theologic virtues, which
are on one side " essential," on the other side participative. As
wood ignited participates in the natural fire, so does the individual
in these virtues (I I. II." lxii. 1). Charity is a kind of friendship
towards God. It is received per infusionem spiritus sancti, and is
the chief and root of the theologic virtues of faith and hope, and on
it the rational virtues depend. They are not degrees of charity as
they are of (amor) love, but charity gives purpose, order and quality
to them all. In this sense the word is applied to the rational virtues
— as, for instance, beneficence. The counterpart of charity in social
life is pity (misericordia), the compassion that moves us to supply
another's want (summa religionis Cnristianae in misericordia conststit
quantum ad exteriora opera). It is, however, an emotion, not a virtue,
and must be regulated like any other emotion (. . . passio est et
non virtus. Hie autem motus potest esse secundum rationem regulatus,
II. II. ae xxx. 3). Thus we pass to alms, which are the instrument of
pity— an act of charity done through the intervention of pity. The
act is not done in order to purchase spiritual good by a corporal
means, but to merit a spiritual good (per effectum caritatis) through
being in a state of charity; and from that point of view its effect
is tested by the recipient being moved to pray for his benefactor.
The claim of others on our beneficence is relative, according to
consanguinity and other bonds (II. II. ae xxxi. 3), subject to the
condition that the common gooa of many is a holier obligation
(divinius) than that of one. Obedience and obligation to parents
may be crossed by other obligations, as, for instance, duty to the
church. To give alms is a command. Alms should consist of the
superfluous — that is, of all that the individual possesses after he has
reserved what is necessary. What is necessary the donor should
fix in due relation to the claims of his family and dependants, his
position in life (dignitas), and the sustenance of his body. On the
other hand, his gift should meet the actual necessities of the recipient
and no more. More than this will lead to excess on the recipient's
part (ut inde luxurietur) or to want of spirit and apathy (ut aliis
remissio et refrigerium sit), though allowance must be made for
different requirements in different conditions of life. It were better
to distribute alms to many persons than to give more than is neces-
sary to one. In individual cases there remains the further question
of correction — the removing of some evil or sin from another; and
this, too, is an act of charity.
It will be seen that though St Thomas bases his argument on a
duplicate theory of thought, action and happiness, part natural,
part theologic, and states fully the conditions of good action, he
does not bring the two into unison. Logically the argument should
follow that alms that fail in social benefit (produce remissionem et
refrigerium, for instance) fail also in spiritual good, for the two cannot
be inconsistent. But in regard to the former he does not press the
importance of purpose ana, in spite of his Aristotle, he misses the
point on which Aristotle, as a close observer of social conditions,
insists, that gifts without purpose and reciprocity foster the depend-
ence they are designed to meet. The proverb of the " pierced cask "
is as applicable to ecclesiastical as to political almsgiving, as has
often been proved by the event. The distribution of all " super-
fluous " income in the form of alms would have the effect of a huge
endowment, and would stereotype " the poor M as a permanent and
unprogressive class. The proposal suggests that St Thomas con-
templated the adoption of a method of relief which would be like
a voluntary poor-law ; and it is noteworthy that his phrase " neces-
sary relief " forms the defining words of the Elizabethan poor-law,
while he also lays stress on the importance of " correction," which,
on the decline and disappearance of the penitential system, assumed
at the Reformation a prominent position in administration in relation
not only to " sin," but also to offences against society, such as
idleness, &c.
On this foundation was built up the classification of acts of
charity, which in one shape or another has a long social tradition,
and which St Thomas quotes in an elaborated form — the seven
spiritual acts (consule, carpe, doce, solare, remitte, fer, or a),
counsel, sustain, teach, console, save, pardon, pray; and the
seven corporal (vestio, polo, cibo, redimo, tego, colligo, condo)
I clothe, I give drink to, I feed, I free from prison, I shelter,
I assist in sickness, I bury (II. IL^xxxii. 2). These in subse-
quent thought became "good works," and availed for the
after-life, bringing with them definite boons. Thus charity
was linked to the system of indulgences. The bias of the act
of charity is made to favour the actor. Primarily the benefit
reverts to him. He becomes conscious of an ultimate reward
accruing to himself. The simplicity of the deed, the spontaneity
from which, as in a well-practised art, its freshness springs and
its good effects result, is falsified at the outset. The thought
that should be wholly concerned in the fulfilment of a definite
purpose is diverted from it. The deed itself, apart from the
outcome of the deed, is highly considered. An extreme induce-
ment is placed on giving, counselling, and the like, but none on
the personal or social utility of the gift or counsel. Yet the
value of these lies in their end. No policy or science of charity
can grow out of such a system. It can produce innumerable
isolated acts, which may or may not be beneficent, but it cannot
enkindle the " ordered charity." This charity is, strictly speak-
ing, by its very nature alike intellectual and emotional. Other-
wise it would inevitably fail of its purpose, for though emotion
might stimulate it, intelligence would not guide it.
There are, then, these three lines of thought. That of St
Bernard, who invigorated the monastic movement, and helped
to make the monastery or hospital the centre of charitable
relief. That of St Francis, who, passing by regular and secular
clergy alike, revived and reinvigorated the conception of charity
and gave it once more the reality of a social force, knowing that
it would find a freer scope and larger usefulness in the life of the
people than in the religious aristocracy of monasteries. And
that of St Thomas Aquinas, who, analysing the problem of
charity and almsgiving, and associating it with definite groups
of works, led to its taking, in the common thought, certain
stereotyped forms, so that its social aim and purpose were
ignored and its power for good was neutralized.
We have now to turn to the conditions of social life in
which these thoughts fermented and took practical shape. The
population of England from the Conquest to the ChMrt ^ y
14th century is estimated at between i\ and 2} mud Modal
millions. London, it is believed, had a population
of about 40,000. Other towns were small. Two or JL
three of the larger had 4000 or 5000 inhabitants. The
only substantial building in a village, apart perhaps from the
manor-house, was the church, used for many secular as well
as religious purposes. In the towns the mud or wood-paved huts
sheltered a people who, accepting a common poverty, traded
in little more than the necessaries of life (Green, Town Life in
the 15th Century, i. 13) . The population was stationary. Famine
and pestilence were of frequent occurrence (Creighton, Epidemics
in Britain, p. 19), and for the careless there was waste at harvest-
time and want in winter. Hunger was the drill-sergeant of
society. Owing to the hardship and penury of life infant mor-
tality was probably very great (Blashill, Sutton in Holdernesse,
p. 123). The 15th century was, however, " the golden age of
the labourer." Our problem is to ascertain what was the service
of charity to this people till the end of that century. In order
to estimate this we have to apply tests similar to those we
EagUuxL
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
877
applied before to Greece and Rome and the pre-medieval
church.
The Family. — Largely Germanic in its origin, we may perhaps
set down as elemental in the English race what Tacitus said of the
Germans. They had the home virtues. Thev had a high regard
for chastity, and respected and enforced the family tie. The wife
was honoured. The men were poor, but when the actual pressure
of their work — fighting — was removed, idle. They were born
? ;amblers. Much toil fell upon the wife; but slavery was rather a
orm of tenure than a Roman bondage. As elsewhere, there was in
England " the joint family or household " (Pollock and Maitland,
English Law before Edward /. i. 31). Each member of the com-
munity was, or should be, under some lord; for the lordless man
was, like the wanderer in Homer, who belonged to no phratry,
suspected and dangerous, and his kinsfolk might be required to find
a lord for him. There was personal servitude, but it was not of one
complexion ; there were grades amongst the unfree, and the general
advance to freedom was continuous. By the 9th century the larger
amount of the slavery was bondage by tenure. In tne reign of
Edward I., though " the larger half of the rural population was
unfree," yet the serf, notwithstanding the fact that he was his lord's
chattel, was free against all save his lord. A century later (1381)
villenage — that is payment for tenancy by service, instead of by
quit-rent — was practically extinguished. So steady was the progress
towards the freedom and self-maintenance of the individual and his
family.
The Manor. — In social importance, next to the family, comes
the manor, the organization of which affected charity greatly on
one side. It was " an economic unit," the estate of a lord on which
there were associated the lord with his demesne, tenants free of
service, and villeins and others, tenants by service. All bad the use
of land, even the serf. The estate was regulated by a manor court,
consisting of the lord of the manor or his representative, and the free
tenants, and entrusted with wide quasi-domestic jurisdiction. The
value of the estate depended on the labour available for its cultivation,
and the cultivators were the unfree tenants. Hence the lord, through
the manor-court, required an indemnity or fine if a child, for instance,
left the manor; and similarly, if a villein died, his widow might have
to remarry or pay a fine. Thus the lord reacquired a servant and
the widow and her family were maintained. The courts, too, fixed
prices, and thus in local and limited conditions of supply and demand
were able to equalize them in a measure and neutralize some of the
effects of scarcity. In this way, till the reign of Edward I . , and, where
the manor courts remained active, till much later, a self-supporting
social organization made any systematic public or charitable relief
unnecessary.
The Parish and the Tithe. — The conversion of England in the
7th century was effected by bishops, accompanied oy itinerant
priests, who made use of conventual houses as the centres of their
work. The parochial system was not firmly established till the
10th century (970). Then, by a law of Edgar, a man who had a
church on his own land was allowed to pay a third of his tithe to his
own church, instead of giving the whole of it to the minister or con-
ventual church. Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury (667), had
introduced the Carolingian system into England; and, accordingly,
the parish priest was required to provide for strangers and to keep
a room in his house for them. Of the tithe, a third and not a fourth
was to go to the poor with any surplus ; and in order to have larger
means of helping them, the priests were urged to work themselves,
according to the ancient canons of the church (cf. Labbeus, IV.
Cone. Carthag. a.d. 398). The importance of the tithe to the poor
is shown by acts of Richard II. and Henry IV., by which it was
enacted that, if parochial tithes were appropriated to a monastery,
a portion of them should be assigned to the poor of the parish. At
a very early date (1287) quasi-compulsory charges in the nature of
a rate were imposed on parishioners for various church purposes
(Pollock and Maitland, i. 604), though in the 14th and 15th centuries
a compulsory church rate was seldom made. Collections were made
by paid collectors, especially for Hock-tide (q.v. ) money — gathered for
church purposes (Brand's Antiquities, p. 112). But there must have
been many varieties in practice. In Somersetshire the church-
wardens' accounts (1349 to 1560) show that the parish contributed
nothing to the relief of the poor, and it seems probable that the
personal charities of the parishioners, and the charities of the gild
fellowships and of the parsonage house sufficed (Bishop Hobhouse,
Churchwardens 1 Accounts, 1 349-1 $60 -, Somerset Record Society).
Many parishes possessed land, houses and cattle, and received gifts
and legacies of all kinds. The proceeds of this property, if given
for the use of the parish generally, might, if necessary, be available
for the relief of the poor, but, if given definitely for their use, would
provide doles, or stock cattle or poor's " lands, &c. (Cf. Augustus
Jessopp, Before the Great Pillage, p. 40; and many instances in the
reports of the Charity Commissioners, 1818^1835.) Of the endow-
ments for parish doles very many may have disappeared in the break-
up of the 1 6th century. 1 here were also " Parisn Ales," the proceeds
of which would be used for parish purposes or for relief. Further,
all the greater festivals were days of feasting and the distribution
of food; at funerals also there were often large distributions, and
also at marriages. The faithful generally, subject to penance, were
required to relieve the poor and the stranger. In the larger part of
England the parish and the vill were usually coterminous. In the
north a parisn contained several vills. There were thus side by side
the charitable relief system of the parish, which at an early date
became a rating area, and the self-supporting system of the manor.
The Monasteries. — As Christianity spread monasteries spread,
and each monastery was a centre of relief. Sometimes they were
established, like St Albans (796), for a hundred Benedictine monks
and for the entertainment of strangers; or sometimes without any
such special purpose, like the abbey of Croyland (reorganized 946),
which, becoming exceeding rich from its diver sorium pauperum,
or almonry, " relieved the whole country round so that prodigious
numbers resorted to it." At Glastonbury, for instance (1537),
£140 1 6s. 8d. was given away in doles. But documents seem to
prove (Denton, England in Fifteenth Century, p. 245) that the
relief generally given by monasteries was much less than is usually
supposed.
The general system may be described (cf. Rule, St Dunst. Cant.
Archp. p. 42, Dugdale; J. B. Clark, The Observances, Augustinian
Priory, Barnwell; Abbot Gasquet, English Monastic Life). The
almonry was usually near the church of the monastery. An almoner
was in charge. He was to be prudent and discreet in the distribution
of his doles (portiones) and to relieve travellers, palmers, chaplains
and mendicants (mendicantes, apparently the beggars recognized
as living by begging, such as we have noted under other social con-
ditions), and the leprous more liberally than others. The old and
infirm, lame and blind who were confined to their beds he was to
visit and relieve suitably {in competenti annona). The importunity
of the poor he was to put up with, and to meet their need as far as
he could. In the almonry there were usually rooms for the sick.
The sick outside the precincts were relieved at the almoner's dis-
cretion. Continuous relief might be given after consultation with
the superior. All the remnants of meals and the old clothes of the
monks were given to the almoner for distribution, and at Christmas
he had a store of stockings and other articles to give away as
presents to widows, orphans and poor clerks. He also provided
the Maundy gifts and selected the poor for the washing of feet.
He was thus a local visitor and alms distributor, not merely at the
gate of the monastery but in the neighbourhood, and had also at
his disposal " indoor ' relief for the sick. Separate from the rest
of the house there was also a dormitory and rooms and the kitchen
for strangers. A hospUularius attended to their needs and novices
waited on them. Guests who were laymen might stay on, work-
ing in return for board and lodging (Smith's Diet. Christian Antiq.,
"Benedictine").
The monasteries often established hospitals; they served also as
schools for the gentry and for the poor; and they were pioneers of
agriculture. In the 12th century, in which many monastic orders
were constituted, there were many lavish endowments. In the 14th
century their usefulness had begun to wane. At the end of that
century the larger estates were generally held in entail, with the
result that younger sons were put into religious houses. This
worldliness had its natural consequences. In the 15th century,
owing to mismanagement, waste, and subsequently to the decline
of rural prosperity, their resources were greatly crippled. In their
relation to charity one or two points may be noted: (1) Of the small
population of England the professed monks and nuns with the parish
priests (Rogers, Htst. Agric. and Prices, i. 58) numbered at least
30,000 or 40,000. This number of celibates was a standing protest
against the moral sufficiency of the family life. On the other hand,
amongst them were the brothers and sisters who visited the poor
and nursed the sick in hospitals; and many who now succumb
physically or mentally to the pressure of life, and are cared for in
institutions, may then have found maintenance and a retreat in
the monasteries. (2) Bound together by no common controlling
organization, t the monasteries were but so many miscellaneous
centres of relief, chiefly casual relief. They were mostly " magni-
ficent hostelries." (3) They stood outside the parish, and they
weakened its organization and hampered its development.
The Hospitals. — The revival of piety in the nth century led to
a large increase in the number of hospitals and hospital orders.
To show how far they covered the" field in England two instances
may be quoted. At Canterbury (Creighton, Epidemics, p. 87) there
were four for different purposes, two endowed by Lanfranc (1084),
one for poor, infirm, lame and blind men and women, and one out-
side the town for lepers. These hospitals were put under the charge
of a priory, and endowed out of tithes payable to the secular clergy.
Later (Henry II.), a hospital for leprous sisters was established,
and afterwards a hospital for leprous monks and poor relations of
the monks of St Augustine's. In a less populous parish, Luton
(Cobbe, Luton Churcn), there were a hospital for the poor, an alms-
house, and two hospitals, one for the sick and one for the leprous.
The word " leper," it is evident, was used very loosely, and was
applied to many diseases other than leprosy. There were hospitals
for the infirm and the leprous; the disease was not considered
contagious. The hospital in its modern sense was but slowly created.
Thus St Bartholomew's in London was founded (1123) for a master,
brethren and sisters, and for the entertainment of poor diseased
persons till they got well; of distressed women big with child till
they were able to go abroad ; and for the maintenance, until the age
878
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
of seven, of all such children whose mothers died in the house.
St Thomas's (rebuilt 1228) had a master and brethren and three lay
sisters, and 40 beds for poor, infirm and impotent people, who
had also victual and firing. There were hospitals for many special
purposes — as for the blind, for instance. There were also many
hospital orders in England and on the continent. They sprang up
beside the monastic orders, and for a time were very popular:
brothers and sisters of the Holy Ghost (1 198), sisters of St Elizabeth
(1 207-1 231), Beguines and Beghards (see Beguines), knights of St
John and others.
The Mendicant Orders, — The Franciscans tended the sick and
poor in the slums of the towns with great devotion — indeed, the
whole movement tells of a splendid self-abandonment and an
intensity of effort in the early spring of its enthusiasm, and with
the aid of reform councils and reformations it lengthened out its
usefulness for two centuries.
As in the pre-medieval church, the system of relief is that
M9dhvmi of charitable endowments — a marked contrast to
•Ddowd the modern method of voluntary associations or
ctmHthM. r ate-supported institutions.
(1) The Church as Legatee. — The church building among the
Teutonic races was not held by the bishop as part of what was
originally the charitable property of the church* It was assigned
to the patron saint of the church by the donor, who retained the
right of administration, of which bis own patronage or right of
presentation is a relic. Subsequently, with the study of Roman
law, the conception of the church as a persona ficta prevailed; and
till the larger growth of the gilds and corporations it was the only
general legatee for charitable gifts. As these arise a large number
of charitable trusts are created and held by lay corporations; and
" alms " include gifts for social as well as religious or eleemosynary
purposes. (2) Freedom from Taxation and Service. — Gifts to the
church for charitable or other purposes were made in free, pure and
perpetual alms (" ad tenendum in puram et perpetuam eleemosynam
sine omni temporali servicio et consuetudine "). Land held under this
frankalmoigne was given " in perpetual alms." therefore the donor
could not retract it; in free alms, therefore ne could exact no ser-
vices in regard to it; and in pure alms as being free from secular
jurisdiction (cf. Pollock and Maitland). (3) Alienation and Mort-
main. — To prevent alienation of property to religious houses, with
the consequent loss of service to the superior or chief lords, a licence
from the chief lord was required to legalize the alienation (Magna
Carta, and Edw. I., De viris religiosis). Other statutes (Edw. I.
and Rich. II.) enacted that this licence should be issued out of
chancery after investigation; and the principle was applied to
civil corporations. The necessity of this licence was one lay check
on injurious alienation. (4) Irresponsible Administration. — Until
after the 13th century, when the lay courts had asserted their
right to settle disputes as to lands held in alms, the administration
of charity was from the lay point of view entirely irresponsible.
It was outside the secular jurisdiction; and civilly the professed
clergy, who were the administrators, were " dead." They could
not sue or be sued except through their sovereign — their chief, the
abbot. They formed a large body of non-civic inhabitants free from
the pressure and the responsibilities of civil life. (5) Control. —
Apart from the control of the abbot, prior, master or other head, the
bishop was visitor, or, as we should say, inspector; and abuses
might be remedied by the visit of the bishop or his ordinary. The
bishop's ordinary (2 Henry V. i. 1) was the recognized visitor of all
hospitals apart from the founder. The founder and his family
retained a right of intervention. Sometimes thus an institution
was reorganized, or even dissolved, the property reverting to the
founder (Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, vi. 2. 715). (6) Cy-pris.
—Charities were, especially after Henry V.'s reign, appropriated to
other uses, either because their original purpose tailed or because
some new object had become important. Thus, for instance, a
college or hospital for lepers (1 J63) is re-established by the founder's
family with a master and priest, quod nulli leprost reperiebantur ;
and a similar hospital founded in Henry I.'s time near Oxford has
decayed, and is given by Edward III. to Oriel College, Oxford, to
maintain a chaplain and poor brethren. Thus, apart from alienation
pure and simple, the principle of adaptation to new uses was put in
force at an early date, and supplied many precedents to Wolsey,
Edward VI. and the post-Reformation bishops. The system of
endowments was indeed far more adaptable than it would at first
sight seem to have been. (7) The Sources of Income. — The hospitals
were chiefly supported by rents or the produce of land; or, if
attached to monasteries, out of the tithe of their monastic lands or
other sources of revenue, or out of the appropriated tithes of the
secular clergy; or they might be in part maintained by collections
made, for instance, by a commissioner duly authorized by a formal
attested document, in which were recounted the indulgences by
popes, archbishops and bishops to those who became its benefactors
(Cobbe, p. 75) ; or, in the case of leper hospitals, by a leper with a
" clapdish, who begged in the markets; or by a proctor, in the
case of more important institutions in towns, who ' came with his
box one day in every month to the churches and other religious
houses, at times of service, and there received the voluntary gifts
of the congregation "; or they might receive inmates on payment,
and thus apparently a frequent abuse, decayed servants of the court
and others, were l4 farmed out." (8) Mode of Admission. — The
admission was usually, no doubt, regulated by the prior or master.
At York, at the hospital of St Nicholas for the leprous, the conditions
of admission were: promise or vow of continence, participation in
prayer, the abandonment of all business, the inmate's property at
death to go to the house. This may serve as an example. The
master was usually one of the regular clergy. (9) Decline of the
Hospitals. — It is said that, in addition to 645 monasteries and
00 A colleges" and many chantries, Henry VIII. suppressed no
hospitals (Speed's Chronicle, p. 778). The numbers seem small.
In the economic decline at the end of the 15th and beginning of the
16th centuries many hospitals may have lapsed.
In the 15th century the towns grew in importance. First the
wool trade and then the cloth trade flourished, and the English
developed a large shipping trade. The towns grew up
like " little principalities "; and for the advancement. aadmad
of trade, gilds, consisting alike of masters and workmen,
were formed, which endeavoured to regulate and then
to monopolize the market. By degrees the corporations of the
towns were worked in their interests, and the whole commercial
system became restrictive and inadaptable. Meanwhile the
towns attracted newcomers; freedom from feudal obligations
was gained with comparative ease; and a new plebs was con-
gregating, a population of inhabitants not qualified as burghers
or gild members, women, sons living with their fathers, menial
servants and apprentices. There was thus an increasing restric-
tion imposed on trade, coupled with a growing plebs. Naturally,
then, lay charities sprang up for members of gilds, and for
burghers and for the commonalty. Men left estates to their gilds
to maintain decayed members in hospitals, almshouses or other-
wise, to educate their children, portion their daughters, and to
assist their widows. The middle-class trader was thus in great
measure insured against the risks of life. The gilds were one
sign of the new temper and wants of burghers freed from feudal-
ism. Another sign was a new standard of manners. Rules and
saws, Hesiodic in their tone, became popular — in regard, for
instance, to such a question as " how to enable a man to live
on his means, and to keep himself and those belonging to him."
The boroughs established other charities also, hospitals and alms-
houses for the people, a movement which, like that of the gilds,
began very early — in Italy as early as the 9th century. They
sometimes gave outdoor relief also to registered poor (Green i. 41) ,
and they had in large towns courts of orphans presided over by
the mayor and aldermen, thus taking over a duty that previously
had been one of conspicuous importance in the church. As early
as 1257 in Westphalian towns there was a rough-and-ready
system of Easter relief of the poor; and in Frankfort in 1437
there was a town council of almoners with a systematic pro-
gramme of relief (Ratzinger, p. 352). Thus at the close of the
middle ages the towns were gradually assuming what had been
charitable functions of the church.
While a new freedom was being attained by the labourer in
the country and the burgher in the town, the difficulty of obtain-
ing a sufficient supply of labour for agriculture must
have been constant, especially at every visitation of
plague and famine. In accordance with a general
policy of state regulation which was to control and
supervise industry, agriculture and poor relief and to repress
vagrancy by gaols and houses of correction, the state stepped
in as arbiter and organizer. By Statutes of Labourers beginning
in 1351 (25 Edw. III. 135), it aimed at enforcing a settled wage
and restraining migration. From 13 5 1 it endeavoured to suppress
mendicity, and in part to systematize it in the interest of infirm
and aged mendicants. Each series of enactments is the natural
complement of the other. In the main their signification, from
the point of view of charity, lies in the fact that they represent
a persistent endeavour to prevent social unsettlement and in
part the distress which unsettlement causes, and which vagrancy
in some measure indicates, by keeping the people within the
ranks of recognized dependence, the settled industry of the
crafts and of agriculture, or forcing them back into it by fear
of the gaol or the stocks. The extreme point of this policy 1
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
879
reached when by the laws of Edward VI. and Elizabeth the
"rogue, vagabond or sturdy beggar" was branded with an R
on the shoulder and handed over as a bondman for a period to any
one who would take him. On the other hand, it was desired
that relief should be a means of preventing migration. In any
time of general pressure there is a desire to organize mendicity,
to prevent the wandering of beggars, to create a kind of settled
poor, distinguished from the rest as infirm and not able-bodied,
and to keep these at least at home sufficiently supported by local
and parochial relief; and this, in its simpler form all the world
over, has in the past been by response to public begging. The
argument may be summed up thus: We cannot have begging,
which implies that the beggar is cared for by no one, belongs
to no one, and therefore throws himself on the world at large.
Therefore, if he is able-bodied he must be punished as unsocial,
for it is his fault that he belongs to no one; or we must make
him some one's dependant, and so keep him; or if he is infirm,
and therefore of no service to any one — if no one will keep him —
we must organize his mendicity, for such mendicity is justified.
If he cannot dig for the man to whom he does or should belong,
he must beg. Then out of the failure to organize mendicity
— for relief of itself is no remedy, least of all casual relief —
a poor-law springs up, which, afterwards associated with the
provision of employment, will, it is hoped, make relief in some
measure remedial by increasing its quantity by means of com-
pulsory levies. This argument, which combined statutory wage
control and statutory poor relief, seems to have been firmly
bedded in the English legislative mind for more than two centuries,
from 13 5 1 till after 1600; and until 1834 these two series of laws
effectually reduced the English labourer to a new industrial
dependence. To people imbued with ideas of feudalism the way
of escape from villenage seemed to be not independence, but
a new reversion to it.
Many elements produced the social and economic catastrophe
of the 16th century, for the condition into which the country
fell can hardly be considered less than a catastrophe,
frfciii* With the growing independence of the people there was
created after the 13th century an unsettled " master-
less " class, a residue of failure resulting from social changes,
which was large and important enough to call for legislation.
In the 15th century, " the golden age of the English labourer/'
the towns increased and flourished. Both town and country did
well. At the end of the century came the decadence. The
measure of the strain, when perhaps it had reached its lowest
level, is indicated by the following comparison: " The cost of
a peasant's family of four in the early part of the 14th century
was £3 : 4 : 95 after 1540 it was £8 " (Rogers, Hist, of Agric. and
Prices, iv. 756).
The cause of this has now been fairly investigated. The value
of land in the 13th century generally depended chiefly on " the
head of labour " retained upon it. Its fertility depended on main-
oeuvre (manure). To keep labour upon it was therefore the aim
of the lord or owner. The enclosing of lands for sheep began early,
and in the time of Edward III., in the great days of the woolstaple,
mu9t have been extensive. So long as the demand for the exporta-
tion of wool, and then for its consumption at home in the cloth trade,
continued, the towns prospered, and the enclosures did not become
a grievance. Even before the reign of Henry VII., with the decay
of trade, the towns decayed, and their population in some cases
diminished extraordinarily. This reacted on the country, where the
great families had already become impoverished, and were hardly
able to support their retainers. In Henry VIII.'s time the lands of
the religious houses were confiscated. Worked on old lines, the
custom of tillage remained in force on them. Accordingly, when
these estates fell into private hands they were transferred subject
to the condition that they should be tilled as heretofore. The con-
dition was evaded by the new owners, and the disbandment of farm
labourers went on apace. In England and Wales these changes, it is
said, affected a third of the country, more than 12,000,000 acres, if
the estimates be correct, or rather a third of the best land in the
kingdom. With towns decaying, the effect of this must have been
terrible. What were realty " latifundia " were created, " great
landes," " enclosures of a mile or two or thereabouts . . . destroy-
ing thereby not only the farms and cottages within the same circuits,
but also tne towns and villages adjoining." A herdsman and his
wife took the place of eighteen to twenty-four farm hands. The
people thus set wandering could only join the wanderers from the
decaying towns. At the same time the economic difficulty was
aggravated by a new patrician or commercial greed ; and once more
the land question — the absorption of property into a few hands
instead of its free exchange — led to lasting social demoralisation.
A few years after the alienation of the monasteries the coinage
(1543) was debased. By this means prices were arbitrarily raised,
and wages were increased nominally; but nevertheless the price
of necessaries was " so enhanced " that neither " the poor labourers
can live with their wages that is limited by your grace's laws, nor
the artificers can make, much less sell, their wares at any reasonable
price " (Lamond, The Commonweal of this Realm of England, p. xlvii).
No social reformation, such as the charitable instincts of Wycliffe,
More, Hales, Latimer and other men suggested, was attempted, or
at least persistently carried out. In towns the organization of labour
had become restrictive, exclusive and inadaptable, or, judged from
the moral standpoint, uncharitable. There bad been a time of olenty
and extravagance, of which in high quarters the famous " field of
the cloth of gold " was typical; and probably, in accordance with
the frequently observed law of social economics, as the advance in
wages and their purchasing power in the earlier part of the 15th
century had not been accompanied by a simultaneous advance in
self-discipline and intelligent expenditure, it resulted in part in
lessened competence and industrial ability on the part of the work-
men, and thus in the end produced pauperism.
The poverty of the country was very great in the reigns of
Edward VI. and Elizabeth. Adversity then taught the people
new manners, and households became more simple and thrifty.
In the reign of James I., with enforced economy and thrift, a
" slow but substantial improvement in agriculture " took place,
and a new growth of commercial enterprise. The vigour of the
municipalities had abated, so that in Henry VHI.'s time they
had become the very humble servants of the government;
and the government, on the other hand, had become strongly
centralized — in itself a sign of the general withdrawal of self-
sustaining activity in all administration, in the administration
of charitable relief no less than in other departments. A system
of endowed charities had been built up, supported chiefly by
rents from landed property. These now had disappeared, and
thus the means of relief, which Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth
might have utilized at a time of general distress, had been dis-
sipated by the acts of their predecessors. The civil independence
of the monasteries and religious houses might have been justified,
possibly, when they were engaged in missionary work and were
instilling into the people the precepts of a higher moral law than
that which was in force around them. But afterwards, as the
ability and intelligence of the community increased, their privi-
leges became more and more antagonistic to charity, and tended
to create a non-social and even anti-social ecclesiastical democracy
actuated by aims and interests in which the general good of the
people had little or no place. There was a growing alienation
between religious tradition and secular opinion, as Lollardism
slowly permeated the thought of the people and led the way
to the Reformation. While this alienation existed no national
system of charity, civic and yet religious, could be created. But
worse than all, the ideal of charity had been degraded. A self-
regarding system of relief had superseded charity, and it was
productive of nothing but alms, large or small, isolated and un-
methodic, given with a wrong bias, and thus almost inevitably
with evil results. Out of this could spring no vigorous co-opera-
tive charity. Charity — not relief — indeed seemed to have left
the world. The larger issues were overlooked. Then the property
of the hospitals and the gilds was wantonly confiscated, though
the poor had already lost that share in the revenues of the church
to which at one time they were admitted to have a just claim.
A new beginning had to be made. The obligations of charity had
to be revived. A new organization of charitable relief had to
be created, and that with an empty exchequer and after a vast
waste of charitable resources. There were signs of a new con-
gregational and parochial energy, yet the task could not be
entrusted to the religious bodies, divided and disunited as they
were. In their stead it could be imposed only on some authority
which represented the general community, such as municipalities;
and in spite of the centralization of the government there seemed
some hope of creating a system of relief in connexion with them.
They were tried, and, very naturally, failed. In the poverty of
the time it seemed that the poor could be relieved only by *-
88o
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
compulsory rate, and the administration of statutory relief
naturally devolved on the central government — the only vigorous
administrative body left in the country. The government might
indeed have adopted the alternative of letting the industrial
difficulties of the country work themselves out, but they had
inherited a policy of minute legislative control, and they continued
it. Revising previous statutes, they enacted the Poor Law,
which still remains on the statute book. It could be no remedy
for social offences against charity and the community. But in
part at least it was successful. It helped to conceal the failure
to find a remedy.
Part VI. — After the Reformation
During the Reformation, which extended, it should be under-
stood, from the middle of the 14th century to the reign of James I.,
j^ the groundwork of the theory of charity was being
Rt/ormm- recast. The old system and the narrow theory on which
Ooa theory it had come to depend were discredited. The recoil
otchmrity. j s s^tling. To a very large extent charitable ad-
ministration had been in the hands of men and women who, as
an indispensable condition to their participation in it, took
the vows of obedience, chastity and " wilful " poverty. Now
this was all entirely set aside. It was felt (see Homilies on Faith
and Good Works, 6>c, a.d. 1547) that socially and morally the
method had been a failure. The vow of obedience, it was argued,
led to a general disregard of the duties of civic and family life.
Those who bound themselves by it were outside the state and
did not serve it. In regard to chastity the Homily states the
common opinion: " How the profession of chastity was kept,
it is more honesty to pass over in silence and let the world judge
of what is well known." As to wilful poverty, the regulars, it
is urged, were not poor, but rich, for they were in possession of
much wealth. Their property, it is true, was held in communi,
and not personally, but nevertheless it was practically theirs,
and they used it for their personal enjoyment; and " for all
their riches they might never help father nor mother, nor others
that were indeed very needy and poor, without the license of
their father abbot" or other head. This was the negative position.
The positive was found in the doctrine of justification — the central
point in the discussions of the time, a plant from the garden of
St Augustine. Justification was the personal conviction of a
lively (or living) faith, and was defined as "a true trust and
confidence of the mercy of God through our Lord Jesus Christ,
and a stedfast hope of all good things to be received at His hands."
Without this justification there could be no good works. They
were the signs of a lively faith and grew out of it. Apart from
it, what seemed to be " good works " were of the nature of sin,
phantom acts productive of nothing, " birds that were lost,
unreal." So were the works of pagans and heretics. The
relation of almsgiving to religion was thus entirely altered. The
personal reward here or hereafter to the actor was eliminated.
The deed was good only in the same sense in which the doer was
good; it had in itself no merit. This was a great gain, quite
apart from any question as to the sufficiency or insufficiency of
the Protestant scheme of salvation. The deed, it was realized,
was only the outcome of the doer, the expression of himself,
what he was as a whole, neither better nor worse. Logically
this led to the discipline of the intelligence and the emotions,
and undoubtedly " justification " to very many was only con-
sistent with such discipline and implied it. Thus under a new
guise the old position of charity reasserted itself. But there were
other differences.
The relation of charity to prayer, fasting, almsgiving and penance
was alt2red. The prayerful contemplation of the Christ was pre-
served in the mysticism of Protestantism; but it was dissociated
from the " historic Christ," from the fervent idealization of whom
St Francis drew his inspiration and his active charitable impulse.
The tradition did not die out, however. It remained with many,
notably with George Herbert, of whom it made, not unlike St Francis,
a poet as well as a practical parish priest ; but the absence of it
indicated in much post-Reformation endeavour a want, if not of
devotion, yet of intensity of feeling which may in part account for
the fact that sectarianism in relief has since proved itself stronger
than charity, instead of yielding to charity as its superior and its
organizer. Fasting was parted from prayer and almsgiving. It
was " a thing not of its own proper nature good as the love of father
or mother or neighbour, but according to its end." Almsgiving also
as a " work " disappeared and with it a whole series of inducements
that from the standpoint of the pecuniary and material supply of
relief had long been active. It was no wonder that the preachers
advocated it in vain, and reproached their hearers with their dimin-
ished bounty to the poor ; the old personal incentive had gone, and
could only gradually be superseded by the spontaneous activity of
personal religion very slowly wedding itself to true views of social
duty and purpose. Penance, once so closely related to almsgiving,
passed out of sight. Charity, the love of God and our neighbour, had
two offices, it was said, " to cherish good and harmless men " and
' ' to correct and punish vice without regard to persons." Correction
as a means of discipline takes the place of penance, and it becomes
judicial, regulating and controlling church membership by the
authority of the church, a congregation, minister or elder; or deal-
ing with laziness or ill-doing through the municipality or state, in
connexion with what now first appear, not prisons, out houses of
correction.
The religious life was to be democratic — not in religious
bodies, but in the whole people; and in a new sense — in relation
to family and social life — it was to be moral. That was the
significance of the Reformation for charity.
Consistently with this movement of religious activity towards
a complete fulfilment of the duties of civic life, the older classical
social theory, fostered by the Renaissance, assumed a
new influence — the great conception of the state as a
community bound together by charity and friendship, ttom of
Tho
" We be not born to ourselves," it was said, " but mi
partly to the use of our country, of our parents, of our
kinsfolk, and partly of our friends and neighbours; and therefore
all good virtues are grafted on us naturally, whose effects be
to do good to others, when it showeth forth the image of God
in man, whose property is ever to do good to others " (Lamond,
p. 14). Economic theory also changed. Instead of the medieval
opinion of the " theologian or social preacher," that " trade
could only be defended on the ground that honestly conducted
it made no profit " (Green, ii. 71), we have a recognition of the
advantages resulting from exchange, and individual interests,
it is argued, are not necessarily inconsistent with those of the
state, but are, on the contrary, a source of solid good to the whole
community.
Municipal laws for the suppression of the mendicity of the able-
bodied and the organization of relief on behalf of the infirm were
common in England and on the continent (Cclmar, 1362 ; Nurem-
berg, 1478 ; Strassburg, 1523 ; London, 1514). Vives (Ehrle, Beitrdge
zur Geschichte und Reform der ArmenMcge, p. 26), a Spaniard, who
had been at the court of Henry VII I., in a book translated into
several languages and widely read, seems to have summed up the
thought of the time in regard to the management of the poor.
He divided them into three classes: those in hospitals and poor-
houses, the public homeless beggars and the poor at home. He
would have a census taken of the number of each class in the town,
and information obtained as to the causes of their distress. Then
he would establish a central organization of relief under the magis-
trates. Work was to be supplied for all, while begging was strictly
forbidden. Non-settled poor who were able-bodied were to be sent
to their homes. Able-bodied settled poor who knew no craft were
to be put on some public work — the undeserving being set to hard
labour. For others work was to be found, or they were to be assisted
to become self-supporting. The hospitals provided with medical
advice and necessaries were to be classified to meet the needs of the
sick, the blind and lunatics. The poor living at home were to work
with a view to their self-support. What they earned, if insufficient,
might be supplemented. If a citizen found a case of distress he was
not to help it, but to send it for inquiry to the magistrate. Children
were to be taught. Private relief was to be obtained from the rich.
The funds of endowed charities were to be the chief source of income ;
if more was wanted, bequests and church collections would suffice.
The scheme was put in force in Ypr£s in 1524. The Sorbonne
approved it, and similar plans were adopted in Paris and elsewhere.
It is in outline the scheme of London municipal charity promoted
by Edward VI., by which the poor were classified, St Bartholomew's
and St Thomas's hospitals appropriated for the sick, Christ's hospital
for the, children of the poor, ana Bridewell for the correction of the
able-bodied. Less the institutional arrangements and plus the
compulsory rate, the methods are those of the Poor Relief Act of
Queen Elizabeth of 1601. At first the attempt had been made to
introduce state relief in reliance on voluntary alms (1 Mary 13,
5 Eliz. 3, 1 562-1 563), subject to the right of assessment if alms were
refused. But the position was anomalous. Charity is voluntary,
and spontaneously meets the demands of distress. Such demands
have always a tendency to increase with the supply. Hence the very
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
881
limitations of charitable finance are in the nature of a safeguard.
At most economic trouble can only be assuaged by relief, and it can
only be met or prevented by economic and social reforms. If a
compulsory rate be not enforced, as in Scotland and formerly in
some parishes in England, a voluntary rate may be made in supple-
mentation of the local charities. In Scotland, where the compulsory
clauses of the Poor Relief Act of James I. were not put in force, the
country weathered the storm without them, and the compulsory
rate, which was extended throughout the country by the Poor Act of
1844, came in very slowly in the 18th and 19th centuries. In
France (1566) a similar act was passed and set aside. If a compul-
sory rate be enforced, it is inevitable that the resources of charity,
unless kept apart from the poor-law and administered on different
lines from it, will diminish, and at the same time, as has happened
often in the case of endowed charities, the interest in charitable
administration will lapse, while the charges for poor-law relief,
drawn without much scruple from the taxation of the community,
will mount to millions either to meet increasing demands or to pro-
vide more elaborate institutional accommodation. The principle
once adopted, it was enacted (1572-1573) that the aged and infirm
should be cared for by the overseers of the poor, a new authority;
and in 1 60 1 the duplicate acts were passed, that for the relief of
the poor (43 Eliz. 2), and that for the furtherance and protection
of endowed charities. Thus the poor were brought into the depend-
ence of a legally recognized class, endowed with a claim for relief,
on the fulfilment of which, after a time, they could without difficulty
insist if they were so minded. The civic authority had indeed taken
over the alms of the parish, and an eleemosyna cwica had taken the
place of the annona cwica. It was a similar system under a different
name.
A phrase of Robert Cecil's (1st earl of Salisbury) indicates the
minute domestic character of the Elizabethan legislation (D'Ewes,
PoorRilief 674). The question (1601) was the repeal of a statute
Acta sad of tillage. Cecil says: "If in Edward I.'s time a
MtMtotory in W was made for the maintenance of the fry of fish,
Mcrfdom. an ^ m j^ eni y yil.'s f or the preservation of the eggs
of wild fowl, shall we now throw away a law of more
consequence and import? If we debar tillage, we give scope
to the depopulating. And then, if the poor being thrust out of
their houses go to dwell with others, straight we catch them
with the statute of inmates; if they wander abroad, they are
within the danger of the statute of the poor to be whipt. So by
this undo this statute, and you endanger many thousands.' 1
A strong central government, a local authority appointed directly
by the government, and a network of legislation controlled the
whole movement of economic life. On this reliance was placed
to meet economic difficulties. The local authorities were the
justices of the peace; and they had to carry out the statutes
for this purpose, to assess the wages of artisans and labourers,
and to enforce the payment of the wages they had fixed; to
ensure that suitable provision was made for the relief of the poor
at the expense of rates which they also fixed; and to suppress
vagabondage. Since 23 Edw. III. there had been labour statutes,
and in 1563 a new statute was passed, an " Act containing divers
orders for Artificers, Labourers, Servants of Husbandry and
Apprentices " (5 Eliz. c. 4). It recognized and upheld a social
classification. On the one hand there was the gentleman or
owner of property to which the act was not to apply; and on
the other the artisan and labouring class. This class in turn was
subdivided, and the justices were to assess their wages annually
according to " the plenty and scarcity of the time and other
circumstances." Persons between the ages of twelve and sixty,
who were not apprentices or engaged in certain specified employ-
ments, were compelled to serve in husbandry by the year " with
any person that keepeth husbandry." The length of the day's
work and the conditions of apprenticeship were fixed. The
assessed rate of wages was enforceable by fine and imprisonment,
and refusal to be apprenticed by imprisonment. Thus there
was created a life control over labour with an industrial settle-
ment and a wage fixed by the justices annually. There are
differences of opinion in regard to the extent to which this act
was enforced; and the evidence on the point is comparatively
scanty. It was enforced throughout the century in which it
was passed, and it probably continued in force generally until
the Restoration, while subsequently it was put in operation to
meet special emergencies, such as times of distress when some
settlement of wages seemed desirable (cf. Rogers, v. 611;
Hewins, English Trade and Finance, p. 82; Cunningham, Growth
of English Industry and Commerce: Modern Times, i. 168). It
was not repealed till 18 14.
From 1585 to 1622 there was, it is said, a slight increase in
labourers' wages, which fluctuated from 5s. fd. to 5s. 8Jd. a
week, with a declining standard of comfort and at times great
distress. Then there was a marked increase of wage till 1662
and " a very marked improvement; the rate of increase being
very nearly double that of the earlier periods," and reaching
9s., " as the highest weekly rate for the whole period." Then
from 1662 to 1702 there was "a slight improvement" (Hewins,
p. 89). It would seem indeed that the stir of the times between
1622 and 1662 may have caused a great demand for labour.
But with the Restoration, when the assessment system was
falling into desuetude, came the Poor Relief Act of 1662 (13 &
14 Car. II. cap. 62), which brought in the law of settlement, and
a settlement for relief of a very strict nature was added to the
industrial settlement of the Artificers and Labourers Act. Thus,
if the influence of that act, which had so long controlled labour,
was waning, its place was now taken by an act which, though it
had nothing to do with the assessment of wage, yet so settled the
labourer within the bounds of his parish that he had practically
to rely, if not upon a wage fixed by the justices, yet upon a
customary wage limited and restricted as a result of the law of
settlement. And the assessment by the justices, in so far as it
may have continued, would therefore be of little or no con-
sequence. Settlement also, like the Artificers and Labourers Act,
would prevent the country labourer from passing to the towns,
or the townsmen passing to other towns. At least they would
do so at the risk of forfeiting their right to relief if they lost their
settlement without acquiring a new one. Hence the industrial
control, though under another name and other conditions,
remained in force to a large extent in practice.
By the Artificers and Labourers Act then, in conjunction with
other measures, the labouring classes were finally committed to
a new bondage, when they had freed themselves from the serfdom
of feudalism, and when the control exercised over them by the
gild and municipality was relaxed. The statute was so enforced
that to earn a year's livelihood would have taken a labourer not
52 weeks, but sometimes two years, or 58 weeks, or 80 weeks,
or 72 weeks; sometimes, however, less — 48 or 35. It followed
that on such a system the country could only with the utmost
good fortune free itself from the economic difficulties of the
century, and that the need of a poor-law was felt the more as
these difficulties persisted. A voluntary or a municipal system
could not suffice, even as a palliative, while such statutes as
these were in force to render labour immobile and unprogressive.
Also, while wages were fixed by statute or order, whether chiefly
in the interest of the employers or not, obviously any shortage
on the wages had to be made good by the community. The
community, by fixing the wages to be earned in a livelihood,
made itself responsible for their sufficiency. And it is suggestive
to find that in the year in which the Artificers and Labourers Act
(1563) was passed, the act for the enforcement of assessments
of poor-rate (5 Eliz. cap. 3) was also enacted. The Law of
Settlement, to which we have referred, passed in the reign of
Charles II., was due, it is said, to a migration of labourers
southward from counties where less favourable statutory wages
prevailed; but it was, in fact, only a corollary of the Artificers
and Labourers Act of 1563 and the Poor Relief Act of 1601.
These laws, it may be said, were the means of making the English
labourer, until the poor-law reform of 1834, a settled but landless
serf, supported by a fixed wage and a state bounty. By the poor-
law it was possible to continue this state of things till, in con-
sequence of an absolute economic breakdown, there was no
alternative but reform.
The philanthropic nature of the poor-law is indicated by its
antecedents: once enacted, its bounties became a right; its
philanthropy disappeared in a quasi-legal claim. Its object was
to relieve the poor by home industries, apprentice children, and
provide necessary relief to the poor unable to work. The act was
commonly interpreted so as to include the whole of that indefinite
class, the " poor "; by a better and more rigid interpretation it
882
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
was, at least in the 19th century, held to apply only to the " desti-
tute," that is, to those who required " necessary relief " — accord-
ing to the actual wording of the statute. The economic fallacy
of home industries founded on rate-supplied capital early declared
itself, and the method could only have continued as long as it did
because it formed part of a general system of industrial control.
When in the 18th century workhouses were established, the same
industrial fallacy, as records show, repeated itself under new
conditions. Within the parish it resulted in the farmer paying
the labourer as small a wage as possible, and leaving the parish
to provide whatever he might require in addition during his
working life and in his old age. Thus, indeed, a gigantic experi-
ment in civic employment was made for at least two centuries on
a vast scale throughout the country — and failed. As was natural,
the lack of economic independence reacted on the morals of
the people. With pauperism came want of energy, idleness and
a disregard for chastity and the obligations of marriage. The law,
it is true, recognized the mutual obligations of parents and grand-
parents, children and grandchildren; but in the general poverty
which it was itself a means of perpetuating such obligations
became practically obsolete, while at all times they are difficult
to enforce. Still, the fact that they were recognized implies a
great advance in charitable thought. The act, passed at first
from year to year, was very slowly put in force. Even before it
was passed the poor-rate first assessed under the act of 1563 was
felt to be " a greater tax than some subsidies," and in the time
of Charles II. it amounted to a third of the revenue of England
and Wales (Rogers, v. 81).
The service of villein and cottar was, as we have now seen, in
part superseded by what we have called a statutory wage-control,
founded on a basis of wage supplemented by relief, provided by a
rate-supported poor-law. But it follows that with the decay of
this system the poor-law itself should have disappeared, or should
have taken some new and very limited form. Unfortunately,
as in Roman times, state relief proved to be a popular and
vigorous parasite that outlived the tree on which it was rooted:
assessments of wage under the Statute of Labourers fell into
disuse after the Restoration, it is said, and the statute was
finally repealed in 1814, and sixty years later the act against
illegal combinations of working men; but the serfdom of the
poor-law, the eleemosyna civica, remained, to work the gravest
evil to the labouring classes, and even after the reform of 1834
greatly impeded the recovery of their independence. Neverthe-
less, by a new law of state alms for the aged, or by statutory
outdoor relief with, as some would wish, a regulated wage, it is
now proposed to bring them once again under a thraldom similar
to that from which they have so slowly emancipated themselves.
The policy adopted by Queen Elizabeth for the relief of the
poor (1601) included a scheme for the reorganization of voluntary
charity as well as plans for the extension of rate-aided
•flrfowMf reu «f. during the century, as we have seen, endeavours
chmrideM. had been made to create a system of voluntary charity.
This it was proposed to safeguard and promote con-
currently with the extension of the poor-rate. Accordingly, in
the poor-law it was arranged that the overseers, the new civic
authority, and the churchwardens, the old parochial and charit-
able authority, should act in conjunction, and, subject to magis-
terial approval, together " raise weekly or otherwise " the
necessary means " by taxation of every inhabitant." The old
charitable organization was based on endowment, and the church-
warden was responsible for the administration of many such
endowments. What was not available from these and other
sources was to be raised " by taxation." The object of the new
act was to encourage charitable gifts.
Towards the end of the 18th century, when the administration
of poor relief fell into confusion, many charities were lost, or were
in danger of being lost, and many were mismanaged. In 1786
and 1788 a committee of the House of Commons reported on the
subject. In 1818, chiefly through the instrumentality of Lord
Brougham, a commission of inquiry on educational charities was
appointed, and in 1819 another commission to investigate (with
some exceptions) all the charities for the poor in England and
Wales. These and subsequent commissions continued their
inquiries till 1835, when a select committee of the House of
Commons made a strong report, advocating the establishment
of a permanent and independent board, to inquire, to compel
the production of accounts, to secure the safe custody of charity
property, to adapt it to new uses on cy-pres lines, &c. A com-
mission followed in 1849, and eventually in 1853 the first
Charitable Trusts Act was passed, under which " The Charity
Commissioners of England and Wales " were appointed.
The following are details of importance: — (1) Definition. — The
definition of the act of 1601 (Charitable Uses, 44 Eliz. 4) still holds
good. It enumerates as charitable objects all that was once called
alms " : (a) " The relief of aged, impotent and poor people " —
the normal poor; "the maintenance of sick and maimed soldiers
and mariners " — the poor chiefly by reason of war, sometime a class
of privileged mendicants; (fi) education, " schools of learning, free
schools and scholars in universities"; and then (c) a group of
objects which include general civic and religious purposes, and the
charities of gilds and corporations; " the repair of bridges, ports,
havens, causeways, churches, sea-banks and highways; the educa-
tion and preferment of orphans ; the relief, stock, or maintenance for
houses of correction; marriages of poor maids, supportation, aid,
and help of young tradesmen, handicraftsmen, and persons de-
cayed " ; and there follows (d) " the relief or redemption of prisoners
or captives " ; and, lastly, (e) " the aid and ease of any poor inhabit-
ants concerning payment of fifteens " (the property-tax of Tudor
times), setting out of soldiers, and other taxes. The definition might
be illustrated by the charitable bequests of the next 60, or indeed
225, years. It is a fair summary of them. (2) Charitable Gifts. —
A public trust and a charitable trust are, as this definition shows,
synonymous. It is a trust which relates to public charities, ana
is not held for the benefit of private persons, e.g. relations, but for
the common good, and, subject to the instructions of the founder,
by trustees responsible to the community. Gifts for charitable
purposes, other than those affected by the law of mortmain, have
always been viewed with favour. " Where a charitable bequest is
capable of two constructions, one of which would make it void and
the other would make it effectual, the latter will be adopted by the
court " (Tudor's Charitable Trusts, ed. 1906, by Bristowe, Hunt and
Burdett, p. 167). Gifts to the poor, or widows, or orphans, in-
definitely, or in a particular parish, were valid under the act, or for
any purpose or institution for the aid of the " poor." Thus practi-
cally the act covered the same field as the poor-law, though after-
wards it was decided that, " as a rule, persons receiving parochial
relief were not entitled to the benefit of a charity intended for the
poor " (Tudor, p. 167). (3) Religious Differences. — In the adminis-
tration of charities which are for the poor the broadest view is taken
of religious differences. (4) Superstitious Uses. — The superstitious
use is one that has for its object the propagation of the rights of
a religion not tolerated by the law (Tudor, p. 4). Consequently,
so far as charities were held or left subject to such rights, they
were illegal, or became legal only as toleration was extended. Thus
by degrees, since the Toleration Act of 1688, all charities to dis-
senters have become legal — that is, trusts for schools, places for reli-
S'ous instruction, education and charitable purposes generally. But
^quests for masses for the soul of the donor, or for monastic orders,
are still void. (5) Administration. — The duty of administering
charitable trusts tails upon trustees or corporations, and under the
term " eleemosynary corporations " are included endowed hospitals
and colleges. Under schemes of the Charity Commissioners, where
charities have been remodelled, besides trustees elected by corpora-
tions, there are now usually appointed ex-officio trustees who repre-
sent some office or institution of importance in connexion with the
charity. (6) Jurisdiction by Chancery and Charity Commission. — The
Court of Chancery has jurisdiction over chanties, under the old
principle that " charities are trusts of a public nature, in regard to
which no one is entitled by an immediate and peculiar interest to
prefer a complaint for compelling the performance by the trustees
of their obligations." The court, accordingly, represents the crown
as parens patriae. Now, by the Charitable Trusts Act 1853, and
subsequent acts, a charity commission has been formed which is
entrusted with large powers, formerly enforced only by the Court
of Chancery. ^ (7) Jurisdiction by Visitor. — A further jurisdiction
is by the " visitor," a right inherent in the founder of any eleemosy-
nary corporation, and his heirs, or those whom he appoints, or in
their default, the king. The object of the visitor is " to prevent all
perverting of the chanty, or to compose differences among members
of the corporation." Formerly the bishop's ordinary was the recog-
nized visitor (2 Henry V. 1, 1414) of hospitals, apart from the
founder. Subsequently his power was limited (14 Eliz. c 5, 1572)
to hospitals for which the founders had appointed no visitors.
Then (160 1) by the Charitable Uses Act commissions were issued
for inquiry by county juries. Now, apart from the duty of visitors,
inquiry is conducted by the charity commissioners and the assistant
commissioners. By subsequent acts (see below) ecclesiastical and elee-
mosynary charities have been still further separated and defined. (8)
Advice. — " Trustees, or other persons concerned in the management
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
8.83
of a charity, may apply to the charity commissioners for their
opinion, advice or direction; and any person acting under such
advice is indemnified, unless he has been guilty of misrepresentation
in obtaining it." (9) Limitation of Charity Commissioners* Powers. —
The commissioners cannot, however, make any order with respect
to any charity of which the gross annual income amounts to £50 or
upwards, except on the application (in writing) of the trustees or a
majority of them. Their powers are thus very limited, except when
put in motion by the trustees. If a parish is divided they can
apportion the charities if the gross income does not exceed £20.
* the Charity Commission. — Subject to the
j charity commissioners have power (Charit-
1860) to make orders for the appointment or
removal of trustees, or of any officer, and for the transfer, payment
and vesting of any real or personal estate, or " for the establishment
of any scheme for the administration " of the charity. (11) Schemes
and Remodelling of Charities. — Under this power charities are re-
modelled, and small and miscellaneous chanties put into one fund
and applied to new purposes. The cy-pres doctrine is applied, by
which it a testator leaves directions that are only indefinite, or if the
objects for which a charity was founded are obsolete, the charity is
applied to some purpose, as far as possible, in accordance with
the charitable intention of the founder. This doctrine probably
received its widest application in the City of London Parochial
Charities Act of 1883. Under other acts doles have been applied to
education and to allotments. About 380 schemes are issued in the
course of a year. (12) Objects adopted in remodelling Charities. —
In the remodelling of chanties for the general benefit of the poor
some one or more of thirteen objects are usually included in the
scheme. These are subscriptions to a medical chanty, to a provident
club or coal or clothing society, to a friendly society; for nurses, for
annuities, for outfit for service, &c; for emigration; for recreation
grounds, clubs, reading-rooms, museums, lectures; for temporary
relief to a limited amount in each year; for clothes, fuel, tools,
medical aid, food, &c, or in money " in cases of unexpected loss or
sudden destitution "; for pensions. (13) Parochial Charities. — By
the Local Government Act of 1892, local ecclesiastical charities, i.e.
endowments for " any spiritual purpose that is a Iejjal purpose " (for
spiritual persons, church and other buildings, for spiritual uses, &c),
are separated from parochial charities, " the benefits of which are,
or the separate distribution of the benefits of which is, confined to
inhabitants of a single parish, or of a single ancient ecclesiastical
parish, or not more than five neighbouring parishes." These
charities, since the Local Government Act 1894, are under the
supervision of the parish councils, who appoint trustees for their
management in lieu of the former overseer or vestry trustees, or,
under certain conditions, " additional trustees." The accounts
have to be submitted to the parish meeting, and the names of the
beneficiaries of dole charities published. (14) Official Trustees. —
There is also " an official trustee of charity lands," who as " bare
trustee " may hold the land or stock of the charity managed by
the trustees or administrators. In 1905 the stock transferred to
the official trustees amounted to £24,820,945. (15) Audit. — The
charity commissioners have no power of audit, but the trustees
of every charity have to prepare a statement of accounts annually,
and transmit it to the commission. The accounts have to be " certi-
fied under the hand of one or more of the trustees and by the auditor
of the charity." (16) Taxation. — In the case of rents and profits of
lands, &c., belonging to hospitals or almshouses, or vested in trustees
for charitable purposes, allowances are made in diminution of income-
tax (56 Vict. 35 S 61). From the inhabited house duty any hos-
pital charity school, or house provided for the reception or relief of
poor persons, is exempted (House Tax Act 1808). Also there is an
exemption from the land-tax in regard to land rents, &c, in pos-
session of hospitals before 1693. (17) The Digest. — A digest of
endowed charities in England and Wales was compiled in the years
1 86 1 to 1876. A new digest of reports and financial particulars
has since been completed.
The income of endowed charities in 1 876 was returned at £2, 198,463.
It is now. no doubt, considerably larger than it was in 1876. Partial
returns snow that at least a million a year is now available in England
and Wales for the assistance of the aged poor and for doles. Between
the poor-law, which, as it is at present administered, is a permanent
endowment provided from the rates for the support of a class of
permanent poor," and endowed charities, which are funds avail-
able for the poor of successive generations, there is no great difference.
But in their resources and administration the difference is marked.
Local endowed charities were constantly founded after Queen
Elizabeth's time till about 1830, and the poor-rate was at first supple-
mentary of the local charities. When corn and fuel were dear and
clothes very expensive, what now seem trivial endowments for food,
fuel, coal and clothes were important assets in the thrifty manage-
ment of a parish. But when the poor were recognized as a class of
dependants entitled by law to rehef from the community, the rate
increased out of all proportion to the charities. A distinction then
made itself felt between the " parish " poor and the " second "
poor, or the poor who were not relieved from the rates, and relief
from the rates altogether overshadowed the charitable aid. Charit-
able endowments were ignored, ill-administered, and often were
lost. After 1834 the poor-law was brought under the control of the
central government. Poor relief was placed in the hands of boards
of guardians in unions of parishes. The method of co-operation
between poor-law and charity suggested by the acts of Queen
Elizabeth was set aside, and, as a responsible partner in the public
work of relief, charity was disestablished. m In the parishes the
endowed charities remained in general a disorganized medley of
separate trusts, jealously guarded by incompetent administrators.
To give unity to this mass of units, so long as tne principles of charity
are misunderstood or ignored, has proved an almost impossible and
certainly an unpopular task. So far as it has been achieved, it has
been accomplished by the piecemeal legislation of schemes cautiously
elaborated to meet local prejudices. Active reform has been resented,
and politicians have often accentuated this resentment. In 1894 a
select committee was appointed to inquire whether it was desirable
to take measures to bnng the action of the Charity Commission
more directly under the control of parliament, but no serious griev-
ances were substantiated. The committees' reports are of interest,
however, as an indication of the initial difficulties of all charitable
work, the general ignorance that prevails in regard to the elementary
conditions that govern it, the common disregard of these principles,
and the absence of any accepted theory or constructive policy that
should regulate its development and its administration.
After the Poor-Law Act of 1601 the history of the voluntary
parochial charities in a town parish is marked by their decreasing
amount and utility, as poor-law rehef and pauperism
increased. The act, it would seem, was not adopted ^^JZ
with much alacrity by the local authorities. From ttJfwot.
1625 to 1646 there were many years of plague and
sickness, but in St Giles's, London, as late as 1649, the amount
raised by the " collectors " (or overseers) was only £176. They
disbursed this to " the visited poor " as " pensions." In 1665
an extra levy of £600 is mentioned. In the accounts of St
Martin's-in-the-Fields, where, as in St Giles's, gifts were received,
the change wrought by another half-century (1714) is apparent.
The sources of charitable relief are similar to those in all the
Protestant churches — English, Scottish or continental: church
collections and offertories; correctional fines, such as composi-
tion for bastards and conviction money for swearers; and
besides these, income from annuities and legacies, the parish
estate, the royal bounty, and " petitions to persons of quality."
In all £2041 was collected, but, so far as relief was concerned,
the parish relied not on it, but on the poor-rate, which produced
£3765. All this was collected and disbursed on their own
authority by collectors, to orphans, " pensioners " or the " known
or standing " poor, or to casual poor (£1818), including nurse
children and bastards. The begging poor were numerous and
the infant death-rate enormous, and each year three-fourths
of those christened were " inhumanly suffered to die by the
barbarity of nurses." The whole administration was uncharit-
able, injurious to the community and the family, and inhuman
to the child. If one may judge from later accounts of other
parishes even up to 1834, usually it remained the same, purpose-
less and unintelligent; and it can hardly be denied that, generally
speaking, only since the middle of the 19th century has any
serious attention been paid to the charitable side of parochial
work. Parallel to the parochial movement of the poor-law in
England, in France (about 1617) were established the bureaux
de bienfaisance, at first entirely voluntary institutions, then
recognized by the state, and during the Revolution made the
central administration for relief in the communes.
In the 17th century in England, as in France, opinion favoured
the establishment of large hospitals or ntaisons Dieu for the
reception of the poor of different classes. In France chmrttmbh
throughout the century there was a continuous struggle
with mendicancy, and the hospitals were used as
places into which offenders were summarily driven.
A new humanity was, however, beginning its protest. The pitiful
condition of abandoned children attracted sympathy in both
countries. St Vincent de Paul established homes for the enfants
trouvis, followed in England by the establishment of the Found-
ling hospital (1739). In both countries the method was applied
inconsiderately and pushed to excess, and it affected family
life most injuriously. Grants from parliament supported the
foundling movement in England, and homes were opened in
many parts of the country. The demand soon became over-
whelming; the mortality was enormous, and the cost so large
mftmrl&Ol.
88 4
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
that it outstripped all financial expedients. The lesson of the
experiment is the same as that of the poor-law catastrophe
before 1834; only, instead of the able-bodied poor of another
age, infants were made the object of a compassionate but
undiscerning philanthropy. With widespread relief there came
widespread abandonment of duty and economic bankruptcy.
Had the poor-rates instead of charitable relief been used in the
same way, the moral injury would have been as great, but the
annual draft from the rates would have concealed the moral
and postponed the economic disaster. To amend the evil, changes
were made by which the relation between child and mother was
kept alive, and a personal application on her part was required;
the character of the mother and her circumstances were investi-
gated, and assistance was only given when it would be " the
means of replacing the mother in the course of virtue and the
way of an honest livelihood." General reforms were also made,
especially through the instrumentality of Jonas Hanway, to
check infant mortality, and metropolitan parishes were required
to provide for their children outside London. A kindred move-
ment led to the establishment of penitentiaries (1758), of lock
hospitals and lying-in hospitals (1749-1752).
In Queen Anne's reign there was a new educational movement,
" the charity school " — " to teach poor children the alphabet
and the principles of religion/ 1 followed by the Sunday-school
movement (1780), and about the same time (1788) by " the
school of industry " — to employ children and teach them to be
industrious. In 1844 the Ragged School Union was estab-
lished, and until the Education Act of 1870 continued its volun-
tary educational work. As an outcome of these movements,
through the efforts of Miss Mary Carpenter and many others,
in 1854-1855 industrial and reformatory schools were established,
to prevent crime and reform child criminals. The orphanage
movement, beginning in 1758, when the Orphan Working Home
was established, has been continued to the present day on a vastly
extended scale. In 1772 a society for the discharge of persons
imprisoned for small debts was established, and in 1773 Howard
began his prison reforms. This raised the standard of work in
institutional charities generally. After the civil wars the old
hospital foundations of St Bartholomew and St Thomas, munici-
palized by Edward VI., became endowed charities partly sup-
ported by voluntary contributions. The same fate befell Christ's
Hospital, in connexion with which the voting system, the admis-
sion of candidates by the vote of the whole body of subscribers —
that peculiarly English invention — first makes its appearance.
A new interest in hospitals sprang up at the end of the 17th
century. St Thomas's was rebuilt (1693) and St Bartholomew's
(i739)> Guy's was founded in 1724, and on the system of free
" letters " obtainable in exchange for donations, voluntary
hospitals and infirmaries were established in London (1733 and
later) and in most of the large towns. Towards the end of
the 1 8th century the dispensary movement was developed — a
system of local dispensaries with fairly definite districts and home
visiting, a substitute for attendance at a hospital, where " hos-
pital fever " was dreaded, and an alternative to what was then
a very ill-administered system of poor-law medical relief. After
1840 the provident dispensary was introduced, in order that the
patients by small contributions in the time of health might
provide for illness without having to meet large doctors' bills,
and the doctor might receive some sufficient remuneration for
his attendance on poor patients. This movement was largely
extended after i860. Three hospital funds for collecting con-
tributions for hospitals and making them grants, a movement
that originated in Birmingham in 1859, were established in
London in 1873 and 1897.
Since 1868 the poor-law medical system of Great Britain has been
immensely improved and extended, while at the same time the
number of persons in receipt of free medical relief in most of the large
towns has greatly increased. The following figures refer to London :
at hospitals, 97 in number, in-patients (1004) during the year,
118,536; out-patients and casualty cases, 1,858,800; patients at
free, part-pay, or provident dispensaries, about 280,000; orders
issued for attendance at poor-law dispensaries and at home, 1 14,158.
The number of beds in poor-law infirmaries (1904) was 16,976.
There are in London 12 general hospitals with, 18 without, medical
schools, and 67 special hospitals. Thus the population in receipt
of public and voluntary medical relief is very large, indeed altogether
excessive.
Each religious movement has brought with it its several
charities. The Society of Friends, the Wesleyans, the Baptists
have large charities. With the extension of the High Church
movement there have been established many sisterhoods which
support penitentiaries, convalescent homes and hospitals, schools,
missions, &c.
The magnitude of thisaccumulating provision of charitable relief
is evident, though it cannot be summed up in any single total.
At the beginning of the 19th century anti-mendicity societies
were established; and later, about 1869, in England and Scotland
a movement began for the organization of charitable relief,
in connexion with which there are now societies and committees
in most of the larger towns in Great Britain, in the colonies, and
in the United States of America. More recently the movement
for the establishment of settlements in poor districts, initiated
by Canon Barnett at Toynbee Hall — " to educate citizens in the
knowledge of one another, and to provide them with teaching and
recreation " — has spread to many towns in England and America.
These notes of charitable movements suggest an altogether
new development of thought. On behalf of the charity school
of Queen Anne's time were preached very formal p^g^^
sermons, which showed but little sympathy with child oftbot&bt
life. After the first half of the century a new humanism ******
with which we connect the name of Rousseau, slowly JJJJJJSJL.
superseded this formal beneficence. Rousseau made
the world open its eyes and see nature in the child,
the family and the community. He analysed social life, intent
on explaining it and discovering on what its well-being
depended; and he stimulated that desire to meet definite social
needs which is apparent in the charities of the century. Little
as it may appear to be so at first sight, it was a period of
charitable reformation. Law revised the religious conception
of charity, though he was himself so strangely devoid of social
instinct that, like some of his successors, he linked the utmost
earnestness in belief to that form of almsgiving which most
effectually fosters beggardom. Howard introduced the era of
inspection, the ardent apostle of a new social sagacity; and
Bentham, no less sagacious, propounded opinions, plans and
suggestions which, perhaps it may be said, in due course moulded
the principles and methods of the poor-law of 1834. In the
broader sense the turn of thought is religious, for while usually
stress is laid on the religious scepticism of the century, the
deeper, fervent, conscientious and evangelical charity in which
Nonconformists, and especially " the Friends," took so large a
part, is often forgotten. Sometimes, indeed, as often happens
now, the feeling of charity passed into the merest sentimentality.
This is evident, for instance, from so ill-considered a measure as
Pitt's Bill for the relief of the poor. On the other hand, during
the 1 8th century the poor-law was the object of constant criticism,
though so long as the labour statutes and the old law of settle-
ment were in force, and the relief of the labouring population
as state " poor " prevailed, it was impossible to reform it.
Indeed, the criticism itself was generally vitiated by a tacit
acceptance of " the poor " as a class, a permanent and irrevocable
charge on the funds of the community; and at the end of the
1 8th century, when the labour statutes were abrogated, but
the conditions under which poor relief was administered remained
the same, serfdom in its later stage, the serfdom of the poor-law,
asserted itself in its extremest form in times of dearth and
difficulty during the Napoleonic War. In 1802-1803 it was
calculated (Marshall's Digest) that 28% of the population were
in receipt of permanent or occasional relief. Those in receipt
of the former numbered 734,817, including children — so real
had this serfdom of the poor become.
In 1832 the expenditure on pauperism in England and Wales
was £7,036,968. In the early years of the 19th century the
mendicity societies, established in some of the larger towns, were
a sign of the general discontent with existing methods of ad-
ministration. The Society for Bettering the Condition of the
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
885
Poor — representing a group of men such as Patrick Colquhoun,
Sir I. Bernard, Dr Lettsom, Dr Haygarth, James Neald, Count
Rumford and others — took a more positive line and issued
many useful publications ( 1 796) . After 1833 the very atmosphere
of thought seems changed. There was a general desire to be quit
of the serfdom of pauperism. The Poor-law Amendment Act
was passed in 1834, and since then male able-bodied pauperism
has dwindled to a minimum. The bad years of 1860-1870
revived the problem in England and Scotland, and the old spirit
of reform for a time prevailed. Improved administration work-
ing with economic progress effected still further reductions of
pauperism, till on the 1st of January 1905 (exclusive of lunatics
in county asylums and casual paupers) the mean number of
paupers stood at 764,589, or 22*6 per thousand of the population,
instead of 41-8 per thousand as in 1859 (see Poor-Law).
Charity organization societies were formed after 1869, with
the object of " improving the condition of the poor," or, in other
words, to promote independence by an ordered and co-operative
charity; and the Association for Befriending Young Servants,
and workhouse aid committees, in order to prevent relapse into
pauperism on the part of those who as children or young women
received relief from the poor-law. The Local Government Board
adopted a restricted out-door relief policy, and a new interest
was felt in all the chief problems of local administration. The
movement was general. The results of the El b erf eld system
of municipal relief administered by unpaid almoners, each
dealing with but one or two cases, influenced thought both in
England and America. The experience gained by Mr Joseph
Tuckerman of Boston of the utility of registering applications
for relief, and the teaching of Miss Octavia Hill, led to the founda-
tion of the system of friendly visiting and associated charity at
Boston (1880) and elsewhere. Since that time the influence of
Arnold Toynbee and the investigations of Charles Booth have led
to a better appreciation of the conditions of labour; and to some
extent, in London and elsewhere, the spirit of charity has assumed
the form of a new devotion to the duties of citizenship. But
perhaps, in regard to charity in Great Britain, the most important
change has been the revival of the teaching of Dr Chalmers (1780-
1847), who (1819) introduced a system of parochial charity at
St John's, Glasgow, on independent lines, consistent with the best
traditions of the Scottish church. In the development of the
theory of charitable relief on the economic side this has been a
main factor. His view, which he tested by experience, may be
summed up as follows: Society is a growing, self-supporting
organism. It has within it, as between family and family,
neighbour and neighbour, master and employee, endless links of
sympathy and self-support. Poverty is not an absolute, but a
relative term. Naturally the members of one class help one
another; the poor help the poor. There is thus a large invisible
fund available and constantly used by those who, by their
proximity to one another, know best how to help. The philan-
thropist is an alien to this life around him. Moved by a sense of
contrast between his own lot, as he understands it, and the lot of
those about him, whom he but little understands, he concludes
that he should relieve them. But his gift, unless it be given in
such a way as to promote this self-support, instead of weakening
it, is really injurious. In the first place, by his interference he
puts a check on the charitable resources of another class and
lessens their social energy. What he gives they do not give,
though they might do so. But next, he does more harm than this.
He stimulates expectation, so that by a false arithmetic his gift of
a few shillings seems to those who receive it and to those who
hear of it a possible source of help in any difficulty. To them it
represents a large command of means; and where one has
received what, though it be little, is yet, relative to wage, a large
sum to be acquired without labour, many will seek more, and
with that object will waste their time and be put off their work,
or even be tempted to lie and cheat. So social energy is diverted
from its proper use. Alms thus given weakens social ties,
diminishes the natural relief funds of mutual help, and beggars
a neighbour instead of benefiting him. By this argument a
clear and well-defined purpose is placed before charity. Charity
becomes a science based on social principles and observation.
Not to give alms, but to keep alive the saving health of the
family, becomes its problem: relief becomes altogether sub-
ordinate to this, and institutions or societies are serviceable or the
reverse according as they serve or fail to serve this purpose.
Not poverty, but distress is the plea for help; not almsgiving,
but charity the means. To charity is given a definite social aim,
and a desire to use consistently with this aim every method that
increasing knowledge and trained ability can devise.
Under such influences as these, joined with better economic
conditions, a great reform has been made. The poor-law, how-
ever, remains — the modern eleemosyna cvoica. It now, indeed,
absorbs a proportionately lesser amount of the largely increased
national income, but, excluding the maintenance of lunatics, it
costs Great Britain more than twelve millions a year; and among
the lower classes of the poor, directly or indirectly, it serves as a
bounty on dependence and is a permanent obstacle to thrift and
self-reliance. The number of those who are within the circle
of its more immediate attraction is now perhaps, in different
parts of the country or different districts in a town, not more
than, say, 20% of the population. Upon that population the
statistics of a day census would show a pauperism not of 2-63, the
percentage of the mean day pauperism on the population in 1908,
but of 13-15%; and the percentage would be much greater —
twice as large, perhaps — if the total number of those who in some
way received poor relief in the course of a year were taken into
account. The English poor-law is thus among the lower classes,
those most tempted to dependence — say some six or seven millions
of the people — a very potent influence definitely antagonistic
to the good development of family life, unless it be limited to very
narrow proportions; as, for instance, to restricted indoor or
institutional relief for the sick, for the aged and infirm, who in
extreme old age require special care and nursing, and for the
afflicted, for whom no sufficient charitable provision is procurable.
As ample experience shows, only on these conditions can poor-
law relief be justified from the point of view of charity and the
common good. In marked contrast to this opinion is the English
movement for Old Age pensions, which came to its first fruition in
1908 — a huge charity started on the credit of the state, the
extension of which might ultimately involve a cost comparable
with that of the army or the navy. Schemes of the kind have
been adopted in the Australasian colonies with limitations and
safeguards; and they seem likely to develop into a new type of
poor-relief organization for the aged and infirm (Report: Royal
Commission on Old Age Pensions, Commonwealth of Australia,
1906). In England, partly to meet the demand for better state
provision for the aged, the Local Government Board in 1900 urged
the boards of guardians to give more adequate outdoor relief to
aged deserving people, and laid no stress on the test of desti-
tution, or, in other words, the limitation of relief to what was
actually " necessary," the neglect of which has led to new diffi-
culties. History has proved that demoralization results from the
wholesale relief whether of the mass of the citizens, or of the
able-bodied, or of the children, and the proposal to limit the
endowment to the aged makes no substantial difference. The
social results must be similar; but social forces work slowly,
and usually only the unanswerable argument of financial bank-
ruptcy suffices to convert a people habituated to dependence,
though the inward decay of vitality and character may long
before be manifest. Ultimately the distribution of pensions by
way of out-door relief, corrupting a far more independent people,
is calculated to work a far greater injury than the annona civica.
Such an endowment of old age might indeed be justified as part of
a system of regulated labour, which, as in earlier times, could not
be enforced without some such extraneous help, but it could not
be justified otherwise. It is naturally associated, therefore, with
socialistic proposals for the regulation of wage.
In the light of the principles of charity, which we have con-
sidered historically, we have now to turn to two questions:
charity and economics, and charity and socialism.
The object of charity is to render to our neighbour the services
and duties of goodwill, friendship and love. To prevent distress
886
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
charity has for its further object to preserve and develop the
manhood and womanhood of individuals and their self-main-
tenance in and through the family; and any form of
economic* state intervention is approved or disapproved by the
of charity, same standard. By self-maintenance is meant self-
support throughout life in its ordinary contingencies
— sickness, widowhood, old age, &c. Political economy we
would define as the science of exchange and exchange value.
Here it has to be considered in relation to the purposes of charity.
By way of illustration we take, accordingly, three points:
distribution and use, supplementation of wage, and the standard
of well-being or comfort in relation to wage.
(i) Distribution and Use. — Economy in the Greek sense begins at
this point — the administration and the use of means and resources.
Political economy generally ignores this part of the problem. Yet
from the point of view of charity it is cardinal to the whole issue.
The distribution of wage may or may not be largely influenced by
trades unions; but the variation of wage, as is generally the case,
by the increase or decrease of a few pence is of less importance than
its use. Comparing a careful and an unthrifty family, the difference
in use may amount to as much as a third on the total wage. Mere
abstention from"alcohol may make, in a normal family, a difference
of 6s. in a wage of 25s. On the other hand, membership of a friendly
society is at a time of sickness equivalent to the command of a large
sum of money, for the common stock of capital is by that means
F laced at the disposal of each individual who has a share in it.
urther, even a small amount saved may place the holder in a
position to get a better market for his labour; he can wait when
another man cannot. Rent may be high, but by co-operation that
too may be reduced. Other points are obvious and need not be
mentioned. It is evident that while the amount of wage is im-
portant, still more important is its use. In use it has a large
expansive value. (2) Supplementation of Wage. — The exchange
between skill and wage must be free if it is to be valid. The less the
skill the greater is the temptation to philanthropists to supplement
the lesser wage; and the more important is non-supplementation,
for the skilled can usually look after their own interests in the
market, while the less skilled, because their labour is less marketable,
have to make the greater effort to avoid dependence. But the dole
of endowed charities, outdoor relief, and any constant giving, tend
to reduce wage, and thus to deprive the recipients of some part of the
means of independence. The employer is pressed by competition
himself, and in return he presses for profit through a reduced wage,
if circumstances make it possible for the workman to take it. And
thus a few individuals may lower the wages of a large class of poorly
skilled or unskilled hands. In these conditions unionism, even if it
were likely to be advantageous, is not feasible. Unionism can only
create a coherent unit of workers where there is a limited market
and a definite saleable skill. Except for the time, insufficient wage
will not be remedied in the individual case by supplementation in
any form— doles, clothes, or other kinds of relief ; and in that case,
too, the relief will probably produce lessened energy after a short
time, or in other words lessened ability to live. An insufficient wage
may be prevented by increasing the skill of the worker, who will
then have the advantage of a better series of economic exchanges,
but hardly otherwise. If the supplementation be not immediate,
but postponed, as in the case of old-age pensions, its effect will be
similar. To the extent of the prospective adventitious gain the
attraction to the friendly society and to mutual help and saving will
grow less. Necessity has been the inventor of these; and where
wage is small, a little that would otherwise be saved is quickly spent
if the necessity for saving it is removed. Only necessity schools
most men, especially the weak, to whom it makes most difference
ultimately, whether they are thrifty or whether or not they save for
the future in any way. (3) The Standard of Well-being or Comfort
in Relation to Wage. — With an increase of income there has to be
an increase in the power to use income intelligently. Whatever is
not so used reacts on the family to its undoing. Constantly when
the wife can earn a few shillings a week, the husband will every week
idle for two or three days; so also if the husband finds that in a few
days he can earn enough to meet what he considers to be his require-
ments for the week. In these circumstances the standard of well-
being falls below the standard of wage ; the wage is in excess of the
energy and intelligence necessary to its economic use, and in these
cases ultimately pauperism often ensues. The family is demoralized.
Thus, with a view to the prevention of distress in good times, when
there is the less poverty there is the more need of charity, rightly
understood; for charity would strive to promote the right use of
wage, as the best means of preventing distress and preserving the
economic well-being of the family.
The theory of charity separates it entirely from socialism,
as that word is commonly used. Strictly socialism means, in
questions affecting the community, a dominant regard for the
common or social good in so far as it is contrary to private or
individual advantage. But even so the antithesis is misleading,
for the two need not be inconsistent. On the contrary, the
common good is really and ultimately only individual good (not
advantage) harmonized to a common end. The issue,
indeed, is that of old Greek days, and the conditions ^jY"*
of a settlement of it are not substantially different. godaBsm.
Using modern terms one may say that charity is
" interventionist." It has sought to transform the world by the
transformation of the will and the inward life in the individual
and in society. It would intensify the spirit and feeling of
membership in society and would aim at improving social con-
ditions, as science makes clear what the lines of reform should
be. So it has constantly intervened in all kinds of ways, and,
in the 19th century for instance, it has initiated many move-
ments afterwards taken up by public authorities — such as prison
reform, industrial schools, child protection, housing, food
reform, &c, and it has been a friendly ally in many reforms that
affect industry very closely, as, for instance, in the introduction
of the factory acts. But it has never aimed at recasting society
itself on a new economic plan, as does socialism. Socialism
indeed offers the people a new state of social security. It
recognizes that the annona civica and the old poor-law may have
been bad, but it would meet the objection made against them by
insisting on the gradual creation of a new industrial society
in which wage would be regulated and all would be supported,
some by wage in adult life, some by allowance in old age, and
others by maintenance in childhood. Accordingly for it all
schemes for the state maintenance of school children, old age
pensions, or state provision for the unemployed are, like municipal
trading, steps towards a final stage, in which none shall want
because all shall be supported by society or be dependent on it
industrially. To charity this position seems to exclude the ethical
element in life and to treat the people primarily or chiefly as
human animals. It seems also to exclude the motives for energy
and endeavour that come from self-maintenance. Against it,
on the other hand, socialism would urge, that only by close
regulation and penalty will the lowest classes be improved, and
that only the society that maintains them can control them.
Charity from its experience doubts the possibility of such control
without a fatal loss of initiative on the part of those controlled,
and it believes both that there is constant improvement on the
present conditions of society and that there will be constantly
more as science grows and its conclusions are put in force.
Thus charity and socialism, in the usual meaning of the word,
imply ultimately two quite different theories of social life.
The one would re-found society industrially, the other would
develop it and allow it to develop.
The springs of charity lie in sympathy and religion, and, one
would now add, in science. To organize it is to give to it the
" ordered nature " of an organic whole, to give it a
definite social purpose, and to associate the members 2/to2o7"
of the community for the fulfilment of that purpose, charky.
This in turn depends on the recognition of common
principles, the adoption of a common method, self-discipline
and training, and co-operation. In a mass of people there may
be a large variation in motives coincident with much unity in
action. Thus there may be acceptance of a common social
purpose in charity, while in one the impulse is similar to that
which moved St Francis or George Herbert, in another to that
which moved Howard or Dr Chalmers, or a modern poor-law
reformer like Sir G. Nicholls or £. Denison. Accepting, then,
the principles of charity, we pass to the method in relation to
assistance and relief. Details may vary, but on the following
points there is general agreement among students and workers: —
(1) The Committee or Conference. — There are usually two kinds
of local relief: the public or poor-law relief, and relief connected
with religious agencies. Besides, there is the relief of endowments,
societies and charitable persons. Therefore, as a condition precedent
to all organization, there must be some local centre of association
for information and common help. A town should be divided for
this purpose into manageable areas coincident with parishes or
poor-law divisions, or other districts. Subject to an acceptance of
general principles, those engaged in charity should be members of a
local conference or committee, or allied to it. The committee would
thus be the rallying-point of a large and somewhat loosely knit
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
association of friends and workers. (2) Inquiry, A id and Registration.
— The object of inquiry is to ascertain the actual causes of distress
or dependence, and to cany on the work there must usually be a
staff of several honorary and one or two paid workers. Two methods
may be adopted : to inquire in regard to applications for help with
a view to forming some plan of material help or friendly aid, or both,
which will lead to the ultimate self-support of the family and its
members, and, under certain conditions, in the case of the aged or
sick, to their continuous or their sufficient help; or to ascertain
the facts partly at once, partly by degrees, and then to form and
carry out some plan of help, or continue to befriend the family in
need of help, in the hope of bringing them to conditions of self-
support, leaving the work of relief entirely to other agencies. The
committee in neither case should be a relief committee — itself a
direct source of relief. On the former method it has usually no relief
fund, but it raises from relations, employers, charities and charit-
able persons the relief required, according to the plan of help agreed
upon, unless, indeed, it is better not to relieve the case, or to leave
it to the poor-law. The committee thus makes itself responsible
for endeavouring to the best of its ability to raise the necessary
relief, and acts as trustee for those who co-operate without it, in
such a way as to keep intact and to give play to all the natural
obligations that lie within the inner circles of a self-supporting
community. On the latter method the work of relief is left to general
charity, or to private persons, or to the poor-law; and the effort is
made to help the family to self-support by a friendly visitor. This
Krocedure is that adopted by the associated charities in Boston,
lass., and other similar societies in America and elsewhere. It is
akin also to that adopted in the municipal system of relief in Elber-
feld — which has become with many variations in detail the standard
method of poor relief in Germany. The method of associated help,
combined with personal work, represents the usual practice of
charity organization societies. Mutatis mutandis, the plan can be
adopted on the simplest scale in parochial or other relief committees,
subject to the safeguards of sufficient training and settled method.
The inquiry should cover the following points: names and address,
and ages of family, previous addresses, past employment and wages,
present income, rent and liabilities, membership of friendly or other
society, and savings, relations, relief (if any) from any source.
These points should be verified, and reference should be made to the
clergy, the poor-law authorities, and others, to ascertain if they
know the applicant. The result should be to show how the applicant
has been living, and what are the sources of possible help, and also
what is his character. The problem, however, is not whether the
person is " deserving " or " undeserving," but whether, granted the
facts, the distress can be stayed and self-support attained. If the
help can be given privately from within the circle of the family, so
much the better. Often it may be best to advise, but not to inter-
fere. In some cases but little help may be necessary; in others
again the friendly relation between applicant and friend may last
for months and even years. Usually in charitable work the question
of the kind of relief available — money, tickets, clothes, &c. — governs
the decision how the case should be assisted. But this is quite
wrong : the opposite is the true rule. The wants of the case, rigntly
understood, should govern the decision as to what charity should
do and what it should provide. Cases are overwhelming in number,
as at the out-patient and casualty departments of a hospital, where
the admissions are made without inquiry, and subject practically
to no restrictions; but when there is inquiry, and each case is
seriously considered and aided with a view to self-support, the
numbers will seldom be overwhelming. On this plan appeal is made
to the strength of the applicant, and requires an effort on his part.
Indiscriminate relief, on the other hand, attracts the applicant by
an appeal to his weakness, and it requires of him no effort. Hence,
apart even from the differentiating effect of inquiry, one method
makes applicants, the other limits their number, although on the
latter plan much more strenuous endeavours be made to assist the
lesser number of claimants. For the routine work of the office an
extremely simple system of records with card index, &c, has been
devised. In some cities, particularly in the United States of America,
there is a central registration of cases, notified by individual charities,
poor-relief authorities and private persons. The system of charity
organization or associated charity, it will be seen, allows of the
utmost variety of treatment, according to the difficulties in each
instance and the remedies available, and the utmost scope for per-
sonal work. (3) Training. — If charitable work is an art, those who
undertake it must needs be trained both in practice and method
and in judgment. It requires, too, that self-discipline which blends
intelligence with emotion, and so endows emotion with strength
and purpose. In times of distress a reserve of trained workers is
of the utmost service. At all times they do more and produce,
socially, better results; but when there is general distress of any
kind they do not lose their heads like new recruits, but prevent
at least someof the mischief that comes of the panic which often
takes possession of a community, when distress is apprehended,
and leads to the wildest distribution of relief. Also trained workers
make the most useful poor-law guardians, trustees of charities,
secretaries of charitable societies and district visitors. All clergy
and ministers and all medical men who have to be engaged in the
administration of medical relief should learn the art of charity.
887
Poor-law guardians are usually elected on political or general grounds,
and have no special knowledge of gooa methods of chanty; and
trustees are seldom appointed on the score of their qualifications
on this head. To provide the necessary education in charity there
should be competent helpers and teachers at charity organization
committees and elsewhere, and an alliance for this purpose should
be formed between them and professors and teachers of moral science
and economics and the " settlements." Those who study social
problems in connexion with what a doctor would call " cases " or
1 practice " see the limits and the falsity of schemes that on paper
seem logical enough. This puts a check on the influence of scheme-
building and that literary sensationalism which makes capital out
of social conditions. (4) Co-operation. — Organization in charity
depends on extensive co-operation, and ultimately on the acceptance
of common views. This comes but slowly. But with much tribula-
tion the goal may be reached, if in case after case the effort is made
to provide friendly help through charities and private persons, —
unless, as may well be, it should seem best not to interfere, but to
leave the applicant to apply to the administrators of public relief.
Experience of what is right and wrong in charity is thus gained on
both sides. Many sources may have to be utilized for aid of different
kinds even in a single case, and for the prevention of distress co-
operation with members cf friendly societies and with co-operative
and thrift agencies is indispensable.
Where there is accord between charity and the poor-law pauper-
ism may be largely reduced. The poor-law in most countries has
at its disposal certain institutional relief and out-door *
allowances, but it has no means of devising plans of i,,^.* ^
help which may prevent application to the rates or
" take " people " off the rates." Thus a widow in the first days
of widowhood applies and receives an allowance according to
the number of her children. Helped at the outset by charity on
some definite plan, she may become self-supporting; and if her
family be large one or two of her children may be placed in schools
by the guardians, while she maintains the remaining children
and herself. As far as possible there should be a division of
labour between the poor-law and charity. Except where some
plan such as that just mentioned is adopted, one or the other
should take whole charge of the case relieved. There should be
no supplementation of poor-law relief by charity. This will
weaken the strength and dissipate the resources of charity with-
out adding to the efficiency of the poor-law. Unless the guardians
adopt a restrictive out-door relief policy, there is no scope for
any useful division of labour between them and charity; for the
many cases which, taken in time, charity might save from
pauperism, they will draw into chronic dependence by their
allowances a very much larger number. But if there is a
restrictive out-door policy, so far as relief is necessary, charity
may undertake to meet on its own lines distress which the poor-
law would otherwise have met by allowances, and, subject to
the assistance of urgent cases, poor-law relief may thus by
degrees become institutional only. Then, in the main, natural
social forces would come into play, and dependence on any form
of annona civica would cease.
Open-handed hospitality always creates mendicants. This is
what the hospitals offer in the out-patient and casualty depart-
ments, and they have created a class of hospital ff^pf^^
mendicants. The cases are quickly dealt with, without
inquiry and without regard to home conditions. The medical
man in the hospital does not co-operate with any fellow-workers
outside the hospital. Where his physic or advice ceases to
operate his usefulness ceases. He regards no conditions of
morality. In a large number of cases drink or vice is the cause
of application, and the cure of the patient is dependent on moral
conditions; but he returns home, drinks and may beat his wife,
and then on another visit to the hospital he will again be
physicked and so on. The man is not even referred to the poor-
law infirmary for relief. Nor are conditions of home sanitation
regarded. One cause of constant sickness is thus entirely over-
looked, while drugs, otherwise unnecessary, are constantly
given at the hospital. The hospitals are thus large isolated
relief stations which are creating a new kind of pauperism.
So far as the patients can pay — and many can do so — the
general practitioners, to whom they would otherwise go, are
deprived of their gains. Still worse is it when the hospital itself
charges a fee in its out-patient department. The relief is then
claimed even more absolutely as a right, and the general
888
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
practitioners are still further injured. The doctors, as a medical
staff, are not only medical men, but whether they recognize the fact
or not, they are also almsgivers or almoners; what they give is
relief. Yet few or none of them have ever been trained for that
work, and consequently they do not realize how very advantageous,
even for the cure of their own patients, would be a thorough
treatment of each case both at the hospital and outside it. Nor
can they understand how their methods at present protract
sickness and promote habitual dependence. Where this side of
their work studied by them in any way they would be the first,
probably, to press upon the governors of their hospitals the
necessity for a change. Unfortunately, at present the governors
are themselves untrained, and to finance the hospital and to
make it a good institution is their sole object. Hospitals, how-
ever, are, after all, only a part of the general administration of
charity, though as they are now managed they have seldom any
systematic connexion with that administration. Nor is there
any co-ordination between the several hospitals and dispensaries.
If one rightly refuses further treatment to certain applicants,
they have only to wander to some other hospital, there to be
admitted with little or no scrutiny. For usually outpatients
and casualty patients are not even registered, nor can they be
identified if they apply again. Practically they come and go at
will. The definite limitation of cases, according to some standard
of effectual work, association with general charity, trained
almonership and inquiry, and a just regard for the interests of
general practitioners, are stepping-stones to reform. In towns
where medical charities are numerous a representative board
would promote mutual help and organization.
Like the poor-law, endowed charities may be permanent
institutions established to meet what should be passing and
w«rf decreasing needs (cf . the arguments in The State and
duuZtie*. Charily } by T. Mackay) . Administered as they usually
are in isolation — apart from the living voluntary
charities of the generation, and consisting often of small trusts
difficult to utilize satisfactorily, they tend to create a permanent
demand which they meet by fixed quantities of relief. Also, as
a rule, they make no systematic inquiries with a view to the
verification of the statements of the applicants, for they have no
staff for these purposes; nor have they the assistance of almoners
or friendly visitors. Nor does the relief which they give form
part of any plan of help in conjunction with other aid from with-
out; nor is the administration subject to frequent inspection,
as in the case of the poor-law. All these conditions have led to
a want of progress in the actual administration of endowed
charities, in regard to which it is often very difficult to prevent the
exercise of an undue patronage. But there is no reason why
these charities should not become a responsible part of the
country's administration, aiding it to reduce outdoor pauperism.
It was never intended that the poor-law should extinguish the
endowed charities, still less, as statistics now prove, that where
endowments abound the rate of pauperism should be considerably
above the average of the rest of the country. This shows that
these charities often foster pauperism instead of preventing it.
As a step to reform, the publication of an annual register of
endowed charities in England and Wales is greatly needed. The
consolidating schemes of the charity commissioners have done
much good ; still more may be done in some counties by extending
to the county the benefits of the charities of well-endowed towns,
as has been accomplished by the extension of the eleemosynary
endowments of the city of London to the metropolitan police
area. Nor, again, until quite lately, and that as yet only in a few
schemes, has the principle been adopted that pensions or other
relief should be given only in supplementation of the relief of
relations, former employers and friends, and not in substitution
of it. This, coupled with good methods of inquiry and super-
vision, has proved very beneficial. Hitherto, however, to a large
extent, endowed charities, it must be admitted, have tended to
weaken the family and to pauperize.
In many places funds are raised for the relief of school children
by the supply of meals during the winter and spring; and an act
has now been passed in England (1906) enabling the cost to be
put upon the rates. Usually a very large number of children
are said to be underfed, but inquiry shows that such state-
ments may be taken as altogether excessive. They
are sometimes based on information drawn from the ^jl^l
children at school; or sometimes on general deduc- guachooh
tions; they are seldom founded on any systematic and
competent inquiry at the homes. When this has been made,
the numbers dwindle to very small proportions. Teachers of
experience have noted the effect of the meals in weakening
the independence of the family. While they are forthcoming
women sometimes give up cooking meals at home, use their money
for other things, and tell the child he can get his meal at school.
Great temptations are put before a parent to neglect her family,
and very much distress is due to this. The meals — just at a
time when, owing to the age of her children, the mother's care
is most needed, and just in those families where the temptation
is greatest, and where the family instinct should be strengthened
— stimulate this neglect. Considered from the point of view
of meeting by eleemosynary provision a normal economic
demand for food, intervention can only have one result. The
demand must continue to outstrip the supply, so long as there are
resources available on the one side, and until on the other side
the desire of the social class that is chiefly exposed to the tempta-
tions of dependence in relation to such relief has been satisfied.
If the provision be made from the resources of local or general
taxation the largeness of the fund available will allow practically
of an unlimited expansion of the supply of food. If the provision
be made from voluntary sources, in some measure limited there-
fore and less certain, this very fact wiH tend to circumscribe
demand and limit the offer of relief. It is indeed the problem
of poor-law relief in 1832 over again. The relief provided by
local taxation practically unlimited will create a mass of constant
claimants, with a kind of assumed right to aid based on the
payment of rates; while voluntary relief, whatever its short-
comings, will be less injurious because it is less amply endowed.
In Paris the municipal subvention for meals rose from 545,900
francs in 1892 to 1 ,000,000 in 1904. Between 1894 and 1004 there
was an increase of 9% in the school population; and an increase
of 28% in the municipal grant. In that period the contribu-
tions from the local school funds (caisses des icoles) decreased
36%; while the voluntary contributions otherwise received
were insignificant; and the payments for meals increased 2%.
The subject has been lately considered from a somewhat
different standpoint (cf . the reports of the Scottish Royal Com-
mission on Physical Education, 1003; of the Inter-departmental
committees on Physical Deterioration, 1905, and on Medical
Inspection and the Feeding of School Children, 1905; also the
report of the special committee of the Charity Organization
Society on "the assistance of school children," 1893). After
careful investigations medical officers especially have drawn
attention to the low physical condition of children in schools
in the poorer parts of large English towns, their low stature,
their physical defects, the improper food supplied to them at
home, their uncleanliness, and their want of decent bringing-up,
and sometimes their want of food. Other inquiries have shown
that, as women more usually become breadwinners their children
receive less attention, and the home and its duties are neglected,
while in the lowest sections of the poorer classes social irresponsi-
bility reaches its maximum. Cheap but often quite improper
food is provided, and infant mortality, which is largely prevent-
able, remains as high as ever, though adult life is longer. This,
with a marked decrease in the birth-rate in recent years, has,
it may be said, opened out a new field for charitable effort and
social work. Science is at each revision of the problem making
its task more definite. Actually the mere demand for meals
stands for less; the reform of home conditions for more. So it
was hoped that instead of making school meals a charge on
taxation, as parliament has done, it would be content to leave
it a voluntary charge, while the medical inspection of elementary
schools will be made universal; representative relief committees
formed for schools or groups of schools; the cases of want or
distress among the school children dealt with individually in
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
889
tlonsl
dlMtPCBM.
connexion with their families, and, where necessary, day schools
established on the lines of day industrial schools.
At a time of exceptional distress the following suggestions
founded on much English experience may be of service (cf.
Report of special committee of the Charity Organization
Bx<*p- Society on the best means of dealing with exceptional
distress, 1886). Usually at such a time proposals are
made to establish special funds, and to provide employ-
ment to men and women out of work. But it is best, if possible
and as long as possible, to rely on existing agencies, and to
strengthen them. Round them there are usually workers more
or less trained. A new fund usually draws to it new people, many
of whom may not have had any special experience at all. If a
new fund is inevitable, it is best that it should make its grants
to existing agencies after consultation with them. In any case,
a clear policy should be adopted, and people should keep their
heads. The exaggeration of feeling at a time of apprehended or
actual distress is sometimes extraordinary, and the unwise action
which it prompts is often a cause of continuing pauperism after-
wards. Where there is public or poor-law relief the following
plan may be adopted: — In any large town there are usually
different recognized poor-law, charitable or other areas. The
local people already at work in these areas should be formed
into local committees. In each case a quick inquiry should be
made, and the relieving officer communicated with, some central
facts verified, and the home visited. Roughly, cases may be
divided into three classes: the irresponsible casual labouring
class, a middle class of men with decent homes, who have made
no provision for the future, and are not members of either friendly
society or trades union; and a third class, who have made some
provision. These usually are affected last of all; at all hazards
they should be kept from receiving public relief, and should be
helped, as far as possible, privately and personally. If there
are public works, the second class might be referred to them; if
there are not, probably some should be left to the poor-law, some
assisted in the same way as members of class three. Much would
turn upon the family and the home. The first class should be
left to the poor-law. If there is no poor-law system at work they
should be put on public works. Working men of independent
position, not the creatures of any political club, but such as are
respected members of a friendly society, or are otherwise well
qualified for the task, should be called into consultation. The
relief should be settled according to the requirements of each case,
but if the pressure is great, at first at least it may be necessary
to make grants according to some generally sufficient scale. There
should be as constant a revision of cases as time permits. Great
care should be taken to stop the relief as soon as possible, and to do
nothing to make it the stepping-stone to permanent dependence.
If employment be provided it should be work within the skill
of all; it should be fairly remunerated, so that at least the
scantiness of the pay may not be an excuse for neglect; and it
should be paid for according to measured or piece work. The
discipline should be strict, though due regard should be paid
at first to those unaccustomed to digging or earthwork. In
England and Wales the guardians have power to open labour
yards. These, like charities which provide work, tend to attract
and keep in employment a low class of labourer or workman,
who finds it pays him to use the institution as a convenience.
It is best, therefore, to avoid the opening of a labour yard
if possible. If it is opened, the discipline should be very strict,
and when there is laziness or insubordination, relief in the work-
house should at once be offered. The relief furnished to men
employed in a labour yard, of which in England at least half has
to be given in kind, should, it has been said, be dealt out from
day to day. This leads to the men giving up the work sooner
than they otherwise would. They have less to spend.
In Great Britain a great change has taken place in regard
to the provision of employment in connexion with the state.
£fa#m- Since about 1800 there has been a feeling that men in
pioymtat distress from want of employment should not be dealt
with by the poor-law. A circular letter issued by the
Local Government Board in 1886, and subsequently in 1895,
coincided with this feeling. It was addressed to town councils
and other local authorities, asking them to provide work (1)
which will not involve the stigma of pauperism, (2) which all
can perform whatever may have been their previous avocations,
and (3) which does not compete with that of other labourers
at present in employment. This circular led to the vestries and
subsequently the borough councils in many districts becoming
partially recognized relief authorities for the unemployed,
concurrently with the poor-law. Much confusion resulted.
The local authorities had seldom any suitable organization for
the investigation of applications. It was difficult to supply
work on the terms required; and the work was often ill-done
and costly. Also it was found that the same set of people would
apply year after year, unskilled labourers usually out of work
part of the winter, or men habitually " unemployed." As on
other occasions when public work was provided, very few of the
applicants were found to be artisans, or members of trades
unions or of friendly societies. In 1004 Mr Long, then president
of the Local Government Board, proposed that local voluntary
distress committees should be established in London consisting
of poor-law guardians and town councillors and others, more or
less supervised by a central committee and ultimately by the
Local Government Board. This organization was set on foot
and large sums were subscribed for its work. The report on
the results of the movement was somewhat doubtful (Report,
London Unemployed Fund, 1004-1905, p. 101, &c), but in 1905
the Unemployed Workmen's Act was passed, and in London
and elsewhere distress committees like the voluntary committees
of the previous year were established by statute. It was enacted
that for establishment expenses, emigration and removal, labour
exchanges, and the acquisition of land a halfpenny rate might
be levied, but that the rate would not be available for the re-
muneration of men employed. For this purpose (1 905-1 906)
a large charitable fund was raised. A training farm at Hollesley
Bay was acquired, and it was hoped to train Londoners there
to become fit for agricultural work. It is impossible to judge this
experiment properly, on the evidence available up to 1908.
But one or two points are important: (1) something very like
the " right to labour " has been granted by the legislature;
(2) this has been done apart from the conditions required by the
poor-laws and orders of the Local Government Board on poor
relief and without imposing disfranchisement on the men
employed; (3) a labour rate has not been levied, but a rate has
been levied in aid of the provision of employment; (4) if the line
of development that the act suggests were to be followed (as the
renewed Labour agitation in 1008- 1009 made probable) it must
tend to create a class of " unemployed," unskilled labourers
of varying grades of industry who may become the dependent
and state-supported proletariat of modern urban life. Thus,
unless the administration be extremely rigorous, once more
will a kind of serfdom be established, to be, as some would say,
taken over hereafter by the socialist state.
In some of the English colonies Homeric hospitality still
prevails, but by degrees the station-house or some refuge is
established in the towns as they grow more populous, vjmhmck.
Finally, some system of labour in exchange for relief
is evolved. At first this is voluntary, afterwards it is officially
recognized, and finally it may become part of the system of
public relief. As bad years come, these changes are made step
by step. In England the vagrant or wayfarer is tolerated and
discouraged, but not kept employed. He should be under greater
pressure to maintain himself, it is thought. The provision made
for him in different parts of the country is far from uniform, and
now, usually, at least in the larger towns, after he has had a bath
and food, he is admitted to a separate room or cell in a casual
ward. Before he leaves he has to do a task of work, and, subject
to the discretion of the master, he is detained two nights. This
plan has reduced vagrancy, and if it were universally adopted
clean accommodation would everywhere be provided for the
vagrant without the attractions of a common or " associated "
ward; and probably vagrancy would diminish still further. It
seems almost needless to say that, in these circumstances at any
8 go
CHARITY AND CHARITIES
rate, casual alms should not be given to vagrants. They know
much better how to provide for themselves than the almsgiver
imagines, for vagrancy is in the main a mode of life not the result
of any casual difficulty. Vagrancy and criminality are also nearly
allied. The magistrate, therefore, rather than the almsgiver,
should usually interfere; and, as a rule, where the magistrates
are strict, vagrancy in a county diminishes. An inter-depart-
mental committee ( 1906) taking generally this line, reported
in favour of vagrants being placed entirely under police control,
and it recommended a system of wayfarers' tickets for men on
the roads who are not habitual vagrants, and the committal
of men likely to become habitual vagrants to certified labour
colonies for not less than six months. Still undoubtedly vagrancy
has its economic side. In a bad year the number of tramps is
increased by the addition of unskilled and irresponsible labourers,
who are soonest discharged when work is slack. As a part-
voluntary system under official recognition the German Arbeiter-
colonien are of interest. This in a measure has led to the in troduc-
tion of labour homes in England, the justification of which should
be that they recruit the energy of the men who find their way to
them, and enable them to earn a living which they could not do
otherwise. In a small percentage of cases their result may be
achieved. Charitable refuges or philanthropic common lodging-
houses, usually established in districts where this class already
congregate, only aggravate the difficulty. They give additional
attractions to a vagrant and casual life, and make it more
endurable. They also make a comfortable avoidance of the
responsibilities of family life comparatively easy, and in so far
as they do this they are clearly injurious to the community.
The English colonists of the New England states and Pennsyl-
vania introduced the disciplinary religious and relief system of
American Protestantism and the Elizabethan poor-law. To
condition* the former reference has already been made. With an
***!- appreciation of the fact that the cause of distress is
m * not usually poverty, but weakness of character and
want of judgment, and that relief is in itself no remedy, those
who have inherited the old Puritan traditions have, in the light
of toleration and a larger social experience, organized the
method of friendly visiting, the object of which is illustrated by
the motto, " Not alms, but a friend." To the friendship of
charity is thus given a disciplinary force, capable of immense
expansion and usefulness, if the friendship on the side of those
who would help is sincere and guided by practical knowledge
and sagacity, and if on the side of those in distress there is
awakened a reciprocal regard and a willingness to change their
way of life by degrees. Visiting by " districts " is set aside, for
" friendliness " is not a quality easily diffused over a wide area.
To be real it must be limited as time and ability allow. Conse-
quently, a friendly visitor usually befriends but one or two,
or in any case only a few, families. The friendly visitor is the
outcome of the movement for " associated charities,' ' but in
America charity organization societies have also adopted the
term, and to a certain extent the method. Between the two
movements there is the closest affinity. The registration of
applicants for relief is much more complete in American cities
than in England, where the plan meets with comparatively little
support. At the office of the associated charities in Boston there
is a central and practically a complete register of all the applica-
tions made to the public authority for poor relief, to the associated
charities, and to many other voluntary bodies.
The Elizabethan poor-law system, with the machinery of
overseers, poor-houses and out-door relief, is still maintained
in New England, New York state and Pennsylvania, but with
many modifications, especially in New York. A chief factor in
these changes has been immigration. While the county or town
remained the administrative area for local poor relief, the large
number of immigrant and " unsettled " poor, and the business
connected with their removal from the state, entailed the estab-
lishment of a secondary or state system of administration and
aid, with special classes of institutions to which the counties
or towns could send their poor, as, for instance, state reform
schools, farms, almshouses, &c. For the oversight of these
institutions, and often of prisons also and lunatic asylums, in
many states there have been established state boards of " charity
or corrections and charity." The members of these boards are
selected by the state for a term of years, and give their services
honorarily. There are state boards in Massachusetts, New York,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin,
Iowa, Colorado, North Carolina and elsewhere. There is also a
district board of charities in the district of Columbia. These
boards publish most useful and detailed reports. Besides the state
board there is sometimes also, as in New York, a State Charities
Aid Association, whose members, in the counties in which they
reside, have a legal right of entry to visit and inspect any public
or charitable institution owned by the state, and any county and
other poor-house. A large association of visitors accustomed
to inspect and report on institutions has thus been created.
Further, the counties and towns in New York state, for instance,
and Massachusetts, and the almshouse districts in Pennsylvania,
are under boards of supervision. Usually the overseers give out-
door relief, and the pauperism of some areas is as high as that
in some English unions, 3, 4 and 5%. On the whole population
of the United States, however, and of individual states, consisting
to a great extent of comparatively young and energetic immi-
grants, the pauperism is insignificant. In Massachusetts "it
has been the general policy of the state to order the removal
to the state almshouse of unsettled residents of the several cities
and towns in need of temporary aid, thus avoiding some of the
abuses incident to out-door relief." In New York state, in the
city of New York, including Brooklyn, the distribution of out-
door relief by the department of charities is forbidden, except
for purposes of transportation and for the adult blind. Most
counties in the state have an almshouse, and the county super-
intendents and overseers of the poor " furnish necessary relief to
such of the county poor as may require only temporary assistance,
or are so disabled that they cannot be safely removed to the
almshouse." Public attention is in many cases being drawn
to the inutility and injury of out-door relief.
In some states and cities the system of subsidizing voluntary
institutions is in full force, and it is in force also in many English
colonies. At first sight it has the advantage of providing relief
for public purposes without the creation of a new staff or estab-
lishment. There is thus an apparent economy. But the evils
are many. Political partisanship and favour may influence the
amount and disposition of the grants. The grants act as a
bounty on the establishment and continuance of charitable
institutions, homes for children, hospitals, &c, but not on the
expansion of the voluntary charitable funds and efforts that
should maintain them; and thus charitable homes exist in which
charity in its truer sense may have little part, but in which the
chief motive of the administration may be to support sectarian
interests by public subsidies. Claimants for relief have little
scruple in turning such institutions to their own account; and
the institutions, being financially irresponsible, are not in these
circumstances scrupulous on their side to prevent a misdirection
of their bounties. " Parents unload their children upon the
community more recklessly when they know that such children
will be provided for in private orphan asylums and protectories,
where the religious training that the parents prefer will be given
them " (Amos G. Warner, in International Congress: Charities
and Correction^ 1893). Past history in New York city illustrates
the same evil. The admission was entirely in the hands of the
managers. They admitted; the city paid. In New York city
the population between 1870 and 1800 increased about 80%;
the subsidies for prisoners and public paupers increased by 43%,
but those for paupers in private institutions increased from
$334,828 to $1,845,872, or about 461%. The total was at that
time $3,794,972; in 1898 it was rather less, $3,132,786. The
alternative to this system is either the establishment of state or
municipal institutions, and possibly in special cases payments
to voluntary homes for the maintenance of inmates admitted at
the request of a state authority, as at certified and other homes in
England, with grants made conditional on the work being con-
ducted on specified lines, and subject to a certain increasing
CHARIVARI— CHARLEMAGNE
891
amount of voluntary financial support; or a dose general and
financial inspection of charitable institutions — the method of
reform adopted in New York; or payment for only those inmates
who are sent by public authorities and admitted on their request.
The enormous extent to which children's aid societies have
been increased in the United States, sometimes with the help of
considerable public grants, suggests the greatest need for caution
from the point of the preservation of the family as the central
element of social strength in the community. The problem of
charity in relation to medical relief in the large towns of the
United States is similar to that of England; its difficulties are
alike.
Literature. — As good translations of the classics become ac-
cessible it is easy for the general reader or student to combine a
study of the principles of charity in relation to the community with
a study of history. Thus, and in connexion with special investi-
gations and the conditions of practical charity, social economics
may best be studied. In N. Masterman, Chalmers on Charity (1900) ;
T. Mackay, Methods of Social Reform (1806); B. Bosanquet and
others, Some Aspects of the Social Problem (1894) ; and C. S. Loch,
Methods of Social Advance (1904), this point of view is generally
assumed. Special investigations of importance may be found in the
reports of medical officers of health. See Report of Committee on
Physical Deterioration referred to above, and, for instance, Dr News-
holme's Vital Statistics and Charles Booth's Labour and Life in
London. For the history of charity there is no good single work.
On details there are many good articles in Daremberg's Dictionary
of Classical Antiquities, and similar works. Modern Methods of
Charity, by C. H. Henderson and others (1904), supplies much
general information in regard to poor relief and charity in different
countries. Apart from books and official documents mentioned
in the text as indicating the present state of charitable and public
relief, or as aids to practical work, the following may be of service.
England: — Annual Charities 1 Register and Digest, with Introduction
on "How to help Cases of Distress"; the Charity Organization
Review; Occasional Papers (3 vols.), published by the London
Charity Organization Society (1896-1906); Reports of Proceedings
of Conferences of Poor-Law Guardians; The Strength of the People,
by Helen Bosanquet; Homes of the London Poor and Our Common
Land, by Miss Octavia Hill ; The Queeris Poor, by M. Loane. United
States of America: — The Proceedings of the International Conference
on Charities and Correction (1894), and the proceedings of the annual
conferences; Friendly Visiting among the Poor, by Mary E. Rich-
mond (1899); American Charities, by Amos G. Warner (1008);
The Practice of Charity, by E. T. Devine; Handwdrterbuch der
Staatswissenschaften, by Dr J. Conrad, &c, vol. ii. ; Das Armenwesen
in den Vereinigten Staaten von America, by Dr Francis G. Peabody
(1897); the Charities Review, published monthly by the New York
Charity Organization Society ; the Papers and Reports of the Boston
and Baltimore societies. France: — La Bibliographie charitable, by
Camille Granier (1891); La CharitS avant et depuis 178Q, by r.
Hubert Valleroux; Fascicules of the Conseil supSrteur de V assistance
publiaue; Revue d'assistance, published by the SoctttS international
pour T&tudc des questions d'assistance. Germany : — Reports and Pro-
ceedings of the Deutsche Vereinefur Armenpflege und Wohltdtigkeit;
Die ArmenPflege, a practical handbook,by Dr E.Munsterberg (1897).
Austria: — Osterreichs Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen, 1848-1808, by Dr
Ernest Mischler (1899). (C. S. L.)
CHARIVARI, a French term of uncertain origin, but probably
onomatopoeic, for a mock serenade " rough music," made by
beating on kettles, fire-irons, tea-trays or what not. The
charivari was anciently in France a regular wedding custom, all
bridal couples being thus serenaded. Later it was reserved for
ill-assorted and unpopular marriages, for widows or widowers
who remarried too soon, and generally as a mockery for all who
were unpopular. At the beginning of the 1 7th century, wedding
charivaris were forbidden by the Council of Tours under pain of
excommunication, but the custom still lingers in rural districts.
The French of Louisiana and Canada introduced the charivari
into America, where it became known under the corrupted name
of " shivaree. ,,
CHARKHARI, a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of
Central India. Area, 745 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 123,594; estimated
revenue £33,000. It is surrounded on all sides by other states of
Central India, except near Charkhari town, where it meets the
United Provinces. It was founded by Bijai Bahadur (vikrama-
ditya), a sanad being granted him in 1804 and another in 181 1.
The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the Bundela
clan, descended from Chhatar Sal, the champion of the inde-
pendence of Bundelkhand in the 18th century. In 1857 Raja
Ratan Singh received a hereditary salute of 11 guns, a kkUat and
a perpetual jagir of £1300 a year in recognition of his services
during the Mutiny. The town of Charkhari (locally Maharaj-
nagar) is 40 m. W. of Banda; pop. (1001) 11,718.
CHARLATAN (Ital. ciarlatano, from ciarlare, to chatter),
originally one who " patters " to a crowd to sell his wares, like a
" cheap-jack " or " quack " doctor — " quack " being similarly
derived from the noise made by a duck; so an impostor who
pretends to have some special skill or knowledge.
CHARLEMAGNE [Charles the Great] (c. 742-814), Roman
emperor, and king of the Franks, was the elder son of Pippin the
Short, king of the Franks, and Bertha, or Bertrada, daughter of
Charibert, count of Laon. The place of his birth is unknown and
its date uncertain, although some authorities give it as the 2nd of
April 742; doubts have been cast upon his legitimacy, and it is
just possible that the marriage of Pippin and Bertha took place
subsequent to the birth of their elder son. When Pippin was
crowned king of the Franks at St Denis on the 28th of July 754
by Pope Stephen II., Charles, and his brother Carloman were
anointed by the pope as a sign of their kingly rank. The rough
surroundings of the Frankish court were unfavourable to the
acquisition of learning, and Charles grew up almost ignorant of
letters, but hardy in body and skilled in the use of weapons.
In 761 he accompanied his father on a campaign in Aquitaine,
and in 763 undertook the government of several counties. In
768 Pippin divided his dominions between his two sons, and on his
death soon afterwards Charles became the ruler of the northern
portion of the Frankish kingdom, and was crowned at Noyon on
the 9th of October 768. Bad feeling had existed);for some time
between Charles and Carloman, and when Charles early in 769
was called upon to suppress a rising in Aquitaine, his brother
refused to afford him any assistance. This rebellion, however,
was easily crushed, its leader, the Aquitainian duke Hunold, was
made prisoner, and his territory more closely attached to the
Frankish kingdom. About this time Bertha, having effected a
temporary reconciliation between her sons, overcame the re-
pugnance with which Pope Stephen III. regarded an alliance
between Frank and Lombard, and brought about a marriage
between Charles and a daughter of Desiderius, king of the
Lombards. Charles had previously contracted a union, probably
of an irregular nature, with a Frankish lady named Himiltrude,
who had borne him a son Pippin, the " Hunchback." The peace
with the Lombards, in which the Bavarians as allies of Desiderius
joined, was, however, soon broken. Charles thereupon repudi-
ated his Lombard wife (Bertha or Desiderata) and married in
771 a princess of the Alamanni named Hildegarde. Carloman
died in December 771, and Charles was at once recognized at
Corbeny as sole king of the Franks. Carloman's widow Gerberga
had fled to the protection of the Lombard king, who espoused her
cause and requested the new pope, Adrian I., to recognize her two
sons as the lawful Frankish kings. Adrian, between whom and
the Lombards other causes of quarrel existed, refused to assent
to this demand, and when Desiderius invaded the papal terri-
tories he appealed to the Frankish king for help. Charles, who
was at the moment engaged in his first Saxon campaign, ex-
postulated with Desiderius; but when such mild measures
proved useless he led his forces across the Alps in 773. Gerberga
and her children were delivered up and disappear from history;
the siege of Pa via was undertaken; and at Easter 774 the king
left the seat of war and visited Rome, where he was received with
great respect.
During his stay in the city Charles renewed the donation which
his father Pippin had made to the papacy in 754 or 756. This
transaction has given rise to much discussion as to its trust-
worthiness and the extent of its operation. Our only authority,
a passage in the Liber Pontificalis, describes the gift as including
the whole of Italy and Corsica, except the lands north of the Po,
Calabria and the city of Naples. The vast extent of this donation,
which, moreover, included territories not owning Charles's
authority, and the fact that the king did not execute, or
apparently attempt to execute, its provisions, has caused many
scholars to look upon the passage as a forgery; but the better
892
CHARLEMAGNE
opinion would appear to be that it is genuine, or at least has a
genuine basis. Various explanations have been suggested. The
area of the grant may have been enlarged by later interpola-
tions; or it may have dealt with property rather than with
sovereignty, and have only referred to estates claimed by the
pope in the territories named; or it is possible that Charles may
have actually intended to establish an extensive papal kingdom
in Italy, but was released from his promise by Adrian when the
pope saw no chance of its fulfilment. Another supposition is that
the author of the Liber Pontificates gives the papal interpretation
of a grant that had been expressed by Pippin in ambiguous
terms; and this view is supported by the history of the subse-
quent controversy between king and pope.
Returning to the scene of hostilities, Charles witnessed the
capitulation of Pavia in June 774, and the capture of Desiderius,
who was sent into a monastery. He now took the title " king of
the Lombards," to which he added the dignity of " Patrician of
the Romans," which had been granted to his father. Adalgis,
the son of Desiderius, who was residing at Constantinople, hoped
the emperor Leo IV. would assist him in recovering his father's
kingdom; but a coalition formed for this purpose was ineffectual,
and a rising led by his ally Rothgaud, duke of Friuli, was easily
crushed by Charles in 776. In 777 the king was visited at Pader-
born by three Saracen chiefs who implored his aid against Abd-
ar-Rahman, the caliph of Cordova, and promised some Spanish
cities in return for help. Seizing this opportunity to extend his
influence Charles marched into Spain in 778 and took Pampeluna,
but meeting with some checks decided to return . As the Frankish
forces were defiling through the passes of the Pyrenees they were
attacked by the Wascones (probably Basques), and the rear-
guard of the army was almost annihilated. It was useless to
attempt to avenge this disaster, which occurred on the 15th of
August 778, for the enemy disappeared as quickly as he came;
the incident has passed from the domain of history into that of
legend and romance, being associated by tradition with the pass
of Roncesvalles. Among the slain was one Hruodland , or Roland ,
margrave of the Breton march, whose death gave rise to the
Chanson de Roland (see Roland, Legend of).
Charles now sought to increase his authority in Italy, where
Frankish counts were set over various districts, and where
Hildebrand, duke of Spoleto, appears to have recognized his
overlordship. In 780 he was again in the peninsula, and at
Mantua issued an important capitulary which increased the
authority of the Lombard bishops, relieved freemen who under
stress of famine had sold themselves into servitude, and con-
demned abuses of the system of vassalage. At the same time
commerce was encouraged by the abolition of unauthorized
tolls and by an improvement of the coinage; while the sale of
arms to hostile peoples, and the trade in Christian slaves were
forbidden. Proceeding to Rome, the king appears to have
come to some arrangement with Adrian about the donation of
774. At Easter 781, Carloman, his second son by Hildegarde,
was renamed Pippin and crowned king of Italy by Pope Adrian,
and his youngest son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine;
but no mention was made at the time of his eldest son Charles,
who was doubtless intended to be king of the Franks. In 783
the king, having lost his wife Hildegarde, married Fastrada,
the daughter of a Frankish count named Radolf; and in the
same year his mother Bertha died. The emperor Constantine VI .
was at this time exhibiting some interest in Italian affairs, and
Adalgis the Lombard was still residing at his court; so Charles
sought to avert danger from this quarter by consenting in 781 to
a marriage between Constantine and his own daughter Rothrude.
In 786 the entreaties of the pope and the hostile attitude of
Arichis II., duke of Benevento, a son-in-law of Desiderius, called
the king again into Italy. Arichis submitted without a struggle,
though the basis of Frankish authority in his duchy was far from
secure; but in conjunction with Adalgis he sought aid from
Constantinople. His plans were ended by his death in 787, and
although the empress Irene, the real ruler of the eastern empire,
broke off the projected marriage between her son and Rothrude,
she appears to have given very little assistance to Adalgis,
whose attack on Italy was easily repulsed. During this visit
Charles had presented certain towns to Adrian, but an estrange-
ment soon arose between king and pope over the claim of Charles
to confirm the election to the archbishopric of Ravenna, and it
was accentuated by Adrian's objection to the establishment by
Charles of Grimoald III. as duke of Benevento, in succession to
his father Arichis.
These journeys and campaigns, however, were but interludes
in the long and stubborn struggle between Charles and the Saxons,
which began in 772 and ended in 804 with the incorporation of
Saxony in the Carolingian empire (see Saxony). This contest,
in which the king himself took a very active part, brought the
Franks into collision with the Wiltzi, a tribe dwelling east of the
Elbe, who in 789 was reduced to dependence. A similar sequence
of events took place in southern Germany. Tassilo III., duke of
the Bavarians, who had on several occasions adopted a line of
conduct inconsistent with his allegiance to Charles, was deposed
in 788 and his duchy placed under the rule of Gerold, a brother-
in-law of Charles, to be governed on the Frankish system (see
Bavaria). Having thus taken upon himself the control of
Bavaria, Charles felt himself responsible for protecting its
eastern frontier, which had long been menaced by the Avars,
a people inhabiting the region now known as Hungary. He
accordingly ravaged their country in 791 at the head of an army
containing Saxon, Frisian, Bavarian and Alamannian warriors,
which penetrated as far as the Raab ; and he spent the following
year in Bavaria preparing for a second campaign against them,
the conduct of which, however, he was compelled by further
trouble in Saxony to entrust to his son king Pippin, and to Eric,
margrave of Friuli. These deputies succeeded in 795 and 796
in taking possession of the vast treasures of the Avars, which
were distributed by the king with lavish generosity to churches,
courtiers and friends. A conspiracy against Charles, which his
friend and biographer Einhard alleges was provoked by the
cruelties of Queen Fastrada, was suppressed without difficulty
in 792, and its leader, the king's illegitimate son Pippin, was
confined in a monastery till his death in 811. Fastrada died in
August 794, when Charles took for his fourth wife an Alamannian
lady named Liutgarde.
The continuous interest taken by the king in ecclesiastical
affairs was shown at the synod of Frankfort, over which he
presided in 794. It was on his initiative that this synod con-
demned the heresy of adopUanism and the worship of images,
which had been restored in 787 by the second council of Nicaea;
and at the same time that council was declared to have been
superfluous. This policy caused a further breach with Pope
Adrian; but when Adrian died in December 795, his successor,
Leo III., in notifying his elevation to the king, sent him the keys
of St Peter's grave and the banner of the city, and asked Charles
to send an envoy to receive his oath of fidelity. There is no
doubt that Leo recognized Charles as sovereign of Rome. He
was the first pope to date his acts according to the years of the
Frankish monarchy, and a mosaic of the time in the Lateran
palace represents St Peter bestowing the banners upon Charles
as a token of temporal supremacy, while the coinage issued by
the pope bears witness to the same idea. Leo soon had occasion
to invoke the aid of his protector. In 799, after he had been
attacked and maltreated in the streets of Rome during a proces-
sion, he escaped to the king at Paderborn, and Charles sent him
back to Italy escorted by some of his most trusted servants.
Taking the same journey himself shortly afterwards, the king
reached Rome in 800 for the purpose (as he declared) of restoring
discipline in the church. His authority was undisputed; and
after Leo had cleared himself by an oath of certain charges made
against him, Charles restored the pope and banished his leading
opponents.
The great event of this visit took place on the succeeding
Christmas Day, when Charles on rising from prayer in St Peter's
was crowned by Leo and proclaimed emperor and augustus
amid the acclamations of the crowd. This act can hardly have
been unpremeditated, and some doubt has been cast upon the
statement which Einhard attributes to Charles, that he would not
CHARLEMAGNE
»9S
have entered the building had he known of the intention of Leo.
He accepted the dignity at any rate without demur, and there
seems little doubt that the question of assuming, or obtaining,
this title had previously been discussed. His policy had been
steadily leading up to this position, which was rather the
emblem of the power he already held than an extension of the
area of his authority. It is probable therefore that Charles
either considered the coronation premature, as he was hoping
to obtain the assent of the eastern empire to this step, or that,
from fear of evils which he foresaw from the claim of the pope
to crown the emperor, he wished to crown himself. All the
evidence tends to show that it was the time or manner of the
act rather than the act itself which aroused his temporary
displeasure. Contemporary accounts lay stress upon the fact
that as there was then no emperor, Constantinople being under
the rule of Irene, it seemed good to Leo and his counsellors and
the " rest of the Christian people " to choose Charles, already
ruler of Rome, to fill the vacant office. However doubtful such
conjectures concerning his intentions may be, it is certain that
immediately after his coronation Charles sought to establish
friendly relations with Constantinople, and even Suggested a
marriage between himself and Irene, as he had again become a
widower in 800. The deposition and death of the empress foiled
this plan; and after a desultory warfare in Italy between the
two empires, negotiations were recommenced which in 810 led
to an arrangement between Charles and the eastern emperor,
Nicephorus I. The death of Nicephorus and the accession of
Michael I. did not interfere with the relations, and in 812 an
embassy from Constantinople arrived at Aix-la-Chapelle, when
Charles was acknowledged as emperor, and in return agreed to
cede Venice and Dalmatia to Michael.
Increasing years and accumulating responsibilities now caused
the emperor to alter somewhat his manner of life. No longer
leading his armies in person he entrusted the direction of
campaigns in various parts of his empire to his sons and other
lieutenants, and from his favourite residence at Aix watched their
progress with a keen and sustained interest. In 802 he ordered
that a new oath of fidelity to him as emperor should be taken by
all his subjects over twelve years of age. In 804 he was visited
by Pope Leo, who returned to Rome laden with gifts. Before
his coronation as emperor, Charles had entered into communica-
tions with the caliph of Bagdad, Harun-al-Rashid, probably in
order to protect the eastern Christians, and in 801 he had received
an embassy and presents from Harun. In the same year the
patriarch of Jerusalem sent him the keys of the Holy Sepulchre;
and in 807 Harun not only sent further gifts, but appears to
have confirmed the emperor's rights in Jerusalem, which, how-
ever, probably amounted to no more than an undefined protector-
ate over the Christians in that part of the world. While thus
extending his influence even into Asia, there was scarcely any
part of Europe where the power of Charles did not make itself
felt. He had not visited Spain since the disaster of Roncesvalles,
but he continued to take a lively interest in the affairs of that
country. In 798 he had concluded an alliance with Alphonso II.,
king of the Asturias, and a series of campaigns mainly under the
leadership of King Louis resulted in the establishment of the
" Spanish march," a district between the Pyrenees and the Ebro
stretching from Pampeluna to Barcelona, as a defence against
the Saracens. In 799 the Balearic Islands had been handed over
to Charles, and a long warfare was carried on both by sea and
land between Frank and Saracen until 810, when peace was made
between the emperor and El-Hakem, the emir of Cordova. Italy
was equally the scene of continuous fighting. Grimoald of Bene-
vento rebelled against his overlord; the possession of Venice
and Dalmatia was disputed by the two empires; and Istria
was brought into subjection.
With England the emperor had already entered into relations,
and at one time a marriage was proposed between his son Charles
and a daughter of Offa, king of the Mercians. English exiles
were welcomed at his court; he was mainly instrumental in
restoring Eardwulf to the throne of Northumbria in 809; and
Einhard includes the Scots within the sphere of his influence.
In eastern Europe the Avars had owned themselves completely
under his power in 805; campaigns against the Czechs in 805
and 806 had met with some success, and about the same time
the land of the Sorbs was ravaged; while at the western ex-
tremity of the continent the Breton nobles had done homage
to Charles at Tours in 800. Thus the emperor's dominions now
stretched from the Eider to the Ebro, and from the Atlantic to
the Elbe, the Saale and the Raab, and they also included the
greater part of Italy; while even beyond these bounds he exer-
cised an acknowledged but shadowy authority. In 806 Charles
arranged a division of his territories among his three legitimate
sons, but this arrangement came to nothing owing to the death
of Pippin in 810, and of the younger Charles in the following
year. Charles then named his remaining son Louis as his suc-
cessor; and at his father's command Louis took the crown from
the altar and placed it upon his own head. This ceremony took
place at Aix on the 1 ith of September 813. In 808 the Frankish
authority over the Obotrites was interfered with by Gudrod
(Godfrey), king of the Danes, who ravaged the Frisian coasts
and spoke boastfully of leading his troops to Aix. To ward off
these attacks Charles took a warm interest in the building of a
fleet, which he reviewed in 811; but by this time Gudrod had
been killed, and his successor Hemming made peace with the
emperor.
In 81 1 Charles made his will, which shows that he contemplated
the possibility of abdication. The bulk of his possessions were
left to the twenty-one metropolitan churches of his dominions,
and the remainder to his children, his servants and the poor.
In his last years he passed most of his days at Aix, though
he had sufficient energy to take the field for a short time during
the Danish War. Early in 814 he was attacked by a fever which
he sought to subdue by fasting; but pleurisy supervened, and
after partaking of the communion, he died on the 28th of January
814, and on the same day his body was buried in the church of
St Mary at Aix. In the year 1000 his tomb was opened by the
emperor Otto III., but the account that Otto found the body
upright upon a throne with a golden crown on the head and hold-
ing a golden sceptre in the hands, is generally regarded as legend-
ary. The tomb was again opened by the emperor Frederick I.
in 1 165, when the remains were removed from a marble sarco-
phagus and placed in a wooden coffin. Fifty years later they were
transferred by order of the emperor Frederick II. to a splendid
shrine, in which the relics are still exhibited once in every six
years. The sarcophagus in which the body originally lay may
still be seen at Aix, and other relics of the great emperor are in
the imperial treasury at Vienna. In 1 165 Charles was canonized
by the antipope Paschal III. at the instance of the emperor
Frederick I., and Louis XI. of France gave strict orders that the
feast of the saint should be observed.
The personal appearance of Charles is thus described by
Einhard: — " Big and robust in frame, he was tall, but not
excessively so, measuring about seven of his own feet in height.
His eyes were large and lustrous, his nose rather long and
his countenance bright and cheerful." He had a commanding
presence, a clear but somewhat feeble voice, and in later life
became rather corpulent. His health was uniformly good, owing
perhaps to his moderation in eating and drinking, and to
his love for hunting and swimming. He was an affectionate
father, and loved to pass his time in the company of his children,
to whose education he paid the closest attention. His sons were
trained for war and the chase, and his daughters instructed in the
spinning of wool and other feminine arts. His ideas of sexual
morality were primitive. Many concubines are spoken of, he
had several illegitimate children, and the morals of his daughters
were very loose. He was a regular observer of religious rites,
took great pains to secure decorum in the services of the church,
and was generous in almsgiving both within his empire and
without. He reformed the Frankish liturgy, and brought singers
from Rome to improve the services of the church. He had
considerable knowledge of theology, took a prominent part in the
theological controversies of the time, and was responsible for the
addition of the clause filioque to the Nicene Creed. The most
8 9 4
CHARLEMAGNE
attractive feature of his character, however, was his love of
learning. In addition to his native tongue he could read Latin and
understood Greek, but he was unable to write, and Einhard
gives an account of his futile efforts to learn this art in later life.
He loved the reading of histories and astronomy, and by ques-
tioning travellers gained some knowledge of distant parts of the
earth. He attended lectures on grammar, and his favourite
work was St Augustine's De civitate Dei. He caused Frankish
sagas to be collected, began a grammar of his native tongue, and
spent some of his last hours in correcting a text of the Vulgate.
He delighted in the society of scholars — Alcuin, Angilbert, Paul
the Lombard, Peter of Pisa and others, and in this company the
trappings of rank were laid aside and the emperor was known
simply as David. Under his patronage Alcuin organized the
school of the palace, where the royal children were taught in the
company of others, and founded a school at Tours which became
the model for many other establishments. Charles was un-
wearying in his efforts to improve the education of clergy and
laity, and in 789 ordered that schools should be established in
every diocese. The atmosphere of these schools was strictly
ecclesiastical and the questions discussed by the scholars were
often puerile, but the greatness of the educational work of
Charles will not be doubted when one considers the rude condition
of Frankish society half a century before. The main work
of the Carolingian renaissance was to restore Latin to its
position as a literary language, and to reintroduce a correct
system of spelling and an improved handwriting. The
manuscripts of the time are accurate and artistic, copies of
valuable books were made and by careful collation the texts
were purified.
Charles was not a great warrior. His victories were won rather
by the power of organization, which he possessed in a marked
degree, and he was eager to seize ideas and prompt in their
execution. He erected a stone bridge with wooden piers across
the Rhine at Mainz, and began a canal between the Altmuhl and
the Rednitz to connect the Rhine and the Danube, but this work
was not finished. He built palaces at Aix (his favourite residence) ,
Nijmwegen and Ingelheim, and erected the church of St Mary
at Aix, modelled on that of St Vitalis at Ravenna and adorned
with columns and mosaics brought from the same city. He
loved the simple dress and manners of the Franks, and on two
occasions only did he assume the more stately attire of a Roman
noble. The administrative system of Charles in church and
state was largely personal, and he brought to the work an untir-
ing industry, and a marvellous grasp of detail. He admonished
the pope, appointed the bishops, watched over the morals and
work of the clergy, and took an active part in the deliberations
of church synods; he founded bishoprics and monasteries,
was lavish in his gifts to ecclesiastical foundations, and chose
bishops and abbots for administrative work. As the real
founder of the ecclesiastical state, he must be held mainly
responsible for the evils which resulted from the policy of
the church in exalting the ecclesiastical over the secular
authority.
In secular affairs Charles abolished the office of duke, placed
counts over districts smaller than the former duchies, and
supervised their government by means of tnissi dominici, officials
responsible to himself alone. Marches were formed on all the
borders of the empire, and the exigencies of military service
led to the growth of a system of land-tenure which contained
the germ of feudalism. The assemblies of the people gradually
changed their character under his rule. No longer did the nation
come together to direct and govern, but the emperor summoned
his people to assent to his acts. Taking a lively interest in
commerce and agriculture, Charles issued various regulations
for the organization of the one and the improvement of the other.
He introduced a new system of weights and measures, which he
ordered should be used throughout his kingdom, and took steps
to reform the coinage. He was a voluminous lawgiver. Without
abolishing the customary law of the German tribes, which is
said to have been committed to writing by his orders, he
added to it by means of capitularies, and thus introduced
certain Christian principles and customs, and some degree of
uniformity.
The extent and glamour of his empire exercised a potent spell
on western Europe. The aim of the greatest of his successors
was to restore it to its pristine position and influence, while
many of the French rulers made its re-establishment the goal of
their policy. Otto the Great to a considerable extent succeeded;
Louis XIV. referred frequently to the empire of Charlemagne;
and Napoleon regarded him as his prototype and predecessor.
The empire of Charles, however, was not lasting. In spite of his
own wonderful genius the seeds of weakness were sown in his
lifetime. The church was too powerful, an incipient feudalism
was present, and there was no real bond of union between the
different races that acknowledged his authority. All the vigi-
lance of the emperor could not restrain the dishonesty and the
cupidity of his servants, and no sooner was the strong hand of
their ruler removed than they began to acquire territorial power
for themselves.
Authorities. — The chief authorities for the life and times of
Charlemagne are Einhard's Vita Karoli Magni, the Annates Lauris-
senses major es, the Annates Fuldenses, and other annals, which are
published in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band
1. and ii., edited by G. H. Pertz (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892).
For the capitularies see Capitularia regum Francorum, edited by
A. Boretius in the Monumenta. Leges. Many of the songs of the
period appear in the Poetae Latini aevi Carolini, edited by E.
Dummler (Berlin, i88i-i8&t). The Bibliotkeca return Germani-
carum, tome iv., edited by Ph. Jaffe (Berlin, 1 864-1 873), contains
some of the emperor's correspondence, and Hincmar's De ordine
palatii, edited by M. Prou (Paris, 1884), is also valuable.
The best modern authorities are S. Abel and B. Simeon, Jahr-
bucher des frankischen Retches unlet Karl dent Grossen (Leipzig,
1883-1888); G. Richter and H. Kohl, Annalen des frankischen
Reichs im Zeitalter der Karolinger (Halle, 1 885-1887) ; E. Mtihlbacher,
Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingem (Stuttgart, 1886); H.
Brosien, Karl der Grosse (Leipzig and Prague, 1885); J- L Mombeit,
History of Charles the Great (London, 1888) ; M. Lipp, Das fr&nkische
Grenzsystem unter Karl dent Grossen (Breslau, 1892); J. von Doll-
inger, Das Kaiserthum Karls des Grossen und seiner Nachfolger
(Munich, 1864) ; F. von Wyss, Karl dex Grosse als Gesetzgeber (Zurich,
1869); Th. Sickel, Lehre von den Urkunden'der ersten Karolinger
(Vienna, 1867) I E. Diimmler in the AUgemeine deutsche Biographie,
Band xv.; Th. Lindner, Die Fabel von der Bestattuns Karls des
Grossen (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1895); J. A. Ketterer, Karl der Grosse
und die Kirche (Munich and Leipzig, 1898) ; and T. B. Mullinger,
The Schools of Charles the Great and the Restoration of Education
in the Qth century (London, 1877).
The work of the monk of St Gall is found in the Monumenta,
Band ii. ; an edition of the Historia de vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi,
edited by F. Castets, has been published (Paris, 1880), and an edition
of the Kaiserchronik, edited by E. Schrdder (Hanover, 1892). See
also P. Clemen, Die PortratdarsteUung Karls des Grossen (Aix-la-
Chapelle, 1896). (A. W. H.*)
The Charlemagne Legends
Innumerable legends soon gathered round the memory of the
great emperor. He was represented as a warrior performing
superhuman feats, as a ruler dispensing perfect justice, and even
as a martyr suffering for the faith. It was confidently believed
towards the close of the 10th century that he had made a pil-
grimage to Jerusalem; and, like many other great rulers, it
was reported that he was only sleeping to awake in the hour of
his country's need. We know from Einhard (Vita Karoli , cap.
xxix.) that the Frankish heroic ballads were drawn up in writing
by Charlemagne's order, and it may be accepted as certain
that he was himself the subject of many such during his lifetime.
The legendary element crept even into the Latin panegyrics
produced by the court poets. Before the end of the 9th century
a monk of St Gall drew up a chronicle De gestis Karoli Magni,
which was based partly on oral tradition, received from an old
soldier named Adalbert, who had served in Charlemagne's
army. This recital contains various fabulous incidents. The
author relates a conversation between Otkar the Frank (Ogier
the Dane) and the Lombard king Desiderius (Didier) on the walls
of Pavia in view of Charlemagne's advancing army. To Didier's
repeated question "Is this the emperor?" Otkar continues
to answer u Not yet," adding at last " When thou shalt see
the fields bristling with an iron harvest, and the Po and the
Ticino swollen with sea-floods, inundating the walls of the city
CHARLEMAGNE
895
with iron billows, then shall Karl be nigh at hand." This episode,
which bears the marks of popular heroic poetry, may well be the
substance of a lost Carolingian cantilena. 1
The legendary Charlemagne and his warriors were endowed
with the great deeds of earlier kings and heroes of the Frankish
kingdom, for the romancers were not troubled by considerations
of chronology. National traditions extending over centuries were
grouped round Charlemagne, his father Pippin, and his son Louis.
The history of Charles Martel especially was absorbed in the
Charlemagne legend. But if Charles's name was associated
with the heroism of his predecessors he was credited with equal
readiness with the weaknesses of his successors. In the earlier
chansons de geste he is invariably a majestic figure and represents
within limitations the grandeur of the historic Charles. But in
the histories of the wars with his vassals he is often little more
than a tyrannical dotard, who is made to submit to gross insult.
This picture of affairs is drawn from later times, and the sym-
pathies of the poet are generally with the rebels against the
monarchy. Historical tradition was already dim when the
hypothetical and much discussed cantUenae, which may be taken
to have formed the repository of the national legends from the
8th to the 10th century, were succeeded in the nth and the
early 12th centuries by the chansons de geste. The early poems
of the cycle sometimes contain curious information on the
Frankish methods in war, in council and in judicial procedure,
which had no parallels in contemporary institutions. The account
in the Chanson de Roland of the trial of Ganelon after the battle
of Roncesvalles must have been adopted almost intact from
earlier poets, and provides a striking example of the value of the
chansons de geste to the historian of manners and customs.
In general, however, the trouvere depicted the feeling and
manners of his own time.
Charlemagne's wars in Italy, Spain and Saxony formed part
of the common epic material, and there are references to his
wars against the Slavs; but especially he remained in the popular
mind as the great champion of Christianity against the creed
of Mahomet, and even his Norman and Saxon enemies became
Saracens in current legend. He is the Christian emperor directly
inspired by angels; his sword Joyeuse contained the point
of the lance used in the Passion; his standard was Romaine, the
banner of St Peter, which, as the oriflamme of Saint Denis, was
later to be borne in battle before the kings of France; and in
1 164 Charles was canonized at the desire of the emperor Frederick
I. Barbarossa by the anti-pope Pascal III. This gave him no
real claim to saintship, but his festival was observed in some
places until comparatively recent times. Charlemagne was
endowed with the good and bad qualities of the epic king, and
as in the case of Agamemnon and Arthur, his exploits paled
beside those of his chief warriors. These were not originally
known as the twelve peers 8 famous in later Carolingian romance.
The twelve peers were in the first instance the companions in
arms of Roland in the Teutonic sense. 3 The idea of the paladins
forming an association corresponding to the Arthurian Round
Table first appears in the romance of Fierabras. The lists of
them are very various, but all include the names of Roland and
l A remnant of the popular poetry contemporary with Charle-
magne and written in the vernacular has been thought to be dis-
cernible under its Latin translation in the description of a siege
during Charlemagne's war against the Saracens, known as the
14 Fragment from the Hague " (Pertz, Script, iii. pp. 708-710).
2 The words douze patrs were anglicized in a variety of forms
ranging from douzepers to dosepers. The word even occurred as a
singular in the metrical romance of Octavian : — " Ferst they sent
out a doseper." At the beginning of the 13th century there existed
a cour des pairs which exercised judicial functions and dated possibly
from the nth century, but their prerogatives at the beginning of the
14th century appear to have been mainly ceremonial and decorative.
In 1257 the twelve peers were the chiefs of the great feudal provinces,
the dukes of Normandy, Burgundy and Aquitaine, the counts of
Toulouse, Champagne and Flanders, and six spiritual peers, the
archbishop of Reims, the bishops of Laon, Chalons-sur-Marne,
Beauvais, Langres and Noyon. (See Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v.
u Par.").
* See J. Flach, Le Compagnonnage dans les chansons de geste (Paris,
1891).
Oliver. The chief heroes who fought Charlemagne's battles
were Roland; Ganelon, afterwards the traitor; Turpin, the
fighting archbishop of Reims; Duke Naimes of Bavaria, the
wise counsellor who is always on the side of justice; Ogier
the Dane, the hero of a whole series of romances; and Guillaume
of Toulouse, the defender of Narbonne. Gradually most of the
chansons de geste were attached to the name of Charlemagne,
whose poetical history falls into three cycles: — the geste du roi,
relating his wars and the personal history of himself and his
family; the southern cycle, of which Guillaume de Toulouse is
the central figure; and the feudal epic, dealing with the revolts
of the barons against the emperor, the rebels being invariably
connected by the trouv£res with the family of Doon de Mayence
The earliest poems of the cycle are naturally the closest to
historical truth. The central point of the geste du rot is the 1 1 th-
century Chanson de Roland (see Roland, Legend of), one of
the greatest of medieval poems. Strangely enough the defeat
of Roncesvalles, which so deeply impressed the popular mind,
has not a corresponding importance in real history. But it
chanced to find as its exponent a poet whose genius established
a model for his successors, and definitely fixed the type of later
heroic poems. The other early chansons to which reference is
made in Roland — Aspremont, Enfances Ogier, Guiteclin, Baton,
relating to Charlemagne's wars in Italy and Saxony — are not
preserved in their original form, and only the first in an early
recension. Basin or Carl et EUgast (preserved in Dutch and
Icelandic), the Voyage de Charlemagne a Jerusalem and Le
Couronnement Looys also belong to the heroic period. The purely
fictitious and romantic tales added to the personal history of
Charlemagne and his warriors in the 13th century are inferior
in manner, and belong to the decadence of romance. The old
tales, very much distorted in the 15th-century prose versions,
were to undergo still further degradation in 18th-century
compilations.
According to Berte aus grans pits, in the 13th-century remanie-
ment of the Brabantine trouvere Adenes li Rois, Charlemagne
was the son of Pippin and of Berte, the daughter of Flore and
Blanchefleur, king and queen of Hungary. The tale bears marks
of high antiquity, and presents one of the few incidents in the
French cycle which may be referred to a mythic origin. On the
night of Berte's marriage a slave, Margiste, is substituted for
her, and reigns in her place for nine years, at the expiration of
which Blanchefleur exposes the deception; whereupon Berte is
restored from her refuge in the forest to her rightful place as
queen. Mainet ( 1 2th century) and the kindred poems in German
and Italian are perhaps based on the adventures of Charles
Martel, who after his father's death had to flee to the Ardennes.
They relate that, after the death of his parents, Charles was
driven by the machinations of the two sons of Margiste to take
refuge in Spain, where he accomplished his enfances (youthful
exploits) with the Mussulman king Galafre under the feigned
name of Mainet. He delivered Rome from the besieging Sara-
cens, and returned to France in triumph. But his wife Galienne,
daughter of Galafre, whom he had converted to the Christian
faith, died on her way to rejoin him. Charlemagne then made
an expedition to Italy (Enfances Ogier in the Venetian Charle-
magne, and the first part of the Chevalerie Ogier de Dannemarche
by Raimbert of Paris, 12th century) to raise the siege of Rome,
which was besieged by the Saracen emir Corsuble. He crossed
the Alps under the guidance of a white hart, miraculously sent
to assist the passage of the army. Aspremont (12th century)
describes a fictitious campaign against the Saracen King Agolant
in Calabria, and is chiefly devoted to the enfances of Roland.
The wars of Charlemagne with his vassals are described in
Girart de Roussillon, Renaus de Montauban, recounting the deeds
of the four sons of Aymon, Huon de Bordeaux, and in the latter
part of the Chevalerie Ogier, which belong properly to the cycle
connected with Doon of Mayence.
The account of the pilgrimage of Charlemagne and his twelve
paladins to the Holy Sepulchre must in its first form have been
earlier than the Crusades, as the patriarch asks the emperor to
896
CHARLEMAGNE
free Spain, not the Holy Land, from the Saracens. The legend
probably originated in a desire to authenticate the relics in the
abbey of Saint Denis, supposed to have been brought to Aix by
Charlemagne, and is preserved in a 12th-century romance, Le
Voyage de Charlemagne a Jerusalem et a Constantinople} This
journey forms the subject of a window in the cathedral of
Chartres, and there was originally a similar one at Saint-Denis.
On the way home Charles and his paladins visited the emperor
Hugon at Constantinople, where they indulged in a series of
gabs which they were made to carry out. Gotten, a favourite
15th-century romance, was attached to this episode, for Galien
was the son of the amours of Oliver with Jacqueline, Hugon's
daughter. The traditions of Charlemagne's fights with the
Norsemen (Norois, Noreins) are preserved in Aiquin (12th
century), which describes the emperor's reconquest of Armorica
from the " Saracen " king Aiquin, and a disaster at Cezembre
as terrible in its way as those of Roncesvalles and Aliscans. La
destruction de Rome is a 13th-century version of the older chanson
of the emir Balan, who collected an army in Spain and sailed to
Rome. The defenders were overpowered and the city destroyed
before the advent of Charlemagne, who, however, avenged the
disaster by a great battle in Spain. The romance of Fierabras
(13th century) was one of the most popular in the 15th century,
and by later additions came to have pretensions to be a complete
history of Charlemagne. The first part represents an episode
in Spain three years before Roncesvalles, in which Oliver defeats
the Saracen giant Fierabras in single combat, and converts him.
The hero of the second part is Gui de Bourgogne, who recovers
the relics of the Passion, lost in the siege of Rome. Otinel (13th
century) is also pure fiction. L Entrte en Espagne, preserved in
a 14th-century Italian compilation, relates the beginning of the
Spanish War, the siege of Pampeluna, and the legendary combat
of Roland with Ferragus. Charlemagne's march on Saragossa,
and the capture of Huesca, Barcelona and Girone, gave rise to
La Prise de Pampelune (14th century, based on a lost chanson) ;
and Gui de Bourgogne (12th century) tells how the children of the
barons, after appointing Guy as king of France, set out to find
and rescue their fathers, who are represented as having been
fighting in Spain for twenty-seven years. The Chanson de Roland
relates the historic defeat of Roncesvalles on the 15 th of August
778, and forms the very crown of the whole Carolingian legend.
The two 13th-century romances, Gaidon, by Herbert Leduc
de Dammartin, and AnsHs de Carthage , contain a purely fictitious
account of the end of the war in Spain, and of the establishment
of a Frankish kingdom under the rule of Ans6is. Charlemagne
was recalled from Spain by the news of the outbreak of the
Saxons. The contest between Charlemagne and Widukind
(Guiteclin) offered abundant epic material. Unfortunately the
original Guiteclin is lost, but the legend is preserved in Les
Saisnes (c. 1300) of Jehan Bodel, which is largely occupied by
the loves of Baudouin and Sibille, the wife of Guiteclin. The
adventures of Blanchefleur, wife of Charlemagne, form a variation
of the common tale of the innocent wife falsely accused, and are
told in Macaire and in the extant fragments of La Reine Sibille
(14th century). After the conquest of the Saracens and the
Saxons, the defeat of the Northmen, and the suppression of the
feudal revolts, the emperor abdicated in favour of his son Louis
(Le Couronnement Looys, 1 2 th century) . Charles's harangue to his
son is in the best tradition of epic romance. The memory of
Roncesvalles haunts him on his death-bed, and at the moment
of death he has a vision of Roland.
The mythic element is practically lacking in the French
legends, but in Germany some part of the Odin myth was
associated with Charles's name. The constellation of the Great
Bear, generally associated with Odin, is Karlswagen in German,
and Charles's Wain in English. According to tradition in Hesse,
he awaits resurrection, probably symbolic of the triumph of the
sun over winter, within the Gudensberg (Hill of Odin) . Bavarian
1 For clerical accounts of Charles's voyage to the Holy Land see
the Chronicon (c. 968) of Benedict, a monk of St Andre, and De-
scriptio qualiter Karolus Magnus clavum et coronam Domini . . .
detulerit t by an 11th-century writer.
tradition asserts that he is seated in the Untersberg in a chair,
as in his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle. His white beard goes on grow-
ing, and when it has thrice encircled the stone table before him
the end of the world will come; or, according to another version,
Charles will arise and after fighting a great battle on the plain
of Wals will reign over a new Germany. There were medieval
chroniclers who did not fear to assert that Charles rose from
the dead to take part in the Crusades. In the MS. Annales S.
Stephani Frisingenses (15th century), which formerly belonged
to the abbey of Weihenstephan, and is now at Munich, the
childhood of Charlemagne is practically the same as that of many
mythic heroes. This work, generally known as the chronicle
of Weihenstephan, gives among other legends a curious history
of the emperor's passion for a dead woman, caused by a charm
given to Charles by a serpent to whom he had rendered justice.
The charm was finally dropped into a well at Aix, which thence-
forward became Charles's favourite residence. The story of
Roland's birth from the union of Charles with his sister Gilles,
also found in German and Scandinavian versions, has abundant
parallels in mythology, and was probably transferred from
mythology to Charlemagne.
The Latin chronicle, wrongly ascribed to Turpin (Tilpinus),
bishop of Reims from 753 to 800, was in reality later than
the earlier poems of the French cycle, and the first properly
authenticated mention of it is in 1165. Its primary object
was to authenticate the relics of St James at Compostella.
Alberic Trium Fontium, a monk of the Cistercian monastery of
Trois Fontanes in the diocese of Chalons, embodied much
poetical fiction in his chronicle (c. 1249). A large section of the
Chronique rimie (c. 1243) of Philippe Mousket is devoted to
Charlemagne's exploits. At the beginning of the 14th century
Girard of Amiens made a dull compilation known as Charlemagne
from the chansons de gests f authentic history and the pseudo-
Turpin. La Conqueste que Jit le grand roi Charlemaigne es
Espaignes (pr. i486) is the same work as the prose compilation
of Fierabras (pr. 1478), and Caxton's Lyf of Charles the Grete
(1485).
The Charlemagne legend was fully developed in Italy, where it
was to have later a great poetic development at the hands of
Boiardo, Ariosto and Tasso. There are two important Italian
compilations, MS. XIII. of the library of St Mark, Venice
(c. 1200), and the Reali di Francia (c. 1400) of a Florentine
writer, Andrea da Barberino (b. 1370), edited by G. Vandelli
(Bologna, 1892). The six books of this work are rivalled in
importance by the ten branches of the Norse Karlamagnus saga,
written under the reign of Haakon V. This forms a consecutive
legendary history of Charles, and is apparently based on earlier
versions of the French Charlemagne poems than those which
we possess. It thus furnishes a guide to the older forms of
stories, and moreover preserves the substance of others which
have not survived in their French form. A popular abridgment,
the Keiser Karl Magnus Krdnike (pr. Malmd, 1534), drawn up
in Danish, serves in some cases to complete the earlier work.
The 2000 lines of the German Kaiserchronik on the history of
Charlemagne belong to the first half of the 12th century, and
were perhaps the work of Conrad, the poet of the RuolanUs
Liet. The German poet known as the Strieker used the
same sources as the author of the chronicle of Weihen-
stephan for his Karl (c. 1230). The earliest important Spanish
version was the Chronica Hispaniae (c. 1284) of Rodrigo de
Toledo.
The French and Norman-French chansons circulated as freely
in England as in France, and it was therefore not until the period
of decadence that English versions were made. The English
metrical romances of Charlemagne are: — Rowlandes Song (15th
century); The TaUl of Rauf Coilyear (c. 1475, pr. by R. Lek-
preuik, St Andrews, 1472), apparently original; Sir Ferumbras
(c. 1380) and the Sowdone of Babylone (c. 1400) from an early
version of Fierabras; a fragmentary Roland and Vernagu
(Ferragus); two versions of Otuel (Otinel); and a Sege of
Melayne (c. 1390), forming a prologue to Otinel unknown in
French.
CHARLEMAGNE, J. A.— CHARLES II.
897
Bibliography. — The most important works on the Charlemagne
cycle of romance are: — G. Pans, Hist. poStioue de Charlemagne
(Paris, 1865; reprint, with additional notes by Paris and P. Meyer,
1905) ; L. Gautier, Les Epopees franqaises (Paris, 4 vols, new ed.,
1878, 1892, 1880, 1882) and the supplementary Bibliographie des
chansons de geste (1897). The third volume of the Atopies franqaises
contains an analysis and full particulars of the chansons de geste
immediately connected with the history of Charlemagne. See also
G. Rauschen, Die Legende Karls des Grossen im uten und i2ten
Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1890); Kristoffer Nyrop, Den oldfranske
Hddedigtning (Copenhagen, 1883; Ital. trans. Turin, 1886); Pio
Rajna, Le Origint deW epopea francese (Florence, 1884); G. T.
Graesse, " Die grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters, M in his Litter dr-
geschichte (Dresden, 1842) ; Histoire litUraire de la France (vol. xxii.,
1852) ; H. L. Ward, Catalogue of Romances in the Dept. of MSS. in
the British Museum (1883), vol. 1. pp. 546-689; E. Muntz, La LSgende
de Charlemagne dans I art du moyen dge (Paris, 1885); and for
the German legend, vol. iii. of H. F. Massmann's edition of the
Kaiserchronik (Quedlinburg, 1840^-1854). The English Charlemagne
Romances were edited (extra series) for the Early Eng. Text Soc.
by Sidney J. Herrtage, Emil Hausknecht, Octavia Richardson
and Sidney Lee (1879- 1881), tne romance of Duke Huon of Bordeaux
containing a general account of the cycle by Sidney Lee; the
Karlamagnussaga, by C. R. Unger (Cnristiania, i860), see also
G. Paris in BiU. de VEcole des Charles (1864-1865). For individual
chansons see Anseis de Carthage, ed. J. Alton (Tubingen, 1892);
Aiquin, ed. F. Jouon des Longrais (Nantes, 1880); Aspremont, ed.
F. Guessard and L. Gautier (Paris, 1885); Basin, or Charles et
liMgast or Le Couronnement de Charles, preserved only in foreign
versions (see Paris, Hist. Poet. pp. 315, sea.); Berta de li gran pti,
ed. A. Mussafia, in Romania (vols. iii. ana iv., 1874- 18 75); Berte
aus grans pies, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874); Charlemagne, by
Girard d'Amiens, detailed analysis in Paris, Hist. PoSt. (Appendix
iv.); Couronnement Looys, ed. E. Langlois (Le Puy, 1888); Disier
(Desiderius or Didier), lost songs of the wars of Lombardy, some
fragments of which are preserved in Ogier le Danois; Destruction de
Rome, ed. G. Grober in Romania (1873); A. Thomas, Nouvelles
recherches sur " Ventrie de Spagne" in BtbL des icoles franqaises de
Rome (Paris, 1882) ; Fierabras, ed. A. Krober and G. Servois (Paris,
i860) in Ancienspoetes de la France, and Provencal text, ed L Bekker
(Berlin, 1829) ; Galien, ed. E. Stengel and K. Pfeil (Marburg, 1890) ;
Gaydon, ed. F. Guessard and S. Luce (Anciens poetes .... 1862);
Gut de Bourgogne, ed. F. Guessard and H. Michelant (same series,
1859); Mainet (fragments only extant), ed. G. Paris, in Romania
(1875); Otinel, ed .Guessard and Michelant (Anciens poetes, 1859),
and Sir Otuel, ed. S. J. Herrtage (E.E.T.S., 1880); Prise de Pam-
pelune (ed. A. Mussafia, Vienna, 1864) ; for the Carolingian romances
relating to Roland, see Roland; Les Saisnes, ed. F. Michel (1830) ;
The Sege of Melaine, introductory to Otinel, preserved in English
only (ed. E.E.T.S., 1880); Simon de Pouille, analysis in £pop. fr.
(iii. pp. 346 sq.); Voyage de C. 6) Jerusalem, ed. E. Koschwitz
(Heilbronn, 1879). For the chronicle of the Pseudo-Turpin, see an
edition by Castets (Paris, 1881) for the " Societe des langues
romanes, and the dissertation by G. Paris, De Pseudo-Turpino
(Paris, 1865). The Spanish versions of Carolingian legends are
studied by Mila y Fontanals in Delapocsia heroico-popular casteUana
(Barcelona, 1874). (M. Br.)
CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753-1838), French
dramatic author, was born at Bourget (Seine) on the 30th of
November 1753. Originally intended for the church, he turned
first to being a lawyer's clerk and then a soldier. He served in
the American War of Independence, and on returning to France
(1783) began to employ his pen on economic subjects, and later
in writing for the stage. He became the author of a large number
of plays, poems and romances, among which may be mentioned
the comedies M. de Croc a Paris (1793), Le Souper des Jacobins
(i795)and L f Agioteur(i'jg6) i a,ndObservations dequelques pairiotes
sur la nicessiU de conserver les monuments de la litUrature et des
arts (1794), an essay written in collaboration with M.M. Chardin
and Renouard, which induced the Convention to protect books
adorned with the coats of arms of their former owners and other
treasures from destruction at the hands of the revolutionists.
He died in Paris on the 6th of March 1838.
CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD, ist Earl of (1728-
1799), Irish statesman, son of the 3rd viscount Charlemont, was
born in Dublin on the 18th of August 1728, and succeeded his
father as 4th viscount in 1 734. The title of Charlemont descended
from Sir Toby Caulfeild (1 565-1627) of Oxfordshire, England,
who was given lands in Ireland, and created Baron Charlemont
(the name of a fort on the Blackwater), for his services to King
James I. in 1620, and the ist viscount was the 5th baron (d. 167 1),
who was advanced by Charles II. Lord Charlemont is historically
interesting for his political connexion with Flood and Grattan;
he was a cultivated man with literary and artistic tastes, and both
in Dublin and in London his amiable character gave him con-
siderable social influence. For various early services in Ireland
he was made an earl in 1 763, but he disregarded court favours and
cordially joined Grattan in 1780 in the assertion of Irish inde-
pendence. He was president of the volunteer convention in
Dublin in November 1783, having taken from the first a leading
part in the embodiment of the volunteers; and he was a strong
opponent of the proposals for the Union. He died on the 4th of
August 1709; his eldest son, who succeeded him, being subse-
quently (1837) created an English baron.
His Life, by F. Hardy, appeared in 18 10.
CHARLEROI (Carolus Rex), a town in the province of Hainaut,
Belgium. Pop. (1004) 26,528. It was founded in 1666 on the
site of a village called Charnoy by the Spanish governor Roderigo
and named after his sovereign Charles II. of Spain. Charleroi
is the centre of the iron industry of Belgium. It is connected by
a canal with Brussels, and from its position on the Sambre enjoys
facilities of communication by water with France as well as
Belgium. It was ceded soon after its foundation to France by
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapel3e, and Vauban fortified it. During
the French occupation the town was considerably extended, and
the fortifications were made so strong that Charleroi twice
successfully resisted the strenuous attacks of William of Orange.
In 1704 Charleroi again fell into the hands of the French, and on
this occasion instead of fortifying they dismantled it. In 18 16
Charleroi was refortified under Wellington's direction, and it was
finally dismantled in 1859. Some portions of the old ramparts
are left near the railway station. There is an archaeological
museum with a miscellaneous collection of Roman and Frank
antiquities.
CHARLEROI, a borough of Washington county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, near the S.W. corner of the
state, about 20 m. S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 5930, of whom
1749 were foreign-born. It is served by the Pennsylvania
railway. The surrounding country has good farming land and
large coal mines. In 1005 the borough ranked fifth among the
cities of the United States in the manufacture of glass (plate-
glass, lamp chimneys and bottles), its product (valued at
$1,841,308) being 2*3% of that of the whole country. Charleroi
was settled in 1890 and was incorporated in 1891.
CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger.
Karl; derived from O.H.G. Choral, latinized as Carolus, meaning
originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod.
Eng. " churl ") , a masculine proper name. It has been borne by
many European princes, notices of the more important of whom
are given below in the following order: (1) Roman emperors, (2)
kings of England, (3) other kings in the alphabetical order of their
states, (4) other reigning princes in the same order, (5) non-
reigning princes. Those princes who are known by a name in
addition to Charles (Charles Albert, &c.) will be found after the
private individuals bearing Charles as a surname.
CHARLES II. 1 called The Bald (823-877), Roman emperor
and king of the West Franks, was the son of the emperor Louis
the Pious and of his second wife Judith and was born in 823.
The attempts made by his father to assign him a kingdom, first
Alamannia (829), then the country between the Meuse and the
Pyrenees(839) , at theexpenseof his half -brothers Lothair and Louis
led to a rising on the part of these two (see Louis I., the Pious).
The death of the emperor in 840 was the signal for the outbreak
of war between his sons. Charles allied himself with his brother
Louis the German to resist the pretensions of the emperor Lothair,
and thetwo alliesconqueredhim in the bloody victory of Fontenoy-
en-Puisaye (25 June 841). In the following year, the two brothers
confirmed their alliance by the celebrated oaths of Strassburg,
made by Charles in the Teutonic language spoken by the subjects
of Louis, and by Louis in the Romance tongue of Charles's
subjects. The war was brought to an end by the treaty of
Verdun (August 843), which gave to Charles the Bald the kingdom
of the western Franks, which practically corresponded with what
1 For Charles I., Roman emperor, see Charlemagne ;cf. under
Charles I. of France below.
V. 29
8 9 8
CHARLES III.— CHARLES IV.
[ROMAN EMPERORS
is now France, as far as the Meuse, the Sa6ne and the Rhone,
with the addition of the Spanish March as far as the Ebro. The
first years of his reign up to the death of Lothair I. (855) were
comparatively peaceful, and during them was continued the
system of " confraternal government " of the sons of Louis the
Pious, who had various meetings with one another, at Coblenz
(848), at Meersen (851), and at Attigny (854). In 858 Louis the
German, summoned by the disaffected nobles, invaded the king-
dom of Charles, who fled to Burgundy, and was only saved by
the help of the bishops, and by the fidelity of the family of the
Welfs, who were related to Judith. In 860 he in his turn tried to
seize the kingdom of his nephew, Charles of Provence, but met
with a repulse. On the death of Lothair II. in 869 he tried to
seize his dominions, but by the treaty of Mersen (870) was com-
pelled to share them with Louis the German. Besides this,
Charles had to struggle against the incessant rebellions in Aqui-
taine, against the Bretons, whose revolt was led by their chief
Nomenol and Erispo6, and who inflicted* on the king the defeats
of Ballon (845) and Juvardeil (851), and especially against the
Normans, who devastated the country in the north of Gaul, the
valleys of the Seine and Loire, and even up to the borders of
Aquitaine. Charles was several times compelled to purchase
their retreat at a heavy price. He has been accused of being
incapable of resisting them, but we must take into account the
unwillingness of the nobles, who continually refused to join the
royal army; moreover, the Frankish army does not seem to have
been sufficiently accustomed to war to make any headway against
the pirates. At any rate, Charles led various expeditions against
the invaders, and tried to put a barrier in their way by having
fortified bridges built over all the rivers. In 875, after the death
of the emperor Louis II., Charles the Bald, supported by Pope
John VIII. v descended into Italy, receiving the royal crown at
Pavia and the imperial crown at Rome (29th December). But
Louis the German, who was also a candidate for the succession of
Louis II., revenged himself for Charles's success by invading and
devastating his dominions. Charles was recalled to Gaul, and
after the death of Louis the German (28th August 876), in his
turn made an attempt to seize his kingdom, but at Andernach
met with a shameful defeat (8th October 876). In the meantime,
John VIIL, who was menaced by the Saracens, was continually
urging him to come to Italy, and Charles, after having taken at
Quierzy the necessary measures for safeguarding the government
of his dominions in his absence, again crossed the Alps, but
this expedition had been received with small enthusiasm by the
nobles, and even by Boso, Charles's brother-in-law, who had been
entrusted by him with the government of Lombardy, and they
refused to come with their men to join the imperial army. At
the same time Carloman, son of Louis the German, entered
northern Italy. Charles, ill and in great distress, started on his
way back to Gaul, and died while crossing the pass of the Mont
Cenis on the 5th or 6th of October 877. He was succeeded by his
son Louis the Stammerer, the child of Ermentrude, daughter of a
count of Orleans, whom he had married in 842, and who had died in
869. In 870 he had married Richilde, who was descended from a
noble family of Lorraine, but none of the children whom he had by
her played a part of any importance. Charles seems to have been
a prince of education and letters, a friend of the church, and
conscious of the support he could find in the episcopate against
his unruly nobles, for he chose his councillors for preference
from among the higher clergy, as in the case of Guenelon of Sens,
who betrayed him, or of Hincmar of Reims. But his character
and his reign have been judged very variously. The general
tendency seems to have been to accept too easily the accounts
of the chroniclers of the east Frankish kingdom, which are
favourable to Louis the German, and to accuse Charles of
cowardice and bad faith. He seems on the contrary not to have
lacked activity or decision.
Authorities. — The most important authority for the history
of Charles's reign is represented by the Annates Bertiniani, which
were the work of Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, up to 861, then up
to 882 of the celebrated Hincmar, archbishop of Reims. This
prince's charters are to be found published in the collections of the
Acadbnie des Inscriptions, by M. M. Prou. The most complete
history of the reign is found in E. Dummler, Ctschichte des ost~
frdnkischen Retches (3 vols., Leipzig, 1887-1888). See also J. Cal-
mette, La Diplomatic earoUneienne du traitS de Verdun d la mort de
Charles le Chauve (Paris, 196 ij, and F. Lot, " Une Annee du regne de
Charles le Chauve," in Le Moyen-Age, (1902) pp. 393-438.
CHARLES III., the Fat j (832-888), Roman emperor and king
of the West Franks, was the youngest of the three sons of Louis
the German, and received from his father the kingdom of Swabia
(Alamannia). After the death of his two brothers in succession,
Carloman (881) and Louis the Young (882) , he inherited the whole
of his father's dominions. In 880 he had helped his two cousins
in the west Frankish realm, Louis III. and Carloman, in their
struggle with the usurper Boso of Provence, but abandoned
them during the campaign in order to be crowned emperor at
Rome by Pope John VIII. (February 881). On his return he led
an expedition against the Norsemen of Friesland, who were
entrenched in their camp at Elsloo, but instead of engaging with
them he preferred to make terms and paid them tribute. In 884 the
death of Carloman brought into his possession the west Frankish
realm, and in 885 he got rid of his rival Hugh of Alsace, an
illegitimate son of Lothair II., taking him prisoner by treachery
and putting out his eyes. However, in spite of his six expeditions
into Italy, he did not succeed in pacifying the country, nor in
delivering it from the Saracens. He was equally unfortunate in
Gaul and in Germany against the Norsemen, who in 886-887
besieged Paris. The emperor appeared before the city with a
large army (October 886), but contented himself by treating with
them, buying the retreat of the invaders at the price of a heavy
ransom, and his permission for them to ravage Burgundy without
his interfering. On his return to Alamannia, however, the general
discontent showed itself openly and a conspiracy was formed
against him. He was first forced to dismiss his favourite, the
chancellor Liutward, bishop of Vercelli. The dissolution of his
marriage with the pious empress Richarde, in spite of her inno-
cence as proved by the judicial examination, alienated his nobles
still more from him. He was deposed by an assembly which met
at Frankfort or at Tribur (November 887), and died in poverty
at Neidingen on the Danube (18th January 888).
See E. Dilmmler, Gesckickte des ostfrdnkischen Retches vol. iiL
(Leipzig 1888).
CHARLES IV, (1316-1378), Roman emperor and king of
Bohemia, was the eldest son of John of Luxemburg, king of
Bohemia, and Elizabeth, sister of Wenceslas III., the last
Bohemian king of the Premyslides dynasty. He was born at
Prague on the 14th of May 13 16, and in 1323 went to the court
of his uncle, Charles IV., king of France, and exchanged his
baptismal name of Wenceslas for that of Charles. He remained
for seven years in France, where he was well educated and learnt
five languages; and there he married Blanche, sister of King
Philip VI., the successor of Charles IV. In 133 1 he gained some
experience of warfare in Italy with his father; and on his return
to Bohemia in 1333 he was made margrave of Moravia. Three
years later he undertook the government of Tirol on behalf of his
brother John Henry, and was soon actively concerned in a
struggle for the possession of this county. In consequence of an
alliance between his father and Pope Clement VI., the relentless
enemy of the emperor Louis IV., Charles was chosen German king
in opposition to Louis by some of the princes at Rense on the
nth of July 1346. As he had previously promised to be sub-
servient to Clement he made extensive concessions to the pope
in 1347. Confirming the papacy in the possession of wide
territories, he promised to annul the acts of Louis against
Clement, to take no part in Italian affairs, and to defend and
protect the church. Meanwhile he had accompanied his father
into France and had taken part in the battle of Crecy in August
1346, when John was killed and Charles escaped wounded from
the field. As king of Bohemia he returned to Germany, and
after being crowned German king at Bonn on the 26th of
November 1346, prepared to attack Louis. Hostilities were
interrupted by the death of the emperor in October 1347, and
Gunther, count of Schwarzburg, who was chosen king by the
1 This surname has only been applied to Charles since the 13th
century.
ROMAN EMPEROR]
CHARLES V.
899
partisans of Lotus, soon abandoned the struggle. Charles,
having made good use of the difficulties of his opponents, was
recrowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1340, and was
soon the undisputed ruler of Germany. Gifts or promises had
won the support of the Rhenish and Swabian towns; a marriage
alliance secured the friendship of the Habsburgs; and that of
Rudolph II., count palatine of the Rhine, was obtained when
Charles, who had become a widower in 1348, married his daughter
Anna.
In 1350 the king was visited at Prague by Cola di Rienzi, who
urged him to go to Italy, where the poet Petrarch and the
citizens of Florence also implored his presence. Turning a deaf
ear to these entreaties, Charles kept Rienzi in prison for a year,
and then handed him as a prisoner to Clement at Avignon.
Four years later, however, he crossed the Alps without an army,
received the Lombard crown at Milan on the 6th of January
1355, and was crowned emperor at Rome by a cardinal on the
5th of April in the same year. His sole object appears to have
been to obtain the imperial crown in peace, and in accordance
with a promise previously made to Pope Clementheonlyremained
in the city for a few hours, in spite of the expressed wishes of the
Romans. Having virtually abandoned all the imperial rights
in Italy, the emperor recrossed the Alps, pursued by the scornful
words of Petrarch but laden with considerable wealth. On his
return Charles was occupied with the administration of Germany,
then just recovering from the Black Death, and in 1356 he
promulgated the Golden Bull (q.v.) to regulate the election of
the king. Having given Moravia to one brother, John Henry,
and erected the county of Luxemburg into a duchy for another,
Wenceslas, he was unremitting in his efforts to secure other
territories as compensation and to strengthen the Bohemian
monarchy. To this end he purchased part of the upper Palatinate
of the Rhine in 1353, and in 1367 annexed Lower Lusatia t6
Bohemia and bought numerous estates in various parts of
Germany. On the death in 1363 of Meinhard, duke of Upper
Bavaria and count of Tirol, Upper Bavaria was claimed by the
sons of the emperor Louis IV., and Tirol by Rudolph IV., duke
of Austria. Both claims were admitted by Charles on the
understanding that if these families died out both territories
should pass to the house of Luxemburg. About the same time
he was promised the succession to the margraviate of Branden-
burg, which he actually obtained for his son Wenceslas in 13 73-
He also gained a considerable portion of Silesian territory,
partly by inheritance through his third wife, Anna, daughter of
Henry II., duke of Schweidnitz. In 1365 Charles visited Pope
Urban V. at Avignon and undertook to escort him to Rome;
and on the same occasion was crowned king of Burgundy, or
Aries, at Aries on the 4th of June 1365.
His second journey to Italy took place in 1368, when he had
a meeting with Urban at Viterbo, was besieged in his palace at
Siena, and left the country before the end of the year 1369.
During his later years the emperor took little part in German
affairs beyond securing the election of his son Wenceslas as king
of the Romans in 1376, and negotiating a peace between the
Swabian league and some nobles in 1378. After dividing his
lands between his three sons, he died on the 29th of November
1378 at Prague, where he was buried, and where a statue was
erected to his memory in 1848.
Charles, who according to the emperor Maximilian I. was
the step-father of the Empire, but the father of Bohemia, brought
the latter country to a high state of prosperity. He reformed
the finances, caused roads to be made, provided for greater
security to life and property, and introduced or encouraged
various forms of industry. In 1348 he founded the university
of Prague, and afterwards made this city the seat of an arch-
bishop, and beautified it by the erection of several fine buildings.
He was an accomplished 'diplomatist, possessed a penetrating
intellect, and was capable of much trickery in order to gain his
ends. By refusing to become entangled in Italian troubles and
confining himself to Bohemia, he proved that he preferred the
substance of power to its shadow. Apparently the most pliant
of men, he had in reality great persistence of character, and if
foiled in one set of plans readily turned round and reached his
goal by a totally different path. He was superstitious and peace-
loving, hdd few personal wants, and is described as a round*
shouldered man of medium height, with black hair and beard,
and sallow cheeks.
His autobiography the " Vita Caroli IV./' which deals with events
down to the year 1346, and various other documents relating to his
life and times, are published in the Fontes rerum Germanicarum^
Band I., edited by J. F. B6hmer (Leipzig, 1885). For other docu-
ments relating to the time 9ee Die Regesten des Kaiserreicks untef
Kaiser Karl fv., edited by J. F. Bflbmer and A! Huber (Innsbruck,
1880); Acta Karoli IV. tmperaioris inedita (Innsbruck, 1891);
E. Werunsky, Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI. eiJnnocentii VL
(Innsbruck, 1885). bee also E. Werunsky, Geschichte, Kaiser Karls
IV. und seiner Zeit (Innsbruck, 1880-1892); H. Friedjun^;
Kaiser Karl IV. und sein AntkeU am geistigen Leben seiner Zeit
(Vienna, 1876); A. Gottlob, Karls IV. private und politische Bczie>
hvngen zu Frankreich (Innsbruck, 1883); G. Winckelmann, Die
Beztehungen Kaiser Karls IV. turn Konigreich Arelat (Strassburg,
1882); K. Palm, "Zu Karls IV. Politik gegen Baierh," in the
Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Band xv. (Gftftingen, 1862-
1866); Tb. Lindner, " Karl TV. und die Wittelsbacher," and S.
Stienherz, " Die Beziehungen Ludwigs I. von Ungarn zu Karl IV., M
and " Karl IV. und die osterreichischen Freiheitsbriefe," in the
Mittheilungen des Inslituts f&r dsterreiehische Geschichtsforschung
(Innsbruck, 1880)*
CHARLES V. (1 500-1 558) , Roman emperor and (asCHARLES I.)
king of Spain, was born at Ghent on the 24th of February 1500.
His parents were Philip of Burgundy and Joanna, third child
of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip died in 1566, and Charles
succeeded to his Netherland possessions and the county of
Burgundy (Franche Comt6). His grandfather, the emperor
Maximilian, as regent, appointed his daughter Margaret vice-
regent, and under her strenuous guardianship Charles lived in
the Netherlands until the estates declared him of age in 1515.
In Castile, Ferdinand, king of Aragon, acted as regent for his
daughter Joanna, whose intellect wai already clouded. On the
23rd of January 1516 Ferdinand died. Charles's Visit to Spain
was delayed until the autumn of 15 17; and only in 1318 was he
formally recognized as king conjointly with his mother, firstly
by the cortes of Castile, and then by those of Aragon. Joanna
lived to the very eve of her son's abdication, so that he was only
for some months technically sole king of Spain.' 'During this
Spanish visit Maximilian died, and Charles succeeded to the
inheritance of the Habsburgs, to which was shortly added the
duchy of Wiirttemberg. Maximilian had also intended that he
should succeed as emperor. In spite of the formidable rivalry of
Francis I. and the opposition of Pope Leo X., pecuniary corrup-
tion and national feeling combined to- secure his election in 1519.
Charles hurriedly left Spain, and after a visit to Henry VIIl.
and his aunt Catherine, was crowned at Aix on the 23rd of
October 1520.
The difficulty of Charles's reign Consists in the complexity df
interests caused by the unnatural aggregate of distinct territories
and races. The crown of Castile brought with it the two recently
conquered kingdoms of Navarre and Granada, together with
the new colonies in America and scattered possessions in northern
Africa. That of Aragon comprised the three distinct states of
Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia, and in addition the kingdoms
of Naples, Sicily arid Sardinia, each with a separate character
and constitution of its own. No less than eight independent
cortes or parliaments existed in this Spanish-Italian group,
adding greatly to the intricacy of government. In the Nether-
land provinces again the tie was almost purely personal; there
existed only the rudiments of a* central administration and a
common representative system, while the county of Burgundy
had a history apart. Much the same was true of the Habsburg
group of states, but Charles soon freed himself from direct
responsibility for their government by making them over,
together with Wiirttemberg, to his brother Ferdinand. The
Empire entailed serious liabilities on its ruler without furnishing
any reliable assets: only through the cumbrous machinery of
the diet could Charles tap the military and financial resources of
Germany. His problem here was complicated by the growth of
Lutheranism, which he had to face at his very first diet in 1521.'
In addition to such administrative difficulties Charles had
v. 29 a
900
CHARLES V.
[ROMAN EMPEROR
inherited a quarrel with France, to which the rivalry of Francis I.
for the Empire gave a personal character. Almost equally
formidable was the advance of Sultan Suliman up the Danube,
and the union of the Turkish naval power with that of the
Barbary States of northern Africa. Against Lutheran Germany
the Catholic emperor might hope to rely upon the pope, and
against France on England. But the attitude of the popes was
almost uniformly disagreeable, while from Henry VIII. and
Edward VI. Charles met with more unpleasantness than favour.
The difficulty of Charles himself is also that of the historian
ahd reader of his reign. It is probably more instructive to treat
it according to the emperor's several problems than in strict
chronological order. Yet an attempt to distinguish the several
periods of his career may serve as a useful introduction. The two
best dividing lines are, perhaps, the coronation as emperor at
Bologna in 1530, and the peace of Cr6py in 1544. Until his visit
to Italy (1529) Charles remained in the background of the
European stage, except for his momentous meeting with Luther
at the diet of Worms (1521). This meeting in itself forms a
subdivision. Previously to this, during his nominal rule in the
Netherlands, his visit to Spain, and his candidature for the
Empire, he seemed, as it was said, spell-bound under the ferule
of his minister Chievres. Almost every report represented him
as colourless, reserved and weak. His dependence on his Flemish
counsellors provoked the rising in Castile, the feebleness of his
government the social war in Aragon. The religious question
first gave him a living interest, and at this moment Chievres died.
Aleander, the papal nuncio at Worms, now recognized that public
opinion had been wrong in its estimate of Charles. Never again
was he under tutelage. The necessity, however, of residence in
Spain prevented his taking a personal part in the great fight with
Francis I. for Italy. He could claim no credit for the capture of
his rival at Pavia. When his army sacked Rome and held Pope
Clement VII. prisoner, he could not have known where this
army was. And when later the French overran Naples, and
all but deprived him of his hold on Italy, he had to instruct his
generals that they must shift for themselves. The world had
become afraid of him, but knew little of his character. In the
second main division of his career Charles changed all this.
No monarch until Napoleon was so widely seen in Europe and in
Africa. Complexity of problems is the characteristic of this
period. At the head of his army Charles forced the Turks back-
wards down the Danube (1532). He personally conquered Tunis
(1535), and was only prevented by " act of God " from winning
Algiers ( 1 54 1 ) . The invasion of Provence in 1 536 was headed by
the emperor. In person he crushed the rebellion of Ghent ( 1 540) .
In his last war with Franqis (1542-44) he journeyed from Spain to
the Netherlands, brought the rebellious duke of Cleves to his
knees, and was within easy reach of Paris when he made the peace
of Crepy ( 1 544) . In Germany, meanwhile, from the diet of Augs-
burg (1530) onwards, he had presided at the diets or conferences,
which, as he hoped, would effect the reunion of the church.
Peace with France and the Turk and a short spell of friendliness
with Pope Paul III. enabled Charles at last to devote his whole
energies to the healing of religious schism. Conciliation proving
impossible, he led the army which received the submission of the
Lutheran states, and then captured the elector of Saxony at
Muhlberg, after which the other leader, Philip of Hesse, capitu-
lated. The Armed Diet of 1548 was the high-water mark of
Charles's power. Here, in defiance of the pope, he published the
Interim which was meant to reconcile the Lutherans with the
church, and the so-called Reform which was to amend its abuses.
During the next four years, owing to ill-health and loss of insight,
his power was ebbing. In 1552 he. was flying over the Brenner
from Maurice of Saxony, a princeling whose fortunes he had
made. Once again the old complications had arisen. His old
enemy's son, Henry II., had attacked him indirectly in Piedmont
and Parma, and then directly in Germany in alliance with
Maurice. Once more the Turk was moving in the Danube and
in the western Mediterranean. The humiliation of his flight
gave Charles new spirit, and he once more led an army through
Germany against the French, only to be checked by the duke of
Guise's defence of Metz. Henceforth the waves of his fortune
plashed to and fro until his abdication without much ostensible
loss or gain.
Charles had abundance of good sense, but little creative genius,
and he was by nature conservative. Consequently he never
sought to impose any new or common principles of administra-
tion on his several states. He took them as he found them, and
at most, as in the Netherlands, improved upon what he found.
So also in dealing with rival powers his policy may be called
opportunist. He was indeed accused by his enemies of emulating
Charlemagne, of aiming at universal empire. Historians have
frequently repeated this charge. Charles himself in later life
laughingly denied the imputation, and facts are in favour of bis
denial. When Francis I. was in his power he made no attempt to
dismember France, in spite of his pledges to his allies Henry VIII.
and the duke of Bourbon. He did, indeed, demand the duchy
of Burgundy, because he believed this to have been unrighteously
stolen by Louis XI. from his grandmother when a helpless girl.
The claim was not pressed, and at the height of his fortunes in
1548 he advised his son never to surrender it, but also never to
make it a cause of war. When Clement VII. was his prisoner, he
was vehemently urged to overthrow the temporal power, to
restore imperial dominion in Italy, at least to make the papacy
harmless for the future. In reply he restored his enemy to the
whole of his. dominions, even reimposing him by force on the
Florentine republic. To the end of his life his conscience was
sensitive as to Ferdinand's expulsion of the house of Albret from
Spanish Navarre, though this was essential to the safety of Spain.
Though always at war he was essentially a lover of peace, and all
his wars were virtually defensive. " Not greedy of territory,"
wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1536, " but most greedy of peace
and quiet." For peace he made sacrifices which angered bis hot-
headed brother Ferdinand. He would not aid in expelling the
sultan's puppet Zapolya from Ferdinand's kingdom of Hungary,
and he suffered the restoration of the ruffianly duke of Wurttem-
berg, to the grave prejudice of German Catholicism. In spite of
his protests, Henry VIII. with impunity ill-treated his aunt
Catherine, and the feeble government of Edward VI. bullied bis
cousin Mary, who had been his fiancee. No serious efforts were
made to restore his brother-in-law, Christian II., to the throne of
Denmark, and he advised his son Philip to make friends with the
usurper. After the defeat of the Lutheran powers in 1547 he did
not gain a palm's breadth of territory for himself. He resisted
Ferdinand's claim for Wiirttemberg, which the duke had deserved
to forfeit; he disliked his acceptance of the voluntary surrender
of the city of Constance; he would not have it said that he had
gone to war for the benefit of the house of Habsburg.
On the other hand, Charles V.'s policy was not merely negative.
He enlarged upon the old Habsburg practice of marriage as a
means of alliance of influence. Previously to his election as
emperor, his sister Isabella was married to Christian II. of
Denmark, and the marriages of Mary and Ferdinand with the
king of Hungary and his sister had been arranged. Before he was
twenty Charles himself had been engaged some ten times with a
view to political combinations. Naturally, therefore, he regarded
his near relations as diplomatic assets. The federative system
was equally familiar; Germany, the Netherlands, and even Spain,
were in a measure federations. Combining these two principles, he
would within his more immediate spheres of influence strengthen
existing federations by intermarriage, while he hoped that the
same means would convert the jarring powers of Europe into a
happy family. He made it a condition of the treaty of Madrid
(1526) that Francis I. should marry his sister Eleanor, Manuel of
Portugal's widow, in the hope, not that she would be an ally or a
spy within the enemy's camp, but an instrument of peace. His
son's marriage with Mary Tudor would not only salve the rubs
with England, but give such absolute security to the Netherlands
that France would shrink from war. The personal union of all
the Iberian kingdoms under a single ruler had long been an aim of
Spanish statecraft. So Charles had married his sister Eleanor,
much against her will, to the old king Manuel, and then his sister
Catherine to his successor. The empress was a Portuguese
ROMAN EMPEROR]
CHARLES V.
901
infanta, and Philip's first wife was another. It is thus small
wonder that, within a quarter of a century of Charles's death,
Philip became king of Portugal.
In the wars with Francis I. Italy was the stake. In spite of his
success Charles for long made no direct conquests. He would
convert the peninsula into a federation mainly matrimonial.
Savoy, the important buffer state, was detached from France by
the marriage of the somewhat feeble duke to Charles's capable
and devoted sister-in-law, Beatrice of Portugal. Milan, con-
quered from France, was granted to Francesco Sforza, heir
of the old dynasty, and even after his treason was restored to
him. In the vain hope of offspring Charles sacrificed his niece,
Christina of Denmark, to the valetudinarian duke. In the long
negotiations for a Habsburg-Valois dynasty which followed
Francesco's death, Charles was probably sincere. He insisted
that his daughter or niece should marry the third rather than the
second son of Francis I., in order, apart from other reasons, to
run less risk of the duchy falling under French dominion. The
final investiture of Philip was forced upon him, and does not
represent his saner policy. The Medici of Florence, the Gonzaga
of Mantua, the papal house of Farnese, were all attached by
Habsburg marriages. The republics of Genoa and Siena were
drawn into the circle through the agency of their chief noble
families, the Doria and Piccolomini; while Charles behaved
with scrupulous moderation towards Venice in spite of her active
hostility before and after the League of Cognac. Occasional
acts of violence there were, such as the participation in the
murder of Pierluigi Farnese, and the measures which provoked
the rebellion of Siena. These were due to the difficulty of
controlling the imperial agents from a distance, and in part to
the faults of the victim prince and republic. On the whole, the
loose federation of viceroyalties and principalities harmonized
with Italian interests and traditions. The alternative was not
Italian independence, but French domination. At any rate,
Charles's structure was so durable that the French met with no
real success in Italy until the 18th century.
Germany offered a fine field for a creative intellect, since the
evils of her disintegration stood confessed. On the other hand,
princes and towns were so jealous of an increase of central
authority that Charles, at least until his victory over the League
of Schmalkalden, had little effective power. Owing to his wars
with French and Turks he was rarely in Germany, and his visits
were very short. His problem was infinitely complicated by the
union of Lutheranism and princely independence. He fell back
on the old policy of Maximilian, and strove to create a party by
personal alliances and intermarriage. In this he met with some
success. The friendship of the electors of Brandenburg, whether
Catholic or Protestant, was unbroken. In the war of Schmal-
kalden half the Protestant princes were on Charles's side or
friendly neutrals. At the critical moment which preceded this,
the lately rebellious duke of Cleves and the heir of Bavaria
were secured through the agency of two of Ferdinand's invaluable
daughters. The relations, indeed, between the two old enemies,
Austria and Bavaria, were permanently improved. The elector
palatine, whose love affairs with his sister Eleanor Charles as a
boy had roughly broken, received in compensation a Danish
niece. Her sister, widow of Francesco Sforza, was utilized to
gain a hold upon the French dynasty which ruled Lorraine.
More than once there were proposals for winning the hostile
house of Saxony by matrimonial means. After his victory over
the League of Schmalkalden, Charles perhaps had really a chance
of making the imperial power a reality. But he lacked either
courage or imagination, contenting himself with proposals for
voluntary association on the lines of the defunct Swabian
League, and dropping even these when public opinion was against
them. Now, too, he made his great mistake in attempting to
foist Philip upon the Empire as Ferdinand's successor. Gossip
reported that Ferdinand himself was to be set aside, and careless
historians have given currency to this. Such an idea was im-
possible. Charles wished Philip to succeed Ferdinand, while he
ultimately conceded that Ferdinand's son Maximilian should
follow Philip, and even in his lifetime exercise the practical
power in Germany. This scheme irritated Ferdinand and his
popular and ambitious son at the critical moment 1 when it was
essential that the Habsburgs should hold together against
princely malcontents. Philip was imprudently introduced to
Germany, which had also just received a foretaste of the un-
pleasant characteristics of Spanish troops. Yet the person rather
than the policy was, perhaps, at fault. It was natural that the
quasi-hereditary succession should revert to the elder line.
France proved her recuperative power by the occupation of
Savoy and of Metz, Toul and Verdun, the military keys of
Lorraine. The separation of the Empire and Spam left two
weakened powers not always at accord, and neither of them
permanently able to cope on equal terms with France. Never-
theless, this scheme did contribute in no small measure to the
failure of Charles in Germany. The main cause was, of course,
the religious schism, but his treatment of this requires separate
consideration.
The characteristics of Charles's government, its mingled
conservatism and adaptability, are best seen in Spain and the
Netherlands, with which he was in closer personal contact than
with Italy and Germany. In Spain, when once he knew the
country, he never repeated the mistakes which on his first visit
caused the rising of the communes. The cortes of Castile were
regularly summoned, and though he would allow no encroach-
ment on the crown's prerogatives, he was equally scrupulous
in respecting their constitutional rights. They became* pethaps,
during the reign slightly more dependent on the crown. This
has been ascribed to the system of gratuities which in later reigns
became a scandal, but was not introduced by Charles, and as
yet amounted to little more than the payment of members'
expenses. Indirectly, crown influence increased owing to the
greater control which had gradually been exercised over the
composition of the municipal councils, which often returned the"
deputies for the cortes. Charles was throughout nervous as to
the power and wealth of the greater nobles. They rather than
the crown had conquered the communes, and in the past they
rather than the towns had been the enemies of monarchy. He
earnestly warned his son against giving them administrative
power, especially the duke of Alva, who in spite of his sancti-
monious and humble bearing cherished the highest ambitions:
in foreign affairs and war he might be freely used, for he was
Spain's best soldier. In the cortes of 1538 Charles came into
collision with the nobles as a class. They usually attended only
on ceremonial occasions, since they were exempted from direct
taxation, which was the main function of the cortes. Now,
however, they were summoned, because Charles was bent upon
a scheme of indirect taxation which would have affected all
classes. They offered an Uncompromising opposition, and Charles
somewhat angrily dismissed them, nor did he ever summon
them again. The peculiar Spanish system of departmental
councils Was further developed, so that it may be said that the
bureaucratic element was slightly increasing just as the parlia-
mentary element was on the wane. The evils of this tendency
were as yet scarcely apparent owing to Charles's personal inter-
vention in all departments. The councils presented their reports
through the minister chiefly concerned; Charles heard their
advice, and formed his own conclusions. He impressed upon
Philip that he should never become the servant of his ministers:
let him hear them all but decide himself. Naturally enough, he
was well served by his ministers, whom he very rarely changed.
After the death of the Piedmontese Gattinara he relied mainly on
Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella for Netherland and German
affairs, and on Francisco de los Cobos for Spanish, while the
younger Granvella was being trained. From 1520 to 1555 these
were the only ministers of high importance. Above all, Charles
never had a court favourite, and the only women who exercised
any influence were his natural advisers, his wife, his aunt Margaret
and his sister Mary. In all these ladies he was peculiarly fortu"
nate. Charles was never quite popular in Spain, but the empress
whom he married at his people's request Was much beloved.
Complaints were made of his absenteeism, but Until 1543 he
spent the greater portion of his reign in Spain, or on expeditions
go2
CHARLES V.
[ROMAN EMPEROR
such as those against Tunis and Algiers which were distinctively
in Spanish interests. Spaniards disliked his Netherland and
German connexions, but without the vigorous blows which these
enabled him to strike at France, it is improbable that Spain
could have retained her hold on Italy, or her monopoly of
commerce with the Indies. The wars with Francis I. were, in
spite of the rival candidature for the Empire, Spanish wars
entailed by Ferdinand's retention of Roussillon, his annexation
of Navarre, his summary eviction of the French from Naples.
The Netherlands had become convinced on commercial grounds
of the wisdom of peace with France, and the German interest in
Milan was not sufficiently active to be a standing cause of war.
Charles and Francis had inherited the hostility of Ferdinand and
Louis XII.
The reign of Charles was in America the age of conquest and
organization. Upon his accession the settlements upon the
mainland were insignificant; by 1556 conquest was practically
complete, and civil and ecclesiastical government firmly estab-
lished. Actual expansion was the work of great adventurers
starting on their own impulse from the older colonies. To
Charles fell the task of encouraging such ventures, of controlling
the conquerors, of settling the relations between colonists and
natives, which involved those between the colonists and the
missionary . colonial church. He must arrest depopulation,
provide for the labour market, regulate oceanic trade, and check
military preponderance by civil and ecclesiastical organization.
In America Charles took an unceasing interest; he had a bound-
less belief in its possibilities, and a determination to safeguard
the interests of the crown. Cortes, Alvarado and the brothers
Pizarro were brought into close personal communication with
the emperor. If he bestowed on Cortes the confidence which the
loyal conqueror deserved, he showed the sternest determination
in crushing the rebellious and autonomous instincts of Almagro
and the Pizarros. But for this, Peru and Chile must have become
independent almost as soon as they were conquered. Throughout
he strove to protect the natives, to prevent actual slavery, and
the consequent raids upon the natives. Legislation was not,
indeed, always consistent, because the claims of the colonists
cpuld not always be resisted, but on the whole he gave earnest
support to the missionaries, who upheld the cause of the natives
against the military, and sometimes the civil and ecclesiastical
elements. His humane care for his native subjects may well be
studied in the instructions sent to Philip from Germany in 1548,
when Charles was at the summit of his power. If Charles had
had his will, he would have opened the colonial trade to the whole
of his wide possessions. The Castilians, however, jealously con-
fined it to the city of Seville, artificially fostering the indolence
of the colonists to maintain the agricultural and manufacturing
monopoly of Castile, and by extreme protective measures
forcing them to live on smuggled goods from other countries.
Charles did actually attempt to cure the exclusive interest of
the colonists in mineral wealth by the establishment of peasant
and artisan colonies. If in many respects he failed, yet the
organization of Spanish America and the survival of the native
races were perhaps the most permanent results of his reign. It
is a proof of the complexity of his interests that the march of the
Turk upon Vienna and of the French on Naples delayed until
the following reign the foundation of Spain's eastern empire.
Charles carefully organized the expedition of Magellan, which
sailed for the Moluccas and discovered the Philippines. Un-
fortunately, his straits for money in 1529 compelled him to
mortgage to Portugal his disputed claim to the Moluccas, and the
Philippines consequently dropped out of sight.
If in the administration of Spain Charles did little more than
mark time, in the Netherlands advance was rapid. Of the seven
northern provinces he added five, containing more than half the
area of the later United Provinces. In the south he freed
Flanders and Artois from French suzerainty, annexed Tournai
and Cambrai, and closed the natural line of French advance
through the great bishopric of Liege by a line of fortresses across
its western frontier. Much was done to convert the aggregate
of jarring provinces into a harmonious unity by means of common
principles of law and finance, and by the creation of a national
army. While every province had its own assembly, there were
at Charles's accession only the rudiments of estates general
for the Netherlands at large. At the close of the reign the
common parliamentary system was in full swing, and was fast
converting the loosely knit provinces into a state. By these
means the ruler had wished to facilitate the process of supply,
but supply soon entailed redress, and the provinces could
recognize their common interests and grievances. Under Philip
II. all patriotic spirits passionately turned to this creation of
his father as the palladium of Netherland liberty. This process
of consolidation was infinitely difficult, and conflicts between
local and central authorities were frequent. That they were
safely tided over was due to Charles's moderation and his legal
mind, which prompted him to draw back when his case was bad.
The harshest act of his life was the punishment of the rebellion
of Ghent. Yet the city met with little or no sympathy in other
quarters, because she had refused to act in concert with the other
members of Flanders and the other provinces. It was no mere
local quarrel, but a breach of the growing national unity.
In the Netherlands Charles showed none of the jealousy with
which he regarded the Spanish nobles. He encouraged the
growth of large estates through primogeniture; he gave the
nobles the provincial governorships, the great court offices, the
command of the professional cavalry. In the Order of the Golden
Fleece and the long established presence of the court at Brussels,
he possessed advantages which he lacked in Spain. The nobility
were utilized as a link between the court and the provinces.
Very different was it with the church. By far the greater part
of the Netherlands fell under foreign sees, which were peculiarly
liable to papal exactions and to the intrigues of rival powers.
Thus the usual conflict between civil and ecclesiastical juris-
diction was peculiarly acute. To remedy this dualism of
authority and the consequent moral and religious abuses,
Charles early designed the creation of a national diocesan
system, and this was a darling project throughout his life.
He was doing what every German territorial prince, Catholic or
Lutheran, attempted, making bishoprics and abbeys dependent
on the crown, with nomination and institution in his hands,
and with reasonable control over taxation and jurisdiction.
The papacy unfortunately thwarted him, and the scheme,
which under Charles would have been carried with national
assent, and created a national church, took the appearance under
Philip of alien domination.
If in Germany Charles was emperor, he was in the Netherlands
territorial prince, and thus his interests might easily be at
disaccord with those of the Empire. Consequently, just as he had
shaken off French suzerainty from Flanders and Artois, so he
loosened the tie of the other provinces to Germany. In 1548
they were declared free and sovereign principalities not subject
to imperial laws, and all the territories were incorporated in the
Burgundian circle. It was, indeed, agreed that they should
contribute to imperial taxation, and in return receive imperial
protection. But this soon became a dead letter, and the Nether-
lands were really severed from the Empire, save for the nominal
feudal tie in the case of some provinces. Thus some writers have
dated their independence from Charles's convention of 1548
rather than from the peace of Westphalia, a century later.
Having converted his heterogeneous territories into a self-
sufficient state, Charles often contemplated the formation of a
middle kingdom between France and Germany. At the last
moment he spoiled his own work by granting the Netherlands to
Philip. It was indeed hard to set aside the order of inheritance,
and the commercial interests of the provinces were closely bound
with Spain, and with England, whose queen Philip had married.
Under any other ruler than Philip the breach might not have
come so early. Yet it must be regretted that Charles had not
the courage of his convictions, and that he lost the opportunity
of completing the new nation which he had faithfully laboured to
create.
Charles V. is in the eyes of many the very picture of a Catholic
zealot. Popular opinion is probably mainly based upon the
ROMAN EMPEROR]
CHARLES V.
903
letters written from Yuste in 1558, when two hot-beds of heresy
had been discovered in Spain herself, and on the contemporary
codicil to his will. These were, perhaps, really in part responsible
for the later persecution. Yet the circumstances were far from
being typical of the emperor's career. Death was very near
him; devotional exercises were his main occupation. The
letters, moreover, were cries of warning, and not edicts. Charles
was not then the responsible authority. There is a long step
between a violent letter and a violent act. Few men would
care to have their lives judged by letters written in the last
extremities of gout. Less pardonable was the earlier persecution
of the Valencian Moriscoes in 1525-1526. They had fought for
their landlords in the cause of order, had been forcibly converted
by the revolutionaries, and on the suppression of revolution had
naturally relapsed. But for this momentary conversion the
Inquisition would have had no hold upon them. The edict of
persecution was cruel and unnecessary, and all expert opinion in
Valencia was against it. It was not, however, actually enforced
until after the victory of Pavia. It seems likely that Charles
in a fit of religious exaltation regarded the persecution as a
sacrificial thank-offering for his miraculous preservation. It is
characteristic that, when in the following year he was brought
into personal contact with the Moors of Granada, he allowed
them to buy themselves off from the more obnoxious measures
of the Inquisition. Henceforth the reign was marked by extreme
leniency. Spain enjoyed a long lull in the activity of her In-
quisition. At Naples in 1547 a rumour that the Spanish
Inquisition was to be introduced to check the growth of heresy
in influential quarters produced a dangerous revolt. The
briefs were, however, issued by Paul III., no friend of Charles,
and when a Neapolitan deputation visited the emperor he dis-
claimed any intention of making innovations. Of a different
type to all the above was the persecution in the Netherlands.
Here it was deliberate, chronic, and on an ascending scale.
It is not a sufficient explanation that heresy also was persistent,
ubiquitous and increasing, for this was also the case in Germany
where Charles's methods were neither uniform nor drastic. But
in the Netherlands the heretics were his immediate subjects,
and as in every other state, Catholic or Lutheran, they must
conform to their prince's religion. But there was more than this.
After the suppression of the German peasant revolt in r 525
many of the refugees found shelter in the teeming Netherland
cities, and heresy took the form, not of Lutheranism, but of
Anabaptism, which was believed to be perilous to society and
the state. The government put down Anabaptism, as a modern
government might stamp out Anarchism. The edicts were,
indeed, directed against heresy in general, and were as harsh
as they could be — at least on paper. Yet when Charles was
assured that they wetfe embarrassing foreign trade he let it be
understood that they should not affect the foreign mercantile
communities. Prudential considerations proved frequently a
drag upon religious zeal.
The relations of Charles to heresy must be judged in the main
by his treatment of German Lutheranism. Here he had to deal,
not with drawing-room imprudences nor hole-and-corner con-
venticles, not with oriental survivals nor millenary aspirations,
but with organized churches protected by their princes, supported
by revenues filched from his own church and stiffened by formulae
as rigid as those of Catholicism. The length and stubbornness of
the conflict will serve to show that Charles's religious conserva-
tism had a measuTe of elasticity, that he was not a bigot and
nothing more. It should be remembered that all his principal
ministers were inclined to be Erasmian or indifferent, that one of
his favourite confessors, Loaysa, advised compromise, and that
several intimate members of his court and chapel were, after his
death, victims of the Inquisition. The two more obvious courses
towards the restoration of Catholic unity were force and re-
conciliation, in other words, a religious war or a general council.
Neither of these was a simple remedy. The latter was impossible
without papal concurrence, inoperative without the assistance of
the European powers, and merely irritant without the adhesion
of the Lutherans. It was most improbable that the papacy, the
powers and the Lutherans would combine in a measure so
palpably advantageous to the emperor. Force was hopeless
save in the absence of war with France and the Turk, and of
papal hostility in Italian territorial politics. Charles must obtain
subsidies from ecclesiastical sources,and the support of all German
Catholics, especially of the traditional rival, Bavaria. Even so
the Protestants would probably be the stronger, and therefore
they must be divided by utilizing any religious split, any class
distinction, any personal or traditional dislikes, or else by bribery.
Force and reconciliation seeming equally difficult, could an
alternative be found in toleration? llie experiment might take
the form either of individual toleration, or of toleration for the
Lutheran states. The former would be equally objectionable
to Lutheran and Catholic princes as loosening their grip upon
their subjects. Territorial toleration might seem equally
obnoxious to the emperor, for its recognition would strengthen
the anti-imperial particularism so closely associated with
Lutheranism. If Charles could find no permanent specific, he
must apply a provisional palliative. It was absolutely necessary
to patch, if not to cure, because Germany must be pulled together
to resist French and Turks. Such palliatives were two — suspen-
sion and comprehension. Suspension deferred the execution of
penalties incurred by heresy, either for a term of years, or until
a council should decide. Thus it recognized the divorce of the
two religions, but limited it by time. Comprehension instead of
recognizing the divorce would strive to conceal the breach. It
was a domestic remedy, German and national, not European and
papal. To become permanent it must receive the sanction of
pope and council, for the Roman emperor could not set up a
church of Germany. Yet the formula adopted might conceivably
be found to fall within the four corners of the faith, and so
obviate the necessity alike of force or council. Such were the
conditions of the emperor's task, and such the methods which he
actually pursued. He would advance now on one line, now on
another, now on two or three concurrently, but he never de-
finitely abandoned any. This fusion of obstinacy and versatility
was a marked feature of his character.
Suspension was of course often accidental and involuntary.
The two chief stages of Lutheran growth naturally corresponded
with the periods, each of nine years, when Charles was absent.
Deliberate suspension was usually a consequence of the failure
of comprehension. Thus at Augsburg in 1530 the wide gulf
between the Lutheran confession and the Catholic confutation
led to the definite suspensive treaty granted to the Lutherans at
Nuremberg (1532). Charles dared not employ the alternative
of force, because he needed their aid for the Turkish war. In
1 541 , after a series of religious conferences, he personally presented
a compromise in the so-called Book of Regensburg, which was
rejected by both parties. He then proposed that the articles
agreed upon should be compulsory, while on others toleration
should be exercised until a national council should decide. Never
before nor after did he go so far upon the path of toleration, or so
nearly accept a national settlement. He was then burning to set
sail for Algiers. His last formal suspensive measure was that of
SpiTes (Speyer) in 1544, when he was marching against Francis.
He promised a free and general council to be held in Germany,
and, as a preparation, a national religious congress. The
Lutherans were privately assured that a measure of compre-
hension should be concluded with or without papal approval.
Meanwhile all edicts against heresy wete suspended. No wonder
that Charles afterwards confessed that he could scarcely reconcile
these concessions with his conscience, but he won Lutheran aid
for his campaign. The peace of Crepy gave all the conditions
required for the employment of force. He had peace with French
and Turk, he won the active support of the pope, he had deeply
divided the Lutherans and reconciled Bavaria. Finding that the
Lutherans would not accept the council summoned by the pope to
Trent, he resorted to force, and force succeeded. At the Armed
Diet of 1 548 reunion seemed within reach. But Paul III. in direct
opposition to Charles's wish had withdrawn the council from
Trent to Bologna. Charles could not force Lutherans to submit
to a council which he did not himself recognize, and he could not
9°4
CHARLES V.
[ROMAN EMPEROR
bring himself to national schism. Thus, falling back upon his old
palliatives, he issued the Interim and the accompanying Reform;
of the Clergy, pending a final settlement by a satisfactory general
council. These measures pleased neither party, and Charles at
the very height of his power had failed. He was conscious of
failure, and made few attempts even to enforce the Interim.
Henceforward political complications gathered round him anew.
The only remedy was toleration in some form, independent of
the papacy and limitless in time. To this Charles could never
assent. His ideal was shattered, but it was a great ideal,
and the patience, the moderation, even at times the adroit-
ness with which he had striven towards it, proved him to be no
bigot.
The idea of abdication had long been present with Charles.
After his failure to eject the French from Metz he had not shrunk
from a wearisome campaign against Henry II., and he was now
tired out. His mother's death removed an obstacle, for there
could now be no question as to his son's succession to the Spanish
kingdoms. Religious settlement in Germany could no longer be
postponed, and he shrank from the responsibility; the hand that
should rend the seamless raiment of God's church must not be
his. To Ferdinand he gave his full authority as emperor, although
at his brother's earnest request formal abdication was delayed
until 1558. In the Hall of the Golden Fleece at Brussels on
the 25th of October 1555 he formally resigned to Philip the
sovereignty of his beloved Netherlands. Turning from his son to
the representatives of the estates he said, " Gentlemen, you must
not be astonished if, old and feeble as I am in all my members,
and also from the love I bear you, I shed some tears." In the
Netherlands at least the love was reciprocal, and tears were
infectious among the thousand deputies who listened to their
sovereign's last speech. On the 16 th of January 1556, Charles
resigned his Spanish kingdoms and that of Sicily, and shortly
afterwards his county of Burgundy. On the 17th of September
he sailed from Flushing on the last of his many voyages, an
English fleet from Portland bearing him company down the
Channel. In February 1 557 he was installed in the home which he
had chosen at Yuste in Estremadura.
The excellent books which have been written upon the
emperor's retirement have inspired an interest out of all pro-
portion to its real significance. His little house was attached to
the monastery, but was not within it. He was neither an ascetic
nor a recluse. Gastronomic indiscretions still entailed their
inevitable penalties. Society was not confined to interchange of
civilities with the brethren. His relations, his chief friends, his
official historians, all found their way to Yuste. Couriers brought
news of Philip's war and peace with Pope Paul IV., of the victories
of Saint Quentin and Gravelines, of the French capture of Calais,
of the danger of Oran. As head of the family he intervened in the
delicate relations with the closely allied house of Portugal: he
even negotiated with the house of Navarre for reparation for the
wrong done by his grandfather Ferdinand, which appeared to
weigh upon his conscience. Above all he was shocked by the
discovery that Spain, his own court, and his very chapel were
infected with heresy. His violent letters to his son and daughter
recommending immediate persecution, his profession of regret at
having kept his word when Luther was in his power, have weighed
too heavily on his reputation. The feverish phrases of religious
exaltation due to broken health and unnatural retirement cannot
balance the deliberate humanity and honour of wholesome
manhood. Apart from such occasional moments of excitement,
the emperor's last years passed tranquilly enough. At first he
would shoot pigeons in the monastery woods, and till his last
illness tended his garden and his animal pets, or watched the
operations of Torriani, maker of clocks and mechanical toys.
After an illness of three weeks the call came in the early hours of
the feast of St Matthew, who, as his chaplain said, had for Christ's
sake forsaken wealth even as Charles had forsaken empire. The
dying man clasped his wife's crucifix to his breast till his fingers
lost their hold. The archbishop held it before his eyes, and with
the cry of "Ay Jesus I" died, in the words of his faithful squire
D. Luis de Quijada, " the chief of men that had ever been or
would ever be." Posterity need not agree, but no great man can
boast a more honest panegyric.
In character Charles stands high among contemporary princes.
It consists of pairs of contrasts, but the better side is usually
stronger than the worse. Steadfast honesty of purpose was
occasionally warped by self-interest, or rather he was apt to
think that his own course must needs be that of righteousness.
Self-control would give way, but very rarely, to squalls of passion.
Obstinacy and irresolution were fairly balanced, the former
generally bearing upon ends, the latter upon means. His own
ideals were constant, but he could gradually assimilate the views
of others, and could bend to argument and. circumstance; yet
even here he had a habit of harking back to earlier schemes
which he had seemed to have definitely abandoned. Intercourse
with different nationalities taught him a certain versatility; he
was dignified with Spaniards, familiar with Flemings, while the
material Italians were pleased with his good sense. His sym-
pathies were neither wide nor quick, but he was a most faithful
friend, and the most considerate of masters. For all who sought
him his courtesy and patience were unfailing. At his abdication
he dwelt with reasonable pride upon his labours and his journey-
ings. Few monarchs have lived a more strenuous life. Yet his
industry was broken by fits of indolence, which were probably due
to health. In his prime his confessor warned him against this
defect, and it caused, indeed, the last great disaster of his life*
Fortunately he was conscious of his obstinacy, his irresolution
and his indolence. He would accept admonition from the chapter
of the Golden Fleece, would comment on his failings as a warning
to his son. When Cardinal Contarini politely assured him that
to hold fast to good opinions is not obstinacy but firmness,
the emperor replied, " Ah! but I sometimes stick to bad ones."
Charles was not cruel, indeed the character of his reign was
peculiarly merciful. But he was somewhat unforgiving. He
especially resented any slight upon his honour, and his unwise
severity to Philip of Hesse was probably due to the unfounded
accusation that he had imprisoned him in violation of his pledge.
The excesses of his troops in Italy, in Gueklers and on the
Austrian frontiers caused him acute pain, although he called him-
self " hard to weep." No great nobleman, statesman or financier
was executed at Charles's order. He was proud of his generalship,
classing himself with Alva and Montmorenci as the best of his
day. Yet his failures nearly balanced his successes. It is true
that in his most important campaign, that against the League
of Schmalkalden, the main credit must be ascribed to his well-
judged audacity at the opening, and his dogged persistency at
the close. As a soldier he must rank very high. It was said
that his being emperor lost to Spain the best light horseman of
her army. At every crisis he was admirably cool, setting a truly
royal example to his men. His mettle was displayed when he
was attacked on the burning sands of Tunis, when his troops
were driven in panic from Algiers, when in spite of physical
suffering he forded the Elbe at Muhlberg, and when he was
bombarded by the vastly superior Lutheran artillery under the
walls of Ingolstadt. When blamed for exposing himself on this
last occasion, " I could not help it," he apologized; " we were
short of hands, I could not set a bad example." Nevertheless
he was by nature timid. Just before this very action he had a
fit of trembling, and he was afraid of mice and spiders. The
force of his example was not confined to the field. Melanchthon
wrote from Augsburg in 1530 that he was a model of continence,
temperance and moderation, that the old domestic discipline
was now only preserved in the imperial household. He tenderly
loved his wife, whom he had married for pecuniary and diplomatic
reasons. Of his two well-known illegitimate children, Margaret
was born before he married, and Don John long after his wife's
death, but he felt this latter to be a child of shame. His sobriety
was frequently contrasted with the universal drunkenness of the
German and Flemish nobles, which he earnestly condemned.
But on his appetite he could place no control, in spite of the
ruinous effects of his gluttony upon his health. In dress, in his
household, and in his stable he was simple and economical.
He loved children, flowers, animals and birds. Professional
ROMAN EMPERORS]
CHARLES VI.— CHARLES VII.
90J
jesters amused him, and to was not above a joke himself. Maps
and mechanical inventions greatly interested him, and in later
life he became fond of reading. He takes his place indeed among
authors, for he dictated the commentaries on his own career.
Of music he possessed a really fine knowledge, and his high
appreciation of Titian proves the purity of his feeling for art.
The little collection of books and pictures which he carried to
Yuste is an index of his tastes. Charles was undeniably plain.
He confessed that he was by nature ugly, but that as artists
usually painted him uglier than he was, strangers on seeing him
were agreeably disappointed. The protruding lower jaw and
the thin pale face were redeemed by the fine open brow and
the bright speaking eyes. He was, moreover, well made, and
in youth had an incomparable leg. Above all no man could
doubt his dignity; Charles was every inch an emperor.
Bibliography. — Commentaries de Charles-piint, ed. by Baron
Kervyn de Lettenhove (Brussels, 1862) ; Memoirs written by Charles
in 1550, and treating somewhat fully of the years 1543-1548; W.
Robertson, History of the Emperor Charles V. (latest ed., London,
1887), an English classic, which needs supplementing by later
authorities; F. A. Mignet, Rivaliti de Francois I et de Charles-quint
(2 vols., Paris, 1875) J E. Armstrong, The Emperor Charles V. (2 vols.,
London, 1902), to which reference may be made for monographs
and collections of documents bearing on the reign; H. Baumgarten,
Geschichte Karls V. (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1885-1893), very full but
extending only to 1539 ; G. de Leva, Storia documentata ai Carlo V.
in correlakione all 1 Italia (5 vols., Venice, 1 862-1 894), a general history
of the reign, though with special reference to its Italian aspects,
and extending to 1552; article by L. P. Gachard in Biographic
nationale, vol. Hi., 1872, an excellent compressed account. The
life of Charles V. at Yuste may be studied in L. P. Gachard' s Retraite
et mort de Charles-print au monasters de Yuste (Brussels, 1854-1855),
and in Sir W. Stirling- Maxwell's The Cloister Life of the Emperor
Charles V. (London, 4 editions from 1852) ; also in W. H. Prescott's
edition of Robertson's History (1857). (E. Ar.)
CHARLES VI. (1685-1740), Roman emperor, was born on the
1 st of October 1685 at Vienna. He was the second son of the
emperor Leopold I. by his third marriage with Eleanore, daughter
of Philip William of Neuburg, elector palatine of the Rhine.
When the Spanish branch of the house of Habsburg became
extinct in 1700, he was put forward as the lawful heir in opposi-
tion to Philip V., the Bourbon to whom the Spanish dominions
had been left by the will of Charles II. of Spain. He was pro-
claimed at Vienna on the 19th of September 1703, and made
his way to Spain by the Low Countries, England and Lisbon,
remaining in Spain till 1 71 1, mostly in Catalonia, where the Habs-
burg party was strong. Although he had a certain tenacity of
purpose, which he showed in later life, he displayed none of the
qualities required in a prince who had to gain his throne by the
sword (see Spanish Succession, War of). He was so afraid of
appearing to be ruled by a favourite that he would not take
good advice, but was easily earwigged by flatterers who played
on his weakness for appearing independent. In 1708 he was
married at Barcelona to Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick-
Wolfenbiittel (1691-1750), a Lutheran princess who was per-
suaded to accept Roman Catholicism by the assurances of
Protestant divines and of the philosopher Leibnitz, that she
could always give an Evangelical meaning to Catholic ceremonies.
On the death of his elder brother Joseph I. on the 17th of April
17 1 1, Charles inherited the hereditary possessions of the house
of Habsburg, and their claims on the Empire. The death of
Joseph without male issue had been foreseen, and Charles had
at one time been prepared to give up Spain and the Indies on
condition that he was allowed to retain Naples, Sicily and the
Milanese. But when the case arose, his natural obstinacy led
him to declare that he would not think of surrendering any of
the rights of his family. It was with great difficulty that he
was persuaded to leave Spain, months after the death of his
brother (on the 27th of September 171 1). Only the emphatic
refusal of the European powers to tolerate the reconstruction
of the empire of Charles V. forced him to give a sullen submission
to necessity. He abandoned Spain and was crowned emperor
in December 1711, but for a long time he would not recognize
Philip V. It is to his honour that he was very reluctant to
desert the Catalans who had fought for his cause. Some of their
chiefs followed him to Vienna, and their advice had an un-
fortunate influence on his mind. They almost succeeded in
arousing his suspicions of the loyalty of Prince Eugene at the
very moment when the prince's splendid victories over the Turks
had led to the peace of Passarowitz on the 28th of July 17 18, and
a great extension of the Austrian dominions eastward. Charles
showed an enlightened, though not always successful, interest
in the commercial prosperity of his subjects, but from the date
of his return to Germany till his death his ruling passion was to
secure his inheritance against dismemberment. As early as
1713 he had begun to prepare the "Pragmatic Sanction"
which was to regulate the succession. An only son, born on the
13th of April 1 716, died in infancy, and it became the object of
his policy to obtain the recognition of his daughter Maria Theresa
as his heiress. He made great Concessions to obtain his aim,
and embarked on complicated diplomatic negotiations. His
last days were embittered by a disastrous war with Turkey, in
which he lost almost all he had gained by the peace of Passaro-
witz. He died at Vienna on the 20th of October 1 740, and
with him expired the male line of his house. Charles VI. was
an admirable representative of the tenacious 1 ambition of the
Habsburgs, and of their belief in their own " august greatness "
and boundless rights.
For the personal character of Charles VI. see A. von Arneth,
Geschichte Maria Theresias (Vienna, 1863-1879). Dr Franz Krones,
R. v. Marchland, Grundriss der osterreichischen Geschichte (Vienna,
1882), gives a very copious bibliography.
CHARLES VII. (1697-1745), Roman emperor, known also as
Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, was the son of the elector
Maximilian Emanuel and his second wife, Theresa Cunigunda,
daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland. He was born on the
6th of August 1697. His father having taken the side of Louis
XIV. of France in the War of the Spanish Succession (q.v) 9
Bavaria was occupied by the allies. Charles and his brother
Clement, afterwards archbishop of Cologne, were carried prisoners
to Vienna, and were educated by the Jesuits under the name of
the counts of Wittelsbach. When his father was restored to his
electorate, Charles was released, and in 17 17 he led the Bavarian
contingent of the imperial army which served under Prince
Eugene against the Turks, and is said to have distinguished
himself at Belgrade. Oh the 25th of September 1722 he was
betrothed to Maria Amelia, the younger of the two orphan
daughters of the emperor Joseph I. Her uncle Charles VI.
insisted that the Bavarian house should recognize the Pragmatic
Sanction which established his daughter Maria Theresa as heiress
of the Habsburg dominions. They did so, but with secret protests
and- mental reservations of their rights, which were designed to
render the recognition valueless. The electors of Bavaria had
claims on the possessions of the Habsburgs under the will of
the emperor Ferdinand I., who died in 1564.
Charles succeeded his father on the 26th of February 1726.
As a ruler of Bavaria, he showed a vague disposition to improve
the condition of his subjects, but his profuse habits and his efforts
to rival the splendour of the French court crippled his finances.
His policy was one of much duplicity, for he was constantly
endeavouring to keep on good terms with the emperor while
slipping out of his obligation to accept the Pragmatic Sanction
and intriguing to secure French support for his claims whenever
Charles VI. should die. On hearing of the emperor's last illness,
he ordered his agent at Vienna to renew his claim to the Austrian
inheritance. The claim was advanced immediately after the
death of Charles VI. on the 20th of October 1 740. Charles Albert
now entered into the league against Maria Theresa, to the great
misfortune of himself and his subjects. By the help of her enemies
he was elected emperor in opposition to her husband Francis,
grand duke of Tuscany, on the 24th of January 1742, under the
title of Charles VII., and was crowned at Frankfort-on-Main
on the 1 2th of February. But as his army had been neglected,
he was utterly unable to resist the Austrian troops. While he was
being crowned his hereditary dominions in Bavaria were being
overrun. He described himself as attacked by stone and gout,
ill, without money or land, and in distress comparable to the
906
CHARLES I.
[ENGLAND
sorrows of Job. During the War of the Austrian Succession
(q.v.) he was a mere puppet in the hands of the anti-Austrian
coalition, and was often in want of mere necessaries. In the
changes of the war he was able to re-enter his capital, Munich,
in x 743> but had immediately afterwards to take flight again,
He was restored by Frederick the Great in October 1744, but died
worn out at Munich on the 20th of January 1745.
See A. von Arneth, GeschichU Maria Thtresias (Vienna, 186*-
1879); and P. T. Heigel, Der osterreichische Erbfolgestreit und die
Kaiserwahl Karls VII. (Munich, 1877).
CHARLES I. (1600- 1 649), king of Great Britain and Ireland,
second son of James I. and Anne of Denmark, was born at
Dunfermline on the 19th of November 1600. At his baptism he
was created duke of Albany, and on the 16th of January 1605
duke of York. In 161 2, by the death of his elder brother Henry,
he became heir-apparent, and was created prince of Wales on the
3rd of November 16 16. In 1620 he took up warmly the cause
of his sister the queen of Bohemia, and in 162 1 he defended Bacon,
using his influence to prevent the chancellor's degradation from
the peerage. The prince's marriage with the infanta Maria,
daughter of Philip III. of Spain, had been for some time the
subject of negotiation, James desiring to obtain through Spanish
support the restitution of his son-in-law, Frederick, to the
Palatinate; and in 1623 Charles was persuaded by Buckingham,
who now obtained a complete ascendancy over him in opposition
to wiser advisers and the king's own wishes, to make a secret
expedition himself to Spain, put an end to all formalities, and
bring home his mistress himself: " a gallant and brave thing
for his Highness." " Steenie " and " Baby Charles," as James
called them, started on the 1 7th of February, arriving at Paris
on the 21st and at Madrid on the 7th of March, where they
assumed the unromantic names of Mr Smith, and Mr Brown.
They found the Spanish court by no means enthusiastic for the
marriage 1 and the princess herself averse. The prince's im-
mediate conversion was expected, and a complete religious
tolerance for the Roman Catholics in England demanded. James
engaged to allow the infanta the right of public worship and to
use his influence to modify the law, but Charles himself went
much further. He promised the alteration of the penal laws
within three years, conceded the education of the children to
the mother till the age of twelve, and undertook to listen to the
infanta's priests in matters of religion, signing the marriage
contract on the 25th of July 1623. The Spanish, however, did
not trust to words, and Charles was informed that his wife could
only follow him to England when these promises were executed.
Moreover, they had no intention whatever of aiding the Protestant
Frederick. Meanwhile Buckingham, incensed at the failure of
the expedition, had quarrelled with the grandees, and Charles
left Madrid, landing at Portsmouth on the 5th of October, to the
joy of the people, to whom the proposed alliance was odious.
He now with Buckingham urged James to make war on Spain,
and in December 1624 signed a marriage treaty with Henrietta
Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. In April Charles had
declared solemnly to the parliament that in case of his marriage
to a Roman Catholic princess no concessions should be granted to
recusants, but these were in September 1624 deliberately promised
by James and Charles in a secret article, the first instance of the
duplicity and deception practised by Charles in dealing with the
parliament and the nation. The French on their side promised
to assist in Mansfeld's expedition for the recovery of the
Palatinate, but Louis in October refused to allow the men to pass
through France; and the army, without pay or provisions,
dwindled away in Holland to nothing.
On the 27th of March 1625 Charles I. succeeded to the throne
by the death of his father, and on the 1st of May he was married
by proxy to Henrietta Maria. He received her at Canterbury
on the 13th of June, and on the 18th his first parliament
assembled. On the day of his marriage Charles had given direc-
tions that the prosecutions of the Roman Catholics should cease,
but he now declared his intention of enforcing the laws against
them, and demanded subsidies for carrying on the war against
1 Hist. MSS. Comm. 11 Rep. app. Pt. iv. 21.
Spain. The Commons, however, responded coldly. Charles had
lent ships to Louis XUI. to be used against the Protestants at
LaRochelle, and the Commons were not aware of the subterfuges
and fictitious delays intended to prevent their employment.
The Protestant feelings of the Commons were also aroused by the
king's support of the royal chaplain, Richard Montagu, who had
repudiated Calvinistic doctrine. They only voted small sums,
and sent up a petition on the state of religion and reflecting upon
Buckingham, whom they deemed responsible for the failure of
Mansf eld's expedition, at the same time demanding counsellors in
whom they could trust. Parliament was accordingly dissolved
by Charles on the 1 2th of August. He hoped that greater success
abroad would persuade the Commons to be more generous.
On the 8th of September 1 6 2 5 he made the treaty of Southampton
with the Dutch against Spain, and sent an expedition to Cadiz
under Sir Edward Cecil, which, however, was a failure. In order to
make himself independent of parliament he attempted to raise
money on the crown jewels in Holland, and to diminish the
opposition in the Commons he excluded the chief leaders by
appointing them sheriffs. When the second parliament met,
however, on the 6th of February 1626, the opposition, led by Sir
John Eliot, was more determined than before, and their attack
was concentrated upon Buckingham. On the 29th of March,
Charles, calling the Commons into his presence, accused them of
leading him into the war and of taking advantage of his difficulties
to "make their own game." "I pray you not to be deceived,"
he said, " it is not a parliamentary way, nor 'tis not a way to deal
with a king. Remember that parliaments are altogether in my
power for their calling, sitting, and dissolution; therefore as I
find the fruits of them good or evil, they are to continue or not to
be." Charles, however, was worsted in several collisions with the
two houses, with a consequent loss of influence. He was obliged
by the peers to set at liberty Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel,
whom he had put into the Tower, and to send a summons to the
earl of Bristol, whom he had attempted to exclude from parlia-
ment, while the Commons compelled him, with a threat of doing
no business, to liberate Eliot and Digges, the managers of Bucking-
ham's impeachment, whom he had imprisoned* Finally in June
the Commons answered Charles's demand for money by a re-
monstrance asking for Buckingham's dismissal, which they
decided must precede the grant of supply. They claimed respon-
sible ministers, while Charles considered himself the executive
and the sole and unfettered judge of the necessities of the state.
Accordingly on the 15th Charles dissolved the parliament.
The king was now in great need of money. He was at war
with Spain and had promised to pay £30,000 a month to Christian
IV. of Denmark in support of the Protestant campaign in
Germany. To these necessities was now added a war with
France. Charles had never kept his promise concerning the
recusants; disputes arose in consequence with his wife, and on
the 31st of July 1626 he ordered all her French attendants to be
expelled from Whitehall and sent back to France. At the same
time several French ships carrying contraband goods to the
Spanish Netherlands were seized by English warships. On the
27th of June 1627 Buckingham with a large expedition sailed to
the Isle of Re to relieve La Rochelle, then besieged by the forces
of Louis XUI. Though the success of the French Protestants was
an object much desired in England, Buckingham's unpopularity
prevented support being given to the expedition, and the duke
returned to Plymouth on the nth of November completely
defeated. Meanwhile Charles had endeavoured to get the money
refused to him by parliament by means of a forced loan, dis-
missing Chief Justice Crewe for declining to support its legality,
and imprisoning several of the leaders of the opposition for re-
fusing to subscribe to it. These summary measures, however,
only brought a small sum into the treasury. On the 2nd of
January 1628 Charles ordered the release of all the persons
imprisoned, and on the 17th of March summoned his third
parliament.
Instead of relieving the king's necessities the Commons im-
mediately proceeded to discuss the constitutional position and
I to formulate the Petition of Right, forbidding taxation without
ENGLAND)
CHARLES I.
907
consent of parliament, arbitrary and illegal imprisonment,
compulsory billeting in private houses, and martial law. Charles,
on the 1 st of May, first demanded that they should " rest on his
royal word and promise." He obtained an opinion from the
judges that the acceptance of the petition would not absolutely
preclude in certain cases imprisonments without showing cause,
and after a futile endeavour to avoid an acceptance by returning
an ambiguous answer which only exasperated the Commons, he
gave his consent on the 7 th of June in the full and usual form.
Charles now obtained his subsidies, but no real settlement was
reached, and his relations with the parliament remained as
unfriendly as before. They proceeded to remonstrate against his
government and against his support of Buckingham, and denied
his right to tonnage and poundage. Accordingly, on the 26th of
June they were prorogued. New disasters befell Charles, in the
assassination of Buckingham and in the failure of the fresh
expedition sent to R6. In January 1629 the parliament re-
assembled, irritated by the exaction of the duties and seizure of
goods during the interval, and suspicious of " innovations in
religion," the king having forbidden the clergy to continue
the controversy concerning Calvinistic and Arminian doctrines,
the latter of which the parliament desired to suppress. While
they were discussing these matters, on the 2nd of March 1629,
the king ordered them to adjourn, but amidst a scene of great
excitement the speaker, Sir John Finch, was held down in his
chair and the doors were locked, whilst resolutions against innova-
tions in religion and declaring those who levied or paid tonnage and
poundage enemies to their country were passed. Parliament was
immediately dissolved, and Charles imprisoned nine members,
leaders of the opposition, Eliot, Holies, Strode, Selden, Valentine,
Coryton, Heyman, Hobart and Long, his vengeance being especi-
ally shown in the case of Eliot, the most formidable of his
opponents, who died in the Tower of consumption after long
years of dose and unhealthy confinement, and whose corpse even
Charles refused to give up to his family.
For eleven years Charles ruled without parliaments and with
some success. There seemed no reason to think that "that
noise," to use Laud's expression concerning parliaments, would
ever be heard agate by those then living. A revenue of about
£618,000 was obtained by enforcing the payment of tonnage and
poundage, and while avoiding the taxes, loans, and benevolences
forbidden by the petition of right, by monopolies, fines for
knighthood, and for pretended encroachments on the Toyal
domains and forests, which enabled the king to meet expenditure
at home. In Ireland, Charles, in order to get money, had granted
the Graces in 1628, conceding security of titles of more than
sixty years' standing, and a more moderate oath of allegiance for
the Roman Catholics, together with the renunciation of the shilling
fine for non-attendance at church. He continued, however, to
make various attempts to get estates into his possession on the
pretext of invalid title, and on the 12 th of May 1635 the city of
London estates were sequestered. Charles here destroyed one of
the most valuable settlements in Ireland founded by James I.
in the interests of national defence, and at the same time ex-
tinguished the historic loyalty of the city of London, which
henceforth steadily favoured the parliamentary cause. In 1633
Wentworth had been sent to Ireland to establish a medieval
monarchy and get money, and his success in organization seemed
great enough to justify the attempt to extend the system to
England. Charles at the same time restricted his foreign policy
to scarcely more than a wish for the recovery of the Palatinate, to
further which he engaged in a series of numerous and mutually
destructive negotiations with Gustavus Adolphus and with
Spain, finally making peace with Spain on the 5th of November
1630, an agreement which was followed on the 2nd of January
1631 by a further secret treaty, the two kings binding themselves
to make war on the Dutch and partition their territories. A
notable feature of this agreement was that while in Charles's
portion Roman Catholicism was to be tolerated, there was no
guarantee for the security of Protestantism in the territory to be
ceded to Spain.
In 1634 Charles levied ship-money from the seaport towns for
the increase of the navy, and in 1635 the tax was extended to
the inland counties, which aroused considerable opposition. In
February 1637 Charles obtained an opinion in favour of his claims
from the judges, and in 1638 the great Hampden case was decided
in his favour. The apparent success, however, of Charles was
imperilled by the general and growing resentment aroused by his
exactions and whole policy, and this again was small compared
with the fears excited by the king's attitude towards religion and
Protestantism. He supported zealously Laud's rigid Anglican
orthodoxy, his compulsory introduction of unwelcome ritual, and
his narrow, intolerant and despotic policy, which was marked by
several savage prosecutions and sentences in the Star Chamber,
drove numbers of moderate Protestants out of the Church into
Presbyterianism, and created an intense feeling of hostility to the
government throughout the country. Charles further increased
the popular fears on the subject of religion by his welcome given to
Panzani, the pope's agent, in 1634, who endeavoured unsuccess-
fully to reconcile the two churches, and afterwards to George
Conn, papal agent at the court of Henrietta Maria, while the
favour shown by the king to these was contrasted with the severe
sentences passed upon the Puritans.
The same imprudent neglect of the national sentiment was
pursued in Scotland. Charles had already made powerful
enemies there by a declaration announcing the arbitrary revoca-
tion of former church estates to the crown. On the 18th of June
1633 he was crowned at Edinburgh with full Anglican ceremonial,
which lost him the hearts of numbers of his Scottish subjects and
aroused hostility to his government in parliament. After his
return to England he gave further offence by ordering the use
of the surplice, by his appointment of Archbishop Spotiswood
as chancellor of Scotland, and by introducing other bishops into
the privy council. In 1636 the new Book of Canons was issued
by the king's authority, ordering the communion table to be
placed at the east end, enjoining confession, and declaring
excommunicate any who should presume to attack the new
prayer-book. The latter was ordered to be used on the 18th of
October 1636, but it did not arrive in Scotland till May 1637.
It was intensely disliked both as "popish" and as English.
A riot followed its first use in St Giles' cathedral on the 23rd of
July, and Charles's order to enforce it on the 10th of September
wad met by fresh disturbances and by the establishment of
the " Tables," national committees which now became the real
though informal government of Scotland. In 1638 the national
covenant was drawn up, binding those that signed it to defend
their religion to the death, and was taken by large numbers
with enthusiasm all over the country. Charles now drew back,
promised to enforce the canons and prayer-book only in a " fair
and legal way," and sent the marquis of Hamilton as a mediator.
The latter, however, a weak and incapable man, desirous of
popularity with all parties, and unfaithful to the king's interests,
yielded everything, without obtaining the return of Charles's
subjects to their allegiance. The assembly met at Glasgow on
the 21st of November, and in spite of Hamilton's opposition
immediately proceeded to judge the bishops. On the 28th
Hamilton dissolved it, but it continued to sit, deposed the bishops
and re-established Presbyterianism. The rebellion had now
begun, and an appeal to arms alone could decide the quarrel
between Charles and his subjects. On the 28th of May 1639
he arrived at Berwick with a small and ill-trained force, thus
beginning what is known as the first Bishops' War; but being
confronted by the Scottish army at Duns Law, he was compelled
to sign the treaty of Berwick on the 18th of June, which provided
for the disbandment of both armies and the restitution to the
king of the royal castles, referring all questions to a general
assembly and a parliament. When the assembly met it abolished
episcopacy, but Charles, who on the 3rd of August had returned
to Whitehall, refused his consent to this and to other measures
proposed by the Scottish parliament. His extreme financial
necessities, and the prospect of renewed hostilities with the Scots,
now moved Charles, at the instigation of Strafford, who in
September had left Ireland to become the king's chief adviser,
to turn again to parliament for assistance as the last resource,
908
GHARLES L
[ENGLAND
and on the 13th of April 1640 the Short Parliament assembled.
But on its discussing grievances before granting supplies and
finally refusing subsidies till peace was made with the Scots, it
was dissolved on the 5 th of May. Charles returned Once more
to measures of repression, and on the 10th imprisoned some of
the London aldermen who refused to lend money. He prepared
for war, scraping together what money he could and obtaining
a grant through Strafford from Ireland. His position, however,
was hopeless; his forces were totally undisciplined, and the
Scots were supported by the parliamentary opposition in England,
On the 20th of August the* Scots crossed the Tweed, beginning
the so-called second Bishops' War, defeated the king's army
at Newburn on the 28th, and subsequently occupied Newcastle
and Durham. Charles at this juncture, on the 24th of September,
summoned a great council of the peers; and on the 21st of
October a cessation of arms was agreed to by the treaty of Ripon,
the Scots receiving £850 a day for the maintenance of the army,
and further negotiations being transferred to London. On the
3rd of November the king summoned the Long Parliament.
Such was the final issue of Charles's attempt to govern without
parliaments — Scotland in triumphant rebellion, Ireland only
waiting for a signal to rise, and in England the parliament revived
with almost irresistible strength, in spite of the king, by the force
of circumstances alone. At this great crisis, which would indeed
have taxed the resolution and resource of the most cool-headed
and sagacious statesman, Charles failed signally. Two alternative
courses were open to him, either of which still offered good
chancesof success. He might have taken his stand on the ancient
and undoubted prerogative of the crown, resisted all encroach-
ments on the executive by the parliament by legal and con-
stitutional means, which were probably ample, and in case of
necessity have appealed to the loyalty of the nation to support
him in arms; or he might have waived his rights, and, acknow-
ledging the mistakes of his past administration, have united
with the parliament and created once more that union of interests
and sentiment of the monarchy with the nation which had made
England so powerful. Charles, however, pretended to do both
simultaneously or by turns, and therefore accomplished neither.
The illegally imprisoned members of the last parliament, now
smarting with the sense of their wrongs, were set free to stimulate
the violence of the opposition to the king in the new assembly.
Of Charles's double statecraft, however, the series of incidents
Which terminated the career of the great Strafford form the most
terrible example. Strafford had come to London in November,
having been assured by Charles that he " should not suffer in his
person, honour or fortune," but was impeached and thrown into
the Tower almost immediately. Charles took no steps to hinder
the progress of the proceedings against him, but entered into
schemes for saving him by bringing up an army to London, and
this step exasperated Strafford's enemies and added new zeal to
the prosecution. On the 23rd of April, after the passing of the
attainder by the Commons, he repeated to Strafford his former
assurances of protection. On the 1st of May he appealed to
the Lords to spare his life and be satisfied with rendering him
incapable of holding office. On the 2nd he made an attempt
to seize the Tower by force. On the 10th, yielding to the
queen's fears and to the mob surging round his palace, he signed
his death-warrant. " If my own person only were in danger," he
declared to the council, " I would gladly venture it to save my
Lord Strafford's life; but seeing my wife, children, all my
kingdom are concerned in it, I am forced to give way unto it."
On the nth he sent to the peers a petition for Strafford's life,
the force of which was completely annulled by the strange post-
script: " If he must die, it were a charity to reprieve him until
Saturday." This tragic surrender of his great and devoted
servant left an indelible stain upon the king's character, and he
lived to repent it bitterly. One of his last admonitions to the
prince of Wales was " never to give way to the punishment
of any for their faithful service to the crown." It was regarded
by Charles as the cause of his own subsequent misfortunes,
and on the scaffold the remembrance of it disturbed his own last
moments. The surrender of Strafford was followed by another
stupendous concession by Charles, the surrender of his right
to dissolve the parliament without its own consent, and the parlia-
ment immediately proceeded, with Charles's consent, to sweep
away the star-chamber, high commission and other extra-legal
courts, and all extra-parliamentary taxation. Charles, however,
did not remain long or consistently in the yielding mood. In
June 1641 he engaged in a second army plot for bringing up the
forces to London, and on the 10th of August he set out for
Scotland in order to obtain the Scottish army against the
parliament in England; this plan was obviously doomed to
failure and was interrupted by another appeal to force, the so-
called Incident, at which Charles was suspected (in all prob-
ability unjustly) of having connived, consisting in an attempt
to kidnap and murder Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark, with whom
he was negotiating. Charles had also apparently been intriguing
with Irish Roman Catholic lords for military help in return
for concessions, and he was suspected of complicity in the Irish
rebellion . which now broke out. He left Scotland more dis-
credited than ever, having by his concessions made, to use
Hyde's words, " a perfect deed of gift of that kingdom," and
without gaining any advantage.
Charles returned to London on the 25th of November 1641 and
was immediately confronted by the Grand Remonstrance
(passed on the 22nd),inwhich,after reciting the chief pointsof the
king's misgovernment, the parliament demanded the appoint*
ment of acceptable ministers and the constitution of an assembly
of divines to settle the religious question. On the 2nd of January
1642 Charles gave office to the opposition members Colepeper
and Falkland, and at the same time Hyde left the opposition
party to serve the king. Charles promised to take no serious
step without their advice. Nevertheless, entirely without their
knowledge, through the influence of the queen whose impeach-
ment was intended, Charles on the 4th made the rash and fatal
attempt to seize with an armed force the five members of the
Commons, Pym, Hampden, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, whom,
together with Mandeville (afterwards earl of Manchester) in the
Lords, he had impeached of high treason. No English sovereign
ever had (or has since that time) penetrated into the House of
Commons. So complete and flagrant a violation of parliamentary
liberties, and an appeal so crude and glaring to brute force, could
only be justified by complete success; but the court plans had
been betrayed, and were known to the offending members, who,
by order of the House, had taken refuge in the city before the
king's arrival with the soldiers. Charles, on entering the House,
found " the birds flown," and returned baffled, having thrown
away the last chance of a peaceful settlement (see Lenthau,
William). The next day Charles was equally unsuccessful in
obtaining their surrender in the city. " The king had the worst
day in London yesterday," wrote a spectator of the scene, " that
ever he had, the people crying * privilege of parliament ' by
thousands and prayed God to turn the heart of the king, shutting
up their shops and standing at their doors with swords and hal-
berds." l On the 10th, amidst general manifestations of hostility,
Charles left Whitehall to prepare for war, destined never to return
till he was brought back by his victorious enemies to die.
Several months followed spent in manoeuvres to obtain the
control of the forces and in a paper war of controversy. On the
23rd of April Charles was refused entry into Hull, and on the
2nd of June the parliament sent to him the " Nineteen Propo-
sitions," claiming the whole sovereignty and government for the
parliament, including the choice of the ministers, the judges, and
the control of the army, and the execution of the laws against the
Roman Catholics. The military events of the war are described
in the article Great Rebellion. On the 22nd of August the
king set up his standard at Nottingham, and on the 23rd of
October he fought the indecisive battle of Edgehill, occupying
Oxford and advancing as far as Brentford. It seemed possible
that the war might immediately be ended by Charles penetrating
to the heart of the enemy's position and occupying London, but
he drew back on the 13th of November before the parliamentary
force at Turnham Green, and avoided a decisive contest.
1 Hist. MSS. Comm. : MSS. of Lord Montagu of Beaulicu. 14*
ENGLAND]
CHARLES I.
909
Next year (1643) another campaign, for surrounding instead of
penetrating into London, was projected. Newcastle and Hopton
were to advance from the north and west, seize the north and
south banks of the river below the city, destroy its commerce,
and combine with Charles at Oxford. The royalist force, however,
in spite of victories at Adwalton Moor (June 30th) and Roundway
Down (July 13th), did not succeed in combining with Charles,
Newcastle in the north being kept back by the Eastern Associa-
tion and the presence of the enemy at Hull, and Hopton in the
west being detained by their successful holding out at Plymouth.
Being too weak to attempt anything alone against London,
Charles marched to besiege Gloucester, Essex following him and
relieving the place. Subsequently the rival forces fought the
indecisive first battle of Newbury, and Charles failed in prevent-
ing the return of Essex to London. Meanwhile on the 1st of
February the parliament had submitted proposals to Charles
at Oxford, but the negotiations came to nothing, and Charles's
unwise attempt at the same time to stir up a rising in his favour
in the city, known as Waller's Plot, injured his cause considerably.
He once more turned for help to Ireland, where the cessation of
the campaign against the rebels was agreed upon on the 15th of
September 1643, and several English regiments became thereby
available for employment by the king in England. Charles also
accepted the proposal for bringing over 2000 Irish. On the 22nd
of January 1644 the king opened the rival parliament at Oxford.
The campaign of 1644 began far less favourably for Charles
than the two last, principally owing to the alliance now made
between the Scots and the parliament, the parliament taking the
Solemn League and Covenant on the 25th of September 1643,
and the Scottish army crossing the border on the 19th of January
1644. No attempt was this year made against London, and
Rupert was sent to Newcastle's succour in the north, where the
great disaster of Marston Moor on the 2nd of July ruined Charles's
last chances in that quarter. Meanwhile Charles himself had
defeated Waller at Cropredy Bridge on the 29th of June, and he
subsequently followed Essex to the west, compelling the surrender
of Essex's infantry at Lostwithiel on the 2nd of September.
With an ill-timed leniency he allowed the men to go free after
giving up their stores and arms, and on his return towards
Oxford he was confronted again by Essex's army at Newbury,
combined now with that of Waller and of Manchester. Charles
owed his escape here from complete annihilation only to
Manchester's unwillingness to inflict a total defeat, and he was
allowed to get away with his artillery to Oxford and to revictual
Donnington Castle and Basing House.
The negotiations carried on at Uxbridge during January and
February 1645 failed to secure a settlement, and on the 14th of
June the crushing defeat of the king's forces by the new model
army at Naseby practically ended the civil war. Charles, how-
ever, refused to make peace on Rupert's advice, and considered
it a point of honour " neither to abandon God's cause, injure my
successors, nor forsake my friends." His chief hope was to join
Montrose in Scotland, but his march north was prevented by the
parliamentary forces, and on the 24th of September he witnessed
from the walls of Chester the rout of his followers at Rowton
Heath.' He now entered into a series of intrigues, mutually
destructive, which, becoming known to the different parties,
exasperated all and diminished still further the king's credit.
One proposal was the levy of a foreign force to reduce the kingdom ;
another, the supply through the marquis of Ormonde of 10,000
Irish. Correspondence relating to these schemes, fatally com-
promising as they were if Charles hoped ever to rule England
again, was discovered by his enemies, including the Glamorgan
treaty, which went much further than the instructions to
Ormonde, but of which the full responsibility has never been
really traced to Charles, who on the 29th of January 1646 dis-
avowed his agent's proceedings. He simultaneously treated with
the parliament, and promised toleration to the Roman Catholics
if they and the pope would aid in the restoration of the monarchy
and the church. Nor was this all. The parliamentary forces had
been closing round Oxford. On the 27th of April the king left
the city, and on the 5th of May gave himself up to the Scottish
army at Newark, arriving on the 13th with them at Newcastle.
On the 13th of July the parliament sent to Charles the
" Newcastle Propositions," which included the extreme demands
of Charles'sacceptanceoftheCovenants,theabolitionof episcopacy
and establishment of Presbyterianism, severer laws against the
Roman Catholics and parliamentary control of the forces, with
the withdrawal of the Irish Cessation, and a long list of royalists
to be exempted from pardon. Charles returned no definite answer
for several months. He imagined that he might now find support
in Scottish royalism, encouraged by Montrose's series of brilliant
victories, but these hopes were destroyed by the latter's defeat at
Philiphaugh on the 3rd of September. The Scots insisted on the
Covenant and on the permanent establishment of Presbyterianism,
while Charles would only consent to a temporary maintenance
for three years. Accordingly the Scots, in return for the payment
of part of their army arrears by the parliament, marched home on
the 30th of January 1647, leaving Charles behind, who under the
care of the parliamentary commissioners was conducted to
Holmby House. Thence on the 12th of May he sent his answer
to the Newcastle Propositions, offering the militia to the parlia-
ment for ten years and the establishment of Presbyterianism for
three, while a final settlement on religion was to be reached
through an assembly of twenty divines at Westminster. But in
the midst of the negotiation with the parliament Charles's person
was seized, on the 3rd of June 1647, by Cornet Joyce under instruct-
ions of the army, which soon afterwards occupied London and
overpowered the parliament, placing Charles at Hampton Court.
If Charles could have remained firm to either one or the other
faction, and have made concessions either to Presbyterianism
or on the subject of the militia, he might even now have pre-
vailed. But he had learned nothing by experience, and continued
at this juncture his characteristic policy of intrigue and double-
dealing, " playing his game," to use his own words, negotiating
with both parties at once, not with the object or wish to arrive
at a settlement with either, but to augment their disputes, gain
time and profit ultimately by their divisions. The " Heads of the
Proposals," submitted to Charles by the army on the 28th of
July 1647, were terms conceived on a basis far broader and more
statesmanlike than the Newcastle Propositions, and such as
Charles might well have accepted. The proposals on religion
anticipated the Toleration Act of 1689. There was no mention
of episcopacy, and its existence was thereby indirectly admitted,
but complete religious freedom for all Protestant denominations
was provided, and the power of the church to inflict civil penalties
abolished, while it was also suggested that dangers from Roman
Catholics and Jesuits might be avoided by means other than
enforcing attendance at church. The parliament was to dissolve
itself and be succeeded by biennial assemblies elected on a re-
formed franchise, not to be dissolved without their own consent
before 120 days, and not to sit more than 240 days in the two
years. A council of state was to conduct the foreign policy
of the state and conclude peace and war subject to the approval
of parliament, and to control the militia for ten years, the com-
manders being appointed by parliament, as also the officers of
state for ten years. No peer created since May the 21st, 1642,
was to sit in parliament without consent of both Houses, and
the judicial decisions of the House of Lords were to be ratified
by the Commons. Only five persons were excepted from am-
nesty, but royalists were not to hold office for five years and
not to sit in the Commons till the end of the second biennial
parliament. Proposals for a series of reforms were also added.
Charles, however, was at the same time negotiating with Lauder-
dale for an invasion of England by the Scots, and imagined he
could win over Cromwell and Fairfax by " proffers of advantage
to themselves. " The precious opportunity was therefore allowed
to slip by. On the 9th of September he rejected the proposals
of the parliament for the establishment of Presbyterianism.
His hopes of gaining advantages by plying upon the differences
of his opponents proved a complete failure. Fresh terms were
drawn up by the army and parliament together on the 10th of
November, but before these could be presented, Charles, on the
nth, had escaped to Carisbrooke Castle in the Isle of Wight.
gio
CHARLES L
[ENGLAND
Thence on the 16th he sent a message offering Presbyterianism
for three years and the militia for his lifetime to the parliament,
but insisting on the maintenance of episcopacy. On the 28th
of December he refused his assent to the Four Bills, which de-
manded the militia for parliament for twenty years and prac-
tically for ever, annulled the honours recently granted by the
king and his declarations against the Houses, and gave to parlia-
ment the right to adjourn to any place it wished. On the 3rd
of January 1648 the Commons agreed to a resolution to address
the king no further, in which they were joined by the Lords on
the 15th.
Charles had meanwhile taken a further fatal step which
brought about his total destruction. On the 26th of December
1647 he had signed at Carisbrooke with the Scottish commis-
sioners the secret treaty called the " Engagement," whereby
the Scots undertook to invade England on his behalf and restore
him to the throne on condition of the establishment of Presby-
terianism for three years and the suppression of the sectarians.
In consequence the second civil war broke out and the Scots
invaded England under Hamilton. The royalist risings in
England were soon suppressed, and Cromwell gained an easy
and decisive victory over the Scots at Preston. Charles was
now left alone to face his enemies, with the whole tale of his
intrigues and deceptions unmasked and exposed. The last
intrigue with the Scots was the most unpardonable in the eyes
of his contemporaries, no less wicked and monstrous than his
design to conquer England by the Irish soldiers; "a more
prodigious treason," said Cromwell, " than any that had been
perfected before; because the former quarrel was that English-
men might rule over one another; this to vassalize us to a
foreign nation." Cromwell, who up to this point had shown
himself foremost in supporting the negotiations with the king,
now spoke of the treaty of Newport, which he found the parlia-
ment in the act of negotiating on his return from Scotland, as
" this ruining hypocritical agreement." Charles had engaged
in these negotiations only to gain time and find opportunity to
escape. " The great concession I made this day," he wrote on
the 7th of October, " was made merely in order to my escape."
At the beginning he had stipulated that no concession from him
should be valid unless an agreement were reached upon every
point. He had now consented to most of the demands of the
parliament, including the repudiation of the Irish Cessation, the
surrender of the delinquents and the cession of the militia for
twenty years, and of the offices of state to parliament, but re-
mained firm in his refusal to abolish episcopacy, consenting
only to Presbyterianism for three years. Charles's devotion to
the church is undoubted. In April 1646, before his flight from
Oxford, inspired perhaps by superstitious fears as to the origin
of his misfortunes, he had delivered to Sheldon, afterwards arch-
bishop of Canterbury, a written vow (now in the library of
St Paul's cathedral) to restore all church lands held by the
crown on his restoration to the throne; and almost his last
injunction to the prince of Wales was that of fidelity to the
national church. His present firmness, however, in its support
was caused probably less by his devotion to it than by his desire
to secure the failure of the whole treaty, and his attempts to
escape naturally weakened the chances of success. Cromwell
now supported the petitions of the army against the treaty. On
the 1 6th of November the council of officers demanded the trial
of the king, " the capital and grand author of our troubles,"
and on the 27 th of November the parliamentary commissioners
returned from Newport without having secured Charles's
consent. Charles was removed to Hurst Castle on the 1st of
December, where he remained till the 19th, thence being taken
to Windsor, where he arrived on the 23rd. On the 6th " Pride's
Purge " had removed from the Commons all those who might
show any favour to the king. On the 25th a last attempt by the
council of officers to come to terms with him was repulsed. On
the 1 st of January the remnant of the Commons resolved that
Charles was guilty of treason by " levying war against the parlia-
ment and kingdom of England"; on the 4th they declared
their own power to make laws without the lords or the sovereign,
and on the 6th established a " high court of justice " to try the
king. On the 19th Charles was brought to St James's Palace,
and on the next day his trial began in Westminster Hall, without
the assistance of any of the judges, who all refused to take part
in the proceedings. He laughed aloud at hearing himself called
a traitor, and immediately demanded by what authority he was
tried. He had been in treaty with the parliament in the Isle of
Wight and taken thence by force; he saw no lords present.
He was told by Bradshaw, the president of the court, that he
was tried by the authority of the people of England, who had
elected him king; Charles making the obvious reply that he was
king by inheritance and not by election, that England had been
for more than 1000 years an hereditary kingdom, and Bradshaw
cutting short the discussion by adjourning the court On the
22nd Charles repeated his reasoning, adding, " It is not my case
alone; it is the freedom and liberty of the people of England,
and do you pretend what you will, I stand more for their liberties,
for if power without law may make laws ... I do not know
what subject he is in England that can be sure of his life or any-
thing that he calls his own." On the 23rd he again refused to
plead. The court was adjourned, and there were several signs
that the army in their prosecution of the king had not the nation
at their back. While the soldiers had shouted " Justice 1
justice 1" as the king passed through their ranks, the civilian
spectators from the end of the hall had cried " God save the
king!" There was considerable opposition and reluctance to
proceed among the members of the court. On the 26th, however,
the court decided unanimously upon his execution, and on the
27th Charles was brought into court for the last time to hear
his sentence. His request to be heard before the Lords and
Commons was rejected, and his attempts to answer the charges
of the president were -silenced. Sentence was pronounced, and
the king was removed by the soldiers, uttering his last broken
protest: " I am not suffered to speak. Expect what justice
other people will have."
In these last hours Charles, who was probably weary of
life, showed a remarkable dignity and self-possession, and a firm
resignation supported by religious faith and by the absolute
conviction of his own innocence, which, says Burnet, " amazed
all people and that so much die more because it was not natural
to him. It was imputed to a very extraordinary measure of
supernatural assistance . . . ; it was owing to something
within himself that he went through so many indignities with
so much true greatness without disorder or any sort of affecta-
tion." Nothing in his life became Charles like the leaving it.
" He nothing common did or mean Upon that memorable scene."
On the morning of the 29th of January h»Hiaid his last sad
farewell to his younger children, Elizabeth and Henry, duke
of Gloucester. On the 30th at ten o'clock he walked across
from St James's to Whitehall, calling on his guard "in a
pleasant manner " to walk apace, and at two he stepped upon
the scaffold from a window, probably the middle one, of the
Banqueting House (see ARCHiTECTtJHE, Plate VI., fig. 75). He
was separated from the people by large ranks of soldiers,
and his last speech only reached Juxon and those with him
on the scaffold. He declared that he had desired the liberty
and freedom of the people as much as any; " but I must tell
you that their liberty and freedom consists in having govern-
ment. ... It is not their having a share in the government;
that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a
sovereign are clean different things." These, together with his
declaration that he died a member of the Church of England,
and the mysterious " Remember," spoken to Juxon, were
Charles's last words. " It much discontents the citizens/*
wrote a spectator; " ye manner of his deportment was very
resolutely with some smiling countenances, intimating his
willingness to be out of his troubles." l " The blow I saw given,'*
wrote another, Philip Henry, " and can truly say with a sad
heart, at the instant whereof, I remember well, there was such
a grone by the Thousands then present as I never heard before
and desire I may never hear again. There was according to
1 Notes and Queries, 7th ser., viii. 326.
ENGLAND]
CHARLES I.
911
order one Troop immediately marching frontwards Charing-Cross
to Westminster and another fromwards Westminster to Charing-
Cross, purposely to masker " (i.e. to overpower) " the people
and to disperse and scatter them, so that I had much adoe
amongst the rest to escape home without hurt." l
Amidst such scenes of violence was at last effected the destruc-
tion of Charles. " It is lawful," wrote Milton, " and hath been
held so through all ages for any one who have the power to call
to account a Tyrant or wicked King and after due conviction to
depose and put him to death." 2 But here (it might well be
contended) there had been no " due conviction." The execution
had been the act of the king's personal enemies, of " only some
fifty or sixty governing Englishmen with Oliver Cromwell in the
midst of them" an act technically illegal, morally unjustifiable
because the supposed crimes of Charles had been condoned by
the later negotiations with him, and indefensible on the ground of
public expediency, for the king's death proved a far greater
obstacle to the re-establishment of settled government than his
life could have been. The result was an extraordinary revulsion
of feeling in favour of Charles and the monarchy, in which the
incidents of his misgovernment were completely forgotten. He
soon became in the popular veneration a martyr and a saint.
His fate was compared with the Crucifixion, and his trials and
sufferings to those of the Saviour. Handkerchiefs dipped in his
blood wrought " miracles," and the Eikon Basilike, published
on the day of his fUneral, presented to the public a touching
if not a genuine portrait of the unfortunate sovereign. At the
Restoration the anniversary of his death was ordered to be kept
as a day of fasting and humiliation, and the service appointed
for use on the occasion was only removed from the prayer-book
in 1859. The same conception of Charles as a martyr for religion
appeals still to many, and has been stimulated by modern
writers. " Had Charles been willing to abandon the church and
give up episcopacy," says Bishop Creighton, " he might have
saved his throne and his life. But on this point Charles stood
firm, for this he died and by dying saved it for the future."*
Gladstone, Keble, Newman write in the same strain. " It Was
for the Church," says Gladstone, " that Charles shed his blood
upon the scaffold." 4 "I rest," says Newman, "on the scenes
of past years, from the Upper Room in Acts to the Court of
Carisbrooke and Uxbridge." The injustice and violence of the
king's death, however, the pathetic dignity of his last days, and
the many noble traits in his character, cannot blind us to the
real causes of his downfall and destruction, and a sober judgment
cannot allow that Charles was really a martyr either for the
church or for the popular liberties.
The constitutional struggle between the crown and parliament
had not been initiated by Charles I. It was in full existence in
the reign of James I., and distinct traces appear towards the
latter part of that of Elizabeth. Charles, therefore, in some
degree inherited a situation for which he was not responsible,
nor can he be justly blamed, according to the ideas of kingship
which then prevailed, for defending the prerogatives of the
crown as precious and sacred personal possessions which it was
his duty to hand down intact to his successors. Neither will
his persistence in refusing to yield up the control of the executive
to the parliament or the army, or his zeal in defending the
national church, be altogether censured. In the event the parlia-
ment proved quite incapable of governing, an army uncontrolled
by the sovereign was shown to constitute a more grievous
tyranny than Charles's most arbitrary rule, and the downfall
of the church seen to make room only for a sectarian despotism
as intolerable as the Laudian. The natural inference might be
that both conceptions of government had much to support
them, that they were bound sooner or later to come into collision,
and that the actual individuals in the drama, including the king
himself, were rather the victims of the greatness of events than
real actors in the scene, still less the controllers of their own
1 Letters and Diaries of P. Henry (1882)* 12.
' Tenure of Kings and Magistrates,
* Lectures on Archbishop Laud (1895), p. 25.
1 Remarks on the Royal Supremacy (1850), p. 57.
and the national destiny. A closer insight, however, shows that
biographical more than abstract historical elements determined
the actual course and issue of the Rebellion. The great con-
stitutional and religious points of dispute between the king and
parliament, though doubtless involving principles vital to the
national interests, would not alone have sufficed to destroy
Charles. Monarchy was too much venerated, was too deeply
rooted in the national life, to be hastily and easily extirpated;
the perils of removing the foundation of all government, law
and order were too obvious not to be shunned at almost all costs.
Still less can the crowning tragedy of the king's death find its
real explanation or justification in these disputes and antagon-
isms. The real cause was the complete discredit into which
Charles had brought himself and the monarchy. The ordinary
routine of daily life and of business cannot continue without
some degree of mutual confidence between the individuals
brought into contact, far less could relations be maintained by
subjects with a king endowed with the enormous powers then
attached to the kingship, and with whom agreements, promises,
negotiations were merely subterfuges and prevarications. We
have seen the series of unhappy falsehoods and deceptions
which constituted Charles's statecraft, beginning with the
fraud concerning the concessions to the Roman Catholics at his
marriage, the evasions with which he met the Petition of Right,
the abandonment of Strafford, the simultaneous negotiation
with, and betrayal of, all parties. Strafford's reported words
on hearing of his desertion by Charles, " Put not your trust in
princes," re-echo through the whole of Charles's reign. It was
the degradation and dishonour of the kingship, and the personal
loss of credit which Charles suffered through these transactions —
which never appear to have caused him a moment's regret or
uneasiness, but the fatal consequences of which were seen only
too clearly by men like Hyde and Falkland — that were the real
causes of the rebellion and of the king's execution. The con-
stitutional and religious grievances were the outward and
visible sign of the corroding suspicions which slowly consumed
the national loyalty. In themselves there was nothing incapable
of settlement either through the spirit of union which existed
between Elizabeth and her subjects, or by the' principle of
compromise which formed the basis of the constitutional settle-
ment in 1688. The bond of union between his people and
himself Charles had, however, early broken, and compromise
is only possible between parties both of whom can acknowledge
to some, extent the force of the other's position, which can trust
one another, and which are sincere in their endeavour to reach
agreement. Thus on Charles himself chiefly falls the responsi-
bility for the catastrophe.
His character and motives fill a large place in English history,
but they have never been fully understood and possibly were
largely due to physical causes. His weakness" as a child was so
extreme that his life was despaired of. He outgrew physical
defects, and as a young man excelled in horsemanship and in
the sports of the times, but always retained an impediment of
speech. At the time of his accession his reserve and reticence
were especially noticed. Buckingham was the only person who
ever enjoyed his friendship, and after his death Charles placed
entire confidence in no man. This isolation was the cause of an
ignorance of men and of the world, and of an incapacity to
appreciate the ideas, principles and motives of others, while it
prepared at the same time a fertile soil for receiving those'
exalted conceptions of kingship, of divine right and prerogative,
which came into vogue at this period, together with those
exaggerated ideas of his own personal supremacy and importance
to which minds not quite normal are always especially inclined.
His character was marked by a weakness which shirked and
postponed the settlement of difficulties, by a meanness and
ingratitude even when dealing with his most devoted followers,
by an obstinacy which only feigned compliance and by an untruth-
fulness which differed widely from his son's unblushing deceit,
which found always some reservation or excuse, but Which while
more scrupulous was also more dangerous and insidious because
employed continually as a principle of conduct. Yet Charles, in
QI2
CHARLES II.
[ENGLAND
spite of his failings, bad many fine qualities. Clarendon, who was
fully conscious of them, who does not venture to call him a good
king, and allows that " his kingly virtues had some mixture and
alloy that hindered them from shining in full lustre/' declares
that " he was if ever any, the most worthy of the title of an
Honest Man, so groat a lover of justice that no temptation could
dispose him to a wrongful action except that it was disguised to
hjm that he believed it just," " the worthiest of gentlemen, the
best master, the best friend, the best husband, the best father
and the best Christian that the age in which he lived produced."
With all its deplorable mistakes and failings Charles L's reign
belongs to a sphere infinitely superior to that of his unscrupulous,
corrupt, selfish but more successful son. His private life was with-
out a blemish. Immediately on his accession he had suppressed
the disorder which had existed in the household of James L,
and let it be known that whoever had business with him
" must never approach him by backstairs or private doors." l
He maintained a strict sobriety in food and dress. He had a
fine artistic sense, and Milton reprehends him for having made
Shakespeare " the closest companion of his solitudes." " Mon-
sieur le Prince de Galles," wrote Rubens in 1625, " est le prince
le plus amateur de la peinture qui soit au monde." He succeeded
in bringing together during twenty years an unrivalled collection,
of which a great part was dispersed at his death. He showed
a noble insensibility to flattery. He was deeply and sincerely
religious. He wished to do right, and was conscious of the purity
of his motives. Those who came into contact with him, even
the most bitter of his opponents, were impressed with his good-
ness. The great tragedy of his life, to be read in his well-known,
dignified, but weak and unhappy features, and to be followed
in his inexplicable and mysterious choice of baneful instruments,
such as Rupert, Laud, Hamilton, Glamorgan, Henrietta Maria
— all in their several ways working out his destruction— seems
to have been inspired by a fateful insanity or infirmity of mind or
will, recalling the great Greek dramas in which the poets depicted
frenzied mortals rushing into their own destruction, impelled
by the unseen and superior powers.
The king's body, after being embalmed, was buried by the
few followers who remained with him to the last, hastily and
withoutanyfuneral service, which was forbiddenby the authorities,
in the tomb of Henry VIII., in St George's Chapel, Windsor,
where his coffin was identified and opened in 1 8 1 3 . An " account
of what appeared " was published by Sir Henry Halford, and
a bone abstracted on the occasion was replaced in the vault by
the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) in 1888. Charles I.
left, besides three children who died in infancy, Charles (after-
wards Charles II.); James (afterwards James II.); Henry, duke
of Gloucester (1639-1660); Mary (1631-1660), who married
William of Orange; Elizabeth (1635-1650); and Henrietta,
duchess of Orleans (1644-1670).
Bibliography. — The leading authority for the life and reign of
Charles I. is the History of England (1883) and History vf the Great
Civil War (1893), by S. R. Gardiner, with the references there given.
Among recent works may be mentioned Memoirs of the Martyr
King, by A. Fea (1295); Life of Charles J, 1600-1625, by E.
Chancellor (1886)
XfS
B.
Visits 0} Charles I. to Newcastle, by C. S.
Terry (1898); Charles /., by Sir T. Skelton, valuable for its illus-
trations (1898) ; The Manner of the Coronation of King Charles I.,
ed. by C. Wordsworth (Henry Bradshaw Soc. t 1892); The Picture
Gallery of Charles L, by C Phillips (1896). See also Calendars of
State Papers, Irish and Domestic Series; Hist. MSS. Comm. Series,
esp. MSS. of J. Eliot Hodgkin, F. J. Savile Foljambe, Lord Montaeu
of Beaulieu, Duke of Rutland at Behoir Castle, Marquis of Ormonde,
Earl Cowper (Coke MSS.), Earl of Lonsdale (note-books of parlia-
ments of 1626 and 1628), Duke of Bucdeuch at Montagu House,
Duke of Portland, nth Rep. app. pt. vi., Duke of Hamilton* pt. i.,
Salvetti Correspondence, 10th Kep. pt. vi., Lord Braye; Add. MSS.
Brit. Mus., 33.596 fols. 21-32 (kevs to ciphers), 34.17L 35.297;
Notes and Quertes, ser. vi., vh\, vhi., ix. indexes; Eng. Hist. Rev.
iL 687 (" Charles and Glamorgan " by S. R. Gardiner), vii. 176;
Comhill Mag. vol. 75, January 1897, ll Execution of Charles,*' by
C. H. Firth. (P. C. Y.)
CHARLES II. (1630-1685), king of Great Britain and Ireland,
second son of Charley I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, was born
on the 29th of May 1630 at St James's Palace, and was brought
1 Salvetti' s Corresp. in Hist. MSS.Comm. nth Rep. app. pt. i. p. 6.
up under the care successively of the countess of Dorset, William
Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, and the marquess of Hertford.
He accompanied the king during the campaigns of the Civil War,
and sat in the parliament at Oxford, but on the 4th of March 1645
he was sent by Charles I. to the west, accompanied by Hyde and
others who formed his council. Owing, however, to the mutual
jealousies and misconduct of Goring and Grenville, and the
prince's own disregard and contempt of the council, his presence
was in no way advantageous, and could not prevent the final
overthrow of the king's forces in 1646. He retired (17th of
February) to Pendennis Castle at Falmouth, and on the approach
of Fairfax (2nd of March) to Scilly, where he remained with
Hyde till the i6th of April. Thence he fled to Jersey, and
finally refusing all the overtures from the parliament, and in
opposition to the counsels of Hyde, who desired the prince to
remain on English territory, he repaired to the queen at Paris,
where he remained for two years. He is described at this time
by Mme de Motteville as "well-made, with a swarthy complexion
agreeing well with his fine black eyes, a large ugly mouth, a
graceful and dignified carriage and a fine figure "; and according
to the description circulated later for his capture after the battle
of Worcester, he was over six feet tall. He received instruction
in mathematics from Hobbes, and was early initiated into all
the vices of the age by Buckingham and Percy. In July 1648
the prince joined the royalist fleet and blockaded the Thames
with a fleet of eleven ships, returning to Holland, where he
received the news of the final royalist defeats and afterwards of
the execution of his father. On the 14th of January 1649 he
had forwarded to the council a signed carte blanche, granting any
conditions provided his father's life were spared. He immedi-
ately assumed the title of king, and was proclaimed in Scotland.
(5 th of February) and in some parts of Ireland. On the 17 th of
September, after a visit to his mother at St Germain, Charles
went to Jersey and issued a declaration proclaiming his rights;
but, owing to the arrival of the fleet at Portsmouth, he was
obliged, on the 13th of February 1650, to return again to Breda.
The projected invasion of Ireland was delayed through want of
funds till it was too late; Hyde's mission to Spain, in the midst
of Cromwell's successes, brought no assistance, and Charles now
turned to Scotland for aid. Employing the same unscrupulous
and treacherous methods which had proved so fatal to his father,
he simultaneously supported and encouraged the expedition of
Montrose and the royalists, and negotiated with the covenanters.
On the 1 st of May he signed the first draft of a treaty at Breda
with the latter, in which he accepted the Solemn League and
Covenant, conceded the control of public and church affairs to
the parliament and the kirk, and undertook to establish Presby-
terianism in the three kingdoms. He also signed privately a
paper repudiating Ormonde and the loyal Irish, and recalling
the commissions granted to them. In acting thus he did not
scruple to desert his own royalist followers, and to repudiate
and abandon the great and noble Montrose, whose heroic efforts
he was apparently merely using in order to extort better terms
from the covenanters, and who, having been captured on the 4th
of May, was executed on the 21st in spite of some attempts by
Charles to procure for him an indemnity.
Thus perjured and disgraced the young king embarked for
Scotland on the 2nd of June; on the nth when off Heligoland
he signed the treaty, and on the 23rd, on his arrival at Speymouth,
before landing, he swore to both the covenants. He proceeded
to Falkland near Perth and passed through Aberdeen, where
he saw the mutilated arm of Montrose suspended over the
city gate. He was compelled to dismiss all his followers except
Buckingham, and to submit to interminable sermons, which
generally contained violent invectives against his parents and
himself. To Argyll he promised the payment of £40,000 at his
restoration, doubtless the sum owing as arrears of the Scottish
army unpaid when Charles I. was surrendered to the English
at Newcastle, and entered into negotiations for marrying his
daughter. In August he was forced to sign a further declaration,
confessing his own wickedness in dealing with the Irish, his father's
blood-guiltiness, his mother's idolatry, and his abhorrence
ENGLAND)
CHARLES ir.
$'3
of prelacy, besides ratifying his allegiance to the covenants
and to Presbyterianism. At the same time he declared himself
secretly to King, dean of Tuam, " a true child of the Church of
England," " a true Cavalier," and avowed that " what concerns
Ireland is in no ways binding "; while to the Roman Catholics
in England he promised concessions and expressed his goodwill
towards their church to Pope Innocent X. His attempt, called
" The Start," on the 4th of October 1650, to escape from the
faction at Perth and to join Huntry and the royalists in the
north failed, and he was overtaken and compelled to return.
On the 1st of January 1651 he was crowned at Scone, when he
was forced to repeat his oaths to both the covenants.
Meanwhile Cromwell had advanced and had defeated the
Presbyterians at Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, sub-
sequently occupying Edinburgh. This defeat was not wholly
unwelcome to Charles in the circumstances; in the following
summer, during Cromwell's advance to the north, he shook off
the Presbyterian influence, and on the 31st of Jury 1651 marched
south into England with an army of about 10,000 commanded
by David Leslie. He was proclaimed king at Carlisle, joined
by the earl of Derby in Lancashire, evaded the troops of Lambert
and Harrison m Cheshire, marched through Shropshire, meeting
with a rebuff at Shrewsbury, and entered Worcester with a
small, tired and dispirited force of only 16,000 men (22nd of
August). Here the decisive battle, which ruined his hopes, and
in which Charles distinguished himself by conspicuous courage
and fortitude, was fought on the 3rd of September. After leading
an unsuccessful cavalry charge against the enemy he fled, about
6 p.m., accompanied by Buckingham, Derby, Wilmot, Lauder-
dale and others, towards Kidderminster, taking refuge at White-
ladies, about 25 m. from Worcester, where he separated himself
from all his followers except Wilmot, concealing himself in the
famous oak during the 6th of September, moving subsequently
to Boscobel, to Moseley and Bentley Hall, and thence, disguised
as Miss Lane's attendant, to Abbots Leigh near Bristol, to Trent
in Somersetshire, and finally to the George Inn at Brighton,
having been recognized during the forty-one days of his wander-
ings by about fifty persons, none of whom, in spite of the reward
of £1000 offered for his capture, or of the death penalty threatened
for aiding his concealment, had betrayed him.
He set sail from Shore ham on the 15 th of October 165 1, and
landed at F6camp in Normandy the next day. He resided
at Paris at St Germain till June 1654, in inactivity, unable to
make any further effort, and living with difficulty on a grant
from Louis XIV. of 600 Kvres a month. Various missions to
foreign powers met with failure; he was excluded from Holland
by the treaty made with England in April 1654, and he antici-
pated his expulsion from France, owing to the new relations of
friendship established with Cromwell, by quitting the country
in July. He visited his sister, the princess of Orange, at Spa, and
went to Aix-la-ChapeDe, thence finally proceeding in November
to Cologne, where he was hospitably received. The conclusion
of Cromwell's treaty with France in October 1655, and the
war between England and Spain, gave hope of aid from the
latter power. In April 1656 Charles went to Bruges, and on the
7th of February 1658 to Brussels, where he signed a treaty with
Don John of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, by
which he received an allowance in place of his French pension
and undertook to assemble all his subjects in France in aid of
the Spanish against the French. This plan, however, came to
nothing; projected risings in England were betrayed, and by
the capture of Dunkirk in June 1658, after the battle of the
Dunes, by the French and Cromwell's Ironsides, the Spanish
cause in Flanders was ruined.
As long as Cromwell lived there appeared little hope of the
restoration of the monarchy, and Charles and Hyde had been
aware of the plots for his assassination, which had aroused no
disapproval. By the protector's death on the 3rd of September
1658 the scene was wholly changed, and amidst the consequent
confusion of factions the cry for the restoration of the monarchy
grew daily in strength. The premature royalist rising, however,
in August 1659 was defeated, and Charles, who had awaited
the result on the coast of Brittany, proceeded to Fuenterrabia
on the Spanish frontier, where Mazarin and Luis de Haro were
negotiating the treaty of the Pyrenees, to induce both powers to
support his cause; but the failure of the attempt in England
ensured the rejection of his request, and he returned to
Brussels in December, visiting his mother at Paris on the way.
Events had meanwhile developed fast in favour of a restoration.
Charles, by Hyde's advice, had not interfered in the movement,
and had avoided inconvenient concessions to the various factions
by referring all to a "free parliament." He left Brussels for
Breda, and issued in April 1660, together with the letters to the
council, the officers of the army and the houses of parliament
and the city, the declaration of an amnesty for all except those
specially excluded afterwards by parliament, which referred to
parliament the settlement of estates and promised a liberty to
tender consciences in matters of religion not contrary to the
peace of the kingdom.
On the 8th of May Charles II. was proclaimed king in West-
minster Hall and elsewhere in London. On the 24th he sailed
from the Hague, landing on the 26th at Dover, where he was met
by Monk, whom he saluted as father, and by the mayor, from
whom he accepted a " very rich bible," " the thing that he
loved above all things in the world." He reached London on
the 29th, his thirtieth birthday, arriving- with the procession,
amidst general rejoicings and " through a lane of happy faces,"
at seven in the evening at Whitehall, where the houses of
parliament awaited his coining, to offer in the name of the
nation their congratulations and allegiance.
No event in the history of England had been attended with
more lively and general rejoicing than Charles's restoration, and
none was destined to cause greater subsequent disappointment
and disillusion. Indolent, sensual and dissipated by nature,
Charles's vices had greatly increased during his exile abroad,
and were now, with the great turn of fortune which gave him
full opportunity to indulge them, to surpass all the bounds of
decency and control. A long residence till the age of thirty
abroad, together with his French blood, had made him politically
more of a foreigner than an Englishman, and he returned to
England ignorant of the English constitution, a Roman Catholic
and a secret adversary of the national religion, and untouched,
by the sentiment of England's greatness or of patriotism. Pure
selfishness was the basis of his policy both in domestic and
foreign affairs. Abroad the great national interests were eagerly
sacrificed for the sake of a pension, and at home his personal
ease and pleasure alone decided every measure, and the fate of
every minister and subject. During his exile he had surrounded
himself with young men of the same spirit as himself, such as
Buckingham and Bennet, who, without having any claim to
statesmanship, inattentive to business, neglectful of die national
interests and national prejudices, became Charles's chief advisers.
With them, as with their master, public office was only desirable
as a means of procuring enjoyment, for which an absolute
monarchy provided the most favourable conditions. Such
persons were now, accordingly, destined to supplant the older
and responsible ministers of the type of Clarendon and Ormonde,
men of high character and patriotism, who followed definite lines
of policy, while at the same time the younger men of ability and
standing were shut out from office.
The first period of Charles II.'s reign (1660-1667) was that of
the administration of Lord Clarendon, the principal author of the
Restoration settlement. The king was granted the large revenue
of £1 ,300,000. The naval and military forces were disbanded,
but Charles managed to retain under the name of guards three
regiments, which remained the nucleus of a standing army. The
settlement of estates on a legal basis provided ill for a large
number of the king's adherents who had impoverished themselves
in his cause. The king's honour was directly involved in their
compensation and, except for the gratification of a few individuals,
was tarnished by his neglect to afford them relief. Charles used
his influence to carry through parliament the act of indemnity,
and the execution of some of the regicides was a measure not more
severe than was to be expected in the times and circumstances;
9 1 *
CHARLES II.
(ENGLAND
but that of Sir Henry Vane, who was not a regicide and whose life
Charles had promised the parliament to spare in case of his con-
demnation, was brought about by Charles's personal insistence
in revenge for the victim's high bearing during his trial, and was
an act of gross cruelty and perfidy. Charles was in favour of
religious toleration, and a declaration issued by him in October
1660 aroused great hopes; but he made little effort to conciliate
the Presbyterians or to effect a settlement through the Savoy
conference, and his real object was to gain power over all the
factions and to free his co-religionists, the Roman Catholics, in
favour of whom he issued his first declaration of indulgence (26th
of December 1662), the bill to give effect to it being opposed by
Clarendon and defeated in the Lords, and being replied to by the
passing of further acts against religious liberty. Meanwhile the
plot of Venner and of the Fifth Monarchy men had been suppressed
in January 1661, and the king was crowned on the 23rd of April.
The convention parliament had been dissolved on the 29th of
December i66o r and Charles's first parliament, the Long Parlia-
ment of the Restoration, which met on the 8th of May 1661 and
continued till January 1679, declared the command of the forces
inherent in the crown, repudiated the taking up of arms against
the king, and repealed in 1664 the Triennial Agt, adding only a
provision that there should not be intermission of parliaments for
more than three years. In Ireland the church was re-established,
and a new settlement of land introduced by the Act of Settle-
ment 1 661 and the Act of Explanation 1665. The island. was
excluded from the benefit of the Navigation Laws, and in 1666 the
importation of cattle and horses into England was forbidden. In
Scotland episcopacy was set up, the covenant to which Charles
had taken so many solemn oaths burnt by the common hangman,
and Argyll brought to the scaffold, while the kingdom was given
over to the savage and corrupt administration of Lauderdale.
On the 2 1st of May 1662, in pursuance of the pro-French and anti-
Spanish policy j Charles married Catherine of Braganza, daughter
of John IV. of Portugal, by which alliance England obtained
Tangier and Bpmbay. She brought him no children, and her
attractions for Charles were inferior to those of his mistress, Lady
Castlemaine, whom she was compelled to receive as a lady of her
bedchamber. In February 1665 the ill-omened war with Holland
was declared, during the progerss of which it became apparent
how greatly the condition of the national services and the state
of administration had deteriorated since the Commonwealth,
and to what extent England was isolated and abandoned abroad,
Michael de Ruyter, on the 13 th of June 1667, carrying out his
celebrated attack on Chatham and burning several warships.
The disgra.ce was unprecedented Charles did not show himself
and it was reported that he had abdicated, but to allay the popular
panic it was given out " that he was very cheerful that night at
supper with his mistresses." The treaty of Breda with Holland
(21st of July 1667) removed the danger, but not the ignominy,
and Charles showed the real baseness of his character when he
joined in the popular outcry against Clarendon, the upright and
devoted adherent of his father and himself during twenty-five
years of misfortune, and drove him into poverty and exile in his
old age, recalling ominously Charles L's betrayal of Strafford.
To Clarendon now succeeded the ministry of Buckingham
and Arlington, who with Lauderdale, Ashley (afterwards Lord
Shaftesbury) and Clifford,constituted the so-called Cabal ministry
in 1672. With these advisers Charles entered into those schemes
so antagonistic to the national interests which have disgraced
his reign. His plan was to render himself independent of parlia-
ment and of the nation by binding himself to France and the
French policy of aggrandizement, and receiving a French pen-
sion with the secret intention as well of introducing the Roman
Catholic religion again into England. In 1 66 1 under Clarendon's
rule, the evil precedent had been admitted of receiving money
from France, in 1662 Dunkirk had been sold to Louis, and in
February 1667 during the Dutch war a secret alliance had been
made with Louis, Charles promising him a free hand in the
Netherlands and Louis undertaking to support Charles's designs
" in or out of the kingdom.* ' In January 1668 Sir W. Temple
had made with Sweden and Holland the Triple Alliance against
the encroachments and aggrandizement of France, but this
national policy was soon upset by the king's own secret plans.
In 1668 the conversion of his brother James to Romanism became
known to Charles. Already in 1662 the king had sent Sir Richard
Bellings to Rome to arrange the terms of England's conversion,
and now in 1668 he was in correspondence with Oliva, the general
of the Jesuits in Rome, through James de la Cloche, the eldest
of his natural sons, of whom he had become the father when
scarcely sixteen during his residence at Jersey. On the 25th of
January 1669, at a secret meeting between the two royal brothers,
with Arlington, Clifford and Arundell of Wardour, it was deter-
mined to announce to Louis XIV. the projected conversion of
Charles and the realm, and subsequent negotiations terminated
in the two secret treaties of Dover. The first, signed only, among
the ministers, by Arlington and Clifford, the rest not being
initiated, on the 20th of May 1670, provided for the return of
England to Rome and the joint attack of France and
England upon Holland, England's ally, together with Charles's
support of the Bourbon claims to the throne of Spain, while
Charles received a pension of £200,000 a year. In the second,
signed by Arlington, Buckingham, Lauderdale and Ashley on the
31st of December i67o,nothing was said about the conversion, and
the pension provided for that purpose was added to the military
subsidy, neither of these treaties being communicated to parlia-
ment or to the nation. An immediate gain to Charles was the
acquisition of another mistress in the person of Louise de
Keroualle,the so-called "Madam Carwell," who had accompanied
the duchess of Orleans, the king's sister, to Dover, at the time of
the negotiations, and who joined Charles's seraglio,being created
duchess of Portsmouth, and acting as the agent of the French
alliance throughout the reign.
On the 24th of October 1670, at the very time that these
treaties were in progress, Charles opened parliament and obtained
a vote of £800,000 on the plea of supporting the Triple Alliance.
Parliament was prorogued in April 167 1, not assembling again
till February i673,and on the 2nd of January 1672 was announced
the " stop of the exchequer," or national bankruptcy, one of
the most blameworthy and unscrupulous acts of the reign, by
which the payments from the exchequer ceased, and large
numbers of persons who had lent to the government were thus
ruined. On the reassembling of parliament on the 4th of
February 1673 a strong opposition was shown to the Cabal
ministry which had been constituted at the end of 1672. The
Dutch War, declared on the 17th of March 1672, though the com-
mercial and naval jealousies of Holland had certainly not dis-
appeared in England, was unpopular because of the alliance with
France and the attack upon Protestantism, while the king's
second declaration of indulgence (15th of March 1672) aroused
still further antagonism, was declared illegal by the parliament,
and was followed up by the Test Act, which obliged James and
Clifford to resign their offices. In February 1674 the war with
Holland was closed by the treaty of London or of Westminster,
though Charles still gave Louis a free hand in his aggressive
policy towards the Netherlands, and the Cabal was driven
from office. Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) now became
chief minister; but, though in reality a strong supporter of the
national policy, he could not hope to keep his place without
acquiescence in the king's schemes. In November 1675 Charles
again prorogued parliament, and did not summon it again till
February 1677, when it was almost immediately prorogued.
On the 17th of February 1676 ,with Danby's knowledge, Charles
concluded a further treaty with Louis by which he undertook to
subordinate entirely his foreign policy to that of France, and
received an annual pension of £100,000. On the other hand,
Danby succeeded in effecting the marriage (4th of November
1677) between William of Orange and the princess Mary, which
proved the most important political event in the whole reign.
Louis revenged himself by intriguing with the Opposition and
by turning his streams of gold in that direction, and a further
treaty with France for the annual payment to Charles of £300,000
and the dismissal of his parliament, concluded on the 17th of
May 1678, was not executed. Louis made peace with Holland
ENGLAND]
CHARLES II.
«at Nijmwegen on, the roth of August, and punished Danby by
disclosing his secret negotiations, thus causing the minister's
fall and impeachment. To save Danby Charles now prorogued
the parliament on the 30th of December, dissolving it on the 24th
of January 1679.
Meanwhile the " Popish Plot," the creation of a band of
impostors encouraged by Shaftesbury and the most violent
and unscrupulous of the extreme Protestant party in order
to exclude James from the throne, had thrown the whole
country into a panic. Charles's conduct in this conjuncture
was highly characteristic and was marked by his usual cynical
selfishness. He carefully refrained from incurring suspicion
and unpopularity by opposing the general outcry, and though
he saw through the imposture from the beginning he made no
attempt to moderate the popular frenzy or to save the life of any
of the victims, his co-religionists, not even intervening in the
case of Lord Stafford, and allowing Titus Oates to be lodged
at Whitehall with a pension. His policy was to take advantage
of the violence of the faction, to " give them line enough,"
to use his own words, to encourage it rather than repress it,
with the expectation of procuring finally a strong royalist re-
action. In his resistance to the great movement for the exclusion
of James from the succession, Charles was aided by moderate
men such as Halifax, who desired only a restriction of James's
powers, and still more by the violence of the extreme exclusionists
themselves, who headed by Shaftesbury brought about their
own downfall and that of their cause by their support of the
legitimacy and claims of Charles's natural son, the duke of
Monmouth. In 1679 Charles denied, in council, his supposed
marriage with Lucy Walter, Monmouth's mother, his declarations
being published in 1680 to refute the legend of the black box
which was supposed to contain the contract of marriage, and
told Burnet he would rather see him hanged than legitimize him.
He deprived him of his general's commission in consequence
of his quasi-royal progresses about the country, and in December
on Monmouth's return to England he was forbidden to appear at
court. In February 1679 the king had consented to order James
to go abroad, and even approved of the attempt of the primate
and the bishop of Winchester to convert him to Protestantism.
To weaken the opposition to his government Charles accepted
Sir W. Temple's new scheme of governing by a council which in-
cluded the leaders of the Opposition, and which might have be-
come a rival to the parliament, but this was an immediate failure;
In May 1679 he prorogued the new parliament which had
attainted Danby, and in July dissolved it, while in October he
prorogued another parliament of the same mind till January and
finally till October 1680, having resolved " to wait till this violence
should wear off." He even made overtures to Shaftesbury in
November 1679, but the latter insisted on the departure of both
the queen and James. All attempts at compromise failed, and
on the assembling of the parliament in October 1680 the Exclusion
Bill passed the Commons, being, however, thrown out in the Lords
through the influence of Halifax. Charles dissolved the parlia-
ment in January 1681, declaring that he would never give his
consent to the Exclusion Bill, and summoned another at Oxford,
which met there on the 21st of March 168 1, Shaftesbury's faction
arriving accompanied by armed bands. Charles expressed his
willingness to consent to the handing over of the administration
to the control of a Protestant, in the case of a Roman Catholic
sovereign, but the Opposition insisted on Charles's nomination
of Monmouth as his successor, and the parliament was accordingly
once more {28th of March) dissolved by Charles, while a royal
proclamation ordered to be read in all the churches proclaimed
the ill-deeds of. the parliament and the king's affection for the
Protestant religion.
Charles's tenacity and clever tact were now rewarded. A
great popular reaction ensued in favour of the monarchy, and
a large number of loyal addresses were sent in, most of them
condemning the Exclusion Bill. Shaftesbury was imprisoned,
and though the Middlesex jury threw out his indictment and
he was liberated, he never recovered his power, and in October
1682 left England for ever. The Exclusion Bill and the limitation
915
of James's powers were no more heard of, and full liberty was
granted to the king to pursue the retrograde and arbitrary policy
to which his disposition naturally inclined. In Scotland James
set up a tyrannical administration of the worst type. The royal
enmity towards William of Orange was increased by a visit of
the latter to England in July. No more parliaments were called,
and Charles subsisted on his permanent revenue and his French
pensions. He continued the policy of double-dealing and
treachery, deceiving his ministers as at the treaty of Dover,
by pretending to support Holland and Spain while he was
secretly engaged to Louis to betray them. On the 2 2nd of March
1 68 1 he entered into a compact with Louis whereby he undertook
to desert his allies and offer no resistance to French aggressions.
In August he joined with Spain and Holland in a manifesto
against France, while secretly for a million livres he engaged
himself to Louis, and in 1682 he proposed himself as arbitrator
with the intention of treacherously handing over Luxemburg
to France, an offer which was rejected owing to Spanish suspicions
of collusion. In the event, Charles's duplicity enabled Louis to
seize Strassburg in 168 1 and Luxemburg in 1684. The govern-
ment at home was carried on principally by Rochester, Sunder-
land and Godolphin, while Guilford was lord chancellor and
Jeffreys lord chief justice. The laws against the Nonconformists
were strictly enforced. In order to obtain servile parliaments and
also obsequious juries, who with the co-operation of judges of the
stamp of Jeffreys could be depended upon to carry out the wishes
of the court, the borough charters were confiscated, the charter
oi the city of London being forfeited on the 12th of June 1683.
The popularity of Charles, now greatly increased, was raised
to national enthusiasm by the discovery of the Rye House plot
in 1683, said to be a scheme to assassinate Charles and James
at an isolated house on the high road near Hoddesdon in Hert-
fordshire as they returned from Newmarket to London, among
those implicated being Algernon Sidney, Lord Russell and
Monmouth, the two former paying the death penalty and
Monmouth being finally banished to the Hague. The administra-
tion became more and more despotic, and Tangier was abandoned
in order to reduce expenses and to increase the forces at home
for overawing opposition. The first preliminary steps were now
taken for the reintroduction of the Roman Catholic religion.
Danby and those confined on account of participation in the
popish plot were liberated, and Titus Oates thrown into prison.
A scheme was announced for withdrawing the control of the army
in Ireland from Rochester, the lord-lieutenant, and placing it in
the king's own hands, and the commission to which the king had
delegated ecclesiastical patronage was revoked. In May 1684
the office of lord high admiral, in spite of the Test Act, was again
given to James, who had now returned from Scotland. To all
appearances the same policy afterwards pursued so recklessly
and disastrously by James was now cautiously initiated by
Charles, who, however, not being inspired by the same religious
zeal as his brother, and not desiring " to go on his travels again,"
would probably have drawn back prudently before his throne
was endangered. The developments of this movement were,
however, now interrupted by the death of Charles after a short
illness on the 6th of February 1685. He was buried on the 17 th
in Henry VII.'s chapel in Westminster Abbey with funeral
ceremonies criticized by contemporaries as mean and wanting
in respect, but the scantiness of which was probably owing to
the fact that he had died a Roman Catholic.
On his death-bed Charles had at length declared himself an
adherent of that religion and had received the last rites according
to the Romanist usage. There appears to be no trustworthy
record of his formal conversion, assigned to various times and
various agencies. As a youth, says Clarendon, " the ill-bred
familiarity of the Scotch divines had given him a distaste " for
Presbyterianism, which he indeed declared " no religion for
gentlemen," and the mean figure which the fallen national
church made in exile repelled him at the same time that he was
attracted by the " genteel part of the Catholic religion." With
Charles religion was not the serious matter it was with James,
and was largely regarded from the political aspect and from that
gi6
CHARLES I.— III.
[FRANCE
of ease and personal convenience. Presbyterianism constituted
a dangerous encroachment on the royal prerogative; the national
church and the cavalier party were indeed the natural supporters
of the authority of the crown, but on the other hand they refused
to countenance the dependence upon France; Roman Catholi-
cism at that moment was the obvious medium of governing
without parliaments, of French pensions and of reigning without
trouble, and was naturally the faith of Charles's choice. Of the
two papers in defence of the Roman Catholic religion in Charles's
own hand, published by James, Halifax says " though neither
his temper nor education made him very fit to be an author,
yet in this case ... he might write it all himself and yet not
one word of it his own. . . ."
Of his amours and mistresses the same shrewd observer of
human character, who was also well acquainted with the king,
declares " that his inclinations to love were the effects of health
and a good constitution with as little mixture of the seraphic
part as ever man had. ... I am apt to think his stayed as much
as any man's ever did in the lower region." His health was the
one subject to which he gave unremitting attention, and his fine
constitution and devotion to all kinds of sport and physical
exercise kept off the effects of uncontrolled debauchery for
thirty years. In later years the society of his mistresses seems
to have been chiefly acceptable as a means to avoid business
and petitioners, and in the case of the duchess of Portsmouth
was the price paid for ease and the continuance of the French
pensions. His ministers he never scrupled to sacrifice to his ease.
The love of ease exercised an entire sovereignty in his thoughts.
" The motive of his giving bounties was rather to make men
less uneasy to him than more easy to themselves." He would
rob his own treasury and take bribes to press a measure through
the council. He had a natural affability, but too general to be
much valued, and he was fickle and deceitful. Neither gratitude
nor revenge moved him, and good or ill services left little im-
pression on his mind. Halifax, however, concludes by desiring
to moderate the roughness of his picture by emphasizing the
excellence of his intellect and memory and his mechanical talent,
by deprecating a too censorious judgment and by dwelling upon
the disadvantages of his bringing up, the difficulties and tempta-
tions of his position, and on the fact that his vices were those
common to human frailty. His capacity for king-craft, know-
ledge of the world, and easy address enabled him to surmount
difficulties and dangers which would have proved fatal to his
father or to his brother. " It was a common saying that he
could send away a person better pleased at receiving nothing
than those in the good king his father's time that had requests
granted them," 1 and his good-humoured tact and familiarity
compensated for and concealed his ingratitude and perfidy and
preserved his popularity. He had good taste in art and literature,
was fond of chemistry and science, and the Royal Society was
founded in his reign. According to Evelyn he was " d£bonnaire
and easy of access, naturally kind-hearted and possessed an
excellent temper," virtues which covered a multitude of sins.
These small traits of amiability, however, which pleased his
contemporaries, cannot disguise for us the broad lines of Charles's
career and character. How far the extraordinary corruption
of private morals which has gained for the restoration period
so unenviable a notoriety was owing to the king's own example
of flagrant debauchery, how far to the natural reaction from an
artificial Puritanism, is uncertain, but it is incontestable that
Charles's cynical selfishness was the chief cause of the degradation
of public life which marks his reign, and of the disgraceful and
unscrupulous betrayal of the national interests which raised
France to a threatening predominance and imperilled the very
existence of B ritain for generations. 1 The reign of his predecessor
Charles I., and even of that of his successor James II., with
their mistaken principles and ideals, have a saving dignity
wholly wanting in that of Charles II., and the administration
of Cromwell, in spite of the popularity of the restoration, was
soon regretted. " A lazy Prince," writes Pepys, " no Council,
no money, no reputation at home or abroad. It is strange
1 Mem. of Thomas, earl of Ailesbury, p. 95.
how . . . everybody do nowadays reflect upon Oliver an<f
commend him, what brave things he did and made all the
neighbour princes fear him; while here a prince, come in with
all the love and prayers and good liking of his people . . . hath
lost all so soon. ..."
Charles II. had no children by his queen. By his numerous
mistresses he had a large illegitimate progeny. By Barbara
Villiers, Mrs Palmer, afterwards countess of Castlemaine and
duchess of Cleveland, mistress en titre till she was superseded by
the duchess of Portsmouth, he had Charles Fitzroy, duke of
Southampton and Cleveland, Henry Fitzroy, duke of Grafton,
George Fitzroy, duke of Northumberland, Anne, countess of
Sussex, Charlotte, countess of Lichfield, and Barbara, a nun;
by Louise de Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, Charles Lennox,
duke of Richmond; by Lucy Walter, James, duke of Monmouth
and Buccleuch, and a daughter; by Nell Gwyn, Charles Beau-
clerk, duke of St Albans, and James Beauclerk; by Catherine
Peg, Charles Fitz Charles, earl of Plymouth; by Lady Shannon,
Charlotte, countess of Yarmouth; by Mary Davis, Mary Tudor,
countess of Derwentwater.
Bibliography. — See the article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. by A. W.
Ward (1887), with authorities there given; Charles II., by O. Airy
(1904); Life of Sir G. Savile, by H. C. Foxcroft, and esp. Halifax s
Character of Charles II. printed in the appendix (1808) ; The Essex
Papers (Camden Soc., 1890); Despatches of W. Perwich (Royal
Hist. Soc. Pubtns., 1903); History of England, of the Civil War and
of the Commonwealth, by S. R. Gardiner; Hist, of Scotland, by A.
Lang, vol. iii. (1004); Macaulay's Hist, of England, vot i.; Notes
which passed at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and
the Earl of Clarendon (Roxburghe Club, 1896) ; A French Ambassador
at the Court of Charles II., by J. J. Jusserand (1902); The Story of
Nell Gwyn and the Sayings of Charles II., by P. Cunningham, ed.
by H. B. Wheatley (1892) ; tor his adventures and period of exile
see Memoiren der Herzogin Sophie, ed. by A. Kocher (1879) J " Briefe
der Elisabeth Stuart, by A. Wendland (Litterarischer Verein
in Stuttgart, No. 228); Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, Mile de
Montpensier and Mme de Motteville; The King in Exile, by E.
Scott (1005); Scottish History Pubtns. vols. 17 (Charles II. in Scot-
land, by S. R. Gardiner, 1894) and 18 (Scotland and the Common-
C. H. Firth, r x ~
Hoskins (1854); » -• *
&c, ed. by C. G. Thomas (1894) ; The Flight of the King (1897) and
wealth, 1651-1653, ed. by C.'H. Firth, 1895); Charles II. in the
Channel Islands, by S. E. Hoskins (1 854) ; Boscobel, by T. Blount,
After Worcester Fight (1904), by A. Fea; Edinburgh i&w«^ (January
1894); Eng. Hist. Rev. xix. (1904) 363; Revue hutorique, xxviii.
and xxix.; Art Journal (1889), p. 178 ("Boscobel and Whiteladies,"
by J. Penderel-Brodhurst) ; England under Charles II., by W. F.
Taylor (1889), a collection of passages from contemporary writers;
and R. Crawf urd, The Last Days of Charles II. (1909). (P. C. Y.)
CHARLES I. and II., kings of France. By the French, Charles
the Great, Roman emperor and king of the Franks, is reckoned the
first of the series of French kings named Charles (see Charle-
magne). Similarly the emperor Charles II. the Bald (q.v.) is
reckoned as Charles II. of France. In some enumerations the
emperor Charles III. the Fat (q.v.) is reckoned as Charles II. of
France, Charlemagne not being included in the list, and Charles
the Bald being styled Charles I.
CHARLES IIL, the Simple (870-929), king of France, was a
posthumous son of Louis the Stammerer and of his second wife
Adelaide. On the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887 he was
excluded from the throne by his youth; but during the reign of
Odo, who had succeeded Charles, he succeeded in gaining the
recognition of a certain number of notables and in securing his
coronation at Reims on the 28th of January 893. He now
obtained the alliance of the emperor, and forced Odo to cede
part of Neustria. In 898, by the death of his rival (Jan. 1), he
obtained possession of the whole kingdom. His most important
act was the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with the Normans in
911. Some of them were baptized; the territory which was
afterwards known as the duchy of Normandy was ceded to them ;
but the story of the marriage of their chief Rollo with a sister of
the king, related by the chronicler Dudo of Saint Quentin, is
v£ry doubtful. The same year Charles, on the invitation of the
barons, took possession of the kingdom of Lotharingia. In 920
the barons, jealous of the growth of the royal authority and
discontented with the favour shown by the king to his counsellor
Hagano, rebelled, and in 922 elected Robert, brother of King
Odo, in place of Charles. Robert was killed in the battle of
FRANCE!
CHARLES IV. -V.
917
Soissons, but the victory remained with his party, who elected
Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, king. In his extremity Charles
trusted himself to Herbert, count of Vermandois, who deceived
him, and threw him into confinement at Ch&teau-Thierry and
afterwards at Peronne. In the latter town he died on the 7 th
of October 929. In 907 he had married Frederona, sister of
Bovo, bishop of Chalons. After her death he married Eadgyfu
(Odgiva), daughter of Edward the Elder, king of the English, who
was the mother of Louis IV.
See A. Eckel, Charles le Simple (Paris, 1899).
CHARLES IV. (1 294-1328), king of France, called The Fair,
was the third and youngest son of Philip IV. and Jeanne of
Navarre. In 13 16 he was created count of La Marche, and
succeeded his brother Philip V. as king of France and Navarre
early in 1322. He followed the policy of his predecessors in
enforcing the royal authority over the nobles, but the machinery
of a centralized government strong enough to hold nobility
in check increased the royal expenditure, to meet which Charles
had recourse to doubtful financial expedients. At the beginning
of his reign he ordered a recast of the coinage, with serious
results to commerce; civil officials were deprived of offices,
which had been conferred free, but were now put up to auction;
duties were imposed on exported merchandise and on goods
brought into Paris; the practice of exacting heavy fines was
encouraged by making the salaries of the magistrates dependent
on them; and on the pretext of a crusade to free Armenia from
the Turks, Charles obtained from the pope a tithe levied on the
clergy, the proceeds of which he kept for his own use; he also
confiscated the property of the Lombard bankers who had been
invited to France by his father at a time of financial crisis. The
history of the assemblies summoned by Charles IV. is obscure,
but in 1326, on the outbreak of war with England, an assembly
of prelates and barons met at Meaux. Commissioners were
afterwards despatched to the provinces to state the position of
affairs and to receive complaints. The king justified his failure
to summon the estates on the ground of the expense incurred
by provincial deputies. The external politics of his reign were
not marked by any striking events. He maintained excellent
relations with Pope John XXII., who made overtures to him,
indirectly, offering his support in case of his candidature for the
imperial crown. Charles tried to form a party in Italy in support
of the pope against the emperor Louis IV. of Bavaria, but
failed. A treaty with the English which secured the district
of Agenais for France was followed by a feudal war in Guienne.
Isabella, Charles's sister and the wife of Edward II., was sent
to France to negotiate, and with her brother's help arranged the
final conspiracy against her husband. Charles's first wife was
Blanche, daughter of Otto IV., count of Burgundy, and of
Matilda (Mahaut), countess of Artois, to whom he was married
in 1307. In May 1314, by order of King Philip IV., she was
arrested and imprisoned in the Ch&teau-Gaillard with her sister-
in-law Marguerite, daughter of Robert H., duke of Burgundy,
and wife of Louis Hutin, on the charge of adultery with two
gentlemen of the royal household, Philippe and Gautier d'Aunai.
Jeanne, sister of Marguerite and wife of Philip the Tall, was
also arrested for not having denounced the culprits, and im-
prisoned at Dourdan. The two knights were put to the torture
and executed, and their goods confiscated. It is impossible
to say how far the charges were true. Tradition has involved
and obscured the story, which is the origin of the legend of the
tour de Nesle made famous by the drama of A. Dumas the elder.
Marguerite died shortly in prison; Jeanne was declared innocent
by the parlement and returned to her husband. Blanche was
still in prison when Charles became king. He induced Pope
John XXII. to declare the marriage null, on the ground that
Blanche's mother had been his godmother. Blanche died in
1326, still in confinement, though at the last in the abbey of
Maubuisson.
In 1322, freed from his first marriage, Charles married his
cousin Mary of Luxemburg, daughter of the emperor Henry VII.,
and upon her death, two years later, Jeanne, daughter of Louis,
c#unt of Evreux. Charles IV. died at Vincennes on the 1st of
February 1328. He left no issue by his first two wives to succeed
him, and daughters only by Jeanne of Evreux. He was the last
of the direct line of Capetians.
See A. d'Herbomey, " Notes et documents pour servir & l'histoire
des rois fils de Philippe le Bel," in Bibl. de V&coU des Chartes (lix.
pp. 479 seq. and 689 seq.) ; de Brequigny, " Memoire sur les
differends entre la France et l'Angleterre sous le regne de Charles
le Bel," in MSm. de VAcad. des Inscriptions (xli. pp. 641-692);
H. Lot, "Projets de crusade sous Charles le Bel et sous Philippe de
Valois " {Bibl. de V&coU des Chartes, xx. pp. 503-500) ; l4 Chronique
parisienne anonyme de 13 16 a 1339 . . . ' ed. Heflot in Mhn. de
la soc. de Vhist. ae Paris (xi., 1884, pp. 1-207).
CHARLES V, (1337-1380), king of France, called The Wise,
was born at the ch&teau of Vincennes on the 21st of January
*337> the son of John II. and Bonne of Luxemburg. In 1349
he became dauphin of the Viennois by purchase from Humbert
II. , and in 13 5 5 he was created duke of Normandy. At the battle
of Poitiers (1356) his father ordered him to leave the field when
the battle turned against the French, and he was thus saved
from the imprisonment that overtook his father. After arranging
for the government of Normandy he proceeded to Paris, where
he took the title of lieutenant of the kingdom. Duririg the years
of John II. 's imprisonment in England Charles was virtually
king of France. He summoned the states-general of northern
France (Langue d'oll) to Paris in October 1356 to obtain men and
money to carry on the war. But under the leadership of £tienne
Marcel, provost of the Parisian merchants and president of the
third estate, and Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, president of the
clergy, a partisan of Charles of Navarre, the states refused any
" aid " except on conditions which Charles declined to accept.
They demanded the dismissal of a number of the royal ministers;
the establishment of a commission elected from the three estates
to regulate the dauphin's administration, and of another board
to act as council of war; also the release of Charles the Bad,
king of Navarre, who had been imprisoned by King John. The
estates of Languedoc, summoned to Toulouse, also made protests
against misgovernment, but they agreed to raise a war-levy on
terms to which the dauphin acceded. Charles sought the
alliance of his uncle, the emperor Charles IV., to whom he did
homage at Metz as dauphin of the Viennois, and he was also made
imperial vicar of Dauphine, thus acknowledging the imperial
jurisdiction. But he gained small material advantage from
these proceedings. The states-general were again convoked
in February 1357. Their demands were more moderate than
in the preceding year, but they nominated members to replace
certain obnoxious persons on the royal council, demanded the
right to assemble without the royal summons, and certain
administrative reforms. In return they promised to raise and
finance an army of 30,000 men, but the money — a tithe levied
on the annual revenues of the clergy and nobility — voted for
this object was not to pass through the dauphin's hands. Charles
appeared to consent, but the agreement was annulled by letters
from King John, announcing at the same time the conclusion
of a two years' truce, and the reformers failed to secure their
ends. Charles had escaped from their power by leaving Paris,
but he returned for a new meeting of the estates in the autumn
of 1357.
Meanwhile Charles of Navarre had been released by his parti-
sans, and allying himself with Marcel had become a popular
hero in Paris. The dauphin was obliged to receive him and to
undergo an apparent reconciliation. In Paris fitienne Marcel
was supreme. He forced his way into the dauphin's palace
(February 1358), and Charles's servant, Jean de Conflans,
marshal of Champagne, and Robert de Clermont, marshal of
Normandy, were murdered before his eyes. Charles was power-
less openly to resent these outrages, but he obtained from the
provincial assemblies the money refused him by the states-
general, and deferred his vengeance until the dissensions of his
enemies should offer him an opportunity. Charles of Navarre,
now in league with the English and master of lower Normandy
and of the approaches to Paris, returned to the immediate
neighbourhood of the city, and Marcel found himself driven to
avowed co-operation with the dauphin's enemies, the English
918
CHARLES V.
[FRANCE
and the Navarrese. Charles had been compelled in March to
take the title of regent to prevent the possibility of further inter-
vention from King John. In defiance of a recent ordinance
prohibiting provincial assemblies, he presided over the estates
of Picardy and Artois, and then over those of Champagne.
The states-general of 1358 were summoned to Compiegne instead
of Paris, and granted a large aid. The condition of northern
France was rendered more desperate by the outbreak (May-
June 1358) of the peasant revolt known as the Jacquerie, which
was repressed with a barbarity far exceeding the excesses of the
rebels. Within the walls of Paris Jean Maillart had formed a
royalist party; Marcel was assassinated (31st July 1358), and
the dauphin entered Paris in the following month. A reaction
in Charles's favour had set in, and from the estates of 1359 he
regained the authority he had lost. It was with their full con-
currence that he restored their honours to the officials who had
been dismissed by the estates of 1356 and 1357. They supported
him in repudiating the treaty of London (1359), which King John
had signed in anxiety for his personal freedom, and voted money
unconditionally for the continuation of the war. From this time
the estates 'were only once convoked by Charles, who contented
himself thenceforward by appeals to the assembly of notables
or to the provincial bodies. Charles of Navarre was now at open
war with the regent; Edward III. landed at Calais in October;
and a great part of the country was exposed to double depreda-
tions from the English and the Navarrese troops. In the scarcity
of money Charles had recourse to the debasement of the coinage,
which suffered no less than twenty-two variations in the two years
before the treaty of Br6tigny. This disastrous financial expedient
was made good later, the coinage being established on a firm
basis during the last sixteen years of Charles's reign in accordance
with the principles of Nicolas Oresme. On the conclusion of
peace King John was restored to France, but, being unable to
raise his ransom, he returned in 1364 to England, where he died
in April, leaving the crown to Charles, who was crowned at
Reims on the 19th of May.
The new king found an able servant in Bertrand du Guesclin,
who won a victory over the Navarrese troops at Cocherel and
took prisoner their best general, Jean de Grailli, captal of Buch.
The establishment of Charles's brother, Philip the Bold, in the
duchy of Burgundy, though it constituted in the event a serious
menace to the monarchy, put an end to the king of Navarre's
ambitions in that direction. A treaty of peace between the two
kings was signed in 1365, by which Charles of Navarre gave up
Mantes, Meulan and the county of Longueville in exchange for
MontpelUer. Negotiations were renewed in 1370 when Charles
of Navarre did homage for his French possessions, though he
was then considering an offensive and defensive alliance with
Edward III. Du Guesclin undertook to free France from the
depredations of the " free companies," mercenary soldiers put
out of employment by the cessation of the war. An attempt
to send them on a crusade against the Turks failed, and Du
Guesclin led them to Spain to put Henry of Trastamara on the
throne of Castile. By the marriage of his brother Philip the
Bold with Margaret of Flanders, Charles detached the Flemings
from the English alliance, and as soon as he had restored
something like order in the internal affairs of the kingdom he
provoked a quarrel with the English. The text of the treaty of
Bretigny presented technical difficulties of which Charles was
not slow to avail himself. The English power in Guienne was
weakened by the disastrous Spanish expedition of the Black
Prince, whom Charles summoned before the parlement of Paris
in January 1369 to answer the charges' preferred against him
by his subjects, thus expressly repudiating the English supre-
macy in Guienne. War was renewed in May after a meeting of
the states-general. Between 1371 and 1373 Poitou and Sain-
tonge were reconquered by Du Guesclin, and soon the English
had to abandon all their territory north of the Garonne. John
IV. of Brittany (Jean de Montfort) had won his duchy with
English help by the defeat of Charles of Blois, the French
nominee, at Auray in 1364. His sympathies remained English,
but he was now (1373) obliged to take refuge in England, and
later in Flanders, while the English only retained a footing in
two or three coast towns. Charles's generals avoided pitched
battles, and contented themselves with defensive and guerrilla
tactics, with the result that in 1380 only Bayonne, Bordeaux,
Brest and Calais were still in English hands.
Charles had in 1378 obtained proof of Charles of Navarre's
treasonable designs. He seized the Norman towns held by the
Navarrese, while Henry of Trastamara invaded Navarre, and
imposed conditions of peace which rendered his lifelong enemy
at last powerless. A premature attempt to amalgamate the
duchy of Brittany with the French crown failed. Charles sum-
moned the duke to Paris in 1378, and on his non-appearance
committed one of his rare errors of policy by confiscating his
duchy. But the Bretons rose to defend their independence, and
recalled their duke. The matter was still unsettled when Charles
died at Vincennes on the 16th of September 1380. His health,
always delicate, had been further weakened, according to
popular report, by a slow poison prepared for him by the king
of Navarre. His wife, Jeanne of Bourbon, died in 1378, and
the succession devolved on their elder son Charles, a boy of
twelve. Their younger son was Louis, duke of Orleans.
Personally Charles was no soldier. He owed the signal suc-
cesses of his reign partly to his skilful choice of advisers and
administrators, to his chancellors Jean and Guillaume de Dor-
mans and Pierre d'Orgemont, to Hugues Aubriot, provost of
Paris, Bureau de la Rividre and others; partly to a singular
coolness and subtlety in the exercise of a not over-scrupulous
diplomacy, which made him a dangerous enemy. He had learnt
prudence and self-restraint in the troubled times of the regency,
and did not lose his moderation in success. He modelled his
private life on that of his predecessor Saint Louis, but was no
fanatic in religion, for he refused his support to the violent
methods of the Inquisition in southern France, and allowed the
Jews to return to the country, at the same time confirming their
privileges. His support of the schismatic pope Clement VII.
at Avignon was doubtless due to political considerations, as
favouring the independence of the Gallican church. Charles V.
was a student of astrology, medicine, law and philosophy, and
collected a large and valuable library at the Louvre. He
gathered round him a group of distinguished writers and thinkers,
among whom were Raoul de Presles, Philippe de Mezidres,
Nicolas Oresme and others. The ideas of these men were applied
by him to the practical work of administration, though he con-
fined himself chiefly to the consolidation and improvement of
existing institutions. The power of the nobility was lessened
by restrictions which, without prohibiting private wars, made
them practically impossible. The feudal fortresses were regu-
larly inspected by the central authority, and the nobles them-
selves became in many cases paid officers of the king. Charles
established a merchant marine and a formidable navy, which
under Jean de Vienne threatened the English coast between
1377 and 1380. The states-general were silenced and the royal
prerogative increased; the royal domains were extended, and
the wealth of the crown was augmented; additions were made
to the revenue by the sale of municipal charters and patents;
and taxation became heavier, since Charles set no limits to the
gratification of his tastes either in the collection of jewels and
precious objects, of books, or of his love of building, examples
of which are the renovation of the Louvre and the erection of
the palace of Saint Paul in Paris.
See the chronicles of Froissart, and of Pierre d'Orgemont (Grandes
Chroniques de Saint Denis, Paris, vol. vi., 1838) ; Christine de Pisan,
Le Livre des fais et bonnes meeurs du sage toy Charles V, written in
1404, ed. Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. 11. (1836); L. Delisle, Manage-
ments et actes divers de Charles V (1886) ; letters of Charles V. from
the English archives in Champollion-Figeac, Lettres de rots et de
reines, ii. pp. 167 seq.; the anonymous Songe du vergier or Somnium
viridarii, written in 1376 and giving the political ideas of Charles V.
and his advisers; " Relation de la mort de Charles V " in Haureau,
Notices et cxtrdits, xxxi. pp. 278-284; Ch. Benoist, La Politique du rot
Charles V (1874); S. Luce, La France pendant la guerre de cent ans;
G. Clement Simon, La Rupture du traiti de Bretigny (1898) ; A. Vuitry,
Htudes sur le ri gime financier de la France, vols. i. and ii. (1883) ; and
R. Delachenal, Histoire de Charles V (Parts. 1008).
FRANCEJ
CHARLES VI.
919
CHARLES VI. (1368-1422), king of France, son of Charles V.
and Jeanne of Bourbon, was born in Paris on the 3rd of December
1368. He received the appanage of Dauphin6 at his birth, and
was thus the first of the princes of France to bear the title of
dauphin from infancy. Charles V. had entrusted his education
to Philippe de Mezieres, and had fixed his majority at fourteen.
He succeeded to the throne in 1380, at the age of twelve, and
the royal authority was divided between his paternal uncles,
Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke of Berry, Philip the Bold, duke
of Burgundy, and his mother's brother,Louis II., duke of Bourbon.
In accordance with an ordinance of the late king the duke of
Anjou became regent, while the guardianship of the young king,
together with the control of Paris and Normandy, passed to the
dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon, who were to be assisted by
certain of the councillors of Charles V. The duke of Berry,
excluded by this arrangement, was compensated by the govern-
ment of Languedoc and Guienne. Anjou held the regency for
a few months only, until the king's coronation in November 1380.
He enriched himself from the estate of Charles V. and by exces-
sive exactions, before he set out in 1382 for Italy to effect the
conquest of Naples. Considerable discontent existed in the south
of France at the time of the death of Charles V., and when the
duke of Anjou re-imposed certain taxes which the late king had
remitted at the end of his reign, there were revolts at Puy and
Montpellier. Paris, Rouen, the cities of Flanders, with Amiens,
Orleans, Reims and other French towns, also rose (1382) in revolt
against their masters. The Maillotins, as the Parisian insur-
gents were named from the weapon they used, gained the upper
hand in Paris, and were able temporarily to make terms, but
the commune of Rouen was abolished, and the Tuchins, as
the marauders in Languedoc were called, were pitilessly hunted
down. Charles VI. marched to the help of the count of Flanders
against the insurgents headed by Philip van Artevelde, and
gained a complete victory at Roosebeke (November 27th, 1382).
Strengthened by this success the king, on his return to Paris
in the following January, exacted vengeance on the citizens by
fines, executions and the suppression of the privileges of the city.
The help sent by the English to the Flemish cities resulted
in a second Flemish campaign. In 1385 Jean de Vienne made
an unsuccessful descent on the Scottish coast, and Charles
equipped a fleet at Sluys for the invasion of England, but
a series of delays ended in the destruction of the ships by the
English.
In 1385 Charles VI. married Elizabeth, daughter of Stephen II.,
duke of Bavaria, her name being gallicized as Isabeau. Three
years later, with the help of his brother, Louis of Orleans, duke
of Touraine, he threw off the tutelage of his uncles, whom he
replaced by Bureau de la Riviere and others among his father's
counsellors, nicknamed by the royal princes the marmousets
because of their humble origin. Two years later he deprived
the duke of Berry of the government of Languedoc. The opening
years of Charles VI.'s effective rule promised well, but excess in
gaiety of all kinds undermined his constitution, and in 1392 he
had an attack of madness at Le Mans, when on his way to
Brittany to force from John V. the surrender of his cousin
Pierre de Craon, who had tried to assassinate the constable
Olivier de Clisson in the streets of Paris. Other attacks followed,
and it became evident that Charles was unable permanently to
sustain the royal authority. Clisson, Bureau de la Riviere,
Jean de Mercier, and the other marmousets were driven from
office, and the royal dukes regained their power. The rivalries
between the most powerful of these — the duke of Burgundy,
who during the king's attacks of madness practically ruled the
country, and the duke of Orleans — were a constant menace to
peace. In 1396 peace with England seemed assured by the
marriage of Richard II. with Charles VT.'s daughter Isabella,
but the Lancastrian revolution of 1399 destroyed the diplomatic
advantages gained by this union. In France the country was
disturbed by the papal schism. At an assembly of the clergy
held in Paris in 1398 it was resolved to refuse to recognize the
authority of Benedict XIII., who succeeded Clement VII. as
schismatic pope at Avignon. The question became a party
one; Benedict was supported by Louis of Orleans, while Philip
the Bold and the university of Paris opposed him. Obedience
to Benedict's authority was resumed in 1403, only to be with-
drawn again in 1408, when the king declared himself the guardian
and protector of the French church, which was indeed for a
time self-governing. Edicts further extending the royal power
in ecclesiastical affairs were even issued in 141 8, after the schism
was at an end.
The king's intelligence became yearly feebler, and in 1404
the death of Philip the Bold aggravated the position of affairs.
The new duke, John the Fearless, did not immediately replace his
father in general affairs, and the influence of the duke of Orleans
increased. Queen Isabeau, who had generally supported the
Burgundian party, was now practically separated from her
husband, whose madness had become pronounced. She was
replaced by a young Burgundian lady, Odette de Champdivers,
called by her contemporaries la petite reine, who rescued the king
from the state of neglect into which he had fallen. Isabeau of
Bavaria was freely accused of intrigue with the duke of Orleans.
She was from time to time regent of France, and as her policy
was directed by personal considerations and by her love of
splendour she further added to the general distress. The relations
between John the Fearless and the duke of Orleans became more
embittered, and on the 23rd of November 1407 Orleans was
murdered in the streets of Paris at the instigation of his rival.
The young duke Charles of Orleans married the daughter of the
Gascon count Bernard VII. of Armagnac, and presently formed
alliances with the dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, and
others who formed the party known as the Armagnacs (see
Armagnac), against the Burgundians who had gained the upper
hand in the royal council. In 141 r John the Fearless contracted
an alliance with Henry IV. of England, and civil war began in
the autumn, but in 141 2 the Armagnacs in their turn sought
English aid, and, by promising the sovereignty of Aquitaine
to the English king, gave John the opportunity of posing as
defender of France. In Paris the Burgundians were hand
in hand with the corporation of the butchers, who were the
leaders of the Parisian populace. The malcontents, who took
their name from one of their number, Caboche, penetrated into
the palace of the dauphin Louis, and demanded the surrender
of the unpopular members of his household. A royal ordinance,
promising reforms in administration, was promulgated on the
27th of May 1413, and some of the royal advisers Were executed.
The king and the dauphin, powerless in the hands of Duke
John and the Parisians, appealed secretly to the Armagnac
princes for deliverance. They entered Paris in September; the
ordinance extracted by the Cabochiens was rescinded; and
numbers of the insurgents were banished the city.
In the next year Henry V. of England, after concluding an
alliance with Burgundy, resumed the pretensions of Edward III.
to the crown of France, and in 14 15 followed the disastrous
battle of Agincourt. The two elder sons of Charles VI., Louis,
duke of Guienne, and John, duke of Touraine, died in 141 5 and
141 7, and Charles, count of Ponthieu, became heir apparent.
Paris was governed by Bernard of Armagnac, constable of
France, who expelled all suspected of Burgundian sympathies
and treated Paris like a conquered city. Queen Isabeau was
imprisoned at Tours, but escaped to Burgundy. The capture
of Paris by the Burgundians on the 29th of May 1418 was
followed by a series of horrible massacres of the Armagnacs;
and in July Duke John and Isabeau, who assumed the title
of regent, entered Paris. Meanwhile Henry V. had completed
the conquest of Normandy. The murder of John the Fearless in
1419 under the eyes of the dauphin Charles threw the Bur-
gundians definitely into the arms of the English, and his suc-
cessor Philip the Good, in concert with Queen Isabeau, concluded
(1420) the treaty of Troyes with Henry V., who became master
of France. Charles VI. had long been of no account in the
government, and the state of neglect in which he existed at
Senlis induced Henry V. to undertake the re-organization of
his household. He came to Paris in September 1422, and died
on the 21st of October.
920
CHARLES VIL
[FRANCE
The chief authorities for the reign of Charles VI. are : — Chronica
Caroli VI., written by a monk of Saint Denis, commissioned officially
to write the history of his time, edited by C. Bellaguet with a French
Grandes Chroniques de Saint Denis covering the years 138 1 to 1383
(ed. J. Pichon 1864); correspondence of Charles VI. printed by
Champollion-Figeac in Lettres de rois, vol. ii. ; Choix de pieces
inedites rel. au regne de Charles VI (2 vols., 1 863-1 864), edited by
L. Douet d'Arcq for the Societe de l'Histoire de France; J. Froissart,
Chroniques; Enguerrand de Monstrelet, Chroniques, covering the
first half of the 15th century (Eng. trans., 4 vols., 1809); Chronique
des quatre premiers Valois, by an unknown author, ed. S. Luce (1862).
See also E. Lavisse, Hist, de France, iv. 267 seq.; E. Petit,
" Sejours de Charles VI," Bull, du com. des travaux hist. (1893) ;
Vallet de Viriville, " Isabeau de Baviere," Revue frangaise (1858-
1859) ; M. Thibaut, Isabeau de Baviere (1903).
CHARLES VII. (1403-1461), king of France, fifth son of
Charles VI. and Isabeau of Bavaria, was born in Paris on the
22nd of February 1403. The count of Ponthieu, as he was
called in his boyhood, was betrothed in 1413 to Mary of Anjou,
daughter of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king of Sicily, and
spent the next two years at the Angevin court. He received
the duchy of Touraine in 1416, and in the next year the death
of his brother John made him dauphin of France. He became
lieutenant-general of the kingdom in 1417* and made active
efforts to combat the complaisance of his mother. He assumed
the title of regent in December 1418, but his authority in northern
France was paralysed in 141 9 by the murder of John the Fearless,
duke of Burgundy, in his presence at Montereau* Although the
deed was not apparently premeditated, as the English and
Burgundians declared, it ruined Charles's cause for the time.
He was disinherited by the treaty of Troyes in 1420, and at the
time of his father's death in 1422 had retired to Mehun-sur-Yevre,
near Bourges, which had been the nominal seat of government
since 1418. He was recognized as king in Touraine, Berry and
Poitou, in Languedoc and other provinces of southern France;
but the English power in the north was presently increased by
the provinces of Champagne and Maine, as the result of the
victories of Crevant (1423) and Verneuil (1424)- The Armagnac
administrators who had been driven out of Paris by the duke
of Bedford gathered round the young king, nicknamed the
" king of Bourges," but he was weak in body and mind, and was
under the domination of Jean Louvet and Tanguy du Chastel,
the instigators of the murder of John the Fearless, and other
discredited partisans. The power of these favourites was shaken
by the influence of the queen's mother, Yolande of Aragon,
duchess of Anjou. She sought the alliance of John V., duke of
Brittany, who, however, vacillated throughout his life between
the English and French alliance, concerned chiefly to maintain
the independence of his duchy. His brother, Arthur of Brittany,
earl of Richmond (comte de Richemont), was reconciled with the
king, and became constable in 1425, with the avowed intention
of making peace between Charles VII. and the duke of Burgundy.
Richemont caused the assassination of Charles's favourites
Pierre de Giac and Le Camus de Beaulieu, and imposed one of
his own choosing, Georges de la Trdmoille, an adventurer who
rapidly usurped the constable's power. For five years (1427-
1432) a private war between these two exhausted the Armagnac
forces, and central France returned to anarchy.
Meanwhile Bedford had established settled government
throughout the north of France, and in 1428 he advanced to
the siege of Orleans. For the movement which was to lead to
the deliverance of France from the English invaders, see Joan
of Arc. The siege of Orleans was raised by her efforts on the
8th of May 1429, and two months later Charles VII. was crowned
at Reims. Charles's intimate counsellors, La Tr£moille and
Regnault de Chartres, archbishop of Reims, saw their profits
menaced by the triumphs of Joan of Arc, and accordingly the
court put every difficulty in the way of her military career, and
received the news of her capture before Compiegne (1430) with
indifference. No measures were taken for her deliverance or her
ransom, and Normandy and the Isle of France remained in
English hands. Fifteen years of anarchy and civil war intervened
before peace was restored. Bands of armed men fighting for
their own hand traversed the country, and in the ten years
between 1434 and 1444 the provinces were terrorised by these
icorcheurs, who, with the decline of discipline in the English army,
were also recruited from the ranks of the invaders. The duke of
Bedford died in 1435, and in the same year Philip the Good of
Burgundy concluded a treaty with Charles VII. at Arras, after
fruitless negotiations for an English treaty. From this time
Charles's policy was strengthened. La Tremoille had been
assassinated in 1433 by the constable's orders, with the con-
nivance of Yolande of Aragon. For his former favourites were
substituted energetic advisers, his brother-in-law Charles of
Anjou, Dunois (the famous bastard of Orleans), Pierre de Br6z6,
Richemont and others. Richemont entered Paris on the 13th
of April 1436, and in the next five years the finance of the
country was re-established on a settled basis. Charles himself
commanded the troops who captured Pontoise in 1441, and in
the next year he made a successful expedition in the south.
Meanwhile the princes of the blood and the great nobles
resented the ascendancy of councillors and soldiers drawn from
the smaller nobility and the bourgeoisie. They made a formidable
league against the crown in 1440 which included Charles I.,
duke of Bourbon, John II., duke of Alencon, John IV. of
Armagnac, and the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL The revolt
broke out in Poitou in 1440 and was known as the Praguerie.
Charles VII. repressed the rising, and showed great skill with
the rebel nobles, finally buying them over individually by con-
siderable concessions. In 1444 a truce was concluded with
England at Tours, and Charles proceeded to organize a regular
army. The central authority was gradually made effective, and
a definite system of payment, by removing the original cause of
brigandage, and the establishment of a strict discipline learnt
perhaps from the English troops, gradually stamped out the most
serious of the many evils under which the country had suffered.
Pierre Bessonneau, and the brothers Gaspard and Jean Bureau
created a considerable force of artillery. Domestic troubles in
their own country weakened the English in France. The con-
quest of Normandy was completed by the battle of Formigny
( 1 5th of April 1 450) . Guienne was conquered in 145 1 by Duncis,
but not subdued, and another expedition was necessary in 1453,
when Talbot was defeated and slain at Castillon. Meanwhile
in 1450 Charles VII. had resolved on the rehabilitation of Joan
of Arc, thus rendering a tardy recognition of her services. This
was granted in 1456 by the Holy See. The only foothold retained
by the English on French ground was Calais. In its earlier
stages the deliverance of France from the English had been the
work of the people themselves. The change which made Charles
take an active part in public affairs is said to have been largely
due to the influence of Agnes Sorel, who became his mistress in
1444 and died in 1450. She was the first to play a public and
political role as mistress of a king of France, and may be said to
have established a tradition. Pierre de Breze, who had had a
large share in the repression of the Praguerie, obtained through
her a dominating influence over the king, and he inspired the
monarch himself and the whole administration with new vigour.
Charles and Rene of Anjou retired from court, and the greater
part of the members of the king's council were drawn from the
bourgeois classes. The most famous of all these was Jacques
Coeur (q.v.). It was by the zeal of these councillors that Charles
obtained the surname of " The Well-Served."
Charles VII. continued his father's general policy in church
matters. He desired to lessen the power of the Holy See in
France and to preserve as far as possible the liberties of the
Gallican church. With the council of Constance (1414-1418)
the great schism was practically healed. Charles, while careful
to protest against its renewal, supported the anti-papal con-
tentions of the French members of the council of Basel (143 1 -
1449), and in 1438 he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction at
Bourges, by which the patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was
removed from the Holy See, while certain interventions of the
royal power were admitted. Bishops and abbots were to be
elected, in accordance with ancient custom, by their clergy*
FRANCE]
CHARLES VIIL-X.
921
After the English had evacuated French territory Charles still
had to cope with feudal revolt, and with the hostility of the
dauphin, who was in open revolt in 1446, and for the next ten
years ruled like an independent sovereign in Dauphin6. He took
refuge in 1457 with Charles's most formidable enemy, Philip
of Burgundy. Charles VII. nevertheless found means to prevent
Philip from attaining his ambitions in Lorraine and in Germany.
But the dauphin succeeded in embarrassing his father's policy
at home and abroad, and had his own party in the court itself.
Charles VII. died at Mehun-sur-YSvre on the 22nd of July 1461.
He believed that he was poisoned by his son, who cannot, how-
ever, be accused of anything more than an eager expectation
of his death.
Authorities. — The history of the reign of Charles VII. has been
written by two modern historians, — Vallet de Viriville, Histoire de
Charles VII . . . et de son epoque (Paris, 3 vols., 1862-1865), and
G. du Fresne de Beaucourt, Hist, de Charles VII (Paris, 6 vols.,
188 1- 1 891). There is abundant contemporary material. The
herald, Jacques le Bouvier or Berry (b. 1386), whose Chronicques du
feu roi Charles VII was first printed in 1528 as the work of Alain
Chartier, was an eye-witness of many of the events he described.
His Recouvrement de Normandie, with other material on the same
subject, was edited for the " Rolls " series {Chronicles and Memorials)
by Joseph Stevenson in 1^63. The HisUnre de Charles VII by Jean
Chartier, historiographer-royal from 1437, was included in the
Grandes Chroniques de Saint-Denis, ana was first printed under
Chartier'snameby Denis Godefroy, together with other contemporary
narratives, in 1661. It was re-edited by Vallet de Viriville (Paris,
3 vols., 1858-1859). With these must be considered the Burgundian
chroniclers Enguerrand de Monstrelet, whose chronicle (ed. L. Douet
d'Arcq; Paris, 6 vols., 1 857-1 862) covers the years 1400-1444, and
Georges Chastellain, the existing fragments of whose chronicle are
published in his (Euvres (ed. Kervyn de Lettenhove; Brussels,
8 vols., 1863-1866). For a detailed bibliography and an account
of printed and MS. documents see du Fresne de Beaucourt, already
cited, also A. Molinter, Manuel de bibliographie historique, iv.
240-306.
CHARLES VIII. (1470-1498), king of France, was the only son
of Louis XI. During the whole of his childhood Charles lived far
from his father at the chateau of Amboise, which was throughout
his life his favourite residence. On the death of Louis XI. in 1 483
Charles, a lad of thirteen, was of age, but was absolutely incapable
of governing. Until 1492 he abandoned the government to his
sister Anne of Beaujeu. In 1491 he married Anne, duchess* of
Brittany, who was already betrothed to Maximilian of Austria.
Urged by his favourite, fitienne de Vesc, he then, at the age of
twenty-two, threw off the yoke of the Beaujeus, and at the same
time discarded their wise and able policy. But he was a thoroughly
worthless man with a weak and ill-balanced intellect. He had a
romantic imagination and conceived vast projects. He proposed
at first to claim the rights of the house of Anjou, to which Louis
XI. had succeeded, on the kingdom of Naples, and to use this as a
stepping-stone to the capture of Constantinople from the Turks
and his own coronation as emperor of the East. He sacrificed
everything to this adventurous policy, signed disastrous treaties
to keep his hands free, and set out for Italy in 1494. The cere-
monial side of the expedition being in his eyes the most important,
he allowed himself to be intoxicated by his easy triumph and
duped by the Italians. On the 12th of May 1495 he entered
Naples in great pomp, clothed in the imperial insignia. A general
coalition was, however, formed against him, and he was forced
to return precipitately to France. It cannot be denied that he
showed bravery at the battle of Fornovo (the 5th of July 1495).
He was preparing a fresh expedition to Italy, when he died on the
8th of April 1498, from the results of an accident, at the chateau
of Amboise.
See Histoire de Charles VIII, roy de France, by G. de Jaligny,
Andre de la Vigne, &c, edited by Godefroy (Paris, 1684); De
Cherrier, Histoire de Charles VIII (Paris, 1868) ; H. Fr. Delaborde,
Expedition de Charles VIII en Italic (Paris, 1888). For a complete
bibliography see H. Hauser, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France,
1494-1610, vol. i. (Paris, 1906) ; and E. Lavisse, Histoire de France,
vol. v. part L, by H. Lemonnier (Paris, 1903).
CHARLES IX. (1550-1574), king of France, was the third son
of Henry II. and Catherine de 'Medici. At first he bore the title of
duke of Orleans. He became king in 1560 by the death of his
brother Francis II., but as he was only ten years old the power
was in the hands of the queen-mother, Catherine. Charles seems
to have been a youth of good parts, lively and agreeable, but he
had a weak, passionate and fantastic nature. His education had
spoiled him. He was left to his whims — even the strangest— and
to his taste for violent exercises; and the excesses to which he
gave himself up ruined his health. Proclaimed of age on the 1 7th
of August 1563, he continued to be absorbed in his fantasies and
his hunting, and submitted docilely to the authority of his mother.
In 1570 he was married to Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of
Maximilian II. It was about this time that he dreamed of making
a figure in the world. The successes of his brother, the duke of
Anjou, at Jarnac and Moncontour had already caused him some
jealousy. When Coligny came to court, he received him very
warmly, and seemed at first to accept the idea of an intervention
in the Netherlands against the Spaniards. For the upshot of this
adventure see the article St Bartholomew, Massacre or.
Charles was in these circumstances no hypocrite, but weak,
hesitating and ill-balanced. Moreover, the terrible events in
which he had played a part transformed his character. He
became melancholy, severe and taciturn. " It is feared," said the
Venetian ambassador, " that he may become cruel." Under-
mined by fever, at the age of twenty he had the appearance of an
old man, and night and day he was haunted with nightmares.
He died on the 30th of May 1574. By his mistress, Marie
Touchet, he had one son, Charles, duke of Angouleme. Charles
IX. had a sincere love of letters, himself practised poetry, was the
patron of Ronsard and the poets of the Pleiad, and granted
privileges to the first academy founded by Antoine de Balf
(afterwards the Academic du Palais) . He left a work on hunting,
TraiU de la chasse royale, which was published in 1625, and
reprinted in 1859.
Authorities. — The principal sources are the contemporary
memoirs and chronicles of T. A. d'Aubigne, Brantdme, Castelnau,
Haton, la Place, Montluc, la Noue, l'Estoile, Ste Foy, de Thou,
Tavannes, &c.; the published correspondence of Catherine de'
Medici, Marguerite ae Valois, and the Venetian ambassadors;
and Calendars of State Papers, &c. See also Abel Desjardins,
Charles IX, deux annSes de rlgne (Paris, 1873); de la Fernere, Le
XVI 9 siecle et les Valois (Paris, 1879) ; H. Mariejol, La RMorme et la
Ligue (Paris, 1904), in vol. v. of the Histoire de France, by E. Lavisse,
which contains a bibliography for the reign.
CHARLES X. (1757-1836), king of France from 1824 to 1830,
was the fourth child of the dauphin, son of Louis XV. and of
Marie Josephe of Saxony, and consequently brother of Louis XVI.
He was known before his accession as Charles Philippe, count of
Artois. At the age of sixteen he married Marie Th6rese of
Savoy, sister-in-law of his brother, the count of Provence (Louis
XVIII.) . His youth was passed in scandalous dissipation, which
drew upon himself and his coterie the detestation of the people of
Paris. Although lacking military tastes, he joined the French
army at the siege of Gibraltar in 1772, merely for distraction.
In a few years he had incurred a debt of 56 million francs, a burden
assumed by the impoverished state. Prior to the Revolution he
took only- a minor part in politics, but when it broke out he soon
became, with the queen, the chief of the reactionary party at
court. In July 1 789 he left f ranee, became leader of the emigre's,
and visited several of the courts of Europe in the interest of the
royalist cause. After the execution of Louis XVL he received
from his brother, the count of Provence, the title of lieutenant-
general of the realm, and, on the death of Louis XVII., that of
" Monsieur." In 1795 he attempted to aid the royalist rising of
La Vendee, landing at the island of Yeu. But he refused to
advance farther and to put himself resolutely at the head of his
party, although warmly acclaimed by it, and courage failing him,
he returned to England, settling first in London, then in Holyrood
Palace at Edinburgh and afterwards at Hartwell. There he
remained until 1813, returning to France in February 1814,
and entering Paris in April, in the track of the Allies.
During the reign of his brother, Louis XVIII., he was the
leader of the ultra-royalists, the party of extreme reaction. On
succeeding to the throne in September 1824 the dignity of his
address and his affable condescension won him a passing popu-
larity. But his coronation at Reims, with all the gorgeous
922
CHARLES I.
[HUNGARY
ceremonial of the old regime, proclaimed his intention of ruling,
as the Most Christian King, by divine right. His first acts,
indeed, allayed the worst alarms of the Liberals; but it was soon
apparent that the weight of the crown would be consistently
thrown into the scale of the reactionary forces. The imigris were
awarded a milliard as compensation for their confiscated lands;
and Gallicans and Liberals alike were offended by measures
which threw increased power into the hands of the Jesuits and
Ultramontanes. In a few months there were disquieting signs of
the growing unpopularity of the king. The royal princesses were
insulted in the streets; and on the 29th of April 1825 Charles,
when reviewing the National Guard, was met with cries from
the ranks of " Down with the ministers i " His reply was, next
day, a decree disbanding the citizen army.
It was not till 1829, when the result of the elections had proved
the futility of Villele's policy of repression, that Charles consented
unwillingly to try a policy of compromise. It was, however, too
late. Villele's successor was the vicomte de Martignac, who took
Decazes for his model; and in the speech from the throne Charles
declared that the happiness of France depended on " the sincere
union of the royal authority with the liberties consecrated by the
charter." But Charles had none of the patience and common-
sense which had enabled Louis XVIII. to play with decency the
part of a constitutional king. " I would rather hew wood/' he
exclaimed, " than be a king under the conditions of the king
of England "; and when the Liberal opposition obstructed all
the measures proposed by a ministry not selected from the
parliamentary majority, he lost patience. " I told you,"
he said, " that there was no coming to terms with these men."
Martignac was dismissed; and Prince Jules de Polignac, the
very incarnation of clericalism and reaction, was called to the
helm of state.
The inevitable result was obvious to all the world. " There
is no such thing as political experience," wrote Wellington,
certainly no friend of Liberalism; " with the warning of James II.
before him, Charles X. was setting up a government by priests,
through priests, for priests." A formidable agitation sprang
up in France, which only served to make the king more obstinate.
In opening the session of 1830 he declared that he would " find
the power " to overcome the obstacles placed in his path by
" culpable manoeuvres." The reply of the chambers was a
protest against " the unjust distrust of the sentiment and reason
of France "; whereupon they were first prorogued, and on the
16th of May dissolved. The result of the new elections was
what might have been foreseen: a large increase in the Oppo-
sition; and Charles, on the advice of his ministers, determined
on a virtual suspension of the constitution. On the 25th of
July were issued the famous " four ordinances " which were the
immediate cause of the revolution that followed.
With singular fatuity Charles had taken no precautions in view
of a violent outbreak. Marshal Marmont, who commanded the
scattered troops in Paris, had received no orders, beyond a jesting
command from the duke of Angoul&me to place them under arms
" as some windows might be broken." At the beginning of the
revolution Charles was at St Cloud, whence on the news of the
fighting he withdrew first to Versailles and then to Rambouillet.
So little did he understand the seriousness of the situation that,
when the laconic message " All is over I " was brought to him,
he believed that the insurrection had been suppressed. On
realizing the truth he hastily abdicated in favour of his grand-
son, the duke of Bordeaux (comte de Chambord), and appointed
Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, lieutenant-general of the king-
dom (July 30th). But, on the news of Louis Philippe's accept-
ance of the crown, he gave up the contest and began a dignified
retreat to the sea-coast, followed by his suite, and surrounded
by the infantry, cavalry and artillery of the guard. Beyond
sending a corps of observation to follow his movements, the new
government did nothing to arrest his escape. At Maintenon
Charles took leave of the bulk of his troops, and proceeding with
an escort of some 1200 men to Cherbourg, took ship there for
England on the 16th of August. For a time he returned to Holy-
rood Palace at Edinburgh, which was again placed at his dis-
posal. He died at Goritz, whither he had gone for his health,
on the 6th of November 1836.
The best that can be said of Charles X. is that, if he did not
know how to rule, he knew how to cease to rule. The dignity
of his exit was more worthy of the ancient splendour of the royal
house of France than the theatrical humility of Louis Philippe's
entrance. But Charles was an impossible monarch for the 19th
century, or perhaps for any other century. He was a typical
Bourbon, unable either to learn or to forget; and the closing
years of his life he spent in religious austerities, intended to
expiate, not his failure to grasp a great opportunity, but the
comparatively venial excesses of his youth. 1
See Achille de Vaulabelle, Chute de Vempirt: histoire des deux
restaurations (Paris, 1847- 1857); Louis de Vielcastel, Hist, de la
restauration (Paris, i860- 1878); Alphonse de Lamartine, Hist, de la
restauration (Paris, 1851-1852); Louis Blanc, Hist, de dix ans,
1830-1840 (5 vols., 1 842-1 844) ; G. I. de Montbel, Demiere Epoque
de Vhist. de Charles X (5th ed., Paris, 1840); Theodore Anne f
MSmoires, souvenirs, et anecdotes sur Vinthrieur du palais de Charles X
et les /tenements de 181$ a 1830 (2 vols., Paris, 183 1) ; ib., Journal
de Saint-Cloud a Cherbourg; Vedrenne, Vie de Charles X (3 vols.,
Paris, 1879); Petit, Charles X (Paris, 1886); Villeneuve, Charles X
et Louis XIX en exit. Memoir ts inSdits (Paris, 1889); Imbert de
Saint-Amand, La Cour de Charles X (Paris, 1892).
CHARLES I. (1288-1342), king of Hungary, the son of Charles
Martell of Naples, and Clemencia, daughter of the emperor
Rudolph, was known as Charles Robert previously to being
enthroned king of Hungary in 1309. He claimed the Hungarian
crown, as the grandson of Stephen V., under the banner of the
pope, and in August 1300 proceeded from Naples to Dalmatia
to make good his claim. He was crowned at Esztergom after
the death of the last Arpad, Andrew III. (1301), but was forced
the same year to surrender the crown to Wenceslaus II. of
Bohemia (1 289-1306). His failure only made Pope Boniface
VIII. still more zealous on his behalf, and at the diet of Preasburg
(1304) his Magyar adherents induced him to attempt to recover
the crown of St Stephen from the Czechs. But in the meantime
(1305) Wenceslaus transferred his rights to Duke Otto of Bavaria,
who in his turn was taken prisoner by the Hungarian rebels.
Charles's prospects now improved, and he was enthroned at Buda
on#the 15th of June 1309, though his installation was not re-
garded as valid till he was crowned with the sacred crown (which
was at last recovered from the robber-barons) at Sz£kesfebervar
on the 27th of August 13 10. For the next three years Charles
had to contend with rebellion after rebellion, and it was only
after his great victory over all the elements of rapine and dis-
order at Rozgony (June 15,1312) that he was really master in his
own land. His foreign policy aimed at the aggrandizement of
his family, but his plans were prudent as well as ambitious, and
Hungary benefited by them greatly. His most successful
achievement was the union with Poland for mutual defence
against the Habsburgs and the Czechs. This was accomplished
by the convention of Trencsen (1335), confirmed the same year
at the brilliant congress of Visegrad, where all the princes of
central Europe met to compose their differences and were
splendidly entertained during the months of October and
November. The immediate result of the congress was a combined
attack by the Magyars and Poles upon the emperor Louis and
his ally Albert of Austria, which resulted in favour of Charles
in 1337. Charles's desire to unite the kingdoms of Hungary
and Naples under the eldest son Louis was frustrated by Venice
and the pope, from fear lest Hungary might become the dominant
1 This, at any rate, represents the general verdict of history.
It is interesting, however, to note that so liberal-minded and shrewd
a critic of men as King Leopold I. of the Belgians formed a different
estimate. In a letter of the 18th of November 1836 addressed to
Princess (afterwards Queen) Victoria he writes: — " History will
state that Louis XVI IT. was a most liberal monarch, reigning with
great mildness and justice to his end, but that his brother, from his
despotic and harsh disoosition, upset all the other had done, and lost
the throne. Louis XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man, shackled
by no principle, very proud and false. Charles X. an honest man,
a kind friend, an honourable master, sincere in his opinions, and
inclined to do everything that is right. That teaches us what we
ought to believe in history as it is compiled according to ostensible
events and results known to the generality of people.
NAPLES]
CHARLES I.— II.
923
Adriatic power. He was, however, more than compensated for
this disappointment by his compact (1339) with his ally and
brother-in-law, Casimir of Poland, whereby it was agreed that
Louis should succeed to the Polish throne on the death of the
childless Casimir. For an account of the numerous important
reforms effected by Charles see Hungary: History. A states-
man of the first rank, he not only raised Hungary once more to
the rank of a great power, but enriched and civilized her. In
character he was pious, courtly and valiant, popular alike with
the nobility and the middle classes, whose increasing welfare
he did so much to promote, and much beloved by the clergy.
His court was famous throughout Europe as a school of chivalry.
Charles was married thrice. His first wife was Maria, daughter
of Duke Casimir of Teschen, whom he wedded in 1306. On her
death in 13 18 he married Beatrice, daughter of the emperor
Henry VII. On her decease two years later he gave his hand
to Elizabeth, daughter of Wladislaus Lokietek, king of Poland.
Five sons were the fruit of these marriages, of whom three,
Louis, Andrew and Stephen, survived him. He died* on the 16th
of July 1342, and was laid beside the high altar at Szekesfehervar,
the ancient burial-place of the Arpads.
See Bela Kerekgvart6, The Hungarian Royal Court under the
House of Anjou (Hung.) (Budapest, 1881); Rotiones CoUectorum
Pontif, in Hungaria (Budapest, 1 887); Diplomas of the Angevin
Period, edited by Imre Nagy (Hung, and Lat.), vols. L-iii. (Budapest,
1878, &c). (R. N. £)
CHARLES I. (1 226-1285), king of Naples and Sicily and
count of Anjou, was the seventh child of Louis VUI. of France
and Blanche of Castile. Louis died a few months after Charles's
birth and was succeeded by his son Louis IX. (St Louis), and on
the death in 1232 of the third son John, count of Anjou and
Maine, those fiefs were conferred on Charles. In 1 246 he married
Beatrice, daughter and heiress of Raymond B6renger V*, the
last count of Provence, and after defeating James I. of Aragon
and other rivals with the help of his brother the French king,
he took possession of his new county. In 1248 he accompanied
Louis in the crusade to Egypt, but on the defeat of the Crusaders
he was taken prisoner with his brother. Shortly afterwards
he was ransomed, and returned to Provence in 1250. During
his absence several towns had asserted their independence; but
he succeeded in subduing them without much difficulty and
gradually suppressed their communal liberties. Charles's
ambition aimed at wider fields, and when Margaret, countess of
Flanders, asked help of the French court against the German
king William of Holland, by whom she had been defeated, he
gladly accepted her offer of the county of, Hainaut in exchange
for his assistance (1253); this arrangement was, however,
rescinded by Louis of France, who returned from captivity in
1254, and Charles gave up Hainaut for an immense sum of
money. He extended his influence by the subjugation of Mar-
seilles in 1257, then one of the most important maritime cities
of the world, and two years later several communes of Pied-
mont recognized Charles's suzerainty In 1262 Pope Urban IV.
determined to destroy the power of the Hohenstaufen in Italy,
and offered the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, in consideration
of a yearly tribute, to Charles of Anjou, in opposition to Manfred,
the bastard son of the late emperor Frederick II. The next year
Charles succeeded in getting himself elected senator of Rome,
which gave him an advantage in dealing with the pope. After
long negotiations he accepted the Sicilian and Neapolitan
crowns, and in 1264 he sent a first expedition of Provencals to
Italy; he also collected a large army and navy in Provence
and France with the help of King Louis, and by an alliance with
the cities of Lombardy was able to send part of his force overland.
Pope Clement IV. confirmed the Sicilian agreement on conditions
even more favourable to Charles, who sailed in 1265, and con-
ferred on the expedition all the privileges of a crusade. After
narrowly escaping capture by Manfred's fleet he reached Rome
safely, where he was crowned king of the Two Sicilies. The land
army arrived soon afterwards, and on the 26th of February 1266
Charles encountered Manfred at Benevento, where after a hard-
fought battle Manfred was defeated and killed, and the whole
kingdom was soon in Charles's possession. Then Conradin,
Frederick's grandson and last legitimate descendant of the
Hohenstaufen, came into Italy, where he found many partisans
among the Ghibellines of Lombardy and Tuscany, and among
Manfred's former adherents in the south. He gathered a large
army consisting partly of Germans and Saracens, but was totally
defeated by Charles at Tagliacozzo (23rd of August 1268);
taken prisoner, he was tried as a rebel and executed at Naples.
Charles, in a spirit of the most vindictive cruelty, had large
numbers of Conradin's barons put to death and their estates
confiscated, and the whole population of several towns massacred.
He was now one of the most powerful, sovereigns of Europe,
for besides ruling over Provence and Anjou and the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies, he was imperial vicar of Tuscany, lord of
many cities of Lombardy and Piedmont, and as the pope's
favourite practically arbiter of the papal states, especially during
the interregnum between the death of Clement IV. (1268) and
the election of Gregory X. (1272). But his ambition was by no
means satisfied, and he even aspired to the crown of the East
Roman empire. In 1272 he took part with Louis DC in a
crusade to north Africa, where the French king died of fever,
and Charles, after defeating the soldan of Tunis, returned to
Sicily. The election of Rudolph of Habsburg as German king
after a long interregnum, and that of Nicholas HL to the Holy
See (1277), diminished Charles's power, for the new pope set
himself to compose the difference between Guelphs and Ghibel-
lines in the Italian cities, but at his death Charles secured the
election of his henchman Martin IV. (1281), who recommenced
persecuting the Ghibellines, excommunicated the Greek emperor,
Michael Palaeologus, proclaimed a crusade against the Greeks,
filled every appointment in the papal states with Charles's
vassals, and reappointed the Angevin king senator of Rome.
But the cruelty of the French rulers of Sicily drove the people
of the island to despair, and a Neapolitan nobleman, Giovanni da
Procida, organized the rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers
(see Vespers, Sicilian), in which the French in Sicily were all
massacred or expelled (1282). Charles determined to subjugate
the island and sailed with his fleet for Messina. The city held
out until Peter III. of Aragon, whose wife Constance was a
daughter of Manfred, arrived in Sicily, and a Sicilian-Catalan
fleet under the Calabrese admiral, Ruggiero di Lauria, completely
destroyed that of Charles. " If thou art determined, O God,
to destroy me," the unhappy Angevin exclaimed, " let my fall
be gradual!" He was forced to abandon all attempts at
reconquest, but proposed to decide the question by single
combat between himself and Peter, to take place at Bordeaux
under English protection. The Aragonese accepted, but fearing
treachery, as the French army was in the neighbourhood, he
failed to appear on the appointed day. In the meanwhile
Ruggiero di Lauria appeared before Naples and destroyed
another Angevin fleet commanded by Charles's son, who was
taken prisoner (May 1 284). Charles came to Naples with a new
fleet from Provence, and was preparing to invade Sicily again,
when he contracted a fever and died at Foggia on the 7th of
January 1285. He was undoubtedly an extremely able soldier
and a skilful statesman, and much of his legislation shows a
real political sense; but his inordinate ambition, his oppressive
methods of government and taxation, and his cruelty created
enemies on all sides, and led to the collapse of the edifice of
dominion which he had raised.
CHARLES II. (1250-1300), king of Naples and Sicily, son of
Charles I., had been captured by Ruggiero di Lauria in the naval
battle at Naples in 1284, and when his father died he was still a
prisoner in the hands of Peter of Aragon. In 1288 King Edward I.
of England had mediated to make peace, and Charles was
liberated on the understanding that he was to retain Naples
alone, Sicily being left to the Aragonese; Charles was also to
induce his cousin Charles of Valois to renounce for twenty
thousand pounds of silver the kingdom of Aragon which had
been given to him by Pope Martin IV. to punish Peter for having
invaded Sicily, but which the Valois had never effectively
occupied. The Angevin king was thereupon set free, leaving
924
CHARLES IL
[NAVARRE
three of his sons and sixty Provencal nobles as hostages, promis-
ing to pay 30,000 marks and to return a prisoner if the conditions
were not fulfilled within three years. He went to Rieti, where
the new pope Nicholas IV. immediately absolved him from all
the conditions he had sworn to observe, crowned him king of
the Two Sicilies (1289), and excommunicated Alphonso, while
Charles of Valois, in alliance with Castile, prepared to take
possession of Aragon. Alphonso III , the Aragonese king, being
hard pressed, had to promise to withdraw the troops he had
sent to help his brother James in Sicily, to renounce all rights
over the island, and pay a tribute to the Holy See. But Alphonso
died childless in 1291 before the treaty could be carried out, and
James took possession of Aragon, leaving the government of
Sicily to the third brother Frederick. The new pope Boniface
VIII., elected in 1294 at Naples under the auspices of King
Charles, mediated between the latter and James, and a most
dishonourable treaty was signed : James was to marry Charles's
daughter Bianca and was promised the investiture by the pope
of Sardinia and Corsica, while he was to leave the Angevin a free
hand in Sicily and even to assist him if the Sicilians resisted. An
attempt was made to bribe Frederick into consenting to this
arrangement, but being backed up by his people he refused, and
was afterwards crowned king of Sicily. The war was fought with
great fury on land and sea, but Charles, although aided by the
pope, by Charles of Valois, and by James II. of Aragon, was
unable to conquer the island, and his son the prince of Taranto
was taken prisoner at the^battle of La Falconara in 1 299. Peace
was at last made in 1302 at Caltabellotta, Charles II. giving up
all rights to Sicily and agreeing to the marriage of his daughter
Leonora to King Frederick; the treaty was ratified by the
pope in 1303. Charles spent his last years quietly in Naples,
which city he improved and embellished. He died in August
1309, and was succeeded by his son Robert.
Bibliography. — A. de Saint-Priest, Histoire de la conquite de
Naples par Charles d' Anjou (4 vols., Paris, 1 847-1 849), is still of use
for the documents from the archives of Barcelona, but it needs to
be collated with more recent works; S. de Sismondi, in vol. ii. of
his Histoire des rSpublioues Ualiennes (Brussels, 1838), gives a good
general sketch of the reigns of Charles I. and II., but is occasionally
inaccurate as to details; the best authority on the early life of
Charles I. is R. Sternfeld, Karl von Anjou als Graf von Provence
(Berlin, 1888) ; Charles's connexion with north Italy is dealt with in
Merkel's La Dominazione di Carlo d'Angib in Piemonte e in Lombardia
(Turin, i8qi), while the R. Deputazione di Storia Patria Toscana
has recently published a Codice diplomatico delle relazioni di Carlo
d'Angid con ta Toscana; the contents of the Angevin archives at
Naples have been published by Durrien, Archives angevines de Naples
(Toulouse, 1866-1867). M. Amari's La Guerra del Vespro Siciltano
(8th ed., Florence, 1876) is a valuable history, but the author is too
bitterly prejudiced against the French to be quite impartial; his
work should be compared with L. Cadier's Essai sur V administration
du royaume de Sicile sous Charles I et Charles II d Anjou (Paris,
1 89 1, Bibl. des Scoles frangaises d'Athhus et de Rome, fasc. 59), which
contains many documents, and tends somewhat to rehabilitate the
Angevin rule.
CHARLES II. (1332-1387), called The Bad, king of Navarre
and count of Evreux, was a son of Jeanne II., queen of Navarre,
by her marriage with Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343). Having
become king of Navarre on Jeanne's death in 1349, he sup-
pressed a rising at Pampeluna with much cruelty, and by this and
similar actions thoroughly earned his surname of " The Bad." In
1352 he married Jeanne (d. 1393), a daughter of John H., king of
France, a union which made his relationship to the French crown
still more complicated. Through his mother he was a grandson of
Louis X. and through his father a great-grandson of Philip III.,
having thus a better claim to the throne of France than Edward
III. of England ; and, moreover, he held lands under the suzerainty
of the French king, whose son-in-law he now became. Charles
was a man of great ability, possessing popular manners and con-
siderable eloquence, but he was singularly unscrupulous, a quality
which was revealed during the years in which he played an im-
portant part in the internal affairs of France. Trouble soon arose
between King John and his son-in-law. The promised dowry had
not been paid, and the county of Angouleme, which had formerly
belonged to Jeanne of Navarre, was now in the possession of the
French king's favourite, the constable Charles la Cerda. In
January 1354 the constable was assassinated by order of Charles,
and preparations for war were begun. The king of Navarre, who
defended this deed, had, however, many friends in France and was
in communication with Edward III.; and consequently John was
forced to make a treaty at Mantes and to compensate him for the
loss of Angoule'me by a large grant of lands, chiefly in Normandy.
This peace did not last long, and in 1355 John was compelled to
confirm the treaty of Mantes. Returning to Normandy, Charles
was partly responsible for some unrest in the duchy, and in April
1356 he was treacherously seized by the French king at Rouen,
remaining in captivity until November 1357, when John, after
his clef eat at Poitiers, was a prisoner in England. Charles was
regarded with much favour in France, and the states-general
demanded his release, which, however, was effected by a surprise.
Owing to his popularity he was considered by £tienne Marcel
and his party as a suitable rival to the dauphin, afterwards Xing
Charles V., and on entering Paris he was well received and
delivered an eloquent harangue to the Parisians. Subsequently
peace was made with the dauphin, who promised to restore to
Charles his confiscated estates. This peace was not enduring, and
as his lands were not given back Charles had some ground for
complaint. War again broke out, quickly followed by a new
treaty, after which the king of Navarre took part in suppressing
the peasant rising known as the Jacquerie. Answering the en-
treaties of Marcel he returned to Paris on June 1358, and became
captain-general of the city, which was soon besieged by the
dauphin. This position, however, did not prevent him from
negotiating both with the dauphin and with the English; terms
were soon arranged with the former, and Charles, having lost
much of his popularity, left Paris just before the murder of
Marcel in July 1358. He continued his alternate policy of war
and peace, meanwhile adding if possible by his depredations to
the misery of France, until the conclusion of the treaty of
Brltigny in May 1360 deprived him of the alliance of the English,
and compelled him to make peace with King John in the following
October. A new cause of trouble arose when the duchy of
Burgundy was left without a ruler in November 1361, and was
claimed by Charles; but, lacking both allies and money, he was
unable to prevent the French king from seizing Burgundy, while
he himself returned to Navarre.
In his own kingdom Charles took some steps to reform the
financial and judicial administration and so to increase his
revenue; but he was soon occupied once more with foreign
entanglements, and in July 1362, in alliance with Peter the Cruel,
king of Castile, he invaded Aragon, deserting his new ally soon
afterwards for Peter IV., king of Aragon. Meanwhile the war
with the dauphin had been renewed. Still hankering after
Burgundy, Charles saw his French estates again seized ; but after
some desultory warfare, chiefly in Normandy, peace was made
in March 1365, and he returned to his work of interference in the
politics of the Spanish kingdoms. In turn he made treaties with
the kings of Castile and Aragon, who were at war with each
other; promising to assist Peter the Cruel to regain his throne,
from which he had been driven in 1366 by his half-brother Henry
of Trastamara, and then assuring Henry and his ally Peter of
Aragon that he would aid them to retain Castile. He continued
this treacherous policy when Edward the Black Prince advanced
to succour Peter the Cruel; then signed a treaty with Edward
of England, and then in 13 71 allied himself with Charles V. of
France. His next important move was to offer his assistance to
Richard II. of England for an attack upon France. About this
time serious charges were brought against him. Accused of
attempting to poison the king of France and other prominent
persons, and of other crimes, his French estates were seized by
order of Charles V. , and soon afterwards Navarre was invaded by
the Castilians. Won over by the surrender of Cherbourg in July
1378, the English under John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, came
to his aid; but a heavy price had to be paid for the neutrality
of the king of Castile. After the death of Charles V. in 1380, the
king of Navarre did not interfere in the internal affairs of France,
although he endeavoured vainly again to obtain aid from Richard
II., and to regain Cherbourg. His lands in France were handed
NAVARRE— SPAIN]
CHARLES III.— CHARLES II.
925
over to his eldest son Charles, who governed them with the consent
of the new king Charles VI. Charles died on the 1st of January
1387, and many stories are current regarding the manner of his
death. Froissart relates that he was burned to death through his
bedclothes catching fire; Secousse says that he died in peace
with many signs of contrition; another story says he died of
leprosy; and a popular legend tells how he expired by a divine
judgment through the burning of the clothes steeped in sulphur
and spirits in which he had been wrapped as a cure for a loath-
some disease caused by his debauchery. He had three sons and
four daughters, and was succeeded by his eldest son Charles; one
of his daughters, Jeanne, became the wife of Henry IV. of
England.
See Jean Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
(Paris, 1869-1897) ; D. F. Secousse, Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire
de Charles II \ rot de Navarre (Paris, 1 755-1 768) ; E. Meyer, Charles
II, rot de Navarre et la Normandie an XIV* st&cle (Paris, 1898);
F. T. Perrens, ftitnne Marcel (Paris, 1874) ; R. Delachenal, Premteres
negotiations de Charles It Mauvais avec les Anglais (Paris, 1900);
and E. Lavisse, Histoire de France^ tome iv. (Paris, 1902).
CHARLES III. (1361-1425), called The Noble, king of Navarre
and count of Evreux, was the eldest son of Charles II. the Bad,
king of Navarre, by his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of John
II., king of France, and was married in 1375 to Leonora (d. 1415))
daughter of Henry II., king of Castile. Having passed much of
his early life in France, he became king of Navarre on the death of
Charles II. in January 1387, and his reign was a period of peace
and order, thus contrasting sharply with the long and calamitous
reign of his father. In 1393 he regained Cherbourg, which had
been handed over by Charles II. to Richard II. of England, and
in 1403 he came to an arrangement with the representatives of
Charles VI. of France concerning the extensive lands which he
claimed in that country. Cherbourg was given to the French
king; certain exchanges of land were made; and in the following
year Charles III. surrendered the county of Evreux, and was
created duke of Nemours and made a peer of France. After this
his only interference in the internal affairs of France was when he
sought to make peace between the rival factions in that country.
Charles sought to improve the condition of Navarre by making
canals and rendering the rivers navigable, and in other ways.
He died at Olite on the 8th of September 1425 and was buried at
Pampeluna. After the death of his two sons in 1402 the king
decreed that his kingdom should pass to his daughter Blanche
(d. 1441), who took for her second husband John, afterwards
John II., king of Aragon; and the cortes of Navarre swore to
recognize Charles (<?.».), prince of Viana, her son by this marriage,
as king after his mother's death.
CHARLES (Kasx Eitel Zephyrin Ludwig; in Rum.
Carol), king of Rumania (1839- ), second son of Prince Karl
Anton of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen, was born on the 20th of
April 1839. He was educated at Dresden (1850-1856), and
passed through his university course at Bonn. Entering the
Prussian army in 1857, he won considerable distinction in the
Danish war of 1864, and received instruction in strategy from
General von Moltke. He afterwards travelled in France, Italy,
Spain and Algeria. He was a captain in the 2nd regiment of
Prussian Dragoon Guards when he was elected hospodar or
prince of Rumania on the 20th of April 1866, after the compulsory
abdication of Prince Alexander John Cuza. Regarded at first
with distrust by Turkey, Russia and Austria, he succeeded in
gaining general recognition in six months; but he had to con-
tend for ten years with fierce party struggles between the
Conservatives and the Liberals.
During this period, however, Charles displayed great tact in
his dealings with both parties, and kept his country in the path
of administrative and economic reform, organizing the army,
developing the railways, and establishing commercial relations
with foreign powers. x The sympathy of Rumania with France
in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and the consequent inter-
ruption of certain commercial undertakings, led to a hostile
movement against Prince Charles, which, being fostered by
Russia, made him resolve to abdicate; and it was with difficulty
that he was persuaded to remain. In the Russo-Turkish War
of 1877-78 he joined the Russians before Plevna (q.v.) f and
being placed in command of the combined Russian and
Rumanian forces, forced Osman Pasha to surrender. As a con-
sequence of the prince's vigorous action the independence of
Rumania, which had been proclaimed in May 1877, was con-
firmed by various treaties in 1878, and recognized by Great
Britain, France and Germany in 1880. On the 26th of March
188 1 he was proclaimed king of Rumania, and, with his consort,
was crowned on the 22nd of May following. From that time he
pursued a successful career in home and foreign policy, and
greatly improved the financial amd military position of his
country; while his appreciation of the fine arts was shown by
his formation of an important collection of paintings of all
schools in his palaces at Sinaia and Bucharest. For a detailed
account of his reign, see Rumania. On the 1st of November
1869 he married Princess Elizabeth (q.v.) t a daughter of Prince
Hermann of Wied, widely known under her literary name of
" Carmen Sylva." As the only child of the marriage, a daughter,
died in 1874, the succession was finally settled upon the king's
nephew, Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who
was created prince of Rumania on the 18th of March 1889,
and married, on the 10th of January 1893, Princess Marie,
daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg, their children being
Prince Carol (b. 1893) and Princess Elizabeth (b. 1894).
The official life of King Charles, mainly his own composition,
Aus dem Leben Konig Karls von Rumanian (Stuttgart, 1894-1900,
4 vols.), deals mainly with political history. See for an account of
his domestic life, M. Kremnitz, Konig Karl von Rumanien. Ein
Lebensbild (Breslau, 1903).
CHARLES II. (1661-1700), king of Spain, known among
Spanish kings as "The Desired "and "The Bewitched," was the
son of Philip IV. by his second marriage with Maria, daughter
of the emperor Ferdinand III., his niece. He was born on the
nth of November 1661, and was the only surviving son of his
father's two marriages — a child of old age and disease, in
whom the constant intermarriages of the Habsburgs had de-
veloped the family type to deformity. His birth was greeted
with joy by the Spaniards, who feared the dispute as to the
succession which must have ensued if Philip IV. left no male
issue. The boy was so feeble that till the age of five or six he
was fed only from the breast of a nurse. For years afterwards
it was not thought safe to allow him to walk, TTiat he might not
be overtaxed he was left entirely uneducated, and his indolence
was indulged to such an extent that he was not even expected
to be clean. When his brother, the younger Don John of Austria,
a natural son of Philip IV., obtained power by exiling the queen
mother from court he insisted that at least the king's hair should
be combed. Charles made the malicious remark that nothing
was safe from Don John — not even vermin. The king was then
fifteen, and, according to Spanish law, of age. But he never
became a man in body or mind. The personages who ruled in
his name arranged a marriage for him with Maria Louisa of
Orleans. The French princess, a lively young woman of no
sense, died in the stifling atmosphere of the Spanish court, and
from the attendance of Spanish doctors. Again his advisers
arranged a marriage with Maria Ana of Neuburg. The Bavarian
wife stood the strain and survived him. Both marriages were
merely political — the first a victory for the French, and the
second for the Austrian party. France and Austria were alike
preparing for the day when the Spanish succession would have
to be fought for. The king was a mere puppet in the hands of
each alternately. By natural instinct he hated the French, but
there was no room in his nearly imbecile mind for more than
childish superstition, insane pride of birth, and an interest in
court etiquette. The only touch of manhood was a taste for
shooting which he occasionally indulged in the preserves of the
Escorial. In his later days he suffered much pain, and was driven
wild by the conflict between his wish to transmit his inheritance
to " the illustrious house of Austria," his own kin, and the belief
instilled into him by the partisans of the French claimant that
only the power of Louis IV. could avert the dismemberment
of the empire. A silly fanatic made the discovery that the king
was bewitched, and his confessor Froilan Diaz supported the
926
CHARLES III.— IV.
[SPAIN
belief. The king. was exorcised, and the exorcists of the king-
dom were called upon to put stringent questions to the devils
they cast out. The Inquisition interfered, and the dying king
was driven mad among them. Very near his end he had the
lugubrious curiosity to cause the coffins of his embalmed an-
cestors to be opened at the Escorial. The sight of the body of
his first wife, at whom he also insisted on looking, provoked a
passion of tears and despair. Under severe pressure from the
cardinal archbishop of Toledo, Portocarrero, he finally made a
will in favour of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV.,
and died on the 1st of November 1700, after a lifetime of senile
decay.
The best picture of Charles II. is to be found in Les Memoires de la
cour d Espagne of the Marquis de Villars (London, 1 861), and the
Letters of the Marquise de Villars (Paris, 1868).
CHARLES III. (1716-1788), king of Spain, born on the 20th
January 17 16, was the first son of the second marriage of Philip
V. with Elizabeth Farnese of Parma. It was his good fortune
to be sent to rule as duke of Parma by right of his mother at the
age of sixteen, and thus came under more intelligent influence
than he could have found in Spain. In 1734 he made himself
master of Naples and Sicily by arms. Charles had, however, no
military tastes, seldom wore uniform, and could with difficulty
be persuaded to witness a review. The peremptory action of
the British admiral commanding in the Mediterranean at the
approach of the War of the Austrian Succession, who forced
him to promise to observe neutrality under a threat to bombard
Naples, made a deep impression on his mind. It gave him a
feeling of hostility to England which in after-times influenced
his policy.
As king of the Two Sicilies Charles began there the work
of internal reform which he afterwards continued in Spain.
Foreign ministers who dealt with him agreed that he had no great
natural ability, but he was honestly desirous to do his duty as
king, and he showed good judgment in his choice of ministers.
The chief minister in Naples, Tanucci, had a considerable in-
fluence over him. On the death of his half-brother Ferdinand VI.
he became king of Spain, and resigned the Two Sicilies to his
third son Ferdinand. As king of Spain his foreign policy was
disastrous. His strong family feeling and his detestation of
England, which was unchecked after the death of his wife, Maria
Amelia, daughter of Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, led him
into the Family Compact with France. Spain was entangled in
the close of the Seven Years' War, to her great loss. In 1770 he
almost ran into another war over the barren Falkland Islands.
In 1779 he was, somewhat reluctantly, led to join France and
the American insurgents against England, though he well knew
that the independence of the English colonies must have a
ruinous influence on his own American dominions. For his army
he did practically nothing, and for his fleet very little except
build fine ships without taking measures to train officers and
men.
But his internal government was on the whole beneficial to the
country. He began by compelling the people of Madrid to give
up emptying their slops out of the windows, and when they
objected he said they were like children who cried when their
faces were washed. In 1766 his attempt to force the Madrilenos
to adopt the French dress led to a riot during which he did not
display much personal courage. For a long time after it he
remained at Aranjuez, leaving the government in the hands
of his minister Aranda. All his reforms were not of this formal
kind. Charles was a thorough despot of the benevolent order,
and had been deeply offended by the real or suspected share of
the Jesuits in the riot of 1766. He therefore consented to the
expulsion of the order, and was then the main advocate for its
suppression. His quarrel with the Jesuits, and the recollection
of some disputes with the pope he had had when king of Naples,
turned him towards a general policy of restriction of the over-
grown power of the church. The number of the idle clergy, and
more particularly of the monastic orders, was reduced, and the
Inquisition, though not abolished, was rendered torpid. In the
meantime much antiquated legislation which tended to restrict
trade and industry was abolished; roads, canals and drainage
works were carried out. Many of his paternal ventures led to
little more than waste of money, or the creation of hotbeds of
jobbery. Yet on the whole the country prospered. The result
was largely due to the king, who even when he was ill-advised
did at least work steadily at his task of government. His
example was not without effect on some at least of the nobles.
In his domestic life King Charles was regular, and was a con-
siderate master, though he had a somewhat caustic tongue
and took a rather cynical view of mankind. He was passionately
fond of hunting. During his later years he had some trouble
with his eldest son and his daughter-in-law. If Charles had lived
to see the beginning of the French Revolution he would probably
have been frightened into reaction. As he died on the 14th of
December 1788 he left the reputation of a philanthropic and
" philosophic " king. In spite of his hostility to the Jesuits, his
dislike of friars in general, and his jealousy of the Inquisition,
he was a very sincere Roman Catholic, and showed much zeal in
endeavouring to persuade the pope to proclaim the Immaculate
Conception as a dogma necessary to salvation.
See the Reign of Charles III., by M. Danvila y Collado (6 vols.),
in the Historia General de Espafta de la Real Academia de la Historic
(Madrid, 1892, &c); and F. Rousseau, Regne de Charles III
d'Espagne (Paris, 1907).
CHARLES IV. (1748-1819), king of Spain, second son of Charles
III. and his wife Maria Amelia of Saxony, was bom at Portia
on the nth of November 1748, while his father was king of the
Two Sicilies. The elder brother was set aside as imbecile and
epileptic. Charles had inherited a great frame and immense
physical strength from the Saxon line of his mother. When
young he was fond of wrestling with the strongest countrymen
he could find. In character he was not malignant, but he was
intellectually torpid, and of a credulity which almost passes
belief. His wife, Maria Luisa of Parma, his first cousin, a
thoroughly coarse and vicious woman, ruled him completely,
though he was capable of obstinacy at times. During his father's
lifetime he was led by her into court intrigues which aimed
at driving the king's favourite minister, Floridablanca, from
office, and replacing him by Aranda, the chief of the " Aragonese"
party. After he succeeded to the throne in 1788 his one serious
occupation was hunting. Affairs were left to be directed by his
wife and her lover Godoy (q.v.). For Godoy the king had an
unaffected liking, and the lifelong favour he showed him is almost
pathetic. When terrified by the French Revolution he turned
to the Inquisition to help him against the party which would have
carried the reforming policy of Charles III. much further. But
he was too slothful to have more than a passive part in the
direction of his own government. He simply obeyed the impulse
given him by the queen and Godoy. ' If he ever knew his wife's
real character he thought it more consistent with his dignity
to shut his eyes. For he had a profound belief in his divine right
and the sanctity of his person. If he understood that his king-
dom was treated as a mere dependence by France, he also thought
it due to his " face " to make believe that he was a powerful
monarch. Royalty never wore a more silly aspect than in the
person of Charles IV., and it is highly credible that he never
knew what his wife was, or what was the position of his kingdom.
When he was told that his son Ferdinand was appealing to the
emperor Napoleon against Godoy, he took the sideof the favourite.
When the populace rose at Aranjuez in 1808 he abdicated to save
the minister. He took refuge in France, and when he and
Ferdinand were both prisoners of Napoleon's, he was with
difficulty restrained from assaulting his son. Then he abdicated
in favour of Napoleon, handing over his people like a herd of
cattle. He accepted a pension from the French emperor and
spent the rest of his life between his wife and Godoy. He died
at Rome on the 20th of January 1819, probably without having
once suspected that he had done anything unbecoming a king
by divine right and a gentleman.
See Historia del Reinado de Carlos IV., by General Gomez de
Arteche (3 vols.), in the Historia General de Espafta de la Real
Academia de la Historia (Madrid, 1892, &c).
SWEDEN]
CHARLES IX.— X.
927
CHARLES IX. (1550-1611), king of Sweden, was the youngest
son of Gustavus Vasa and Margareto Lejonhufrud. By his
father's will he got, by way of appanage, the duchy of Sftderman-
land, which included the provinces of Nerik6 and Vermland;
but he did not come into actual possession of them till after the
fall of Eric XIV. (1569). In 1568 he was the real leader of the
rebellion against Erie, but took no part in the designs of his
brother John against the unhappy king after his deposition.
Indeed, Charles's relations with John III. were always more or
less strained. He had no sympathy with John's high-church
tendencies on the one hand, and he sturdily resisted all the king's
endeavours to restrict his authority as duke of Sodermanland
(Sudermania) on the other. The nobility and the majority of
the Riksdag supported John, however, in his endeavours to unify
the realm, and Charles had consequently (1587) to resign his
pretensions to autonomy within his duchy; but, fanatical
Calvinist as he was, on the religious question he was immovable.
The matter came to a crisis on the death of John III. (1592).
The heir to the throne was John's eldest son, Sigismund, already
king of Poland and a devoted Catholic. The fear lest Sigismund
might re-catholicize the land alarmed the Protestant majority
in Sweden, and Charles came forward as their champion, and also
as the defender of the Vasa dynasty against foreign interference.
It was due entirely to him that Sigismund was forced to confirm
the resolutions of the council of Upsala, thereby recognizing
the fact that Sweden was essentially a Protestant state (see
Sweden: History). In the ensuing years Charles's task was
extraordinarily difficult. He had steadily to oppose Sigismund's
reactionary tendencies; he had also to curb the nobility, which
he did with cruel rigour. Necessity compelled him to work
rather with the people than the gentry; hence it was that the
Riksdag assumed under his government a power and an im-
portance which it had never possessed before. In 1595 the
Riksdag of Sttderkoping elected Charles regent, and his attempt
to force Klas Flemming, governor of Finland, to submit to his
authority, rather than to that of the king, provoked a civil war.
Technically Charles was, without doubt, guilty of high treason,
and the considerable minority of all classes which adhered to
Sigismund on his landing in Sweden in 1 598 indisputably behaved
like loyal subjects. But Sigismund was both an alien and a
heretic to the majority of the Swedish nation, and his formal
deposition by the Riksdag in 1 599 was, in effect, a natural vindica-
tion and legitimation of Charles's position. Finally, the diet of
Linkoping (Feb. 24, 1600) declared that Sigismund and his
posterity had forfeited the Swedish throne, and, passing over
duke John, the second son of John III., a youth of ten, recognized
duke Charles as their sovereign under the title of Charles IX.
Charles's short reign was an uninterrupted warfare. The hos-
tility of Poland and the break up of Russia involved him in two
overseas contests for the possession of Livonia and Ingria,
while his pretensions to Lapland brought upon him a war with
Denmark in the last year of his reign. In all these struggles
he was more or less unsuccessful, owing partly to the fact that
he had to do with superior generals (e.g. Chodkiewicz and
Christian IV.) and partly to sheer ill-luck. Compared with his
foreign policy, the domestic policy of Charles IX. was com-
paratively unimportant. It aimed at confirming and supple-
menting what had already been done during his regency. Not
till the 6th of March 1604, after Duke John had formally
renounced his rights to the throne, did Charles IX. begin to style
himself king. The first deed in which the title appears is dated
the 20th of March 1604; but he was not crowned till the 15th of
March 1607. Four and a half years later Charles IX. died at
Nykoping (Oct. 30, 161 1). As a ruler he is the link between
his great father and his still greater son. He consolidated the
work of Gustavus Vasa, the creation of a great Protestant state:
he prepared the way for the erection of the Protestant empire
of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish historians have been excusably
indulgent to the father of their greatest ruler. Indisputably
Charles was cruel, ungenerous and vindictive; yet he seems,
at all hazards, strenuously to have endeavoured to do his duty
during a period of political and religious transition, and, despite
his violence and brutality, possessed many of the qualities of a
wise and courageous statesman. By his first wife Marie, daughter
of the elector palatine Louis VI., he had six children, of whom
only one daughter, Catherine, survived; by his second wife,
Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
he had five children, including Gustavus Adolphus and Charles
Philip, duke of Finland.
See Sveriges Historia, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1878) ; Robert Nisbet
Bain, Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1905) , caps. 5-7. (R. N. B.)
CHARLES X. [Charles Gustavus] (1622-1660), king of
Sweden, son of John Casimir, count palatine of Zweibnicken,
and Catherine, sister of Gustavus Adolphus, was born at Nykop-
ing Castle on the 8th of November 1622. He learnt the art of
war under the great Lennart Torstensson, being present at the
second battle of Breitenfeld and at Jankowitz. From 1646
to 1648 he frequented the Swedish court. It was supposed that
he would marry the queen regnant, Christina, but her unsur-
mountable objection to wedlock put an end to these anticipations,
and to compensate her cousin for a broken half-promise she
declared him (1649) her successor, despite the opposition of the
senate headed by the venerable Axel Oxenstjerna. In 1648 he
was appointed generalissimo of the Swedish forces in Germany.
The conclusion of the treaties of Westphalia prevented him from
winning the military laurels he so ardently desired, but as the
Swedish plenipotentiary at the executive congress of Nuremberg,
he had unrivalled opportunities of learning diplomacy, in which
science he speedily became a past-master. As the recognized
heir to the throne, his position on his return to Sweden was not
without danger, for the growing discontent with the queen
turned the eyes of thousands to him as a possible deliverer.
He therefore withdrew to the isle of Oland till the abdication of
Christina (June 5, 1654) called him to the throne.
The beginning of his reign was devoted to the healing of
domestic discords, and the rallying of all the forces of the nation
round his standard for a new policy of conquest. He contracted
a political marriage (Oct. 24, 1654) with Hedwig Leonora, the
daughter of Frederick HI., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by way of
securing a future ally against Denmark. The two great pressing
national questions, war and the restitution of the alienated crown
lands, were duly considered at the Riksdag which assembled
at Stockholm in March 1655. The war question was decided in
three days by a secret committee presided over by the king, who
easily persuaded the delegates that a war with Poland was
necessary and might prove very advantageous; but the con-
sideration of the question of the subsidies due to the crown
for military purposes was postponed to the following Riksdag
(see Sweden: History). On the 10th of July Charles quitted
Sweden to engage in his Polish adventure. By the time war was
declared he had at his disposal 50,000 men and 50 warships.
Hostilities had already begun with the occupation of Diinaburg
(Dvinsk) in Polish Livonia by the Swedes (July 1, 1655), and
the Polish army encamped among the marshes of the Netze
concluded a convention (July 25) whereby the palatinates of
Posen and Kalisz placed themselves under the protection of the
Swedish king. Thereupon the Swedes entered Warsaw without
opposition and occupied the whole of Great Poland. The Polish
king, John Casimir, fled to Silesia. Meanwhile Charles pressed
on towards Cracow, which was captured after a two months'
siege. The fall of Cracow extinguished the last hope of the
boldest Pole; but before the end of the year an extraordinary
reaction began in Poland itself. On the 18th of October the
Swedes invested the fortress-monastery of Czenstochowa, but
the place was heroically defended; and after a seventy days'
siege the besiegers were compelled to retire with great loss.
This astounding success elicited an outburst of popular
enthusiasm which gave the war a national and religious character.
The tactlessness of Charles, the rapacity of his generals, the
barbarity of his mercenaries, his refusal to legalize his position
by summoning the Polish diet, his negotiations for the partition
of the very state he affected to befriend, awoke the long slumber-
ing public spirit of the country. In the beginning of 1656 John
Casimir returned from exile and the Polish army was reorganized
928
CHARLES X.
and increased. By this time Charles had discovered that it
was easier to defeat the Poles than to conquer Poland. His
chief object, the conquest of Prussia, was still unaccomplished,
and a new foe arose in the elector of Brandenburg, alarmed by
the ambition of the Swedish king. Charles forced the elector,
indeed, at the point of the sword to become his ally and
vassal (treaty of Konigsberg, Jan. 17, 1656); but the Polish
national rising now imperatively demanded his presence in the
south. For weeks he scoured the interminable snow-covered
plains of Poland in pursuit of the Polish guerillas, penetrating
as far south as Jaroslau in Galicia, by which time he had lost
two- thirds of his 15,000 men with no apparent result. His
retreat from Jaroslau to Warsaw, with the fragments of his host,
amidst three converging armies, in a marshy forest region,
intersected in every direction by well-guarded rivers, was one
of his most brilliant achievements. But his necessities were
overwhelming. On the 21st of June Warsaw was retaken by
the Poles, and four days later Charles was obliged to purchase
the assistance of Frederick William by the treaty of Marienburg.
On July 18-20 the combined Swedes and Brandenburgers,
18,000 strong, after a three days' battle, defeated John Casimir's
army of 100,000 at Warsaw and reoccupied the Polish capital;
but this brilliant feat of arms was altogether useless, and when
the suspicious attitude of Frederick William compelled the
Swedish king at last to open negotiations with the Poles, they
refused the terms offered, the war was resumed, and Charles
concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with the elector
of Brandenburg (treaty of Labiau, Nov. 20) whereby it was
agreed that Frederick William and his heirs should henceforth
possess the full sovereignty of East Prussia.
This was an essential modification of Charles's Baltic policy;
but the alliance of the elector had now become indispensable
on almost any terms. So serious, indeed, were the difficulties
of Charles X. in Poland that it was with extreme satisfaction
that he received the tidings of the Danish declaration of war
(June 1, 1657). The hostile action of Denmark enabled him
honourably to emerge from the inglorious Polish imbroglio, and
he was certain of the zealous support of his own people. He had
learnt from Torstensson that Denmark was most vulnerable
if attacked from the south, and, imitating the strategy of his
master, he fell upon her with a velocity which paralysed resist-
ance. At the end of June 1657, at the head of 8000 seasoned
veterans, he broke up from Bromberg in Prussia and reached
the borders of Holstein on the 1 8th of July. The Danish army
at once dispersed and the duchy of Bremen was recovered by
the Swedes, who in the early autumn swarmed over Jutland and
firmly established themselves in the duchies. But the fortress
of Fredriksodde (Fredericia) held Charles's little army at bay
from mid-August to mid-October, while the fleet of Denmark,
after a stubborn two days' battle, compelled the Swedish fleet
to abandon its projected attack on the Danish islands. The
position of the Swedish king had now become critical. In July
an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Den-
mark and Poland. Still more ominously, the elector of Branden-
burg, perceiving Sweden to be in difficulties, joined the league
against her and compelled Charles to accept the proffered
mediation of Cromwell and Mazarin. The negotiations foundered,
however, upon the refusal of Sweden to refer the points in
dispute to a general peace-congress, and Charles was still further
encouraged by the capture of Fredriksodde (Oct. 23-24),
whereupon he began to make preparations for conveying his
troops over to Funen in transport vessels. But soon another
and cheaper expedient presented itself. In the middle of
December 1657 began the great frost which was to be so fatal
to Denmark. In a few weeks the cold had grown so intense that
even the freezing of an arm of the sea with so rapid a current as
the Little Belt became a conceivable possibility; and hence-
forth meteorological observations formed an essential part of
the strategy of the Swedes. On the 28th of January 1658,
Charles X. arrived at Haderslev (Hadersleben) in South Jutland,
when it was estimated that in a couple of days the ice of the
Little Belt would be firm enough to bear even the passage of a
[SWEDEN
mail-clad host. The cold during the night of the 20th of January
was most severe; and early in the morning of the 30th the
Swedish king gave the order to start, the horsemen dismounting
where the ice was weakest, and cautiously leading their horses
as far apart as possible, when they swung into their saddles
again, closed their ranks and made a dash for the shore. The
Danish troops lining the opposite coast were quickly over-
powered, and the whole of Ftlnen was won with the loss of only
two companies of cavalry, which disappeared under the ice
while fighting with the Danish left wing. Pursuing his irresistible
march, Charles X., with his eyes fixed steadily on Copenhagen,
resolved to cross the frozen Great Belt also. After some hesita-
tion, he accepted the advice of his chief engineer officer Eric
Dahlberg, who acted as pioneer throughout and chose the more
circuitous route from Svendborg, by the islands of Langeland,
Laaland and Falster, in preference to the direct route from
Nyborg to Korsor, which would have been across a broad,
almost uninterrupted expanse of ice. Yet this second adventure
was not embarked upon without much anxious consideration.
A council of war, which met at two o'clock in the morning to
consider the practicability of Dahlberg's proposal, at once
dismissed it as criminally hazardous. Even the king wavered
for an instant; but, Dahlberg persisting in his opinion, Charles
overruled the objections of the commanders. On the night of
the 5th of February the transit began, the cavalry leading the
way through the snow-covered ice, which quickly thawed
beneath the horses' hoofs so that the infantry which followed
after had to wade through half an ell of sludge, fearing every
moment lest the rotting ice should break beneath their feet.
At three o'clock in the afternoon, Dahlberg leading the way,
the army reached Grimsted in Laaland without losing a man.
On the 8th of February Charles reached Falster. On the nth
he stood safely on the soil of Sjaelland (Zealand). Not without
reason did the medal struck to commemorate " the glorious
transit of the Baltic Sea " bear the haughty inscription: Natura
hoc debuit uni. An exploit unique in history had been achieved.
The crushing effect of this unheard-of achievement on the
Danish government found expression in the treaties of Taastrup
(Feb. 18) and Roskilde (Feb. 26, 1658), whereby Denmark
sacrificed nearly half her territory to save the rest (see
Denmark: History). But even this was not enough for the
conqueror. Military ambition and greed of conquest moved
Charles X. to what, divested of all its pomp and circumstance,
was an outrageous act of political brigandage. At a council held
at Gottorp (July 7), Charles X. resolved to wipe from the map
of Europe an inconvenient rival, and without any warning, in
defiance of all international equity, let loose his veterans upon
Denmark a second time. For the details of this second struggle,
with the concomitant diplomatic intervention of the western
powers, see Denmark: History, and Sweden: History. Only
after great hesitation would Charles X. consent to reopen
negotiations with Denmark direct, at the same time proposing
to exercise pressure upon the enemy by a simultaneous winter
campaign in Norway. Such an enterprise necessitated fresh
subsidies from his already impoverished people, and obliged
him in December 1659 to cross over to Sweden to meet the
estates, whom he had summoned to Gothenburg. The lower
estates murmured at the imposition of fresh burdens; and
Charles had need of all his adroitness to persuade them that his
demands were reasonable and necessary. At the very beginning
of the Riksdag, in January 1660, it was noticed that the king
was ill; but he spared himself as little in the council-chamber
as in the battle-field, till death suddenly overtook him on the
night of the 13 th of February 1660, in his thirty-eighth year.
The abrupt cessation of such an inexhaustible fount of enterprise
and energy was a distinct loss to Sweden; and signs are not
wanting that, in his latter years, Charles had begun to feel the
need and value of repose. Had he lived long enough to overcome
his martial ardour, and develop and organize the empire he
helped to create, Sweden might perhaps have remained a great
power to this day. Even so she owes her natural frontiers in
the Scandinavian peninsula to Charles X.
SWEDEN]
CHARLES XI.— XII.
929
See Martin Veibull, Sveriges Storhedstid (Stockholm, 1881);
Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, Sveriges Historia under Konungarne of
Pfalziska Huset (Stockholm, 1883-1885) ; E. Haumant, La Guerre du
nord et la paix d'Oliva (Paris, 1803); Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandi-
navia (Cambridge, 1905); G. Jones, The Diplomatic Relations
between Cromwell and Charles X. (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1897). (R.N.B.)
CHARLES XI. (1655-1697), king of Sweden, the only son of
Charles X., and Hedwig Leonora of Holstein-Gottorp, was born
in the palace at Stockholm, on the 24th of November 1655.
His father, who died when the child was in his fourth year,
left the care of his education to the regents whom he had ap-
pointed. So shamefully did they neglect their duty that when,
at the age of seventeen, Charles XI. attained his majority,
he was ignorant of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost
illiterate. Yet those nearest to him had great hopes of him.
He was known to be truthful, upright and God-fearing; if he
had neglected his studies it was to devote himself to manly
sports and exercises; and in the pursuit of his favourite pastime,
bear-hunting, he had already given proofs of the most splendid
courage. It was the general disaster produced by the speculative
policy of his former guardians which first called forth his sterling
qualities and hardened him into a premature manhood. With
indefatigable energy he at once attempted to grapple with the
difficulties of the situation, waging an almost desperate struggle
with sloth, corruption and incompetence. Amidst universal
anarchy, the young king, barely twenty years of age, inex-
perienced, ill-served, snatching at every expedient, worked day
and night in his newly-formed camp in Scania (Skane) to arm
the nation for its mortal struggle. The victory of Fyllebro
(Aug. 17, 1676), when Charles and his commander-in-chief
S. G. Helmfeld routed a Danish division, was the first gleam
of good luck, and on the 4th of December, on the tableland
of Helgonaback, near Lund, the young Swedish monarch defeated
Christian V. of Denmark, who also commanded his army in
person. After a ferocious contest, the Danes were practically
annihilated. The battle of Lund was, relatively to the number
engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times.
More than half the combatants (8357, of whom 3000 were
Swedes) actually perished on the battle-field. All the Swedish
commanders showed remarkable ability, but the chief glory
of the day indisputably belongs to Charles XI. This great victory
restored to the Swedes their self-confidence and prestige. In
the following year, Charles with 0000 men routed 12,000 Danes
near Malmtt (July 1 5, 1678). This proved to be the last pitched
battle of the war, the Danes never again venturing to attack
their once more invincible enemy in the open field. In 1 679 Louis
XIV. dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI.,
who bitterly resented " the insufferable tutelage " of the French
king, was forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least
left his empire practically intact. Charles devoted the rest of his
life to the gigantic task of rehabilitating Sweden by means of a
reduction, or recovery of alienated crown lands, a process which
involved the examination of every title deed in the kingdom,
and resulted in the complete readjustment of the finances.
But vast as it was, the reduktion represents only a tithe of Charles
XI. 's immense activity. The constructive part of his administra-
tion was equally thorough-going, and entirely beneficial. Here,
too, everything was due to his personal initiative. Finance,
commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial
procedure, church government, education, even art and science —
everything, in short — emerged recast from his shaping hand.
Charles XI. died on the 5th of April 1697, in his forty-first year.
By his beloved consort Ulrica Leonora of Denmark, from the
shock of whose death in July 1693 he never recovered, he had
seven children, of whom only three survived him, a son Charles,
and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein, and
Ulrica Leonora, who ultimately succeeded her brother on the
Swedish throne. After Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus
Charles XI. was, perhaps, the greatest of all the kings of Sweden.
His modest, homespun figure has indeed been unduly eclipsed by
the brilliant and colossal shapes of his heroic father and his
meteoric son; yet in reality Charles XI. is far worthier of
admiration than either Charles X. or Charles XII. He was in
an eminent degree a great master-builder. He found Sweden
in ruins, and devoted his whole life to laying the solid founda-
tions of a new order of things which, in its essential features,
has endured to the present day.
See Martin Veibull, Sveriges Storhedstid (Stockholm, 1881);
Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, Sveriges Historia under Konungarne of
Pfalziska Huset (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert Nisbet Bain,
Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1905); O. Sjogren, Karl den Elfte och
Svenska Folket (Stockholm, j 897); S. Jacobsen, Den nordiske
Kriegs Krdnicke, 1675-1679 (Copenhagen, 1897); J. A. de Mesmes
d'Avaux, NSgociations du comte d'Avaux, 1693, 1697, 1698 (Utrecht,
1882, &c). (R. N. B.)
CHARLES XII. (1682-1 718), king of Sweden, the only surviving
son of Charles XI. and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of Frederick III.
of Denmark, was born on the 17 th of June 1682. He was care-
fully educated by excellent tutors under the watchful eyes of his
parents. His natural parts were excellent; and a strong bias
in the direction of abstract thought, and mathematics in particular,
was noticeable at an early date. His memory was astonishing.
He could translate Latin into Swedish or German, or Swedish
or German into Latin at sight. Charles XL personally supervised
his son's physical training. He was taught to ride before he was
four, at eight was quite at home in his saddle, and when only
eleven, brought down his first bear at a single shot. As he grew
older his father took him on all his rounds, reviewing troops,
inspecting studs, foundries, dockyards and granaries. Thus the
lad was gradually initiated into all the minutiae of administration.
The influence of Charles XL over his son was, indeed, far greater
than is commonly supposed, and it accounts for much in Charles
XII. 's character which is otherwise inexplicable, for instance
his precocious reserve and taciturnity, his dislike of everything
French, and his inordinate contempt for purely diplomatic
methods. On the whole, his early training was admirable; but
the young prince was not allowed the opportunity of gradually
gaining experience under his guardians. At the Riksdag assembled
at Stockholm in 1697, the estates, jealous of the influence of the
regents, offered full sovereignty to the young monarch, the senate
acquiesced, and, after some hesitation, Charles at last declared
that he could not resist the urgent appeal of his subjects and
would take over the government of the realm " in God's name."
The subsequent coronation was marked by portentous novelties,
the most significant of which was the king's omission to take
the usual coronation oath, which omission was interpreted to
mean that he considered himself under no obligation to his
subjects. The general opinion of the young king was, however,
still favourable. His conduct was evidently regulated by strict
principle and not by mere caprice. His refusal to counte-
nance torture as an instrument of judicial investigation, on the
ground that " confessions so extorted give no sure criteria for
forming a judgment," showed him to be more humane as well
as more enlightened than the majority of his council, which had
defended the contrary opinion. His intense application to affairs
is noted by the English minister, John Robinson (1650-17 23),
who informed his court that there was every prospect of a happy
reign in Sweden, provided his majesty were well served and did
not injure his health by too much work.
The coalition formed against Sweden by Johann Reinhold
Patkul, which resulted in the outbreak of the Great Northern War
(1699) , abruptly put an end to Charles XII.'s political apprentice-
ship, and forced into his hand the sword he was never again to
relinquish. The young king resolved to attack the nearest
of his three enemies — Denmark — first. The timidity of the
Danish admiral Ulrik C. Gyldenlove, and the daring of Charles,
who forced his nervous and protesting admiral to attempt the
passage of the eastern channel of the Sound, the dangerous
flinterend, hitherto reputed to be unnavigable, enabled the Swedish
king to effect a landing at Humleback in Sjaelland (Zealand),
a few miles north of Copenhagen (Aug. 4, 1700). He now
hoped to accomplish what his grandfather, fifty years before, had
vainly attempted — the destruction of the Danish-Norwegian
monarchy by capturing its capital. But for once prudential
considerations prevailed, and the short and bloodless war
was terminated by the peace of Travendal (Aug. 18), whereby
93°
CHARLES XII.
[SWEDEN
Frederick IV. conceded full sovereignty to Charles's ally and
kinsman the duke of Gottorp, besides paying him an indemnity
of 200,000 rix-dollars and solemnly engaging to commit no
hostilities against Sweden in future. From Sjaelland Charles
now hastened to Livonia with 8000 men. On the 6th of October
he had reached Pernau, with the intention of first relieving Riga,
but, hearing that Narva was in great straits, he decided to turn
northwards against the tsar. He set out for Narva on the 13 th
of November, against the advice of all his generals, who feared
the effect on untried troops of a week's march through a wasted
land, along boggy roads guarded by no fewer than three formid-
able passes which a little engineering skill could easily have
made impregnable. Fortunately, the two first passes were
unoccupied; and the third, Pyhajoggi, was captured by Charles,
who with 400 horsemen put 6000 Russian cavalry to flight.
On the 19th of November the little army reached Lagena, a
village about 9 m. from Narva, whence it signalled its approach
to the beleaguered fortress, and early on the following morning
it advanced in battle array. The attack on the Russian fortified
camp began at two o'clock in the afternoon, in the midst of a
violent snowstorm; and by nightfall the whole position was in
the hands of the Swedes: the Russian army was annihilated.
The triumph was as cheap as it was crushing; it cost Charles
less than 2000 men.
After Narva, Charles XII. stood at the parting of ways. His
best advisers urged him to turn all his forces against the panic-
stricken Muscovites; to go into winter-quarters amongst them
and live at their expense; to fan into a flame the smouldering
discontent caused by the reforms of Peter the Great, and so
disable Russia for some time to come. But Charles's determina-
tion promptly to punish the treachery of Augustus prevailed
over every other consideration. It is easy from the vantage-
point of two centuries to criticize Charles XII. for neglecting
the Russians to pursue the Saxons; but at the beginning of the
1 8th century his decision was natural enough. The real question
was, which of the two foes was the more dangerous, and Charles
had many reasons to think the civilized and martial Saxons far
more formidable than the imbecile Muscovites. Charles also
rightly felt that he could never trust the treacherous Augustus
to remain quiet, even if he made peace with him. To leave
such a foe in his rear, while he plunged into the heart of Russia
would have been hazardous indeed. From this point of view
Charles's whole Polish policy, which has been blamed so long
and so loudly 6 — the policy of placing a nominee of his own on the
Polish throne — takes quite another complexion: it was a policy
not of overvaulting ambition, but of prudential self-defence.
First, however, Charles cleared Livonia of the invader (July
1 701), subsequently occupying the duchy of Courland and
converting it into a Swedish governor-generalship. In January
1702 Charles established himself at Bielowice in Lithuania, and,
after issuing a proclamation declaring that " the elector of
Saxony " had forfeited the Polish crown, set out for Warsaw,
which he reached on the 14th of May. The cardinal-primate
was then sent for and commanded to summon a diet, for the
purpose of deposing Augustus. A fortnight later Charles quitted
Warsaw, to seek the elector; on the 2nd of July routed the
combined Poles and Saxons at Klissow; and three weeks later,
captured the fortress of Cracow by an act of almost fabulous
audacity. Thus, within four months of the opening of the
campaign, the Polish capital and the coronation city were both
in the possession of the Swedes. After Klissow, Augustus made
every effort to put an end to the war, but Charles would not even
consider his offers. By this time, too, he had conceived a passion
for the perils and adventures of warfare. His character was
hardening, and he deliberately adopted the most barbarous
expedients for converting the Augustan Poles to his views.
Such commands as " ravage, singe, and burn all about, and
reduce the whole district to a wilderness! " " sweat contribu-
tions well out of them!" "rather let the innocent suffer than
the guilty escape!" became painfully frequent in the mouth
of the young commander, not yet 21, who was far from being
naturally cruel.
The campaign of 1703 was remarkable for Charles's victory
at Pultusk (April 21) and the long siege of Thorn, which occupied
him eight months but cost him only 50 men. On the 2nd of
July 1704, with the assistance of a bribing fund, Charles's
ambassador at Warsaw, Count Arvid Bernard Horn, succeeded
in forcing through the election of Charles's candidate to the
Polish throne, Stanislaus Leszczynski, who could not be crowned
however till the 24th of September 1705, by which time the
Saxons had again been defeated at Punitz. From the autumn
of 1705 to the spring of 1706, Charles was occupied in pursuing
the Russian auxiliary army under Ogilvie through the forests
of Lithuania. On the 5th of August, he recrossed the Vistula
and established himself in Saxony, where his presence in the
heart of Europe at the very crisis of the war of the Spanish
Succession, fluttered all the western diplomats. The allies,
in particular, at once suspected that Louis XIV. had bought
the Swedes. Marlborough was forthwith sent from the Hague
to the castle of Altranstadt near Leipzig, where Charles had
fixed his headquarters, " to endeavour to penetrate the designs "
of the king of Sweden. He soon convinced himself that western
Europe had nothing to fear from Charles, and that no bribes
were necessary to turn the Swedish arms from Germany to
Russia. Five months later (Sept. 1707) Augustus was
forced to sign the peace of Altranstadt, whereby he resigned the
Polish throne and renounced every anti-Swedish alliance.
Charles's departure from Saxony was delayed for twelve months
by a quarrel with the emperor. The court of Vienna had treated
the Silesian Protestants with tyrannical severity, in direct
contravention of the treaty of Osnabriick, of which Sweden was
one of the guarantors; and Charles demanded summary and
complete restitution so dictatorially that the emperor prepared
for war. But the allies interfered in Charles's favour, lest he
might be tempted to aid France, and induced the emperor to
satisfy all the Swedish king's demands, the maritime Powers
at the same time agreeing to guarantee the provisions of the
peace of Altranstadt.
Nothing now prevented Charles from turning his victorious
arms against the tsar; and on the 13th of August 1707, he
evacuated Saxony at the head of the largest host he ever com-
manded, consisting of 24,000 horse and 20,000 foot. Delayed
during the autumn months in Poland by the tardy arrival of
reinforcements from Pomerania, it was not till November 1707
that Charles was able to take the field. On New Year's Day
1708 he crossed the Vistula, though the ice was in a dangerous
condition. On the 4th of July 1708 he cut in two the line of the
Russian army, 6 m. long, which barred his progress on the Wabis,
near Holowczyn, and compelled it to retreat. The victory of
Holowczyn, memorable besides as the last pitched battle won
by Charles XII., opened up the way to the Dnieper. The
Swedish army now began to suffer severely, bread and fodder
running short, and the soldiers subsisting entirely on captured
bullocks. The Russians slowly retired before the invader,
burning and destroying everything in his path. On the 20th of
December it was plain to Charles himself that Moscow was
inaccessible. But the idea of a retreat was intolerable to him,
so he determined to march southwards instead of northwards
as suggested by his generals, and join his forces with those of the
hetman of the Dnieperian Cossacks, Ivan Mazepa, who had
100,000 horsemen and a fresh and fruitful land at his disposal.
Short of falling back upon Livonia, it was the best plan adoptable
in the circumstances, but it was rendered abortive by Peter's
destruction of Mazepa's capital Baturin, so that when Mazepa
joined Charles at Horki, on the 8th of November 1708, it was as a
ruined man with little more than 1300 personal attendants (see
Mazepa-Koledinsky). A still more serious blow was the
destruction of the relief army which Levenhaupt was bringing to
Charles from Livonia, and which, hampered by hundreds of
loaded wagons, was overtaken and almost destroyed by Peter at
Lyesna after a two days' battle against fourfold odds (October).
The very elements now began to fight against the perishing but
still unconquered host. The winter of 1708 was the severest
that Europe had known for a century. By the 1st of November
SWEDEN]
CHARLES XIII.— XIV.
93i
firewood would not ignite in the opl air, and the soldiers
warmed themselves over big bonfires ottraw. By the time the
army reached the little Ukrainian fortiB of Hadjaca in January
1709, wine and spirits froze into soliraasses of ice; birds on
the wing fell dead; saliva congealedn its passage from the
mouth to the ground. " Neverthele," says an eye-witness,
11 though earth, sea and sky were agast us, the king's orders
had to be obeyed and the daily marctaade."
Never had Charles XII. seemed superhuman as during
these awful days. It is not too much) say that his imperturb-
able equanimity, his serene bonkomktpt the host together.
The frost broke at the end of Februau 7°9> and then the spring
floods put an end to all active opexaUs till May, when Charles
began the siege of the fortress of P;ava, which he wished to
make a base for subsequent operatio while awaiting reinforce-
ments from Sweden and Poland. ( the 7th of June a bullet
wound put Charles hors de combat, hereupon Peter threw the
greater part of his forces over the ri? Vorskla, which separated
the two armies (June 10-25). On t 26th of June Charles held
a council of war, at which it was reared to attack the Russians
in their entrenchments on. the f owing day. The Sw.edes
joyfully accepted the chances of ittle and, advancing with
irresistible tlan, were, at first, suc«sful on both wings. Then
one or two tactical blunders wei committed; and the tsar,
taking courage, enveloped the lit band in a vast semicircle
bristling with the most modern gs, which fired five times to
the Swedes' once, and swept ay the guards before they
could draw their swords. The Stiish infantry was well nigh
annihilated, while the 14,000 caval> exhausted and demoralized,
surrendered two days later at Pereiochna on Dnieper. Charles
himself with 1500 horsemen tookfuge in Turkish territory.
For the first time in his life CHes was now obliged to have
recourse to diplomacy; and his n proved almost as formid-
able as his sword. He procured I dismissal of four Russo-phil
grand-viziers in succession, and tween 1710 and 1712 induced
the Porte to declare war against t tsar three times. But after
November 171 2 the Porte had more money to spare; and,
the tsar making a show of subm&n, the sultan began to regard
Charles as a troublesome guest.On the 1st of February 17 13
he was attacked by the Turks iris camp at Bender, and made
prisoner after a contest which ids more like an extravagant
episode from some heroic folkte than an incident of sober
18th-century history. Charlesngered on in Turkey fifteen
months longer, in the hope of taining a cavalry escort suffi-
ciently strong to enable him restore his credit in Poland.
Disappointed of this last hop*nd moved by the despairing
appeals of his sister Ulrica andie senate to return to Sweden
while there was still a Sweden teturn to, he quitted Demotika
on the 20th of September 1714JKI attended by a single squire
arrived unexpectedly at midnit, on the nth of November,
at Stralsund, which, excepting Vmar, was now all that remained
to him on German soil.
For the diplomatic events obese critical years see Sweden:
History. Here it need only teaid that Sweden, during the
course of the Great Northern W had innumerable opportunities
of obtaining an honourable aieven advantageous peace, but
they all foundered on the dogl refusal of Charles to consent
to the smallest concession to hlespoilers. Even now he would
listen to no offers of comprom, and after defending Stralsund
with desperate courage till it t a mere rubbish heap, returned
to Sweden after an absence! 14 years. Here he collected
another army of 20,000 men, wiwhich he so strongly entrenched
himself on the Scanian coast 17*6 that his combined enemies
shrank from attacking him, wreupon he assumed the offensive
by attacking Norway in i7iand again in 17 18, in order to
conquer sufficient territory toable him to extort better terms
from his enemies. It was dug this second adventure that he
met his death. On the nttf December, when the Swedish
approaches had come within > paces of the fortress of Fredrik-
sten, which the Swedes weriosely besieging, Charles looked
over the parapet of the forest trench, and was shot through
the head by a bullet from thortress.
See Charles XII., Die eigenhdndigen Briefe Konit Karls XII.
(Berlin, 1894); Friedrich Ferdinand Carlson, Sveriges Historia under
Konungarne af Pfalziska Huset (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert
Nisbet Bain, Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire
(London and Oxford, 1895); Bidrag til den Store Nordiske Krigs
Historic (Copenhagen, 1 800-1900); G. Syveton, Louis XIV et
Charles XII (Paris, 1900); Daniel Krmann, Historia ablegationis
D. Krmann ad regem Sueciae Carolum XII. (Budapest, 1894);
Oscar II., N&gra bidrag till Sveriees Krigshistoria dren 1711-1713
(Stockholm, 1892) ; Martin Weibull, Sveriges StorhedsUd (Stockholm,
1881). (R. N. B.)
CHARLES XIII. (1748-1818), king of Sweden and Norway,
the second son of Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and
Louisa Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great, was born at Stock-
holm on the 7th of October 1748. In 1772 he co-operated in the
revolutionary plans of his brother Gustavus III. (q.v.). On the
outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788 he served with
distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the battles of
Hogland (June 17, 1788) and Oland (July 26, 1789). On the
latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the
unaccountable remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral
Liljehorn. On the death of Gustavus III., Charles, now duke
of Sudermania, acted as regent of Sweden till 1796; but the real
ruler of the country was the narrow-minded and vindictive
Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm (q.v.), whose mischievous influence
over him was supreme. These four years were perhaps the most
miserable and degrading in Swedish history (an age of lead
succeeding an age of gold, as it has well been called) and may be
briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and
ruthless despotism. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November
1796), the duke became a mere cipher fn politics till the 13th of
March 1809, when those who had dethroned Gustavus IV.
appointed him regent, and finally elected him king. But by this
time he was prematurely decrepit, and Bernadotte (see Charles
XIV.) took over the government as soon as he landed in Sweden
(1810). By the union of 1814 Charles became the first king of
Sweden and Norway. He married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth
Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (17 59-1818), but their only child,
Carl Adolf, duke of Vermland,, died in infancy (1798). Charles
XIII. , who for eight years had been king only in title, died on
the 5th of February 1818.
See Sveriges Historia vol. v. (Stockholm, 1884) ; Drottning Hedwig
Charlottes Dagbokshandteckningar (Stockholm, 1898); Robert Nisbet
Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London, 1895); ib.
Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)
CHARLES XIV. (1 763-1 844), king of Sweden and Norway,
born at Pau on the 26th of January 1763, was the son of Henri
Bernadotte (1711-1780), procurator at Pau, and Jeanne St Jean
(1725-1809). The family name was originally Deu Pouey,
but was changed into Bernadotte in the beginning of the 17th
century. Bernadotte's christian names were Jean Baptiste;
he added the name Jules subsequently. He entered the French
army on the 3rd of September 1780, and first saw service in
Corsica. On the outbreak of the Revolution his eminent military
qualities brought him speedy promotion. In 1794 we find him
as brigadier attached to the army of the Sambre et Meuse, and
after Jourdan's victory at Fleurus he was appointed a general
of division. At the battle of Theiningen, 1796, he contributed,
more than any one else, to the successful retreat of the French
army over the Rhine after its defeat by the archduke Charles.
In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's
army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the
Tagliamento, and in 1798 was sent as ambassador to Vienna,
but was compelled to quit his post owing to the disturbances
caused by his hoisting the tricolor over the embassy. On the
16th of August 1798 he married Desiree Clary (1777-1860),
the daughter of a Marseilles banker, and sister of Joseph Bona-
parte's wife. From the 2nd of July to the 14th of September
he was war minister, in which capacity he displayed great ability.
About this time he held aloof from Bonaparte, but though he
declined to help Napoleon in the preparations for the coup oV&tat
of November 1799, he accepted employment from the Consulate,
and from April 1800 till the 18th of August 1801 commanded
the army in La Vendee. On the introduction of the empire he
932
CHARLES XV.— CHARLES THE BOLD
was made one of the eighteen marshals of France, and, from
June 1804 to September 1805, acted as governor of the recently-
occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte
with an army corps from Hanover co-operated in the great
movement which resulted in the shutting up of Mack in Ulm.
He was rewarded for his services at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805)
by the principality of Ponte Corvo (June 5, 1806), but during the
campaign against Prussia, the same year, was severely reproached
by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the
battles of Jena and Auerstadt, though close at hand. In 1808,
as governor of the Hanse towns, he was to have directed the
expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan
came to nought because of the want of transports and the
defection of the Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria,
Bernadotte led the Saxon contingent at the battle of Wagram,
on which occasion, on his own initiative he issued an order of
the day, attributing the victory principally to the valour of his
Saxons, which Napoleon at once disavowed.
Bernadotte, considerably piqued, thereupon returned to Paris,
where the council of ministers entrusted him with the defence
of the Netherlands against the English. In 18 10 he was about
to enter upon his new post of governor of Rome when he was,
unexpectedly, elected successor to the Swedish throne, partly
because a large part of the Swedish army, in view of future
complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier,
and partly because Bernadotte was very popular in Sweden,
owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners
during the late war with Denmark. The matter was decided
by one of the Swedish couriers, Baron Karl Otto Morner,
who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to
the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated
Mdrner's offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an
absurdity. Bernadotte thereupon informed Morner that he
would not refuse the honour if he were duly elected. Although
the Swedish government, amazed at Mdrner's effrontery, at once
placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature
of Bernadotte gradually gained favour there, and, on the 21st
of August 1 810, he was elected crown-prince.
On the 2nd of November Bernadotte made his solemn entry
into Stockholm, and on the 5th he received the homage of the
estates and was adopted by Charles XIII. under the name of
Charles John. The new crown-prince was very soon the most
popular and the most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity
of the old king and the dissensions in the council of state placed
the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs,
entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the
acquisition of Norway, a policy which led him into many tortuous
ways (see Sweden: History), and made him a very tricky ally
during the struggle with Napoleon in 18 13. Great Britain and
Prussia very properly insisted that Charles John's first duty
was to them, the former power rigorously protesting against
the expenditure of her subsidies on the nefarious Norwegian
adventure before the common enemy had been crushed. After
the defeats of Lutzen and Bautzen, it was the Swedish crown-
prince who put fresh heart into the allies; and at the conference
of Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign
which began after the expiration of the truce of Plaswitz.
Though undoubtedly sparing his Swedes unduly, to the just
displeasure of the allies, Charles John, as commander-in-chief
of the northern army, successfully defended the approaches to
Berlin against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September;
but after Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all
hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway. For the events
which led to the union of Norway and Sweden, see Sweden:
History and Norway: History. As unional king, Charles XIV.
(who succeeded to that title in 1818 on the death of Charles XIII.)
was popular in both countries. Though his ultra-conservative
views were detested, and as far as possible opposed (especially
after 1823), his dynasty was never in serious danger, and Swedes
and Norsemen alike were proud of a monarch with a European
reputation. It is true that the Riksdag of 1840 meditated com-
pelling him to abdicate, but the storm blew over and his jubilee
was celebrated with great enthusiasm in 1843. He died at
Stockholm on the 8th of March 1844. His reign was one of un-
interrupted peace, and the great material development of the
two kingdoms during the first half of the 19th century was
largely due to his energy and foresight.
See J. E. Sars, Norges politiske historia (Christiania, 1899) ; Yngvar
Nielsen, Carl Johan som han virkelig var (Christiania, 1897) ; Johan
Almen, Atten Bernadotte (Stockholm, 1893); C. Schefer, BernadoUe
roi (Paris, 1899) ; G. R. Lagerhjelm, Napoleon och Carl Johan under
Kriget i Tysktand, 1813 (Stockholm, 1891). (R. N. B.)
CHARLES XV. (1826-1872), king of Sweden and Norway,
eldest son of Oscar I., king of Sweden and Norway, and Josephine
Beauharnais of Leuchtenberg, was born on the 3rd of May 1826.
On the 19th of June 1850 he married Louisa, daughter of Prince
Frederick of the Netherlands. He became regent on the 25th
of September 1857, and king on the death of his father (8th of
July 1859). As crown-prince, Charles's brusque and downright
manners had led many to regard his future accession with some
apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of
Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense
of the word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and
far-reaching reforms. Sweden's existing communal htw (1862),
ecclesiastical law (1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted
appropriately enough under the direction of a king whose motto
was: "Build up the land upon the laws!" Charles XV. also
materially assisted De Geer (q.v.) to carry through his memorable
reform of the constitution in 1863 . Charles was a warm advocate
of " Scandinavianism " and the political solidarity of the three
northern kingdoms, and his warm friendship for Frederick VII.,
it is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on
the eve of the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were
perhaps misleading and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the
unpreparedness of the Swedish army and the difficulties of the
situation, Charles was forced to observe a strict neutrality.
He died at Malm6 on the 18th of September 1872. Charles XV.
was highly gifted in many directions. He attained to some
eminence as a painter, and his Digte show him to have been
a true poet. He left but one child, a daughter, Louisa Josephina
Eugenia, who in 1869 married the crown-prince Frederick of
Denmark.
See Cecilia Baath-Holmberg, Carl XV., som enskild man, konung
och konstndr (Stockholm, 1891); Yngvar Nielsen, Det norske og
svenske Kongehusfra 1818 (Christiania, 1883). (R. N. B.)
CHARLES (c. 13 19-1364), duke of Brittany, known as
Charles of Blois and Charles of Chatillon, was the son of
Guy of Chatillon, count of Blois (d. 1342), and of Marguerite of
Valois, sister of Philip VI. of France. In 133 7 he married Jeanne
of PenthiSvre (d. 1384), daughter of Guy of Brittany, count of
Penthievre (d. 1331), and thus acquired a right to the succession
of the duchy of Brittany. On the death of John III., duke of
Brittany, in April 1341, his brother John, count of Montfort-
rAmaury, and his niece Jeanne, wife of Charles of Blois, disputed
the succession. Charles of Blois, sustained by Philip VI., cap-
tured John of Montfort, who was supported by King Edward IIL
at Nantes, besieged his wife Jeanne of Flanders at Hennebont,
and took Quimper and Guerande (1344). But next year his
partisans were defeated at Cadoret, and in June 1347 he was
himself wounded and taken prisoner at Roche-Derrien. He was
not liberated until 1356, when he continued the war against the
young John of Montfort, and perished in the battle of Auray, on
the 29th of September 1364. Charles bore a high reputation for
piety, and was believed to have performed miracles. The
Roman Church has canonized him.
See Simeon Luce, Histoire de Bertrand du Guesdin el de son
epoque (Paris, 1876).
CHARLES, called The Bold (1433-147 7), duke of Burgundy,
son of Philip the Good of Burgundy and Isabella of Portugal, was
born at Dijon on the 10th of November 1433. * n ms father's
lifetime he bore the title of count of Charolais. He was brought
up under the direction of the seigneur d'Auxy, and early showed
great application to studyand also to warlike exercises. Although
he was on familiar terms with the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.) ,
when the latter was a refugee at the court of Burgundy, he could
CHARLES THE DANE
933
not but view with chagrin the repurclase by the king of France
of the towns on the Somme, which hid been temporarily ceded
to Philip the Good by the treaty of Aras; and when his father's
failing health enabled him to take into his hands the reins of
government (which Philip abandoned to him completely by an
act of the 12th of April 1465), he entered upon his lifelong
struggle against Louis XI., and became one of the principal
leaders of the League of the Public Weal. His brilliant bravery
at the battle of Montlhejy (16th of July 1465), where he was
wounded and was left master of the field, neither prevented the
king frem re-entering Paris nor assured Charles a decisive
victory. He succeeded, however, in forcing upon Louis the
treaty of Conflans (1466), by which the king restored to him
the towns on the Somme, and promised him the hand of his infant
daughter Catherine, with Champagne as dowry. In the mean-
while the count of Charolais obtained the surrender of Ponthieu.
The revolt of Liege and Dinant intervened to divert his attention
from the affairs of France. On the 25th of August 1466 Charles
took possession of Dinant, which he pillaged and sacked, and
succeeded in treating at the same time with the Liegeois. After
the death of Philip the Good (15th June 1467), the Li6geois
renewed hostilities, but Charles defeated them at St Trond, and
made a victorious entry into Liege, which he dismantled and
deprived of some of its privileges.
Alarmed by these early successes of the duke of Burgundy, and
anxious to settle various questions relating to the execution of
the treaty of Conflans, Louis requested a meeting with Charles
and placed himself in his hands at P6ronne. In the course of the
negotiations the duke was informed of a fresh revolt of the
Li6geois secretly fomented by Louis. After deliberating for four
days how to deal with his adversary, who had thus mala-
droitly placed himself at his mffcy, Charles decided to respect
the parole he had given and to reat with Louis (October 1468),
at the same time forcing him to assist in quelling the revolt.
The town was carried by asault and the inhabitants were
massacred, Louis not having tb courage to intervene on behalf
of his ancient allies. At the exiiry of the one year's truce which
followed the treaty of P6ronrs, the king accused Charles of
treason, cited him to appear fefore the parlement, and seized
some ofthe towns on the Somnu(i47*)- Tn © duke retaliated by
invading France with a large rmy, taking possession of Nesle
and massacring its inhabitats. He failed, however, in an
attack on Beauvais, and had content himself with ravaging
the country as far as Rouen, eentually retiring without having
attained any useful result.
Other matters, moreover, aigaged his attention. Relin-
quishing, if not the stately mgnificence, at least the gay and
wasteful profusion which haccharacterized the court of Bur-
gundy under the preceding ake, he had bent all his efforts
towards the development of is military and political power.
Since the beginning of his rgn he had employed himself in
reorganizing his army and th administration of his territories.
While retaining the principleof feudal recruiting, he had en-
deavoured to establish a sysm of rigid discipline among his
troops, which he had streahened by taking into his pay
foreign mercenaries, particular Englishmen and Italians, and by
developing his artillery. Fuhermore, he had lost no oppor-
tunity of extending his power. In 1469 the archduke of Austria,
Sigismund, had sold him thcounty of Ferrette, and the land-
graviate of Alsace and some oer towns, reserving to himself the
right to repurchase. In i47 2 473 Charles bought the reversion
of the duchy of Gelderlandom its old duke, Arnold, whom
he had supported against tljeebellion of his son. Not content
with being " the grand dukof the West," he conceived the
project of forming a kingdoiof Burgundy or Aries with him-
self as independent sovereig and even persuaded the emperor
Frederick to assent to crown m king at Trier. The ceremony,
however, did not take placetfing to the emperor's precipitate
flight by night (September 13), occasioned by his displeasure
at the duke's attitude. In ^ following year Charles involved
himself in a series of difncu)s and struggles which ultimately
brought about his downfall. He embroiled himself successively
with Sigismund of Austria, to whom he refused to restore his
possessions in Alsace for the stipulated sum; with the Swiss,
who supported the free towns of Alsace in their revolt against
the tyranny of the ducal governor, Peter von Hagenbach (who
was condemned and executed by the rebels in May 1474) ; and
finally, with Rene of Lorraine, with whom he disputed the
succession of Lorraine, the possession of which had united the
two principal portions of Charles's territories — Flanders and the
duchy and county of Burgundy. All these enemies, incited
and supported as they were by Louis, were not long in joining
forces against their common adversary. Charles suffered a first
rebuff in endeavouring to protect his kinsman, the archbishop
of Cologne, against his rebel subjects. He spent ten months
(July 1474-June 1475) in besieging the little town of Neuss on the
Rhine, but was compelled by the approach of a powerful imperial
army to raise the siege. Moreover, the expedition he had per-
suaded his brother-in-law, Edward IV. of England, to undertake
against Louis was stopped by the treaty of Picquigny (29th of
August 1475). He was more successful in Lorraine, where he
seized Nancy (30th of November 1475). From Nancy he marched
against the Swiss, hanging and drowning the garrison of Granson
in spite of the capitulation. Some days later, however, he was
attacked before Granson by the confederate army and suffered
a shamful defeat, being compelled to fly with a handful of
attendants, and leaving his artillery and an immense booty
in the hands of the allies (February 1476). He succeeded in
raising a fresh army of 30,000 men, with which he attacked
Morat, but he was again defeated by the Swiss army, assisted
by the cavalry of Ren6 of Lorraine (22nd of June 1476). On the
6th of October Charles lost Nancy, which was re-entered by
Ren6. Making a last effort, Charles formed a new army and
arrived in the depth of winter before the walls of Nancy. Having
lost many of his troops through the severe cold, it was with only
a few thousand men that he met the joint forces of the Lorrainers
and the Swiss, who had come to the relief of the town (6th of
January 1477). He himself perished in the fight, his mutilated
body being discovered some days afterwards.
Charles the Bold has often been regarded as the last repre-
sentative of the feudal spirit — a man who possessed no other
quality than a blind bravery — and accordingly has often been
contrasted with his rival Louis XI. as representing modern
politics. In reality, he was a prince of wide knowledge and
culture, knowing several languages and austere in morals; and
although he cannot be acquitted of occasional harshness, he
had the secret of winning the hearts of his subjects, who never
refused him their support in times of difficulty. He was thrice
married — to Catherine (d. 1446), daughter of Charles VII. of
France; to Isabella (d. 1465), daughter of Charles I., duke of
Bourbon; and to Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. of
England, whom he married in 1468, and by whom he had one
daughter, Mary, afterwards the wife of the emperor Maximilian I.
The original authorities for the life and times of Charles the Bold
are the numerous French, Burgundian and Flemish chroniclers of
the latter part of the 15th century. Special mention may be made of
the Memoires of Philippe de Comines, and of the Memoires and other
writings of Olivier de la Marche. See also A. Molinier, Les Sources
de Vhistoire de France, tome iv. (1904), and the compendious biblio-
graphy in U. Chevalier's RSpertotre des sources historiques, part iii.
(1904). Charles the Bold, by J. F. Kirk (1863-1868), is a good English
biography for its date; a more recent life is R. Putnam's Charles
the Bold ( 1908) . For a general sketch of the relations between France
and Burgundy at this time see E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome iv.
(1902). (R. Po.)
CHARLES, called The Good (le Bon), or The Dane (c. 1084-
11 27), count of Flanders, only son of St Canute or Knut IV.,
king of Denmark, by Adela, daughter of Robert the Frisian,
count of Flanders, was born about 1084. After the assassination
of Canute in 1086, his widow took refuge in Flanders, taking
with her her son. Charles was brought up by his mother and
grandfather, Robert the Frisian, on whose death he did great
services to his uncle, Robert II., and his cousin, Baldwin VII.,
counts of Flanders. Baldwin died of a wound received in battle
in 1 1 19, and, having no issue, left by will the succession to
his countship to Charles the Dane. Charles did not secure his
v. 30
934
CHARLES (DUKES OF LORRAINE; PARMA)
heritage without a civil war, but he was speedily victorious and
made his position secure by treating his opponents with great
clemency. He now devoted himself to promoting the welfare
of his subjects, and did his utmost to support the cause of
Christianity, both by his bounty and by his example. He
well deserved the surname of Le Bon, by which he is known to
posterity. He refused the offer of the crown of Jerusalem on
the death of Baldwin, and declined to be nominated as a
candidate for the imperial crown in succession to the emperor
Henry V. He was murdered in the church of St Donat at
Bruges on the 2nd of March n 27.
See J. Perneel, Histoire du regne de Charles le Bon, precidi d'un
resume de V histoire de Flandres (Brussels, 1830).
CHARLES I. (c. 950-c. 992), duke of Lower Lorraine, was a
younger son of the Frankish king Louis IV., and consequently
a member of the Carolingian family. Unable to obtain the
duchy of Burgundy owing to the opposition of his brother, King
Lothair, he went to the court of his maternal uncle, the emperor
Otto the Great, about 965, and in 977 received from the emperor
Otto II. the duchy of Lower Lorraine. His authority in Lorraine
was nominal; but he aided Otto in his struggle with Lothair,
and on the death of his nephew, Louis V., made an effort to secure
the Frankish crown. Hugh Capet, however, was the successful
candidate and war broke out. Charles had gained some successes
and had captured Reims, when in 991 he was treacherously
seized by Adalberon, bishop of Laon, and handed over to Hugh.
Imprisoned with his wife and children at Orleans, Charles did
not long survive his humiliation. His eldest son Otto, duke of
Lower Lorraine, died in 1005.
CHARLES II. (d. 143 1), duke of Lorraine, called The Bold,
is sometimes referred to as Charles I. A son of Duke John I.,
he succeeded his father in 1390; but he neglected his duchy
and passed his life in warfare. He died on the 25th of January
143 1, leaving two daughters, one of whom, Isabella (d. 1453),
married Ren6 I. of Anjou (1409-1480), king of Naples, who
succeeded his father-in-law as duke of Lorraine.
CHARLES III. or II. (1543-1608), called The Great, duke of
Lorraine, was a son of Duke Francis I. (d. 1545), and a de-
scendant of Ren6 of Anjou. He was only an infant when he
became duke, and was brought up at the court of Henry II. of
France, marrying Henry's daughter Claude in 1559. He took
part in the wars of religion in France, and was a member of the
League; but he was overshadowed by his kinsmen the Guises,
although he was a possible candidate for the French crown in
1589. The duke, who was an excellent ruler of Lorraine, died
at Nancy on the 14th of May 1608. He had three sons: Henry
(d. 1624) and Francis (d. 1632), who became in turn dukes of
Lorraine, and Charles (d. 1607), bishop of Metz and Strassburg.
CHARLES IV. or IIL (1604-1675), duke of Lorraine, was a
son of Duke Francis II., and was born on the 5th of April 1604.
He became duke on the abdication of his father in 1624, and
obtained the duchy of Bar through his marriage with his cousin
Nicole (d. i657),daughterof DukeHenry. Mixing in thetortuous
politics of his time, he was in continual conflict with the crown
of France, and spent much of his time in assisting her enemies
and in losing and regaining his duchies (see Lorraine) . He lived
an adventurous life, and in the intervals between his several
struggles with France fought for the emperor Ferdinand II. at
Nordlingen and elsewhere; talked of succouring Charles I. in
England; and after the conclusion of the treaty of Westphalia
in 1648 entered the service of Spain. He died on the 18th of
September 1675, leaving by his second wife, Beatrix de Cusance
(d. 1663), a son, Charles Henry, count of Vaudemont (1642-
1723).
CHARLES V. or IV. (1643-1690), duke of Lorraine, nephew
of Duke Charles IV., was born on the 3rd of April 1643, and in
1664 received a colonelcy in the emperor's army. In the same
year he fought with distinction at the battle of St Gotthard, in
which he captured a standard from the Turks. He was a can-
didate for the elective crown of Poland in 1668. In 1670 the
emperor made him general of horse, and during the following
years he was constantly on active service, first against the Turks
and subsequently against the French. At Seneff (1674) he was
wounded. In the same year he was again a candidate for the
Polish crown, but was unsuccessful, John Sobieski, who was to
be associated with him in his greatest feat of arms, being elected.
In 167 5, on the death of Charles IV., he rode with a cavalry corps
into the duchy of Lorraine, then occupied by the French, and
secured the adhesion of the Lorraine troops to himself; a little
after this he succeeded Montecucculi as general of the imperial
army on the Rhine, and was made a, field marshal. The chief
success of his campaign of 1676 was the capture of Philipsburg,
after a long and arduous siege. 'The war continued without
decisive result for some time, and the fate of the duchy, which
was still occupied by the French, was the subject of endless
diplomacy. At the general peace Charles had to accept the hard
conditions imposed by Louis XIV., and he never entered into
effective possession of his sovereignty. In 1678 he married the
widowed queen of Poland, Eleonora Maria of Austria, and for
nearly five years they lived quietly at Innsbruck. The Turkish
invasion of 1683, the last great effort of the Turks to impose
their will on Europe, called Charles into the field again. At the
head of a weak imperial army the duke offered the best resistance
he could to the advance of the Turks on Vienna. But he had
to fall back, contesting every position, and the Turks finally
invested Vienna (July 13th, 1683). At this critical moment
other powers came to the assistance of Austria, reinforcements
poured into Charles's camp, and John Sobieski, king of Poland,
brought 27,000 Poles. Sobieski and Charles had now over
80,000 men, Poles, Austrians and Germans, and on the morning
of the 1 2 th of September they moved forward to the attack.
By nightfall the Turks were in complete disorder, Vienna was
relieved, and the danger was at an end. Soon the victors took
the offensive and reconquered part of the kingdom of Hungary.
The Germans and Poles went home in the winter, but Charles
continued his offensive with the imperialists alone. Ofen
(Buda) resisted his efforts in 1684, but in the campaign of
1685 Neuhausel was taken by storm, and in 1686 Charles, now
reinforced by German auxiliaries, resumed the siege of Ofen.
All attempts to relieve the place were repulsed, and Ofen was
stormed on the 2nd of September. In the following campaign
the Austrians won a decisive victory on the famous battle-ground
of Mohacs (August 18th, 1687). In 1689 Charles took the field
on the Rhine against the forces of Louis XIV., the enemy of
his house. Mainz and Bonn were taken in the first campaign,
but Charles in travelling from Vienna to the front died suddenly
at Wels on the 18th of April 1690.
His eldest son, Leopold Joseph (1679-17 29), at the peace of
Ryswick in 1697 obtained the duchy, of which his father had
been dispossessed by France, and was the father of Francis
Stephen, duke of Lorraine, who became the husband of Maria
Theresa (q.v.), and of Charles (Karl Alexander), a distinguished
Austrian commander in the wars with Frederick the Great,
The duchy was ceded by Francis Stephen to Stanislaus Leczynski,
the dethroned king of Poland, in 1736, Francis receiving in-
stead the grand-duchy of Tuscany.
CHARLES II. [Charles Louis de Bourbon] (1799-1883),
duke of Parma, succeeded his mother, Maria Louisa, duchess
of Lucca, as duke of Lucca in 1824. He introduced economy
into the administration, increased the schools, and in 1832 as
a reaction against the bigotry of the priests and monks with
which his mother had surrounded him, he became a Protestant.
He at first evinced Liberal tendencies, gave asylum to the
Modenese political refugees of 1831, and was indeed suspected
of being a Carbonaro. But his profligacy and eccentricities
soon made him the laughing-stock of Italy. In 1842 he returned
to the Catholic Church and made Thomas Ward, an English
groom, his prime minister, a man not without ability and tact.
Charles gradually abandoned all his Liberal ideas, and in 1847
declared himself hostile to the reforms introduced by Pius IX.
The Lucchesi demanded the constitution of 1805, promised
them by the treaty of Vienna, and a national guard, but the
duke, in spite of the warnings of Ward, refused all concessions.
A few weeks later he retired to Modena, selling his life-interest
CHARLES (ARCHDUKE)
935
in the duchy to Tuscany. On the 17th of October Maria Louisa
of Austria, duchess of Parma, died, and Charles Louis succeeded
to her throne by the terms of the Florence treaty, assuming the
style of Charles II. His administration of Parma was character-
ized by ruinous finance, debts, disorder and increased taxation,
and he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with
Austria. But on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 there
were riots in his capital (19th of March), and he declared his
readiness to throw in his lot with Charles Albert, the pope, and
Leopold of Tuscany, repudiated the Austrian treaty and promised
a constitution. Then he again changed his mind, abdicated in
April, and left Parma in the hands of a provisional government,
whereupon the people voted for union with Piedmont. After
the armistice between Charles Albert and Austria (August 1848)
the Austrian general Thurn occupied the duchy, and Charles II.
issued an edict from Weistropp annulling the acts of the pro-
visional government. When Piedmont attacked Austria again
in 1849, Parma was evacuated, but reoccupied by General
d'Aspre in April.
In May 1849 Charles confirmed his abdication, and was
succeeded by his son Charles EII. (1823-1854), who, protected
by Austrian troops, placed Parma under martial law, inflicted
heavy penalties on the members of the late provisional govern-
ment, closed the university, and instituted a regular policy of
persecution. A violent ruler, 1 drunkard and a libertine, he was
assassinated on the 26th of March 1854. At his death his
widow Maria Louisa, sister of the t:omte de Chambord, became
regent, during the minority if his son Robert. The duchess
introduced some sort of order into the administration, seemed
inclined to rule more mildly aid dismissed some of her husband's
more obnoxious ministers, bit the riots of the Mazzinians in
July 1854 were repressed wth ruthless severity, and the rest
of her reign was characterised by political trials, executions
and imprisonments, to which the revolutionists replied with
assassinations.
Bibliography. — Masse! , Soria civile di Lucca, vol. ii. (Lucca,
1878) ; Anon., Y Borboni di larma . . . del 1847 al i8$q (Parma,
i860); N. Bianchi, Storia delU diplomazia europea in Italia (Turin,
1865, &c.)t ; C. Tivaroni, Vltaia sotto il dominio austriaco, ii. 96-101,
i. 590-605 (Turin, 1892), and LItalia degli Italiani, i. 126-143 (Turin,
1895) by the same; S. Lotticiand G. Sitti, Bibliografia generate per
la storia parmense (Parma, 19)4).
CHARLES [Karl Lxjdwiq (1 771-1847), archduke of Austria
and duke of Teschen, third on of the emperor Leopold II., was
born at Florence (his f athei being then grand-duke of Tuscany)
on the 5th of September 177c. His youth was spent in Tuscany,
at Vienna and in the Austran Netherlands, where he began his
career of military service ii the war of the French Revolution.
He commanded a brigade st Jemappes, and in the campaign of
1793 distinguished himself it the action of Aldenhoven and the
battle of Neerwinden. Ir this year he became Statthalter in
Belgium and received the amy rank of lieutenant field marshal,
which promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister.
In the remainder of the war in the Low Countries he held high
commands, and he was prsent at Fleurus. In 1795 he served
on the Rhine, and in the Mowing year was entrusted with the
chief control of all the Austian forces on that river. His conduct
of the operations against purdan and Moreau in 1796 marked
him out at once as one ofthe greatest generals in Europe. At
first falling back carefulh and avoiding a decision, he finally
marched away, leaving a iere screen in front of Moreau; falling
upon Jourdan he beat hirj in the battles of Amberg and Wtirz-
burg, and drove him oveithe Rhine with great loss. He then
turned upon Moreau's any, which he defeated and forced out
of Germany. For this cmpaign, one of the most brilliant in
modern history, see Frech Revolutionary Wars. In 1797
he was sent to arrest the ictorious march of General Bonaparte
in Italy, and he conduced the retreat of the over-matched
Austrians with the high6t skill. In the campaign of 1799 he
was once more opposed o Jourdan, whom he defeated in the
battles of Osterach andStokach, following up his success by
invading Switzerland ad defeating Massena in the (first)
battle of Zurich, after wich he re-entered Germany and drove
the French once more over the Rhine. Hi-health, however,
forced him to retire to Bohemia, whence he was soon recalled to
undertake the task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna.
The result of the battle of Hohenlinden had, however, fore-
doomed the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice
of Steyer. His popularity .was now such that the diet of
Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his
honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country; but
Charles refused both distinctions.
In the short and disastrous war of 1805 the archduke Charles
commanded what was intended to be the main army, in Italy,
but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations,
and the defeats sustained on the Danube neutralized the success
obtained by the archduke over Mass6na in the desperately fought
battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace began his active
work of army reorganization, which was first tested on the field
in 1809. As generalissimo of the army he had been made field
marshal some years before. As president of the Council of War,
and supported by the prestige of being the only general who
had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated
a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete
methods of the 18th century, the chief characteristics of the
new order being the adoption of the " nation in arms " principle
and of the French war organization and tactics. The new army
was surprised in the process of transition by the war of 1809, in
which Charles commanded in chief; yet even so it proved a far
more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now
heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed (see Napole-
onic Campaigns) it succumbed only after a desperate struggle.
Its initial successes were neutralized by the reverses of Abens-
berg, Landshut and Eckmtihl; but, after the evacuation of
Vienna, the archduke won the great battle of Aspern-Essling
(q.v.) and soon afterwards fought the still more desperate battle
of Wagram (q.v.), at the close of which the Austrians were de-
feated but not routed; they had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss
of over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the cam-
paign the archduke gave up all his military offices, and spent
the rest of his life in retirement, except a short time in 181 5,
when he was governor of Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the
duchy of Saxe-Teschen. The archduke Charles married, in 18 15,
Princess Henrietta of Nassau- Weilburg (d. 1829). He had four
sons, the eldest of whom, the archduke Albert (q.v.) became one
of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters,
the elder of whom became queen of Naples. He died at Vienna
on the 30th of April 1847. An equestrian statue was erected
to his memory in Vienna, i860.
The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his
strategical works, he displayed in practice only when the situation
seemed to demand it, though his education certainly prejudiced
him in favour of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same
time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive
strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether
in wide turning movements, as at Wurzburg and Zurich, or
in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to
that of any leader of his time, Napoleon only excepted. The
campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he sus-
tained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical
superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the
condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks'
inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to un-
favourable criticism. As a military writer, his position in the
evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines
had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless they cannot
but be considered as antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the
importance of " strategic points " are the chief features of his
system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be
gathered from the prescription that " this principle is never to
be departed from." Again and again he repeats the advice that
nothing should be hazarded unless one's army is completely secure,
a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in
1 796. " Strategic points," he says (not the defeat of the -enemy 's
army), " decide the fate of one's own country, and must
936
CHARLES (CARDINAL)— CHARLES OF VALOIS
constantly remain the general's main solicitude " — a maxim which
was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809.
The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a feeble
defence against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached
more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In
his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve
in battle is designed to " cover a retreat." The baneful influence
of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the main-
tenance of Kdniggr&tz-Josefstadt in 1866 as a " strategic point,"
which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian
armies; in the strange plans produced in Vienna for the cam-
paign of 1859, and in the " almost unintelligible " battle of
Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of
the archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in
military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he dis-
played, along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made
him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon.
His writings were edited by the archduke Albert and his brother the
archduke William in the Ausgewdhlte Schriften wetland Sr. K.
Hoheit Erzh. Carl v. Osterreich (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and
Leipzig), which includes the Grundsdtze der Kriegskunst fUr die
Generals (1806), Grundsdtze der Strategic erldutert durch die Darstellung
des Feldzugs 1796 (1814), Gesch. des Feldzugs von 1799 (1819) — the
two latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and
papers " on the higher art of war," " on practical training in the
field," &c. See, besides the histories of the period, C. von Bynder)-
K(rieglstein), Geist und Staff im Kriege (Vienna, 189s); Caemmerer,
Development of Strategical Science (English transl.), en. iv.; M. Edler
v. Angeli, Erzherzog Carl v. Osterr. (Vienna and Leipzig, 1896) ;
Duller, Erzh. Karl v. Osterr. (Vienna, 1845); Schneidawind, Karl,
Erzherzog v. Osterr. und die osterr. Armee (Vienna, 1840) ; Das Buck
vom Erzh. Carl (1848); Thielen, Erzh. Karl v. Osterr. (1858);
Wolf, Erzh. Carl (i860); H. von Zeissberg, Erzh. Karl v. Osterr.
(Vienna, 1895) ; M. von Angeli, Erzh. Karl als Feldherr und Organi-
sator (Vienna, 1896).
CHARLES (152 5-1 574), cardinal of Lorraine, French states-
man, was the second son of Claude of Lorraine, duke of Guise,
and brother of Francis, duke of Guise. He was archbishop of
Reims in 1538, and cardinal in 1547. At first he was called the
cardinal of Guise, but in 1550, on the death of his uncle John,
cardinal of Lorraine, he in his turn took the style of cardinal of
Lorraine. Brilliant, cunning and a master of intrigue, he was,
like all the Guises, devoured with ambition and devoid of scruples.
He had, said Brant6me, " a soul exceeding smirched," and, he
adds, " by nature he was exceeding craven." Together with
his brother, Duke Francis, the cardinal of Lorraine was all-
powerful during the reigns of Henry II. and Francis II.; in
1558 and 1559 he was one of the negotiators of the treaty of
Cateau-Cambr&is; he fought and pitilessly persecuted the
reformers, and by his intolerant policy helped to provoke the
crisis of the wars of religion. The death of Francis II. deprived
him of power, but he remained one of the principal leaders of the
Catholic party. In 1561, at the Colloquy of Poissy, he was
commissioned to reply to Theodore Beza. In 1 56 2 he went to the
council of Trent, where he at first defended the rights of the
Gallican Church against the pretensions of the pope; but after
the assassination of his brother, he approached the court of
Rome, and on his return to France he endeavoured, but without
success, to obtain the promulgation of the decrees of the council
(1564). In 1567, when the Protestants took up arms, he held
for some time the first place in the king's council, but Catherine
de' Medici soon grew weary of his arrogance, and in 1570 he had
to leave the court. He endeavoured to regain favour by
negotiating at Rome the dispensation for the marriage of Henry
of Navarre with Margaret of Valois (1572). He died on the 26th
of December 1574, at the beginning of the reign of Henry III.
An orator of talent, he left several harangues or sermons, among
them being Oraison prononcSe au Colloque de Poissy (Paris, 1562)
and Oratio habita in Concil. Trident. (Concil. Trident. Orationes f
Louvain, 1567).
A large amount of correspondence is preserved in the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris. See also Rene de Bouille, Histoire des dues de
Guise (Paris, 1849); H. Forneron, Les Guises et leur Spoque (Paris,
1877) ; Guillemin, Le Cardinal de Lorraine (1847).
CHARLES [Karl Alexander] (1712-1780), prince of Lor-
raine, was the youngest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, and
grandson of Charles V., duke of Lorraine (see above), the famous
general. He was born at Lun6ville on the 12th of December
1 7 1 2 , and educated for a military career. After his elder brother
Francis, the duke, had exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany and
married Maria Theresa, Charles became an Austrian officer,
and he served in the campaigns of 1737 and 1738 against the
Turks. At the outbreak of the Silesian wars in 1740 (see
Austrian Succession, War of the), the queen made her
brother-in-law a field marshal, though he was not yet thirty
years old, and in 1742 Charles encountered Frederick the Great
for the first time at the battle of Chotusitz (May 17th). The
victory of the Prussians on that field was far from decisive, and
Charles drew off his forces in good order. His conduct of the
successful campaign of 1743 against the French and Bavarians
heightened his reputation. He married, in January 1744,
Marianne of Austria, sister of Maria Theresa, who made them
jointly governors-general of the Austrian Netherlands. Very
soon the war broke out afresh, and Charles, at the head of the
Austrian army on the Rhine, won great renown by his brilliant
crossing of the Rhine. Once more a Lorraine prince at the head
of Austrian troops invaded the duchy and drove the French
before him, but at this moment Frederick resumed the Silesian
war, all available troops were called back to oppose him, and the
French maintained their hold on Lorraine. Charles hurried to
Bohemia, whence, aided by the advice of the veteran field
marshal Traun, he quickly expelled the Prussians. At the close
of his victorious campaign he received the news that his wife,
to whom he was deeply attached, had died in childbirth on the
16th of December 1744 at Brussels. He took the field again in
1745 in Silesia, but this time without the advice of Traun, and
he was twice severely defeated by Frederick, at Hohenfriedberg
and at Soor. Subsequently, as commander-in-chief in the Low
Countries he. received, at Roucoux, a heavy defeat at the hands
of Marshal Saxe. His government of the Austrian Netherlands
during the peace of 1740-17 56 was marked by many reforms,
and the prince won the regard of the people by his ceaseless
activity on their behalf. After the first reverses of the Seven
Years' War (q.v.), Maria Theresa called Charles again to the
supreme command in the field. The campaign of 1757 opened
with Frederick's great victory of Prague, and Prince Charles was
shut up with his army in that fortress. In the victory of the
relieving army under Daun at Kolin Charles had no part. Never-
theless the battle of Breslau, in which the Prussians suffered a
defeat even more serious than that of Kolin, was won by him,
and great enthusiasm was displayed in Austria over the victory,
which seemed to be the final blow to Frederick. But soon after-
wards the king of Prussia routed the French at Rossbach, and,
swiftly returning to Silesia, he inflicted on Charles the complete
and crushing defeat of Leu then (December 5, 1757). A mere
remnant of the Austrian army reassembled after the pursuit,
and Charles was relieved of his command. He received, however,
from the hands of the empress the grand cross of the newly
founded order of Maria Theresa. For a year thereafter Prince
Charles acted as a military adviser at Vienna, he then returned
to Brussels, where, during the remainder of his life, he continued
to govern in the same liberal spirit as before. The affection of
the people for the prince was displayed during his dangerous
illness in 1765, and in 1775 the estates of Brabant erected a
statue in his honour at Brussels. He died on the 4th of July
1780 at the castle of Tervoeren, and was buried with his Lorraine
ancestors at Nancy.
CHARLES ( 1 270-1325), count of Yalois, of Maine, and of
Anjou, third son of Philip III., king pf France, surnamed the
Bold, and of Isabella of Aragon, was born on the 12th of March
1270. By his father's will he inherited the four lordships of
Cr6py, La Ferte-Milon, Pierrefonds ani Be" thisy, which together
formed the countship of Valois. In 1284 Martin IV., having
excommunicated Pedro III., king of Aragon, offered that
kingdom to Charles. King Philip failed in an attempt to place
his son on this throne, and died on the return of the expedition.
In 1290 Charles married Margaret, daughter of Charles II.,
king of Naples, and renounced his pretensions to Aragon. In
CHARLES OF VIANA— CHARLES, THOMAS
937
1294, at the beginning of the hostilities against England, he
invaded Guienne and took La Reole and Saint-Sever. During
the war Flanders (1300), he took Douai, Bethune and Dam,
received the submission of Guy of Dampierre, and aided King
Philip IV., the Fair, to gain the battle of Mons-en-Pev&le, on the
1 8th of August 1304. Asked by Boniface VIII. for his aid
against the Ghibellines, he crossed the Alps in June 1301, entered
Florence, and helped Charles II., the Lame, king of Sicily, to
reconquer Calabria and Apulia from the house of Aragon, but
was defeated in Sicily. As after the death of his first wife
Charles had married Catherine de Courtenay , a granddaughter of
Baldwin II., the last Latin emperor of Constantinople, he tried
to assert his rights to that throne. Philip the Fair also wished
to get him elected emperor; but Clement V. quashed his can-
didature in favour of Henry of Luxemburg, afterwards the
emperor Henry VII. Under Louis X. Charles headed the party
of feudal reaction, and was among those who compassed the
ruin of Enguerrand de Marigny. In the reign of Charles IV.,
the Fair, he fought yet again in Guienne (1324), and died at
Perray (Seine-et-Oise) on the 16th of December 1325. His
second wife had died in 1307, and in July 1308 he had married
a third wife, Mahaut de Chatillon, countess of Saint-Pol. Philip,
his eldest son, ascended the French throne in 1328, and from
him sprang the royal house of Valois.
See Joseph Petit, Charles de Valois (Paris, 1900).
CHARLES (1421-1461), prince of Viana, sometimes called
Charles IV. king of Navarre, was the son of John, afterwards
John H., king of Aragon, by his marriage with Blanche, daughter
and heiress of Charles III., king of Navarre. Both his grand-
father Charles and his mother, who ruled over Navarre from 1425
to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose right
had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche
died in 1441 her husband John seized the government to the
exclusion of his son. The ill-feeling between father and son
was increased when in 1447 John took for his second wife Joanna
Henriquez, a Castilian princess, who soon bore him a son,
afterwards Ferdinand I. king of Spain, and who regarded her
stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in
the internal affairs of Navarre civil war broke out; and in 1452
Charles, although aided by John II., king of Castile, was defeated
and taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the
kingly title until after his father's death, the prince, again
unsuccessful in an appeal to arms, took refuge in Italy with
Alphonso V., king of Aragon, Naples and Sicily. In 1458
Alphonso died and John became king of Aragon, while Charles
was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined these
proposals, and having been reconciled with bis father returned
to Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry a Castilian princess,
he was then thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans
rose in his favour. This insurrection soon became general and
John was obliged to yield. He released bis son, and recognized
him as perpetual governor of Catalonia, and heir to the kingdom.
Soon afterwards, however, on the 23rd of September 146 1, the
prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion that he had
been poisoned by his stepmother. Charles was a cultured and
amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated
the Ethics of Aristotle into Spanish, a work first published at
Saragossa in 1509, and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre,
Crdnica de los reyes de Navarra, an edition which, edited by
J. Yangues y Miranda, was published at Pampeluna in 1843.
See J. de Moret and F. de Aleson, Anales del reyno de Navarra,
tome iv. (Pampeluna, 1866); M. J. Quintana, Vidas de espaHoles
celebres (Paris, 1827) ; and G. Desdevises du Dezert, Carlos a" Aragon
(Paris, 1889).
CHARLES, ELIZABETH (182&-1806), English author, was
born at Tavistock on the 2nd of January 1828, the daughter of
John Rundle, M.P. Some of her youthful poems won the praise
of Tennyson, who read them in manuscript. In 1851 she married
Andrew Paton Charles. Her best known book, written to order
for an editor who wished for a story about Martin Luther, The
Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family, was published in 1862,
and was translated into most of the European languages, into
Arabic, and into many Indian dialects. Mrs Charles wrote in all
some fifty books, the majority of a semi-religious character.
She took an active part in the work of various charitable institu-
tions, and among her friends and correspondents were Dean
Stanley, Archbishop Tait, Charles Kingsley, Jowett and Pusey.
She died at Hampstead on the 28th of March 1896.
CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE C&AR (1 746-1823),
French mathematician and physicist, was born at Beaugency,
Loiret, on the 12th of November 1746. After spending some
years as a clerk in the ministry of finance, he turned to scientific
pursuits, and attracted considerable attention by his skilful and
elaborate demonstrations of physical experiments. He was the
first, in 1783, to employ hydrogen for the inflation of balloons
(see Aeronautics), and about 1787 he anticipated Gay Lussac's
law of the dilatation of gases with heat, which on that account
is sometimes known by his name. In 1785 he was elected to
the Academy of Sciences, and subsequently he became professor
of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. He died in
Paris on the 7th of April r823. His published papers are chiefly
concerned with mathematical topics.
CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-18x4), Welsh Nonconformist
divine, was born of humble parentage at Longmoor, in the parish
of Llanfihangel Abercywyn, near St Clears, Carmarthenshire,
on the 14th of October 1755. He was educated for the Anglican
ministry at Llanddowror and Carmarthen, and at Jesus College,
Oxford (1775-1778). In 1777 he studied theology under the
evangelical John Newton at Olney. He was ordained deacon
in 1778 on the title of the curacies of Shepton Beauchamp and
Sparkford, Somerset; and took priest's orders in 1780. He
afterwards added to his charge at Sparkford, Lovington, South
Barrow and North Barrow, and in September 1782 was presented
to the perpetual curacy of South Barrow by the Rev. John
Hughes, Coin St Denys. But he never left Sparkford, though
the contrary has been maintained, until he resigned all his
curacies in June 1783, and returned to Wales, marrying (on
August 20th) Sarah Jones of Bala, the orphan of a flourishing
shopkeeper. He had early fallen under the influence of the
great revival movement in Wales, and at the age of seventeen
had been " converted " by a sermon of Daniel Rowland's. This
was enough to make him unpopular with many of the Welsh
clergy, and being denied the privilege of preaching for nothing
at two churches, he helped his old Oxford friend John Mayor,
now vicar of Shawbury, Shropshire, from October until January
1 ith, 1784. On the 25th of January he took charge of Llan yn
Mowddwy (14 m. from Bala), but was not allowed to continue
there more than three months. Three influential people, among
them the rector of Bala, agitated some of the parishioners
against him, and persuaded his rector to dismiss him. His
preaching, his catechizing of the children after evensong, and
his connexion with the Bala Methodists — his wife's stepfather
being a Methodist preacher — gave great offence. After a fort-
night more at Shawbury, he wrote to John Newton and another
clergyman friend in London for advice. The Church of England
denied him employment, and the Methodists desired his services.
His friends advised him to return to England, but it was too late.
By September he had crossed the Rubicon, Henry Newman (his
rector at Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford) accompanying
him on a tour in Carnarvonshire. In December, he was preaching
at the Bont Uchel Association; so that he joined the Methodists
(see Calvinistic Methodists) in 1784.
Before taking this step, he had been wont in his enforced
leisure to gather the poor children of Bala into his house for in-
struction, and so thickly did they come that he had to adjourn
with them to the chapel. This was the origin of the Welsh
Circulating Schools, which he developed on the lines adopted by
Griffith Jones (d. 1761), formerly vicar of Llanddowror. First
one man was trained for the work by himself, then he was sent
to a district for six months, where, (for £8 a year) he taught gratis
the children and young people (in fact, all comers) reading and
Christian principles. Writing was added later. The expenses
were met by collections made in the Calvinistic Methodist
Societies, and as the funds increased masters were multiplied,
93«
CHARLES ALBERT
until in 1786 Charles had seven masters to whom he paid £10 per
annum; in 1787, twelve; in 1789, fifteen; in 1794, twenty.
By this time the salary had been increased to £12; in 180 1 it was
£14. He had learnt of Raikes's Sunday Schools before he left
the Establishment, but he rightly considered the system set on
foot by himself far superior; the work and object being the same,
he gave six days' tuition for every one given by them, and many
people not only objected to working as teachers on Sunday, but
thought the children forgot in the six days what they learnt on
the one. But Sunday Schools were first adopted by Charles to
meet the case of young people in service who could not attend
during the week, and even in that form much opposition was
shown to them because teaching was thought to be a form of
Sabbath breaking. His first Sunday School was in 1 787. Wilber-
force, Charles Grant, John Thornton and his son Henry, were
among the philanthropists who contributed to his funds; in 1798
the Sunday School Society (established 1785) extended its
operations to Wales, making him its agent, and Sunday Schools
grew rapidly in number and favour. A powerful revival broke
out at Bala in the autumn of 1791, and his account of it in letters
to correspondents, sent without his knowledge to magazines,
kindled a similar fire at Huntly. The scarcity of Welsh bibles
was Charles's greatest difficulty in his work. John Thornton and
Thomas Scott helped him to secure supplies from the Society for
the Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1787 to 1789, when
the stock became all but exhausted. In 1799 a new edition was
brought out by the Society, and he managed to secure 700 copies
of the 10,000 issued; the Sunday School Society got 3000 testa-
ments printed, and most of them passed into his hands in 1801.
In 1800, when a frost-bitten thumb gave him great pain and
much fear for his life, his friend, Rev. Philip Oliver of Chester,
died, leaving him director and one of three trustees over his
chapel at Boughton; and this added much to his anxiety. The
Welsh causes at Manchester and London, too, gave him much
uneasiness, and burdened him with great responsibilities at this
juncture. In November 1802 he went to London, and on the 7th
of December he sat at a committee meeting of the Religious
Tract Society, as a country member, when his friend, Joseph
Tarn — a member of the Spa Fields and Religious Tract Society
committees — introduced the subject of a regular supply of
bibles for Wales. Charles was asked to state his case to the
committee, and so forcibly did he impress them, that it was there
and then decided to move in the matter of a general dispersion
of the bible. When he visited London a year later, his friends
were ready to discuss the name of a new Society, and the sole object
of which should be to supply bibles. Charles returned to Wales
on the 30th of January 1804, and the British and Foreign Bible
Society was formally and publicly inaugurated on March the 7th.
The first Welsh testament issued by that Society appeared on the
6th of May 1806, the bible on the 7th of May 1807 — both being
edited by Charles.
Between 1805 and 181 1 he issued his Biblical Dictionary in
four volumes, which still remains the standard work of its kind in
Welsh. Three editions of his Welsh catechism were published
for the use of his schools (1789, 1791 and 1794); an English
catechism for the use of schools in Lady Huntingdon's Connexion
was drawn up by him in 1797; his snorter catechism in Welsh
appeared in 1799, and passed through several editions, in Welsh
and English, before 1807, when his Instructor (still the Connexional
catechism) appeared. From April 1799 to December 1801 six
numbers of a Welsh magazine called Trysorfa Y spry dot
(Spiritual Treasury) were edited by Thomas Jones of Mold and
himself; in March 1809 the first number of the second volume
appeared, and the twelfth and last in November 18 13.
The London Hibernian Society asked him to accompany Dr
David Bogue, the Rev. Joseph Hughes, and Samuel Mills to
Ireland in August 1807, to report on the state of Protestant
religion in the country. Their report is still extant, and among
the movements initiated as a result of their visit was the Circu-
lating School system. In 1 8 1 o, owing to the growth of Methodism
and the lack of ordained ministers, he led the Connexion in the
movement for connexionally ordained ministers, and his influence
was the chief factor in the success of that important step. From
1811 to 18 14 his energy was mainly devoted to establishing
auxiliary Bible Societies. By correspondence he stimulated some
friends in Edinburgh to establish charity schools in the High-
lands, and the Gaelic School Society ( 1 8 1 1) was'his idea. His last
work was a corrected edition of the Welsh Bible issued in small
pica by the Bible Society. As a preacher he was in great request,
though possessing but few of the qualities of the popular preacher.
All his work received very small remuneration; the family was
maintained by the profits of a business managed by Mrs Charles
— a keen, active and good woman. He died on the 5th of
October 18 14. His influence is still felt, and he is rightly claimed
as one of the makers of modern Wales. (D. E. J.)
CHARLES ALBERT [Carlo Alberto] (1 798-1849), king of
Sardinia (Piedmont), son of Prince Charles of Savoy-Carignano
and Princess Albertine of Saxe-Courland, was born on the 2nd of
October 1798, a few days before the French occupied Piedmont
and forced his cousin King Charles Emmanuel to take refuge
in Sardinia. Although Prince and Princess Carignano adhered
to the French Republican r6gime, they soon fell under suspicion
and were summoned to Paris. Prince Charles died in 1800, and
his widow married a Count de Montl6art and for some years led
a wandering existence, chiefly in Switzerland, neglecting her son
and giving him mere scraps of education, now under a devotee of
J. J. Rousseau, now under a Genevan Calvinist. In 1802 King
Charles Emmanuel abdicated in favour of his brother Victor
Emmanuel I.; the latter's only son being dead, his brother
Charles Felix was heir to the throne, and after him Charles Albert.
On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the Piedmontese court returned
to Turin and the king was anxious to secure the succession for
Charles Albert, knowing that Austria meditated excluding him
from it in favour of an Austrian archduke, but at the same time he
regarded him as an objectionable person on account of his revolu-
tionary upbringing. Charles Albert was summoned to Turin,
given tutors to instruct him in legitimist principles, and on the
1 st of October 181 7 married the archduchess Maria Theresa of
Tuscany, who, on the 14th of March 1820, gave birth to Victor
Emmanuel, afterwards king of Italy.
The Piedmontese government at this time was most re-
actionary, and had made a clean sweep of all French institutions.
But there were strong Italian nationalists and anti-Austrian
tendencies among the younger nobles and army officers, and the
Carbonari and other revolutionary societies had made much
progress.
Their hopes centred in the young Carignano, whose agreeable
manners had endeared him to all, and who had many friends
among the Liberals and Carbonari. Early in 1820 a revolutionary
movement was set on foot, and vague plans of combined risings
all over Italy and a war with Austria were talked of. Charles
Albert no doubt was aware of this, but he never actually became
a Carbonaro, and was surprised and startled when after the
outbreak of the Neapolitan revolution of 1820 some of the leading
conspirators in the Piedmontese army, including Count Santorre
di Santarosa and Count San Marzano, informed him that a
military rising was ready and that they counted on his help
(2nd March 18 21). He induced them to delay the outbreak
and informed the king, requesting him, however, not to punish
anyone. On the 10th the garrison of Alessandria mutinied,
and two days later Turin was in the hands of the insurgents,
the people demanding the Spanish constitution. The king at
once abdicated and appointed Charles Albert regent. The latter,
pressed by the revolutionists and abandoned by his ministers,
granted the constitution and sent to inform Charles Felix, who
was now king, of the occurrence. Charles Felix, who was then
at Modena, repudiated the regent's acts, accepted Austrian
military assistance, with which the rising was easily quelled,
and exiled Charles Albert to Florence. The young prince found
himself the most unpopular man in Italy, for while the Liberals
looked on him as a traitor, to the king and the Conservatives he
was a dangerous revolutionist. At the Congress of Verona
(1822) the Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, tried to induce
Charles Felix to set aside Charles Albert's rights of succession.
CHARLES AUGUSTUS
939
But the king was piqued by Austria's interference, and as both
the grand-duke of Tuscany and the duke of Wellington supported
him, Charles Albert's claims were respected. France having
decided to intervene in the Spanish revolution on the side of
autocracy, Charles Albert asked permission to join the due
d'Angouleme's expedition. The king granted it and the young
prince set out for Spain, where he fought with such gallantry
at the storming of the Trocadero (ist of September 1823) that
the French soldiers proclaimed him the " first Grenadier of
France." But it was not until he had signed a secret under-
taking binding himself, as soon as he ascended the throne, to place
himself under the tutelage of a council composed of the higher
clergy and the knights of the Annunziata, and to maintain the
existing forms of the monarchy (D. Berti, Cesare Alfieri f xi. 77,
Rome, 1871), that he was allowed to return to Turin and forgiven.
On the death of Charles Felix (27th of April 183 1) Charles
Albert succeeded; he inherited a kingdom without an army,
with an empty treasury, a chaotic administration and medieval
laws. His first task was to set his house in order; he reorganized
the finances, created the army, and started Piedmont on a path
which if not liberalism was at least progress. " He was," wrote
his reactionary minister, Count delJa Margherita, " hostile to
Austria from the depths of his soul and full of illusions as to the
possibility of freeing Italy from dependence on her. ... As
for the revolutionaries, he detested them but feared them, and
was convinced that sooner or later he would be their victim."
In 1833 a conspiracy of the Giovane Italia Society, organized by
Mazzini, was discovered, and a number of its members punished
with ruthless severity. On the election in 1846 of Pius IX., who
appeared to be a Liberal and an Italian patriot, the eyes of all
Italy were turned on him as the heaven-born leader who was to
rescue the country from the foreigner. This to some extent
reconciled the king to the Liberal movement, for it accorded
with his religious views. " I confess," he wrote to the marquis of
Villamarina, in 1847, "that a war of national independence
which should have for its object the defence of the pope would
be the greatest happiness that could befall me." On the 30th of
October he issued a decree granting wide reforms, and when
risings broke out in other parts of Italy early in 1848 and further
liberties were demanded, he was at last induced to grant the
constitution (8th February).
When the news of the Milanese revolt against the Austrians
reached Turin (19th of March) public opinion demanded that the
Piedmontese should succour their struggling brothers; and
after some hesitation the king declared war. But much time
had been wasted and many precious opportunities lost. With
an army of 60,000 Piedmontese troops and 30,000 men from
other parts of Italy the king took the field, and after defeating
the Austrians at Pastrengo on the 30th of April, and at Goito
on the 30th of May, where he was himself slightly wounded,
more time was wasted in useless operations. Radetzky, the
Austrian general, having received reinforcements, drove the
centre of the extended Italian line back across the Mincio (23rd
of July), and in the two days' fighting at Custozza( 24th and 25th
of July) the Piedmontese were beaten, forced to retreat, and to
ask for an armistice. On re-entering Milan Charles Albert was
badly received and reviled as a traitor by the Republicans,
and although he declared himself ready to die defending the
city the municipality treated with Radetzky for a capitulation;
the mob, urged on by the demagogues, made a savage demonstra-
tion against him at the Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in
the night with difficulty and returned to Piedmont with his
defeated armp. The French Republic offered to intervene in
the spring of 1848, but Charles Albert did not desire foreign aid,
the more so as in this case it would have had to be paid for by
the cession of Nice and Savoy. The revolutionary movement
throughout Italy was breaking down, but Charles Albert felt
that while he possessed an army he could not abandon the
Lombards and Venetians, and determined to stake all on a last
chance. On the 12th of March 1849 he denounced the armistice
and took the field again with an army of 80,000 men, but gave
the chief command to the Polish general Chrzanowski. General
Ramorino commanding the Lombard division proved unable
to prevent the Austrians from crossing the Ticino (20th of April),
and Chrzanowski was completely out-generalled and defeated
at La Bicocca near Novara on the 23rd . The Piedmontese fought
with great bravery, and the unhappy king sought death in vain.
After the battle he asked terms of Radetzky, who demanded
the occupation by Austria of a large part of Piedmont and the
heir to the throne as a hostage. Thereupon, feeling himself to
be the obstacle to better conditions, Charles Albert abdicated in
favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. That same night he
departed alone and made his way to Oporto, where he retired
into a monastery and died on the 28th of July 1849.
Charles Albert was not a man of first-rate ability; he was of
a hopelessly vacillating character. Devout and mystical to an
almost morbid degree, hating revolution and distrusting Liberal-
ism, he was a confirmed pessimist, yet he had many noble
qualities: he was brave to the verge of foolhardiness, devoted
to his country, and ready to risk his crown to free Italy from
the foreigner. To him the people of Italy owe a great debt, for
if he failed in his object he at least materialized the idea of the
Risorgimento in a practical shape, and the charges which the
Republicans and demagogues brought against him were mon-
strously unjust.
Bibliography. — Besides the general works on modern Italy, see
the Marquis Costa de Beauregard's interesting volumes La Jeunesse
du roi Charles Albert (Paris, 1899) and Novare et Oporto (1890), based
on the king's letters and the journal of Sylvain Costa, his faithful
equerry, though the author's views are those of an old-fashioned
Savoyard who dislikes the idea of Italian unity; Ernesto Masi's
// Segreto del Re Carlo Alberto (Bologna* 1 891) is a very illuminating
essay; Domenico Perrero, Gli Ultimi Reali di Savoia (Turin, 1889);
L. Cappelletti, Storia di Carlo Alberto (Rome, 1801); Nicomede
Bianchi, Storia delta diplomazia eurofea in Italia (8 vols., Turin,
1865, &c.), a most important work 01 a general character, and the
same author's Scritti e letter e di Carlo Alberto (Rome, 1879) and his
Storia delta monarchia piemontese (Turin, 1877); Count S. della
Margherita, Memorandum storico-politico (Turin, 1851).
CHARLES AUGUSTUS [Karl August] (1757-1828), grand-
duke of Saxe-Weimar, son of Constantine, duke of Saxe- Weimar-
Eisenach, and Anna Amalia of Brunswick, was born on the 3rd
of September 1757. His father died when he was only nine
months old, and the boy was brought up under the regency and
supervision of his mother, a woman of enlightened but masterful
temperament. His governor was Count Eustach von Gorz,
a German nobleman of the old strait-laced school; but a more
humane element was introduced into his training when, in 177 1,
Wieland was appointed his tutor. In 1 7 74 the poet Karl Ludwig
von Knebel came to Weimar as tutor to the young Prince
Constantine; and in the same year the two princes set out,
with Count Gorz and Knebel, for Paris. At Frankfort, Knebel
introduced Karl August to the young Goethe: the beginning
of a momentous friendship. In 1775 Karl August returned
to Weimar, and the same year came of age and married Princess
Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt.
One of the first acts of the young grand-duke was to summon
Goethe to Weimar, and in 1776 he was made a member of the
privy council. " People of discernment," he said, " congratulate
me on possessing this man. His intellect, his genius is known.
It makes no difference if the world is offended because I have
made Dr Goethe a member of my most important collegium
without his having passed through the stages of minor official
professor and councillor of state." To the undiscerning, the
beneficial effect of this appointment was not at once apparent.
With Goethe the " storm and stress " spirit descended upon
Weimar, and the stiff traditions of the little court dissolved in
a riot of youthful exuberance. The duke was a deep drinker,
but also a good sportsman; and the revels of the court were
alternated with break-neck rides across country, ending in nights
spent round the camp fire under the stars. Karl August, however,
had more serious tastes. He was interested in literature, in art,
in science; critics, unsuspected of flattery, praised his judgment
in painting; biologists found in him an expert in anatomy. Nor
did he neglect the government of his little state. His reforms
were the outcome of something more than the spirit of the
94°
CHARLES EDWARD
" enlightened despots " of the 18th century; for from the first
he had realized that the powers of the prince to play " earthly
providence " were strictly limited. His aim, then, was to
educate his people to work out their own political and social
salvation, the object of education being in his view, as he ex-
plained later to the dismay of Metternich and his school, to help
men to " independence of judgment." To this end Herder was
summoned to Weimar to reform the educational system; and
it is little wonder that, under a patron so enlightened, the
university of Jena attained the zenith of its fame, and Weimar
became the intellectual centre of Germany.
Meanwhile, in the affairs of Germany and of Europe the
character of Karl August gave him an influence out of all propor-
tion to his position as a sovereign prince. He had early faced
the problem presented by the decay of the Empire, and began
to work for the unity of Germany. The plans of the emperor
Joseph II., which threatened to absorb a great part of Germany
into the heterogeneous Habsburg monarchy, threw him into the
arms of Prussia, and he was the prime mover in the establish-
ment of the league of princes (Fursteribund) in 1785, by which,
under the leadership of Frederick the Great, Joseph's intrigues
were frustrated. He was, however, under no illusion as to the
power of Austria, and he wisely refused the offer of the Hun-
garian crown, made to him in 1787 by Prussia at the instance
of the Magyar malcontents, with the dry remark that he had no
desire to be another " Winter King." In 1788 Karl August took
service in the Prussian army as major-general in active command
of a regiment. As such he was present, with Goethe, at the
cannonade of Valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the siege of Mainz
and the battles of Pirmasenz (September 14) and Kaiserslautern
(October 28-30). After this, dissatisfied with the attitude of the
powers, he resigned; but rejoined on the accession of his friend
King Frederick William III. to the Prussian throne. The
disastrous campaign of Jena (1806) followed; on the 14th of
October, the day after the battle, Weimar was sacked; and
Karl August, to prevent the confiscation of his territories, was
forced to join the Confederation of the Rhine. From this time
till after the Moscow campaign of 181 2 his contingent fought
under the French flag in all Napoleon's wars. In 1 813, however,
he joined the Grand Alliance, and at the beginning of 18 14 took
the command of a corps of 30,000 men operating in the Nether-
lands.
At the congress of Vienna Karl August was present in person,
and protested vainly against the narrow policy of the powers
in confining their debates to the " rights of the princes " to the
exclusion of the " rights of the people." His services in the war
of liberation were rewarded with an extension of territory and
the title of grand-duke; but his liberal attitude had already
made him suspect, and his subsequent action brought him still
further into antagonism to the reactionary powers. He was
the first of the German princes to grant a liberal constitution to
his state under Article XIII. of the Act of Confederation (May 5,
18 1 6); and his concession of full liberty to the press made
Weimar for a while the focus of journalistic agitation against
the existing order. Metternich dubbed him contemptuously
" der grosse Bursche " for his patronage of the " revolutionary "
Burschenschaften; and the celebrated " festival " held at the
Wartburg by his permission in 18 18, though in effect the mildest
of political demonstrations, brought down upon him the wrath
of the great powers. Karl August, against his better judgment,
was compelled to yield to the remonstrances of Prussia, Austria
and Russia; the liberty of the press was again restricted in the
grand-duchy, but, thanks to the good understanding between
the grand-duke and his people, the r6gime of the Carlsbad
Decrees pressed less heavily upon Weimar than upon other
German states.
Karl August died on the 14th of June 1828. Upon his con-
temporaries of the most various types his personality made a great
impression. Karl von Dalberg, the prince-primate, who owed
the coadjutorship of Mainz to the duke's friendship, said that
he had never met a prince " with so much understanding,
character, frankness and true-heartedness "; the Milanese, when
he visited their city, called him the " uomo principe "; and
Goethe himself said of him " he had the gift of discriminating
intellects and characters and setting each one in his place. He
was inspired by the noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and
with his whole soul desired only what was best. There was in
him something of the divine* He would gladly have wrought
the happiness of all mankind. And finally, he was greater than
his surroundings. . . . Everywhere he himself saw and judged,
and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself."
He left two sons: Charles Frederick (d. 1853), by whom he was
succeeded, and Bernhard, duke of Saxe- Weimar (1 792-1862), a
distinguished soldier, who, after the congress of Vienna, became
colonel of a regiment in the service of the king of the Netherlands,
distinguished himself as commander of the Dutch troops in the
Belgian campaign of 1830, and from 1847 to 1850 held the com-
mand of the forces in the Dutch East Indies. Bernhard's son,
William Augustus Edward, known as Prince Edward of Saxe-
Weimar (1 823-1 902), entered the British army, served with
much distinction in the Crimean War, and became colonel of the
1st Life Guards and a field marshal; in 1851 he contracted
a morganatic marriage with Lady Augusta Gordon-Lennox
(d. 1904), daughter of the 5th duke of Richmond and Gordon,
who in Germany received the title of countess of Dornburg, but
was granted the rank of princess in Great Britain by royal
decree in 1866. Karl August's only daughter, Caroline, married
Frederick Louis, hereditary grand-duke of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, and was the mother of Helene (1814-1858), wife of
Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, eldest son of King Louis Philippe.
Karl August's correspondence with Goethe was published in 2 vols,
at Weimar in 1 863. See the biography by von Wegele in the AUgem,
deutsche Biographic
CHARLES EDWARD [Charles Edward Louis Philip
Casimir Stuart] (1 720-1 788), English prince, called the
" Young Pretender " and also the " Young Chevalier," was
born at Rome on December 31st, 1720. He was the grandson
of King James II. of England and elder son of James, the " Old
Pretender," by whom (as James III.) he was created at his birth
prince of Wales, the title he bore among the English Jacobites
during his father's lifetime. The young prince was educated at
his father's miniature court in Rome, with James Murray,
Jacobite earl of Dunbar, for his governor, and under various
tutors, amongst whom were the learned Chevalier Ramsay,
Sir Thomas Sheridan and the abb6 Legoux. He quickly became
conversant with the English, French and Italian languages,
but all his extant letters written in English appear singularly
ill-spelt and illiterate. In 1734 his cousin, the duke of Liria,
afterwards duke of Berwick, who was proceeding to join Don
Carlos in his struggle for the crown of Naples, passed through
Rome. He offered to take Charles on his expedition, and the
boy of thirteen, having been appointed general of artillery by
Don Carlos, shared with credit the dangers of the successful
siege of Gaeta.
The handsome and accomplished youth, whose doings were
eagerly reported by the English ambassador at Florence and
by the spy, John Walton, at Rome, was now introduced by his
father and the pope to the highest Italian society, which he
fascinated by the frankness of his manner and the grace and
dignity of his bearing. In 1737 James despatched his son
on a tour through the chief Italian cities, that his education as
a prince and man of the world might be completed. The dis-
tinction with which he was received on his journey, the royal
honours paid to him in Venice, and the jealous interference of
the English ambassador in regard to his reception by the grand-
duke of Tuscany, show how great was the respect in which the
exiled house was held at this period by foreign Catholic powers,
as well as the watchful policy of England in regard to its fortunes.
The Old Pretender himself calculated upon foreign aid in his
attempts to restore the monarchy of the Stuarts; and the idea
of rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind
from abroad was one which it was left for Charles Edward to
endeavour to realize. Of all the European nations France was
the one on which Jacobite hopes mainly rested, and the warm
CHARLES EDWARD
sympathy which Cardinal Tencin, who had succeeded Fleury
as French minister, felt for the Old Pretender resulted in a
definite scheme for an invasion of England to be timed simul-
taneously with a prearranged Scottish rebellion. Charles was
secretly despatched to Paris in January 1744. A squadron
under Admiral Roquefeuil sailed from the coast of France.
Transports containing 7000 troops, to be led by Marshal Saxe,
accompanied by the young prince, were in readiness to set sail
for England. A severe storm effected, however, a complete
disaster without any actual engagement taking place.
The loss in ships of the line, in transports, and in lives was a
crushing blow to the hopes of Charles, who remained in France
for over a year in a retirement which he keenly felt. He had
at Rome already made the acquaintance of Lord Elcho and of
John Murray of Broughton; at Paris he had seen many sup-
porters of the Stuart cause; he was aware that in every European
court the Jacobites were represented in earnest intrigue; and
he had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and
other actual work connected with the promotion of his own and
his father's interests. Although dissuaded by all his friends,
on the 13th of July 1745 he sailed from Nantes for Scotland on
board the small brig " La Doutelle," which was accompanied
by a French man-of-war, the " Elisabeth," laden with arms and
ammunition. The latter fell in with an English man-of-war, the
" Lion," and had to return to France; Charles escaped during
the engagement, and at length arrived on the 2nd of August off
Erisca, a little island of the Hebrides. Receiving, however, but
a cool reception from Macdonald of Boisdale, he set sail again
and arrived at the bay of Lochnanuagh on the west coast of
Inverness-shire.
The Macdonalds of Clanranald and Kinloch Moidart, along
with other chieftains, again attempted to dissuade him from
the rashness of an unaided rising, but they yielded at last to the
enthusiasm and charm of his manner, and Charles landed on
Scottish soil in the company of the " Seven Men of Moidart "
who had come with him from France. Everywhere, however,
he met with discouragement among the chiefs, whose adherence
he wished to secure; but at last, by enlisting the support of
Cameron of Lochiel, he gained a footing for a serious rebellion.
With secrecy and speed communications were entered into with
the known leaders of the Highland clans, and on the 19th of
August, in the valley of Glenfinnan, the standard of James III.
and VIII. was raised in the midst of a motley but increasing
crowd. On the same o\ay Sir John Cope at the head of 1500 men
left Edinburgh in search of Charles; but, fearing an attack in
the Pass of Corryarrick, he changed his proposed route to
Inverness, and Charles thus had the undefended south country
before him. In the beginning of September he entered Perth,
having gained numerous accessions to his forces on his march.
Crossing the Forth unopposed at the Fords of Frew and passing
through Stirling and Linlithgow, he arrived within a few miles
of the astonished metropolis, and on the 16th of September a
body of his skirmishers defeated the dragoons of Colonel Gardiner
in what was known as the," Canter of Coltbrig." His success
was still further augmented by his being enabled to enter the
city, a few of Cameron's Highlanders having on the following
morning, by a happy ruse, forced their way through the Canon-
gate. On the 1 8th he publicly proclaimed James VIII. of Scot-
land at the Market Cross and occupied Holyrood.
Cope had by this time brought his disappointed forces by sea
to Dunbar. On the 20th Charles met and defeated him at
Prestonpans, and returned to prosecute the siege of Edinburgh
Castle, which, however, he raised on General Guest's threatening
to lay the city in ruins. In the beginning of November Charles
left Edinburgh, never to return. He was at the head of at least
6000 men; but the ranks were being gradually thinned by the
desertion of Highlanders, whose traditions had led them to
consider war merely as a raid and an immediate return with
plunder. Having passed through Kelso, on the oth of November
he laid siege to Carlisle, which capitulated in a week. Manchester
received the prince with a warm welcome and with 150 recruits
under Francis Towneley. On the 4th of December he had reached
Derby and was within two days' march 01 Isjgswji » ;>-^ .^
inhabitants were terror-struck and a commerce \0k-\w ^..k^-^
ately ensued. Two armies under English lea»~t,- > »..?>, ^^0
in the field against him, one under Marshal ttV^t. rum ir
had evaded by entering England by the west, &*>c v« v.*:^
under William, duke of Cumberland, who had retunyn .;vn .:**
continent. London was not to be supposed helpless i& w j *.i
emergency; Manchester, Glasgow and Dumfries, rid <A x**
presence, had risen against him, and Charles paused. There *tt
division among his advisers and desertion among his men. a^c
on the 6th of December he reluctantly was forced to begin s^%
retreat northward. Closely pursued by Cumberland , he marched
by way of Carlisle across the border, and at last stopped to invest
Stirling Castle. At Falkirk, on the 17th of January 1746, he
defeated General Hawley, who had marched from Edinburgh
to intercept his retreat. A fortnight later, however, Charles
raised the siege of Stirling, and after a weary though successful
march rested his troops at Inverness. Having taken Forts
George and Augustus, and after varying success against the
supporters of the government in the north, he at last prepared
to face the duke of Cumberland, who had passed the early spring
at Aberdeen. On the 8th of April the duke marched thence to
meet Charles, whose little army, exhausted witty a futile night
march, half-starving, and broken by desertion, was completely
worsted at Culloden on the 16th of April 1746.
This decisive and cruel defeat sealed the fate of Charles Edward
and the house of Stuart. Accompanied by the faithful Ned
Burke and a few other followers, Charles at last gained the wild
western coast. Hunted hither and thither, he wandered on foot
or cruised restlessly in open boats among the many barren isles of
the Scottish shore, enduring the greatest hardships with marvellous
courage and cheerfulness. Charles, upon whose head a reward
of £30,000 had a year before been set, was thus for over five
months relentlessly pursued by the troops and spies of the
government. Disguised in female attire and aided by a passport
obtained by the devoted Flora Macdonald, he passed through
Skye and parted from his gallant conductress at Portree. To-
wards the end of July he took refuge in the cave of Coiraghoth
in the Braes of Glenmoriston, and in August he joined Lochiel
and Cluny Macpherson, with whom he remained in hiding until
the news was brought that two French ships were in waiting
for him at the place of his first arrival in Scotland — Lochnanuagh.
He embarked with speed and sailed for France, reaching the
little port of Roscoff, near Morlaix, on the 29th of September
1746. He was warmly welcomed by Louis XV., and ere long
he was again vigorously intriguing in Paris, and even in Madrid.
So far as political assistance was concerned, his efforts proved
fruitless, but he became at once the popular hero and idol of
the people of Paris. So enraged was he with his brother
Henry's acceptance of a cardinal's hat in July 1747, that he
deliberately broke off communication with his father in Rome
(who had approved the step), nor did he ever see him again.
The enmity of the British government to Charles Edward made
peace with France an impossibility so long as she continued to
harbour the young prince. A condition of the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle, concluded in October 1748, was that every member
of the house of Stuart should be expelled the French dominions.
Charles had forestalled the proclamation of the treaty by an
indignant protest against its injustice, and a declaration that he
would not be bound by its provisions. But his indignation and
persistent refusal to comply with the request that he should
voluntarily leave France had to be met at last with, force: he
^was apprehended, imprisoned for a week at Vincennes, and on
the 17th of December conducted to the French border. He
lingered at Avignon; but the French, compelled to hard
measures by the English, refused to be satisfied; and Pope
Benedict XIV., alarmed by the threat of a bombardment of
Civita Vecchia, advised the prince to withdraw. Charles quietly
disappeared; for years Europe watched for him in vain. It is
now established, almost with certainty, that he returned to
the neighbourhood of Paris; and it is supposed that his resi-
dence was known to the French ministers, who, however, firmly
v. 30 <*
942
CHARLES EMMANUEL I.— CHARLES MARTEL
proclaimed their ignorance. In 1750, and again, it is thought,
in 1754, he was in London, hatching futile plots and risking his
safety for his hopeless cause, and even abjuring the Roman
Catholic faith in order to further his political interests.
During the next ten years of his life Charles Edward's illicit
connexion with Miss Clementina Walkinshaw (d. 1802), whom
he had first met at Bannockburn House while conducting the
siege of Stirling, his imperious fretful temper, his drunken habits
and debauched life, could no longer be concealed. He wandered
over Europe in disguise, alienating the friends and crushing the
hopes of his party; and in 1766, on returning to Rome at the
death of his father, he was treated by Pope Clement XIII. with
coldness, and his title as heir to the British throne was openly
repudiated by all the great Catholic powers. It was probably
through the influence of the French court, still intriguing against
England, that the marriage between Charles (now self-styled
count of Albany) and Princess Louise of Stolberg was arranged
in 1772. The union proved childless and unhappy, and in 1780
the countess fled for refuge from her husband's drunken violence
to a convent in Florence, where Charles had been residing since
1774. Later, the countess of Albany (q.v.) threw herself on the
protection of her brother-in-law Henry, Cardinal York, at Rome,
and the formal separation between the ill-matched pair was
finally brought about in 1784, chiefly through the kind offices
of King Gustavus III. of Sweden. Charles, lonely, ill, and
evidently near death, now summoned to Florence his natural
daughter, Charlotte Stuart, the child of Clementina Walkinshaw,
born at Li6ge in October 1753 and hitherto neglected by the
prince. Charlotte Stuart, who was declared legitimate and
created duchess of Albany, tended her father for the remaining
years of his life, during which she contrived to reconcile the two
Stuart brothers, so that in 1785 Charles returned to Rome, where
he died in the old Palazzo Muti on the 30th of January 1788.
He was buried in his brother's cathedral church at Frascati, but
in 1807 his remains were removed to the Grotte Vaticane of
St Peter's. His daughter Charlotte survived her father less than
two years, dying unmarried at Bologna in November 1789, at
the early age of thirty-six.
See A. C. Ewald, Life and Times of Charles Stuart, the Young
Pretender (2 vols., 1875); C. S. Terry, Life of the Youn% Pretender,
and The Rising of 1745; with Bibliography of Jacobite Htstory 1689-
1788 (Scott. Hist. fr. Contemp. Writers, iii.) (1900); Earl Stanhope,
History of England (1836) and Decline of the Last Stuarts (1854);
Bishop K. Forbes, The Lyon in Mourmng (1895- 1806); Andrew
Lang, Pickle, the Spy (1807), and Prince Charles Edward (1900);
R. Chambers, History of the Rebellion in Scotland, &c. &c.
(H. M. V.)
CHARLES EMMANUEL I. [Carlo Emanuele] (i 562-1630),
duke of Savoy, succeeded his father, Emmanuel Philibert,
in 1580. He continued the latter's policy of profiting by the
rivalry of France and Spain in order to round off and extend
his dominions. His three chief objects were the conquest of
Geneva, of Saluzzo and of Monferrato. Saluzzo he succeeded
in wresting from France in 1 588. He intervened in the French
religious wars, and also fought with Bern and other Swiss
cantons, and on the murder of Henry III. of France in 1589 he
aspired to the French throne on the strength of the claims of his
wife Catherine, sister of Henry of Navarre, afterwards King
Henry IV. In 1590 he sent an expedition to Provence in the
interests of the Catholic League, and followed it himself later,
but the peace of 1 593, by which Henry of Navarre was recognized
as king of France, put an end to his ambitions. In the war
between Erance and Spain Charles sided with the latter, with
varying success. Finally, by the peace of Lyons (1601), he gave'
up all territories beyond the Rh6ne, but his possession of Saluzzo
was confirmed. He now meditated a further enterprise against
Geneva; but his attempt to capture the city by treachery and
with the help of Spain (the famous escalade) in 1602 failed com-
pletely. The next few years were filled with negotiations and
intrigues with Spain and France which did not lead to any
particular result, but on the death in 161 2 of Duke Francesco
Gonzaga of Mantua, who was lord of Monferrato, Charles Em-
manuel made a successful coup de main on that district. This
arrayed the Venetians, Tuscany, the Empire and Spain against
him, and he was obliged to relinquish his conquest. The
Spaniards invaded the duchy from Lombardy, and although the
duke was defeated several times he fought bravely, gained some
successes, and the terms of the peace of 16 18 left him more or
less in the status quo ante. We next find Charles Emmanuel
aspiring to the imperial crown in 1619, but without success.
In 1628 he was in alliance with Spain in the war against France;
the French invaded the duchy, which, being abandoned by
Spain, was overrun by their armies. The duke fought desper-
ately, but was taken ill at Savigliano and died in 1630. He was
succeeded by his son Victor Amedeo I., while his third son
Tommaso founded the line of Savoy-Carignano from which the
present royal house of Italy is descended. Charles Emmanuel
achieved a great reputation as a statesman and warrior, and
increased the prestige of Savoy, but he was too shifty and in-
genious, and his schemes ended in disaster.
See E. Ricotti, Storia delta monarchia piemontese, vols. iii. and iv.
(Florence, 1865); T. Raulich, Storia di Carlo Emanuele I. (Milan,
1 896- 1 902); G. Curti, Carlo Emanuele I. secondo; piU recenti studii
(Milan, 1894).
CHARLES MARTEL 1 (c. 688-741), Frankish ruler, was a
natural son of Pippin II., mayor of the palace, and Chalpaida.
Charles was baptized by St Rigobert, bishop of Reims. At the
death of his father in 714, Pippin's widow Plectrude claimed the
government in Austrasia and Neustria in the name of her grand-
children, and had Charles thrown into prison. But the Neustrians
threw off the Austrasian yoke and entered into an offensive
alliance with the Frisians and Saxons. In the general anarchy
Charles succeeded in escaping, defeated the Neustrians at
Ambleve, south of Li6ge, in 716, and at Vincy, near Cambrai, in
717, and forced them to come to terms. In Austrasia he wrested
the power from Plectrude, and took the title of mayor of the
palace, thus prejudicing the interests of his nephews. According
to the Frankish custom he proclaimed a king in Austrasia in the
person of the young Clotaire IV., but in reality Charles was the
sole master — the entry in the annals for the year 717 being
" Carolus regnare coepit." Once in possession of Austrasia,
Charles sought to extend his dominion over Neustria also. In
719 he defeated Ragenfrid, the Neustrian mayor of the palace,
at Soissons, and forced him to retreat to Angers. Ragenfrid
died in 731, and from that time Charles had no competitor in
the western kingdom. He obliged the inhabitants of Burgundy
to submit, and disposed of the Burgundian bishoprics and count-
ships to his leudes. In Aquitaine Duke Odo (Eudes) exercised
independent authority, but in 719 Charles forced him to recognize
the suzerainty of northern France, at least nominally. After
the alliance between Charles and Odo on the field of Poitiers,
the mayor of the palace left Aquitaine to Odo's son Hunald,
who paid homage to him. Besides establishing a certain unity
in Gaul, Charles saved it from a very great peril. In 711 the
Arabs had conquered Spain. In 720 they crossed the Pyrenees,
seized Narbonensis, a dependency of the kingdom of the Visi-
goths, and advanced on Gaul. By his able policy Odo succeeded
in arresting their progress for some years; but a new vali, Abdur
Rahman, a member of an extremely fanatical sect, resumed the
attack, reached Poitiers, and advanced on Tours, the holy town
of Gaul. In October 732 — just 100 years after the death of
Mahomet — Charles gained a brilliant victory over Abdur
Rahman, who was called back to Africa by the revolts of the
Berbers and had to give up the struggle. This was the last of
the great Arab invasions of Europe. After his victory Charles
took the offensive, and endeavoured to wrest Narbonensis from
the Mussulmans. Although he was not successful in his attempt
to recover Narbonne (737), he destroyed the fortresses of Agde,
B6ziers and Maguelonne, and set fire to the amphitheatre at
Nimes. He subdued also the Germanic tribes; annexed Frisia,
where Christianity was beginning to make progress; put an end
to the duchy of Alemannia; intervened in the internal affairs
of the dukes of Bavaria; made expeditions into Saxony; and
in 738 compelled some of the Saxon tribes to pay him tribute.
1 Or " The Hammer."
CHARLESTON
943
He also gave St Boniface a safe conduct for his missions in
Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria.
During the government of Charles Martel important changes
appear to have been made in the internal administration. Under
him began the great assemblies of nobles known as the champs
de Mars. To attach his leudes Charles had to give them church
lands as precarium, and this had a very great influence in the
development of the feudal system. It was from the precarium,
or ecclesiastical benefice, that the feudal fief originated. Vassal-
age, too, acquired a greater consistency at this period, and its
rules began to crystallize. Under Charles occurred the first
attempt at reconciliation between the papacy and the Franks.
Pope Gregory III., menaced by the Lombards, invoked the aid
of Charles (739), sent him a deputation with the keys of the
Holy Sepulchre and the chains of St Peter, and offered to break
with the emperor and Constantinople, and to give Charles the
Roman consulate (ui a partibus imperatoris recederei et Romanum
consulatum Carolo sanciret) . This proposal, though unsuccessful,
was the starting-point of a new papal policy. Since the death of
Theuderich IV. in 737 there had been no king of the Franks.
In 741 Charles divided the kingdom between his two sons, as
though he were himself master of the realm. To the elder,
Carloman, he gave Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia, with
suzerainty over Bavaria; the younger, Pippin, received Neustria,
Burgundy and Provence. Shortly after this division of the
kingdom Charles died at Quierzy on the 22nd of October 741,
and was buried at St Denis. The characters of Charles Martel
and his grandson Charlemagne offer many striking points of
resemblance. Both were men of courage and activity, and the
two men are often confused in the chansons de geste.
See T. Breysig, Jahrbucher d. frank. Reichs, 714-741; die Zeit
Karl MarteUs (Leipzig, 1869) J A. A. Beugnot, " Sur la spoliation des
biens du clerge attribuee a Charles Martel," in the Mem. de VAcad.
des Inset . et tielles-Lettres, vol. xix. (Paris, 1853); Ulysse Chevalier,
Bio-bibliographie (2nd ed., Paris, 1904). (C. Pf.)
CHARLESTON, a city and the county-seat of Coles county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, about 45 m. W.
of Terre Haute, Indiana. Pop. (1890) 4135; (1900) 5488. It
is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
the Toledo, St Louis & Western railways, and by interurban
electric lines. It is the seat of the Eastern Illinois state normal
school (opened in 1899). The city is situated in an important
broom-corn raising district, and has broom factories, a tile
factory and planing mills. The water-works are owned and
operated by the municipality. Charleston was settled about
1835, was incorporated in 1839, and was reincorporated in 1865.
One of the Lincoln-Douglas debates was held here in 1858.
CHARLESTON, the largest city of South Carolina, U.S.A.,
the county-seat of Charleston county, a port of entry, and an
important South Atlantic seaport, on a narrow peninsula
formed by the Cooper river on the E. and the Ashley on the W.
and S.W., and within sight of the ocean about 7 m. distant.
Pop. (1890) 54,955; (1900) 55,807, of whom 31,522 were of negro
descent and 2592 were foreign-born; (estimated 1906) 56,317.
It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern railways,
the Clyde Steamship Line to New York, Boston and Jackson-
ville, the Baltimore & Carolina Steamship Co. to Baltimore and
Georgetown, and a branch of the North German Lloyd Steamship
Co., which brings immigrants from Europe direct to the Southern
states; there are freight boat lines to ports in the West Indies,
Central America and other foreign countries.
The city extends over 3.76 sq. m. of surface, nowhere rising
more than 8 or 10 ft. above the rivers, and has about 9 m. of
water front. In the middle of the harbour, on a small island
near its entrance, is the famous Fort Sumter; a little to the
north-east, on Sullivan's Island, is the scarcely less historic
Fort Moultrie, as well as extensive modern fortifications; on
James Island, opposite, is Fort Johnson, now the United States
Quarantine Station, and farther up, on the other islands, are
Fort Ripley and Castle Pinckney (now the United States buoy
station). Viewed from any of these forts, Charleston's spires
and public buildings seem to rise out of the sea. The streets
are shaded with the live oak and the linden, and are ornamented
with the palmetto; and the quaint specimens of colonial archi-
tecture, numerous pillared porticoes, spacious verandas — both
upper and lower — and flower gardens made beautiful with
magnolias, palmettoes, azaleas, jessamines, cameJias and roses,
give the city a peculiarly picturesque character.
King Street, running north and south through the middle
of the peninsula, and Market Street, crossing it about 1 m.from
its lower end, are lined with stores, shops or stalls; on Broad
Street are many of the office buildings and banks; the wholesale
houses are for the most part on Meeting Street, the first thorough-
fare east of King; nearly all of the wharves are on the east side;
the finest residences are at the lower end of the peninsula on
East Battery and South Battery, on Meeting Street below
Broad, on Legare Street, on Broad Street and on Rutledge
Avenue to the west of King. At the south-east corner of Broad
and Meeting streets is Saint Michael's (built in 1 752-1761),
the oldest church edifice in the city, and a fine specimen of colonial
ecclesiastical architecture; in its tower is an excellent chime
of eight bells. Beneath the vestry room lie the remains of
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and in the churchyard are the
graves of John Rutledge, James Louis Petigru (1 780-1863), and
Robert Young Hayne. At the intersection of the same streets
are also the massive United States post office building (Italian
Renaissance in style), with walls of granite; the county court
house, the city hall and Washington Square — in which stand a
statue of William Pitt (one arm of which was broken off by a
cannon shot during the British bombardment in 1780), and a
monument to the memory of Henry Timrod (1829-186 7), the
poet. At the foot of Broad Street is the Colonial Exchange
in which the South Carolina convention organized a new govern-
ment during the War of Independence; and at the foot of
Market Street is the large modern custom house of white marble,
built in the Roman-Corinthian style. Saint Philip's church,
with admirable architectural proportions, has a steeple nearly
200 ft. in height, from which a beacon light shines for the guidance
of mariners far out at sea. In the west cemetery of this church
are the tombs of John C. Calhoun, and of Robert James Turnbull
(1775-1833), who was prominent locally as a nullifier and under
the name of " Brutus " wrote ably on behalf of nullification,
free trade and state's rights. The French Protestant Church,
though small, is an attractive specimen of Gothic architecture;
and the Unitarian, which is in the Perpendicular style and is
modelled after the chapel of Edward VI. in Westminster, has
a beautiful fan-tracery ceiling.
Of the few small city squares, gardens or parks, the White
Point Garden at the lower end of the peninsula is most frequented ;
it is shaded with beautiful live oaks, is adorned with palmettoes
and commands a fine view of the harbour. About 1 J m. north
of this on Meeting Street is Marion Square, with a tall graceful
monument to the memory of John C, Calhoun on the south
side, and the South Carolina Military Academy along the north
border. The largest park in Charleston is Hampton Park,
named in honour of General Wade Hampton. It is situated in
the north-west part of the city and is beautifully laid out. The
Isle of Palms, to the north of Sullivan's Island, has a large
pavilion and a wide sandy beach with a fine surf for bathing,
and is the most popular resort for visitors. The Magnolia
Gardens are about 8 m. up the Ashley. Twenty-two miles
beyond is the town of Summerville (pop. in 1900, 2420), a
health resort in the pine lands, with one of the largest tea farms
in the country. Magnolia Cemetery, the principal burial-place,
is a short distance north of the city limits; in it are the graves
of William Washington (1732-1810) and Hugh Swinton Legar6.
Charleston was the home of the Pinckneys, the Rutledges, the
Gadsdens, the Laurenses, and, in a later generation, of W. G.
Simms. A trace of the early social organization of the brilliant
colonial town remains in the St Cecilia Society, first formed in
1737 as an amateur concert society.
Charleston has an excellent system of public schools. Fore-
most among the educational institutions is the college of Charles-
ton, chartered in 1785 and again in 1791, and opened in 1790;
944
CHARLESTON
it is supported by the city and by funds of its own, ranks high
within the state, and has a large and well-equipped museum of
natural history, probably founded as early as 1777 and transferred
to the college in 1850. Here, too, are the Medical College of
the state of South Carolina, which includes a department of
pharmacy; the South Carolina Military Academy (opened in
1843), which is a branch of the University of South Carolina;
the Porter Military Academy (Protestant Episcopal), the
Confederate home school for young women, the Charleston
University School, and the Avery Normal Institute (Congrega-
tionalist) for coloured students. In the Charleston library
(about 25,000 volumes), founded in 1748, are important collec-
tions of rare books and manuscripts; the rooms of the South
Carolina Historical Society are in the same building. The
Charleston News and Courier, published first as the Courier in
1803 and combined with the Daily News (1865) in 1873, * s one °f
the most influential newspapers in the South. The charitable
institutions of the city include the Roper hospital, the Charles-
ton Orphan Asylum (founded in 1792), the William Euston
home for the aged, and a home for the widows of Confederate
soldiers.
In 1878 the United States government began the construction
of jetties to remove the bar at the entrance to Charleston harbour,
which was otherwise deep and spacious and well protected, and
by means of these jetties the bar has been so far removed as to
admit vessels drawing about 30 ft. of water. The result has been
not only the promotion of the city's commerce, but the removal
of the United States naval station and navy yard from Port
Royal to what was formerly Chicora Park on the left bank of the
Cooper river, a short distance above the city limits. The city's
commerce consists largely in the export of cotton, 1 rice, fertil-
izers, fruits, lumber and naval stores; the value of its exports,
$10,794,000 in 1897, decreased to $2,196,596 in 1007 ($3,164,089
in 1908), while that of the import trade ($1,255,483 in 1897)
increased to $3,840,585 in 1007 ($3,323,844 hi 1908). The
principal industries are the preparation of fertilizers — largely
from the extensive beds of phosphate rock along the banks of
the Ashley river and from cotton-seed meal — cotton compressing,
rice cleaning, canning oysters, fruits and vegetables, and the
manufacture of cotton bagging, of lumber, of cooperage goods,
clothing and carriages and wagons. Between 1880 and 1890
the industrial development of the city was very rapid, the
manufactures in 1890 showing an increase of 229-6% over those
of 188a; the increase between 1890 and 1900 was only 6-2%.
In 1900 the total value of the city's manufactures, 16-3%
(in value) of the product of the entire state, was $9,562,387, the
value of the fertilizer product alone, much the most important,
being $3,697,090.*
History. — The first English settlement in South Carolina,
established at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley
river in 1670, was named Charles Town in honour of Charles II.
The location proving undesirable, a new Charles Town on the
site of the present city was begun about 1672, and the seat of
government was removed to it in 1 680. The name Charles Town
became Charles town about 1 7 19 and Charleston in 1 783. Among
the early settlers were English Churchmen, New England
Congregationalists, Scotch and Irish Presbyterians, Dutch and
German Lutherans, Huguenots (especially in 1680-1688) from
France and Switzerland, and a few Quakers; later the French
element of the population was augmented by settlers from
Acadia (1755) and from San Domingo (1793). Although it
soon became the largest and the wealthiest settlement south of
Philadelphia, Charleston did not receive a charter until 1783,
1 At an early date cotton became an important article in Charles-
ton's commerce; some was shipped so early as 1747. At the
outbreak of the Civil War Charleston was one of the three most
important cotton-shipping ports in the United States, being ex-
ceeded in importance only by New Orleans and New York.
* The special census of 1905 dealt only with the factory product,
that of 1905 ($6,007,094) showing an increase of 5-1 % over that of
1900 ($5,7i3.3i5)- In 1905 the (factory) fertilizer product of
Charleston was $1,291,859, which represented more than 35% of
the (factory) fertilizer product of the whole state.
and did not have even a township government. Local ordin-
ances were passed by the provincial legislature and enforced
partly by provincial officials and partly by the church wardens.
It was, however, the political and social centre of the province,
being not only the headquarters of the governor, council and
colonial officials, but also the only place at which courts of
justice were held until the complaints of the Up Country people
led to the establishment of circuit courts in 1772. After the
American War of Independence it continued to be the capital
of South Carolina until 1790. The charter of 1783, though
frequently amended and altered, is still in force. By an act of
the state legislature passed in 1837 the terms " mayor " and
u alderman " superseded the older terms " intendant " and
" wardens." The city was the heart of the nullification move-
ment of 183 2-1833; and in St Andrew's Hall, in Broad Street,
on the 20th of December i860, a convention called by the state
legislature passed an ordinance of secession from the Union.
Charleston has several times been attacked by naval forces
and has suffered from many storms. Hurricane and epidemic
together devastated the town both in 1699 and in 1854; the
older and more thickly settled part of the town was burnt in
1740, and a hurricane did great damage in 1752. In 1706,
during the War of the Spanish Succession, a combined fleet of
Spanish and French under Captain Le Feboure was repulsed
by the forces of Governor Nathaniel Johnson (d. 17 13) and
Colonel William Rhett (1666-17 21). During the War of Inde-
pendence Charleston withstood the attack of Sir Peter Parker
and Sir Henry Clinton in 1776, and that of General Augustus
Prevost in 1779, but shortly afterwards became the objective
of a more formidable attack by Sir Henry Clinton, the
commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. In the
later years of the contest the British turned their attention to
the reduction of the colonies in the south, and the prominent
point and best base of operations in that section was the city
of Charleston, which was occupied in the latter part of 1779
by an American force under General Benjamin Lincoln. In
December of that year Sir Henry Clinton embarked from New
York with 8000 British troops and proceeded to invest Charleston
by land. He entrenched himself west of the city between the
Cooper and Ashley rivers, which bound it north and south, and
thus hemmed Lincoln in a cul-de-sac. The latter made the mis-
take of attempting to defend the city with an inferior force.
Delays had occurred in the British operations and Clinton was
not prepared to summon the Americans to surrender until the
10th of April 1780. Lincoln refused, and Clinton advanced his
trenches to the third parallel, rendering his enemy's works
untenable. On the 12th of May Lincoln capitulated. About
2000 American Continentals were made prisoners, and an equal
number of militia and armed citizens. This success was regarded
by the British as an offset against the loss of Burgoyne's army
in 1777, and Charleston at once became the base of active
operations in the Carolinas, which Clinton left Cornwallis to
conduct. Thenceforward Charleston was under military rule
until evacuated by the British on the 14th of December 1782.
The bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter (garrisoned
by Federal troops) by the South Carolinians, on the 12th and
13 th of April 1 86 1, marked the actual beginning of the American
Civil War. From 1862 onwards Charleston was more or less
under siege by the Federal naval and military forces until 1865.
The Confederates repulsed a naval attack made by the Federals
under Admiral S. F. Du Pont in April 1863, and a land attack
under General Q. A. Gillmore in June of the same year. They
were compelled to evacuate the city on the 17 th of February
1865, after having burned a considerable amount of cotton and
other supplies to prevent them from falling into the hands of the
enemy. After the Civil War the wealth and the population
steadily increased, in spite of the destruction wrought by the
earthquake of 31st August 1886 (see Earthquake). In that
catastrophe 27 persons were killed, many more were injured
and died subsequently, 90% of the buildings were injured, and
property to the value of more than $5,000,000 was destroyed.
The South Carolina Interstate and West Indian Exposition, held
CHARLESTON— CHARLEVILLE
945
here from the ist of December iooi to the ist of June 1902,
called the attention of investors to the resources of the city and
state, but was not successful financially, and Congress appro-
priated $160,000 to make good the deficit.
Much information concerning Charleston may be obtained in A. S.
Salley 's A Guide and Historical Sketch of Charleston (Charleston, 1903) ,
and in Mrs St Julien Ravenel's Charleston; The Place and the People
(New York, 1906). The best history of Charleston is William A.
Courtenay's Charleston, S.C.: The Centennial of Incorporation
(Charleston, 1 884). There is also a good sketch by Yates Snowden in
L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900).
For the earthquake see the account by Carl McKinley in the Charleston
Y ear-Book for 1886. See also South Carolina.
CHARLESTON, the capital of West Virginia, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Kanawha county, situated near the centre of the
state, on the N. bank of the Kanawha river, at the mouth of
the Elk river, about 200 m. £. of Cincinnati, Ohio, and about
130 m. S.W. of Wheeling. Pop. (1800) 6742; (1000) 11,099,
of whom 1787 were negroes, and 353 were foreign-born; (1906
estimate) 13,715. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the
Toledo & Ohio Central, the Coal & Coke, and the Kanawha &
West Virginia (39 m. to Blakeley) railways, and by several river
transportation lines on the Kanawha river (navigable throughout
the year by means of movable locks) connecting with Ohio and
Mississippi river ports. The city is attractively built on high
level land, above the river; in addition to a fine customs house,
court house and high school, it contains the West Virginia state
capitol, erected in 1880. The libraries include the state law
library, with 14,000 volumes in 1908, and the library of the
state Department of Archives and History, with about 11,000
volumes. Charleston is in the midst of a region rich in bitu-
minous coal, the shipment of which by river and rail constitutes
one of its principal industries. Oil wells in the vicinity also
furnish an important product for export, and there are iron and
salt mines near. An ample supply of natural gas is utilized by
its manufacturing establishments; and among its manufactures
are axes, lumber, foundry and machine shop products, furniture,
boilers, woollen goods, glass and chemical fire-engines. The value
of the city's factory products increased from $1,261,815 m I 9°°
to $2,728,074 in 1905, or 116.2%, a greater rate of increase
than that of any other city (with 8000 or more inhabitants)
in the state during this period. The first permanent white
settlement at Charleston was made soon after the close of the
War of Independence; it was one of the places through which
the streams of immigrants entered the Ohio Valley, and it
became of considerable importance as a centre of transfer and
shipment, but it was not until the development of the coal-
mining region that it became industrially important. Charleston
was incorporated in 1794, and was chartered as a city in 1870.
Since the latter year it has been the seat of government of West
Virginia, with the exception of the decade 1875-1885, when
Wheeling was the capital.
CHARLESTOWN, formerly a separate city of Middlesex
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., but since 1874 a part of the city
of Boston, with which it had long before been in many respects
practically one. It is situated on a small peninsula on Boston
harbour, between the mouths of the Mystic and Charles rivers;
the first bridge across the Charles, built in 1786, connected
Charlestown and Boston. A United States navy yard (1800),
occupying about 87 acres, and the Massachusetts state prison
(1805) are here; the old burying-ground contains the grave of
John Harvard and that of Thomas Beecher, the first American
member of the famous Beecher family; and there is a soldiers'
and sailors' monument (1872), designed by Martin Milmore.
Charlestown was founded in 1628 or 1629, being the oldest part
of Boston, and soon rose into importance; it was organized
as a township in 1630, and was chartered as a city in 1847.
Within its limits was fought, on the 17th of June 1775, the battle
of Bunker Hill (q.v.), when Charlestown was almost completely
destroyed by the British. The Bunker Hill Monument com-
memorates the battle; and the navy yard at Moul ton's Point
was the landing-place of the attacking British troops. Little
was done toward the rebuilding of Charlestown until 1783.
The original territory of the township was very large, and from
parts of it were formed Woburn (1642), Maiden (1649), Stoneham
(1725), and Somerville (1842); other parts were annexed to
Cambridge, to Medford and to Arlington. S. F. B. Morse, the
inventor of the electric telegraph, was born here; and Charles-
town was the birthplace and home of Nathaniel Gorham (1738-
1796), a member of the Continental Congress in 1 782-1 783 and
1 785-1 787, and its president in 1786; and was the home of
Loarnmi Baldwin (1780-1838), a well-known civil engineer; of
Samuel Dexter (1761-1816), an eminent lawyer, secretary of
war and for a short time secretary of the treasury in the cabinet
of President John Adams; and of Oliver Holden (1765-1831)^
composer of hymn- tunes, including " Coronation."
See R. Frothingham, History of Charlestown (Boston, 1845),
covering 1629-1775; J. F. Hunnewell, A Century of Town Life . . .
1775-1887 (Boston, 1888) ; and Timothy T. Sawyer, Old Charlestown
(1902).
CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT (1792-1845), French de-
signer and painter, more especially of military subjects, was
born in Paris on the 20th of December 1792. He was the son of a
dragoon in the Republican army, whose death in the ranks left
the widow and orphan in very poor circumstances. Madame
Charlet, however, a woman of determined spirit and an extreme
Napoleonist, managed to give her boy a moderate education at
the Lycee Napoleon, and was repaid by his lifelong affection.
His first employment was in a Parisian mairie, where he had to
register recruits: he served in the National Guard in 18 14,
fought bravely at the BarriSre de Clichy, and, being thus un-
acceptable to the Bourbon party, was dismissed from the mairie
in 1 816. He then, having from a very early age had a propensity
for drawing, entered the atelier of the distinguished painter
Baron Gros, and soon began issuing the first of those lithographed
designs which eventually brought him renown. His " Grenadier
de Waterloo," 181 7, with the motto " La Garde meurt et ne se
rend pas " (a famous phrase frequently attributed to Cambronne,
but which he never uttered, and which cannot, perhaps, be traced
farther than to this lithograph by Charlet), was particularly
popular. It was only towards 1822, however, that he began to
be successful in a professional sense. Lithographs (about 2000
altogether), water-colours, sepia-drawings, numerous oil sketches,
and a few etchings followed one another rapidly; there were
also three exhibited oil pictures, the first of which was especially
admired — u Episode in the Campaign of Russia" (1836), the
" Passage of the Rhine by Moreau " (1837), " Wounded Soldiers
Halting in a Ravine " (1843). Besides the military subjects in
which he peculiarly delighted, and which found an energetic
response in the popular heart, and kept alive a feeling of regret
for the recent past of the French nation and discontent with
the present, — a feeling which increased upon the artist himself
towards the close of his career, — Charlet designed many subjects
of town life and peasant life, the ways of children, &c, with much
wit and whim in the descriptive mottoes. One of the most
famous sets is the " Vie civile, politique, et militaire du Caporal
Valentin," 50 lithographs, dating from 1838 to 1842. In 1838
his health began to fail owing to an affection of the chest. He
died in Paris on the 30th of October 1845. Charlet was an un-
commonly tall man, with an expressive face, bantering and good
natured; his character corresponded, full of boyish fun and
high spirits, with manly independence, and a vein of religious
feeling, and he was a hearty favourite among his intimates, one
of whom was the painter Gericault. Charlet married in 1824, a nd
two sons survived him.
A life of Charlet was published in 1856 by a military friend, De la
Combe. (W. M. R.)
CHARLEVILLE, a town of north-eastern France, in the
department of Ardennes, 151 m. N.E. of Paris on the Eastern
railway. Pop. (1006) 19,693. Charleville is situated within
a bend of the Meuse on its left bank, opposite Mezieres, with
which it is united by a suspension bridge. The town was founded
in 1606 by Charles III. (Gonzaga), duke of Nevers, afterwards
duke of Mantua, and is laid out on a uniform plan. Its central
and most interesting portion is the Place Ducale, a large square
946
CHARLEVOIX— CHARLOTTESVILLE
surrounded by old houses with high-pitched roofs, the porches
being arranged so as to form a continuous arcade; in the centre
there is a fountain surmounted by a statue of the duke Charles.
A handsome church in the Romanesque style and the other public
buildings date from the 19th century. An old mill, standing on
the bank of the river, dates from the early years of the
town's existence. On the right bank of the Meuse is Mont
Olympe, with the ruins of a fortress dismantled under Louis XIV.
Charleville, which shares with M6zieres the administrative
institutions of the department of Ardennes, has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators and lycees and training colleges for both sexes.
Its chief industries are metal-founding and the manufacture of
nails, anvils, tools and other iron goods, and brush-making;
leather-working and sugar-refining, and the making of bricks and
clay pipes are also carried on.
CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (1682-1761),
French Jesuit traveller and historian, was born at St Quentin on
the 29th of October 1682. At the age of sixteen he entered the
Society of Jesus; and at the age of twenty-three was sent to
Canada, where he remained for four years as professor at Quebec.
He then returned and became professor of belles lettres at home,
and travelled on the errands of his society in various countries.
In 1 7 20-1 7 2 2, under orders from the regent, he visited America
for the second time, and went along the Great Lakes and down
the Mississippi. In later years (1733-1755) he was one of the
directors of the Journal de Trevoux. He died at La Fl£che on
the istof February 1761. His works, enumerated in the Biblio-
graphic des Prbrs de la Compagnie de Jesus (by Carlos Sommer-
vogel), fall into two groups. The first contains his Histoire de
rstablissement, du progres et de la decadence du Christianisme
dans V empire du Japon (Rouen, 1715; English trans. History
of the Church of Japan, 17 15), and his Histoire et description
generate du Japon (1736), a compilation chiefly from Kampfer.
The second group includes his historical work on America:
Histoire de VIsle Espagnole ou de Saint Domingue (1730), based
on manuscript memoirs of P. Jean-Baptiste Le Pers and original
sources; Histoire de Paraguay (1756); Vie de la Mere Marie
de V Incarnation, institutrice et premiere supirieure des Urselines
de la NouveUe-France (1724); Histoire et description genSrale
de la NouveUe-France (1744; in English 1769; tr. J. G.
Shea, 1866-187 2), a work of capital importance for Canadian
history.
CHARLEVOIX, a village and the county-seat of Charlevoix
county, Michigan, U.S.A., 16 m. E.S.E. of Petoskey, on Lake
Michigan and Pine Lake, which are connected by Pine river and
Round Lake. Pop. (1890) 1496; (1900) 2079; (1904, state
census) 2395. It * s on th e main line of the Pere Marquette
railway, and during the summer season is served by lake steamers.
The village is best known as a summer resort; it is built on bluffs
and on a series of terraces rising from Round and Pine lakes and
affording extensive views; and there are a number of attractive
summer residences. Charlevoix is an important hardwood
lumber port, and the principal industries are the manufacture
of lumber and of cement; fishing (especially for lake trout and
white fish); the raising of sugar beets; and the manufacture
of rustic and fancy wood-work. Charlevoix was settled about
1866, and was incorporated as a village in 1879.
CHARLOTTE, a city and the county-seat of Mecklenburg
county, North Carolina, U.S.A., situated on Sugar Creek, in
the south-west part of the state, about 175 m. south-west of
Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 11,557; (1900) 18,091, of whom 7151
were negroes; (estimated 1906) 22,009. It is served by the
Seaboard Air Line and the Southern railways. Among the
public buildings are a fine city hall, court-house, Federal and
Young Men's Christian Association buildings, and a Carnegie
library; several hospitals: St Peter's (Episcopal) for whites,
Good Samaritan (Episcopal) for negroes, Mercy General (Roman
Catholic) and a Presbyterian. The city is the seat of Elizabeth
College and Conservatory of Music (1897), a non-sectarian
institution for women, of the Presbyterian College for women,
and of Biddle University (Presbyterian) for negroes, established
in 1867. There is a United States assay office, established as a
branch mint in 1837, during the days of North Carolina's great
importance as a gold producing state, and closed from 1 861 to
1869. The city has large cotton, clothing, and knitting mills,
and manufactories of cotton-seed oil, tools, machinery, fertilizers
and furniture. The total value of its factory products was
$4,849,630 in 1905. There are large electric power plants in
and near the city. Printing and publishing are of some im-
portance: Charlotte is the publication headquarters of the
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church; and several textile
trade journals and two medical periodicals are published here.
The water-works are owned by the municipality. Charlotte
was settled about 1750 and was incorporated in 1768. Here
in May 1775 was adopted the " Mecklenburg Declaration of
Independence " (see North Carolina), and in honour of its
signers there is a monument in front of the court-house. Charlotte
was occupied in September 1780 by Cornwallis, who left it after
learning of the battle of King's Mountain, and subsequently
it became the principal base and rendezvous of General Greene.
CHARLOTTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Prussia, on the Spree, lying immediately west of Berlin,
of which it forms practically the entire western suburb. The
earlier name of the town was Lietzenburg. Pop. (1890) 76,859;
(1900) 189,290; (1005) 237,231. It is governed by a council
of 94 members. The central part of the town is connected with
Berlin by a magnificent avenue, the Charlottenburger Chaussee,
which runs from the Brandenburger Tor through the whole
length of the Tiergarten. Although retaining its own municipal
government, Charlottenburg, together with the adjacent suburban
towns of Schoneberg and Rixdorf, was included in 1900 in the
police district of the capital. The Schloss, built in 1696 for
the electress Sophie Charlotte, queen of the elector Frederick,
afterwards King Frederick I., after whom the town was named,
contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. In the
grounds stands a granite mausoleum, the work of Karl Friedrich
Schinkel, with beautiful white marble recumbent statues of
Frederick William HI. and his queen Louise by Christian
Daniel Rauch, and also those of the emperor William I. and
the empress Augusta by Erdmann Encke. It was in the Schloss
that the emperor Frederick IH. took over the reins of govern-
ment in 1888, and here he resided for nearly the whole of his
three months 1 reign. The town contains an equestrian statue
of Frederick. Of public buildings, the famous technical academy
and the Kaiser Wilhelm memorial church are referred to in the
article Berlin. In Charlottenburg is the Physikalisch-technische
Reichsanstalt, a state institution for the carrying out of scientific
experiments and measurements, and for testing instruments of
precision, materials, &c. It was established in 1886 with money
provided by Ernst Werner Siemens. In addition to the famous
royal porcelain manufactory, Charlottenburg has many flourish-
ing industries, notably iron-works grouped along the banks of
the Spree. Its main thoroughfares are laid out on a spacious
plan, while there are many quiet streets containing pretty villas.
See F. Schultz, Chronik von Charlottenburg (Charlottenburg* 1888).
CHARLOTTESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Albemarle
county, Virginia, U.S.A., picturesquely situated on the Rivanna
river, 96 m. (by rail) N. W. of Richmond in the beautiful Piedmont
region. Pop. (1890) 5591; (1900) 6449, of whom 2613 were
negroes. TTie city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the
Southern railways, and is best known as the seat of the University
of Virginia (q.v.) , which was founded by Thomas Jefferson. Here
are also the Rawlings Institute for girls, founded as the Albemarle
Female Institute in 1857, and a University school. Monticello,
Jefferson's home, is still standing about 2 m. south-east of the
city on a fine hill, called Little Mountain until Jefferson Italian-
ised the name. The south pavilion of the present house is the
original brick building, one and a half storeys high, first occupied
by Jefferson in 1770. He was buried near the house, which was
sold by his daughter some years after his death. George Rogers
Clark was born near Monticello. Charlottesville is a trade
centre for the surrounding country; among its manufactures
are woollen goods, overalls, agricultural implements and
CHARLOTTETOWN— CHARNOCKITE
947
cigars and tobacco. The city owns its water-supply system
and owns and operates its gas plant; an electric plant, privately
owned, lights the streets and many houses. The site of the city
was a part of the Castle Hill estate of Thomas Walker (1715-
1794), an intimate friend of George Washington. The act
establishing the town of Charlottesville was passed by the
Assembly of Virginia in November 1 762, when the name Charlottes-
ville (in honour of Queen Charlotte, wife of George III.) first
appeared. In 17 79-1780 about 4000 of Burgoyne's troops,
surrendered under the " Convention " of Saratoga, were
qArtered here; in October 1780 part of them were sent to
Lancaster, Pa., and later the rest were sent north. In June
1 781 Tarleton raided Charlottesville and the vicinity, nearly
captured Thomas Jefferson, and destroyed the public records
and some arms and ammunition. In 1888 Charlottesville was
chartered as a city administratively independent of the county.
CHARLOTTETOWN, a city of Canada, the capital of Prince
Edward Island, situated in Queen's county, on Hillsborough
river. Pop. (1001) 12,080. It has a good harbour, and the
river is navigable by large vessels for several miles. The export
trade of the island centres here, and the city has regular communi-
cation by steamer with the chief American and Canadian ports.
Besides the government buildings and the court-house, it
contains numerous churches, the Prince of Wales College,
supported by the province, the Roman Catholic college of St
Duns tan's and a normal school; among its manufactures are
woollen goods, lumber, canned goods, and foundry products.
The head office and workshops of the Prince Edward Island
railway are situated here. The town was founded in 1 750 by the
French under the name of Port la Joie, but under British rule
changed its name in honour of the queen of George III.
CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song), an
incantation, verses sung with supposed magical results, hence
anything possessing powers of bringing good luck or averting
evil, particularly articles worn with that purpose, such as an
amulet. It is thus used of small trinkets attached to bracelets
or chains. The word is also used, figuratively, of fascinating
qualities of feature, voice or character.
CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) D&IRfi (1828- ), French
traveller and archaeologist, was born in Fleurie (Rhone), on the
2nd of May 1828. He studied at the Lycee Charlemagne, in
1850 became a teacher in New Orleans, Louisiana, and there
became acquainted with John Lloyd Stephens's books of travel
in Yucatan. He travelled in Mexico, under a commission from
the French ministry of education, in 1857-1861; in Madagascar
in 1863; in South America, particularly Chile and Argentina, in
1875; and in Java and Australia in 1878. In 1880-1883 he
again visited the ruined cities of Mexico. Pierre Lorillard of
New York contributed to defray the expense of this expedition,
and Charnay named a great ruined city near the Guatemalan
boundary line Ville Lorillard in his honour. Charnay went to
Yucatan in 1886. The more important of his publications are
Le Mexique, souvenirs et impressions de voyage (1863), being his
personal report on the expedition of 1857-61, of which the
official report is to be found in Viollet-le-Duc's Cites et mines
americaines: Mitla, Palenqui, Izamal, Chichen-Itea, Uxmal
(1863), vol. 19 of Recueil des voyages et des documents; Les
Anciennes Vittes du Nouveau Monde (1885; English translation,
The Ancient Cities of the New World, 1887, by Mmes. Gonino
and Conant); a romance, Une Princesse indienne avant la
conqutte (1888); A trovers les for Us vierges (1800); and Manu-
scrit Ramirez: Histoire de Vorigine des Indiens qui habitent la
Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions (1003). He translated
Cortez's letters into French, under the title Lettres de Fernand
Cortes & Charles-quint sur la dScouverte et la conqutte du Mexique
(1896). He elaborated a theory of Toltec migrations and con-
sidered the prehistoric Mexican to be of Asiatic origin, because
of observed similarities to Japanese architecture, Chinese decora-
tion, Malaysian language and Cambodian dress, &c.
CHARNEL HOUSE (Med. Lat. carnarium), a place for deposit-
ing the bones which might be thrown up in digging graves.
Sometimes, as at Gloucester, Hythe and Ripon, it was a portion
of the crypt; sometimes, as at Old St Paul's and Worcester
(both now destroyed) , it was a separate building in the church-
yard; sometimes chantry chapels were attached to these build-
ings. Viollet-le-Duc has given two very curious examples of
such ossuaires (as the French call them) — one from Fleurance
(Gers), the other from Faouet (Finis tere).
CHARNOCK, JOB (d. 1693), English founder of Calcutta,
went out to India in 1655 or J 656, apparently not in the East
India Company's service, but soon joined it. He was stationed
at Cossimbazar, and subsequently at Patna. In 1685 he became
chief agent at Hugli. Being besieged there by the Mogul viceroy
of Bengal, he put the company's goods and servants on board
his light vessels and dropped down the river 27 m. to the village
of Sutanati, a place well chosen for the purpose of defence, which
occupied the site of what is now Calcutta. It was only, however,
at the third attempt that Charnock finally settled down at this
spot, and the selection of the future capital of India was entirely
due to his stubborn resolution. He was a silent morose man, not
popular among his contemporaries, but "always a faithful! Man
to the Company." He is said to have married a Hindu widow.
CHARNOCK (or Chernock), ROBERT (c. 1663- 1696), English I
conspirator, belonged to a Warwickshire family, and was edu-
cated at Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming a fellow of his
college and a Roman Catholic priest. When in 1687 the dispute
arose betweeil James II. and the fellows of Magdalen over the
election of a president Charnock favoured the first royal nominee,
Anthony Farmer, and also the succeeding one, Samuel Parker,
bishop of Oxford. Almost alone among the fellows he was not
driven out in November 1687, and he became dean and then
vice-president of the college under the new r6gime, but was
expelled in October 1688. Residing at the court of the Stuarts
in France, or conspiring in England, Charnock and Sir George
Barclay appear to have arranged the details of the unsuccessful
attempt to kill William III. near Turnham Green in February
1696. Barclay escaped, but Charnock was arrested, was tried
and found guilty, and was hanged on the 18th of March 1696.
CHARNOCKITE, a series of foliated igneous rocks of wide
distribution and great importance in India, Ceylon, Madagascar
and Africa. The name was given by Dr T. H. Holland from the
fact that the tombstone of Job Charnock, the founder of Calcutta,
is made of a block of this rock. The charnockite series includes
rocks of many different types, some being acid and rich in quartz
and microcline, others basic and full of pyroxene and olivine, while
there are also intermediate varieties corresponding minera-
logically to norites, quartz-norites and diorites. A special
feature, recurring in many members of the group, is the presence
of strongly pleochroic, reddish or green hypersthene. Many of
the minerals of these rocks are " schillerized," as they contain
minute platy or rod-shaped enclosures, disposed parallel to
certain crystallographic planes or axes. The reflection of light
from the surfaces of these enclosures gives the minerals often
a peculiar appearance, e.g. the quartz is blue and opalescent, the
felspar has a milky shimmer like moonshine, the hypersthene has
a bronzy metalloidal gleam. Very often the different rock types
occur in close association as one set forms bands alternating with
another set,or veins traversing it, and where one fades appears the
others also usually are found. The term charnockite conse-
quently is not the name of a rock, but of an assemblage of rock
types, connected in their origin because arising by differentiation
of the same parent magma. The banded structure which these
rocks commonly present in the field is only in a small measure due
to crushing, but is to a large extent original,and has been produced
by fluxion in a viscous crystallizing intrusive magma, together
with differentiation or segregation of the mass into bands of differ-
ent chemical and mineralogical composition. There have also
been, of course, earth movements acting on the solid rock at a
later time and injection of dikes both parallel to and across the
primary foliation. In fact, the history of the structures of the
charnockite series is the history of the most primitive gneisses
in all parts of the world, for which we cannot pretend to have
as yet any thoroughly satisfactory explanations to offer. A
striking fact is the very wide distribution of rocks of this group
94»
CHARNWOOD FOREST— CHARRON
in the southern hemisphere; but they also, or rocks very similar
to them, occur in Norway, France, Germany, Scotland and
North America, though in these countries they have been mostly
described as pyroxene granulites, pyroxene gneisses, anorthosites,
&c They are usually regarded as being of Archean age (pre-
Cambrian), and in most cases this can be definitely proved,
though not in all. It is astonishing to find that in spite of their
great age their minerals are often in excellent preservation. In
India they form the Nilgiri Hills, the Shevaroys and part of the
Western Ghats, extending southward to Cape Comorin and re-
appearing in Ceylon. Although they are certainly for the most
part igneous gneisses (or orthogneisses), rocks occur along with
them, such as marbles, scapolite limestones, and corundum rocks,
which were probably of sedimentary origin. (J. S. F.)
CHARNWOOD FOREST, an upland tract in the N.-W. of
Leicestershire, England. It is undulating, rocky, picturesque,
and in great part barren, though there are some extensive tracts
of woodland; its elevation is generally 600 ft. and upwards, the
area exceeding this height being about 6100 acres. The loftiest
point, Bardon Hill, is 91 2 ft. On its western flank lies a coalfield,
I with Coalville and other mining towns, and granite and hone-
stones are worked.
CHAROLLES, a town of east-central France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Sadne-et-Loire, situated
at the confluence of the Semence and the Arconce, 39 m. W.N. W.
of Macon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 3228. It has
a sub-prefecture, tribunals of primary instance and commerce,
and a communal college. There are stone quarries in the vicinity ;
the town manufactures pottery, and is the centre for trade in the
famous breed of Charolais cattle and in agricultural products.
The ruins of the castle of the counts of Charolais occupy the
summit of a hill in the immediate vicinity of the town. Charolles
was the capital of Charolais, an old division of France, which
from the early 14th century gave the title of count to its possessors.
In 1327 the countship passed by marriage to the house of
Armagnac, and in 1390 it was sold to Philip of Burgundy. After
the death of Charles the Bold, who in his youth had borne the
title of count of Charolais, it was seized by Louis XI. of France,
but in 1493 it was ceded by Charles VIII. to Maximilian of
Austria, the representative of the Burgundian family. Ulti-
mately passing to the Spanish kings, it became for a considerable
period an object of dispute between France and Spain, until at
length in 1684 it was assigned to the great Conde, a creditor of
the king of Spain. It was united to the French crown in 177 1.
CHARON, in Greek mythology, the son of Erebus and Nyx
(Night). It was his duty to ferry over the Styx (or Acheron)
those souls of the deceased who had duly received the rites of
burial, in payment for which service he received an obol, which
was placed in the mouth of the corpse. It was only exceptionally
that he carried living passengers (Aeneid, vi. 295 ff.). As
ferryman of the dead he is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod,
and in this character is probably of Egyptian origin. He is
represented as a morose and grisly old man in a black sailor's
cape. By the Etruscans he was also supposed to be a kind of
executioner of the powers of the nether world, who, armed with
an enormous hammer, was associated with Mars in the slaughter
of battle. Finally he came to be regarded as the image of death
and the world below. As such he survives in the Charos or
Charontas of the modern Greeks — a black bird which darts down
upon its prey, or a winged horseman who fastens his victims to
the saddle and bears them away to the realms of the dead.
See J. A. Ambrosch, De Charonte Etrusco (1837), a learned and
exhaustive monograph; B. Schmidt, Volksleben der Neugriechen
(1871), i. 222-251; O. Waser, Charon, Charun, Charos, mythologisch-
archdologische Monographic (1898); S. Rocco, " Sull* origine del
Mito di Caronte," in Rvuista di storia antica, ii. (1897), who considers
Charon to be an old name for the sun-god Helios embarking during
the night for the East.
CHARONDAS* a celebrated lawgiver of Catana in Sicily.
His date is uncertain. Some make him a pupil of Pythagoras
(c. 580-504 B.C.) ; but all that can be said is that he was earlier
than Anaxilaus of Rhegium (494-476), since his laws were in
use amongst the Rhegians until they were abolished by that
tyrant. His laws, originally written in verse, were adopted by
the other Chalcidic colonies in Sicily and Italy. According to
Aristotle there was nothing special about these laws, except
that Charondas introduced actions for perjury; but he speaks
highly of the precision with which they were drawn up (Politics,
ii. 12). The story that Charondas killed himself because he
entered the public assembly wearing a sword, which was a
violation of his own law, is also told of Diodes and Zaleucus
(Diod. Sic. xii. 1 1-19). The fragments of laws attributed to him
by Stobaeus and Diodorus are of late (neo-Pythagorean) origin.
See Bentley, On Phalaris, which (according to B. Niese s.v.^n
Pauly, Realencyclopddie) contains what is even now the best account
of Charondas; A. Holm, Geschichte Siciliens, i.; F. D.. Gerlach,
Zaleukos, Charondas, und Pythagoras (1858); also art. Greek Law.
CHARPENTIER, FRANCOIS (1620-1702), French archaeo-
logist and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 15th of
February 1620. He was intended for the bar, but was employed
by Colbert, who had determined on the foundation of a French
East India Company, to draw up an explanatory account of the
project for Louis XIV. Charpentier regarded as absurd the use
of Latin in monumental inscriptions, and to him was entrusted
the task of supplying the paintings of Lebrun in the Versailles
Gallery with appropriate legends. His verses were so indifferent
that they had to be replaced by others, the work of Racine and
Boileau, both enemies of his. Charpentier in his Excellence de la
langue Jranqaise (1683) had anticipated Perrault in the famous
academical dispute concerning the relative merit of the ancients
and moderns. He is credited with a share in the production of
the magnificent series of medals that commemorate the prin-
cipal events of the age of Louis XIV. Charpentier, who was
long in receipt of a pension of 1200 livres from Colbert, was
erudite and ingenious, but he was always heavy and common-
place. His other works include a Vie de Socrate (1650), a trans-
lation of the Cyropaedia of Xenophon (1658), and the Traits de
la peinture parlante (1684).
CHARRIERE, AGNftS ISABELLE fiMILIE DE (1740-1805),
Swiss author, was Dutch by birth, her maiden name being
van Tuyll van Seeroskerken van Zuylen. She married in 1771
her brother's tutor, M. de Charriere, and settled with him at
Colombier, near Lausanne. She made her name by the publica-
tion of her Lettres neuchdteloises (Amsterdam, 1784), offering a
simple and attractive picture of French manners. This, with
Caliste, ou lettres tcrites de Lausanne (2 vols. Geneva, 178 5- 1788),
was analysed and highly praised by Sainte-Beuve in his Portraits
de femmes and in vol. iii of his Portraits litteraires. She wrote
a number of other novels, and some political tracts; but is
perhaps best remembered by her liaison with Benjamin Constant
between 1787 and 1796.
Her letters to Constant were printed in the Revue Suisse (April
1844), her Lettres- Memoires by E. H. Gaullieur in the same review
in 1857, and all the available material is utilized in a monograph
on her and her work by P. Godet, Madame de Charriere et ses amis
(2 vols., Geneva, 1906).
CHARRON, PIERRE (1541-1603), French philosopher, born
in Paris, was one of the twenty-five children of a bookseller.
After studying law he practised at Paris as an advocate, but,
having met with no great success, entered the church, and soon
gained the highest popularity as a preacher, rising to the dignity
of canon, and being appointed preache* in ordinary to Marguerite,
wife of Henry IV. of Navarre. About 1588, he determined to
fulfil a vow which he had once made to enter a cloister; but
being rejected by the Carthusians and the Celestines, he held
himself absolved, and continued to follow his old profession.
He delivered a course of sermons at Angers, and in the next year
passed to Bordeaux, where he formed a famous friendship with
Montaigne. At the death of Montaigne, in 1592, Charron was
requested in his will to bear the Montaigne arms.
In 1594 Charron published (at first anonymously, afterwards
under the name of " Benoit Vaillant, Advocate of the Holy
Faith," and also, in 1594, in his own name) Les Trois Veritis, in
which by methodical and orthodox arguments, he seeks to prove
that there is a God and a true religion, that the true religion is
the Christian, and that the true church is the Roman Catholic.
CHARRUA— CHART
949
The last book (which is three-fourths of the whole work) is
chiefly an answer to the famous Protestant work entitled Le
Traite de V&glise by Du Plessis Mornay; and in the second
edition (1595) there is an elaborate reply to an attack made on
the third ViritS by a Protestant writer. Les Trois V&rites ran
through several editions, and obtained for its author the favour
of the bishop of Cahors, who appointed him grand vicar and
theological canon. It also led to his being chosen deputy to the
general assembly of the clergy, of which body he became chief
secretary. It was followed in 1600 by Discours chrestiens, a
book of sermons, similar in tone, half of which treat of the
Eucharist. In 1601 Charron published at Bordeaux his third
and most remarkable work — the famous De la sagesse, a complete
popular system of moral philosophy. Usually, and so far
correctly, it is coupled with the Essays of Montaigne, to which
the author is under very extensive obligations. There is, however,
distinct individuality in the book. It is specially interesting
from the time when it appeared, and the man by whom it was
written. Conspicuous as a champion of orthodoxy against
atheists, Jews and Protestants — without resigning this position,
and still upholding practical orthodoxy — Charron suddenly
stood forth as the representative of the most complete intellectual
scepticism. The De la sagesse, which represented a considerable
advance on the standpoint of the Trois V&ritts, brought upon its
author the most violent attacks, the chief being by the Jesuit
Francois Garasse (1585-1631), who described him as a "brutal
atheist." It received, however, the warm support of Henry IV.
and of the president Pierre Jeannin (1540-162 2). A second
edition was soon called for. In 1603, notwithstanding much
opposition, it began to appear; but only a few pages had been
printed when Charron died suddenly in the street of apoplexy.
His death was regarded as a judgment for his impiety.
Charron 's psychology is sensationalist. With sense all our
knowledge commences, and into sense all may be resolved.
The soul, located in the ventricles of the brain, is affected by the
temperament of the individual; the dry temperament produces
acute intelligence; the moist, memory; the hot, imagination.
Dividing the intelligent soul into these three faculties, he shows —
after the manner which Francis Bacon subsequently adopted —
what branches of science correspond with each. With regard
to the nature of the soul he merely quotes opinions. The
belief in its immortality, he says, is the most universal of beliefs,
but the most feebly supported by reason. As to man's power
of attaining truth his scepticism is decided; and he plainly
declares that none of our faculties enable us to distinguish
truth from error. In comparing man with the lower animals,
Charron insists that there are no breaks in nature. The latter
have reason; nay, they have virtue; and, though inferior in
some respects, in others they are superior. The estimate formed
of man is not, indeed, flattering. His most essential qualities
are vanity, weakness, inconstancy, presumption. Upon this
view of human nature and the human lot Charron founds his
moral system. Equally sceptical with Montaigne, and decidedly
more cynical, he is distinguished by a deeper and sterner tone.
Man comes into the world to endure; let him endure then, and
that in silence. Our compassion should be like that of
God, who succours the suffering without sharing in their pain.
Avoid vulgar errors ; cherish universal sympathy. Let no passion
or attachment become too powerful for restraint. Follow
the customs and laws which surround you. Morality has no
connexion with religion. Reason is the ultimate criterion.
Special interest attaches to Charron's treatment of religion.
He insists on the diversities in religions; he dwells also on what
would indicate a common origin. All grow from small beginnings
and increase by a sort of popular contagion; all teach that God
is to be appeased by prayers, presents, vows, but especially, and
most irrationally, by human suffering. Each is said by its
devotees to have been given by inspiration. In fact, however,
a man is a Christian, Jew, or Mahommedan, before he knows he
is a man. One religion is built upon another. But while he
openly declares religion to be " strange to common sense,"
the practical result at which Charron arrives is that one is not
to sit in judgment on his faith, but to be " simple and obedient,"
and to allow himself to be led by public authority. This is one
rule of wisdom with regard to religion; and another equally
important is to avoid superstition, which he boldly defines as
the belief that God is like a hard judge who, eager to find fault,
narrowly examines our slightest act, that He is revengeful and
hard to appease, and that therefore He must be flattered and
importuned, and won over by pain and sacrifice. True piety,
which is the first of duties, is, on the other hand, the knowledge
of God and of one's self, the latter knowledge being necessary
to the former. It is the abasing of man, the exalting of God, —
the belief that what He sends is all good, and that all the bad is
from ourselves. It leads to spiritual worship; for external
ceremony is merely for our advantage, not for His glory. Charron
is thus the founder of modern secularism. His political views
are neither original nor independent. He pours much hackneyed
scorn on the common herd, declares the sovereign to be the
source of law, and asserts that popular freedom is dangerous.
A summary and defence of the Sagesse, written shortly before his
death, appeared in 1606. In 1604 his friend Michel de la Roche-
maillet prefixed to an edition of the Sagesse a Life, which depicts
Charron as a most amiable man of purest character. His complete
works, with this Life, were published in 1635. An excellent
abridgment of the Sagesse is given in Tennemann's Philosophic,
vol. ix.; an edition with notes by A. Duval appeared in 1820.
See Liebscher, Charron u. sein Werk, De la sagesse (Leipzig, 1890) ;
H. T. Buckle, Introd. to History of Civilization in England, vol. ii. 19;*
Abbe Lezat, De la predication sous Henri IV. c. vi. ; J. M. Robertson,
Short History of Free Thought (London, 1906), vol. ii. p. 19; J.
Owen, Skeptics of the French Renaissance (1893) ; Lecky, Rationalism
in Europe (1865).
CHARRUA, a tribe of South American Indians, wild and
warlike, formerly ranging over Uruguay and part of S. Brazil.
They were dark and heavily built, fought on horses and used
the bolas or weighted lasso. They were always at war with
the Spaniards, and Juan Diaz de Solis was killed by them in
1 5 16. As a tribe they are now almost extinct, but the modern
Gauchos of Uruguay have much Charrua blood in them.
CHART (from Lat. carta, charta, a map). A chart is a marine
map intended specially for the use of seamen (for history, see
Map), though the word is also used loosely for other varieties
of graphical representation. The marine or nautical chart is
constructed for the purpose of ascertaining the position of a
ship with reference to the land, of finding the direction in which
she has to steer, the distance to sail or steam, and the hidden
dangers to avoid. The surface of the sea on charts is studded
with numerous small figures. These are known as the soundings,
indicating in fathoms or in feet (as shown upon the title of the
chart), at low water of ordinary spring tides, the least depth of
water through which the ship may be sailing. Charts show the
nature of the unseen bottom of the sea — with the irregularities
in its character in the shape of hidden rocks or sand-banks, and
give information of the greatest importance to the mariner.
No matter how well the land maybe surveyed or finely delineated,
unless the soundings are shown a chart is of little use.
The British admiralty charts are compiled, drawn and issued
by the hydrographic office. This department of the admiralty
was established under Earl Spencer by an order in council in
1795, consisting of the hydrographer, one assistant and a
draughtsman. The first hydrographer was Alexander Dalrymple,
a gentleman in the East India Company's civil service. From
this small beginning arose the important department which is
now the main source of the supply of hydrographical information
to the whole of the maritime world. The charts prepared by the
officers and draughtsmen of the hydrographic office, and pub-
lished by order *of the lords commissioners of the admiralty, are
compiled chiefly from the labours of British naval officers em-
ployed in the surveying service; and also from valuable con-
tributions received from time to time from officers of the royal
navy and mercantile marine. In addition to the work of British
sailors, the labours of other nations have been collected and
utilized. Charts of the coasts of Europe have naturally been
taken from the surveys made by the various nations, and in
charts of other quarters of the world considerable assistance has
950
CHARTER— CHARTERED COMPANIES
been received from the labours of French, Spanish, Dutch and
American surveyors. Important work is done by the Hydro-
graphic Office of the American navy, and the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey. The admiralty charts are published with
the view of meeting the wants of the sailor in all parts of the
world. They may be classed under five heads, viz. ocean, general,
and coast charts, harbour plans and physical charts; for
instance, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, approaches to
Plymouth, Plymouth Sound and wind and current charts. The
harbour plans and coast sheets are constructed on the simple
principles of plane trigonometry by the surveying officers. (See
Surveying: Nautical.) That important feature, the depth of
the sea, is obtained by the ordinary sounding line or wire; all
soundings are reduced to low water of ordinary spring tides.
The times and heights of the tides, with the direction and velocity
of the tidal streams, are also ascertained. These MS. charts
are forwarded to the admiralty, and form the foundation of the
hydrography of the world. The ocean and general charts are
compiled and drawn at the hydrographic office, and as originals,
existing charts, latest surveys and maps, have to be consulted,
their compilation requires considerable experience and is a pains-
taking work, for the compiler has to decide what to omit, what
to insert, and to arrange the necessary names in such a manner
that while full information is given, the features of the coast are
.not interfered with. As a very slight error in the position of a
light or buoy, dot, cross or figure, might lead to grave disaster,
every symbol on the admiralty chart has been delineated with
great care and consideration, and no pains are spared in the
effort to lay before the public the labours of the nautical surveyors
and explorers not only of England, but of the maritime world;
reducing their various styles into a comprehensive system
furnishing the intelligent seaman with an intelligible guide,
which common industry will soon enable him to appreciate and
take full advantage of.
As certain abbreviations are used in the charts, attention is
called to the " signs and abbreviations adopted in the charts
published by the admiralty." Certain parts of the world are still
unsurveyed, or not surveyed in sufficient detail for the require-
ments that steamships now demand. Charts of these localities
are therefore drawn in a light hair-line and unfinished manner, so
that the experienced seaman sees at a glance that less trust is to
be reposed upon charts drawn in this manner. The charts given
to the public are only correct up to the time of their actual
publication. They have to be kept up to date. Recent publi-
cations by foreign governments, newly reported dangers, changes
in character or position of lights and buoys, arenas soon as
practicable inserted on the charts and due notice given of
such insertions in the admiralty " Notices to Mariners."
The charts are supplemented by the Admiralty Pilots, or books
of sailing directions, with tide tables, and lists of lighthouses, light
vessels, &c, for the coasts to which a ship may be bound. The
Shysical charts are the continuation of the work so ably begun by
laury of the United States and FitzRoy of the British navy,
and give the sailor a good general idea of the world's ocean winds
and currents at the different periods of the year; the probable
tracks and seasons of the tropical revolving or cyclonic storms* the
coastal winds ; the extent or months of the rainy seasons ; localities
and times where ice may be fallen in with; and, lastly, the direction
and force of the stream and drift currents of the oceans. (T. A. H.)
CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. x^prrp, originally for
papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and
from this material to the document, in O. Eng. hoc, book), a
written instrument, contract or convention by which cessions
of sales of property or of rights and privileges are confirmed and
held, and which may be produced by the grantees in proof of
lawful possession. The use of the word for any written docu-
ment is obsolete in England, but is preserved in France, e.g. the
ficole des Chartes at Paris. In feudal times charters of privileges
were granted, not only by the crown, but by mesne lords both
lay and ecclesiastical, as well to communities, such as boroughs,
gilds and religious foundations, as to individuals. In modern
usage grants by charter have become all but obsolete, though in
England this form is still used in the incorporation by the crown
of such societies as the British Academy.
The grant of the Great Charter by Zing John in 121 5 (sec
Magna Carta), which guaranteed the preservation of English
liberties, led to a special association of the word with consti-
tutional privileges, and so in modern times it has been applied
to constitutions granted by sovereigns to their subjects, in
contradistinction to those based on " the will of the people."
Such was the Charter (Charte) granted by Louis XVIII. to
France in 18 14. In Portugal the constitution granted by Dom
Pedro in 1826 was called by the French party the " Charter,"
while that devised by the Cortes in 18 21 was known as the
" Constitution." Magna Carta also suggested to the English
radicals in 1838 the name " People's Charter," which they gave
to their published programme of reforms (see Chartism). This
association of the idea of liberty with the word charter led to its
figurative use in the sense of freedom or licence. This is, however,
rare; the most common use being in the phrase " chartered
libertine " (Shakespeare, Henry V. Act i. Sc. 1) from the deri-
vative verb " to charter," e.g. to grant a charter. The common
colloquialism " to charter," in the sense of to take, or hire, is
derived from the special use of " to charter " as to hire (a ship)
by charter-party.
CHARTERED COMPANIES. A chartered company is a
trading corporation enjoying certain rights and privileges, and
bound by certain obligations under a special charter granted to
it by the sovereign authority of the state, such charter defining
and limiting those rights, privileges and obligations, and the
localities in which they are to be exercised. Such companies
existed in early times, but have undergone changes and modi-
fications in accordance with the developments which have taken
place in the economic history of the states where they have
existed. In Great Britain the first trading charters were granted,
not to English companies, which were then non-existent, but
to branches of the Hanseatic League (q.i.), and it was not till
1597 that England was finally relieved from the presence of a
foreign chartered company. In that year Queen Elizabeth closed
the steel-yard where Teutons had been established for 700 years.
The origin of all English trading companies is to be sought
in the Merchants of the Staple. They lingered on into the 18th
century, but only as a name, for their business was solely to
export English products which, as English manufactures grew,
were wanted at home. Of all early English chartered companies,
the " Merchant Adventurers " conducted its operations the most
widely. Itself a development of very early trading gilds, at the
height of its prosperity it employed as many as 50,000 persons in
the Netherlands, and the enormous influence it was able to
exercise undoubtedly saved Antwerp from the institution of the
Inquisition within its walls in the time of Charles V. In the reign
of Elizabeth British trade with the Netherlands reached in one
year 12,000,000 ducats, and in that of James I. the company's
yearly commerce with Germany and the Netherlands was as much
as £1 ,000,000. Hamburg afterwards was its principal depot, and
it became known as the " Hamburg Company." In the " Mer-
chant Adventurers' " enterprises is to be seen the germ of the
trading companies which had so remarkable a development in the
1 6th and 17th centuries. These old regulated trade gilds passed
gradually into joint-stock associations, which were capable of far
greater extension, both as to the number of members and amount
of stock, each member being only accountable for the amount of
his own stock, and being able to transfer it at will to any other
person.
It was in the age of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts that
the chartered company, in the modern sense of the term, had
its rise. The discovery of the New World, and the opening out
of fresh trading routes to the Indies, gave an extraordinary
impulse to shipping, commerce and industrial enterprise through-
out western Europe. The English, French and Dutch govern-
ments were ready to assist trade by the granting of charters to
trading associations. It is to the " Russia Company," which
received its first charter in 1554, that Great Britain owed its
first intercourse with an empire then almost unknown. The
first recorded instance of a purely chartered company annexing
territory is to be found in the action of this company in setting
CHARTERED COMPANIES
95i
up a cross at Spitzbergen in 1613 with King James's arms upon it.
Among other associations trading to the continent of Europe,
receiving charters at this time, were the Turkey Company
(Levant Co.) and the Eastland Company. Both the Russia
and Turkey Companies had an important effect upon British
relations with those empires. They maintained British influence
in those countries, and even paid the expenses of the embassies
which were sent out by the English government to their courts.
The Russia Company carried on a large trade with Persia through
Russian territory; but from various causes their business
gradually declined, though the Turkey Company existed in
name until 1825.
The chartered companies which were formed during this period
for trade with the Indies and the New World have had a more
wide-reaching influence in history. The extraordinary career
of the East India Company (q.v.) is dealt with elsewhere.
Charters were given to companies trading to Guinea, Morocco,
Guiana and the Canaries, but none of these enjoyed a very long
or prosperous existence, principally owing to the difficulties
caused by foreign competition. It is when we turn to North
America that the importance of the chartered company, as a
colonizing rather than a trading agency, is seen in its full develop-
ment. The " Hudson's Bay Company," which still exists as a
commercial concern, is dealt with under its own heading, but
most of the thirteen British North American colonies were in
their inception chartered companies very much in the modern
acceptation of the term. The history of these companies will
be found under the heading of the different colonies of which
they were the origin. It is necessary, however, to bear in mind
that two classes of charters are to be found in force among the
early American colonies: (1) Those granted to trading associa-
tions, which were often useful when the colony was first founded,
but which formed a serious obstacle to its progress when the
country had become settled and was looking forward to com-
mercial expansion; the existence of these charters then often
led to serious conflicts between the grantees of the charter and
the colonies; ultimately elective assemblies everywhere super-
seded control of trading companies. (2) The second class of
charters were those granted to the settlers themselves, to protect
them against the oppressions of the crown and the provincial
governors. These were highly prized by the colonists.
In France and Holland, no less than in England, the institution
of chartered companies became a settled principle of the govern-
ments of those countries during the whole of the period in
question. In France from 1599 to 1789, more than 70 of such
companies came into existence, but after 1770, when the great
Compagnie des Indes orientates went into liquidation, they were
almost abandoned, and finally perished in the general sweeping
away of privileges which followed on the outbreak of the
Revolution.
If we inquire into the economic ideas which induced the
granting of charters to these earlier companies and animated
their promoters, we shall find that they were entirely consistent
with the general principles of government at the time and what
were then held to be sound commercial views. Under the old
r6gime everything was a matter of monopoly and privilege, and
to this state of things the constitution of the old companies
corresponded, the sovereign rights accorded to them being also
quite in accordance with the views of the time. It would have
been thought impossible then that private individuals could
have found the funds or maintained the magnitude of such
enterprises. It was only this necessity which induced statesmen
like Colbert to countenance them, and Montesquieu took the
same view (Esprit des lois, t. xx. c. 10). John de Witt's view
was that such companies were not useful for colonization properly
so called, because they want quick returns to pay their dividends.
So, even in France and Holland, opinion was by no means
settled as to their utility. In England historic protests were
made against such monopolies, but the chartered companies
were less exclusive in England than in either France or Holland,
the governors of provinces almost always allowing strangers to
trade on receiving some pecuniary inducement. French com-
mercial companies were more privileged, exclusive and artificial
than those in Holland and England. Those of Holland may be
said to have been national enterprises. French companies
rested more than did their rivals on false principles; they were
more fettered by the royal power, and had less initiative of their
own, and therefore had less chance of surviving. As an example
of the kind of rules which prevented the growth of the French
companies, it may be pointed out that no Protestants were
allowed to take part in them. State subventions, rather than
commerce or colonization, were often their object; but that has
been a characteristic of French colonial enterprise at all times.
Such companies, however, under the old commercial system
could hardly have come into existence without exclusive privi-
leges. Their existence might have been prolonged had the
whole people in time been allowed the chance of participating
in them.
To sum up the causes of failure of the old chartered companies,
they are to be attributed to (1) bad administration; (2) want
of capital and credit; (3) bad economic organization; (4)
distribution of dividends made prematurely or fictitiously.
But those survived the longest which extended the most widely
their privileges to outsiders. According to contemporary pro-
tests, they had a most injurious effect on the commerce of the
countries where they had their rise. They were monopolies,
and therefore, of course, obnoxious; and it is undoubted that
the colonies they founded only became prosperous when they
had escaped from their yoke.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that they contri-
buted in no small degree to the commercial progress of their
own states. They gave colonies to the mother country, and an
impulse to the development of its fleet. In the case of England
and Holland, the enterprise of the companies saved them from
suffering from the monopolies of Spain and Portugal, and the wars
of the English, and those of the Dutch in the Indies with Spain
and Portugal, were paid for by the companies. They furnished
the mother country with luxuries which, by the 18th century,
had become necessaries. They offered a career for the younger
sons of good families, and sometimes greatly assisted large and
useful enterprises.
During the last twenty years of the 19th century there was a
great revival of the system of chartered companies in Great
Britain. It is a feature of the general growth of interest in
colonial expansion and commercial development which has
made itself felt almost universally among European nations.
Great Britain, however, alone has succeeded in establishing
such companies as have materially contributed to the growth
of her empire. These companies succeed or fail for reasons
different from those which affected the chartered companies
of former days, though there are points in common. Apart
from causes inherent in the particular case of each company,
which necessitates their being examined separately, recent
experience leads us to lay down certain general principles
regarding them. The modern companies are not like those of
the 1 6th and 17 th centuries. They are not privileged in the
sense that those companies were. They are not monopolists;
they have only a limited sovereignty, always being subject to
the control of the home government. It is true that they have
certain advantages given them, for without these advantages
no capital would risk itself in the lands where they carry on their
operations. They often have very heavy corresponding obliga-
tions, as will be seen in the case of one (the East Africa) where
the obligations were too onerous for the company to discharge,
though they were inseparable from its position. The charters
of modern companies differ in two points strongly from those of
the old: they contain clauses prohibiting any monopoly of
trade, and they generally confer some special political rights
directly under the control of the secretary of state. The political
freedom of the old companies was much greater. In these
charters state control has been made a distinguishing feature.
It is to be exercised in almost'all directions in which the companies
may come into contact with matters political. Of course, it is
inevitable in all disputes of the companies with foreign powers,
952
CHARTERHOUSE
and is extended over all decrees of the company regarding the
administration of its territories, the taxation of natives, and
mining regulations. In all cases of dispute between the com-
panies and the natives the secretary of state is ex officio the
judge, and to the secretary of state (in the case of the South
Africa Company) the accounts of administration have to be
submitted for his approbation. It is deserving of notice that the
British character of the company is insisted upon in each case
in the charter which calls it into life. The crown always retains
complete control over the company by reserving to itself the
power of revoking the charter in case of the neglect of its stipula-
tions. Special clauses were inserted in the charters of the British
East Africa and South Africa Companies enabling the government
to forfeit their charters if they did not promote the objects
alleged as reasons for demanding a charter. This bound them
still more strongly; and in the case of the South Africa Company
the duration of the charter was fixed at twenty-five years.
The chartered company of these days is therefore very strongly
fixed within limits imposed by law on its political action. As a
whole, however, very remarkable results have been achieved.
This may be attributed in no small degree to the personality of
the men who have had the supreme direction at home and abroad,
and who have, by their social position and personal qualities,
acquired the confidence of the public. With the exception of the
Royal Niger Company, it would be incorrect to say that they
have been financially successful, but in the domain of government
generally it may be said that they have added vast territories to
the British empire (in Africa about 1,700,000 sq.m.), and in these
territories they have acted as a civilizing force. They have made
roads, opened facilities for trade, enforced peace, and laid at all
events the foundation of settled administration. It is not too
much to say that they have often acted unselfishly for the benefit
of the mother country and even humanity. We may instance the
anti-slavery and anti-alcohol campaigns which have been carried
on, the latter certainly being against the immediate pecuniary
interests of the companies themselves. It must, of course, be
recognized that to a certain extent this has been done under the
influence of the home government. The occupation of Uganda
certainly, and of the Nigerian territory and Rhodesia prob-
ably, will prove to have been rather for the benefit of posterity
than of the companies which effected it. In the two cases where
the companies have been bought out by the state, they
have had no compensation for much that they have expended.
In fact, it would have been impossible to take into account
actual expenditure day by day, and the cost of wars. To use the
expression of Sir William Mackinnon, the shareholders have
been compelled in some cases to " take out their dividends in
philanthropy."
The existence of such companies to-day is justified in certain
political and economic conditions only. It may be highly desir-
able for the government to occupy certain territories, but political
exigencies at home will not permit it to incur the expenditure, or
international relations may make such an undertaking inex-
pedient at the time. In such a case the formation of a chartered
company may be the best way out of the difficulty. But it has
been demonstrated again and again that, directly the company's
interests begin to clash with those of foreign powers, the home
government must assume a protectorate over its territories in
order to simplify the situation and save perhaps disastrous
collisions. So long as the political relations of such a company
are with savages or semi-savages, it may be left free to act, but
directly it becomes involved with a civilized power the state has
(if it wishes to retain the territory) to acquire by purchase the
political rights of the company, and it is obviously much easier to
induce a popular assembly to grant money for the purpose of
maintaining rights already existing than to acquire new ones.
With the strict system of government supervision enforced by
modern charters it is not easy for the state to be involved against
its will in foreign complications. Economically such companies
are also justifiable up to a certain point. When there is no other
means of entering into commercial relations with remote and
savage races save by enterprise of such magnitude that private
individuals could not incur the risk involved, then a company
may be well entrusted with special privileges for the purpose, as
an inventor is accorded a certain protection by law by means of a
patent which enables him to bring out his invention at a profit if
there is anything in it. But such privileges should not be con-
tinued longer than is necessary for the purpose of reasonably
recompensing the adventurers. A successful company, even
when it has lost monopoly or privileges, has, by its command of
capital and general resources, established so strong a position that
private individuals or new companies can rarely compete with it
successfully. That this is so is clearly shown in the case of the
Hudson's Bay Company as at present constituted. In colonizing
new lands these companies often act successfully. They have
proved more potent than the direct action of governments.
This may be seen in Africa, where France and England have of
late acquired vast areas, but have developed them with very
different results, acting from the opposite principles of private
and state promotion of colonization. Apart from national
characteristics, the individual has far more to gain under the
British system of private enterprise. A strong point in favour of
some of the British companies has been that their undertakings
have been practically extensions of existing British colonies
rather than entirely isolated ventures. But a chartered company
can never be anything but a transition stage of colonization;
sooner or later the state must take the lead. A company may act
beneficially so long as a country is undeveloped, but as soon as it
becomes even semi-civilized its conflicts with private interests
become so frequent and serious that its authority has to make
way for that of the central government.
The companies which have been formed in France during
recent years do not yet afford material for profitable study, for
they have been subject to so much vexatious interference from
home owing to lack of a fixed system of control sanctioned by
government, that they have not been able, like the British, to
develop along their own lines.
. "See also Borneo; Nigeria; Brit. East Africa; Rhodesia; &c.
The following works deal with the subject of chartered companies
generally: Bonnassieux, Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce (Paris,
1892); Chailly-Bert, Les Compagnies de colonisation sous Vancien
regime (Paris, 1898); Cawston and Keane, The Early Chartered
Companies (London, 1896) ; W. Cunningham, A History of British
Industry and Commerce (Cambridge, 1890, 1892); Egerton, A Short
History of British Colonial Policy (London, 1897); J. Scott Keltie,
The Partition of Africa (London, 1895); Leroy-Beaulieu, De la
colonisation chez les peuples modernes (Paris, 1898); Les Nouvelles
SociStes anglosaxonnes (Paris, 1897); MacDonald, Select Charters
illustrative of American History, 1606-177$ (New York, 1899);
B. P. Poore^ Federal and State Constitutions, &c (Washington,
1877; a more complete collection of American colonial charters};
H. L. Osgood, American Colonies in the 17th Cent, (1904-7);
Carton de Wiart, Les Grandes Compagnies coloniales anglaises au igT*
Steele (Paris, 1859). Also see articles " Compagnies de Charte,"
" Colonies," " Privilege," in Nouveau Dictionnaire a' Sconomie politique
(Paris, 1892); and article "Companies, Chartered," in Encyclo-
paedia of the Laws of England, edited by A. Wood Renton (London,
1907-1909). (W. B. Du.)
CHARTERHOUSE. This name is an English corruption of
the French maison chartreuse, a religious house of the Carthusian
order. As such it occurs not uncommonly in England, in various
places (e.g. Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Charterhouse Hinton)
where the Carthusians were established. It is most familiar,
however, in its application to the Charterhouse, London. On
a site near the old city wall, west of the modern thoroughfare
of Aldersgate, a Carthusian monastery was founded in 13 71 by
Sir Walter de Manny, a knight of French birth. After its
dissolution in 1535 the property passed through various hands.
In 1558, while in the possession of Lord North, it was occupied
by Queen Elizabeth during the preparations for her coronation,
and James I. held court here on his first entrance into London.
The Charterhouse was then in the hands of Thomas Howard,
earl of Suffolk, but in May 161 1 it came into those of Thomas
Sutton (1 532-161 1) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He acquired a
fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had
leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to
London, he carried on a commercial career. In the year of his
death, which took place on the 12th of December 161 1, he
CHARTER-PARTY— CHARTISM
953
endowed a hospital on the site of the Charterhouse, calling it the
hospital of King James; and in his will he bequeathed moneys
to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and school. The will
was hotly contested but upheld in<xmrt, and the foundation was
finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male pensioners
(" gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have borne
arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck,
or servants in household to the King or Queen's Majesty "), and
to educate forty boys. The school developed beyond the original
intentions of its founder, and now ranks among the most eminent
public schools in England. In 1872 it was removed, during the
headmastership (1 863-1 897) of the Rev. William Haig-Brown
(d. 1907), to new buildings near Godalming in Surrey, which were
opened on the 1 8th of June in that year. The number of founda-
tion scholarships is increased to sixty. The scholars are not now
distinguished by wearing a special dress or by forming a separate
house, though one house is known as Gownboys, preserving
the former title of the scholars. The land on which the old
school buildings stood in London was sold for new buildings
to accommodate the Merchant Taylors' school, but the pensioners
still occupy their picturesque home, themselves picturesque
figures in the black gowns designed for them under the founda-
tion. The buildings, of mellowed red brick, include a panelled
chapel, in which is the founder's tomb, a fine dining-hall,
governors' room with ornate ceiling and tapestried walls, the old
library, and the beautiful great staircase.
CHARTER-PARTY (Lat. charta partita, a legal paper or
instrument, " divided," ix. written in duplicate so that each
party retains half), a written, or partly written and partly
printed, contract between merchant and shipowner, by which
a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of goods on a specified
voyage, or for a definite period. (See Affreightment.)
CHARTERS TOWERS, a mining town of Devonport county,
Queensland, Australia, 82 ,m. by rail S.W. of Townsville and
820 m. direct N.N.W. of Brisbane. It is the centre of an im-
portant gold-field, the reefs of which improve at the lower
depths, the deepest shaft on the field being 2558 ft. below the
surface-level. The gold is of a very fine quality. An abundant
water-supply is obtained from the Burdekin river, some 8 m.
distant. The population of the town in 1001 was 5523; but
within a 5 m. radius it was 20,976. Charters Towers became
a municipality in 1877.
CH ARTIER, ALAIN (c. 1392-C.1430), French poet and political
writer, was born at Bayeux about 1392. Chartier belonged
to a family marked by considerable ability. His eldest brother
Guillaume became bishop of Paris; and Thomas became notary
to the king. Jean Chartier, a monk of St Denis, whose history
of Charles VII. is printed in vol. Hi. of Les Grands Chroniques de
Saint-Denis (1477), was not, as is sometimes stated, also a
brother of the poet Alain studied , as his elder brother had done,
at the university of Paris. His earliest poem is the Livre des
quatre dames, written after the battle of Agmcourt. This was
followed by the Dibat du reveille-matin, La Belle Dame sans
merci, and others. None of these poems show any very patriotic
feeling, though Chartier's prose is evidence that he was not
indifferent to the misfortunes of his country. He followed the
fortunes of the dauphin, afterwards Charles VEL, acting in the
triple capacity of clerk, notary and fin%ncial secretary. In 1422
he wrote the famous QuadrUogue-invectif. The interlocutors
in this dialogue are France herself and the three orders of the
state. Chartier lays bare the abuses of the feudal army and the
sufferings of the peasants. He rendered an immense service to
his country by maintaining that the cause of France, though
desperate to all appearance, was not yet lost if the contending
factions could lay aside their differences in the face of the common
enemy. In 1424 Chartier was sent on an embassy to Germany,
and three years later he accompanied to Scotland the mission
sent to negotiate the marriage of Margaret of Scotland, then
not four years old, with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI.
In 1429 he wrote the Livre d'espfrance, which contains a fierce
attack on the nobility and clergy. He was the author of a
diatribe on the courtiers of Charles VII. entitled Le Curial,
translated into English {Here foloweth the copy of a lettre
whyche maistre A. Charetier wrote to his brother) by Caxton
about 1484. The date of his death is to be placed about 1430.
A Latin epitaph, discovered in the 18th century, says, however,
that he was archdeacon of Paris, and declares that he died in the
city of Avignon in 1449. This is obviously not authentic, for
Alain described himself as a simple clerc and certainly died long
before 1449. The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret
of Scotland on la pr&cieuse bouche de laquelle sont issus et sortis
tant de bans mots et vertueuses paroles is mythical, for Margaret
did not come to France till 1436, after the poet's death; but the
story, first told by Guillaume Bouchet in his Annates d'Aquitaine
(1524), is interesting, if only as a proof of the high degree of
estimation in which the ugliest man of his day was held. Jean
de Masles, who annotated a portion of his verse, has recorded
how the pages and young gentlemen of that epoch were required
daily to learn by heart passages of his Breviaire des nobles.
John Lydgate studied him affectionately. His Belle Dame sans
merci was translated into English by Sir Richard Ros about
1640, with an introduction of his own; and Clement Marot and
Octavien de Saint-Gelais, writing fifty years after his death,
find many fair words for the old poet, their master and pre-
decessor.
See Mancel, Alain Chartier, itude bibliographique et litt&raire, 8vo
(Paris, 1849); D. Delaunay's ixude sur Alain Chartier (1876), with
considerable extracts from his writings. His works were edited by
A. Duchesne (Paris, 1617). On Jean Chartier see Vallet de Viriville,
" Essais critiques sur les histonens originaux du regne de Charles
VIII," in the Bibl. de V£cole des Chartes (July-August 1857).
CHARTISM, the name given to a movement for political
reform in England, from the so-called " People's Charter " or
" National Charter," the document in which in 1838 the scheme
of reforms was embodied. The movement itself may be traced
to the latter years of the 18th century. Checked for a while by
the reaction due to the excesses of the French Revolution, it
received a fresh impetus from the awful misery that followed
the Napoleonic wars and the economic changes due to the intro-
duction of machinery. The Six Acts of 1819 were directed,
not only against agrarian and industrial rioting, but against
the political movement of which Sir Francis Burdett was the
spokesman in the House of Commons, which demanded man-
hood suffrage, the ballot, annual parliaments, the abolition of
the property qualification for members of parliament and their
payment. The movement was checked for a while by the
Reform Bill of 1832; but it was soon discovered that, though
the middle classes had been enfranchised, the economic and
political grievances of the labouring population remained un-
redressed. Two separate movements now developed: one
socialistic, associated with the name of Robert Owen; the other
radical, aiming at the enfranchisement of the " masses " as the
first step to the amelioration of their condition. The latter was
represented in the Working Men's Association, by which in 1838
the " People's Charter " was drawn up. It embodied exactly
the same programme as that of the radical reformers mentioned
above, with the addition of a demand for equal electoral districts.
In support of this programme a vigorous agitation began, the
principal leader of which was Feargus O'Connor, whose irrespon-
sible and erratic oratory produced a vast effect. Monster
meetings were held, at which seditious language was occasionally
used, and slight collisions with the military took place. Petitions
of enormous size, signed in great part with fictitious names, were
presented to parliament; and a great many newspapers were
started, of which the Northern Star, conducted by Feargus
O'Connor, had a circulation of 50,000. In November 1839 a
Chartist mob consisting of miners and others made an attack
on Newport, Mon. The rising was a total failure; the leaders,
John Frost and two others, were seized, were found guilty of high
treason, and were condemned to death. The sentence, however,
was changed to one of transportation, and Frost spent over
fourteen years in Van Diemen's Land. In 1 854 he was pardoned,
and from 1856 until his death on the 29th of July 1877 he lived
in England. In 1840 the Chartist movement was still further
organized by the inauguration at Manchester of the National
954
CHARTRES— CHARTREUSE
Charter Association, which rapidly became powerful, being the
head of about 400 sister societies, which are said to have num-
bered 40,000 members. Some time after, efforts were made
towards a coalition with the more moderate radicals, but these
failed; and a land scheme was started by O'Connor, which
prospered for a few years. In 1844 the uncompromising spirit
of some of the leaders was well illustrated by their hostile attitude
towards the Anti - Corn - Law League. O'Connor, especially,
entered into a public controversy with Cobden and Bright, in
which he was worsted. But it was not till 1848, during a season
of great suffering among the working classes, and under the
influence of the revolution at Paris, that the real strength of the
Chartist movement was discovered and the prevalent discon-
tent became known. Early in March disturbances occurred in
Glasgow which required the intervention of the military, while
in the manufacturing districts all over the west of Scotland the
operatives were ready to rise in the event of the main movement
succeeding. Some agitation, too, took place in Edinburgh and
in Manchester, but of a milder nature; in fact, while there was
a real and widespread discontent, men were indisposed to resort
to decided measures.
The principal scene of intended Chartist demonstration was
London. An enormous gathering of half a million was announced
for the 10th of April on Kennington Common, from which they
were to march to the Houses of Parliament to present a petition
signed by nearly six million names, in order by this imposing
display of numbers to secure the enactment of the six points.
Probably some of the more violent members of the party thought
to imitate the Parisian mob by taking power entirely into their own
hands. The announcement of the procession excited great alarm,
and the most decided measures were taken by the authorities to
prevent a rising. The procession was forbidden. The military
were called out under the command of the duke of Wellington,
and by him concealed near the bridges and other points where the
procession might attempt to force its way. Even the Bank of
England and other public buildings were put in a state of defence,
and special constables, to the number, it is said, of 170,000, were
enrolled, one of whom was destined shortly after to be the emperor
of the French. After all these gigantic preparations on both sides
the Chartist demonstration proved to be a very insignificant affair.
Instead of half a million, only about 50,000 assembled on Ken-
nington Common, and their leaders, Feargus O'Connor and
Ernest Charles Jones, shrank from the responsibility of braving
the authorities by conducting the procession to the Houses of
Parliament. The monster petition was duly presented, and
scrutinized, with the result that the number of signatures was
found to have been grossly exaggerated, and that the most
unheard-of falsification of names had been resorted to. There-
after the movement specially called Chartism soon died out.
It became merged, so far as its political programme is con-
cerned, with the advancing radicalism of the general democratic
movement.
CHARTRES, a city of north-western France, capital of the
department of Eure-et-Loir, 55 m. S.W. of Paris on the rail-
way to Le Mans. Pop. (1906) 19,433. Chartres is built on the
left bank of the Eure, on a hill crowned by its famous cathedral,
the spires of which are a landmark in the surrounding country.
To the south-east stretches the fruitful plain of Beauce, " the
granary of France," of which the town is the commercial centre.
The Eure, which at this point divides into three branches,
is crossed by several bridges, some of them ancient, and is
fringed in places by remains of the old fortifications, of which
the Porte Guillaume (14th century), a gateway flanked by towers,
is the most complete specimen. The steep, narrow streets of the
old town contrast with the wide, shady boulevards which encircle
it and divide it from the suburbs. The Clos St Jean, a pleasant
park, lies to the north-west, and squares and open spaces are
numerous. The cathedral of Notre-Dame (see Architecture:
Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in France; and Cathedral),
one of the finest Gothic churches in France, was founded in the
nth century by Bishop Fulbert on the site of an earlier church
destroyed by fire. In n 94 another conflagration laid waste
the new building then hardly completed; but clergy and people
set zealously to work, and the main part of the present structure
was finished by 1240. Though there have been numerous minor
additions and alterations since that time, the general character
of the cathedral is unimpaired. The upper woodwork was con-
sumed by fire in 1836, but the rest of the building was saved.
The statuary of the lateral portals, the stained glass of the 13th
century, and the choir-screen of the Renaissance are all unique
from the artistic standpoint. The cathedral is also renowned for
the beauty and perfect proportions of its western towers. That
to the south, the Clocher Vieux (351 ft. high), dates from the 12th
century; its upper portion is lower and less rich in design than
that of the Clocher Neuf (377 ft.), which was not completed till
the 1 6th century. In length the cathedral measures 440 ft., its
choir measures 150 ft. across, and the height of the vaulting is
1 2 1 ft . The abbey church of St Pierre, dating chiefly from the 1 3 th
century, contains, besides some fine stained glass, twelve repre-
sentations of the apostles in enamel, executed about 1547 by
Leonard Limosin. Of the other churches of Chartres the chief
are St Aignan (13th, 16th and 17th centuries) and St Martin-au-
Val (12th century). The h6tel de ville, a building of the 17th
century, containing a museum and library, an older hotel de
ville of the 13th century, and several medieval and Renaissance
houses, are of interest. There is a statue of General F. S.
Marceau-Desgraviers (b. 1769), a native of the town.
The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefecture, a court of assizes,
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce, training colleges, a lycee for boys, a communal
college for girls, and a branch of the Bank of France. Its trade
is carried on chiefly on market-days, when the peasants of the
Beauce bring their crops and live-stock to be sold and make
their purchases. The game-pies and other delicacies of Chartres
are well known, and the industries also include flour-milling,
brewing, distilling, iron-founding, leather manufacture, dyeing,
and the manufacture of stained glass, billiard requisites,
hosiery, &c.
Chartres was one of the principal towns of the Carnutes, and
by the Romans was called Autricum, from the river Auiura
(Eure), and afterwards civitas Carnutum. It was burnt by the
Normans in 858, and unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911.
In 141 7 it fell into the hands of the English, from whom it was
recovered in 1432. It was attacked unsuccessfully by the
Protestants in 1568, and was taken in 1591 by Henry IV., who
was crowned there three years afterwards. In the Franco-German
War it was seized by the Germans on the 21st of October 1870,
and continued during the rest of the campaign an important
centre of operations. During the middle ages it was the chief
town of the district of Beauce, and gave its name to a countship
which was held by the counts of Blois and Champagne and after-
wards by the house of Chatillon, a member of which in 1286 sold
it to the crown. It was raised to the rank of a duchy in 1528 by
Francis I. After the time of Louis XIV. the title of duke of
Chartres was hereditary in the family of Orleans.
See M. T. Bulteau, Monographie de la cathUralc de Chartres (1887) ;
A. Plerval, Chartres, sa cathedrale, ses monuments (1896) ; H. J. L. J.
Masse, Chartres: its Cathedral and Churches (1900).
CHARTREUSE, a liqueur, so called from having been made
at the famous Carthusian monastery, La Grande Chartreuse, at
Grenoble (see below). In consequence of the Associations Law,
the Chartreux monks left France in 1904, and now continue the
m anuf acture of this liqueur in Spain. There are two m ain varieties
of Chartreuse, the green and the yellow. The green contains
about 57, the yellow about 43% of alcohol. There are other
differences due to the varying nature and quantity of the
flavouring matters employed, but the secrets of manufacture are
jealously guarded. The genuine liqueur is undoubtedly produced
by means of a distillation process.
CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE, the mother house of the very
severe order of Carthusian monks (see Carthusians). It is
situated in the French department of the Isere, about i2§ m.
N. of Grenoble, at a height of 3205 ft. above the sea, in the heart
of a group of limestone mountains, and not far from the source
CHARWOMAN— CHASE, S. P.
955
of the Guiers Mort. The original settlement here was founded
by St Bruno about 1084, and derived its name from the small
village to the S.E., formerly known as Cartusia, and now as St
Pierre de Chartreuse. The first convent on the present site was
built between 1132 and 1137, Dut th e actual buildings date only
from about 1676, the older ones having been often burnt. The
convent stands in a very picturesque position in a large meadow,
sloping to the S.W., and watered by a tiny tributary of the Guiers
Mort. On the north, fine forests extend to the Col de la Ruchere ,
and on the west rise well-wooded heights, while on the east
tower white limestone ridges, culminating in the Grand Som
(6670 ft.). One of the most famous of the early Carthusian
monks was St Hugh of Lincoln, who lived here from n 60 to
1 18 1, when he went to England to found the first Carthusian
house at Witham in Somerset; in 1186 he became bishop of
Lincoln, and before his death in. * 200 had built the angel choir
and other portions of the wonderful cathedral there.
The principal approach to the convent is from St Laurent du
Pont, a village situated on the Guiers Mort, and largely built
by the monks — it is connected by steam tramways with Voiron
(for Grenoble) and St B6ron (for Chamb6ry). Among the other
routes may be mentioned those from Grenoble by Le Sappey, or
by the Col de la Charmette, or from Chamb^ry by the Col de
Couz and the village of Les Echelles. St Laurent is about s£ m.
from the convent. The road mounts along the Guiers Mort and
soon reaches the hamlet of Fourvoirie, so called from forata via,
as about 15 10 the road was first pierced hence towards the
convent. Here are iron forges, and here was formerly the chief
centre of the manufacture of the* famed Chartreuse liqueur.
Beyond, the road enters the " Desert " and passes through most
delightful scenery. Some way farther the Guiers Mort is crossed
by the modern bridge of St Bruno, the older bridge of Parant
being still visible higher up the stream. Here begi ns the splendid
carriage road, constructed by M. E. Viaud between 1854 and
1856. It soon passes beneath the bold pinnacle of the Oeillette
or Aiguillette, beyond which formerly women were not. alio wed
to penetrate. After passing through four tunnels the road bends
north (leaving the Guiers Mort which flows past St Pierre de
Chartreuse) , and the valley soon opens to form the upland hollow
in which are the buildings of the convent. These are not very
striking, the high roofs of dark slate, the cross-surmounted
turrets and the lofty clock-tower being the chief features. But
the situation is one of ideal peace and repose. Women were
formerly lodged in the old infirmary, close to the main gate,
which is now a h6tel. Within the conventual buildings are four
halls formerly used for the reception of the priors of the various
branch houses in France, Italy, Burgundy and Germany. The
very plain and unadorned chapel dates from the 15th century,
but the cloisters, around which cluster the thirty-six small houses
for the fully professed monks, are of later date. The library con-
tained before the Revolution a very fine collection of books and
MSS., now mostly in the town library at Grenoble.
The monks were expelled in 1793, but allowed to return in
18 16, but then they had to pay rent for the use of the buildings
and the forests around, though both one and the other were due
to the industry of their predecessors. They were again expelled
in 1904, and are dispersed in various houses in England, at
Pinerolo (Italy) and at Tarragona (Spain). It is at the last-
named spot that the various pharmaceutical preparations are
now manufactured for which they are famous (though sold only
since about 1840) — the Elixir, the Boule d'acier (a mineral paste
or salve), and the celebrated liqueur. The magnificent revenues
derived from the profits of this manufacture were devoted by the
monks to various purposes of benevolence, especially in the
neighbouring villages, which owe to this source their churches,
schools, hospitals, &c, &c, built and maintained at the expense
of the monks.
See La Grande Chartreuse par un Ckartreux (Grenoble, 1898);
H. Ferrand, Guide & la Grande Chartreuse (1889) ; and Les Montagues
de la Chartreuse (1899). (W. A. B. C.)
CHARWOMAN, one who is hired to do occasional household
work. " Char " or " chare," which forms the first part of the
word, is common, in many forms, to Teutonic languages, meaning
a " turn," and, in this original sense, is seen in " ajar," properly
" on char," of a door " on the turn " in the act of closing. It is
thus applied to a " turn of work," an odd job, and is so used, in
the form " chore," in America, and in dialects of the south-west
of England.
CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873), American states-
man and jurist, was born in Cornish township, New Hampshire,
on the 13th of January 1808. His father died in 1817, and the
son passed several years (18 20-1 8 24) in Ohio with his uncle,
Bishop Philander Chase (1775-1852), the foremost pioneer of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in the West, the first bishop of
Ohio (1819-1831), and after 183 5 bishop of Illinois. He graduated
at Dartmouth College in 1826, and after studying law under
William Wirt, attorney-general of the United States, in
Washington, D.C., was admitted to the bar in 1829, and removed
to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1830. Here he soon gained a position of
prominence at the bar, and published an annotated edition,
which long remained standard, of the laws of Ohio. At a time
when public opinion in Cincinnati was largely dominated by
Southern business connexions, Chase, influenced probably by
James G. Birney, associated himself after about 1836 with the
anti-slavery movement, and became recognized as the leader of
the political reformers as opposed to theGarrisonian abolitionists.
To the cause he freely gave his services as a lawyer, and was
particularly conspicuous as counsel for fugitive slaves seized
in Ohio for rendition to slavery under the Fugitive Slave Law
of 1793 — indeed, he came to be known as the " attorney-general
of fugitive slaves." His argument (1847) m the famous Van
Zandt case before the United States Supreme Court attracted
particular attention, though in this as in other cases of the
kind the judgment was against him. In brief he contended that
slavery was " local, not national," that it could exist only by
virtue of positive State Law, that the Federal government was
not empowered by the Constitution to create slavery anywhere,
and that " when a slave leaves the jurisdiction of a state he
ceases to be a slave, because he continues to be a man and
leaves behind him the law which made him a slave." In 1841 he
abandoned the Whig party, with which he had previously been
affiliated, and for seven years was the undisputed leader of the
Liberty party in Ohio; he was remarkably skilful in drafting
platforms and addresses, and it was he who prepared the national
Liberty platform of 1843 and the Liberty address of 1845.
Realizing in time that a third party movement could not succeed,
he took the lead during the campaign of 1848 in combining the
Liberty party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats
of New York to form the Free-Soilers. He drafted the famous
Free-Soil platform, and it was largely through his influence that
Van Buren was nominated for the presidency. His object, how-
ever, was not to establish a permanent new party organization,
but to bring pressure to bear upon Northern Democrats to force
them to adopt a policy opposed to the further extension of
slavery.
In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate as the
result of a coalition between the Democrats and a small group
of Free-Soilers in the state legislature; and for some years
thereafter, except in 1852, when he rejoined the Free-Soilers,
he classed himself as an Independent Democrat, though he
was out of harmony with the leaders of the Democratic party.
During his service in the Senate (1849-1855) he was pre-eminently
the champion of anti-slavery in that body, and no one spoke
more ably than he did against the Compromise Measures of 1850
and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska
legislation, and the subsequent troubles in Kansas, having
convinced him of the futility of trying to influence the Democrats,
he assumed the leadership in the North-west of the movement
to form a new party to oppose the extension of slavery. The
" Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the
People of the United States," written by Chase and Giddings,
and published in the New York Times of the 24th of January
1854, may be regarded as the earliest draft of the Republican
party creed. He was the first Republican governor of Ohio,
956
CHASE, S.— CHASING
serving from 1855 to 1859. Although, with the exception of
Seward, he was the most prominent Republican in the country,
and had done more against slavery than any other Republican,
he failed to secure the nomination for the presidency in i860,
partly because his views on the question of protection were not
orthodox from a Republican point of view, and partly because
the old line Whig element could not forgive his coalition with the
Democrats in the senatorial campaign of 1849; his uncom-
promising and conspicuous anti-slavery record, too, was against
him from the point of view of " availability." As secretary
of the treasury in President Lincoln's cabinet in 1 861-1864,
during the first three years of the Civil War, he rendered services
of the greatest value. That period of crisis witnessed two great
changes in American financial policy, the establishment of a
national banking system and the issue of a legal tender paper
currency. The former was Chase's own particular measure.
He suggested the idea, worked out all of the important principles
and many of the details, and induced Congress to accept them.
The success of that system alone warrants his being placed in
the first rank of American financiers. It not only secured an
immediate market for government bonds, but it also provided
a permanent uniform national currency, which, though inelastic,
is absolutely stable. The issue of legal tenders, the greatest
financial blunder of the war, was made contrary to his wishes,
although he did not, as he perhaps ought to have done, push
his opposition to the point of resigning.
Perhaps Chase's chief defect as a statesman was an insatiable
desire for supreme office. It was partly this ambition, and
also temperamental differences from the president, which led
him to retire from the cabinet in June 1864. A few months
later (December 6, 1864) he was appointed chief justice of the
United States Supreme Court to succeed Judge Taney, a position
which he held until his death in 1873. Among his most im-
portant decisions were Texas v. White (7 Wallace, 700), 1869, in
which he asserted that the Constitution provided for an "in-
destructible union composed of indestructible states," Veazie
Bank v. Fenno (8 Wallace, 533), 1869, in defence of that part
of the banking legislation of the Civil War which imposed a
tax of 10% on state bank-notes, and Hepburn v. Griswold (8
Wallace, 603), 1869, which declared certain parts of the legal
tender acts to be unconstitutional. When the legal tender
decision was reversed after the appointment of new judges,
1871-1872 (Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wallace, 457), Chase prepared
a very able dissenting opinion. Toward the end of his life he
gradually drifted back toward his old Democratic position, and
made an unsuccessful effort to secure the nomination of the
Democratic party for the presidency in 1872. He died in New
York city on the 7th of May 1873. Chase was one of the ablest
political leaders of the Civil War period, and deserves to be
placed in the front rank of American statesmen.
The standard biography is A. B. Hart's Salmon Portland Chase
in the " American Statesmen Series " (1899). Less philosophical,
but containing a greater wealth of detail, is f. W. Shuckers' Life and
Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase (New York, 1874). R. B.
Warden's Account of the Private Life and Public Services of Salmon
Portland Chase (Cincinnati, 1874) deals more fully with Chase's
private life.
CHASE, SAMUEL (1741-1811), American jurist, was born in
Somerset county, Maryland, on the 17th of April 1741. He was
admitted to the bar at Annapolis in 1761, and for more than
twenty years was a member of the Maryland legislature. He
took an active part in the resistance to the Stamp Act, and from
1774 to 1778 and 1784 to 1785 was a member of the Continental
Congress. With Benjamin Franklin and Charles Carroll he was
sent by Congress in 1776 to win over the Canadians to the side
of the revolting colonies, and after his return did much to
persuade Maryland to advocate a formal separation of the
thirteen colonies from Great Britain, he himself being one of
those who signed the Declaration of Independence on the 2nd
of August 1776. In this year he was also a member of the
convention which framed the first constitution for the state of
Maryland. After serving in the Maryland convention which
ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and there
vigorously opposing ratification, though afterwards he was an
ardent Federalist, he became in 1791 chief judge of the Maryland
general court, which position he resigned in 1796 for that of an
associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
His radical Federalism, however, led him to continue active in
politics, and he took advantage of every opportunity, on the
bench and off, to promote the cause of his party. His over-
bearing conduct while presiding at the trials of John Fries for
treason, and of James Thompson Callender (d. 1813) for seditious
libel in 1800, drove the lawyers for the defence from the court,
and evoked the wrath of the Republicans, who were stirred to
action by a political harangue on the evil tendencies of democracy
which he delivered as a charge to a grand jury at Baltimore in
1803. The House of Representatives adopted a resolution of
impeachment in March 1804, and on the 7th of December 1804
the House managers, chief among whom were John Randolph,
Joseph H. Nicholson (1770-1817), and Caesar A. Rodney (1772-
1824), laid their articles of impeachment before the Senate.
The trial, with frequent interruptions and delays, lasted from
the 2nd of January to the 1st of March 1805. Judge Chase was
defended by the ablest lawyers in the country, including Luther
Martin, Robert Goodloe Harper (1765-1825), Philip Barton Key
(17 57-1 81 5), Charles Lee (17 58-181 5), and Joseph Hopkinson
(1770-1842). The indictment, in eight articles, dealt with his
conduct in the Fries and Callender trials, with his treatment of
a Delaware grand jury, and (in article viii.) with his making
" highly indecent, extra-judicial " reflections upon the national
administration, probably the greatest offence in Republican eyes.
On only three articles was there a majority against Judge Chase,
the largest, on article viii., being four short of the necessary
two-thirds to convict. " The case," says Henry Adams, "proved
impeachment to be an impracticable thing for partisan purposes,
and it decided the permanence of those lines of constitutional
development which were a reflection of the common law."
Judge Chase resumed his seat on the bench, and occupied it
until his death on the 19th of June 1811.
See The Trial of Samuel Chase (2 vols. .Washington, 1805), reported
by Samuel H. Smith and Thomas Lloyd; an article in The American
Law Review, vol. xxxiii. (St Louis, Mo., 1809); and Henry Adams's
History of the United States, vol. ii. (New York, 1889).
CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849- ), American painter,
was born at Franklin, Indiana, on the 1st of November 1849.
He was a pupil of B. F. Hays at Indianapolis, of J. O. Eaton in
New York, and subsequently of A. Wagner and Piloty in Munich.
In New York he established a school of his own, after teaching
with success for some years at the Art Students' League. A
worker in all mediums — oils, water-colour, pastel and etching —
painting with distinction the figure, landscape and still-life,
he is perhaps best known by his portraits, his sitters numbering
some of the most important men and women of his time. Mr
Chase won many honours at home and abroad, became a member
of the National Academy of Design, New York, and for ten years
was president of the Society of American Artists. Among his
important canvases are " Ready for the Ride " (Union League
Club, N.Y.), " The Apprentice," " Court Jester," and portraits
of the painters Whistler and Duveneck; of General Webb and
of Peter Cooper.
CHASE. (1) (Fr. chasse, from Lat. cap tare, frequentative
of caper e , to take), the pursuit of wild animals for food or
sport (see Hunting). The word is used of the pursuit of any-
thing, and also of the thing pursued, as, in naval warfare, of
a ship. A transferred meaning is that of park land reserved
for the breeding and hunting of wild animals, in which sense it
appears in various place-names in England, as Cannock Chase.
It is also a term for a stroke in tennis (q.v.). (2) (Fr. ch&sse,
Lat. capsa, a box, cf. caisse, and " chest "), an enclosure, such
as the muzzle-end of a gun in front of the trunnions, a groove
cut to hold a pipe, and, in typography, the frame enclosing the
" forme."
CHASING, or Enchasing, the art of producing figures and
ornamental patterns, either raised or indented, on metallic
surfaces by means of steel tools or punches. It is practised
CHASLES— CHASSERIAU
957
extensively for the ornamentation of goldsmith and silversmith
work, electro-plate and similar objects, being employed to
produce bold flutings and bosses, and in another manner utilized
for imitating engraved surfaces. Minute work can be produced
by this method, perfect examples of which may be seen in the
watch-cases chased by G. M. Moser, R.A. (i 704-1 783). The
chaser first outlines the pattern on the surface he is to ornament,
after which, if the work involves bold or high embossments,
these are blocked out by a process termed " snarling." The
snarling iron is a long iron tool turned up at the end, and made so
that when securely fastened in a vise the upturned end can reach
and press against any portion of the interior of the vase or other
object to be chased. The part to be raised being held firmly
against the upturned point of the snarling iron, the workman
gives the shoulder or opposite end of the iron a sharp blow,
which causes the point applied to the work to give it a percussive
stroke, and thus throw up the surface of the metal held against
the tool. When the blocking out from the interior is finished,
or when no such embossing is required, the object to be chased
is filled with molten pitch, which is allowed to harden. It is
then fastened to a sandbag, and with hammer and a multitude
of small punches of different outline the whole details of the
pattern, lined, smooth or " matt," are worked out. Embossing
and stamping from steel dies and rolled ornaments have long
since taken the place of chased ornamentations in the cheaper
kinds of plated works. (See Embossing.)
CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHfiMIEN PHILAR&TE (i 798-1873),
French critic and man of letters, was born at Mainvilliers (Eure
et Loir) on the 8th of October 1798. His father, Pierre Jacques
Michel Chasles (1 754-1826), was a member of the Convention,
and was one of those who voted the death of Louis XVI. He
brought up his son according to the principles of Rousseau's
£mile f and the boy, after a regime of outdoor life, followed by
some years' classical study, was apprenticed to a printer, so that
he might make acquaintance with manual labour. His master
was involved in one of the plots of 181 5, and Philarete suffered
two months' imprisonment. On his release he was sent to
London, where he worked for the printer Valpy on editions of
classical authors. He wrote articles for the English reviews,
and on his return to France did much to popularize the study
of English authors. He was also one of the earliest to draw
attention in France to Scandinavian and Russian literature.
He contributed to the Revue des deux mondes, until he had a
violent quarrel, terminating in a lawsuit, with Francois Buloz,
who won his case. He became librarian of the Bibliothdque
Mazarine, and from 1841 was professor of comparative literature
at the College de France. During his active life he produced
some fifty volumes of literary history and criticism, and of
social history, much of which is extremely valuable. He died
at Venice on the 18th of July 1873. His son, fimile Chasles
(b. 1827), was a philologist of some reputation.
Among his best critical works is Dix-huitifone Steele en Angleterre
. . . (1846), one of a series of 20 vols, of Etudes de litterature comparee
(1 846-1 875), which he called later Trente ans de critique. An
account of his strenuous boyhood is given in his Mai son de mon phre.
His Memoires (187&-1877) did not fulfil the expectations based on his
brilliant talk.
CHASSE (from the Fr., in full chasse-caft, or " coffee-chaser ")>
a draught of spirit or liqueur, taken with or after coffee, &c.
CHASSfi (Fr. for " chased "), a gliding step in dancing, so
called since one foot is brought up behind or chases the other.
The chassi croisS is a double variety of the step.
CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANCOIS, Marquis de (1754-
1833), French general and military engineer, was born at St
Sernin (Lower Charente) on the 18th of August 1754, of a noble
family, and entered the French engineers in 1774. He was still
a subaltern at the outbreak of the Revolution, becoming captain
in 1 791. His ability as a military engineer was recognized in
the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. In the following year he won
distinction in various actions and was promoted successively
chef de bataillon and colonel. He was chief of engineers at the
siege of Mainz in 1796, after which he was sent to Italy. He
there conducted the first siege of Mantua, and reconnoitred the
positions and lines of advance of the army of Bonaparte. He
was promoted general of brigade before the close of the campaign,
and was subsequently employed in fortifying the new Rhine
frontier of France. His work as chief of engineers in the army
of Italy (1799) was conspicuously successful, and after the battle
of Novi he was made general of division. When Napoleon took
the field in 1800 to retrieve the disasters of 1799, he again
selected Chasseloup as his engineer general. During the peace of
1 801-1805 he was chiefly employed in reconstructing the defences
of northern Italy, and in particular the afterwards famous
Quadrilateral. His chef-d' ceuvre was the great fortress of Aless-
andria on the Tanaro. In 1805 he remained in Italy with
Massena, but at the end of 1806 Napoleon, then engaged in the
Polish campaign, called him to the Grande Armie, with which
he served in the campaign of 1806-07, directing the sieges of
Colberg, Danzig and Stralsund. During the Napoleonic domina-
tion in Germany, Chasseloup reconstructed many fortresses,
in particular Magdeburg. In the campaign of 1809 he again
served in Italy. In 18 10 Napoleon made him a councillor of
state. His last campaign was that of 181 2 in Russia. He
retired from active service soon afterwards, though in 18 14 he
was occasionally engaged in the inspection and construction
of fortifications. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France and
a knight of St Louis. He refused to join Napoleon in the Hundred
Days, but after the second Restoration he voted in the chamber
of peers against the condemnation of Marshal Ney. In politics
he belonged to the constitutional party. The king created him
a marquis. Chasseloup's later years were employed chiefly in
putting in order his manuscripts, a task which he had to abandon
owing to the failure of his sight. His only published work was
Correspondance d'un gine'ral frangais, &c. sur divers sujets (Paris,
1801, republished Milan, 1805 and 181 1, under the title Corre-
spondance de deux gtnfrals, &•<;., essais sur quelques parties d'artil-
lerie et de fortification). The most important of his papers are
in manuscript in the Dep6t of Fortifications, Paris.
As an engineer Chasseloup was an adherent, though of ad-
vanced views, of the old bastioned system. He followed in many
respects the engineer Bousmard, whose work was published in
1797 and who fell, as a Prussian officer, in the defence of Danzig
in 1807 against Chasseloup's own attack. His front was applied
to Alessandria, as has been stated, and contains many elabora-
tions of the bastion trace, with, in particular, masked flanks in
the tenaille, which served as extra flanks of the bastions. The
bastion itself was carefully and minutely retrenched. The
ordinary ravelin he replaced by a heavy casemated caponier
after the example of Montalembert, and, like Bousmard's, his
own ravelin was a large and powerful work pushed out beyond
the glacis.
CHASSEPOT, officially " fusil modele 1866," a military breech-
loading rifle, famous as the arm of the French forces in the Franco-
German War of 1870-71. It was so called after its inventor,
Antoine Alphonse Chassepot (183 3- 1905), who, from 1857 on-
wards, had constructed various experimental forms of breech-
loader, and it became the French service weapon in 1866. In
the following year it made its first appearance on the battlefield
at Men tana (November 3rd, 1867), where it inflicted severe losses
upon Garibaldi's troops. In the war of 1870 it proved very
greatly superior to the German needle-gun. The breech was
closed by a bolt very similar to those of more modern rifles, and
amongst the technical features of interest were the method of
obturation, which was similar in principle to the de Bange
obturator for heavy guns (see Ordnance), and the retention
of the paper cartridge. The principal details of the chassepot
are: — weight of rifle, 9 lb 5 oz.; length with bayonet, 6 ft. 2 in.;
calibre, -433 in.; weight of bullet (lead), 386 grains; weight of
charge (black powder), 86-4 grains; muzzle velocity, 1328 f.s.;
sighted to 13 12 yds. (1200 m.). The chassepot was replaced in
1874 by the Gras rifle, which had a metal cartridge, and all rifles
of the older model remaining in store were converted to take the
same ammunition (fusil modele 1866/74) .
CHASSERIAU, THfiODORE (1810-1856), French painter,
was born in the Antilles, and studied under Ingres at Paris and
95 8
CHASSIS— CHASTELLAIN
at Rome, subsequently falling under the influence of Paul
Delaroche. He was a well-known painter of portraits and his-
torical pieces, his " Tepidarium at Pompeii " (1853) being now
in the Louvre.
CHASSIS (Fr. chdssis, a frame, from the Late. Lat. capsum, an
enclosed space), properly a window-frame, from which is derived
the word " sash "; also the movable traversing frame of a gun,
and more particularly that part of a motor vehicle consisting of
the wheels, frame and machinery, on which the body or carriage
part rests.
CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE (1 540-1 563),
French poet, was born in Dauphine, a scion of the house of
Bayard. His name is inseparably connected with Mary, queen
of Scots. From the service of the Constable Montmorency,
Chastelard, then a page, passed to the household of Marshal
Damville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland in
escort of Mary (1561). He returned to Paris in the marshal y s train ,
but left for Scotland again shortly afterward, bearing letters of
recommendation to Mary from his old protector, Montmorency,
and the Regrets addressed to the ex-queen of France by Pierre
Ronsard, his master in the art of song. He undertook to trans-
mit to the poet the service of plate with which Mary rewarded
him. But he had fallen in love with the queen, who is said to
have encouraged his passion. Copies of verse passed between
them; she lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his
person and conversation. The young man hid himself under her
bed, where he was discovered by her maids of honour. Mary
pardoned the offence, and the old familiar terms between them
were resumed. Chastelard was so rash as again to violate her
privacy. He was discovered a second time, seized, sentenced
and hanged the next morning. He met his fate valiantly and
consistently, reading, on his way to the scaffold, his master's
noble Hymne de la mort, and turning at the instant of doom
towards the palace of Holyrood, to address to his unseen mistress
the famous farewell — " Adieu, toi si belle et si cruelle, qui me
tues et que je ne puis cesser d'aimer." This at least is the version
of the Mlmoires of Brant6me, who is, however, notoriously
untrustworthy. But for his madness of love, it is possible that
Chastelard would have left no shadow or shred of himself behind.
As it is, his life and death are of interest as illustrating the wild
days in which his lot was cast.
CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES (d. 1475), Burgundian chronicler,
was a native of Alost in Flanders. He derived his surname from
the fact that his ancestors were burgraves or chatelains of the
town; his parents, who belonged to illustrious Flemish families,
were probably the Jean Chastellain and his wife Marie de Mas-
mines mentioned in the town records in 1425 and 1432. A copy
of an epitaph originally at Valenciennes states that he died on
the 20th of March 1474-5 aged seventy. But since he states
that he was so young a child in 1430 that he could not recollect
the details of events in that year, and since he was " tcolier " at
Louvain in 1430, his birth may probably be placed nearer 141 5
than 1405. He saw active service in the Anglo-French wars and
probably elsewhere, winning the surname of V adventureux. In
1434 he received a gift from Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy,
for his military services, but on the conclusion of the peace of
Arras in the next year he abandoned soldiering for diplomacy.
The next ten years were spent in France, where he was connected
with Georges de la Tr6moille, and afterwards entered the house-
hold of Pierre de Breze, at that time seneschal of Poitou, by
whom he was employed on missions to the duke of Burgundy,
in an attempt to establish better relations between Charles VIE.
and the duke. During these years Chastellain had ample oppor-
tunity of obtaining an intimate knowledge of French affairs, but
on the further breach between the two princes, Chastellain left
the French service to enter Philip's household. He was at first
pantler, then carver, titles which are misleading as to the nature
of his services, which were those of a diplomatist; and in 1457
he became a member of the ducal council. He was continually
employed on diplomatic errands until 1455, when, owing appar-
ently to ill-health, he received apartments in the palace of the
counts of Hainaut at Salle-le-Comte, Valenciennes, with a con-
siderable pension, on condition that the recipient should put in
writing " choses nouvelles et morales" and a chronicle of notable
events. That is to say, he was appointed Burgundian historio-
grapher with a recommendation to write also on other subjects
not strictly within the scope of a chronicler. From this time
he worked hard at his Chronique, with occasional interruptions
in his retreat to fulfil missions in France, or to visit the Bur-
gundian court. He was assisted, from about 1463 onwards, by
his disciple and continuator, Jean Molinet, whose rhetorical and
redundant style maybe fairly traced in some passages of the
Chronique. Charles the Bold maintained the traditions of his
house as a patron of literature, and showed special favour to
Chastellain, who, after being constituted indiciaire or chronicle^
of the order of the Golden Fleece, was himself made a knight of
the order on the 2nd of May 1473. He died at Valenciennes
on the 13th of February (according to the treasury accounts),
or on the 20th of March (according to his epitaph) 1475. He
left an illegitimate son, to whom was paid in 1524 one hundred
and twenty livres for a copy of the Chronique intended for
Charles Ws sister Mary, queen of Hungary. Only about one-
third of the whole work, which extended from 1419 to 1474, is
known to be in existence, but MSS. carried by the Habsburgs
to Vienna or Madrid may possibly yet be discovered.
Among his contemporaries Chastellain acquired a great
reputation by his poems and occasional pieces now little con-
sidered. The unfinished state of his Chronique at the time of
his death, coupled with political considerations, may possibly
account for the fact that it remained unprinted during the
century that followed his death, and his historical work was only
disinterred from the libraries of Arras, Paris and Brussels by the
painstaking researches of M. Buchon in 1825. Chastellain was
constantly engaged during the earlier part of his career in
negotiations between the French and Burgundian courts, and
thus had personal knowledge of the persons and events dealt
with in his history. A partisan element in writing of French
affairs was inevitable in a Burgundian chronicle. This defect
appears most strongly in his treatment of Joan of Arc; and the
attack on Agnes Sorel seems to have been dictated by the
dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), then a refugee in Burgundy, of
whom he was afterwards to become a severe critic. He was not,
however, misled, as his more picturesque predecessor Froissart
had been, by feudal and chivalric tradition into misconception
of the radical injustice of the English cause in France; and
except in isolated instances where Burgundian interests were at
stake, he did full justice to the patriotism of Frenchmen. Among
his most sympathetic portraits are those of his friend Pierre de
Breze and of Jacques Cceur. His French style, based partly
on his Latin reading, has, together with its undeniable vigour
and picturesqueness, the characteristic redundance and rhetorical
quality of the Burgundian school. Chastellain was no mere
annalist, but proposed to fuse and shape his vast material to his
own conclusions, in accordance with his political experience.
The most interesting feature of his work is the skill with which
he pictures the leading figures of his time. His " characters "
are the fruit of acute and experienced observation, and abound
in satirical traits, although the 42nd chapter of his second book,
devoted expressly to portraiture, is headed " Comment Georges
escrit et mentionne les louanges vertueuses des princes de son temps"
The known extant fragments of Chastellain's Chroniques with
his other works were edited by Kervyn de Lettenhove for the
Brussels Academy in 1 863-1 866 (8 vols., Brussels) as CEuvres de
Georges Chastellain, This edition includes all that had been alreadv
published by Buchon in his Collection de chroniques and Choix de
chroniques (material subsequently incorporated in the Panthion
litter air e) y and portions printed by Renard in his Tresor national*
vol. i. and by Quicherat in the Proces de la Pucelle vol. iv. Kervyn
de Lettenhove's text includes the portions of the chronicle covering
the periods September 1419, October 1422, January 1430 to December
1431, 1451-1452, July 1454 to October 1458, July 1461 to July 1463,
and, with omissions, June 1467 to September 1470; and three volumes
of minor pieces of considerable interest, especially Le Temple de
Boccace, dedicated to Margaret of Anjou, and the Deprecation for
Pierre Breze, imprisoned by Louis XI. In the case of these minor
works the attribution to Chastellain is in some cases erroneous,
notably in the case of the Livre des f aits de Jacques de Lalain, which
CHASUBLE
959
is the work of Lefebvre de Saint-Remi, herald of the Golden Fleece.
In the allegorical Oultrk d y amour it has been thought a real romance
between Brez6 and a lady of the royal house is concealed.
See A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France; as well as
notices by Kervyn de Lettenhove prefixed to the (Euvres and in the
Biographie nationale de Belgique; and an article (three parts) by
Vallet de Viriville in the Journal des savants (1867).
CHASUBLE (Fr. chasuble, Ger. Kasel, Span. casuUa\ Late
Lat. casula, a little house, hut, from casa), a liturgical vestment
of the Catholic Church. It is the outermost garment worn by
bishops and priests at the celebration of the Mass, forming
with the alb (q.v.) the most essential part of the eucharistic
vestments. Since it is only used at the Mass, or rarely for
functions intimately connected with the sacrament of the altar,
it may be regarded as the Mass vestment par excellence. The
chasuble is thus in a special sense the sacerdotal vestment, and
at the ordination of priests, according to the Roman rite, the
bishop places on the candidate a chasuble rolled up at the back
(planeta plicata), with the words, " Take the sacerdotal robe,
the symbol of love," &c; at the end of the ordination Mass the
>^^^. vestment is unrolled.
^s^* " X. The chasuble or
^ A planeta (as it is called
^A mt in the Roman missal),
B S according to the pre-
W wi vailing model in the
W vj Roman Catholic
■ 1 Church, is a scapular-
I I like cloak, with a hole
^ M in the middle for the
^^te*a m ^^f head, falling down
^^EMI^^^ over breast and back,
and leaving the arms
uncovered at the sides.
Its shape and size,
however, differ con-
siderably in various
countries (see fig. 1),
while some churches
— e.g. those of certain
monastic orders —
have retained or re-
verted to the earlier
" Gothic " forms to
be described later.
From Braun's LUurgiscke Geivandung, by permission According to the de-
of the publisher, B. Herder. # cisions of the Con-
Fig. i.— Comparative shape and size of erecat i on f Rites
Chasubles as now in use in various countries. °. & . .
a, b, German, c, Roman, d, Spanish, chasubles must not
be of linen, cotton or
woollen stuffs, but of silk; though a mixture of wool (or linen
and cotton) and silk is allowed if the silk completely cover the
other material on the outer side; spun glass thread, as a sub-
stitute for gold or silver thread, is also forbidden, owing to the
possible danger to the priest's health through broken fragments
falling into the chalice.
The chasuble, like the kindred vestments (the fateviov, &c.)
in the Eastern Churches, is derived from the Roman paenula or
planeta, a cloak worn by all classes and both sexes in the Graeco-
Roman world (see Vestments). Though early used in the
celebration of the liturgy it had for several centuries no speci-
fically liturgical character, the first clear instances of its ritual
use being in a letter of St Germanus of Paris (d. 576), and the
next in the twenty-eighth canon of the Council of Toledo (633).
Much later than this, however, it was still an article of everyday
clerical dress, and as such was prescribed by the German council
convened by Carloman and presided over by St Boniface in 742.
Amalarius of Metz, in his De ecclesiasticis officiis (ii. 19), tells us
in 816 that the casula is the generale indumentum sacrorum
ducum and " is proper generally to all the clergy." It was not
until the nth century, when the cope (q.v.) had become estab-
lished as a liturgical vestment, that the chasuble began to be
reserved as special to the sacrifice of the Mass. As illustrating
this process Father Braun (p. 170) cites an interesting corre-
spondence between Archbishop Lanf ranc of Canterbury and John
of Avranches, archbishop of Rouen, as to the propriety of a
bishop wearing a chasuble at the consecration of a church,
Lanfranc maintaining as an established principle that the
vestment should be reserved for the Mass. By the 13th century,
with the final development of the ritual of the Mass, the chasuble
became definitely fixed as the vestment of the celebrating priest;
though to this day in the Roman Church relics of the earlier
general use of the chasuble survive in the planeta plicata worn
by deacons and subdeacons in Lent and Advent, and other
penitential seasons.
At the Reformation the chasuble was rejected with the other
vestments by the more extreme Protestants. Its use, however,
survived in the Lutheran churches; and though in those of
Germany it is no longer worn, it still forms part of the liturgical
costume of the Scandinavian Evangelical churches. In the
Church of England, though it was prescribed alternatively with
the cope in the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI., it was ulti-
mately discarded, with the other " Mass vestments," the cope
being substituted for it at the celebration of the Holy Communion
in cathedral and collegiate churches; its use has, however,
during the last fifty years been widely revived in connexion with
the reactionary movement in the direction of the pre-Reformation
doctrine of the eucharist. The difficult question of its legality
is discussed in the article Vestments.
Form. — The chasuble was originally a tent-like robe which
fell in loose folds below the knee (see Plate I. fig. 4) . Its obvious
inconvenience for celebrating the holy mysteries, however,
caused its gradual modification. The object of the change was
primarily to leave the hands of the celebrant freer for the careful
performance of the manual acts, and to this end a process of
cutting away at the sides of the vestment began, which continued
until the tent-shaped chasuble of the 12 th century had developed
in the 16th into the scapular-like vestment at present in use.
This process was, moreover, hastened by the substitution of
costly and elaborately embroidered materials for the simple'
stuffs of which the vestment had originally been composed;
for, as it became heavier and stiffer, it necessarily had to be
made smaller. For the extremely exiguous proportions of some
chasubles actually in use, which have been robbed of all the
beauty of form they ever possessed, less respectable motives
have sometimes been responsible, viz. the desire of their makers
to save on the materials. The most beautiful form of the chasuble
is undoubtedly the " Gothic " (see the figure of Bishop Johannes
of Liibeck in the article Vestments), which is the form most
affected by the Anglican clergy, as being that worn in the
English Church before the Reformation.
Decoration. — Though planetae decorated with narrow orphreys
are occasionally met with in the monuments of the early centuries,
these vestments were until the 10th century generally quite
plain, and even at the close of this century, when the custom of
decorating the chasuble with orphreys had become common,
there was no definite rule as to their disposition; sometimes
they were merely embroidered borders to the neck-opening or
hem, sometimes a vertical strip down the back, less often a
forked cross, the arms of which turned upwards over the
shoulders. From this time onward, however, the embroidery
became ever more and more elaborate, and with this tendency
the orphreys were broadened to allow of their being decorated
with figures. About the middle of the 13 th century, the cross
with horizontal arms begins to appear on the back of the vest-
ment, and by the 15th this had become the most usual form,
though the forked cross also survived — e.g. in England, where
it is now considered distinctive of the chasuble as worn in the
Anglican Church. Where the forked cross is used it is placed
both on the back and front of the vestment; the horizontal-
armed cross, on the other hand, is placed only on the back, the
front being decorated with a vertical strip extending to the
lower hem (fig. 1, b,d). Sometimes the back of the chasuble has
no cross, but only a vertical orphrey, and in this case the front,
besides the vertical stripe, has a horizontal orphrey just below
960
CHATEAU— CHATEAUBRIAND
the neck opening (see Plate I. fig. 2). This latter is the type
used in the local Roman Church, which has been adopted in
certain dioceses in South Germany" and Switzerland, and of
late years in the Roman Catholic churches in England, e.g.
Westminster cathedral (see Plate I. figs. 3 and 5).
It has been widely held that the forked cross was a conscious
imitation of the archiepiscopal pallium (F. Bock, Gesch. der
liturg. Gewdnder, ii. 107), and that the chasuble so decorated
is proper to archbishops. Father Braun, however, makes it
quite clear that this was not the case, and gives proof that this
decoration was not even originally conceived as a cross at all,
citing early instances of its having been worn by laymen and
even by non-Christians (p. 2 10) . It was not until the 13th century
that the symbolical meaning of the cross began to be elaborated,
and this was still further accentuated from the 14th century
onward by the increasingly widespread custom of adding to it
the figure of the crucified Christ and other symbols of the Passion.
This, however, did not represent any definite rule; and the
orphreys of chasubles were decorated with a great variety of
pictorial subjects, scriptural or drawn from the stories of the
saints, while the rest of the vestment was either left plain or, if
embroidered, most usually decorated with arabesque patterns
of foliage or animals. The local Roman Church, true to its
ancient traditions, adhered to the simpler forms. The modern
Roman chasuble pictured in Plate I. fig. 5, besides the conven-
tional arabesque pattern, is decorated, according to rule, with
the arms of the archbishop and his see.
The Eastern Church. — The original equivalent of the chasuble
is the phelonion (4>eKbvu>v, <t>ek6m]S, 4>au>6\u>v, from paenula).
It is a full vestment of the type of the Western bell
chasuble; but, instead of being cut away at the sides, it is
for convenience* sake either gathered up or cut short in front.
In the Armenian, Syrian, Chaldaean and Coptic rites it is cope-
shaped. There is some difference of opinion as to the derivation
of the vestment in the latter case; the Five Bishops (Report to
Convocation, 1908) deriving it, like the cope, from the birrus,
while Father Braun considers it, as well as the cope, to be a
modification of the paenula. 1 The phelonion (Arm. shurtshar,
Syr. phaina, Chald. maaphra or phaina, Copt. burnos, felonion,
kuklion) is confined to the priests in the Armenian, Syrian,
Chaldaean and Coptic rites; in the Greek rite it is worn also by
the lectors. It is not in the East so specifically a eucharistic
vestment as in the West, but is worn at other solemn functions
besides the liturgy, e.g. marriages, processions, &c.
Until the nth century the phelonion is always pictured as a
perfectly plain dark robe, but at this period the custom arose
of decorating the patriarchal phelonion with a number of
crosses, whence its name of TroKwravpuov. By the 14th century
the use of these polystauria had been extended to metropolitans
and later still to all bishops. The purple or black phelonion,
however, remained plain in all cases. The Greeks and Greek
Melchite metropolitans now wear the sakkos instead of the
phelonion; and in the Russian, Ruthenian, Bulgarian and
Italo-Greek churches this vestment has superseded the phelonion
in the case of all bishops (see Dalmatic and Vestments).
See J. Braun, S.J., Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1907), pp. 149-247, and the bibliography to the article
Vestments. (W. A. P.)
1 The writer is indebted to the courtesy of Father Braun for the
following note: — "That the Syrian phaina was formerly a closed
mantle of the type of the bell chasuble is clearly proved by the
evidence of the miniatures of a Syrian pontifical (dated 1239) in the
Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris (cf. Bild 16, 112, 284, in Die litur-
gische Gewandung). The liturgical vestments of the Armenians are
derived, like their rite, from the Greek rite ; so that in this case also
there can be no doubt that the shurtshar was originally closed. The
Coptic rite is in the same relation to the Syrian. Moreover, it would
be further necessary to prove that the birrus, in contradistinction to
the paenula, was always open in front; whereas, per contra, the
paenula, both as worn by soldiers and in ordinary life, was, like the
modern Arab burnus, often slit up the front to the neck. For the
rest, it is obvious that if the Syrian phaina was still cjuite closed in
the 13th century, and was only provided with a slit since that time,
the same is very probable in tne case of the Armenian chasuble.
The absence of the hood might also be taken as additional proof of
CHATEAU (from Lat. castellum, fortress, through O. Fr.
chastely chasteau) , the French word for castle (q.v.) . The develop-
ment of the medieval castle, in the 15th and 16th centuries,
into houses arranged rather for residence than defence led to a
corresponding widening of the meaning of the term chdteau,
which came to be applied to any seigniorial residence and so
generally to all houses, especially country houses, of any pre-
tensions (cf. the Ger. Schloss). The French distinguish the
fortified castle from the residential mansion by describing the
former as the chdteau fort, the latter as the chdteau de plaisance.
The development of the one into the other is admirably illustrated
by surviving buildings in France, especially in the chdteaux
scattered along the Loire. Of these Langeais, still in perfect
preservation, is a fine type of the chdteau fort, with its 10th-
century keep and 13th-century walls. Amboise (1490), Blois
( 1 500-1 540) , Chambord (begun 1526), Chenonceaux ( 1 5 1 5- 1 560) ,
Azay-le-Rideau (1521), may be taken as typical examples of the
chdteau de plaisance of the transition period, all retaining in
greater or less degree some of the architectural characteristics
of the medieval castle. Some description of these is given under
their several headings. In English the word chdteau is often
used to translate foreign words (e.g. Schloss) meaning country
house or mansion.
For the Loire chateaux see Theodore Andrea Cook, Old Touraine
(1892).
CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS REN& Vicomte de (1768-
1848), French author, youngest son of Rene Auguste de Chateau-
briand, comte de Combourg, 2 was born at St Malo on the 4th of
September 1 7 68. He was a brilliant representative of the reaction
against the ideas of the French Revolution, and the most con-
spicuous figure in French literature during the First Empire. His
naturally poetical temperament was fostered in childhood by
picturesque influences, the mysterious reserve of his morose father,
the ardent piety of his mother, the traditions of his ancient family,
the legends and antiquated customs of the sequestered Breton
district, above all, the vagueness and solemnity of the neighbour-
ing ocean. His closest friend was his sister Lucile, 8 a passionate-
hearted girl, divided between her devotion to him and to religion.
Francois received his education at Dol and Rennes, where Jean
Victor Moreau was among his fellow-students. From Rennes
he proceeded to the College of Dinan, and passed some years in
desultory study in preparation for the priesthood. He finally
decided, after a year's holiday at the family chateau of Combourg,
that he had no vocation for the Church, and was on the point of
proceeding to try his fortune in India when he received (1786) a
commission in the army. After a short visit to Paris he joined
his regiment at Cambrai, and early in the following year was
presented at court. In 1788 he received the tonsure in order
to enter the order of the Knights of Malta. In Paris ( 1 787-1 789)
he made acquaintance with the Parisian men of letters. He
met la Harpe, Evariste Parny, " Pindare " Lebrun, Nicolas
Chamfort, Pierre Louis Ginguene, and others, of whom he has
left portraits in his memoirs.
Chateaubriand was not unfavourable to the Revolution in its
first stages, but he was disturbed by its early excesses; moreover,
his regiment was disbanded, and his family belonged to the
party of reaction. His political impartiality, he says, pleased
no one. These causes and the restlessness of his spirit induced
him to take part in a romantic scheme for the discovery of the
North-West Passage, in pursuance of which he departed for
America in the spring of 1791. The passage was not found or
even attempted, but the adventurer returned enriched with the —
to him — more important discovery of his own powers and
vocation, conscious of his marvellous faculty for the delineation
of nature, and stored with the new ideas and new imagery,
the derivation of the phaina from the paenula, but I should not lay
particular stress upon it. The question is settled by the above-
mentioned miniatures."
8 For full details of the Chateaubriand family see R. Kerviler,
Essai d'une bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de safamille (Vannes,
I8 ?&
[er CEuvres were edited in 1879, "w-ith a memoir, by Anatole
France.
CHASUBLE
Plate I.
Fig, 3— ChasuMe of Pope
Vms V> (late l&ih
century) at S. Maria
Maggfore at Rome.
From a pho-
tograph by
Father J. L,
Braun in Pie
liturg* Gewan-
ditng.
Fig. 5. — Modern Roman Chasuble of Archbishop
Bourne of Westminster.
V. 960.
Fig. 6. — Modern English Chasuble, used at St. Paul's Church,
Knightsbridge, London.
Flate II.
CHASUBLE
Fig. 7. — Back of a Chasuble of Italian Brocaded Damask (Red) with Embroidered Orphreys. The Vestment is of the early
16th century, the Orphreys of the late 14th century. (English. In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)
CHATEAUBRIAND
961
derived from the virgin forests and magnificent scenery of the
western continent. That he actually lived among the Indians,
however, is shown by Bedier to be doubtful, and the same critic
has exposed the untrustworthiness of the autobiographical
details of his American trip. His knowledge of America was
mainly derived from the books of Charlevoix and others.
The news of the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in June
1791 recalled him to France. In 1792 he married MUe Celeste
Buisson de Lavigne, a girl of seventeen, who brought him a
small fortune. This enabled him to join the ranks of the emi-
grants, a course practically imposed on him by his birth and
his profession as a soldier. After the failure of the duke of
Brunswick's invasion he contrived to reach Brussels, where he
was left wounded and apparently dying in the street. His
brother succeeded in obtaining some shelter for him, and sent
him to Jersey. The captain of the boat in which he travelled
left him on the beach in Guernsey. He was once more rescued
from death, this time by some fishermen. After spending some
time in the Channel Islands under the care of an emigrant uncle,
the comte de Bed6e, he made his way to London. In England
he lived obscurely for several years, gaining an intimate acquaint-
ance with English literature and a practical acquaintance with
poverty. His own account of this period has been exposed
by A. le Braz, Au pays d } exil de Chateaubriand (1909), and by
E. Dick, Revue d'histoire litteraire de la France (1908), i. From
his English exile dates the Natchez (first printed in his (Euvres
completes, 1826-183 1), a prose epic designed to portray the
life of the Red Indians. Two brilliant episodes! originally
designed for this work, A tola and Rent, are amonfe his most
famous productions. Chateaubriand's first publication, however,
was the Essai historique, politique et moral sur les revolutions . . .
(London, 1797), which the author subsequently retracted, but
took care not to suppress. In this volume he appears as a
mediator between royalist and revolutionary ideas, a free-
thinker in religion, and a philosopher imbued with the spirit of
Rousseau. A great change in his views was, however, at hand,
induced, according to his own statement, by a letter from his
sister Julie (Mme de Farcy), telling him of the grief his views
had caused his mother, who had died soon after her release from
the Conciergerie in the same year. His brother had perished
on the scaffold in April 1794, and both his sisters, iLucile. and
Julie, and his wife had been imprisoned at RennesL Mme de
Farcy did not long survive her imprisonment.
Chateaubriand's thoughts turned to religion, and on his
return to France in 1800 the Genie du christianisme was already
in an advanced state. Louis de Fontanes had been a fellow-exile
with Chateaubriand in London, and he now introduced him to
the society of Mme de Stael, Mme Reeamier, Benjamin Constant,
Lucien Bonaparte and others. But Chateaubriand's favourite
resort was the salon of Pauline de Beaumont, who was destined
to fill a great place in his life, and gave him some help in the
preparation of his work on Christianity, part of the book being
written at her house at Savigny. A tola, ou les amours de deux
sauvages dans le desert, used as an episode in the Genie du chris-
tianisme, appeared separately in 1801 and immediately made his
reputation. Exquisite style, impassioned eloquence and glowing
descriptions of nature gained indulgence for the incongruity
between the rudeness of the personages and the refinement of
the sentiments, and for the distasteful blending of prudery with
sensuousness. Alike in its merits and defects the piece is a more
emphatic and highly coloured Paul et Virginie; it has been
justly said that Bernardin Saint-Pierre models in marble and
Chateaubriand in bronze. Encouraged by his success the
author resumed his Genie du christianisme, ou beautis de la
religion chr&tienne, which appeared in 1802, just upon the eve of
Napoleon's re-establishment of the Catholic religion in France,
for which it thus seemed almost to have prepared the way. No
coincidence could have been more opportune, and Chateau-
briand came to esteem himself the counterpart of Napoleon in
the intellectual order. In composing his work he had borne in
mind the admonition of his friend Joseph Joubert, that the
public would care very little for his erudition and very much
for bis eloquence. It is consequently an inefficient pro-
duction from the point of view of serious argument. The con-
siderations derived from natural theology are but commonplaces
rendered dazzling by the magic of style; and the parallels
between Christianity and antiquity, especially in arts and letters,
are at best ingenious sophistries. The less polemical passages,
however, where the author depicts the glories of the Catholic
liturgy and its accessories, or expounds its symbolical significance,
are splendid instances of the effect produced by the accumulation
and judicious distribution of particulars gorgeous in the mass/
and treated with the utmost refinement of detail. The work is
a masterpiece of literary art, and its influence in French literature
was immense. The Eloa of Alfred de Vigny, the Harmonies of
Lamartine and even the Ugende des siecles of Victor Hugo may
be said to have been inspired by the Genie du christianisme.
Its immediate effect was very considerable. It admirably sub-
served the statecraft of Napoleon, and Talleyrand in 1803
appointed the writer attache to the French legation at Rome,
whither he was followed by Mme de Beaumont, who died there.
When his insubordinate and intriguing spirit compelled his
recall he was transferred as envoy to the canton of the Valais.
The murder of the duke of Enghien (21st of March 1804) took
place before he took up this appointment. Chateaubriand, who
was in Paris at the time, showed his courage and independence
by immediately resigning his post. In 1807 he gave great
offence to Napoleon by an article in the Mercure de France (4th
of July), containing allusions to Nero which were rightly taken
to refer to the emperor. The Mercure, of which he had become
proprietor, was temporarily suppressed, and was in the next year
amalgamated with the Decade. Chateaubriand states in his
Memoires that his life was threatened, but it is more than
possible that he exaggerated the danger. Before this, in 1806,
he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, undertaken, as he subse-
quently acknowledged, less in a devotional spirit than in quest
of new imagery. He returned by way of Tunis, Carthage, Cadiz
and Granada. At Granada he met Mme de Mouchy, and the
place and the meeting apparently suggested the romantic tale of
Le Dernier Abencbrage, which, for political reasons, remained
unprinted am til the publication of the (Euvres completes (1826-
183 1). The journey also produced Ultiniraire de Paris d Jeru-
salem ... (3 vols., 181 1), a record of travel distinguished by the
writer's habitual picturesqueness; and inspired his prose epic,
Les Martyrs, ou le triomphe de la religion chritienne (2 vols., 1809).
This work may be regarded as the argument of the Ginie du <
christianisme thrown into an objective form. As in the Epi-
curean of Thomas Moore, the professed design is the contrast
between Paganism and Christianity, which fails of its purpose
partly from the absence of real insight into the genius of antiquity,
and partly because the heathen are the most interesting char-
acters after all. Rene had appeared in 1802 as an episode of the
Genie du christianisme, and was published separately at Leipzig
without its author's consent in the same year. It was perhaps
Chateaubriand's most characteristic production. The connect-
ing link in European literature between Werther and Childe
Harold, it paints the misery of a morbid and dissatisfied soul.
The representation is mainly from the life. Chateaubriand be-
trayed amazing egotism in describing his sister Lucile in the
Amelie of the story, and much is obviously descriptive of his
own early surroundings. With Les Natchez his career as an im-
aginative writer is closed. In 1831 he published his Etudes ou
discours historiques ... (4 vols.) dealing with the fall of the
Roman Empire.
As a politician Chateaubriand was equally formidable to his
antagonists when in opposition and to his friends when in office.
His poeticaj receptivity and impressionableness rendered him
no doubt honestly inconsistent with himself; his vanity and
ambition, too morbidly acute to be restrained by the ties of party
allegiance, made him dangerous and untrustworthy as a political
associate. He was forbidden to deliver the address he had pre-
pared (181 1) for his reception to the Academy on M. J. Chenier
on account of the bitter allusions to Napoleon contained in it.
From this date until 1814 Chateaubriand lived in seclusion at
962
CHATEAUBRIANT— CHATEAUDUN
the Vall6e-aux-loups, an estate he had bought in 1807 at Aulnay.
His pamphlet De Bonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la nScessitS de se
r oilier a nos princes Ugitimes, published on the 31st of March
18 14, the day of the entrance of the allies into Paris, was as
opportune in the moment of its appearance as the Genie du
christianisme, and produced a hardly less signal effect. Louis
XVIII. declared that it had been worth a hundred thousand
men to him. Chateaubriand, as minister of the interior, accom-
panied him to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and for a time
associated himself with the excesses of the royalist reaction.
Political bigotry, however, was not among his faults; he rapidly
drifted into liberalism and opposition, and was disgraced in
September 18 16 for his pamphlet De la monarchie selon la chartc.
He had to sell his library and his house of the Vallee-aux-loups.
After the fall of his opponent, the due Decazes, Chateaubriand
obtained the Berlin embassy (1821), from which he was trans-
ferred to London (1822), and he also acted as French pleni-
potentiary at the Congress of Verona (1822). He here made
himself mainly responsible for the iniquitous invasion of Spain —
an expedition undertaken, as he himself admits, with the idea
of restoring French prestige by a military parade. He next re-
ceived the portfolio of foreign affairs, which he soon lost by his
desertion of his colleagues on the question of a reduction of the
interest on the national debt. After another interlude of effective
pamphleteering in opposition, he accepted the embassy to Rome
in 1827, under the Martignac administration, but resigned it at
Prince Polignac's accession to office. On the downfall of the
elder branch of the Bourbons, he made a brilliant but inevitably
fruitless protest from the tribune in defence of the principle of
legitimacy. During the first half of Louis Philippe's reign he was
still politically active with his pen, and published a Mimoire sur
la captiviU de madame la duchess e de Berry (1833) and other
pamphlets in which he made himself the champion of the exiled
dynasty; but as years increased upon him, and the prospect
of his again performing a conspicuous part diminished, he re-
lapsed into an attitude of complete discouragement. His Congrbs
de Vtrone (1838), Vie de Rand (1844), and his translation of
Milton, Le Paradis perdu de Milton (1836), belong to the writings
of these later days. He died on the 4th of July 1848, wholly
exhausted and thoroughly discontented with himself and the
world, but affectionately tended by his old friend Madame
Recamier, herself deprived of sight. For the last fifteen years
of his life he had been engaged on his MSmoires, and his chief
distraction had been his daily visit to Madame Recamier, at
whose house he met the European celebrities. He was buried
in the Grand Be", an islet in the bay of St Malo. Shortly after his
death his memory was revived, and at the same time exposed
to much adverse criticism, by the publication, with sundry
mutilations as has been suspected, of his celebrated Mimoires
d*outre-tombe (12 vols., 1 840-1850). These memoirs undoubtedly
reveal his vanity, his egotism, the frequent hollowness of his
professed convictions, and his incapacity for sincere attach-
ment, except, perhaps, in the case of Madame Recamier. Though
the book must be read with the greatest caution, especially in
regard to persons with whom Chateaubriand came into collision,
it is perhaps now the most read of all his works.
Chateaubriand ranks rather as a great rhetorician than as a
great poet. Something of affectation or unreality commonly
interferes with the enjoyment of his finest works. The Ginie
du christianisme is a brilliant piece of special pleading; A tola
is marred by its unfaithfulness to the truth of uncivilized human
nature, Rene' by the perversion of sentiment which solicits sym-
pathy for a contemptible character. Chateaubriand is chiefly,
significant as marking the transition from the old classical to the
modern romantic school. The fertility of ideas, vehemence of
expression and luxury of natural description, which he shares
with the romanticists, are controlled by a discipline learnt in the
school of their predecessors. His palette, always brilliant, is
never gaudy; he is not merely a painter but an artist. He is
also a master of epigrammatic and incisive sayings. Perhaps,
however, the most truly characteristic feature of his genius is the
peculiar magical touch which Matthew Arnold indicated as a
note of Celtic extraction, which reveals some occult quality in a
familiar object, or tinges it, one knows not how, with " the light
that never was on sea or land." This incommunicable gift
supplies an element of sincerity to Chateaubriand's writings
which goes far to redeem the artificial effect of his calculated
sophistry and set declamation. It is also fortunate for his fame
that so large a part of his writings should directly or indirectly
refer to himself, for on this theme he always writes well. Egotism
was his master-passion, and beyond his intrepidity and the lofti-
ness of his intellectual carriage his character presents little to
admire. He is a signal instance of the compatibility of genuine
poetic emotion, of sympathy with the grander aspects both of
man and nature, and of munificence in pecuniary matters, with
absorption in self and general sterility of heart.
Bibliography. — The (Euores completes of Chateaubriand were
printed in 28 vols., 1826-1831; in 20 vols., 1829-1831; and in
many later editions, notably in 1 858-1861, in 20 volumes, with an
introductory study by Sainte-Beuve. The principal authority for
Chateaubriand's biography is the Mhnoires oV outre-tombe (1849-
1850), of which there is an English translation, The Memoirs of . . .
Chateaubriand (6 vols., 1902), by A. Teixeira de Mattos, based on the
admirable edition (4 vols., 1899-1901) of Edmond Bir6. This work
should be supplemented by the Souvenirs et correspondances tires des
papier s de M m * Recamier (2 vols., 1859, ed. Mme Ch. Lenormant).
See also Comte de Marcellus, Chateaubriand et son temps (1859);
the same editor's Souvenirs diplomatiques; correspondence intime de
Chateaubriand (1858); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Chateaubriand et son
groupe litter aire sous V empire (2 vols., 1861, new and revised ed.,
3 vols., 1872) ; other articles by Sainte-Beuve, who was in this case
a somewhat prejudiced critic, in the Portraits contemporains, vols,
i. and ii..; Cauteries du lundi, vols, i., ii. and x. ; Nouveaux Lundis,
vol. iii. ; Premiers Lundis, vol. iii. ; A. Vinet, Etudes sur la lilt,
franqaise au XIX 9 siecle (1849); M. de Lescure, Chateaubriand
(1892) in the Grands Scrivains francais; Emile Faguet, £iudes
litter aires sur le XIX* Steele (1887) ; and Essai d'une bio-bibliographie
de Chateaubriand et de safamille (Vannes, 1896), by Rene Kerviler.
Joseph Bedier, in Htudes critiques (1903), deals with the American
writings. Some correspondence with Sainte-Beuve was edited by
Louis Thomas in 1904, and some letters to Mme de Stael appeared
in the Revue des deux mondes (Oct. 1903).
CHATEAUBRIANT, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Loire-Inferieure, on the
left bank of the Chere, 40 m. N.N.E. of Nantes by rail.
Pop. (1906) 5969. Chateaubriant takes its name from a castle
founded in the nth century by Brient, count of Penthievre,
remains of which, consisting of a square donjon and four towers,
still exist. Adjoining it is another castle, built in the first half
of the 1 6th century by Jean de Laval, and famous in history as
the residence of Francoise de Foix, mistress of Francis I. Of
this the most beautiful feature is the colonnade running at right
angles to the main building, and connecting it with a graceful
pavilion. It is occupied by a small museum and some of the
public offices. There is also an interesting Romanesque church
dedicated to St Jean de Ber6. Chateaubriant is the seat of a
subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance. It is an important
centre on the Ouest-fitat railway, and has trade in agricultural
products. The manufacture of leather, agricultural implements
and preserved angelica are carried on. In 155 1 Henry II. signed
an edict against the reformed religion at Chateaubriant.
CHATEAUDUN, a town of north central France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 28 m.
S.S.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 5805. It stands
on an eminence near the left bank of the Loire. The streets,
which are straight and regular, radiate from a central square,
a uniformity due to the reconstruction of the town after
fires in 1723 and 1870. The chateau, the most remarkable
building in the town, was built in great part by Jean, count of
Dunois, and his descendants. Founded in the 10th century, and
rebuilt in the 12th and 15th centuries, it consists of a principal
wing with a fine staircase of the 16th century, and, at right angles,
a smaller wing adjoined by a chapel. To the left of the courtyard
thus formed rises a lofty keep of the 12th century. The fine
apartments and huge kitchens of the chateau are in keeping with
its imposing exterior. The church of La Madeleine dates from
the 1 2th century; the buildings of the abbey to which it be-
longed are' occupied by the subprefecture, the law court and the
hospital. The medieval churches of St Val6rien and St Jean
CHATEAU-GONTIER— CHATEAUROUX
9 6 3
and the mined chapel of Notre-Dame du ChampdS, of which the
facade in the Renaissance style now forms the entrance to the
cemetery, are other notable buildings.. The public institutions
include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
Flour-milling, tanning and leather-dressing, and the manu-
facture of blankets, silver jewelry, nails and machinery are the
prominent industries. Trade is in cattle, grain, wool and hemp.
Chateaudun (Castrodunum) , which dates from the Gallo-Roman
period, was in the middle ages the capital of the countship of
Dunois.
CHATEAU-GONTIER, a town of western France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Mayenne, on the
Mayenne, 18 m. S. by E. of Laval by road. Pop. (1906) 6871.
Of its churches, that of St Jean, a relic of the castle, dates
from the nth century. Chateau- Gontier is the seat of a sub-
prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college
for boys and a small museum. It carries on wool- and cotton-
spinning, the manufacture of serge, flannel and oil, and is an
agricultural market. There are chalybeate springs close to the
town. Chateau-Gontier owes its origin and its name to a castle
erected in the first half of the nth century by Gunther, the
steward of Fulk Nerra of Anjou, on the site of a farm belonging
to the monks of St Aubin dangers. On the extinction of the
family, the lordship was assigned by Louis XL to Philippe de
Comines. The town suffered severely during the wars of the
League. In 1793 it was occupied by the Vendeans.
CHATEAUNEUF, LA BELLE, the name popularly given to
Renee de Rieux, daughter of Jean de Rieux, seigneur de
Chateauneuf, who was descended from one of the greatest
families of Brittany. The dates both of her birth and death
are not known. She was maid of honour to the queen-mother
Catherine de* Medici, and inspired an ardent passion in the duke
of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. This intrigue deterred the duke
from the marriage which it was desired to arrange for him with
Elizabeth of England; but he soon abandoned La Belle Chateau -
neuf for Marie of Cleves (1571). The court then wished to find
a husband for Renee de Rieux, whose singular beauty gave her
an influence which the queen-mother feared, and matches were
in turn suggested with the voivode of Transylvania, the earl of
Leicester, with Du Prat, provost of Paris, and with the count
of Brienne, all of which came to nothing. Ultimately, on the
ground that she had been lacking in respect towards the queen,
Louise of Lorraine- Vaud6mont, RenSe was banished from the
court. She married a Florentine named Antinotti, whom she
stabbed in a fit of jealousy (1577); then she remarried, her
husband being Philip Altoviti, who in 1586 was killed in a duel
by the Grand Prior Henry of Angouleme, who was himself
mortally wounded.
CHATEAU-RENAULT, FRANCOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET,
Marquis de (163 7-1 7 16), French admiral, was the fourth son
of the third marquis of Chateau-Renault. The family was of
Breton origin, but had been long settled near Blois. He entered
the army in 1658, but in 166 1 was transferred to the navy, which
Louis XIV. was eager to raise to a high level of strength. After
a short apprenticeship he was made captain in 1666. His early
services were mostly performed in cruises against the Barbary
pirates (1672). In 1673 he was named chefd'escadre, and he was
promoted lieutenant gfatfral des armies navales in 1687. During
the wars up to this date he had few chances of distinction, but
he had been wounded in action with the pirates, and had been
on a cruise to the West Indies. When war broke out between
England and France after the revolution of 1688, he was in
command at Brest, and was chosen to carry the troops and
stores sent by the French king to the aid of James II. in Ireland.
Although he was watched by Admiral Herbert (Lord Torrington,
q.v.), with whom he fought an indecisive action in Bantry Bay,
he executed his mission with success. Chateau-Renault com-
manded a squadron under Tourville at the battle of Beachy
Head in 1690. He was with Tourville in the attack of the
Smyrna convoy in 1693, and was named grand cross of the
order of Saint Louis in the same year. Though in constant
service, the reduced state of the French navy (owing to the
financial embarrassments of the treasury) gave him few openings
for fighting at sea during the rest of the war.
On the death of Tourville in 170 1 he was named to the vacant
post of vice-admiral of France. On the outbreak of the War of
the Spanish Succession he was named for the difficult task of
protecting the Spanish ships which were to bring the treasure
from America. It was a duty of extreme delicacy, for the
Spaniards were unwilling to obey a foreigner, and the French
king was anxious that the bullion should be brought to one of
his own ports, a scheme which the Spanish officials were sure to
resent if they were allowed to discover what was meant. With
the utmost difficulty Chateau-Renault was able to bring the
galleons as far as Vigo, to which port he steered when he learnt
that a powerful English and Dutch armament was on the Spanish
coast, and had to recognize that the Spanish officers would not
consent to make for a French harbour or for Passages, which they
thought too near France. His fleet of fifteen French and three
Spanish war-ships, having under their care twelve galleons, had
anchored on the 22nd of September in Vigo Bay. Obstacles,
some of an official character, and others due to the poverty of
the Spanish government in resources, arose to delay the landing
of the treasure. There was no adequate garrison in the town,
and the local militia was untrustworthy. Knowing that he
would probably be attacked, Chateau-Renault strove to protect
his fleet by means of a boom. The order to land the treasure
was delayed, and until it came from Madrid nothing could be
done, since according to law it should have been landed at Cadiz,
which had a monopoly of the trade with America. At last the
order came, and the bullion was landed under the care of the
Gallician militia which was ordered to escort it to Lugo. A very
large part, if not the whole, was plundered by the militiamen
and the farmers whose carts had been commandeered for the
service. But the bulk of the merchandise was on board of the
galleons when the allied fleet appeared outside of the bay on the
22nd of October 1702. Sir George Rooke and his colleagues
resolved to attack. The fleet was carrying a body of troops
which had been sent out to make a landing at Cadiz, and
had been beaten off. The fortifications of Vigo were weak on the
sea side, and on the land side there were none. There was
therefore nothing to offer a serious resistance to the allies when
they landed soldiers. The fleet of twenty-four sail was steered
at the boom and broke through it, while the troops turned the
forts and had no difficulty in scattering the Gallician militia.
In the bay the action was utterly disastrous to the French and
Spaniards. Their ships were all taken or destroyed. The booty
gained was far less than the allies hoped, but the damage done
to the French and Spanish governments was great.
Chateau-Renault suffered no loss of his master's favour by his
failure to save the treasure. The king considered him free from
blame, and must indeed have known that the admiral had been
trusted with too many secrets to make it safe to inflict a public
rebuke. The Spanish government declined to give him the rank
of grandee which was to have been the reward for bringing home
the bullion safe. But in 1703 he was made a marshal of France,
and shortly afterwards lieutenant-general of Brittany. The
fight in Vigo Bay was the last piece of active service performed
by Chateau-Renault. In 1708 on the death of his nephew he
inherited the marquisate, and on the 15th of November 17 16
he died in Paris. He married in 1684 Marie- Anne-Renee de la
Porte, daughter and heiress of the. count of Crozon. His eldest
son was killed at the battle of Malaga 1704, and another, also
a naval officer, was killed by accident in 1708. A third son,
who too was a naval officer, succeeded him in the title.
A life of Chateau-Renault was published in 1903 by M. Calmon-
Maison. There is a French as well as an English account of the part
played by him at Bantry Bay and Beachy Head, and the controversy
still continues. For the French history of the navy under Louis XI V.
see Leon Guerin, Histoire maritime de la France (1863), vols, iii., iv. ;
and his Les Marins illustres (1861). Also the naval history by
Charles Bouzel de la Ronciere. (D. H.)
CHATEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE,
Duchesse de (1717-1744), mistress of Louis XV. of France,
was the fourth daughter of Louis, marquis de Nesle, a descendant
964
CHATEAUROUX— CHATELAINE
of a niece of Mazarin. In 1740, upon the death of her husband,
the marquis de la Tournelle, she attracted the attention of Louis
XV.; and by the aid of the due de Richelieu, who, dominated
by Madame de Tencin, hoped to rule both the king and the state,
she supplanted her sister, Madame de Mailly, as titular mistress
in 1742. Directed by Richelieu, she tried to arouse the king,
dragging him off to the armies, and negotiated the alliance
with Frederick II. of Prussia, in 1 744. Her political rdle, however,
has been exaggerated. Her triumph after the passing disgrace
provoked by the king's illness at Metz did not last long, for she
died on the 8th of December 1744.
See Ed. and J. de Goncourt, La Duchesse de Chdteauroux et ses seeurs
(Paris, 1879).
CHATEAUROUX, a town of central France, capital of the
department of Indre, situated in a plain on the left bank of the
Indre, 88 m.S. of Orleans on the main line of the Orleans railway.
Pop. (1906) 21,048. The old town, close to the river, forms a
nucleus round which a newer and more extensive quarter,
bordered by boulevards, has grown up; the suburbs of St
Christophe and Deols (q.v.) lie on the right bank of the Indre.
The principal buildings of Chateauroux are the handsome
modern church of St Andre*, in the Gothic style, and the Chateau
Raoul, of the 14th and 15th centuries; the latter now forms
part of the prefecture. The h6tel de ville contains a library and
a museum which possesses a collection of paintings of the
Flemish school and some interesting souvenirs of Napoleon I.
A statue of General Henri Bertrand (1 773-1844) stands in one
of the principal squares. Chateauroux is the seat of a prefect
and of a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and
of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank
of France, a chamber of commerce, a lyc6e, a college for girls
and training colleges. The manufacture of coarse woollens for
military clothing and other purposes, and a state tobacco-factory,
occupy large numbers of the inhabitants. Wool-spinning,
iron-founding, brewing, tanning, and the manufacture of agri-
cultural implements are also carried on. Trade is in wool, iron,
grain, sheep, lithographic stone and leather. The castle from
which Chateauroux takes its name was founded about the
middle of the 10th century by Raoul, prince of Deols, and
during the middle ages was the seat of a seigniory, which was
raised to the rank of countship in 1497, and in 1616, when it
was held by Henry II., prince of Cond6, to that of duchy. In
1736 it returned to the crown, and was given by Louis XV. in
1744 to his mistress, Marie Anne de Mailly-Nesle, duchess of
Chateauroux.
CHATEAU-THIERRY, a town of northern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Aisne, 59 m. E.N.E.
of Paris on the Eastern railway to Nancy. Pop. (1906) 6872.
Chateau-Thierry is built on rising ground on the right bank of
the Marne, over which a fine stone bridge leads to the suburb
of Marne. On the quay stands a marble statue erected to the
memory of La Fontaine, who was born in the town in 162 1;
his house is still preserved in the street that bears his name.
On the top of a hill are the ruins of a castle, which is said to have
been built by Charles Martel for the Frankish king, Thierry IV.,
and is plainly the origin of the name of the town. The chief relic
is a gateway flanked by massive round towers, known as the
Porte Saint-Pierre. A belfry of the 15th century and the church
of St Crepin of the same period are of some interest. The town
Is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and
a communal college. The distinctive industry is the manufacture
of mathematical and musical instruments. There is trade in the
white wine of the neighbourhood, and in sheep, cattle and agricul-
tural products. Gypsum, millstone and paving-stone are quarried
in the vicinity. Chateau-Thierry was formerly the capital of the
district of Brie Pouilleuse, and received the title of duchy from
Charles IX. in 1566. It was captured by the English in 1421,
by Charles V. in 1 544, and sacked by the Spanish in 1 591 . During
the wars of the Fronde it was pillaged in 1652; and in the cam-
paign of 1 814 it suffered severely. On the 12th of February
of the latter year the Russo-Prussian forces were beaten by
Napoleon in the neighbourhood.
CHATELAIN (Med. Lat. castellanus, from castellum, a castle),
in France originally merely the equivalent of the English castellan ,
i.e. the commander of a castle. With the growth of the feudal
system, however, the title gained in France a special significance
which it never acquired in England, as implying the jurisdic-
tion of which the castle became the centre. The ch&telain was
originally, in Carolingian times, an official of the count; with
the development of feudalism the office became a fief, and so
ultimately hereditary. In this as in other respects the
chatelain was the equivalent of the viscount (q.v.); sometimes
the two titles were combined, but more usually in those provinces
where there were chatelains there were no viscounts, and vice
versa. The title chatelain continued also to be applied to the
inferior officer, or concierge ch&telain, who was merely a castellan
in the English sense. The power and status of chatelains
necessarily varied greatly at different periods and places.
Usually their rank in the feudal hierarchy was equivalent to
that of the simple sire (dominus), between the baron and the
chevalier; but occasionally they were great nobles with an
extensive jurisdiction, as in the Low Countries (see Burgrave).
This variation was most marked in the cities, wherein the struggle
for power that of the chatelain depended on the success with
which he could assert himself against his feudal superior, lay or
ecclesiastical, or, from the 12th century onwards, against the
rising power of the communes. The chdtellenie (casteUania) , or
jurisdiction of the chatelain, as a territorial division for certain
judicial and administrative purposes, survived the disappearance
of the title and office of the chatelain in France, and continued
till the Revolution.
See Achille Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franchises (Paris,
1892); Du Cange, Glossarium, s. "Castellanus."
CHATELAINE (Fr. chdtelaine, the feminine form of chdtelain,
a keeper of a castle), the mistress of a castle. From the custom
of a chatelaine to carry the keys of the castle suspended from her
girdle, the word is now applied to the collection of short chains,
often worn by ladies, to which are attached various small
articles of domestic and toilet use, as keys, penknife, needlecase,
scissors, &c.
END OF FIFTH VOLUME.
Printed by R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company, Chicago.
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